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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Area Handbook for Romania, by Eugene K.
+Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M.
+Moore, and Neda A. Walpole
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Area Handbook for Romania
+
+
+Author: Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William
+Giloane, James M. Moore, and Neda A. Walpole
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 8, 2010  [eBook #32700]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Barbara Kosker, Juliet Sutherland, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original maps and charts.
+      See 32700-h.htm or 32700-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32700/32700-h/32700-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32700/32700-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA
+
+_Co-Authors_
+
+Eugene K. Keefe
+Donald W. Bernier
+Lyle E. Brenneman
+William Giloane
+James M. Moore, Jr.
+Neda A. Walpole
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Research and writing were completed February 1972
+Published 1972
+DA Pam 550-160
+
+Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-600095
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D.C. 20402--Price $2.75
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This volume is one of a series of handbooks prepared by Foreign Area
+Studies (FAS) of The American University, designed to be useful to
+military and other personnel who need a convenient compilation of basic
+facts about the social, economic, political, and military institutions
+and practices of various countries. The emphasis is on objective
+description of the nation's present society and the kinds of possible or
+probable changes that might be expected in the future. The handbook
+seeks to present as full and as balanced an integrated exposition as
+limitations on space and research time permit. It was compiled from
+information available in openly published material. An extensive
+bibliography is provided to permit recourse to other published sources
+for more detailed information. There has been no attempt to express any
+specific point of view or to make policy recommendations. The contents
+of the handbook represent the work of the authors and FAS and do not
+represent the official view of the United States government.
+
+An effort has been made to make the handbook as comprehensive as
+possible. It can be expected, however, that the material,
+interpretations, and conclusions are subject to modification in the
+light of new information and developments. Such corrections, additions,
+and suggestions for factual, interpretive, or other change as readers
+may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. Comments may be
+addressed to:
+
+ The Director
+ Foreign Area Studies
+ The American University
+ 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.
+ Washington, D.C. 20016
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The former Kingdom of Romania emerged from the post-World War II chaos
+as the Romanian People's Republic, a communist satellite so closely
+aligned to the policies of the Soviet Union that it often appeared to be
+ruled from Moscow. During the 1950s, however, Romania cautiously began
+seeking to loosen its ties to Moscow and to assert some measure of
+autonomy. The widening Sino-Soviet rift of the early 1960s provided an
+atmosphere of tension among communist states that the Romanians used to
+their own advantage by remaining neutral in the communist struggle and
+by seeking greater contacts with noncommunist states. In internal
+affairs, the Romanian regime maintained a rigid hold on all elements of
+the society. In 1965 the regime changed the name of the country to the
+Socialist Republic of Romania and proclaimed that it was well on the way
+toward communism. In the early 1970s Romania remains a member of the
+Soviet-led military and economic alliances but has become known as the
+most independent member.
+
+The changes wrought by the Communists during a quarter century in power
+are numerous and far reaching. Despite the desires of the Soviet leaders
+that Romania remain predominantly agricultural, the new Romanian
+leadership was determined to industrialize. Enforced socialization and
+concurrent industrialization brought a host of problems in the
+political, social, and economic life of the country. Reorientation of
+the society and the political structure was brought about by force when
+necessary, but the restructuring of the economy within the framework of
+the avowed Marxist-Leninist ideology proved to be more difficult and led
+to problems that had still not been overcome by early 1972.
+
+This handbook attempts to describe the social, political, and economic
+bases of Romanian society and, more particularly, how these bases have
+been affected by Romania's independent stance within the alliances of
+Eastern European communist countries. The authors of the handbook have
+tried to be objective in order to provide a comprehensive exposition of
+the dominant aspects of Romanian life in the early 1970s. Often hampered
+by a lack of credible statistical information as well as an
+overabundance of biased propaganda, the authors have attempted to piece
+together sufficient factual material to present an accurate appraisal
+and an indication of observable trends.
+
+English usage follows _Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary_.
+Place names used in the text are those approved by the United States
+Board on Geographic Names. Tonnages are given in the metric system, but
+for other measurements standard United States terminology has been used.
+The use of Romanian words has been held to a minimum and, where used,
+they have been explained in the text and in the Glossary, which is
+appended for the reader's convenience. The acronym PCR, derived from
+Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party), is used throughout
+the book and is fully explained in the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTRY SUMMARY
+
+
+1. COUNTRY: Officially redesignated the Socialist Republic of Romania
+under Constitution of 1965. Established originally as the Kingdom of
+Romania in 1881, was converted into the Romanian People's Republic in
+1948 by communist party with Soviet backing.
+
+2. GOVERNMENT: Constitution of 1965 provides for a unicameral
+legislature and a collegial executive known as the Council of State.
+Romanian Communist Party controls elections and runs the government at
+all levels. Top party officials concurrently occupy top governmental
+offices. Ultimate political power rests in the party hierarchy,
+particularly in the person of the party general secretary who, since
+1967, has also been head of state.
+
+3. SIZE AND LOCATION: Area of over 91,700 square miles. In southeastern
+Europe, shares 1,975 miles of demarcated and undisputed land borders
+with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Soviet Union. With 150 miles
+of shoreline, shares riparian rights on Black Sea with Turkey, Bulgaria,
+and the Soviet Union.
+
+4. TOPOGRAPHY: Terrain is generally irregular. The Transylvania basin in
+the northwest occupies about one-third of the country and is separated
+from the plains and lowlands of Walachia, Dobruja, and Moldavia to the
+south and east by the curving course of the Carpathian Mountains and the
+Transylvanian Alps, which cut across the central portion of the country.
+
+5. CLIMATE: Generally Eastern European Continental, dominated by high
+pressure systems from European Soviet Union and north-central Asia.
+Little variation or moderation experienced in the prevailing long cold
+winters and short hot summers.
+
+6. POPULATION: Almost 20.6 million in 1971; annual growth rate of 1.3
+percent, among the highest in Eastern Europe. Density more than 224
+persons per square mile. Largest minority is Hungarian, comprising 8
+percent of population, followed by German, with 2 percent.
+
+7. LANGUAGE: Romanian, the official language, spoken by virtually all
+elements of the population. Hungarian and German also recognized and
+utilized in areas of large minority concentrations.
+
+8. LABOR: Working population employed by the state in 1969 numbered
+about 5 million. About 40 percent were employed in industry; about 51
+percent, in agriculture. Women constituted about 43 percent of the
+industrial and 57.5 percent of the collective farm labor forces.
+
+9. RELIGION: Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Constitution, but state
+controls all church activities. About two-thirds of population belong to
+Romanian Orthodox Church. Importance of Roman Catholic and Protestant
+minorities enhanced because of their identity with Hungarian and German
+ethnic groups.
+
+10. EDUCATION: Restructured in 1948 into a highly centralized system
+with a broad base, standardized curricula, mandatory attendance through
+tenth grade, and heavy emphasis on vocational and technical subjects
+above the elementary level. Political indoctrination permeates entire
+system.
+
+11. JUSTICE: Theoretically independent, the three-level court system
+(local, district, and Supreme Court) functions as part of executive
+branch. Military tribunals operate as part of system under Supreme
+Court.
+
+12. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS: Thirty-nine counties, each subdivided into
+varying numbers of communes, villages, and municipalities. Bucharest
+administered as an independent political entity. Governmental
+functioning ostensibly decentralized, but policy and control exercised
+by higher state and party organs.
+
+13. ECONOMY: Government controlled, with basic five-year plans patterned
+on Soviet model. Development hampered by scarcity of raw materials and
+manufacturing equipment and by insufficient number of experienced
+workers and managers.
+
+14. AGRICULTURE: About 63 percent of land is agricultural; of this, 65
+percent under cultivation. Food production adequate for domestic needs,
+but exports limited because of insufficient investment and lack of labor
+incentives.
+
+15. INDUSTRY: Rapid growth since 1950 stimulated by massive inputs of
+capital, labor, and imports of modern machinery and technology. Labor
+productivity and quality of manufactured products have improved but
+remain low.
+
+16. FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: Foreign trade is state monopoly and is
+conducted primarily with Soviet Union and East European communist
+countries. Balance of trade generally negative, reflecting imports of
+high-quality machinery from West necessary for industrial advancement.
+Exports limited to light machinery, foodstuffs, and some consumer goods.
+
+17. FINANCE: Monetary unit is the nonconvertible leu. The to tourist
+rates of about 16 lei per US$1. Currency and foreign exchange are state
+controlled, administered through the National Bank.
+
+18. COMMUNICATIONS: All information media party or state owned and
+controlled. Press and radio more extensively developed than television,
+but all function as parts of ideological and political indoctrination
+system.
+
+19. RAILROADS: Important freight and passenger carrier. About 6,900
+miles of trunkline in operation, almost all standard gauge. About 100
+miles electrified, and rest of system converting to use of diesel
+locomotives.
+
+20. HIGHWAYS: Of 47,800 total road mileage, about 6,600 miles nationally
+maintained as principal operating network. System supplanting railroads
+as major short-haul carrier of freight and passengers.
+
+21. INLAND WATERWAYS: About 1,500 miles of principal rivers and canals
+are navigable. Water transport has minor role as a cargo carrier.
+
+22. AIRWAYS: Romanian Air Transport, the state-owned airline, operates
+domestic service to twelve principal cities and to about twenty national
+capitals in Europe and the Middle East.
+
+23. PIPELINES: Largest network serves oilfields and moves most liquid
+petroleum and refined products to refineries and ports. Natural gas
+lines exist, but mountainous terrain limits general distribution.
+
+24. MERCHANT MARINE: Small in number but operates modern ships and
+equipment. Transport limited principally to truck cargo and freight.
+
+25. ARMED FORCES: In 1972 consisted of about 200,000 men organized into
+ground, naval, air, air defense, and frontier forces, all administered
+by a single ministry. All elements operate as part of army, which is
+largest single component.
+
+26. SECURITY: Security forces, nationally organized and centrally
+controlled by Ministry of Internal Affairs, consist of ordinary police
+(militia) and security troops, which perform counter-espionage and
+counter-subversive functions.
+
+27. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the United Nations and a
+number of its specialized agencies. Member of the Warsaw Treaty
+Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic
+Assistance (COMECON).
+
+
+
+
+ROMANIA
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                                     Page
+
+ FOREWORD                                                             iii
+
+ PREFACE                                                                v
+
+ COUNTRY SUMMARY                                                      vii
+
+ SECTION I. SOCIAL
+
+ Chapter  1. General Character of the Society                           1
+
+
+          2. Historical Setting                                         9
+
+             Early Origin--Formation of the Principalities--
+             Western Influences--National Independence--World
+             War I--Interwar Years, 1918-40--World War II--
+             Communist Seizure of Power--The Communist State
+
+
+          3. Physical Environment and Population                       29
+
+             Natural Features and Resources--Boundaries and
+             Political Subdivisions--Population--Living
+             Conditions--Transportation
+
+
+          4. Social System and Values                                  49
+
+             Ethnic Composition--Social Structure--Social Values
+
+
+          5. Religion                                                  65
+
+             Church-State Relations--The Romanian Orthodox
+             Church--The Roman Catholic Church--Protestant
+             Churches--Other Religions and Churches
+
+
+          6. Education                                                 73
+
+             Background--Educational Reforms Since 1948--
+             Literacy--The Educational System--Education of
+             Minorities
+
+
+          7. Artistic and Intellectual Expression                      91
+
+             The Role of the Arts Under Communism--Art,
+             Sculpture, and Architecture--Music--Theater--Films
+             --Literature--Scholarship and Research
+
+
+ SECTION II. POLITICAL
+
+
+          8. Governmental System                                      109
+
+             The Constitutional System--The Structure and
+             Functioning of the Government--The Electoral
+             System
+
+
+          9. Political Dynamics and Values                            129
+
+             Major Political Developments, 1965 to 1970--
+             Political Organizations--Party Policies and
+             Programs--Political Values and Attitudes
+
+
+         10. Foreign Relations                                        155
+
+             Determinants of Foreign Policy--Conduct of Foreign
+             Affairs--International Relations
+
+         11. Public Information                                       175
+
+             Government and Freedom of Information--The Press
+             --Radio and Television--Book Publishing--Libraries
+             --Films--Informal Information Media
+
+
+ SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY
+
+
+         12. Public Order and Internal Security                       193
+
+             Internal Security--Public Order--Crime and the
+             Penal System
+
+
+         13. Armed Forces                                             211
+
+             Historical Background--Governmental and Party
+             Control Over the Armed Forces--Organization and
+             Mission--Foreign Military Relations--Manpower,
+             Training, and Support--The Military Establishment
+             and the National Economy
+
+
+ SECTION IV. ECONOMIC
+
+
+         14. Character and Structure of the Economy                   229
+
+             Organization--Structure and Growth--Planning--
+             Price System--Budget--Banking--Currency--Foreign
+             Trade
+
+
+         15. Agriculture                                              253
+
+             Agricultural Regions--Land Use--Organization--Farm
+             Labor--Investment and Credit--Production
+
+
+         16. Industry                                                 275
+
+             Natural Resources--Electric Power--Organization--
+             Labor--Investment and Construction--Production
+
+
+ BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                         291
+
+ GLOSSARY                                                             305
+
+ INDEX                                                                307
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ Figure                                                              Page
+
+   1  Romania                                                         xiv
+
+   2  Romania, Historic Provinces                                      10
+
+   3  Topography of Romania                                            31
+
+   4  Romanian Transportation System                                   44
+
+   5  Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966                     51
+
+   6  Romania, Structure of Education, 1972                            81
+
+   7  Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971                    115
+
+   8  Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971         120
+
+   9  Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972              138
+
+  10  Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972                 214
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF TABLES
+
+ Table                                                               Page
+
+   1  Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971
+      Estimate                                                         40
+
+   2  Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960,
+      and 1969                                                         45
+
+   3  Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971                       179
+
+   4  National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania, by
+      Economic Sector, 1960, 1967, and 1970                           232
+
+   5  Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin,
+      1960 and 1967                                                   233
+
+   6  Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960
+      and 1969                                                        250
+
+   7  Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70                    255
+
+   8  Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and
+      1969                                                            256
+
+   9  Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969        258
+
+  10  Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected Years,
+      1960-69                                                         272
+
+  11  Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected Years,
+      1960-69                                                         272
+
+  12  Crop Production and Livestock Products in Romania, by
+      Type of Farm, 1969                                              274
+
+  13  Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960
+      and 1969                                                        288
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 1. Romania_.]
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I. SOCIAL
+
+CHAPTER 1
+
+GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SOCIETY
+
+
+The Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman--PCR) is the
+leading force in the political, economic, and social life of Romania.
+The party general secretary, Nicolae Ceausescu, in early 1972 celebrated
+his seventh anniversary in power, displaying complete confidence in the
+stability of his regime. Ceausescu serves concurrently as the president
+of his country, which is known officially as the Socialist Republic of
+Romania. Although tied militarily and economically to the Soviet Union
+through membership in the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and
+the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), Romania since the
+mid-1950s has pursued an independent course in both its internal
+development and its foreign relations.
+
+In April 1964, in furtherance of its independent stance, the PCR Central
+Committee issued a statement concerning the rights of all communist
+parties and socialist states to choose their own methods of development
+according to "the concrete historic conditions prevailing in their own
+countries." This statement, which has been referred to as Romania's
+declaration of independence, was directed primarily to the leaders of
+the Soviet Union and, in effect, was a warning to them to cease their
+interference in the domestic and foreign affairs of Romania. It was a
+declaration of sovereign rights and self-determination by which the
+Romanian Communists asserted that they were the masters of their
+country's destiny rather than a puppet state to be manipulated by and
+for outside interests.
+
+The reasons that the Soviet Union did not crack down on its former
+subservient satellite are both obscure and complex. One factor operating
+in favor of the Romanians was the rift that had developed between the
+two communist giants--the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of
+China. The rift had become very deep, and the Soviets were striving to
+gain adherents to their position in the struggle and probably were
+reluctant to use force against Romania because of the danger of
+alienating other communist parties. It is probable that dissension
+within the Moscow leadership, which shortly ended the career of Premier
+Nikita Khrushchev, also inhibited action against Romania.
+
+In their drive to establish rights of autonomy and free choice for their
+country, Romania's leaders have not tried to withdraw from the Soviet
+alliances, nor have they changed the basic nature of their communist
+government. Their actions have demonstrated that their goals have been
+to lessen the influence of the Soviet Union in Romania's domestic and
+foreign affairs, at the same time they themselves maintained an
+absolute, single-party monopoly of power.
+
+After issuing their declaration of independence, the Romanians in
+subsequent years earned a reputation for opposition to the Soviet Union
+within the Warsaw Pact and COMECON as well as in the conduct of their
+relations with noncommunist states. Pursuit of these goals has sometimes
+led the Romanians into situations that have been considered dangerous by
+outside observers, and the leadership has often expressed fears of
+Soviet retaliation against Romania's independent line.
+
+One obvious result of the independent status has been the resurgence of
+Romanian nationalism. Ceausescu, when he talks about "Romania for the
+Romanians," even though he may be speaking in the context of building a
+communist society, receives wide popular support and, at times, appears
+to have genuine appeal among the people he rules. In contrast to the new
+nationalism, during the early years of the Romanian communist era it was
+generally accepted (at least by party members) that the Soviet Union
+deserved to be emulated in every aspect of national life. Not only were
+the party and government patterned on Soviet models, but the entire
+social and economic life of the country was altered to the point of
+almost losing its Romanian uniqueness.
+
+Russian became a required language in the schools, and the history books
+were rewritten to play down the traditional orientation toward Western
+Europe and to highlight Russian influence in the country, which had been
+considerable since the time of Tsar Peter the Great but which had not
+always been beneficial from the Romanian point of view. Pseudoscholars
+intent on the Russification of their country were publishing papers in
+the late 1940s "proving" that the ancient Dacians, to whom modern
+Romanians trace their ancestry, were actually Slavic tribes--a thesis
+that had never before been suggested. Other spurious scholarship
+attempted to show that the Romanian language was Slavic-based rather
+than Latin-based as linguists had clearly shown.
+
+While Josef Stalin, Soviet dictator and generally acknowledged leader of
+world communism, was still alive, Romania was an obedient satellite, and
+Stalinism was the hallmark of communist rule. Even before Stalin's
+death in March 1953, however, there was dissension in the Romanian
+communist ranks as a Moscow-oriented group vied for power with
+indigenous Communists. The latter group was eventually victorious and,
+after a series of purges, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej emerged as a party
+strong man; the first glimmerings of a distinctive brand of Romanian
+communism can be traced to this period in the early 1950s.
+
+The blending of nationalism and communism did not, however, ameliorate
+the conditions that existed in the country. Gheorghiu-Dej was a
+totalitarian ruler, the party brooked no opposition, few basic freedoms
+for the people existed except in the constitution, and the secret police
+was an effective instrument of control over the people. Gheorghiu-Dej
+did, however, establish a foundation, albeit a very shaky one, for a
+structure of national communism. He and his successor, Ceausescu,
+strengthened this structure through the years to the point that Romania
+became known as the most independent of the former Soviet satellites
+with the exception of Yugoslavia, which has been traveling its own path
+since 1948.
+
+The Socialist Republic of Romania, ruled in early 1972 by Ceausescu and
+the PCR, comprised over 91,700 square miles and contained a population
+of more than 20.6 million. The size and shape of modern Romania is
+remarkably similar to the ancient country of Dacia, which was conquered
+by the Romans in the early second century A.D. and became a province of
+the Roman Empire. Although Roman occupation lasted only about 165 years,
+it is to the mixture of Roman legionnaires and colonists with indigenous
+Dacians that modern Romanians trace their origin. These Daco-Romans are
+almost absent from history's pages for several centuries, but Romanian
+historians state that they existed in the mountains, tending their
+flocks and fending off the vast migrations and avoiding absorption by
+invaders who used the territory as a crossroads into the Balkans or into
+Europe. After they did achieve some semblance of autonomy during the
+Middle Ages, primarily in the historic provinces of Moldavia and
+Walachia, they were always pressured by powerful empires that existed
+during various historic epochs, and a great portion of former Dacia, the
+province of Transylvania, was occupied by Magyars (Hungarians) and was
+not joined to Romania until after World War I.
+
+The great majority of the people are ethnic Romanians, although two
+sizable minority groups, Hungarian and German, still resided within
+Romania's borders in 1972. Other, much smaller, minority groups include
+Jews, Ukrainians, Serbs, Russians, Bulgarians, Czechs and Slovaks,
+Tatars, Turks, and Gypsies. Most of the lesser minorities have been
+assimilated to some degree, particularly in the use of the Romanian
+language in the conduct of their daily affairs. The Hungarians and the
+Germans, however, have resisted assimilation, and their education,
+business, and social lives are carried on in their native tongues. Their
+cultural traditions also reflect their Hungarian or German background
+rather than that of the country in which they live.
+
+The religious affiliations of the people follow very closely their
+ethnic differentiations. The vast majority of ethnic Romanians are
+members of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which is one of the
+autocephalous branches of the Eastern Orthodox church. The Romanian
+Orthodox Church was traditionally considered the state or national
+church, which, with its great size, gave it a favored position. Although
+its near-monopoly position was contested by Roman Catholics, Uniates,
+and several Protestant denominations, particularly after the post-World
+War I inclusion of Transylvania within Romania's borders, it still
+remained the predominant religion and was able to retain this position
+even after the communist takeover.
+
+The Hungarians of Romania are Roman Catholics, Calvinists, and
+Unitarians; similarly, the Germans are divided between Roman Catholicism
+and Lutheranism. These religions suffered a period of repression under
+the Communists, some of their clergy being imprisoned and some of their
+churches falling into disrepair because of lack of funds. Nevertheless,
+their adherents still numbered in the hundreds of thousands in the early
+1970s, and the former vigorous effort by the government to discourage
+the practice of religion seems to have softened as the regime
+concentrates on dissuading young people from the acceptance of religious
+beliefs rather than trying to eliminate such beliefs in older
+generations.
+
+The post-World War II Romanian Jewish community has shrunk considerably
+through emigration to Israel, which has been allowed by the government
+and encouraged by Jewish leaders. There continue to be many Jewish
+enclaves, particularly in urban areas, but because Jews have not been
+listed separately in official statistics since the mid-1950s, it is
+difficult to estimate how many remain in the country. There are several
+operating synagogues, but most Jewish services are led by laymen because
+emigration has drained away almost all rabbis and none are being trained
+in the country; the last rabbinical school was closed during the late
+1950s because of lack of faculty and students.
+
+Most of the small Slavic minorities belong to the Orthodox faith, and
+the few remaining Muslims--Turks and Tatars--retain their adherence to
+Islam and have their principal mosque in the port city of Constanta.
+Relatively small numbers of Romanians are Baptists, Seventh-Day
+Adventists, and Unitarians. Officially, the communist-ruled country
+advocates atheism, but the Constitution allows for freedom of religion
+or freedom to profess no religion. Atheism does not seem to have made
+any great inroads into the established religions during the first
+quarter century of communist rule.
+
+The activities of all religions are supervised by the government through
+its Department of Cults. The separation of church and state is
+constitutionally guaranteed, but in practice this guarantee serves to
+impose limitations on the churches and clergy but does not in any manner
+restrict government interference in religious activities.
+
+Though the Communists were unsuccessful in eradicating religion in the
+country, they have been successful in transforming the politics,
+society, and economy. With the promulgation of the 1948 Constitution,
+based on the Soviet Constitution of 1936, and the establishment of the
+Romanian People's Republic, the new rulers were ready to construct a
+socialist state. Out of this transformation, the leaders were confident
+that a "new socialist man" would ultimately evolve, just as Marx and
+Lenin had prophesied.
+
+In more pragmatic areas the Communists altered the form of government,
+the social structure, and the economy. The 1948 Constitution established
+a form of government much like that of the Soviet Union and other
+communist-ruled states in that the government is structured to be the
+instrument through which the party runs the country. There is an
+interlocking of party and government positions that ensures party
+control over every facet of Romanian life. There are no competing
+political parties, but there are several mass organizations, thoroughly
+PCR dominated, in which the people are urged to participate. These
+include labor unions, youth leagues, women's organizations, and sports
+societies, which serve to involve the people in national and local
+affairs while the party hierarchy retains absolute authority in all
+areas.
+
+The 1948 Constitution was superseded by another in 1952 that brought no
+significant changes and did not greatly alter the structure that had
+been established earlier. The Constitution of 1965, however, changed the
+name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, and, in
+communist jargon, this change was of particular importance because it
+signified that the transition from bourgeois capitalism to socialism had
+been achieved and that Romania could now proceed on its path toward
+communism. Significant also in the 1965 Constitution was the absence of
+any mention of the Soviet Union, which had been featured prominently in
+the previous documents as a model to be copied and as the liberator of
+Romania.
+
+The most prominent feature of the Romanian political system is its
+extreme centralization in both the party structure and the government
+organization. The people vote for their representatives at all levels of
+government from a single list of party-approved candidates. Local
+governments always look for direction from a higher level or from the
+center. The PCR has a similar pyramidal structure, the topmost organs
+being self-selecting and self-perpetuating. The concentration of power
+in the hands of the party hierarchy has prevented the rise of any overt
+opposition groups, and there has been no observable coalition of
+dissenters within the party ranks.
+
+In the transformation of the social structure, the Communists brought
+down the former aristocracy and anyone else who they considered might be
+opposed to the new order. They then attempted to elevate the status of
+the former lower classes--that is, the workers and peasants--but because
+of the elitist structure of the party the great leveling process
+faltered, and new classes were created despite the prescribed ideology
+of a classless society. The party elite became the new upper class, and
+immediately below them was a growing group of lesser party
+functionaries, technocrats, managers, scientists, teachers, and other
+professionals. The privileges, life-styles, and aspirations of these
+groups ran far ahead of those of the workers and peasants who once again
+found themselves at the bottom of the social pyramid.
+
+Upward mobility is possible, and the key to it is education; the key to
+educational opportunity, however, is most often political influence,
+which also plays a large role in the accessibility to jobs that lead to
+higher social status. A stabilizing of the social structure that became
+apparent toward the end of the 1960s, although it did not block upward
+mobility, would seem to indicate that such social movement will be more
+difficult in the future. Children of workers and peasants will not be
+denied opportunity for higher education, but it would appear that the
+path to opportunity will be easier for children of the party elite and
+the professional classes.
+
+To the people, education is important as a means of social advancement;
+to the regime, however, the educational system is the prime means
+through which it inculcates socialist ideals and trains the
+professionals, technicians, and skilled workers needed to run the
+country. The first great goal under the Communists was the eradication
+of illiteracy, which, according to the government, had been achieved by
+1958. A concurrent and continuing goal was the training of skilled
+technicians, foremen, and middle-level managers. The country's rapid
+industrialization and economic growth caused severe shortages in these
+categories and, in the early 1970s, the educational and training
+programs still had not met the demands for the upgrading of unskilled
+workers.
+
+Modifications of the educational system have been concentrated on the
+extension of basic primary education from the four-year program that
+existed after World War II to a compulsory ten-year program that is
+expected to be fully operative by 1973. Along with the expansion of
+curricula and the extension of the time spent in primary grades, the
+regime has also reemphasized the importance of ideological and political
+indoctrination for the nation's youth. Adult education has also been
+stressed by the government in its efforts to raise the overall
+educational and skill levels of the entire population.
+
+In the cultural area there has been a shifting of attitudes by the party
+overseers that has seemingly left artists and intellectuals confused and
+wary about the limits of creativity. In the early communist period
+there was slavish imitation of the Soviet doctrine known as Socialist
+Realism, which required that all expression reflect the struggle for
+social justice and the positive aspects of communist achievements.
+After the death of Stalin and particularly after the initiation of
+de-Stalinization in the Soviet Union, there was a relaxation of the
+dogmatic controls forced upon Romanian artists and intellectuals,
+and more emphasis was placed on historical themes and nationalism.
+Restrictions continued, however, and "art for art's sake" was not
+tolerated; even the mild liberalization permitted during the 1960s was
+curtailed to some degree in 1971 as the regime tightened controls on
+artistic and intellectual expression. The new hard-line approach of 1971
+did not signal a return to the extreme dogmatism of the early 1950s but
+was a stern reminder to artists, writers, and journalists of their
+duties to the socialist society.
+
+Militarily, Romania in 1972 maintained about 200,000 men in its armed
+forces, the great majority serving in the army and much smaller numbers
+serving in the navy, air force, and frontier troops. All armed services
+are administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but policymaking
+is a top-level function of the PCR. Manpower needs are filled through
+universal conscription, and serving a term in the military seems to be
+accepted as a normal way of life by young Romanian males.
+
+Romania is a signatory to the Warsaw Pact, but Ceausescu's refusal to
+participate in the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and his
+subsequent condemnation of that action placed the country in the
+position of being a rather reluctant ally within the pact. Ceausescu has
+also refused to allow Warsaw Pact maneuvers to be held in his country,
+and during the Czechoslovak invasion he refused to allow Bulgarian
+troops to cross Romanian territory. These actions, plus Ceausescu's
+repeated reference in public speeches to the desirability of the
+dissolution of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
+the Warsaw Pact, caused publication of anti-Romanian propaganda in the
+Soviet Union and the omission of an invitation to Ceausescu to attend a
+meeting of Eastern European leaders in the summer of 1971. The Romanian
+people were reportedly concerned about possible Soviet intervention in
+their internal affairs, as they had been often since 1968, but the
+situation seemed to stabilize in late 1971, at least in outward
+appearance.
+
+Despite the military and political uncertainties brought about by
+Romania's independent stance in the Warsaw Pact and COMECON, the country
+has enjoyed a rapid economic growth rate. Direction of the country's
+economy is highly centralized and rigidly controlled by the PCR. A
+variety of economic ministries within the governmental structure are
+responsible for the administering of specific sectors of the economy,
+but policymaking is a function of the Standing Presidium of the party.
+The economy operates in accordance with five-year and annual plans that
+are all-encompassing and binding on all economic enterprises. Some
+attempts at decentralization have been made since 1968 in an effort to
+increase initiative on the part of lower level managers, but
+intransigence on the part of the hierarchy in releasing its hold has all
+but nullified the lukewarm reform efforts.
+
+In 1972 Romania was into the second year of its Five-Year Plan (1971-75)
+and was beset by a host of economic problems. The planners had set high
+goals for growth during the period, but past overemphasis on heavy
+industrialization had left a residue of problems in all other areas.
+Agriculture had been neglected, production of consumer goods had never
+reached planned goals, and balance of payment deficits with Western
+nations threatened the foreign trade base. In seeking political and
+economic independence from the Soviet Union, the regime had placed
+itself in a precarious position, which forced it to find ways of
+becoming more competitive in world markets and fulfilling the basic
+needs of its people at the same time it sought to mollify the
+resentments of its COMECON partners and retain its ideological
+commitments to socialism and ultimate communism. Despite its maverick
+approach and its growing relations with the West, Romania was still tied
+by treaty, ideology, and geography to the Soviet Union and to its
+Eastern European communist neighbors.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 2
+
+HISTORICAL SETTING
+
+
+Romania's history as an independent state dates from about the middle of
+the nineteenth century; as a communist state, from about the end of
+World War II. The history of the Romanian people, however, is long,
+complex, and important when considered in the context of the overall
+history of the Balkan region. The origin and development of the
+Romanians remain controversial subjects among Romanian and Hungarian
+historians, whose arguments serve to support or deny claims to rightful
+ownership of large areas within Romania's borders (see fig. 1).
+
+Until the end of World War II Romania's history as a state was one of
+gains and losses of territory and shifting borders. As the Ottoman
+Empire in Europe receded, the Romanians found themselves pressured by
+the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. Borders arranged by the
+victorious powers after World War I increased Romania's territory but
+also increased its minority population, particularly the Hungarian.
+Between the two world wars the country experienced a period of fascist
+dictatorship and aligned itself with Nazi Germany early in World War II,
+but it eventually overthrew the fascists and finished the war on the
+side of the Allies.
+
+The borders arranged after World War II formalized the loss of territory
+to the Soviet Union but have remained stable since the end of the war.
+In the postwar chaos of the late 1940s, with Soviet troops occupying the
+country, Romania deposed its king and emerged as a communist state under
+the close scrutiny and supervision of its powerful northern neighbor,
+the Soviet Union. After the death of Josef Stalin the Romanian
+leadership began a slow pursuit of nationalist goals, which continued in
+the early 1970s. Although the Moscow-Bucharest ties have often been
+strained, the Romanians have carefully avoided a break that would
+provoke a reaction such as the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in
+1968.
+
+The Romanian people see themselves as a Latin island surrounded by Slavs
+and Magyars (Hungarians). They are proud of their long, distinctly
+different historical development and consider that their history is
+important to them as proof of their ethnic uniqueness in the area and as
+proof that Romania belongs to the Romanians.
+
+
+EARLY ORIGIN
+
+The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area included in present-day
+Romania were Thracian tribes, known as Dacians, who settled in the area
+well before the Christian Era and established a major center in
+Transylvania (see fig. 2). These people practiced a primitive form of
+agriculture and engaged in limited trade with Greek settlements along
+the western coast of the Black Sea. By the middle of the first century
+A.D. the Dacians had grouped themselves into a loosely formed state
+ruled by a series of kings who attempted to expand their power to the
+north and west and, most aggressively, to the south into the area below
+the lower Danube River.
+
+  [Illustration: _Note._ Internal boundaries have not been shown
+  because of the long history of expansion, contraction, and
+  shifting borders and because the provinces are no longer
+  political entities.
+
+  _Figure 2. Romania, Historic Provinces._]
+
+In their advance southward the Dacians came into conflict with the
+Romans who, during the same period, were attempting to extend their
+control over the Balkan region and to push the northern border of their
+empire up to the natural barrier formed by the Danube River. In a
+series of campaigns between A.D. 101 and 106, the Roman emperor Trajan
+succeeded in conquering the areas known as Banat, Oltenia, and Walachia
+and in finally reducing the Dacian stronghold in Transylvania. After
+consolidating and unifying his control over the people, Trajan fortified
+the area, stationed Roman legions in garrisons at strategic points, and
+organized the region to serve as a province of the Roman Empire.
+
+As a border province, Dacia developed rapidly and became one of the most
+prosperous in the empire. Colonists were brought in from other parts of
+the empire, cities were built, agriculture and mineral resources were
+developed, and profitable commercial relations were established with
+other regions under Roman control. The province proved vulnerable to
+periodic barbarian incursions, however, and toward the end of the third
+century the Roman emperor Aurelian was forced to abandon Dacia and
+withdraw the Roman troops to defend similarly threatened areas farther
+to the south.
+
+Aside from the romanization of the native population, little evidence of
+the occupation survived the Roman evacuation of Dacia. Among the traces
+of the Roman presence remaining were the vestiges of Christianity
+introduced in the second century and the legacy of the name of the
+future state of Romania as well as the Latin basis for its language.
+
+Lacking natural geographical barriers to invasion from the east and
+south, the greater part of the Dacian territory was overrun by
+successive waves of barbarian invaders for ten centuries after the
+withdrawal of the Romans. Little is known of the fate of the Daco-Roman
+population during this long, turbulent period until new settlements
+inhabited by a Latin-speaking people known as Vlachs emerged on the
+Romanian plains in the eleventh century. Although historic records are
+lacking, these Vlachs were believed to be descendants of the earlier
+Daco-Roman colonists, many of whom either sought refuge in the
+Carpathian Mountains of Transylvania or migrated south of the Danube
+River to escape the invaders. Having survived, they returned to
+reestablish themselves in their historic homeland.
+
+The succession of barbaric invasions exploited and devastated the
+country. The Germanic Goths were followed by Slavs and Avars, and not
+until the Bulgars overran the area in the seventh century was a
+semblance of civic order established. The region developed a rudimentary
+form of cultural life, and Christianity in the Eastern Orthodox form was
+introduced after the conversion of the Bulgar Tsar Boris in 864. The
+Bulgars were eventually displaced by Hungarians who, in turn, gave way
+to Asiatic Tatars, all of whom left limited, but lasting, influences on
+the land and its inhabitants.
+
+
+FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPALITIES
+
+Walachia and Moldavia
+
+As the threats of invasion diminished, the Vlachs gradually moved
+farther into the foothills and plains of the Danube basin and fused with
+a population that, while retaining a small Vlach element, had by then
+acquired a heavy mixture of Slavs and Tatars. Two distinct groups
+eventually emerged, one settling in the area now known as Walachia and
+the other settling farther to the east and north in Moldavia. The
+earliest events surrounding the development of these areas are not
+known, but after a period of colonization the two regions emerged, in
+the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, respectively, as the
+semi-independent principalities of Walachia and Moldavia.
+
+When the Ottoman Empire overran southeastern Europe in the fifteenth
+century, these Danubian principalities were forced to accept Turkish
+suzerainty and remained Turkish dependencies until the middle of the
+nineteenth century. Unlike other areas under Turkish rule, the Romanian
+principalities were controlled by native princes, who maintained their
+position through concessions to the nobles, from among whom they had
+gained preeminence, and through the concurrence of the Turks, to whom a
+substantial annual tribute was paid. This system of political control
+led to intrigues and a long succession of rulers who, assisted by the
+nobles, systematically exploited the peasantry, from whom the heavy
+annual tribute was collected.
+
+Continued misrule and long-term economic exploitation of the regions
+seriously affected the social structure within the principalities. The
+lesser nobility, including the landed gentry, was reduced to the level
+of free peasants; the peasantry itself was placed in virtually complete
+serfdom; and cultural activity became almost nonexistent. Even the
+appearance of outstanding political and military leaders, such as
+Michael the Brave of Walachia (1593-1601) and Stephen the Great, prince
+of Moldavia (1457-1504), could not reverse the general trend of
+deterioration, although the harshness of the feudal system was somewhat
+lessened during their tenure in office.
+
+At the beginning of the eighteenth century the Ottoman Empire began to
+decline, and the Turks instituted a system of direct control over
+Walachia and Moldavia, in order to ensure the continued receipt of
+maximum revenue from the countries. Greek merchants known as Phanariots,
+named for the Phanar district of Constantinople, which was their
+center, were invested as rulers in the principalities upon direct
+payment of large sums of money. Since their period in office was
+indefinite and generally lasted only until outbid by a successor, an
+even more intensive system of exploitation within the countries was
+introduced to extract greater tribute in shorter periods of time. This
+period of oppressive rule lasted until 1821 and proved to be the most
+disastrous experienced by the inhabitants. Conditions under this corrupt
+system became almost intolerable and led to massive resistance and
+eventually to the heavy migration of the peasantry into neighboring
+areas, particularly Transylvania.
+
+
+Transylvania
+
+The historic development of Transylvania was substantially different and
+more complex than that experienced by the principalities of Walachia and
+Moldavia. Overrun by Asiatic Magyars as early as the ninth century, the
+region was organized originally as a province in the eleventh century.
+In order to strengthen this eastern outpost, the Hungarians encouraged
+two groups of people--Szeklers, or Szekelys, an ethnic group of people
+akin to the Hungarians, and Germans--to emigrate from the west into the
+area. Although these colonists eventually reached substantial numbers,
+the native Romanian speakers remained in the majority (see ch. 4).
+
+With the expansion of Turkish power, Transylvania became the
+battleground for opposing Turkish and Hungarian forces. Under Turkish
+pressure Hungarian control declined in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, and by 1526 the region had become a semiautonomous
+principality ruled by Hungarian princes but still subject to Turkish
+authority. At the end of the sixteenth century Michael the Brave, the
+ruler of Walachia and Moldavia, succeeded in revolting against Turkish
+rule and united Transylvania with the other Romanian territories. This
+union, however, was short lived, and all three principalities
+subsequently reverted to Turkish control. Toward the end of the
+seventeenth century Austria conquered Hungary, and Transylvania as part
+of Hungary then was included in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
+
+From the earliest times the position of the Romanians in Transylvania
+was inferior to that of the other nationalities, and accounts of the
+long-term measures practiced against them have been perpetuated among
+their descendants. The Romanians were mostly serfs, and their social and
+economic status was the lowest in the province. Their Orthodox
+Christianity was not recognized, in contrast to the Lutheran, Calvinist,
+Unitarian, and Roman Catholic faiths practiced by the various other
+nationalities (see ch. 5). To gain religious equality and to win a
+larger measure of economic and social recognition, many of the Romanians
+gradually abandoned their Eastern Orthodox creed and became Uniates by
+accepting papal authority in 1698.
+
+Although the Romanians were slow to benefit from the relatively high
+cultural and political level reached in Transylvania under the
+Austro-Hungarians, an appreciable number of concessions had been made to
+them by the middle of the nineteenth century. They began to share in the
+political life after political parties were established, schools were
+opened for Romanian children, and education became more widespread among
+the general population. Progress in these and associated fields
+stimulated the Romanian desire for full equality and the hope for
+eventual unification of all Romanians in their own national state.
+
+
+WESTERN INFLUENCES
+
+Although Romania was late in achieving national recognition, many of the
+factors that were to influence its Western orientation after
+independence began to evolve as early as the seventeenth century. In
+Transylvania the Uniate church became an important medium by which
+Romanian national identity was fostered in the struggle against foreign
+assimilation. The Habsburg rulers favored the expansion of the church
+and permitted the opening of seminaries for the training of young
+Romanian clergy. Many of these young clerics were sent to Rome to
+complete their studies and, while there, became aware of their Roman
+ancestry. They saw the famous column of Trajan, which recorded, in
+stone, the early conquest of their Dacian ancestors by the Romans, and
+they also discovered that Romanian was an essentially Latin language
+(see ch. 4).
+
+The contacts established with Rome encouraged the scholarly development
+of a "Latinist" movement in the homeland in the late eighteenth century,
+which produced many adherents among the Transylvanian Romanians. It was
+the efforts of this group that led to the replacement of the Cyrillic
+alphabet, then in common use, with the Latin, the writing of the first
+latinized Romanian grammar and, later, the introduction of the first
+dictionary that traced the full historical development of the Romanian
+language. These reforms helped to create a uniform literary language as
+an essential basis for the broad development of Romanian culture (see
+ch. 7).
+
+During their long experience under the Habsburgs and Hungarians, the
+Transylvanian Romanians also became intimately associated with the
+events of central and western Europe. Opportunities for travel and
+cultural contacts that later developed were also predominantly within
+Western areas and intensified the political consciousness of the
+Romanians along Western lines.
+
+Meanwhile, in Walachia and Moldavia interest in Western ideas and
+affairs was provided by French influences introduced initially by the
+Greek Phanariot princes, who were in power during most of the eighteenth
+century. These rulers established French as the court language, and many
+of the Greek merchants, clergymen, and teachers who followed them into
+the areas helped spread the use of French among the urban population in
+Bucharest and Iasi, the respective capital cities. Gradually, French was
+introduced into Romanian schools, and eventually Romanian students from
+the principalities were sent abroad in considerable numbers to study at
+French universities.
+
+In addition to Romanian students, many of the young sons of Romanian
+nobles traveled in France. These two groups gradually formed the nucleus
+of an intellectual class, which favored French philosophy and thought
+and which became receptive to the liberal ideas of the French Revolution
+and later periods.
+
+
+NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE
+
+A phase of major significance and a turning point in Romanian history
+began in 1821 with a revolt led by Tudor Vladimirescu, a Romanian and
+former officer in the Russian army. This uprising against the harsh
+Phanariot rule was the first with a national character, and it attempted
+to give expression to the revolutionary ideas of emancipation and
+independence. Although the outbreak was suppressed by the Turks, it did
+achieve the objective of bringing about the early abolition of the
+Phanariot regime and the restoration of Romanian princes as rulers in
+the Danubian principalities.
+
+After the Russo-Turkish war from 1826 to 1828 Russian forces occupied
+both Walachia and Moldavia to ensure the payment of a large war
+indemnity by the Turks. Under the ensuing six-year enlightened and
+competent rule of the Russian governor Count Pavel Kiselev, the
+foundations were laid for a new Romanian state. The first constitutional
+assemblies were organized along identical lines in each province; a
+rudimentary governmental administration was established and modeled on
+that of the French; an educational system was begun; commerce and a
+modest industry were encouraged; and provisions were made for the
+creation of a national militia. The intentional similarity in the
+fundamental laws that were also enacted in each area further encouraged
+the two principalities to develop side by side.
+
+During the two decades after the departure of Russian occupying forces,
+the national movement within the two principalities continued to grow
+under the rule of native princes who had been restored to power.
+Considerable stimulation was provided by the 1848 revolutionary events
+in France, the basic ideas of which were imported by the French-educated
+Romanians. Dissension arose, and street demonstrations took place during
+which demands were made for freedom of speech, assembly, and the press,
+as well as for the unification of all Romanians in one independent
+state. Similar emancipation efforts were also organized in Transylvania,
+but they, too, were forcibly repressed, as were those in Walachia and
+Moldavia.
+
+Despite the setbacks suffered by the intellectuals and other leaders of
+the revolutionary movement, the modern ideas of liberal government took
+firm root and continued to flourish. The dispute between Russia and
+Turkey that culminated in the Crimean War, however, provided the actual
+opportunity for the first step toward ultimate independence. French and
+Russian collaboration at the Congress of Paris, which concluded the war
+in 1858, succeeded in producing agreements that finally led to the
+establishment of the autonomous United Principalities of Walachia and
+Moldavia in 1859.
+
+Although still subject to Ottoman authority, the United Principalities
+moved rapidly under their newly elected leader, Alexander Cuza, to
+further unify and modernize themselves. Cuza fused the administration of
+the two principalities into a single government, established a single
+capital at Bucharest, and changed the name from United Principalities to
+Romania. Domestic reforms were also undertaken, among which were the
+emancipation of the serfs in 1864, the institution of a broad land
+distribution program, the introduction of free and compulsory education,
+and the adoption of the French civil and penal codes as the basis for a
+revised legal system. Political parties on the Western pattern began to
+take form as well, the conservatives representing the large landowners
+and the liberals representing the new urban class.
+
+The reforms instituted by Cuza were bold and progressive, but his
+methods proved to be harsh and unpopular. Forced to abdicate in 1866, he
+was succeeded by a German prince, Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
+Charles, who reigned from 1866 to 1914, extended the reforms initiated
+by Cuza. He gave the country its first formal constitution modeled after
+that of the Belgians, built the country's first railroad, and modernized
+and enlarged the small army. In 1878 the country's full independence was
+recognized by the Treaty of Berlin, which ended the two-year
+Russo-Turkish war in which Romania participated as an ally of Russia.
+The Kingdom of Romania was proclaimed formally in 1881 with the crowning
+of Prince Charles in Bucharest as Carol I.
+
+The period from 1878 to 1918 brought significant advances in Romania,
+largely in the economic and political fields. Under the initiative of
+King Carol I and with considerable backing from German capital, new
+industries were started, and others were expanded; railroad and port
+construction was emphasized; and the considerable petroleum resources of
+the country were developed and exploited. The goals of political parties
+and leaders became more clearly defined, and modern government
+institutions, including a bicameral parliament, were organized.
+
+Economic and formal political progress, however, was not matched by
+similar advancement of democratic processes in the social field. The
+liberal provisions of the 1866 Constitution were circumvented under the
+authoritarian governmental system, leaving much actual power in the
+hands of the landed aristocracy. The slowly rising middle class and
+small number of industrial entrepreneurs were granted some rights, but
+the increasing number of industrial workers and the great peasant
+majority shared very little in the political life of the country.
+
+A major peasant revolt in 1907 attempted unsuccessfully to rectify the
+serious social imbalance. The uprising was forcefully suppressed with
+extensive loss of life and, although some corrective measures were later
+instituted that improved working conditions and resulted in the division
+of more large landholdings, the general political strength and living
+standards of the peasants and workers were not materially improved.
+Related also to this social unrest was another problem that grew more
+intense during the latter half of the nineteenth century--that of the
+increasing size and economic importance of a large Jewish minority.
+
+Forbidden to own land and subject to many other restrictions, the Jews
+had settled in urban areas, engaged successfully in commercial
+activities and, as a class, gained economic influence and position
+generally out of proportion to their overall numerical strength in the
+population. To an unusual degree, they formed the prosperous urban
+middle class, overshadowing the far smaller number of native Romanians
+in that category. In rural centers, as moneylenders, they also became
+the middlemen between landlords and peasants; as such, the Jew became a
+symbol of oppression, which over the years was transferred into intense
+anti-Semitism. Consequently, the Jews were included as a target in the
+1907 uprising, and the animosity shown then remained a feature of later
+Romanian society.
+
+
+WORLD WAR I
+
+At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 Romania's leaders were indecisive
+and proclaimed an armed neutrality, which lasted for nearly two years.
+Much of the pro-Russian and pro-French political orientation of the
+1840s and 1850s still existed in the country, but this was offset in
+large measure by the strong ties of King Carol I with Bismarck's Germany
+and by the rapprochement with Germany that had resulted from the large
+investment of German capital in the country. In addition, territorial
+inducements, which were attractive to Romania, were made by each side to
+influence its entry into the conflict. The Central Powers offered
+Bessarabia to be taken from Russia, and the Allies promised the cession
+of Transylvania from Austro-Hungary.
+
+After the death of King Carol I and the accession of his nephew, King
+Ferdinand, to the throne, Romania entered the war on the Allied side in
+1916. By December 1917, however, Romania was forced to conclude an
+armistice when the Russian forces disintegrated on the Balkan front
+after the Bolshevik revolution of that year. Before the armistice was
+ratified, however, and as the defeat of the Central Powers was becoming
+apparent, the Romanian army, which had not been demobilized, reentered
+the war, liberated Bucharest from the Germans, and occupied much of
+Bessarabia and Transylvania. After the war, in response to the expressed
+will of the popular assemblies in Transylvania, Bessarabia, and
+Bukovina, those provinces were united with the Kingdom of Romania--often
+called the Old Kingdom. Formal treaties in 1919 and 1920 confirmed these
+decisions, and virtually all Romanians were finally reunited within the
+historic homeland.
+
+
+INTERWAR YEARS, 1918-40
+
+With the annexation of Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina, postwar
+Romania, sometimes referred to as Greater Romania, doubled in size, as
+well as in population. Included among the newly acquired population were
+large ethnic minorities--principally Hungarians, Germans, and
+Jews--whose diverse backgrounds and development presented complex
+social, political, economic, and administrative problems for the
+Romanian government. The various traditions of the people within the
+acquired lands could not easily be transformed into new patterns,
+largely because of the government's reluctance to share power with any
+political leaders except those representing the Transylvanian Romanians.
+As a result, minority elements were largely excluded from national
+affairs, and discriminatory policies developed that bred resentment and
+increased political instability (see ch. 4).
+
+The immediate postwar years were dominated by the Liberal Party of the
+Old Kingdom. The party instituted a series of land reforms, fostered
+increased industrialization, and sponsored a broadly democratic
+constitution in 1923, which made the new state a centralized
+constitutional monarchy. The Transylvanian Romanians, long accustomed to
+considerable autonomy and self-government under Hungarian rule, resented
+the imposition of central control, especially under the administration
+of officials from Bucharest. In protest, a new party, the National
+Peasant Party, was formed in 1926 by a fusion of the Transylvanian
+National Party with the Peasant Party in the Old Kingdom.
+
+Other parties were active during this early period, but all were
+overshadowed by the Liberal Party and the National Peasant Party. The
+Social Democratic Party had been organized at the beginning of the
+twentieth century but, lacking any sizable number of industrial workers,
+the socialist movement remained weak. After the Russian revolution,
+however, the radical left-wing elements of the Social Democratic Party
+seceded and formed the Romanian Communist Party in 1921. The Communists
+went underground after being banned in 1924 and were largely ineffective
+until after World War II.
+
+The death of King Ferdinand in 1927 and the elections of the following
+year brought significant changes in the Romanian government. Ferdinand's
+son, Carol II, was excluded from the succession because of his earlier
+renunciation of all claims to the throne to accept exile with his
+mistress, Magda Lupescu. A regency was therefore appointed to rule in
+the name of Carol's young son, Michael, and a new government led by
+Iuliu Maniu and the National Peasant Party was elected, thus ending the
+six-year tenure of the Liberals.
+
+Although Maniu's government instituted a series of reforms intended to
+improve general economic and social conditions, its efforts were largely
+offset by the adverse effects of the worldwide depression of the early
+1930s. Also, early dissatisfaction with the regency resulted in the
+return of Carol II from exile and his assumption of the crown in late
+1930. His agreement to sever relations with Magda Lupescu was not kept,
+however, and in protest Maniu resigned the premiership. In the unstable
+conditions that followed, King Carol II emerged as the chief political
+figure in the country, and his rule evolved into a royal dictatorship.
+
+King Carol's assumption of power was aided initially by the rise of a
+fanatical fascist and anti-Semitic group known as the Iron Guard. This
+group was strongly pro-German and employed tactics similar to those of
+the Nazi party, which was then emerging as the dominant political force
+in Germany. The fascist movement, with financial and indirect support
+from Germany, increased the influence of the Iron Guard, which was
+reflected in the 1937 elections. The coalition government that resulted
+supported King Carol but was later overthrown, bringing to power a new
+coalition of right-wing extremists.
+
+In order to halt the increasing threat to his power, Carol proclaimed a
+personal dictatorship in 1938 and promulgated a new constitution that
+abolished all political parties and instituted censorship and other
+control measures. This action was followed by the suppression of the
+Iron Guard, whose leader, Corneliu Codreanu, was shot. Absolute
+authority was maintained by the king, who was supported by the army and
+by the National Renaissance Front, a monopoly party that he founded
+later in the same year.
+
+Internal instability and uncertainty were aggravated by rapidly
+developing international events that threatened the security of the
+state. The swift rise of Germany under Adolf Hitler resulted in the
+annexation of Austria in 1938 and the subsequent dismemberment and
+absorption of Czechoslovakia. These actions, unopposed by the Western
+powers, were early warnings of weakness in the Western-oriented
+collective security system on which Romania had depended since World War
+I. The lessening of confidence in the West led Romania in 1939 to
+conclude a treaty of economic collaboration with Germany. This agreement
+greatly increased German influence in the country and placed the
+extensive Romanian oil and other resources at Germany's disposal for
+later wartime use.
+
+Although Romania's territorial integrity had been guaranteed by both
+Great Britain and France after the fall of Czechoslovakia, these
+assurances were nullified by the early German military successes
+achieved following the outbreak of World War II. After the conclusion of
+a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Germany
+invaded and occupied Poland and, by mid-1940, had defeated France and
+forced the evacuation of the European mainland by British forces. Faced
+with the loss of its two strongest partners in the alliance system and
+with the aggressive ambitions of the two strongest totalitarian powers
+on the European continent--Germany and the Soviet Union--Romania had
+little chance of continued independent survival.
+
+
+WORLD WAR II
+
+The first claims against Romania were made by the Soviet Union, which in
+June 1940 demanded the immediate cession of Bessarabia and northern
+Bukovina. Under German pressure Romania acceded to these demands, as
+well as to the later loss of northern Transylvania, which Germany and
+Italy transferred to Hungary at a joint conference held in Vienna on
+August 30, 1940. A third loss of territory, also under German pressure,
+followed one week later with the return of southern Dobruja to Bulgaria,
+which had already entered the war on the side of Germany.
+
+The crisis caused by these territorial losses had a serious impact
+within the country. King Carol was forced to appoint a pro-German
+cabinet, and the government was heavily infiltrated with members of the
+Iron Guard, most of whom were released from custody under German
+pressure. A national protest against the king in early September
+culminated in his abdication in favor of his son, Michael. A new
+government under General Ion Antonescu was formed, composed almost
+entirely of members of the Iron Guard, whose leader was made vice
+premier. German troops entered the country under the pretext of
+protecting the oilfields, and on November 23, 1940, Romania joined
+Germany, Italy, and Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact.
+
+In January 1941 members of the Iron Guard, attempting to seize full
+control of the government, initiated a terroristic campaign that was
+suppressed with much bloodshed by the Romanian army, which had remained
+loyal to the government. With the continued support of the Germans,
+Antonescu dissolved the Iron Guard and formed an almost exclusively
+military dictatorship. After stabilization of the government, Romania
+entered the war against the Soviet Union and incurred heavy losses in
+the prolonged fighting on the eastern front.
+
+After the defeat of the German and Romanian forces at Stalingrad in
+early 1943, the Soviets mounted a counteroffensive, which by mid-1944
+had liberated the southwestern portions of the Soviet Union and had
+advanced deep into Romania and threatened Bucharest. On August 23, 1944,
+King Michael, with the support of the major political and military
+leaders, overthrew the regime of Antonescu, halted all fighting, and
+installed a new, moderate, coalition government. Under the terms of the
+armistice that followed, Romania reentered the war on the side of the
+Allies, agreed to reparation payments, and accepted the military
+occupation of the country until the conclusion of a final peace
+settlement.
+
+Romanian forces that continued the war were committed in support of the
+Soviet army in Transylvania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. Those engaged
+on the Moldavian front were disarmed, and control over the greater part
+of the country was maintained by the Soviets. Among the occupation
+troops stationed in Romania was the communist-indoctrinated "Tudor
+Vladimirescu" division, a force composed of captured Romanian prisoners
+that had been organized after the German-Romanian defeat at Stalingrad.
+In addition, the Soviets were given the chairmanship of the Allied
+Control Commission, the joint body that was established to administer
+the occupied country.
+
+
+COMMUNIST SEIZURE OF POWER
+
+The several conferences held by the Allied powers concerning postwar
+arrangements and the understandings that resulted from bilateral
+discussion among individual leaders indicated that the Soviet Union was
+to become the dominant military and political power in the Balkans. As a
+result, the Soviets, from the outset of their period of occupation,
+acted determinedly to consolidate their position within Romania and to
+influence the development of a permanent postwar governmental system
+designed along communist lines.
+
+Although Romania had surrendered in August 1944, it took several months
+to create a government stable enough to carry out essential programs.
+The first postwar coalition regimes included relatively few Communists
+who ostensibly cooperated with the revived traditional political
+parties. Despite their small numbers, however, they vigorously engaged
+in disruptive antigovernment tactics to prevent the stabilization of
+political authority along democratic lines. This course of action was
+dictated by the general weakness of the Communists who had surfaced
+after the war and was handicapped by the absence of partisan or
+resistance organizations, which could have been used as a basis for
+expanding political control.
+
+Lacking popular support, the Communist Party set about creating mass
+organizations, labor unions, and front organizations through which they
+could increase their power. Among the leaders in these activities were
+Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, an early Communist who had been imprisoned
+during the war, and Ana Pauker, who had spent the war years in Moscow
+before returning to Romania after the entry of Soviet forces. By the
+fall of 1944 the Communists had been successful in grouping a
+leftist-oriented agrarian party called the Plowman's Front, splinter
+elements of the Social Democratic Party, various labor unions, and
+several social welfare organizations into the National Democratic Front.
+The front became the principal instrument through which the party worked
+to achieve political dominance.
+
+The National Democratic Front received recognition in the December 1944
+government of General Nicolae Radescu and, although given a number of
+important posts, was generally held to a role subordinate to that of the
+National Peasant, the Liberal, and the Social Democratic parties. In
+late January 1945 after a visit to Moscow by Pauker and Gheorghiu-Dej,
+the leftist leadership within the government initiated a virulent
+campaign of disorder, agitation, and denunciation against Radescu and
+called for the replacement of his regime with one to be formed by the
+National Democratic Front.
+
+The anti-Radescu campaign was prolonged and intensified by the
+Communists who, through their control of the printer's union, were able
+to silence the opposition press and thus enhance their own propaganda.
+In February 1945, during a staged demonstration, the Communists provoked
+an incident in which several participants were killed. Demands were made
+for Radescu's arrest, and he was forced to seek asylum within a foreign
+mission. Using this latest incident as a pretext, Soviet Deputy
+Commissar for Foreign Affairs Andrei Vyshinsky, who arrived from Moscow
+within two days of the event, forced King Michael to accept a National
+Democratic Front government to be headed by Petru Groza, the leader of
+the Plowman's Front and longtime communist sympathizer.
+
+The government installed by Groza on March 6, 1945, was dominated by
+Communists and fellow travelers and represented an effective seizure of
+power by relatively peaceful means. Although a few dissident former
+members of the Liberal and National Peasant parties were given posts to
+maintain the facade of representative government, no leaders or
+representative members of the historic political parties were included.
+
+After recognition by the Soviet Union in August 1945 and by the United
+States and Great Britain in February 1946, the Groza government held
+rigged elections for the Grand National Assembly and emerged with 379 of
+the 414 seats. Having thus achieved legislative as well as executive
+control, the Communists proceeded methodically during the following year
+to eliminate all political opposition. National Peasant and Liberal
+leaders were arrested and tried, and these two major parties were
+outlawed in June 1947. This action was followed in the spring of 1948 by
+the fusion of the Social Democrats with the Communists into a new party
+called the Romanian Workers' Party, which the Communists controlled. As
+a final step the National Democratic Front was reorganized into the
+People's Democratic Front, which then included the Romanian Workers'
+Party, the Plowman's Front, and two new puppet organizations--the
+National Popular Party and the Hungarian People's Union.
+
+By the end of 1947 the only remaining link with the prewar system was
+the monarchy. King Michael, in addition to being a popular ruler,
+represented a national symbol around whom anticommunist opposition could
+rally and, as such, was an unacceptable threat to the embryonic
+communist dictatorship. Accordingly, in a meeting in December requested
+by Groza and Gheorghiu-Dej, King Michael was forced to abdicate under
+the threat of civil war. On the same day the government announced the
+creation of the Romanian People's Republic. This action represented the
+last step in the seizure of power and placed Romania under complete
+communist control.
+
+
+THE COMMUNIST STATE
+
+Having seized effective control of the government, the Communists
+embarked on a program of organizing the state along totalitarian lines.
+As the first step toward consolidating their position, the Communists
+initiated extensive purges and liquidation of anticommunist elements in
+preparation for the holding of new parliamentary elections. The
+carefully controlled elections held in March 1948 overwhelmingly favored
+the single list of candidates put forward by the People's Democratic
+Front, which received 405 of the 414 seats. The new National Assembly
+met the following month, adopted a constitution modeled after that of
+the Soviet Union, and formalized the establishment of the Romanian
+People's Republic.
+
+Over the next five years the country rapidly assumed the characteristics
+of a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Allied Control Commission
+was withdrawn by mutual consent, and the Soviets were given the right to
+retain occupation troops in the country beyond the 1947 peace treaty
+date on the basis of an alleged need to protect the lines of
+communication with other Soviet forces being maintained in Austria.
+Under these favorable conditions and with close party supervision,
+locally appointed people's councils had little difficulty in
+administratively organizing the local governments in accordance with the
+Soviet system.
+
+Soviet-style instruments of control also appeared in a broad pattern in
+all major fields and included the collectivization of agriculture, the
+nationalization of industry, the centralization of control of the
+national economy on a planned basis, and the creation of militia and
+police forces whose function was to maintain the authority of the
+communist regime and to eliminate all actual or potential opposition to
+its policies.
+
+The 1951-53 show trials and political purges within the communist ranks,
+which were spearheaded from Moscow, served more to strengthen than to
+weaken Romanian leadership in the party. Although Gheorghiu-Dej, a
+native leader, had headed the party as its general secretary since 1945,
+his influence and that of other Romanian Communists in government
+affairs was limited. The Moscow-trained element led by Pauker, which
+followed the Soviet forces into Romania, had become dominant in the
+party organization, largely because it enjoyed both the support and
+confidence of the Soviets. This group, considered essentially foreign
+within the Romanian communist movement, firmly controlled the party
+apparatus, including the secret police, the key posts that dealt with
+foreign affairs, and the domestic economy.
+
+This maldistribution of power within the ruling group led to factional
+disputes and internal bickerings, which were brought to the surface and
+finally solved by the purging of Pauker and the remainder of the
+Muscovite group in 1952. After the purges Gheorghiu-Dej and his close
+collaborators assumed full and undivided authority within the party. The
+party was successful in maintaining a high degree of homogeneity in its
+leadership, and the resultant stability within its ranks enabled it to
+adopt, and later carry out, policies that favored Romanian over
+international interests in communist affairs.
+
+After the purges Gheorghiu-Dej assumed the premiership and, as the
+government and party machinery were now in Romanian hands, the
+nationalistic character of the communist government began to appear. In
+the early stages emphasis was placed on disengaging the country from
+many of the tight Soviet controls that still existed. As an initial move
+the Romanians in 1954 successfully negotiated the dissolution of the
+onerous joint Soviet-Romanian industrial concerns that had been used by
+the Soviets to drain the Romanian economy during the postwar years. This
+was followed in 1958 by obtaining Soviet agreement to the withdrawal of
+all occupation forces from Romanian territory. At the same time efforts
+to stimulate and improve the economy led to the establishment of limited
+economic relations with several Western and noncommunist bloc countries
+(see ch. 14).
+
+Despite the nationalistic shift in Romanian external policy during this
+period, the Romanians were careful to indicate to Moscow that, although
+they wished to conduct their affairs with a minimum of Soviet
+interference, they had no intention either of abandoning their adherence
+to the Soviet bloc or of diminishing their efforts toward the
+achievement of all basic communist aims in the country. The manner and
+form of internal control in Romania remained repressive and essentially
+Stalinist; only minor liberalizing changes took place over the next
+several years.
+
+After the death of Stalin in 1953 Gheorghiu-Dej supported the new form
+of collective leadership, which separated government and party
+functions. Following the Soviet pattern he gave up his party post but
+reclaimed it two years later, coincidentally with the emergence of
+Nikita Khrushchev as the leading figure in the Soviet hierarchy. Also,
+Romania further demonstrated its allegiance to the communist cause by
+formally endorsing the drastic action taken by the Soviets in
+suppressing the Hungarian revolt against the communist regime in 1956.
+
+The next step in the pursuit of national goals was taken in the economic
+field and consisted of measures that sought to lessen Romania's economic
+dependence on the Soviet Union and the more developed East European
+countries. These goals were embodied in the country's Five-Year Plan
+(1960-65), which called for the accelerated creation of an expanded
+industrial base supported by its own natural resources and technical
+assistance from the more advanced noncommunist countries. This ambitious
+program was vigorously pursued beginning in 1960 and, by 1962, had come
+into sharp conflict with Premier Khrushchev's announced plans of
+revitalizing the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
+transforming it into a unified system that would integrate the economies
+of all Eastern European member nations (see ch. 14).
+
+COMECON, set up by the Soviets in 1949 as a counterpoise to the European
+Recovery Program (Marshall Plan), was basically an economic commission
+designed to assist the economic development of the communist Eastern
+European nations during the post-World War II period. Within this
+organization Romania had acted largely as a supplier of agricultural
+products, petroleum, and other raw materials and depended on the more
+industrialized member states for most manufactured goods. Under the
+Khrushchev plan, Romania's role in this organization would remain
+unchanged, and all domestic plans that had been developed to produce a
+balanced economy through increased industrialization would be
+effectively nullified.
+
+Khrushchev, in pushing his revised plans for COMECON, publicly called
+for the creation of a supranational planning agency within the
+organization that would be empowered to select investment projects,
+allocate regional resources, and prescribe economic tasks to be
+undertaken by the individual member states on the basis of a majority
+vote. Romanian leaders reacted firmly and resolutely to this suggestion
+by publishing a statement of the party Central Committee that definitely
+rejected the policy of supranational economic integration and the
+utilization of majority decisions as a means of forcing economic
+cooperation. The committee's resolution further pointed out that
+economic collaboration should be based on respect for national
+independence, sovereignty, and the equality inherent in the rights of
+nations.
+
+Pressure was exerted to bring the Romanian leadership into line. To
+counter this, the Romanians took steps to demonstrate their
+determination to hold to their independent views. A program of
+desovietization was begun throughout the country, during which Soviet
+bookshops were closed, the compulsory study of the Russian language in
+schools was ended, and those street names that had been changed to honor
+Soviet persons or events reverted to their original Romanian
+designations. Also, in the field of foreign policy Romania adopted an
+attitude of nonalignment in the Sino-Soviet dispute, resumed relations
+with Albania (which had been severed after that country left the Soviet
+bloc in 1961), and conducted negotiations for increased trade with the
+People's Republic of China as well as with several Western nations.
+
+By the end of 1963 it was apparent that Soviet plans for revising
+COMECON could not be implemented and, with Romania retaining its
+membership, it remained an organization of national economies
+cooperating with one another along both bilateral and multilateral
+lines. The Soviets, however, retained leadership of the organization and
+continued to be a major benefactor from its operation.
+
+The surfacing of the policy conflict with Moscow and the subsequent
+activities of the Romanians in defiance of general Soviet interests and
+leadership were followed in April 1964 by a formal statement published
+by the party Central Committee that proclaimed Romania's inalienable
+right to national autonomy and full equality in the communist world.
+This so-called declaration of independence made it abundantly clear that
+the national and independent character of Romanian policy had been
+extended to all fields and would be applied in both domestic and foreign
+relations.
+
+The policy of greater national autonomy and political independence from
+the Soviet Union was continued by Nicolae Ceausescu, who succeeded
+Gheorghiu-Dej as party chief after the latter's sudden death in March
+1965. A militant nationalist in the Gheorghiu-Dej pattern, Ceausescu
+acted quickly after assuming power not only to maintain the political
+momentum generated by the new national line but also to more closely
+identify the communist leadership and policies with this expression of
+traditional national aspiration (see ch. 9).
+
+In April the name of the Romanian Workers' Party was changed to the
+Romanian Communist Party, and new organizational measures were adopted
+that were intended to broaden the party's popular base. This action was
+followed by the adoption of a new constitution, which changed the name
+of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, a step that
+elevated the country to an advanced status in the communist system by
+self-proclamation.
+
+In 1967 Ceausescu's position was further strengthened when he assumed
+the presidency of the Council of State to become the head of the country
+in title as well as in fact. Since that time Romania has maintained a
+firm, orthodox communist control pattern in its domestic affairs but has
+continued to pursue an independent foreign policy, which has diverged
+remarkably, from time to time, from those of the Soviet Union and its
+Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) allies.
+
+Differences have included opposition to the full integration of the
+Warsaw Pact military alliance, refusal to joint the Soviet bloc in
+condemning Israel after the 1967 Six-Day Arab-Israeli War, and
+unilateral establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal
+Republic of Germany (West Germany). Perhaps the strongest position
+vis-à-vis the Soviet Union was taken in 1968, when Ceausescu denounced
+the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty among socialist
+nations, which was used by the Soviets to justify the invasion of
+Czechoslovakia (see ch. 10).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 3
+
+PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION
+
+
+Romania, located in southeastern Europe and usually referred to as one
+of the Balkan states, shares land borders with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+Hungary, and the Soviet Union and has a shoreline on the Black Sea (see
+fig. 1). The interior of the country is a broad plateau almost
+surrounded by mountains, which, in turn, are surrounded, except in the
+north, by plains. The mountains are not unduly rugged, and their gentle
+slopes plus the rolling interior plateau and the arc of lowlands on the
+country's periphery provide an unusually large percentage of arable
+land.
+
+Romanian historians have remarked that their country's history might
+have been different had its mountains been located on its borders rather
+than in the interior. Romania's mountains provided a refuge for
+indigenous populations but did not constitute barriers against invaders
+who sought to dominate the area or use it as a crossroad for deeper
+invasions of the Balkan region (see ch. 2).
+
+The prevailing weather is eastern European continental, with hot, clear
+summers and cold winters. Rainfall is adequate in all sections, and in
+normal seasons the greater share falls during the summer months when it
+is of most benefit to vegetation and crops. Soils on the average are
+fertile. Forests occupy about 27 percent of the land surface.
+
+All of the major streams drain eventually into the Danube River and to
+the Black Sea. The entire length of the Danube in or bordering the
+country is navigable. There are few canals, and the Prut River is the
+only other waterway that is navigable for any considerable distance.
+Several of the rivers originating in the Carpathians have a good
+potential for hydroelectric power but, because oil and natural gas are
+abundant, their development has not had high priority.
+
+In 1971 railroads carried by far the greatest volume of long-distance
+freight and passenger traffic, but highway transport was supplanting
+them in short-haul traffic of both types. Commercial aviation had
+multiplied its capacities since 1950 but still carried only a minute
+percentage of total traffic. Pipelines were the principal carriers of
+liquid petroleum and natural gas. The merchant marine had developed
+relatively rapidly after 1960 and, although still small, consisted
+almost entirely of modern ships and equipment.
+
+The population, estimated at more than 20.6 million in 1971, was growing
+at the second highest rate in Europe. The country's officials, however,
+did not expect the 1971 rate to be maintained throughout the remainder
+of the century.
+
+The standard of living was among the lowest in Europe. Living conditions
+improved markedly after 1950, but emphasis on heavy capital investment
+held down production of consumer goods. The land has been more than
+self-sufficient in the agricultural sector, but food products have been
+exported in quantities that have made some of them scarce locally.
+
+
+NATURAL FEATURES AND RESOURCES
+
+Topographical and Regional Description
+
+All of the mountains and uplands of the country are part of the
+Carpathian system. The Carpathian Mountains originate in Czechoslovakia,
+enter Romania in the north from the Soviet Union, and proceed to curl
+around the country in a semicircle (see fig. 3). The ranges in the east
+are referred to as the Moldavian Carpathians; the slightly higher
+southern ranges are called the Transylvanian Alps; and the more
+scattered but generally lower ranges in the west are known as the Bihor
+Massif. A few peaks in the Moldavian Carpathians rise to nearly 7,500
+feet, and several in the Transylvanian Alps reach 8,000 feet, but only a
+few points in the Bihor Massif approach 6,000 feet.
+
+Lowland areas are generally on the periphery of the country--east,
+south, and west of the mountains. A plateau, higher than the other
+lowlands but having elevations averaging only about 1,200 feet, occupies
+an area enclosed by the Carpathian ranges.
+
+Moldavia, in the northeast, constitutes about one-fourth of the
+country's area. It contains the easternmost ranges of the Carpathians
+and, between the Siretul and Prut rivers, an area of lower hills and
+plains. The Moldavian Carpathians have maximum elevations of about 7,500
+feet and are the most extensively forested part of the country. The
+western portion of the mountains contains a range of volcanic
+origin--the longest of its type in Europe--that is famous for its some
+2,000 mineral water springs. Small sections of the hilly country to the
+northeast also have forests, but most of the lower lands are rolling
+country, which becomes increasingly flatter in the south. Almost all of
+the nonforested portions are cultivated.
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 3. Topography of Romania._]
+
+Walachia, in the south, contains the southern part of the Transylvanian
+Alps--called the Southern Carpathians by Romanian geographers--and the
+lowlands that extend between them and the Danube River. West to east it
+extends from the Iron Gate to Dobruja, which is east of the Danube in
+the area where the river flows northward for about 100 miles before it
+again turns to the east for its final passage to the sea. Walachia is
+divided by the Olt River into Oltenia (Lesser Walachia) in the west and
+Muntenia (Greater Walachia), of which Bucharest is the approximate
+center, in the east. Nearly all of the Walachian lowlands, except for
+the marshes along the Danube River, and the seriously eroded foothills
+of the mountains are cultivated. Grain, sugar beets, and potatoes are
+grown in all parts of the flatland; the area around Bucharest produces
+much of the country's garden vegetables; and southern exposures along
+the mountains are ideally suited for orchards and vineyards.
+
+The Transylvanian Alps have the highest peaks and the steepest slopes in
+the country; the highest point, with an elevation of about 8,340 feet
+above sea level, is 100 miles northwest of Bucharest. Among the alpine
+features of the range are glacial lakes, upland meadows and pastures,
+and bare rock along the higher ridges. Portions of the mountains are
+predominantly limestone with characteristic phenomena, such as caves,
+waterfalls, and underground streams.
+
+Transylvania, the northwestern one-third of the country, includes the
+historic Transylvanian province and the portions of Maramures, Crisana,
+and Banat that became part of Romania after World War I. The last three
+borderland areas are occasionally identified individually.
+
+Nearly all of the lowlands in the west and northwest and the plateau in
+the central part of the province are cultivated. The western mountain
+regions are not as rugged as those to the south and east, and average
+elevations run considerably lower. Many of the intermediate slopes are
+put to use as pasture or meadowland but, because the climate is colder,
+there are fewer orchards and vineyards in Transylvania than on the
+southern sides of the ranges in Walachia. Forests usually have more of
+the broadleaf deciduous tree varieties than is typical of the higher
+mountains, but much of the original forest cover has been removed from
+the gentler Transylvanian slopes.
+
+Dobruja provides Romania's access to the Black Sea. The Danube River
+forms the region's western border, and its northern side is determined
+by the northernmost of the three main channels in the Danube delta. The
+line in the south at which the region has been divided between Romania
+and Bulgaria is artificial and has been changed several times.
+
+For nearly 500 years preceding 1878, Dobruja was under Turkish rule.
+When the Turks were forced to relinquish their control, the largest
+elements of its population were Romanian and Bulgarian, and it was
+divided between the two countries. Romania received the larger, but more
+sparsely populated, northern portion. Between the two world wars Romania
+held the entire area, but in 1940 Bulgaria regained the southern
+portion. The 1940 boundaries were reconfirmed after World War II, and
+since then the Romanian portion has had an area of approximately 6,000
+square miles; Bulgaria's has been approximately one-half as large.
+
+Dobruja contains most of the Danube River delta marshland, much of which
+is not easily exploited for agricultural purposes, although some of the
+reeds and natural vegetation have limited commercial value. The delta is
+a natural wildlife preserve, particularly for waterfowl and is large
+enough so that many species can be protected.
+
+Fishing contributes to the local economy, and 90 percent of the
+country's catch is taken from the lower Danube and its delta, from
+Dobruja's lakes, or off the coast. Willows flourish in parts of the
+delta, and there are a few deciduous forests in the north-central
+section. To the west and south, the elevations are higher. The land
+drains satisfactorily and, although the rainfall average is the lowest
+in the country, it is adequate for dependable grain crops and vineyards.
+
+Along the southern one-half of the coastline there are pleasant beaches.
+In summer the dry sunny weather and low humidity make them attractive
+tourist resorts.
+
+Bukovina, more isolated than other parts of the country, has a
+part-Romanian and part-Ukrainian population. Romanian Bukovina is small,
+totaling only about 3,400 square miles. It was part of Moldavia from the
+fourteenth century until annexed by Austria in 1775. Romania acquired it
+from Austria-Hungary in 1918, but after World War II the Soviet Union
+annexed the 2,100-square-mile northern portion with its largely
+Ukrainian population.
+
+The approximately 1,300 square miles of the former province remaining in
+Romania is picturesque and mountainous. Less than one-third is arable,
+but domestic animals are kept on hillside pastures and meadows. Steeper
+slopes are forested.
+
+
+Drainage
+
+All of Romania's rivers and streams drain to the Black Sea. Except for
+the minor streams that rise on the eastern slopes of the hills near the
+sea and flow directly into it, all join the Danube River. Those flowing
+southward and southeastward from the Transylvanian Alps drain to the
+Danube directly. Those flowing northward and eastward from Moldavia and
+Bukovina reach the Danube by way of the Prut River. Most of the
+Transylvanian streams draining to the north and west flow to the Tisza
+River, which joins the Danube in Yugoslavia, north of Belgrade.
+
+Romanian tourist literature states that the country has 2,500 lakes, but
+most are small, and lakes occupy only about 1 percent of the surface
+area. The largest lakes are along the Danube River and the Black Sea
+coast. Some of those along the coast are open to the sea and contain
+salt sea water. These and a few of the fresh water lakes are
+commercially important for their fish. The many smaller ones scattered
+throughout the mountains are usually glacial in origin and add much to
+the beauty of the resort areas.
+
+The Danube drains a basin of 315,000 square miles that extends eastward
+from the Black Forest in the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
+and includes a portion of the southwestern Soviet Union. It is about
+1,775 miles long, including the 900 miles in or adjacent to Romania, and
+is fed by more than 300 tributaries, from which it collects an average
+of about 285,000 cubic feet per minute to discharge into the Black Sea.
+Much of the Danube delta and a band of up to twenty miles wide along
+most of the length of the river from the delta to the so-called Iron
+Gate--where it has cut a deep gorge through the mountains along the
+Yugoslav border--is marshland.
+
+For descriptive purposes the river is customarily divided into three
+sections; most of the portion in Romania--from the Iron Gate to the
+Black Sea--is its lower course. The northern bank of this course, on the
+Romanian side, is low, flat marshland and, as it approaches its delta,
+it divides into a number of channels. It also forms several lakes, some
+of them quite large. At its delta it divides into three major and
+several minor branches. The delta has an area of about 1,000 square
+miles and grows steadily as the river deposits some 2 billion cubic feet
+of sediment into the sea annually.
+
+
+Climate
+
+The climate is continental and is characterized by hot summers and cold
+winters. Typical weather and precipitation result from the high pressure
+systems that predominate over European Soviet Union and north-central
+Asia. Southern Europe's Mediterranean weather and western European
+maritime systems occasionally extend into the area but not frequently,
+and they prevail only for short periods. Winters are long, and the
+months from November through March tend to be cold and cloudy, with
+frequent fog and snow. Although summers may be hot, they are sunny, and
+the humidity is usually at comfortable levels.
+
+Precipitation ranges from fifteen to fifty inches; the countrywide
+average is about twenty-eight inches. Dobruja, along the lower Danube
+River and adjacent to the Black Sea coast, averages the least, followed
+by the lowlands of Moldavia and southernmost Walachia, which usually
+receive less than twenty inches. The remaining lowlands of the country
+and the Transylvanian plateau average between about twenty and
+thirty-two inches. Bucharest receives about twenty-three inches. In all
+of the agricultural regions the heaviest precipitation, most of it from
+thunderstorms and showers, occurs during the summer growing season when
+it is of maximum benefit to crops and vegetation.
+
+Scattered areas in the Transylvanian Alps and in the other mountains of
+the northern and western parts of the country receive more than fifty
+inches annually. Foothills on all exposures also get more than the
+country average. Western exposures benefit from the generally eastward
+movement of weather systems; southern and eastern slopes benefit from
+the clockwise circulation around the high-pressure systems that are
+characteristic of the continental climate.
+
+January is the coldest month; July, the warmest. Bucharest, located
+inland on the southern lowland, is one of the warmest points in summer
+and has one of the widest variations between average temperatures of the
+extreme hot and cold months. Its average January temperature is about
+27° F, and in July it is 73° F. Summer averages are about the same at
+other places in the eastern lowlands and along the Black Sea, but the
+moderating effect of winds off the sea makes for slightly warmer winters
+in those areas. Hilly and mountainous sections of the country are cooler
+but have less variation between winter and summer extremes.
+
+Nowhere in the country is the climate the deciding factor on the
+distribution of population. There are no points where summer
+temperatures are oppressively high or winter temperatures are
+intolerably low. Rainfall is adequate in all regions and, in the lower
+Danube River area where it might be considered the most nearly marginal,
+marshes and poorly drained terrain are more of a problem than is lack of
+rainfall.
+
+
+Soils
+
+The most fertile soils of the country occur generally on the plains of
+Moldavia and parts of Walachia. This is the black earth known as
+chernozem, which is rich in humus. Most of the black earth and some of
+the brown forest soils also have a high loess content, which tends to
+make them light, fine, and workable. These rich varieties also occur on
+the lowlands of the west and northwest and on the Transylvanian plateau.
+Lighter brown soils are more prevalent in rolling lands and in foothills
+throughout the country.
+
+Soils become progressively poorer at higher elevations and as the slopes
+become steeper. Layered soils, which take over as elevations increase,
+vary widely and tend to become thinner and poorer at higher elevations
+until bare rock is exposed. In some lower areas, where there are areas
+of brown forest soils, erosion is a serious problem. Although the sandy
+and alluvial soils along the Danube River are of excellent quality and
+are valuable where drainage is good, those in a fairly wide belt along
+the river are too moist for cultivation of most crops.
+
+
+Vegetation
+
+Before the land was cleared, lowland Romania was a wooded steppe area,
+but the natural vegetation has largely been removed and replaced by
+cultivated crops. Forests still predominate on the highlands. Of the
+country's total area, about 63 percent is agricultural land; 27 percent
+is forest; and 10 percent is bare mountain or water surface or is used
+in some way that makes it unsuitable for forest or cultivation. Of the
+agricultural land, 65 percent is under cultivation, 30 percent is
+pasture and meadow, and 5 percent is orchard and vineyard (see ch. 15).
+
+Forests remain on most of the slopes that are too steep for easy
+cultivation. Most of the larger forests are in Transylvania and western
+Moldavia in a roughly doughnut-shaped area that surrounds the
+Transylvanian plateau. Broadleaf deciduous and mixed forests occur at
+lower elevations; forests at higher levels are coniferous with
+needle-leaf evergreens. There are alpine sheep pastures at 5,000- and
+6,000-foot elevations, and tundra vegetation occurs at some of the
+highest locations.
+
+Orchards are found in all sections of the country. Peaches can be grown
+in Walachia, but only those fruits that can tolerate colder winters are
+raised in Moldavia and Transylvania. Vineyards, especially on the
+Walachian mountain slopes, have become more important since World War
+II, and wine, although it is not of a quality that receives
+international acclaim, is exported.
+
+
+Natural Resources
+
+The most important natural resources are the expanses of rich arable
+land, the rivers, and the forests. The land is agriculturally
+self-sufficient and, when fertilizers become more readily available,
+crop yields will be appreciably larger. The rivers have a high potential
+for the generation of hydroelectric power. Most of them rise in the
+mountains and fall to the plains quite rapidly and could be profitably
+harnessed. Rainfall distribution is good throughout the year and would
+provide more than an ordinarily dependable source of waterpower. The
+potential was only beginning to be tapped in 1971 (see ch. 15).
+
+Large fields of oil and natural gas are the most important sub-surface
+assets. Both are of the best quality in Europe, with the possible
+exception of those near Baku in the Soviet Union. Liquid petroleum is
+pumped from large fields in the Ploiesti area and also from an area in
+central Moldavia. Natural gas is available under a large part of the
+Transylvanian plateau.
+
+A few minerals, such as lead, zinc, sulfur, and salt, are available in
+quantities needed domestically, but iron and coal are not plentiful.
+Deposits of lignite, gold, and several other minerals occur in
+concentrations having sufficient value to be mined.
+
+
+BOUNDARIES AND POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS
+
+Boundaries
+
+When it gained full independence in 1878, Romania contained the historic
+provinces of Moldavia and Walachia, some of Bessarabia, and a portion of
+Dobruja. Substantial numbers of Romanians remained outside the original
+state's boundaries in Transylvania and in the Russian portion of
+Bessarabia. The first boundaries remained little changed until after
+World War I, although the strip of Dobruja was enlarged somewhat in
+1913, after the Second Balkan War (see ch. 2).
+
+In the 1918 settlement after World War I about 38,500 square miles were
+ceded to Romania from the dismantled Austro-Hungarian Empire. In
+addition to historic Transylvania, with its area of about 21,300 square
+miles, a strip along its western side, with a substantially Magyar
+population, and Bukovina, part of which is now the most north-central
+section of the country, were included. Also in the aftermath of World
+War I and the Russian revolution, Romania acquired Bessarabia from the
+new Bolshevik regime and enlarged its holdings in Dobruja at Bulgaria's
+expense.
+
+During the brief period of accord between the Soviet Union and Nazi
+Germany immediately before World War II, portions of Romania were sliced
+away and divided among Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. The
+post-World War II settlement, arrived at in 1947, again transferred
+Transylvania from Hungary to Romania, and Dobruja--with a somewhat
+modified southern border--was transferred from Bulgaria. The Soviet
+Union retained all of Bessarabia and the northern portion of Bukovina.
+In 1971 none of Romania's borders were disputed, and all of them were
+satisfactorily demarcated.
+
+The total circumference of the country is about 1,975 miles. The
+northern and eastern border with the Soviet Union extends for about 830
+miles; the southern border with Bulgaria, for 375 miles; the
+southwestern border with Yugoslavia, for 345 miles; and the
+northwestern border with Hungary, for 275 miles. The Black Sea coast is
+about 150 miles long. The eastern boundary generally follows the Prut
+River, and most of the southern boundary is formed by the Danube; in the
+west and north the border follows no distinctive terrain features, often
+having been drawn according to ethnic, rather than geographic,
+considerations.
+
+
+Political Subdivisions
+
+Until 1968 the communist regime had divided the country into seventeen
+regions--including one consisting of the Bucharest metropolitan area
+only--and 152 districts. In an extensive reorganization of local
+governments at that time, the regions were done away with and replaced
+by the prewar system of counties (_judete_). In 1971 there were
+thirty-nine counties, plus Bucharest and its suburban areas, which were
+still administered separately. Bucharest was one of forty-six
+municipalities, but it was the only one not subordinate to the district
+in which it was located. Each county is named for the town that is its
+administrative center. The newer organization has served to increase
+public participation in local government but has also increased the
+authority of the central government.
+
+Bucharest, with a population of nearly 1.5 million in 1969, was about
+six times larger than Brasov, the next largest city. The Bucharest
+district was smallest in area and greatest in population. Other
+districts had roughly similar areas and populations. They averaged about
+2,350 square miles in area and, although their populations varied
+between fewer than 200,000 and about 750,000, two-thirds of them had
+between 350,000 and 650,000 persons.
+
+The 1968 reorganization also made extensive changes in the lower portion
+of the local administrative structure, reducing the number of communes
+by about 40 percent and villages by nearly 15 percent. Typical counties
+had about fifty communes of about 4,000 to 5,000 persons each. The
+smaller local units were created, dissolved, or combined as population
+and local requirements changed but, as of January 1970, there were 236
+towns, 2,706 communes, and 13,149 villages. Of the towns, the
+forty-seven most important were classified as municipalities, and the
+communes included 145 that were suburban areas of the larger towns (see
+ch. 8).
+
+
+POPULATION
+
+The area approximating that defined by the 1971 boundaries of the
+country had a population estimated at about 8.2 million in 1860. Thirty
+years later it had increased to about 10 million. Growth began to
+accelerate slightly after 1890, with periods of greatest increases
+between 1930 and 1941 and between 1948 and 1956, until it reached an
+estimated 20.6 million in 1971.
+
+The 1971 estimate was derived from the 1966 census and projected from
+vital statistics compiled locally through 1970. On this basis the
+estimated annual rate of growth was 1.3 percent, exceeded in Europe only
+by that of Albania. Density of the population was 224 persons per square
+mile. Projected at the 1971 growth rate, the population in 1985 would be
+23.3 million, and it would take fifty-four years for the population of
+the country to double.
+
+The 1971 growth rate, however, may not be maintained. Legislation
+enacted in 1966 stringently restricted abortions and discouraged birth
+control practices, resulting in an increased birth rate for the next few
+years, but by 1971 there were indications that the rate was again
+declining. Unofficially, it is expected that the population will reach
+only 25.75 million by the year 2000, or about 27 percent more than in
+1970. The projection is based on a growth rate of less than that of the
+1970-71 period. It is expected to average about 1.1 percent for the
+1971-75 five-year period and to decrease thereafter, resulting in an
+average of between 0.7 and 0.8 percent over the entire period. Moreover,
+the increase is expected to be far greater in the over-sixty age group
+and to provide only about 14 percent more workers in the productive age
+brackets between fifteen and fifty-nine.
+
+In 1970 the birth rate, at 23.3 births per 1,000 of the population, was
+also exceeded only by Albania's in all of Europe. The rate of infant
+mortality, at 54.9 deaths during the first year of life for each 1,000
+live births, was slightly lower than those of Yugoslavia and Portugal
+and was exceeded significantly only by that of Albania. The death rate,
+at 10.1 per 1,000 was very close to the overall European rate of ten per
+1,000.
+
+According to the 1971 official estimate there were 10.1 million males
+and 10.4 million females, or 102.8 females for every 100 males in the
+population. Males outnumber females slightly in the childhood years and
+are the majority sex in each five-year segment of the population to
+about the age of thirty. Females outnumber males in the thirty to
+thirty-four age group, after which there is near numerical equality
+between ages thirty-five and forty-four. Females attain a clear majority
+beyond age forty-five. Female life expectancy, at 70.5 years, is
+approximately four years greater than that of males.
+
+The population group with ages from fifty to fifty-four had both a low
+overall figure and an abnormally low percentage of males (see table 1).
+The low total reflected a low birth rate during World War I years; the
+abnormal sex distribution reflected World War II combat losses. The low
+total in the twenty-five to twenty-nine group resulted from the low
+birth rate during World War II, and the low figure for the five-to-nine
+age group reflected the fewer number of parents in the group twenty
+years its senior and their disinclination to have children because of
+low incomes and inadequate housing.
+
+The size of the five-to-nine age group was of concern to the country's
+economists because it will provide a smaller than desirable augmentation
+to the labor force at the end of the 1970 decade and for the early
+1980s. The seemingly much larger group that was under five years of age
+in 1971, on the other hand, would appear on the surface to more than
+compensate for the smaller one preceding it. The country's economists,
+however, did not believe that an alleviation of the chronic shortage of
+people in the most productive working ages would occur during the
+twentieth century.
+
+Aside from natural growth and additions and subtractions of territories
+and their occupants, the country's population has been comparatively
+stable. It has been affected to a lesser degree than others in eastern
+Europe by migrations during and after World War II, probably losing
+between 300,000 and 400,000 persons in various resettlement and
+population exchange movements. The largest emigration involved Jews to
+Israel. Israeli data show an average of about 30,000 immigrants from
+Romania during the three immediate postwar years, and Jewish people
+accounted for a major share of all emigration between then and the late
+1960s.
+
+_Table 1. Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971 Estimate_
+(in thousands)
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                                            Number of
+                          Percentage                        Females
+ Age Group       Total     of Total      Male     Female    for Each
+                          Population                        100 Males
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Under 5         2,255       11.0        1,149     1,106       96.4
+  5-9            1,392        6.7          713       679       95.3
+ 10-14           1,743        8.5          892       851       95.3
+ 15-19           1,787        8.7          911       876       95.6
+ 20-24           1,588        7.7          806       782       97.2
+ 25-29           1,316        6.5          666       650       97.6
+ 30-34           1,533        7.4          757       776      102.4
+ 35-39           1,542        7.5          773       769       99.2
+ 40-44           1,502        7.3          752       750       99.6
+ 45-49           1,303        6.3          623       680      109.2
+ 50-54             806        3.9          363       443      121.7
+ 55-59           1,020        5.0          468       552      117.8
+ 60-64             950        4.6          452       498      110.0
+ 65-69             737        3.6          351       386      109.6
+ 70-74             540        2.6          235       305      129.8
+ 75 and over       551        2.7          227       324      142.1
+                 -----       ----         ----      ----      -----
+ Total
+ population     20,565      100.0       10,138    10,427      102.8
+ ------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Source: Adapted from Godfrey Baldwin (ed.), _International Population
+ Reports_ (U.S. Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18), Washington,
+ 1969, pp. 32-33.
+
+Within the country the greatest shift of people has been from rural to
+urban areas. The rural population grew by about 0.5 million, from 11.9
+million to 12.4 million, between 1945 and 1971. During the same period
+urban population increased by about 3.5 million, from 4.7 million to
+about 8.24 million, and has become about 40 percent of the total.
+Officials anticipate that the rural population will stabilize and that
+most future increases will be to the towns and cities.
+
+Of the 60 percent of the people who still live in small villages and
+settlements, most depend upon agriculture for their livelihood. Isolated
+farms and dwellings prevail in the more remote hills and mountains, and
+life in those areas has been little affected by industrialization of the
+country or by the collectivization of agricultural land, which has been
+accomplished in most of the better farming areas.
+
+Older villages most typically have individual family houses, with farm
+buildings adjacent and with considerable separation between houses. In
+areas that have been collectivized there has been some effort to remove
+buildings from productive land and to nucleate the villages.
+
+Population is most dense in the central portion of Walachia, centering
+on, and west of, Bucharest and Ploiesti and along the Siretul River in
+Moldavia. Southwestern Walachia and central and northwestern
+Transylvania are also more densely settled than the average for the
+country. The area around Dobruja, lands of high elevation, and
+marshlands along the lower Danube River are the most sparsely settled
+areas.
+
+
+LIVING CONDITIONS
+
+According to semiofficial Romanian sources, the national income
+increased by six times during the twenty-year period between 1950 and
+1970, and real wages, by 2.7 times. Between 1966 and 1970 improved
+economic conditions and a broader based industry had created about
+800,000 new jobs, most of them in the industrial sector.
+
+Increases in national income have been accompanied by increased outlays
+for social and cultural programs. The 1970 allocations for such programs
+were ten times greater than in 1950 and amounted to 27.5 percent of the
+total national budget.
+
+Housing, production of consumer items, and changes in food consumption
+had also improved. Between 1966 and 1970 about 345,000 state-funded
+apartments and about 315,000 privately built dwellings became available.
+New facilities for production of automobiles, furniture, wearing
+apparel, television sets, and other domestic electrical appliances
+increased output in these areas by about seven times that of 1950. Foods
+with high nutritive value were consumed in larger quantities.
+Consumption of milk, garden vegetables, fruit, eggs, and fish nearly
+doubled between 1966 and 1970. More meat and cheese were also eaten, but
+the increase in their consumption was less spectacular.
+
+Efforts on behalf of public health were reflected in increasing the life
+expectancy from forty-two years in 1932 to a figure that was more than
+60 percent greater in 1970. Additional and better equipped hospitals and
+other medical facilities contributed to this, as did more emphasis on
+public sanitation and increased numbers of doctors and medical
+assistants. In 1970 there was a ratio of one physician for every 700
+inhabitants, which was near the overall European average.
+
+Despite an impressive record of achievements in the production of
+industrial goods, the standard of living--with the exception of
+Albania's and Portugal's--was probably the lowest in Europe in 1971.
+During the preceding twenty years production of consumer goods was held
+down, while heavy capital investment was encouraged. This was deliberate
+economic practice calculated to be of maximum benefit to the country in
+time but not intended to produce the greatest immediate results.
+
+The rent for an ordinary three-room apartment in 1971 was about
+one-third of the average worker's monthly wages; the cost of a new
+automobile was about forty times his monthly income. Housing area was
+small, the countrywide average being about eighty-two square feet of
+living space per person. Although about 140,000 urban apartment units
+became available in 1969 and similar numbers were programmed for
+succeeding years, the housing situation was worse in cities than in
+small towns and rural areas.
+
+Commentary on the lot of the consumer varies widely, frequently to the
+point of direct contradiction. Visitors that have had a less than
+totally favorable impression of the country report that food items--even
+the common staples, such as eggs, cheese, and sausage--are not always
+available and that, when they are, purchasers wait in long lines.
+Because food items are often available only in small shops individually
+specializing in milk, cheese and sausage, or vegetables and eggs, for
+example, the mere task of buying food is a time-consuming undertaking.
+Persons disenchanted with the situation also complain that, although
+poor harvests in 1968 and 1969 and floods in 1970 contributed further to
+food shortages, much was still exported during those years. In 1971 the
+government reiterated its plans to devote primary attention to the
+development of its heavy industrial base. Plans at that time, they
+alleged, would discourage increased production of consumer goods through
+1975 at the least.
+
+
+TRANSPORTATION
+
+Railroads
+
+Romania's early rail lines were developed largely in relation to
+external points rather than to serve local needs. Until World War I the
+one major trunk line ran south and east of the Carpathians from western
+Walachia to northern Moldavia. Feeder lines and branches connected to
+it, but there was little early construction in the marshy areas near the
+Danube River, and only one bridge, at Cernavoda, crossed it.
+Transylvania, not yet part of the country, was linked to the old
+provinces by only one line across the Carpathians. Total route mileage
+was about 2,200 miles.
+
+Hungary had developed lines connecting Budapest with Transylvania and
+branch lines within that province. When the area was annexed in 1918,
+Romania inherited the existing railroads and set about linking them more
+advantageously with the rest of the country. Most of the modern system
+was completed by 1938, but route mileage was increased by about another
+10 percent after World War II. Late construction included another bridge
+over the Danube River, this time at Giurgiu, south of Bucharest (see
+fig. 4).
+
+The system probably attained its maximum mileage in 1967, when it
+totaled almost 6,900 route-miles, all but about 400 of them standard
+gauge. About ten miles of line were retired during 1968 and 1969, and
+other little-used feeder lines will probably be abandoned as it becomes
+more practical to carry small loads over short distances by truck.
+
+Railroads transported nearly ten times as much freight in 1969, measured
+in ton-miles, as did the highways. Their average load was carried a
+greater distance, however, and motor transport actually handled a larger
+volume of cargo (see table 2). During 1969 the railroads also carried
+over 300 million passengers, for an average trip distance of thirty-two
+miles.
+
+The Romanian State Railroads, directed by the Ministry of
+Transportation, operates all but a few minor lines and, in 1969, had
+about 147,000 employees. As steam locomotives are retired, they are
+being replaced by diesels. Only a little more than 100 route-miles have
+been electrified. Officials expect that roads and motor vehicles will
+take increasing percentages of short-haul cargo and short-trip
+passenger traffic. Airlines may cut somewhat into the long-distance
+passenger traffic, but the railroads are expected to remain important
+for both their freight and passenger services.
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 4. Romanian Transportation System._]
+
+_Table 2. Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960, and
+1969_
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                          Total Freight               Ton-Miles
+                       (in million tons)            (in millions)
+ Cargo Traffic      -------------------------------------------------
+                     1950     1960     1969      1950    1960   1969
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Railroads          35.1     77.5    155.4      4,740  12,380  27,500
+ Motor transport     1.0     56.7    215.6         26     583   2,830
+ Inland waterways    1.1      1.9      3.1        418     540     728
+ Sea                 0.2      0.2      5.0        382     663  24,400
+ Air                 0.003    0.003    0.02         1       1      21
+ Pipeline            1.0      5.6      9.2        118     637     790
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                       Total Passengers            Passenger-Miles
+                        (in millions)               (in millions)
+
+ Passenger Traffic --------------------------------------------------
+                    1950     1960     1969       1950    1960   1969
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Railroads         116.6    214.8    305.9      5,080   6,710  10,450
+ Motor transport    11.3     71.8    306.9        242     887   4,220
+ Inland waterways    0.6      1.2      1.4         10      25      43
+ Sea                0.05      0.08     0.02        59      17      14
+ Air                0.04      0.2      0.8          9      54     550
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+Roads
+
+Of the 47,800 miles of road, in 1969 about 6,000 miles--or 14
+percent--were considered modernized. A little more than one-third had
+gravel or crushed stone to harden them, and almost exactly one-half had
+unimproved dirt surfaces.
+
+About 7,600 miles were nationally maintained and included the greater
+portion--5,200 miles--of those in the modernized, improved category.
+Only about 1,400 miles of the local roads were modernized, and less than
+one-half of them had hardened surfaces. According to government planning
+reports, the road network is considered adequate in size, and all that
+can be allocated to it will be applied to its modernization. Motor
+transport was nearly negligible until after World War II, but between
+1950 and 1969 it assumed importance that rivaled the railroads in both
+cargo and passenger traffic.
+
+
+Waterways
+
+Nearly 1,500 miles of the rivers are considered navigable. All of the
+Danube--over 900 miles--that is within or along the southern border of
+the country is navigable and, in fact, connects the Black Sea and
+Romania with all points upstream--through Yugoslavia, Hungary,
+Czechoslovakia, and Austria to Ulm in West Germany. The Prut, flowing
+along much of the eastern border with the Soviet Union, accounts for
+most of the remaining navigable mileage. Other streams are useful in
+some degree for timber rafting and for floating agricultural products
+downstream. Rapid currents in hilly sections, silting and meandering
+streambeds in the lowlands, and fog and ice in winter months, however,
+limit the commercial usefulness of the rivers. Ice stops traffic on the
+Danube River for an average of more than one month per year and on the
+other streams from two to three months.
+
+The country's topography does not lend itself to the development of an
+extensive system of canals. There are short canals in the western
+lowlands. Two of them connect to the Tisza River in Yugoslavia but, as
+with this pair, further development of the waterways in this portion of
+the country would be economically advantageous only when they connected
+to points in Hungary or Yugoslavia. Most of the northern and central
+regions are hilly or mountainous.
+
+Cargo shipped on rivers and canals in 1969 was less than 1 percent of
+that carried by the other transport systems, but most of it was
+transported for relatively long distances along the Danube River.
+Passengers carried constituted an even more minute percentage of the
+total and, because the largest numbers of them rode river ferries, the
+relative passenger mileage percentage was even lower.
+
+
+Airlines
+
+Commercial aviation is altogether state owned and is operated by an
+office in the Department of Automotive, Maritime, and Air Transportation
+that, with the Department of Railroads, is part of the Ministry of
+Transportation. Romanian Air Transport--always referred to in common and
+in most official usage as TAROM, derived from Transporturi Aeriene
+Romane--serves a dozen or more cities in the country and contacts about
+twenty national capitals outside the country. These include Moscow, all
+of the capitals of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) member
+nations, and about a dozen capitals in Western Europe and the Middle
+East. Service to nearly all of the external points consists of no more
+than one round trip flight weekly to each. Domestic service has expanded
+steadily since 1950 but varies throughout the year to provide more
+frequent trips during the holiday and tourist seasons.
+
+The line carries some cargo but an insignificant amount when compared
+with other modes of transportation. It has, however, begun to carry a
+more significant number of passengers. This traffic increased from less
+than 40,000 in 1950 to about 780,000 in 1969. Each year since 1965 it
+has carried approximately 100,000 more passengers than in the year
+preceding.
+
+
+Pipelines
+
+Most liquid petroleum products and natural gas are moved via pipeline.
+The largest network of liquid lines serves the large oilfield in the
+Ploiesti area and the smaller one in west-central Walachia. They connect
+the fields with refineries and transport the refined products to Danube
+River ports and to Constanta on the Black Sea coast. Lines also transfer
+crude oil from the Moldavian oilfield to its refineries, but there were
+no lines in 1970 to transport finished products from those refineries.
+
+Natural gas is piped to all parts of Transylvania from sources in the
+center of the province, but the Carpathians are an obstacle to its
+distribution to other parts of the country. One major line crosses the
+Transylvanian Alps to serve the Bucharest area, and another crosses the
+Moldavian Carpathians through Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. It serves areas to
+the southeast as far as Galati, on the Danube River.
+
+
+Merchant Marine
+
+The country has a small, but growing, merchant marine. Although most of
+its ships are new, the more than 100 percent increase--to nearly 0.5
+million deadweight tons--claimed to have been achieved between 1967 and
+1969 was accounted for by less than a dozen ships, consisting of two
+tankers and some bulk cargo carriers that were built in Japan. The
+government releases no official statistics on its merchant fleet, but
+fragmentary information indicates that before 1967 it consisted of about
+thirty-five ships. One of them was a 2,000-deadweight-ton
+passenger-cargo vessel, and there were a few tankers totaling something
+over 100,000 deadweight tons. The remainder were freighters, averaging
+about 5,000 deadweight tons each.
+
+Statistics on goods transported by sea substantiate the size and growth
+of the merchant marine fleet. Until about 1960 it had relatively little
+importance, but by 1966 cargo carried was almost ten times that of 1960,
+and by 1969 it had again tripled. The impressive growth statistics
+notwithstanding, sea transport in 1969 accounted for only about 1.5
+percent of the total cargo transported.
+
+Constanta is the major port on the Black Sea, but some smaller seagoing
+vessels go up the Danube River to Galati and Braila. All of the larger
+river towns, and all of those on rail lines that cross it or terminate
+at the river, are considered river ports. Mangalia, on the Black Sea
+coast south of Constanta and about five miles from the Bulgarian border,
+is a secondary seaport but has the country's largest naval installation
+(see ch. 13).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 4
+
+SOCIAL SYSTEM AND VALUES
+
+
+Since the end of World War II Romanian society and its values have been
+in a state of flux. The aim of communist social and economic policies
+has been to destroy the old order and replace it with a new one that
+will reflect communist ideology. The resulting changes have been
+fundamental and far reaching, particularly in the structure of the
+society and the place occupied in it by particular individuals. The
+effect on values has been less easy to determine.
+
+The extent and the pace of change have been slowing down since the early
+1960s, and some aspects of the old social order were beginning to
+reemerge, although in different forms. The changes that were continuing
+to affect the society in the 1970s were more the result of economic
+growth than of conscious efforts to bring them about. This was
+particularly true of the changing role of the family, which has come
+about as a consequence of increased industrialization and urbanization
+as much as by government design.
+
+Least affected by the social upheaval since 1945 have been the ethnic
+composition of the country and the relations between the various ethnic
+groups. Although the population has always been predominantly Romanian,
+Hungarians and Germans constitute a majority in some areas of the
+country and remain a source of potential political and social problems.
+The Hungarian minority in particular, making up more than 8 percent of
+the population in 1966, has always been very sensitive to what it
+considers Romanian domination and has at times harbored irredentist
+feelings.
+
+
+ETHNIC COMPOSITION
+
+The population of Romania is basically homogeneous, although it includes
+elements of almost every ethnic group in Central and Eastern Europe. At
+the time of the 1966 census, Romanians constituted 88 percent of the
+population. The largest single minority group were the Magyars, or
+Hungarians, constituting 8.4 percent of the population. They were
+followed by the Germans with 2 percent of the population. All other
+ethnic groups--Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Ukrainians, Russians, Czechs,
+Slovaks, Turks, Tatars, Bulgarians, Jews and Gypsies--were simply
+listed as "other" and together made up only 1.6 percent of the
+population.
+
+The Constitution of 1965 guarantees equal rights to all citizens
+regardless of nationality or race and stipulates legal sanctions against
+both discrimination and instigation of national or racial animosities.
+National minorities are guaranteed the free use of their mother tongue
+in education, the communications media, and their dealings with
+government authorities and unrestricted perpetuation of their cultural
+traditions.
+
+
+Romanians
+
+The origins of the Romanians and their language have been the subject of
+differing interpretations and controversy. Romanians are related to the
+Vlachs, a pastoral people speaking a Latin-derived language who are
+found in the mountainous regions of northern Greece and southern
+Yugoslavia.
+
+According to Romanian tradition, Romanians are the direct descendants of
+the Dacians, who inhabited the territory of modern Romania before the
+Christian Era. The Dacians were conquered by Roman legions under Emperor
+Trajan in A.D. 106 and became romanized during 165 years of Roman
+control. When Emperor Aurelian abandoned control of Dacia in 271, in the
+face of Gothic invasions, the romanized Dacians sought refuge in the
+rugged Carpathian Mountains, where they preserved their Latin language
+and culture until more settled conditions allowed them to return to the
+plains in the tenth century (see ch. 2).
+
+The period of Roman rule of Dacia is well documented, but the absence of
+any firm indication of the presence of a Latin-speaking population in
+the territory of contemporary Romania until the tenth century has given
+rise to another theory of the origin of Romanians, developed mostly by
+Hungarian historians. This theory maintains that the Dacians withdrew
+with the Roman legions south of the Danube. There they absorbed elements
+of Thracian and Slavic culture, in addition to that of their Roman
+rulers. Starting in the tenth century, a people speaking a Romance
+language moved northward across the Danube as far as Slovakia and
+settled in the area that later became Romania.
+
+The Romanian theory of their origin stresses that a people speaking a
+Romance language continuously occupied the territory claimed by the
+Romanian state, thus rendering legitimacy to the claim. The other theory
+stresses the absence of a Romance-language-speaking people in
+Transylvania at the time of the Magyar immigrations into that region,
+thus giving legitimacy to the Hungarian claim to Transylvania.
+
+Whatever their origin, Romanians have occupied the territory of their
+present state since the Middle Ages. In 1966 they numbered 16.8 million
+and formed the majority population in most of the country (see fig. 5).
+
+Romanian, a Romance language, differs sharply from the languages of
+neighboring countries which, with the exception of Hungarian, are all
+Slavic tongues. The basis for Romanian seems to be the Vulgar Latin of
+ancient Rome. Long contact with Slavic-speaking peoples has left its
+mark on the vocabulary but has not affected grammar or syntax, which
+remain similar to those of other Romance languages. The vocabulary of
+literary Romanian is more purely of Latin origin than that of the spoken
+dialects. Frequently, parallel words of Latin and Slavic derivation
+exist for an object or concept and are used interchangeably. Turkish,
+Albanian, Hungarian, and German have also influenced the vocabulary of
+the spoken language in various parts of the country.
+
+  [Illustration: Source: Adapted from Ian M. Matley, Romania: A
+  Profile, New York, 1970, p. 276.
+
+  _Figure 5. Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966._]
+
+
+Hungarians
+
+In the 1966 census Hungarians numbered 1.6 million, constituting 8.4
+percent of the total population. Since 1947, when Romania acquired its
+present borders, the number of Hungarians within its borders has
+remained relatively stable, although their percentage in the total
+population has been declining.
+
+Hungarians form the majority population in parts of Transylvania and in
+pockets along the Hungarian border. They form a significant minority of
+the population in the rest of Transylvania and in the Banat region. In
+1952 the area of greatest Hungarian concentration in eastern
+Transylvania was designated the Hungarian Autonomous Region
+(Mures-Magyar) and was given considerable degree of self-government to
+deal with complaints of political and cultural oppression by Romanians.
+The region was eliminated in the administrative reorganization of 1968
+(see ch. 9).
+
+In 1971 it was estimated that slightly more than half of Romania's
+Hungarian minority still lived in rural areas. Several Transylvanian
+cities--including Cluj, Oradea, Baia-Mare, and Tirgu Mures--also have a
+high percentage of Hungarian inhabitants.
+
+Hungarians first moved into the territory occupied by modern Romania in
+the ninth century as part of the Magyar invasion of the central European
+plain. Their number grew through colonization during the period of
+Hungarian rule of Transylvania, which began with the conquest of the
+area in the eleventh century and ended in 1918. One group of
+colonists--the Szeklers, or Szekelys--were settled in the eastern
+borderlands of Transylvania in the first part of the twelfth century to
+protect the plains from invaders. The ethnic origin of the Szeklers is
+in dispute. Some authorities claim they are Magyars; others claim they
+are non-Magyars who absorbed Magyar culture over long years of contact.
+During the Middle Ages, Szeklers were distinct from Magyars in political
+and social organization. Although the distinction between them and the
+Hungarians has disappeared in modern times and Romanian official
+statistics do not differentiate, Szekler culture is still considered
+more purely Magyar than that of other Hungarians who have absorbed
+influences from the West.
+
+With the exception of some Szekler characteristics, the culture and
+language of the Hungarian minority in Romania are indistinguishable from
+those of their kinsmen in Hungary. They are, however, quite
+distinguishable from the Romanians. This distinction is accentuated by
+religious differences. Romanians are predominantly Orthodox, whereas
+more than half of the Hungarians in the country are Roman Catholic, most
+of the remainder are Calvinists, and some are Unitarians.
+
+The culture and language of the Hungarian minority are being preserved
+and promoted through schools, newspapers, periodicals, books, theater,
+and other cultural activities. Members of the Hungarian minority,
+however, frequently complain that the number of schools, books, and
+other cultural material available to them in their own language is far
+short of the demand and not nearly proportionate to their numbers.
+
+
+Germans
+
+Approximately 380,000 Germans lived in Romania in 1966. The size of the
+German minority was greatly reduced through voluntary repatriation since
+the 1930s, when it numbered over 600,000. It has continued to decrease
+since 1966 through emigration to the Federal Republic of Germany (West
+Germany) supported by the West German government and permitted in
+varying volume by the Romanian authorities.
+
+The German population is divided into two groups--the Saxons and the
+Swabians. Although more or less equal in size, the groups differ in
+origin and, partly, in culture. The origin of the group usually
+identified as Saxons is not quite clear, but it was settled by the
+Hungarian rulers in the Transylvanian borderlands in the twelfth century
+for the same purpose as the Szeklers. The Saxons live mainly in the
+cities, such as Sibiu, Brasov, and Sighisoara, which they themselves
+founded and which have distinctly German characteristics. Some live in
+rural areas surrounding these cities.
+
+Forming the majority population in a small area, the Saxons have lived
+in relative isolation until modern times. Their dialect and culture have
+retained medieval characteristics long abandoned by Germans elsewhere.
+All Saxons have been Lutheran since that denomination was introduced
+into Transylvania in the sixteenth century.
+
+The Swabians are Roman Catholics and live in the Banat region. As with
+the Saxons, their designation as Swabians does not truly reflect their
+origin. They were settled in the Banat during the eighteenth century to
+work the land recently vacated by the Turks. Before their arrival there,
+the language and culture of the Swabians had undergone various
+modifications to which the Saxons had not been exposed. Most Swabians
+are peasants farming the rich plain around Timisoara.
+
+Like the Hungarians, the German minority in Romania has resisted
+assimilation and maintains its cultural identity through German-language
+schools, books and newspapers, radio and television programs, and
+theatrical performances and through the perpetuation of their
+characteristic dress, dances, and folk art.
+
+
+Jews
+
+In those censuses in which they are identified (but not including that
+of 1966), Jews are listed as an ethnic group or nationality rather than
+as members of a religious denomination. In the 1956 census they
+represented the third largest minority in the country with a membership
+of 146,000. In early 1972 Western observers roughly estimated the number
+of Jews still residing in Romania at slightly under 100,000.
+
+The influx of Jews into Romania took place during the first half of the
+nineteenth century when large numbers left the unsettled conditions of
+Poland and Russia to seek new opportunities in prospering Moldavia and,
+later, Walachia. A small number of Jews from various parts of
+Austria-Hungary settled in Transylvania at the same time and earlier. By
+1900 Jews constituted more than one-half of the urban population of
+Romania, most of them engaged in commerce, banking, or industry. Not
+allowed to assimilate by various restrictions on their movement and
+activities, the Jews remained apart from the rest of the population.
+This apartness and their role in the economy engendered distrust and
+resentment, which periodically erupted into persecution by some elements
+of the population (see ch. 2).
+
+The loss of Bessarabia to the Soviet Union and the deportations and
+exterminations during World War II by the Nazis reduced the Jewish
+population in Romania to its 1956 size. It has been further reduced
+since then through emigration to Israel.
+
+Despite their historic separateness from the rest of the society, most
+Jews in the mid-twentieth century tend to think of themselves as
+Romanians of the Jewish faith rather than an ethnic minority. All speak
+Romanian, and only one-fourth claimed Yiddish as their mother tongue in
+the 1950s. They continue to be urban oriented, and one-fourth of them
+lived in Bucharest in 1956.
+
+
+Other Minorities
+
+Eight other ethnic groups were counted in the 1956 census. The largest
+was Ukrainian, numbering 60,000. Ukrainians formed the majority
+population in the southern part of the Danube delta and in pockets
+along the Soviet border. Some 45,000 Yugoslavs, mostly Serbs, lived in
+the southern Banat around the Iron Gate. Other Slav minorities included
+39,000 Russians in northern Dobruja, near the Bessarabian border; 12,000
+Bulgarians, mostly in southern Dobruja; and between 18,000 and 35,000
+Czechs and Slovaks in the Banat.
+
+Other ethnic groups of significance were 20,000 Tatars and 12,000 to
+14,000 Turks in Dobruja, remnants of the period of Turkish rule.
+Gypsies, variously estimated between 50,000 to 100,000, are not
+recognized officially as an ethnic minority and not counted separately
+in censuses. This, combined with their still largely nomadic life, makes
+any reasonably accurate enumeration difficult.
+
+
+Interethnic Relations
+
+Relations between Romanians and Hungarians, the two largest ethnic
+groups, have been less than smooth. During the eight centuries of
+Hungarian rule of Transylvania, Romanians, who constituted the poorest
+rural elements of the population, occupied a subservient position to the
+wealthier, more urbanized, and better educated Hungarians and Germans.
+With the joining of Transylvania to Romania in 1918, the Hungarian and
+German populations of the region lost much of their favored position
+and, through land reform and nationalization since World War II, they
+lost their source of wealth. These factors have engendered ill feeling
+between the groups and have made Transylvania a continuing source of
+potential problems (see ch. 2; ch. 10). Other factors dividing Romanians
+and Hungarians have been religious and cultural differences.
+
+Sensitive to the respective nationalist feelings of the Romanians and
+Hungarians and to the historical dissensions between them, government
+policy since 1947 has been one of promoting unity and cooperation among
+all groups for the good of the country as a whole. The theme of equality
+of all members of different ethnic groups and their close cooperation
+permeates all official documents, reports, and statements. The Romanian
+Communist Party, which before World War II had a high percentage from
+ethnic minorities, represents itself as the historic protector of
+minority populations and their rights. In the late 1960s the party
+claimed that over 11 percent of its membership were non-Romanians, in
+line with the proportional strength of minorities in the population.
+
+During the first decade of communist rule, the government and the people
+were so preoccupied with efforts to restructure society and foster
+communist internationalism that ethnic chauvinism and problems of
+interethnic relations receded into the background. The 1960s, however,
+saw the development of Romanian independence vis-à-vis Soviet domination
+and a resurgence of Romanian nationalism, which again raised the
+potential for minority problems. As the government and party stressed
+Romanian national independence and gave new emphasis to the historic and
+cultural heritage of the Romanians, they also emphasized the unity,
+equality, and fraternal cooperation between Romanians and minority
+groups. National unity became a vital factor in August 1968, and
+people's councils were established in the Hungarian, German, and other
+minority communities to act as spokesmen for the ethnic minorities in
+the Socialist Unity Front (see ch. 9).
+
+The German minority, while anxious to preserve its cultural identity and
+rights, seems to have good relations with the Romanians and with other
+ethnic groups. Although their historic experience and their religion
+give them a cultural affinity with the Hungarians, they have remained
+aloof from the Hungarian-Romanian issue in Transylvania. As a whole,
+Germans have remained to themselves in their own communities and have
+made little effort to integrate into the national society. This has
+engendered some resentment on the part of Romanians but no real
+hostility.
+
+Historically, the relations between Jews and other Romanians have been
+fraught with suspicion and resentment, which found expression in
+occasional outbursts of anti-Semitism (see ch. 2). Although the same
+emotions undoubtedly still color the attitudes and reactions of some of
+the people, they have been less evident since World War II, possibly
+because those Jews who survived and remained in the country have
+integrated themselves into society and identify with the Romanian
+majority.
+
+
+SOCIAL STRUCTURE
+
+Family
+
+Traditionally, the family had been the basic social unit that gave
+identity and security to the individual and furthered the values of
+society. Family cohesion was great, and close relations were maintained
+with parents, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, and first cousins.
+Increased mobility and changing life-styles have somewhat loosened this
+cohesion, particularly among urban families. A growing number of women
+work outside the home; many men combine work and study, or they work at
+more than one job in order to improve the family standard of living; and
+children spend most of their time in school or youth organization
+activities. Thus, members of the family spend less time together, and
+the emphasis in daily life is to some degree shifting from the family to
+the outside world.
+
+In official writing the family is hailed as the cornerstone of socialist
+society; and family cohesion, loyalty, and responsibility, as socialist
+virtues. Exemplary family life, particularly exemplary motherhood, is
+honored with citations and prizes. At the same time, however, all the
+factors that tend to undermine traditional family life, such as the
+employment of a greater number of women, are encouraged and promoted.
+
+Since World War II families have tended to be small, having one or two
+children. Among the German and Hungarian minorities, families have
+always tended to be small, but Romanian families in the past were
+larger, particularly in rural areas where children were an important
+source of labor. The government became so alarmed by the dropping birth
+rate that it passed strict new laws in the 1966-67 period to limit
+divorce, abortions, and the sale of contraceptives. The following years
+showed a sharp upsurge in the birth rate and a dramatic drop in the
+divorce rate, but in 1970 the birth rate again began to decline.
+
+The main reasons for the drop in the birth rate and reduction in family
+size have been low wages and a shortage of housing. Many wives must work
+to help support the family, but published interviews with working wives
+indicate that they want few, if any, children because they lack the time
+and energy to care for them as they would like. In addition, the
+continuing housing shortage in urban areas forces families to live in
+crowded and inadequate quarters, which mitigates against having
+children.
+
+In the eyes of the state, marriage is a secular matter. Religious
+ceremonies are permitted but must be preceded by a civil marriage. The
+minimum age for marriage without parental consent is eighteen for men
+and sixteen for women. People generally marry young--43 percent of the
+men married in 1968 were aged twenty to twenty-four, and another 30
+percent were twenty-five to twenty-nine; 46 percent of the women married
+that year were aged fifteen to nineteen, and another 32 percent were
+twenty to twenty-four. The urban marriage rate was dropping considerably
+in the late 1960s, probably owing to the housing shortage, but the rural
+marriage rate remained fairly stable during the decade.
+
+The law assigns equal rights and obligations to both marriage partners.
+In case of divorce the father is obliged to provide financial support
+for his children. After the passage of a stringent new divorce law in
+1967, the divorce rate dropped from 1.94 per 1,000 population in 1965 to
+0.35 per 1,000 population in 1969, making it the lowest rate in Eastern
+Europe.
+
+In most families the husband and wife are partners whose relationship is
+based on cooperation and mutual respect. The husband is the titular head
+of the family who represents it to the outside world, but within the
+family he customarily consults with his wife on almost all matters.
+Patriarchal families where the father is the undisputed head are
+encountered among some peasants. Ideally, the husband provides for the
+family and protects it from the outside world, and the wife concerns
+herself with keeping house and raising children.
+
+The diminution of the family's significance in rearing children has,
+however, fundamentally affected the role of the family in the second
+half of the twentieth century. As a result of the growing number of
+working women the roles of the husband and wife are no longer as clearly
+differentiated. Almost two-thirds of women aged over fifteen in 1966
+were employed. Approximately three-fourths of these were married women
+who had assumed some of the husband's role of provider for the family.
+At the same time they had relinquished some of their former functions in
+the household and with respect to children, some of which have been
+taken over by husbands or by outside institutions.
+
+
+Social Stratification
+
+Patterns of social stratification have undergone a complete change since
+World War II. First, land reform immediately after the war eliminated
+the agricultural aristocracy and increased the number of small peasants
+who owned their own land. Then nationalization of industry and commerce
+in the late 1940s eliminated the urban propertied class. Finally,
+collectivization of agriculture eliminated most of the newly enlarged
+small peasant class. By the early 1950s the old system had been
+destroyed, and a new one was in the process of formation.
+
+The period of so-called socialist reconstruction of the 1950s resulted
+in a general leveling of social strata through the demotion of formerly
+privileged groups and the promotion of formerly underprivileged groups.
+Persons of peasant or worker origin received preferential treatment in
+the allocation of housing and other necessities of life that were in
+short supply, in the appointment to jobs, and in access to higher
+education. At the same time persons of middle or upper class background
+were deprived of their housing, removed from key jobs, and denied
+educational opportunities for their children through a discriminatory
+quota system at secondary and higher schools. A policy of equalizing
+incomes made little distinction between differing levels of education or
+skill, thus eliminating material rewards as a basis for social
+stratification. At the same time, however, a small group of party
+stalwarts, most of them of lower or middle class background, rose
+rapidly into the top positions of administrative and political power and
+became the new ruling elite.
+
+As viewed by its own ideologists and sociologists, Romania in 1971 was
+in the socialist stage of development heading toward a classless
+communist society. This meant that there were distinctions in income,
+standard of living, and prestige among different groups in the society;
+the distinctions, however, were based on occupation rather than
+ownership of property. Members of all groups were employees; the only
+employer was society as a whole through its organ, the state. The main
+basis for the distinction of classes was the difference between manual
+labor and intellectual work. This difference was gradually being
+eliminated through the continuous upgrading of the prestige of manual
+labor.
+
+Most Romanian writing on social strata or differentiation based on
+occupation separates society into three classes: workers,
+intelligentsia, and peasants. By most definitions, workers are all those
+engaged in productive occupations, including both the unskilled laborer
+and the highly skilled technician. Intelligentsia are all those engaged
+in nonproductive occupations, such as office work or service jobs,
+including both the unqualified clerk and the enterprise manager or
+university professor. Sometimes, however, the intelligentsia is defined
+as all those with a secondary or higher education without regard to
+their occupations. Members of agricultural cooperatives are classified
+as peasants, whereas employees of state farms are considered workers.
+The small number of peasants still working private agricultural holdings
+are considered to be a disappearing remnant of the past and, therefore,
+are not included in any segment of the socialist society.
+
+In 1969 workers were reported as constituting 40 percent of the
+population; intelligentsia, 12.3 percent; and peasants, 47.7 percent.
+Comparable statistics for 1960 divided the population into 28.6 percent
+worker, 9.5 percent intellectual, and 61.9 percent peasant. Thus, the
+peasant class was growing smaller while the worker and intellectual
+classes were expanding. A continuation of this trend was forecast for
+the 1970s.
+
+Cutting across this division was one based on skill and education. Thus
+the unskilled worker, the unskilled peasant, and the unqualified clerk
+were all members of the same stratum but of different classes. It was
+not clear whether or not a division into strata would continue after
+class distinctions were eliminated.
+
+This view of the social structure seems to be more a statement of
+ideology than an analysis of the actual structure. On the basis of
+material rewards, social prestige, and political power, the highest
+stratum is the ruling communist elite, followed in turn by the
+intelligentsia--professional, managerial, and administrative personnel
+with a higher education--skilled manual workers, lower level
+white-collar personnel, and unskilled workers and peasants.
+
+The ruling elite is composed of the top communist leadership in the
+party, government, mass organizations, and various branches of the
+economy. The main criterion for membership in that elite is power
+derived from approved ideological orientation and political activism.
+Most members of the ruling elite in 1971 were of lower class background
+and were veterans of the communist movement in the interwar period. The
+life-style and privileges enjoyed by the ruling elite do not differ much
+from those of the intelligentsia, the next level in the social scale,
+but the elite holds a monopoly of power.
+
+The intelligentsia consists of those professionals, managers,
+technicians, and middle-level party functionaries whose skill and talent
+are needed to run the society. Education and competence are usual
+criteria for membership in the group as is ideological orthodoxy. In
+1970 the intelligentsia numbered somewhat over 1 million persons,
+approximately 22 percent of the working population. The size of the
+group has been growing rapidly in line with the manpower demands of the
+expanding economy. Most members were relatively young, had advanced
+educations, and were loyal to communist principles. Their social origins
+represented the entire spectrum of precommunist society, but a high
+percentage were of peasant or worker background reflecting the
+educational advantages afforded to the former lower classes.
+
+The life-style and aspirations of the intelligentsia are those of an
+industrial middle class. Because of their key position in the economy,
+they command incomes and special benefits that afford them a standard of
+living considerably higher than that of the lower levels of the social
+scale. Among the benefits that individual members of the intelligentsia
+may enjoy are high-quality housing; the use of official cars; access to
+special facilities, such as clubs, restaurants, shops, and vacation
+resorts; and travel opportunities at home and abroad. The growing
+identification of the intelligentsia with the Romanian Communist Party
+has also enhanced its privileged status as a group. On an individual
+basis, party membership provides access to a network of informal
+contacts within the power and control structure, which can open many
+doors and win many favors.
+
+Skilled manual workers constitute the top level of the lower social
+strata. A considerable gap exists in the income, prestige, and
+commensurate standard of living between the skilled worker and the
+intelligentsia. The gap can be breached only by acquiring higher
+education. The skilled worker, however, enjoys considerable material
+advantages over the lowest levels of society by virtue of his important
+position in the economy. His prestige, although higher than that of
+unskilled workers, differs little from that of the lower level
+white-collar personnel because of the low esteem in which manual work
+continues to be held.
+
+The level of gradation in material rewards of peasants, unskilled
+workers, and lower level white-collar personnel is very slight. The
+difference among these groups is mainly one of prestige and opportunity
+for advancement. The first step up the social ladder is to leave
+agriculture and join the industrial labor force. Then, through education
+and training, one can advance to the various levels of skill and their
+respective income levels and benefits. Despite their lack of skill,
+lower level white-collar personnel hold a higher position on the social
+scale than other unskilled persons, principally because of the prestige
+attached to nonmanual work.
+
+The main avenue for upward mobility is education. Political
+considerations, however, influence both accessibility to education and
+accessibility to jobs that confer higher social status. Admission to
+educational facilities beyond the required minimum is strictly
+controlled and manipulated to achieve desired political, social, and
+economic goals (see ch. 6). The emphasis on educational credentials for
+upper level jobs limits the possibility of upward mobility through skill
+or competence alone. On-the-job training, however, does provide a means
+for mobility within the industrial labor force.
+
+Partly as a result of conscious government effort and partly as a
+natural consequence of rapid economic expansion, upward mobility has
+been considerable since the end of World War II. In the early years of
+communist rule, this upward mobility was accompanied by a significant
+downward mobility of members of the former middle and upper classes who
+lost their property and their jobs and were forced to take up
+occupations at the lower end of the social scale. By the end of the
+1960s the social structure seemed to be stabilizing. The restructuring
+desired by the communist rulers had been accomplished, and the
+intelligentsia had grown to the point where it could satisfy from its
+own ranks most of the demand for professional and managerial personnel.
+This reduction of openings in the upper strata of society for recruits
+from the lower levels was beginning to solidify the social structure
+into self-perpetuating groups whose status and privileges, or their
+lack, are passed down from one generation to the next. The avenues of
+education and skill, however, remained open and, together with political
+loyalty, provided the means for social advancement.
+
+
+SOCIAL VALUES
+
+The differing life-styles of the rural and urban populations are
+reflected in somewhat differing values. Rural values are rooted in the
+land and in deep religious faith. Individualism, self-reliance, strength
+of character, and love of land and God are admired attributes of the
+rural population. For the mountain shepherd and the small farmer,
+self-reliance and resourcefulness are essential for survival. These
+qualities are praised in song and legend and are widely held responsible
+for the survival of the Romanian people and their culture during
+centuries of foreign domination. Loyalty is also a highly admired
+peasant quality--loyalty to the land, to the family, to God, to country,
+and even to one's animals.
+
+The strong religious convictions that pervade the life of most peasants
+in the form of carefully observed rules of conduct and rituals are
+viewed by some sophisticated urbanites and peasant youths as
+superstition and as a sign of backwardness (see ch. 5).
+
+The values of urban Romanians are more complex than those of peasants.
+They have been influenced by ideas and values from abroad, particularly
+by those emanating from France. Educated Romanians have long felt a
+kinship with the French emotionally and intellectually and have looked
+to French culture as a model to emulate. As a result, Bucharest was
+often referred to as the "Paris of the Balkans."
+
+Among the values shared by both urban and rural Romanians are
+self-reliance, resourcefulness, and patriotism or loyalty to country.
+Having been ruled by Turks and Hungarians for centuries and being almost
+surrounded by Slavic peoples, the Romanians are very proud of their
+Latin heritage and their connection with ancient Rome. It is the shared
+Latin heritage that probably makes Romanians look to France as their
+cultural contact in the West.
+
+The emphasis on self-reliance, resourcefulness, and making the best of a
+situation has given Romanians the reputation of being shrewd businessmen
+and hard bargainers.
+
+The extent to which communist efforts to change the traditional values
+of the people have been successful is difficult to determine. Such
+values as independence, resourcefulness, and patriotism continue to be
+reflected in the international relations of the country, particularly in
+its relations with the Soviet Union.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 5
+
+RELIGION
+
+
+Romanians have traditionally been a very devout people. The vast
+majority belong to the Romanian Orthodox Church, and regular church
+attendance and participation in church functions have been a normal part
+of daily life. In rural areas the clergy are heavily depended upon as
+counselors and confidants. As in most peasant societies, the religious
+beliefs and practices fostered and approved by the churches are often
+intermingled with folklore. Belief in the evil eye, werewolves, and
+vampires is common among peasants, although younger ones are less likely
+to take such beliefs seriously.
+
+Aware of the deep-seated religious beliefs of the people, the communist
+government has done little to restrict their free expression, and
+officially religion is viewed as a private and personal matter.
+Religious persecution has been limited to clergymen who have openly
+opposed the government and its policies. Government efforts, however,
+have been aimed at controlling the churches and using their influence
+with the people to further official policies and programs. At the same
+time, public information media and schools have been attempting to
+undermine the hold of religion on younger people by equating religious
+faith with superstition and backwardness and stressing scientific and
+empirical knowledge as the basis for a modern world view. Many religious
+values are attacked as lacking a basis in true knowledge and reality.
+Those values that the government wants to preserve and promote are given
+a scientific-intellectual justification and are stripped of any
+religious meaning.
+
+In line with its view of religion as a private and personal matter, the
+government has not published any statistical or other information
+pertaining to the various religious communities since 1950. Research on
+the role of religion in the daily life of the people has been
+discouraged; therefore, up-to-date information is restricted to
+observations by foreign visitors to the country. According to reports
+from such observers, more than twenty years of communist effort to
+undermine religion as a force in the life of people has been
+unsuccessful. Some of the clergy have lost their former influence by
+openly working on behalf of the government, and some young people
+question the relevance of some beliefs and practices. The fundamental
+faith of the people, however, has been little changed. Even longstanding
+members of the party have been publicly criticized for subscribing to
+religious views and practices.
+
+
+CHURCH-STATE RELATIONS
+
+The Constitution of 1965 guarantees freedom of conscience and freedom of
+religion to all citizens. It also specifically guarantees the right not
+to profess any religion. The organization and activities of any church
+are regulated by state law, and religious organizations are prohibited
+from operating any educational institutions other than those for the
+training of clergy and members of religious orders.
+
+Within these broad guarantees and prohibitions, the state exercises
+strict control over the organization and activities of religious
+denominations through its Department of Cults, which functions in
+accordance with the General Regulations for Religious Cults passed by
+the Grand National Assembly in 1948. Under these regulations the state
+must approve the statute of organization and administration and the
+statement of beliefs of any church before it can be recognized as a
+legal body. Clerical appointments are subject to state approval, and all
+clergy must take an oath of allegiance to the Socialist Republic of
+Romania.
+
+All legally recognized churches receive state subsidies for salaries of
+clergy and other operating expenses; churches are not allowed to receive
+any income or financial assistance directly. Budgets are subject to
+approval by the Department of Cults, which may withhold funds for
+individual parishes or for salaries of individual clergymen if their
+activities are found to be in violation of the policies or laws of the
+state. The Department of Cults may also suspend any policy decision,
+regulation, or other measure passed by the governing body of a church if
+it is deemed contrary to the provisions of law either directly or
+indirectly.
+
+State supervision and control of administrative and financial affairs of
+religious denominations had existed in Romania before the communists
+took power. The terms of the General Regulations for Religious Cults
+followed in many ways the Law on Cults of 1928; however, several
+differences in the degree of control point out the fundamental
+difference in church-state relations in these two periods. Before 1948,
+for instance, the churches could receive income from property and
+donations in addition to the state subsidy. More important, however, the
+earlier law gave the state no right to interfere in matters of belief
+except in the case of minor sects whose specific beliefs were subject to
+approval. The 1948 law makes the state the ultimate authority on matters
+of faith as well as administration. Thus the intent of the earlier law
+appeared to be the regulation of the activities of essentially
+independent bodies, but the intent of the present law is to give
+complete authority and control to the state.
+
+In practice, state control of religious bodies has been carried out
+through its control over finances and through its confirmation of
+clerical appointments. No changes have been made in the traditional
+methods of selecting and appointing clergy and laymen for the various
+positions in the church. By using its power to confirm these selections,
+however, the state has managed to fill all the important positions and
+decisionmaking bodies with persons willing to cooperate and carry out
+state policy. The state has refused to grant recognition to the Roman
+Catholic Church because of the church's belief in the supremacy of the
+pope in all matters of faith and morals and in church administration;
+however, the church does function with the tacit agreement of the
+regime.
+
+
+THE ROMANIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH
+
+The Romanian Orthodox Church is the most important church in the country
+and the one into which the vast majority of Romanians are born. It is an
+independent Eastern Orthodox church headed by a patriarch in Bucharest.
+Its membership in the 1950s, after the incorporation of the Uniate
+church, was estimated at more than 15 million.
+
+Romanians were introduced to Christianity during the period of Roman
+rule of Dacia. By the tenth century they were known to be following the
+Slavonic liturgy of the Eastern Christian Church. Old Church Slavonic
+remained the liturgical language until the late sixteenth century, when
+it began to be replaced by Romanian.
+
+During the period of Turkish rule in Walachia and Moldavia and of
+Hungarian rule in Transylvania, the Romanian Orthodox Church helped to
+maintain the national consciousness of the Romanian people and was
+active in their struggle to achieve national unity and independence (see
+ch. 2). The Turkish policy of religious tolerance enabled the church to
+thrive in Walachia and Moldavia; in Transylvania, however, a
+post-Reformation settlement between the Hungarian rulers and the various
+churches did not recognize the Romanian Orthodox Church as a legal
+denomination.
+
+In order to gain legal status and its accompanying freedoms and
+benefits, a major portion of Romanian Orthodox clergy and laymen in
+Transylvania agreed, in 1698, to accept the jurisdiction of the pope
+while retaining Orthodox liturgy and ritual. The resulting Uniate church
+was an important religious and political force in Transylvania until
+the communist government forced it to reunite with the Romanian Orthodox
+Church in 1948. As the church of the Romanian people in Transylvania,
+the Uniate church played a major role in their emancipation and eventual
+integration into a greater Romania.
+
+With over 1.6 million adherents in 1948, the Uniate church in Romania
+was the second largest and second most influential church in the
+country. Fearing and resenting the influence of the Roman Catholic pope
+with such a large number of its people, the communist regime decreed
+that the Uniates be merged with the Romanian Orthodox Church and disavow
+allegiance to the pope. Some Uniate clergy and laymen resisted and were
+persecuted and imprisoned. The pattern for the dissolution of the Uniate
+church was the same everywhere in Eastern Europe, and from 1946 to 1950
+the Uniate congregations were absorbed into the various national
+Orthodox churches.
+
+Until the Romanian state was enlarged in 1918, the Orthodox faith was,
+with minor exceptions, the exclusive religion of the country. The
+Romanian Orthodox Church was legally accepted as the national church and
+was supported by the state. Its hierarchy generally supported the
+policies of the government both as individuals and as officials of the
+church. The close relationship between church and state was of
+particular significance in rural areas, where the church was often
+called on to carry out local government functions. As the only literate
+person in the area, the parish priest was often not only the spiritual
+mentor of the population but also the teacher, judge, and government
+official. The power of the church in relation to the population,
+therefore, was based on both spiritual and governmental authority. In
+the eyes of the devout peasant, the local priest was an important
+authority on a variety of matters as well as a confidant and adviser.
+
+The role of the Romanian Orthodox Church in the life of the country
+changed considerably after World War I with the addition of substantial
+populations of other faiths. Efforts to secure a favored position in its
+legal relationship to the state and to other denominations were defeated
+when pressure from the Roman Catholic and Uniate churches forced the
+government to guarantee religious freedom and the complete equality of
+all churches. At the same time, the Orthodox church's former role in the
+administration of governmental affairs at the local level was being lost
+to a growing secular civil service and educational system. The position
+of the church in the life of the average communicant, however, continued
+to be one of considerable power and influence. As the largest Orthodox
+church outside of the Soviet Union, the Romanian Orthodox Church also
+exercised a degree of leadership among other Orthodox churches.
+
+The revised statutes of the Romanian Orthodox Church issued in 1949
+differ little from those in effect before that date. Authority was
+somewhat more centralized, and the prerogatives of the patriarch were
+more clearly defined, but the structure of the church remained
+essentially the same. The patriarchate is divided into five
+metropolitanates, which in turn are divided into twelve dioceses. Each
+diocese is composed of parishes encompassing 1,500 to 2,500 communicants
+each. The clerical head at each level is assisted in his religious and
+administrative duties by a council composed of one-third clergymen and
+two-thirds laymen. The administration of monasteries falls under the
+jurisdiction of the head of the diocese. Since a 1952 reorganization of
+institutions for religious training, the Romanian Orthodox Church has
+had two theological institutes for the training of clergy and six
+schools for chanters and for monastic priests.
+
+
+THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
+
+The Roman Catholic Church is second in size of membership to the
+Romanian Orthodox Church and, since the absorption of the Uniates by the
+Orthodox church, the most important minority religion. Its estimated
+membership of between 1.2 million and 1.5 million in the 1960s was
+composed mostly of Hungarians and German Swabians (see ch. 4).
+
+As the principal denomination of the Hungarian minority, the Roman
+Catholic Church has played a cultural and political role in the life of
+the country as well as a religious one. The well-organized body of the
+church and its related institutions have been a natural vehicle for the
+promotion of Hungarian group interests and the preservation of Hungarian
+cultural traditions. Catholic schools, which were independent of
+government control until 1948, most often used Hungarian or German as
+the language of instruction.
+
+The Concordat of 1927 between the Holy See and the Romanian state
+defined the legal position of the Roman Catholic Church in Romania until
+the communist takeover. It gave the church full equality with the
+dominant Romanian Orthodox Church and other denominations and granted it
+sole control over its educational institutions, hospitals, and
+charitable organizations. In contrast to all other denominations, the
+Roman Catholic Church was free from state administrative control and did
+not receive any financial support from the state. The concordat was
+abrogated by the Romanian government in 1948, and since that time the
+position of the Roman Catholic Church has been unclear.
+
+The Catholic bishops have refused to recognize the supremacy of the
+state over church affairs as expressed in the General Regulations for
+Religious Cults of 1948, and consequently the state has not granted the
+church legal recognition as a religious denomination. Between 1948 and
+1967 the government tried to force the church into submission by
+systematically weakening its position. Uncooperative clergy were either
+imprisoned or otherwise prevented from exercising their clerical and
+administrative duties; all church schools, hospitals, and charitable
+institutions were taken over by the government, and all other church
+assets were confiscated. All but two monasteries and three convents were
+disbanded, and even these were not permitted to accept new novices. In
+addition, the organization of the church was reduced from six to two
+dioceses, Alba-Iulia and Bucharest. Since the church has not been
+receiving a state subsidy and has been forbidden to seek contributions,
+most clergy have been supporting themselves by working at lay jobs.
+Church buildings have been deteriorating because of lack of maintenance,
+and many travelers have commented on the marked difference in appearance
+between the decaying Catholic churches and the well-maintained Orthodox
+churches.
+
+As part of a general political liberalization in 1967 the arch-bishop of
+Alba-Iulia, head of the Roman Catholic Church in Romania, and other
+clergy were released from imprisonment. The action marked the reopening
+of contacts between the Roman Catholic Church and the Romanian
+government in an effort to reach a satisfactory agreement that would
+normalize the position of the church in the country. Additional
+government effort to reach an accommodation with the church has been
+demonstrated by the appropriation of funds for the restoration of the
+historic cathedral of Alba-Iulia. Other denominations had been receiving
+regular funds for the maintenance and restoration of religious buildings
+of historic or artistic significance, but the Roman Catholic Church had
+been denied such funds until 1967. In 1972 contacts between Romania and
+the Holy See, which had begun in 1967, were continuing. Several meetings
+had taken place between the Romanian Orthodox patriarch, Justinian, and
+Cardinal Koenig, who heads the Vatican secretariat for nonbelievers. No
+agreement legalizing the position of the Roman Catholic Church in
+Romania has been reached, however.
+
+The government promoted the creation of the Catholic Church of Romania,
+which was formed in 1951. It is administratively independent of the pope
+and recognizes the supremacy of the state over church affairs. Legal
+justification for the move was found in a statute passed in Transylvania
+in the seventeenth century that placed the conduct of Catholic church
+affairs in the hands of clergy and laymen directly subordinate to the
+pope in order to preserve the church from engulfment by the
+Reformation. In early 1972 the Catholic Church of Romania was headed by
+a council composed of both lay and clerical members. It recognized the
+pope as supreme authority on matters of faith, morals, and dogma but
+rejected any organizational connection with the Holy See.
+
+
+PROTESTANT CHURCHES
+
+Protestantism is closely identified with the Hungarian and German
+minorities of Transylvania. Although the churches themselves have
+refrained from any political activity on behalf of the minorities, their
+ethnic composition has made them politically significant at times. The
+Protestant population, estimated at about 1.2 million in 1950, was
+divided into Calvinist, Lutheran, Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist,
+Evangelical, and Pentecostal churches.
+
+The largest Protestant denomination is the Reformed (Calvinist) Church,
+with a membership estimated at 780,000 in 1950. The membership of this
+church is almost entirely Hungarian, and its center is at Cluj, a
+Calvinist stronghold since the Reformation. Most of the Hungarian
+aristocracy in Transylvania adopted Calvinism during the Reformation, a
+period when the Roman Catholic Church was weak in that region. This
+weakness of the Roman Catholic Church and the political and economic
+independence of the Transylvanian nobles prevented an effective
+counterreformation and allowed Protestantism to remain strong in
+Transylvania while the rest of Hungary was Roman Catholic.
+
+Next in size are the Lutherans, with an estimated membership of 250,000
+in 1950. Lutheranism is represented by the Evangelical Church of the
+Augsburg Confession, headed by a bishop at Sibiu, and the Evangelical
+Synodal Presbyteral Church of the Augsburg Confession, headed by a
+bishop in Cluj. Membership of both churches is predominantly German.
+Lutheranism was adopted by the Transylvanian Saxons at the same time
+that Calvinism was adopted by the Hungarians. In 1938 there were 400,000
+Lutherans in Romania; their number was reduced through the loss of
+northern Bukovina and through the emigration of Saxons to Germany during
+the 1940s. Continued emigration is further reducing the Lutheran
+population.
+
+The Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, and Pentecostal churches were united
+by government decree in 1950 into the Federation of Protestant Cults.
+The estimates of the membership at the time of the merger vary greatly,
+but it probably included between 50,000 and 100,000 Baptists, 15,000 to
+70,000 Adventists, and about 5,000 Pentecostals. Before their merger
+none of these churches had a central organization in Romania, as their
+congregations were directed from abroad.
+
+In the reorganization of theological education in 1948, the Department
+of Cults assigned one school for church singers and one theological
+institute for the training of clergy to each Protestant denomination.
+There was some indication that all denominations had difficulty
+recruiting young men for the ministry after World War II. After more
+than a decade of complete isolation from their fellows in other
+countries, all the Protestant churches resumed an active association
+with the World Council of Churches in 1961.
+
+
+OTHER RELIGIONS AND CHURCHES
+
+Government statistics on the ethnic composition of the population in
+1956 listed 146,000 Jews. Jewish sources outside the country estimated
+the size of the community in 1968 at between 80,000 and 110,000. Once an
+important ethnic and religious minority, the Jewish community has shrunk
+as a result of territorial losses, extermination during World War II,
+and emigration. Between 1958 and 1969 large numbers of Jews emigrated to
+Israel with the encouragement of the chief rabbi and the Romanian
+government. Many of the rabbis have emigrated with their congregations,
+leaving only nine rabbis to care for some seventy congregations. Most of
+the congregations were directed by laymen but received regular visits
+from one of the rabbis. The only rabbinical school in the country was
+closed in the 1950s. The congregations are supervised by the Federation
+of Jewish Communities, which is the legally recognized representative
+body of the Jews in Romania and is headed by the chief rabbi.
+
+Islam is the religion of the Tatars and Turks in Dobruja. Moslems were
+estimated to number between 30,000 and 35,000 in the mid-1950s. Mosques,
+most of them built during the Turkish occupation of the area, are found
+throughout the region. The seat of the grand mufti, religious head of
+the Moslems in Romania, is at the Central Mosque in Constanta.
+
+Unitarianism was introduced into Transylvania in the mid-sixteenth
+century, when a group of former Calvinists founded a Unitarian church in
+Cluj. The church has always been closely connected with the Hungarian
+minority, from which it draws most of its members. The number of
+adherents in the mid-1950s was estimated at 70,000. The seat of the
+Unitarian Church is in Cluj, which is also the location of its seminary.
+
+Two other legally recognized churches are the Armenian-Gregorian Church
+and the Christians of the Old Rite. The Armenian-Gregorian Church is
+headed by a bishop in Bucharest, and the Christians of the Old Rite,
+also known as Old Catholics, by a bishop in Bukovina. Each had an
+estimated membership of 25,000 in the 1950s.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 6
+
+EDUCATION
+
+
+The Romanian educational system has been transformed to fit the
+communist pattern of total subordination to the needs of the state.
+Since 1948 the educational system has developed as a major force for
+increasing the general educational level of the population, for
+inculcating members of society with socialist ideals in support of the
+regime and its policies, and for providing technical specialists and
+skilled workers for the nation's labor force. Modifications and
+adjustments in the system have taken place periodically, but such
+changes have largely reflected a shift in emphasis among these major
+objectives rather than any change in basic educational principles.
+
+Considerable progress has been made in the educational field since the
+end of World War II. An intensive campaign to eradicate illiteracy was
+undertaken and, according to the government, was successfully concluded
+by 1958. The number of schools was significantly increased, as were
+student enrollments throughout the system, although in 1972 the number
+of students continuing their education beyond the primary level was
+still proportionately low. The growth of the school structure was
+further indicated by the successive extension of the period of
+compulsory education from four years in 1948 to ten in 1968. Full
+enrollment under the ten-year program, however, was not expected to be
+achieved before 1973.
+
+To meet the demands for skilled and semiskilled industrial and
+agricultural workers, the educational system was gradually transformed,
+heavy emphasis being placed on scientific and technical programs and on
+vocational training. The most recent reforms, promulgated in 1968, not
+only reinforced education to meet national economic requirements but
+also placed renewed stress on the need for increased ideological and
+political training of the country's youth as a prime element in the
+successful development of the Romanian socialist state.
+
+Despite the progress achieved in producing a disciplined work force,
+which benefits the country's economic development, the educational
+system continued to show basic limitations and shortcomings.
+Overspecialization and excessive student workloads served to limit the
+effectiveness and efficiency of secondary and higher schools.
+Furthermore, the constant effort to expand the mass base of the system,
+although achieving uniform and satisfactory results by communist
+standards, lowered the quality of education and sacrificed individual
+creativity.
+
+
+BACKGROUND
+
+The educational history of Romania has followed closely the political
+development of the country. The earliest educational institutions were
+established in the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia during the
+sixteenth century and served as the basis of the first system of public
+education, which became operative in 1832. The unification of the
+principalities in 1859 led to the adoption of the Educational Act of
+1864, which established the principle of free and compulsory education,
+"where schools were available," under state supervision. Despite the
+legal provisions for an adequate school system, however, administrative
+and financial limitations kept the number of schools small and pupil
+enrollment low.
+
+Little progress was made in improving the scope and substance of public
+education until the latter half of the nineteenth century and the early
+part of the twentieth. Beginning in 1893, the country's educational
+process underwent extensive reorganization: the structure and functions
+of elementary and normal schools were revised, the curricula of
+secondary schools and institutions of higher education were revamped,
+and the position of vocational training in the system was strengthened.
+Although these advances served to improve the quality of education then
+available, the number of state-supported schools continued to be low.
+
+Romania's territorial acquisitions after World War I almost tripled its
+population and added greatly to the problems of public education.
+Educators considered the system deficient in many respects through the
+1930s and the mid-1940s, but they succeeded in achieving considerable
+uniformity among the school programs at the various educational levels
+and, in the main, imparted a basic general education to the majority of
+pupils who completed courses through the secondary school level.
+
+
+Precommunist Education
+
+The educational system that had evolved in precommunist Romania was
+operated largely, but not exclusively, by the state and reflected the
+traditional European order of the times, in which the socially and
+economically privileged classes were the chief recipients of the
+benefits of education. Only a limited number of children of the
+peasantry received more than the four years of elementary education
+required by the state, and both they and the children of the urban lower
+classes were discouraged from going on to secondary schools either by
+the lack of sufficient institutions or by the inability of their parents
+to pay tuition fees beyond the compulsory level. The public,
+state-supported system administered by the Ministry of Education
+consisted of kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools,
+vocational schools, and institutions of higher learning. Academic
+standards were generally high, and advancement was based primarily on
+scholastic merit.
+
+Kindergartens were open to children between the ages of five and seven
+in both state and private schools. No specific subjects were taught and,
+although theoretically compulsory, attendance was seldom enforced.
+Attendance records for the 1929-38 period indicated that only
+approximately 13 percent of all eligible children attended public
+kindergartens and that fewer than 1.5 percent were enrolled in private
+ones.
+
+The seven-year elementary school system, four years of which were
+theoretically compulsory, comprised two types of institutions for
+children between the ages of seven and fourteen: four-year schools for
+pupils preparing for secondary schools and seven-year schools for
+students terminating their education at the elementary level. Elementary
+education was free except in private schools and, although attendance
+was supposedly mandatory, enrollments before 1940 averaged less than 75
+percent of all children of elementary school age.
+
+Curricular requirements were demanding at this level, particularly in
+the four-year primary schools. All students studied the Romanian
+language, literature, history, geography, and natural sciences, in
+addition to participating in physical education classes and handicraft
+programs. In the seven-year schools the curriculum during the last three
+years also included a variety of vocational subjects.
+
+Four types of educational institutions made up the secondary school
+system: lyceums, primarily preparatory schools for universities; teacher
+training schools; theological schools; and trade schools. Most of these
+institutions were public, and each type offered an eight-year course
+with varying degrees of specialization. Attendance was generally limited
+to children of the landed aristocracy and the urban upper class. All
+subjects, even those of a vocational nature, were taught on a
+theoretical basis. The general curricula in the lyceums included the
+Romanian language, history, literature, the physical sciences,
+mathematics, and music. Before being accepted in a university, all
+graduates of lyceums were required to have passed the baccalaureate, a
+special comprehensive examination given after all graduation
+requirements had been met.
+
+The theological schools, also state supported, trained priests in the
+different faiths; the teacher training schools trained kindergarten and
+elementary school teachers; and the trade schools prepared students for
+work in business and commercial concerns. No qualifying examinations
+were given to graduates of theological, teacher training, or trade
+schools, since none were eligible for admission to higher level schools.
+Enrollment throughout the secondary schools was also low; statistics
+show that over the 1928-39 period less than 6 percent of the total
+number of students enrolled in elementary schools entered a secondary
+school after completing four years of compulsory elementary education.
+
+Higher education in precommunist Romania was centered in four
+universities; two polytechnical institutes; and a limited number of
+academies specializing in architecture, the arts, physical education,
+agronomy, and higher commercial and industrial studies. All academic
+disciplines could be pursued at one or another of these various
+institutions, and three to seven years were required to obtain the basic
+university degree. An additional two to four years of study and research
+were required for the awarding of an advanced degree. The number of
+students attending higher institutions was proportionately small, and
+the number receiving the basic degree was even smaller.
+
+
+Communist Educational Policies
+
+After communist seizure of the government in 1948, the educational
+system was reoriented away from basic French educational concepts toward
+those based on the communist philosophy as developed in the Soviet
+Union. The ultimate objective of the reformed system was to make
+education available to as large a segment of the population as possible,
+with a view to transforming the citizenry into a cohesive and effective
+element for the building of a socialist society along Marxist-Leninist
+lines. The new system was specifically designed to be tightly
+controlled, uniform in operation and administration, exclusively secular
+and public, and fully coordinated with the labor needs of the planned
+economy.
+
+The August 1948 decree revamping education spelled out in detail the
+specific policies and methods that would be employed in meeting the new
+educational goals. Foremost among the basic aims were the eradication of
+illiteracy and the broadening of the educational base to include all
+children of school age. Other specific goals of the educational process
+included: inculcating all youth with the ideological spirit of so-called
+popular democracy; guiding the use of leisure time by organizing
+outside activities for students; educating, on a "scientific" basis, the
+higher and lower cadres of specialists needed for the construction of
+all aspects of a socialist society; and training the teachers necessary
+for the proper functioning of the educational system.
+
+Although these policies have been adjusted and modified and certain
+aspects have received additional emphasis at particular times, they have
+been retained as the basic guidelines for Romanian public education. The
+implementation of these policies since 1948 has resulted in the
+restructuring of the school system, the expansion of educational
+facilities, the recasting of the content of curricula and courses, and a
+major reorganization of the teaching profession, heavy stress being
+placed on teachers as indoctrinators as well as educators.
+
+
+EDUCATIONAL REFORMS SINCE 1948
+
+Although the educational reform law of August 1948 has been amended many
+times, most of the changes that have taken place have not materially
+altered the basic pattern of communist education that the law
+established but rather have reflected the vicissitudes of Romanian
+political life and the country's economic needs. Almost all changes in
+the educational process have served to implement the original concept
+that the role of public education is primarily to serve as a vital
+instrument in the creation of an industrialized society subservient to
+the interests of the state.
+
+The initial changes introduced by the Communists immediately after
+coming to power in 1948 affected the content more than the form of
+education. The public school structure was left virtually unchanged
+except for the addition of those religious and private educational
+facilities that had been expropriated by the government. An extensive
+purge of all categories of teachers was undertaken, and a number of
+special schools were set up for the political indoctrination of those
+retained in the system. In addition, the student bodies, particularly in
+the schools of higher learning, were carefully sifted, and adjustments
+were made in the availability of courses and in the size of classes in
+order to redirect students into selected fields of study.
+
+As a further means of control the regime organized students into
+associations comparable to communist labor unions. The groups included
+the Union of Student Associations, the Union of Communist Youth, and the
+Pioneers Organization. The activities of these organizations affected
+students at all levels and consisted of planned and supervised
+extracurricular programs. Among the activities scheduled were special
+exhibitions, sports events, meetings, lectures, and competitions based
+on ideological themes.
+
+By the late 1950s the reorganization of the educational process along
+communist lines was virtually completed, and some expansion of
+facilities had taken place. Curricular requirements had been codified;
+new textbooks had been written, printed, and introduced throughout the
+system; new teaching methods were in general use; and the revised
+teacher training program had produced adequate numbers of "reliable"
+teachers at all school levels. Additional schools for minority groups
+had been built, and overall progress throughout the system was
+sufficient to permit the extension of the compulsory system of education
+from four to seven years beginning with the 1958/59 school year.
+
+In the early 1960s demands for skilled and semiskilled agricultural and
+industrial workers brought further changes in the educational system. A
+renewed general emphasis was placed on polytechnical education, and a
+period of practical on-the-job training before entering permanent
+employment was instituted for all secondary technical school graduates.
+The achievement of this new objective required a further extension of
+the compulsory education period to eight years and a relative deemphasis
+of the amount of class time allocated to the humanities and other purely
+academic subjects.
+
+In 1968 a new educational law was enacted that had far-reaching
+consequences, but by late 1971 it had not yet been fully implemented.
+Changes provided for under this law were intended to improve the general
+quality of education at all levels and to relate education more closely
+to expanding technological and industrial needs. In addition, the law
+instituted new measures that gave stronger impetus to the political
+indoctrination of youth in order to counteract student unrest and
+dissatisfaction as well as the spread of Western liberalism (see ch. 9).
+
+Specific modifications to be made in the system under the 1968 law
+included the extension of compulsory education to ten years, the
+establishment of additional specialized secondary schools, the
+introduction of more practical classroom work on vocational and
+technical subjects, closer coordination and supervision of
+extracurricular projects by the Union of Communist Youth, and the
+requirement that teachers include a greater number of political and
+ideological themes in all social science courses. The importance
+attached to the political aspects of the new program by the regime was
+indicated by the creation, in July 1971, of the new post of first
+deputy minister of education with the specific function of expanding and
+supervising all ideological indoctrination throughout the school system.
+
+
+LITERACY
+
+Before World War II the literacy rate in Romania ranked among the lowest
+in Europe. In 1930, at the time of the first official census, more than
+38 percent of the population over seven years of age were considered
+illiterate--50 percent of the women and over 25 percent of the men in
+the entire population of about 18 million were unable to read or write.
+In rural areas, where most of the population lived, it was generally
+considered that the illiteracy rate was even higher. Much of the lack of
+literacy could be attributed to the fact that children of school age
+either were not enrolled in school or, if they were enrolled, did not
+attend classes regularly. There was also a fairly large percentage of
+children who left school without completing their studies or, having
+completed only the mandatory first four grades, relapsed into illiteracy
+in adult life.
+
+Although the proportion of literacy had been increased somewhat by the
+time the Communists came to power, it was still low. The emphasis given
+to expanded educational opportunities by the party and government
+between 1948 and 1956 brought a substantial decline in the number of
+illiterates. Classes were organized throughout the country by the
+various people's councils, and a determined campaign was undertaken to
+increase enrollment. Most of these courses lasted two years and were
+conducted on a weekly basis by both regular teachers and literate
+volunteers; successful completion was officially considered equivalent
+to graduation from a four-year elementary school.
+
+As a result of these increased efforts, the 1956 census showed an
+overall increase in the literacy rate to about 90 percent. According to
+this census the greatest proportion of illiterates was still to be found
+in the rural areas and among women. Literacy courses were continued
+until late 1958, when the government officially declared that illiteracy
+had been eliminated. Despite this authoritative statement, Western
+demographers consider that, although illiteracy has been significantly
+reduced, it probably still exists among older segments of the
+population, particularly in remote areas of the country.
+
+
+THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
+
+In early 1972 the public education system included all levels of
+instruction from preschool or kindergarten through elementary,
+secondary, and higher polytechnical schools and universities (see fig.
+6). At the beginning of the 1971/72 academic year approximately 4.5
+million students were enrolled in the more than 16,000 schools operated
+throughout the system. Kindergartens and nurseries were organized on a
+voluntary basis, but attendance at elementary school and through the
+first two years of secondary school was compulsory for students between
+the ages of six and sixteen. Attendance at higher level institutions was
+voluntary, but admission was subject to selective procedures that
+included heavy emphasis on political reliability as well as scholastic
+achievement.
+
+All schools were state owned, and tuition, textbooks, and other
+classroom materials were free at all levels. An extensive system of
+scholarships existed, sponsored by government agencies, labor unions,
+state enterprises, and mass organizations. These scholarships were
+awarded on a selective basis to students in both secondary and higher
+schools to help defray transportation costs, living costs, and
+recreational expenses. The state also operated hostels, low-cost
+boardinghouses, child care centers, dining halls, and canteens for
+students above the elementary level. A planned increase in the number of
+these facilities, however, had not been achieved, and the authorities
+were under pressure to both improve and expand them.
+
+The educational system, in general, stressed technical, political, and
+economic subjects; and the classroom work in the elementary and
+secondary schools was underscored by the Pioneers Organization, whose
+extracurricular activities were considered an integral part of the
+educational program. The Union of Communist Youth and the Union of
+Student Associations performed similar functions in the higher schools.
+The academic year ran from October to September, and elementary and
+secondary classes ended at the end of May. At the university level all
+instruction was divided into two semesters, running respectively from
+October 1 to January 14 and from February 15 to June 30. The grading
+system at all levels utilized numbers from a high of ten to a low of
+one, five being the minimal passing grade.
+
+
+Administration and Finance
+
+The Ministry of Education exercised overall control and direction of the
+educational system and implemented all party policies and directives
+concerning its management. In carrying out this broad mission, the
+ministry cooperated with other central organs of state administration
+and principally with the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
+Sciences. Under the country's highly centralized control system, the
+ministry's specific functions included: the determination of the number
+and kinds of institutions to be organized in the school network and the
+types of trades and specialties to be taught; the drawing up of plans,
+curricula, syllabi, and textbooks and teaching materials; the
+supervision over the training, appointment, promotion, and dismissal of
+all educational personnel; the general supervision of research plans at
+higher institutions of learning; and the coordination of the assignment
+of graduates to meet the planned requirements of the economy.
+
+ [Illustration:
+ UNIVERSITIES AND                         HIGHER
+ POSTGRADUATE STUDY                     POLYTECHNICAL
+                                         INSTITUTES
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ AGE---------------------------------------------------------------GRADE
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 18  SCHOOLS FOR       SCHOOLS       VOCATIONAL    TECHNICAL AND     XII
+     UNIVERSITY      FOR THE ARTS    SCHOOLS     TEACHER TRAINING
+ 17  PREPARATION                                    SCHOOLS           XI
+ 16                                                                    X
+ 15                                                                   IX
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 14                                                                 VIII
+ 13                                                                  VII
+ 12                                                                   VI
+ 11         8-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS                                  V
+ 10                                                                   IV
+ 9                                                                   III
+ 8                                                                    II
+ 7                                                                     I
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 6       NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS
+ 5
+ 4
+ 3
+ ----------------------------------------------------------
+
+Note--Attendance is compulsory through grade X.
+
+_Figure 6. Romania, Structure of Education, 1972._]
+
+The Ministry of Education also defined general policy for, and
+supervised the work of, the educational sections of the various regional
+and district people's councils, which were assigned certain
+responsibilities for organizing and administering local primary and
+secondary schools. The operation of these schools was subject to
+periodic detailed checks by a body of inspectors general to ensure the
+uniform application of government regulations and policies. All
+institutions of higher learning were controlled directly by the Ministry
+of Education, which appointed and dismissed all rectors and their
+assistants. The ministry also employed an intertwined system of advisory
+councils and commissions to ensure compliance with party and government
+directives and guidelines.
+
+The overall budgeting for the educational system was also coordinated by
+the Ministry of Education and consisted of the budgets submitted by the
+various people's councils for primary and secondary schools as well as
+the ministry's own estimated budget needs for vocational and higher
+schools and for operating the entire system. In 1969, the latest year
+for which official statistics were available, approximately 6 percent of
+the state budget was allocated to education.
+
+
+Preschool Education
+
+Preschool education, consisting principally of kindergartens, was
+available on an optional basis for all children between the ages of
+three and six. Attendance was free, and enrollment was encouraged by the
+government as an essential step in the communist educational system of
+developing "correct" socialist values and attitudes in youth.
+Kindergartens were organized by districts and were located at the
+facilities of local enterprises, state organizations, and cooperative
+agencies. In certain areas, day nurseries attached to kindergartens
+provided care for the children of working mothers, for which a fee,
+generally in proportion to the parents' wages, was charged.
+
+If the school was large enough, classes were generally organized on an
+age-group basis, each with a teacher or supervisor. The number of
+children attending kindergartens has steadily increased since 1960.
+During the 1969/70 school year more than 428,000 children, approximately
+40 percent of all those eligible, were enrolled in about 10,000
+kindergartens and nurseries. Official estimates anticipated that this
+attendance figure would increase appreciably in future years as more
+working mothers were added to the labor force.
+
+
+Primary Education
+
+Primary education was provided, in early 1972, to all children between
+the ages of six and sixteen in eight-year elementary schools as part of
+the compulsory education program. During the 1969/70 school year
+enrollment was about 3.3 million students in about 15,000 schools
+throughout the country. Instruction was conducted principally in the
+Romanian language, but in those areas with large minority populations
+Hungarian- or German-speaking teachers were employed, and special texts
+were also available in those languages.
+
+Courses taught throughout the first four years, in addition to stressing
+the Romanian language, included history, geography, arithmetic,
+elementary biology, art, music, and physical education. Classes usually
+met six days a week for periods ranging from four to five hours,
+depending on the type of subject matter to be covered. Grades five
+through eight emphasized the development of the pupils' ability to
+express themselves orally and in writing through the intensified
+teaching of many of the subjects presented in the first four grades. In
+addition, foreign-language instruction was introduced in the fifth
+grade, offering a choice of French, German, Russian, or English. In all
+grades the foundation of political education was laid within the scope
+of Marxist-Leninist tenets concerning the materialistic development of
+society, usually presented as part of other general subjects.
+
+Examinations were held in each area of study at the end of the school
+year. Promotion to the next higher class required a passing grade of
+five (on the one-to-ten scale) in the substantive work covered, as well
+as a minimum grade of six for general conduct. A student was permitted
+to repeat an examination before being failed in a course but, if he
+failed that too, the entire course had to be repeated.
+
+At the end of the eight-year program all graduates were required to
+pass written examinations in history, geography, and literature as well
+as oral tests in other selected subjects. Those successfully completing
+both examinations were awarded diplomas and became eligible to take the
+competitive entrance examinations for secondary school. It was at this
+point that students were grouped into general categories according to
+their aptitudes for advanced education: ultimate university-level study,
+teaching and technical training, the professional arts, and vocational
+training.
+
+
+Secondary Education
+
+In late 1971 the necessary adjustments in the secondary school structure
+to accommodate the changeover from eight to ten years of compulsory
+education, as provided in the 1968 educational law, had not yet been
+completed. Although the extension of the program through the tenth grade
+began with the 1969/70 school year, shortages in funds, educational
+personnel, and facilities needed for higher student enrollment still
+existed and were not expected to be overcome until 1973. Secondary
+schools of all types numbered about 800 in 1970 and had an enrollment of
+about 370,000 students, roughly one-quarter of those of secondary school
+age.
+
+General education secondary schools were of the college preparatory
+type, offered a four-year program, and had the most rigid entrance
+requirements. Students could select a course either in the humanities or
+in the natural sciences. The humanities course included such subjects as
+the Romanian language, a modern language, Latin, history, psychology and
+logic, and the history of literature. The science course covered
+mathematics through advanced algebra and probability theory, astronomy,
+physics, chemistry, biology, and economic and political geography.
+Physical education and art were included in both courses, as was a
+subject called sociopolitical science, which covered elements of
+political economy, "scientific" socialism, and the history of the
+Communist Party and the labor movement in Romania.
+
+After satisfactory completion of either course of study, all students
+were required to take the state baccalaureate examination, which
+qualified them for admission to higher schools or for district
+employment in middle-level positions in government or in industry. The
+number of entrants to schools of higher education was determined by the
+Ministry of Education each year in the light of the needs of the various
+sectors of the economy and of cultural life. Since the number of
+applicants usually exceeded the number of spaces allocated to each
+higher institution, competitive examinations were held, and candidates
+were selected on the basis of marks received and their general political
+attitude. Those who either failed the entrance examination--that is, did
+not receive marks sufficiently high to qualify for a university or
+polytechnical institute--or were considered politically apathetic were
+usually placed in short-term vocational courses to qualify them for
+employment as technicians.
+
+Specialized secondary education was conducted in schools for the
+professional arts and in technical and teacher training schools. Studies
+in art schools lasted one or two years and consisted of combined courses
+of general subjects and specialized training in cultural activities,
+including various forms of art and drama. Technical schools specialized
+in industrial fields, agriculture and its associated subfields,
+forestry, socialist economics, and public health. Courses offered
+covered four or five years, the time depending on the area of
+specialization, and included basic courses in general education.
+Graduates in these technical fields were designated for employment in
+intermediate-level positions. Teacher training schools, also of four or
+five years' duration, trained students exclusively for teaching
+positions at the preschool and elementary levels.
+
+Vocational secondary education encompassed the largest number of schools
+and was reported to enroll almost 50 percent of all secondary school
+students. These schools provided a one- or two-year program of combined
+general education and vocational training in all the trades necessary
+for the national economy. Vocational schools were usually organized at
+the locations of industrial enterprises and socialist cooperatives, and
+students were trained as skilled workers. Additional vocational training
+was also provided in the form of apprentice or on-the-job training to
+workers already employed in industrial installations. The bulk of these
+trainees had either completed the compulsory level of education and then
+dropped out of school or had failed to be selected in the competitive
+examination for entrance into secondary school. Vocational training had
+not kept pace with increasing industrialization, and in 1972 the demand
+for trained workers continued to surpass the supply (see ch. 16).
+
+
+Higher Education
+
+The system of higher education was comprised primarily of universities
+and polytechnical and specialized institutes, which in 1971 had a total
+enrollment of approximately 150,000 students. All institutions were
+under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Education and were
+geared to produce specialists in the humanities, in the social, natural,
+physical, and engineering sciences, and in education as needed to fill
+positions in government and all sectors of the economy. The schools of
+higher learning were generally headed by a rector (university) or a
+director (technical institute), who was appointed by the Ministry of
+Education for a period of four years.
+
+Schools were divided into faculties, headed by deans; faculties, in
+turn, were divided into departments, each headed by a chairman.
+Collectively the rector, deans, chairmen, and certain other selected
+faculty members were grouped into an advisory council, which had broad
+authority in carrying out the government's educational policies,
+approving the faculty work programs, supervising the instruction carried
+out by the departments, and granting degrees at the graduate level.
+
+Students were admitted to all higher schools on the basis of competitive
+examination and assigned to particular faculties according to
+government-directed areas of study. Most degree courses at universities
+required three to six years to complete, and those at polytechnical
+institutes, from two to three years. Medical and dental degrees were
+granted at institutes attached to universities and required six years of
+study.
+
+After completing all course requirements and passing a comprehensive
+state examination, graduates of the various institutions were assigned
+to positions in the government or industry as dictated by their
+specialized work. Students who graduated with distinction were given
+preference in assignment to positions and in the selection of candidates
+for postgraduate study. Two higher degrees were available: the Candidate
+of Science, which required an additional three years of study, the
+passing of several examinations, and the successful defense of a thesis
+that made an original contribution to the student's field of
+specialization; and the Doctor of Science, which also required extensive
+study, the passing of oral and written examinations, and the successful
+defense of a thesis based on original and extensive research work in the
+student's selected field.
+
+
+Adult Education
+
+Adult education as a supplementary form of instruction was considered an
+integral part of the educational process. Initiated in the early 1950s,
+the program was intended to give the workers and peasants the
+opportunity to improve their level of education and skill and, at the
+same time, to provide the government with the means of intensifying the
+ideological and political indoctrination of the general population.
+
+A variety of schools was established throughout the country that offered
+evening and correspondence courses to volunteer enrollees, mostly
+between the ages of forty and sixty. The courses consisted of lectures
+given by volunteer instructors in the social, natural, and political
+sciences; although no degree or diploma was offered, those who
+successfully completed courses were eligible, after passing a state
+examination, for certificates as elementary or higher school graduates.
+
+In 1958 the program was revised and expanded. In that year people's and
+workers' "universities" were established under the guidance of labor
+unions, local committees on art and culture, and committees of the Union
+of Communist Youth. These universities were established at cultural
+centers, in libraries, in museums, and at collective farms and
+industrial enterprises. The enrollment age was lowered to twenty to
+attract youthful school dropouts, and a greater variety of basic general
+educational and technical courses was introduced. Despite these changes,
+in 1967 the press reported a general lack of public support for the
+program. Deficiencies in the system included a lack of adequate
+classrooms and equipment, the low quality of instruction, and the
+absence of a vigorous recruitment program.
+
+After the enactment of the new law on education in 1968, the system was
+again revised; extensive modifications were made in the curricula, and
+closer supervision of the program was undertaken. In rural areas the
+school year was shortened to four or six months during the winter, and
+additional general cultural courses were offered, as well as special
+courses in foreign languages and modern agricultural techniques. In
+urban schools the program was reduced to eight or nine months, and
+modern courses in stenography, television repair, and automatic data
+processing were made available. As a result of these efforts, official
+reports in 1970 claimed that the number of schools providing adult
+education had increased to 171 and that student enrollment totaled
+almost 100,000.
+
+
+Teacher Training
+
+Teachers and educators were considered important elements in the
+ideological and political conditioning process directed toward the
+country's youth. In addition to their primary task of teaching, they
+were relied upon to supplement the educational program by acting as
+disseminators and interpreters of the communist line and by encouraging
+and influencing young students to participate in state-sponsored
+activities. In 1971 there were approximately 200,000 teachers assigned
+to the 16,000 schools throughout the country, and this number was
+expected to increase with the continued emphasis on mass education.
+
+Teacher training was accomplished at three main levels: pedagogical
+schools for training preschool and elementary teachers; pedagogical
+faculties or departments at universities and teachers' institutes for
+training secondary teachers; and a postgraduate studies program to
+prepare lecturers and professors for higher educational institutions.
+There were also refresher training courses conducted at various centers,
+which all teachers were required to attend once every five years until
+they had accumulated twenty-five years of experience in the profession.
+These courses varied in length and generally stressed advances in
+pedagogical science, counseling techniques, and utilization of modern
+teaching aids.
+
+As evidence of the importance it placed on the teaching profession, the
+government, since 1967, has instituted many practices intended to
+improve the social position of teachers in the community as well as to
+increase their personal benefits. Among these innovations was the
+creation of the titles of professor emeritus, educator emeritus,
+outstanding professor, and outstanding educator in order to honor
+individuals for exceptional work. The government also authorized several
+orders and medals to be awarded to teachers for outstanding service and
+accomplishments.
+
+Teachers were also nominated for places on local people's councils, and
+increasing numbers were declared eligible for election to the Grand
+National Assembly. To raise the standard of living for the teaching
+corps, a new wage system was introduced in 1969, which granted pay
+increases at all teaching levels, improved promotions, and raised
+retirement benefits. Government assistance was made available to all
+teachers for the construction of individual homes in either urban or
+rural areas in which they were assigned.
+
+
+EDUCATION OF MINORITIES
+
+Although the government has recognized in principle the right of the
+national minorities to use their native languages in education, the
+implementation of official educational policies has reflected a strong
+preference for the incorporation or integration of all minority groups
+into the general population. The dissatisfaction of the large Hungarian
+and German minorities with the inadequacies of minority education
+eventually surfaced in early 1969 at the national congress of
+educational workers, and since that time the regime has taken steps to
+reduce inequalities in the system by providing additional facilities,
+trained personnel, and teaching materials for the improvement of
+minority instruction.
+
+As a result of this increased government support, groups as small as six
+were made eligible to be instructed by a full-time teacher in any
+non-Romanian native language. High schools with instruction in Hungarian
+or German were set up in a number of the larger cities and towns that
+had sizable populations in those nationalities. In addition, sections or
+classes were organized in certain vocational and industrial schools for
+the teaching of selected subjects in minority languages, and candidates
+for admission to higher schools were permitted to take competitive
+examinations in either Romanian or their native language. By the opening
+of the 1971/72 school year the government reported that more than
+280,000 minority students in 3,162 schools and sections were receiving
+instruction in their native languages from approximately 14,000
+teachers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 7
+
+ARTISTIC AND INTELLECTUAL EXPRESSION
+
+
+The arts and intellectual activity reflect Romania's position as a
+crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures. Elements of ancient Roman
+culture from the second and third centuries mingle with Byzantine
+elements (dating from the Middle Ages) and with Islamic elements
+(brought by the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century) (see ch. 2).
+In more recent times, these were joined by elements of Western European
+culture. Underlying all these influences from abroad are elements of a
+native peasant culture that can be traced back to the Neolithic
+settlement found on the territory of the Romanian state. The mixing of
+all the elements has produced a cultural mosaic that, although it has
+much in common with the cultures of neighboring countries, is purely
+Romanian.
+
+The Romanian people are very proud of their cultural heritage and of the
+artistic and intellectual expression that it has inspired. Artists and
+intellectuals have always occupied a favored position in society as
+transmitters of the aspirations of the people. They continue to feel an
+identity as the social class that is responsible for the spiritual
+well-being of the nation.
+
+The communist government has promoted this pride in the cultural
+heritage by devoting considerable funds and effort to the restoration
+and preservation of antiquities. It has also fostered the preservation
+of folk art and folk traditions through the establishment of the Village
+Museums in Bucharest and Cluj and through the continued urging of
+contemporary artists to produce a national art based on folk traditions.
+
+The various ethnic minorities have preserved their own cultural
+traditions and forms of expression. Although these forms reflect the
+same modern influences of foreign origins that have affected Romanian
+forms, they show relatively little direct borrowing from each other or
+from the Romanian majority.
+
+Because artistic and intellectual activity is a very effective means of
+protest and social criticism and, therefore, opposition to the
+established order, the communist leadership has tried to keep such
+expression under control and to use it for its own purposes. The degree
+of cultural freedom and the content of cultural output have been
+indicators of the political situation in the country.
+
+Despite controls, artists and intellectuals continue to create. Not all
+of their effort becomes public, and that which does is not necessarily
+sincere or direct. Symbolism and allusion have been developed to a high
+degree and are well understood by both the creator and his audience.
+
+
+THE ROLE OF THE ARTS UNDER COMMUNISM
+
+Since the communists took control of the government in 1947, artistic
+and intellectual expression has been dominated by the cultural policy of
+the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist Roman--PCR), which
+follows the model developed by the Soviet Union. The policy is based on
+the concept known as Socialist Realism, whereby an artist must strive to
+grasp the essence of human and social relations and depict them
+truthfully in the light of socialist ideals. Art must be directed toward
+the working man; therefore its style must be simple and straightforward.
+
+Adherence to this concept in the formulation and execution of cultural
+policy has varied, however, and generally reflects the political climate
+of the time and the particular outlook of the men in power. During the
+1950s, which has come to be known as the Dogmatic Period of cultural
+life in post-World War II Romania, the content of the arts and of
+intellectual expression was strictly controlled and restricted.
+Socialist Realism was interpreted to mean the presentation of the
+glories of communist ideals through the various forms of art and the use
+of such forms to further these ideals. All cultural effort, therefore,
+had to be directed to these goals, and no deviation was tolerated. The
+merits of a book, painting, or play were judged only by how well they
+fulfilled the propaganda function. Most individuals entrusted with
+passing judgment on what was or was not acceptable had no professional
+qualifications. As a result of all these factors, artistic production
+that was made public during this period was, with few exceptions, dull
+and mediocre.
+
+With the discrediting of Stalin and his policies in the mid-1950s,
+dogmatism in artistic expression gave way to a more liberal
+interpretation of what was considered appropriate. Emphasis on Socialist
+Realism was replaced with emphasis on nationalistic and historical
+themes, as Romania strove to gain greater political and economic
+independence from the Soviet Union. In order to be acceptable to the
+administrators of cultural policy, artistic expression no longer had to
+confine itself to the presentation of communist ideals in traditional
+styles, but it could address itself to a variety of themes and could
+experiment in innovative styles. Although artists were criticized for
+submitting to so-called decadent bourgeois culture if they moved too far
+away from the standards of Socialist Realism, they were not punished or
+enjoined from further creative activity unless their work could be
+interpreted as an attack on the regime or its policies.
+
+At the same time, expanding relations between Romania and the
+noncommunist world brought artists and intellectuals into contact with
+cultural developments elsewhere and stimulated Romanian creative
+expression. Cultural exchanges with Western countries were often used by
+the government to allow artists more freedom of expression than could be
+politically justified at home. Artists were allowed to exhibit or
+perform abroad works that had been highly criticized at home. The
+critical praise received abroad was proudly publicized at home as an
+example of Romanian genius, at the same time that these very works were
+being criticized for not meeting the desired standards of artistic
+expression.
+
+The apparent inconsistency in the application of cultural policy in the
+late 1960s was indicative of a widespread effort to determine what the
+role of art and literature should be in a socialist society. By 1971
+this had become a much debated topic. Party ideologists, communist and
+noncommunist artists and critics, and other members of the intellectual
+elite, including students, aired their views through roundtable
+discussions, through polemics in the press, and through other means. The
+debates appeared to be unrestricted and lively, and the views expressed
+ranged from strict adherence to the concept of Socialist Realism to a
+plea for "art for art's sake." The opinion of the majority, however,
+seemed to be that art and literature in a socialist society, as in any
+other society, have both an aesthetic and a social role. Neither of
+these functions should overshadow the other; social and political
+elements in a work of art or literature should be implicit and
+artistically presented rather than the sole justification for the
+existence of the work.
+
+In July 1971 President Nicolae Ceausescu announced a tightening of
+cultural reins in order to bring cultural and educational activity back
+toward its socialist purpose. The statement was followed by the removal
+of some books from publication schedules, the cancellation of some
+theatrical productions, and the resignation or removal of several
+editors of literary and cultural periodicals. Most observers, however,
+agreed that, despite some tightening of controls, artistic and
+intellectual expression in Romania at the end of 1971 was far from
+returning to the restrictions of the Dogmatic Period of the 1950s.
+
+Cultural policy was administered in 1971 by the Council on Socialist
+Culture and Education, which had replaced the State Committee for
+Culture and Art. The council had the status of a ministry in the
+government, as had the committee that preceded it (see ch. 8). The main
+overseers of cultural policy and the principal organs of control on
+artistic and intellectual expression, however, have been the various
+professional unions. The role of the unions is to supervise and enforce
+established standards of creative expression and to act as
+representatives for the members of their professions. A close
+relationship exists between the union leadership and the communist
+party, whose control of the unions and, thereby, of the members is
+exercised through the party leadership (see ch. 9).
+
+Membership in the appropriate union is a prerequisite for effective
+artistic and intellectual activity. Only members can be employed in
+their professions and have their works published, performed, or
+exhibited. Deviation from established cultural policy results in
+expulsion from the union and consequent professional oblivion.
+Therefore, most artists and intellectuals exercise self-censorship
+rather than risk punishment, even if such censorship involves
+compromising principles and artistic standards.
+
+
+ART, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE
+
+Folk Art
+
+A long heritage of decorative folk art, expressed in wood carving,
+embroidery, weaving, pottery, and other forms, has been important as
+artistic expression for the peasants and has served as inspiration for
+the more sophisticated painters, sculptors, and architects. Regional
+differences in styles and materials reflect the way of life of the
+people as well as their needs and the resources available to them.
+
+Some of the typical forms and motifs used through the ages have been
+found to date back to articles unearthed by archaeologists at Neolithic
+settlements. In common with the folk art of other countries of Eastern
+Europe, Romanian folk art uses mostly abstract and geometric designs.
+When floral or animal forms are used, they are usually stylized.
+
+The carving of wood is a natural form of folk expression in the heavily
+forested areas of the Carpathians and Transylvania. Pillars and frames
+of houses and other buildings, farmyard gates, and furniture are
+decorated with carved geometric designs. Wooden household utensils are
+also decorated with carved designs, as are farm tools and other objects
+used in daily life.
+
+Elaborate embroidery decorates the traditional costumes of both men and
+women. Those used on festive occasions are particularly richly
+embellished. Designs and colors vary with the regions and make it
+possible to identify specific costumes with specific parts of the
+country. Similar embroidery is also used to decorate household linens.
+
+Particularly well known outside the country are the woven rugs,
+tablecloths, and tapestries that decorate all rural homes and many urban
+ones. Designs are mostly geometric, and particular designs and color
+combinations are associated with particular regions. Well known for
+their unusual design and warm colors are Oltenian textiles in which a
+central animal, human, or floral design is surrounded by several frames
+of different colors. Muntenian textiles, on the other hand, have small
+geometric designs spread over the whole surface. Moldavian and
+Transylvanian textiles vary a great deal from one location to another
+and include both geometric and figurative designs. At one time, wool was
+used exclusively for weaving rugs and tapestries, but since the
+mid-nineteenth century cotton or hemp warp has been used in combination
+with wool. All-cotton and all-hemp rugs and wall hangings are also
+produced.
+
+Pottery of various kinds is made both as decorative objects and as
+household utensils. Plates, pots, and jugs are used to serve and store
+food, but they are also displayed on shelves along the walls of peasant
+houses, making the interiors colorful and cheerful. The shapes, colors,
+and designs of the pottery show the many cultural influences from
+Neolithic to modern West European. Two distinct types of pottery are
+produced: a black pottery made by incomplete firing of clay with much
+smoke, and the more common red pottery. Black pottery, the origins of
+which date back to the Bronze Age or earlier, is made mostly in Moldavia
+and eastern Transylvania. It has a highly polished finish, which is
+achieved by the use of a special stone. The widely produced red pottery
+may be glazed or unglazed and is usually decorated in some fashion--by
+painting, scratching a design into the wet clay, or applying a design in
+relief.
+
+Among the more unusual forms of folk art that continue to be practiced
+are the decoration of Easter eggs and painting on glass. Easter is a
+special time not only because of its religious significance but also
+because it heralds the beginning of the growing season, and Easter eggs
+as a symbol of fertility are an important element of the festivities.
+Eggs are decorated with highly ornamental patterns in various ways and
+often become respected works of art.
+
+Painting on glass was introduced into Transylvania in the seventeenth
+century from Bohemia and was used for the production of religious
+icons. Icon painting formed an important bridge between folk art and the
+fine arts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no longer
+widely practiced.
+
+A number of contemporary artists utilize the various forms of folk art
+as their medium of artistic expression. Their designs include not only
+the traditional but also elements of modern art styles, such as cubism
+and abstraction.
+
+
+Fine Arts
+
+The beginnings of fine art in Romania date back to the fourteenth
+century when frescoes and other paintings were created to decorate the
+churches of the period. All of the early art was created in connection
+with churches, although not all of it was religious in content.
+Portraits of those responsible for the building of churches or
+monasteries, and of their families, were often included among the
+pictures of saints and biblical scenes that decorate the interior and
+exterior walls of medieval religious buildings.
+
+Romanian church art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
+recognized as some of the finest and most unusual of the later period of
+Byzantine art. It differs somewhat in style from other examples of
+Byzantine art of that period by reflecting the influence of folk art.
+Some of the finest examples are found at the Moldavian monasteries of
+Putna, Sucevita, and Voronet. They are unusual in that they were painted
+on the outside walls in order to educate the peasants in church history
+and in elements of their faith. The quality and imaginativeness of these
+frescoes has been termed one of the great contributions to European
+religious art. Their freshness after more than 400 years of exposure to
+the elements is remarkable.
+
+In addition to paintings, religious art of the medieval period also
+included various objects, such as vestments, furniture, and vessels
+worked in wood, gold, or silver and richly decorated. Collections of
+these objects are preserved at the monasteries, the largest exhibits
+being at Sucevita and Putna.
+
+During the seventeenth century a change in style took place in painting
+and other decorative arts, although the subject matter remained
+religious. Russian artists who had come to Moldavia and Walachia
+introduced the small, detailed painting of Russian iconography, which
+became evident in the murals and other painting of Romanian artists. At
+the same time, the simple, folk art decorative forms were replaced by a
+more elaborate style showing both Baroque and Oriental influences. A
+distinct Walachian style developed, and schools emerged in Bucharest and
+other cities. The most notable achievements of the Walachian school are
+the interior frescoes of the Hurez Monastery.
+
+A secular trend was introduced into art in the eighteenth century with a
+greater involvement of merchants, craftsmen, and landowners as patrons.
+Not until the nineteenth century, however, did a completely secular art
+come into being, mostly through foreign influences. The earliest secular
+artists reflect in their styles the training they had received as
+religious artists.
+
+In the early nineteenth century several foreign painters lived and
+worked in Romania and exerted a strong influence on young Romanian
+artists who, in turn, helped to train other artists of the nineteenth
+century. The spirit of nationalism and revolution that was sweeping
+Europe during that century involved Romanian artists as it did those in
+other countries under foreign rule. Art was a medium for expressing
+nationalist sentiments and the fight for self-determination. Most of the
+art of the period, therefore, represents historic and heroic subjects.
+Foremost among the revolutionary artists were Gheorghe Tattarescu and
+Theodor Aman, both extremely popular in their lifetime. Together, they
+exerted a great influence on the development of fine arts in Romania by
+founding the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest and by training young
+artists. Aman, in particular, is considered the country's first great
+modern painter.
+
+By far the most outstanding artist of the nineteenth century was Nicolae
+Grigorescu. His work remains extremely popular among Romanians, and his
+lyrical landscapes and scenes of Romanian life are well known abroad.
+
+The work of Stefan Luchian at the beginning of the twentieth century
+introduced to Romania some of the avant-garde styles that were appearing
+in European art elsewhere. Although he followed his predecessors in
+painting landscapes and rural subjects, he opposed their conservative
+style and introduced into his paintings a greater use of color than had
+been common. He also introduced social themes into his paintings by
+depicting the misery and poverty that were characteristic of the lives
+of most people. His best paintings, however, are flower studies, which
+bring out his love of color and of nature.
+
+Luchian's break with tradition and his use of color were followed by a
+number of artists, the most celebrated of whom was Nicolae Tonitza.
+These and other artists of the interwar period were greatly influenced
+by the impressionist and postimpressionist painters in Paris and Munich,
+where they studied. Their landscapes, flower studies, and portraits show
+the effective use of bright colors, which is considered characteristic
+of Romanian art.
+
+Because landscapes, floral studies, and other neutral subjects have
+traditionally been the main concern of Romanian painters, this form of
+artistic expression was the least affected by the strict controls of the
+first decade of communist rule. A number of interwar artists and several
+younger ones continued to produce their canvases in the precommunist
+tradition, but during the 1960s some young artists experimented with
+various avant-garde techniques and styles that were then current in
+Western Europe. Although the government disapproved of these works, it
+allowed the artists to exhibit them abroad and win considerable acclaim
+for Romanian art. In the late 1960s the PCR was disturbed by the extent
+to which abstract art had blossomed despite party disapproval. Artists
+had been introducing cubism and primitivism into their work under the
+guise of folk art, which is supposed to serve as their main inspiration.
+
+
+Sculpture
+
+Romanian sculpture has its origins in the tombstones and other grave
+markers dating back to the Middle Ages. As a fine art, sculpture began
+to develop in the mid-nineteenth century when the German sculptor Karl
+Storck arrived in Bucharest to teach at the School of Fine Arts. Among
+the earliest sculptors he trained were Ion Georgescu and his own son,
+Carol Storck, both known for their statuary and busts. Stefan Ionescu
+Valbudea, also in that group, was best known for his romantic statues
+and classical male figures in movement.
+
+In the period between the two world wars, several sculptors produced
+large monumental works visible in public places. Dimitrie Paciurea was
+the first in this group. He was followed by his students Corneal Madrea,
+Ion Jalea, and Oscar Han. In addition to his monumental sculptures,
+Jalea is also known for his busts and bas-reliefs. Han is particularly
+known for his busts and statutes of famous Romanians.
+
+Best known of all Romanian sculptors is Constantin Brancusi, who is
+considered one of the great sculptors of the world. Brancusi studied in
+Bucharest and in Paris. His earliest work, mostly busts, shows a strong
+influence of Auguste Rodin. Gradually he broke with tradition and
+developed a highly stylized and abstract style utilizing the simplest
+forms. His best known works are found in important collections
+throughout the world.
+
+The work of contemporary sculptors included a wide range of styles and
+mediums. Modernistic works in stone, wood, and various metals, some of
+them completely abstract, can be seen in parks and other public places
+throughout the country. A number of contemporary sculptors have taken
+inspiration from folk art for their often massive works in wood.
+
+
+Architecture
+
+Architecture, more than any other form of artistic expression, reflects
+the many cultural influences that have been exerted on the people of
+Romania over the ages. The abundance of architectural styles found in
+the country has been a source of great pride for Romanians who have
+devoted much time and money to preserve them.
+
+The simplest architectural forms are those of the peasant houses made of
+wood and clay. The style and building technique of many of these houses
+have been traced back to those used in Neolithic settlements.
+
+Vestiges of Roman architecture can be found in Dobruja, Walachia, and
+Transylvania. The most important of these are the remains of the bridge
+built by Emperor Trajan across the Danube at Turnu Severin. A large
+amphitheater has been unearthed at the site of the Dacian-Roman capital
+of Sarmizegetusa at the southwestern tip of the Transylvanian plain.
+Other Roman remains include several monuments as well as sections of
+roads and aqueducts.
+
+The period of greatest architectural creativity is usually referred to
+as the feudal period, dating from the tenth century to the beginning of
+the nineteenth century. The oldest structures of that period are the
+fully preserved Byzantine church at Densus, Transylvania, and the ruins
+of the Prince's Court at Curtea de Arges. Beginning in the fourteenth
+century, distinctive architectural styles developed in Walachia,
+Moldavia, and Transylvania.
+
+The architecture of Walachia and Moldavia shows strong Byzantine
+influences and includes all the special forms and decorative styles of
+the several periods of Byzantine art. Specifically Romanian variations
+are the exterior frescoes and the massive protecting walls of some of
+the churches and monasteries.
+
+Transylvanian architecture of the feudal period reflects Western
+European influences, including Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and
+Baroque styles. The fortified churches and castles built by German and
+Hungarian settlers are reminiscent of similar structures in central
+Europe but distinguished by their massiveness and fortifications. The
+older architecture of several cities in central Transylvania is
+completely Germanic or Hungarian in character, contrasting sharply with
+that of Walachian and Moldavian cities. The typical Romanian
+architecture found throughout the Transylvanian countryside is
+particularly prominent in many rural wooden churches, which invariably
+feature fine pointed spires.
+
+During the seventeenth century the Brancovan style of architecture was
+developed in Walachia, the name being derived from that of the ruling
+Prince Constantin Brincoveanu. It is characterized by the use of open
+porches supported by large pillars. The pillars and door and window
+frames are usually elaborately carved with floral designs. The exterior
+of the building is usually ringed by a wide, carved wooden band.
+Outstanding examples of the Brancovan style are the Hurez Monastery and
+the Mogosoaia Palace in Bucharest. More recent adaptations of the style
+are seen in several public buildings and private villas built in
+Bucharest before World War I.
+
+Starting in the nineteenth century, Byzantine influences began to
+disappear from architecture. Most building after that period followed
+contemporary European styles, although elements of Romanian folk art
+were often incorporated in the decorative details. Modern architecture
+began to develop in the period between the world wars and reached a high
+level of accomplishment in the 1950s and 1960s with the construction of
+the seaside resorts of Mangalia, Eforie Nord, and Mamaia. Most
+contemporary architecture, however, is oversized and utilitarian. The
+needs for rapid and cheap construction forced architects to disregard
+aesthetics and produce monotonous, dreary structures.
+
+
+MUSIC
+
+Romanians have the reputation of being a musical people. Song and dance
+play an important role in their daily lives, particularly among the
+peasants. A rich heritage of folk music, both vocal and instrumental,
+has been passed down from generation to generation and has formed the
+background for serious Romanian music that began to develop in the
+mid-nineteenth century.
+
+Folk music can be broadly classified as dance music, ballads and
+laments, and pastoral music. Dance music is most frequently performed
+and is a major component of any festivity. Dance tunes are generally
+lively to accompany the fast and intricate steps of the dancers.
+Sometimes they are sung by the dancers, but more often they are played
+by one or more of the traditional instruments.
+
+The basic instrument in folk music is the violin. It is often
+accompanied by the _cobza_, a large stringed instrument resembling the
+lute, or by a _tambal_, a zither-like instrument played with small
+hammers. A variety of flutes are also used both as solo instruments and
+in orchestras. The accordion is popular as a solo accompaniment for
+singing or dancing.
+
+Folk musicians are known as _lautari_ (lute players) and are often
+Gypsies. Small orchestras are found at weddings and other celebrations
+in every village and in the cities. Larger, specially formed folk
+ensembles perform on radio and television and give concerts.
+
+Ballads and laments vary in style and subject matter from region to
+region. Over the years, ballads have lost most of their importance as a
+contemporary musical form, although they retain value as poetry.
+Laments, however, continue to play an important role in the musical life
+of the people. They reflect in song the hardships and problems of daily
+life and the trials and tribulations of love. Some laments have a
+distinctly Oriental quality.
+
+Pastoral music was developed by the shepherds of the Carpathians as a
+diversion for their long, lonely days in the mountains and as a means of
+communication. The melodies are very simple, usually played on any of
+several types of alphorns or on flutes. With the changing way of life in
+the mountains, pastoral music has been disappearing as a musical form.
+
+In the early nineteenth century folklorist Anton Pann began to collect
+Romanian folk music, to publish it, and to popularize it among educated
+Romanians, who were more familiar with the classical music of Germany,
+Italy, and France than with their own musical heritage. This resulted in
+the emergence of a group of Romanian composers who utilized folk
+melodies in the composition of operas, symphonies, and chamber music.
+
+The period between the two world wars saw several composers adding to
+the repertoire of Romanian music. One who achieved international fame
+was Georghe Enescu. Dinu Lipatti became well known as a pianist,
+although he was also a composer.
+
+The music of the interwar composers showed the influence of German
+romanticism and postromanticism and of modern French music. All of it,
+however, had a strongly Romanian character attained through the use of
+intonations and rhythms borrowed from folk music.
+
+Several of the interwar composers were still active in 1970, together
+with new younger composers. Their music is regularly performed in
+Romania and in some of the other communist countries, but it is not well
+known elsewhere. Some of the young composers have experimented with
+avant-garde styles that have not been well received by the guardians of
+cultural policy. Composers are urged to use folklore as their source of
+inspiration and to write compositions reflecting the cultural policies
+of the PCR.
+
+
+THEATER
+
+Theater has always played a vital role in the life of the educated
+Romanian, and regular attendance at plays, operas, and ballets is
+considered an essential part of his cultural and intellectual life. The
+performing arts, therefore, have had a faithful and critical audience in
+all urban centers, which has stimulated playwrights and directors. In
+cities such as Cluj and Brasov, which have sizable minority populations,
+Hungarian and German theaters thrive beside the Romanian.
+
+Since the end of the rigid restrictions of the 1950s, the performing
+arts have been flourishing with talented performers, directors, and
+writers. The government has been promoting the presentation of Romanian
+plays, and Romanian playwrights have striven to compete for audience
+favor with the best of contemporary and classical foreign plays, which
+are regularly presented.
+
+Among contemporary playwrights who have achieved critical acclaim at
+home and abroad are Paul Everac, D. R. Popescu, Horia Lovinescu, Iosif
+Naghiu, and Paul Anghel. Eugene Ionesco, although Romanian by birth, is
+generally considered a French playwright since he writes in French.
+Romanians, however, proudly claim him as one of their own, even though
+his plays do not follow the desired standards of form and content.
+
+Most contemporary plays have been categorized by critics as tribunal
+drama in that they pass judgment on ideas or actions and follow a format
+where one or more characters take the role of the accused and others act
+as prosecutors. Some plays are in the form of confessions of wrongdoings
+or wrongthinking. Both forms lend themselves well to imparting a
+message. Pure entertainment plays are usually boulevard comedies.
+Historic themes seem to be popular and safe topics, particularly if they
+promote Romanian nationalism. For the most part, plays are of local
+rather than universal interest, for they deal with matters limited in
+time and space. They usually arouse interest outside Romania for what
+they reveal of the Romanian character and society rather than for
+artistic merit.
+
+The tightening of cultural reins in July 1971 seems to have had a
+greater effect on the theater than on any other form of artistic
+expression. The management of several major theaters was changed in late
+1971 following admission by the replaced managers of having favored
+artistic merit over ideological value in the selection of plays for
+their repertory. The new managers pledged themselves to presenting plays
+that contain a clear-cut message conforming to high political,
+ideological, and educational standards. They also pledged themselves to
+encourage young playwrights to write such plays. In the meantime, the
+plays selected for the 1971-72 season were almost all true and tried
+classics, devoid of any political implications. Romanian directors,
+nevertheless, have shown themselves in the past to be able to impart to
+the audience a great deal of political meaning through their
+interpretation of such seemingly innocuous plays.
+
+
+FILMS
+
+The film industry has a long and venerable history dating back to 1912,
+when the first full-length feature was produced. The silent comedies of
+the 1920s compare favorably with those produced by the best film makers
+of the time. In the 1930s and 1940s, until the communist takeover,
+Romanian musicals and tales of suspense and of the supernatural were
+popular at home and abroad. Most of these films were produced with
+technical and financial assistance from France and other countries (see
+ch. 11).
+
+Cultural restrictions in the 1950s and early 1960s prevented the
+Romanian film industry from taking part in the technical and artistic
+developments that were changing the film industry in France and other
+Western countries. As a result, films produced in Romania as late as
+1970 were technically and artistically old-fashioned compared to those
+produced in noncommunist countries and even in Czechoslovakia. Most
+critics outside the country compare them to the good films produced by
+Hollywood in the 1940s. Nevertheless, several Romanian films in the
+1960s have won prizes at lesser known international film festivals.
+
+Two of the important directors in the late 1960s were Mircea Dragan and
+Ion Popescu-Gopo. Dragan specializes in historic adventure films of epic
+proportions, whereas Popescu-Gopo concentrates on fantasies, including
+science fiction. Popescu-Gopo is also well known for his animated films.
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+Literature in the form of folk tales and poetry is of ancient origin. A
+vast collection of legends, tales, ballads, proverbs, and riddles has
+been preserved and is known to both rural and urban Romanians. Legends
+and tales deal with the daring exploits of a national hero, sometimes
+real and sometimes imaginary. In the oldest tales, the adversaries are
+monsters and inhabitants of the underworld; in later ones, they are the
+foreign conquerors and occupiers.
+
+Ballads were originally intended to be sung but are now more often
+recited as poems. They deal with the same subjects as legends and tales,
+and many are of epic proportions. In the mountains of Transylvania and
+Moldavia separate groups of ballads developed dealing with the pastoral
+life of the people.
+
+The earliest known texts written in Romania are chronicles in Old Church
+Slavonic. In the sixteenth century a number of religious texts were
+translated into Romanian, and the introductions to them are the first
+known original writings in the Romanian language.
+
+Of significance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were the
+chronicles written by a number of writers in Moldavia and in Walachia.
+Dimitrie Cantemir, ruler of Moldavia, wrote the _Description of
+Moldavia_ and _History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire_
+during the same period. A Transylvanian school of writing stressed the
+Latin origin of the Romanian people and their language and utilized a
+latinized Romanian in its writing. It was influential in awakening the
+national consciousness of Transylvanian Romanians.
+
+Four members of the Vacarescu family wrote lyrical poetry in the
+eighteenth century. The best of them, Iancu Vacarescu, is regarded as
+the father of Romanian poetry. The lyric tradition was carried on in the
+early nineteenth century, and much of the poetry dealt with historic
+subjects and expressed the growing patriotism and nationalist sentiment
+of the time.
+
+In the early nineteenth century the Latinist movement of Transylvania
+spread into Moldavia and Walachia and began to Romanianize the hitherto
+Hellenic culture of the Romanian upper class. The founding of the
+College of Saint Sava in Bucharest, using Romanian as the language of
+instruction, laid the foundation for the development of a reading public
+for Romanian literature. At the same time, the founding of a
+Romanian-language newspaper with a literary supplement gave writers a
+publication outlet. The newspaper was founded by Eliade Radulescu, who
+also founded the Philharmonic Society and the Romanian Academy, thus
+giving major impetus to the development of Romanian literature and
+culture.
+
+In Moldavia, Gheorghe Asachi originated the historical short story,
+wrote verse, and also founded a newspaper. The literary supplement of
+Asachi's newspaper provided an outlet for Moldavian writers.
+
+The nineteenth century was the romantic age of Romanian literature.
+Writers and poets wrote under the influence of Russian, French, and
+English romanticists whose works were widely translated. Outstanding
+among the poets was Grigore Alexandrescu, who also wrote fables and
+satires along the lines of Alphonse de Lamartine and Jean de LaFontaine.
+Many historical works were written by Nicolae Balcescu and Mihail
+Kogalniceanu, both of whom were political figures in the nationalist
+movement of their time as well as important writers. The founding in
+1840 of the literary magazine _Dacia Literata_ by Kogalniceanu marked
+the beginning of the traditionalist school, which was characterized by
+the use of specifically Romanian themes. An outstanding exponent of this
+school was the short story writer, Constantine Negruzzi.
+
+The second half of the nineteenth century saw the development of modern
+literature through the impetus of serious criticism based on German and
+French philosophical thought and cultural trends. The period was
+dominated by Vasile Alecsandri and Mihail Eminescu. During Alecsandri's
+long career, he produced outstanding works in every form of literary
+expression--prose, poetry, drama, and nonfiction. Together with Negruzzi
+and Kogalniceanu, he was one of the early directors of the National
+Theatre in Iasi.
+
+Eminescu is Romania's outstanding poet and holds his place among the
+important poets of the world. His lyrical poetry is influenced by
+Romanian folklore, Hindu thought, and German philosophy. His ballad
+_Luceafarul_ (Evening Star) is a well-known classic. In addition to
+poetry, Eminescu wrote short stories and political and philosophical
+essays. He was one of the leaders of the Junimea, a literary circle for
+youth in Iasi, which was founded by the important critic Titu Mairescu.
+Other important members of the circle were Ion Luca Caragiale, a
+playwright who first introduced social comedy to Romania, and Ion
+Creanga, who wrote about the peasant life from which he stemmed.
+
+Around the beginning of the twentieth century the growing popularity of
+peasant themes and descriptions of peasant life in the writing of such
+authors as Ion Slavici and Gheorghe Cosbuc led to the publication of a
+new literary periodical, _Samanatorul_, and the development of a
+literary school that took its name. The school stressed the national
+heritage of Romania, its folklore, and its rustic life as subjects for
+literary creation, in contrast to the cosmopolitan outlook of the
+Junimea circle.
+
+Parallel to the Samanatorul school developed _poporanism_ (of the
+people), which was similar to the then-current Russian populism in its
+social and political motivation. Its organ was _Viata Romaneasca_, which
+featured populist causes.
+
+Several writers remained apart from any of the schools. Among them was
+Barbu Delavrancea, well-known for his trilogy about Stephen the Great
+and for stories of Walachian peasant life, and the poet Alexandru
+Macedonski, who introduced French symbolism to Romanian literature.
+
+The period between the two world wars gave rise to the novel, which
+quickly took its place beside lyrical poetry as an important form of
+literary expression. An important contributor to the development of the
+novel was Liviu Rebreanu, whose _Forest of the Hanged_ is a powerful
+description of the horrors of war. His other important novels are
+_Ion_, dealing with peasant life, and _Ciuleandra_, a psychological
+novel.
+
+Mihail Sadoveanu, whose most important works were published in the 1920s
+and 1930s, is considered the foremost realist of the twentieth century.
+His writings deal mostly with history and with peasant life. In 1924 he
+won the national prize for literature, and in 1949, the Gold Peace
+Medal.
+
+Outstanding interwar poets were Lucian Blaga, Ion Barbu, and Tudor
+Arghezi. Blaga's poetry was an exposition of his philosophy based on the
+traditional way of life interpreted as a cosmic mystery. Barbu's poems
+are of an abstract and esoteric nature. Arghezi is considered the
+greatest poet since Eminescu on the basis of his use of language and
+symbolism.
+
+Immediately after World War II poetry again took the lead in literary
+expression. Although much prose was published, none of it was considered
+of particular importance. The poetry can be divided into three main
+schools: surrealist poetry, poetry of spiritual revolt, and a
+return-to-tradition balladry.
+
+Several of the prewar writers and poets continued to produce after the
+communist takeover and subjected themselves to the constraints of
+Socialist Realism. Among them were Sadoveanu, Calinescu, Camil Petrescu,
+and Arghezi. Others were denounced for their previous writings and
+became silent. The literary output of the 1950s is generally regarded as
+second rate. Several notable novels, however, were published in the
+early 1960s. Among them were George Calinescu's _Bietul Ioanide_ (Poor
+Ioanide), Ion Sadoveanu's _Ion Sintu_ (Saint John), and Petru Dimitriu's
+_Cronica de Familie_ (Family Chronicle). Of particularly outstanding
+merit and lasting quality are Marin Preda's peasant epic _Morometii_
+(The Moroments) and Eugen Barbu's naturalist novel _Groapa_ (The
+Trench).
+
+With the relaxing of cultural controls in the mid-1960s, many of those
+who had been silent resumed their writing, together with a new group of
+younger writers. The mid-and late-1960s saw an outpouring of literary
+creativity that had been pent up during the preceding decade. The
+variety of genres and styles was impressive; some continued the
+traditions of the past, others repudiated their literary traditions and
+ventured into new areas of expression. Lyricism dominated the poetry of
+Ion Alexandru, Adrian Paunescu, Marin Sorescu, and others. Their
+greatest appeal was among young people whose doubts, hopes, and
+restlessness they expressed.
+
+Prose showed two trends: realism, which was now free to examine all
+aspects of human existence; and antirealism, which showed influences of
+some contemporary French writers.
+
+Literary criticism, which had played an important role in the
+development of Romanian literature, was revived as a literary art and
+was removed from politics. Both old and new works were examined and
+evaluated, and Romanian literary traditions were studied and analyzed.
+The literary output of the 1950s was attacked for its lack of
+imagination and creativity.
+
+The retightening of controls in 1971 reduced the volume of new works
+being published, and many writers retreated into a self-censorship,
+which restricted their creativity. Literary periodicals and other
+publication media were more selective in deciding what to publish,
+whereas some critics attacked the volume and quality of the recent
+literary output.
+
+
+SCHOLARSHIP AND RESEARCH
+
+A tradition of scholarship and research has in the past been limited to
+a small intellectual elite centered in Bucharest and Iasi. The group was
+oriented toward France and, to a lesser extent, Germany in terms of
+professional contacts and sources of inspiration. During the 1930s a
+number of sociologists at the University of Bucharest established a
+reputation for outstanding and original work in their field.
+
+The great expansion of the educational system since the 1940s has
+provided a much broader base for scholarly activity but, in keeping with
+ideological dictates, scholarly activity must be socially useful, that
+is, directly applicable to the needs of the society. Therefore, great
+emphasis has been placed on applied research in the sciences and
+technology designed to improve the economy. All research is sponsored by
+the state and is directed and supervised by the National Council for
+Scientific Research.
+
+The interest in sociology has continued, but work in this field, as in
+the other social sciences, has suffered from the restrictions imposed by
+communist ideology. The only accepted philosophy is that of
+Marxism-Leninism, and all scholarly work must be based on its precepts,
+which frequently leads to sterile research or preconceived results.
+
+Two developments by Romanians in the field of medicine have caused
+considerable controversy among specialists in other parts of the world.
+One is a regeneration therapy for the aged based on the administration
+of procaine, which was developed by Anna Aslan of the Institute of
+Gerontology. The therapy, strongly backed by the government, is intended
+to free the elderly from the various chronic discomforts of advanced age
+and thereby make them more active. Many prominent gerontologists have
+questioned the efficacy of the treatments and the results claimed by
+the Institute of Gerontology, but others have reported it to be fully
+effective. A Romanian-developed drug used in the treatment is
+extensively sold in Europe. The other medical development acclaimed by
+Romania but questioned by many specialists in the field is the use of an
+extract obtained from cattle eyes for the treatment of many human eye
+diseases. The extract was developed by Professor Petre Vancea.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II. POLITICAL
+
+CHAPTER 8
+
+GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM
+
+
+As of early 1972 the structure of the government remained essentially
+the same as that established by the 1965 Constitution. Power is declared
+to belong to the working people united under the leadership of the
+Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman--PCR). That power is
+said to be expressed through their representatives to the Grand National
+Assembly, the nation's sole legislative body, and through the people's
+councils, the organs of government on county and local levels.
+Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly, as the highest voice of
+the people, is asserted to be the supreme organ of state power, and all
+other government bodies are theoretically subordinate to it.
+
+Actual political power, however, is monopolized by the PCR and
+particularly by the highest organs of the party under the leadership of
+Nicolae Ceausescu, who is simultaneously head of state. Although the
+system of government is, in theory, designed to emphasize participatory
+democracy, the government functions largely as the administrative
+structure through which the party exerts its will in all aspects of
+Romanian society (see ch. 9).
+
+There is no separation of powers between the branches of the government,
+and it is difficult to draw distinctions between the executive and the
+legislative functions. The Council of State is closely tied to the
+structure and membership of the Grand National Assembly and functions as
+a permanent assembly presidium. The nation's highest administrative
+body, the Council of Ministers, is elected by the assembly and
+responsible to both the assembly and the Council of State. Although it
+is theoretically independent in its judicial decisions, the Supreme
+Court is also constitutionally responsible to the assembly.
+
+The entire structure of the government, from national down to local
+levels, is organized on a principle of centralized control by which all
+lower bodies are subject to the authority and control of the next higher
+unit, the ultimate power resting in the central government. The
+governmental system consists of nominally representative bodies at
+community, town, and county levels, which are hierarchically
+subordinated to the authority of the central government. Throughout the
+entire system the predominant influence of the party is evident, the key
+positions at each level being held by party members.
+
+
+THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM
+
+Constitutional Development
+
+Since coming under full communist control in December 1947, Romania has
+had three constitutions. The first, designating the country a "People's
+Republic," was adopted by the Grand National Assembly in April 1948,
+just four weeks after the assembly had been reorganized under new
+communist leadership. The second, officially adopted in September 1952,
+had first been made public the preceding July after Gheorghe
+Gheorghiu-Dej had assumed the post of prime minister in addition to his
+position as head of the party. A third constitution, incorporating the
+elements of Romania's changed social and ideological position, entered
+into force on August 20, 1965.
+
+In many ways similar to the initial constitutions of the other
+Soviet-dominated states of Eastern Europe, the 1948 Constitution was
+designed to mark Romania's entry into the first stage of the transition
+from capitalism to socialism. As a people's democracy, state power was
+said to derive from the people as expressed through the Grand National
+Assembly, nominally, the supreme organ of state power. A nineteen-member
+Presidium was elected by and from the membership of the assembly to
+provide continuity of legislative authority when the assembly itself was
+not in session. The highest executive and administrative organ was the
+Council of Ministers, which functioned under the direction of the prime
+minister. Although it was not mentioned in the constitution, the
+Communist Party functioned as the supreme decisionmaking authority over
+and above that of the government.
+
+The right of ownership of private property was guaranteed, although the
+constitution provided that privately held means of production, banks,
+and insurance companies could be nationalized when the "general
+interest" so required. Less than two months after the adoption of the
+constitution, the Grand National Assembly applied this "general
+interest" principle and nationalized all banking, industrial, insurance,
+mining, and transportation enterprises.
+
+Described in the constitution in anticipation of their actual
+establishment, the organs of state power in the regions, counties,
+districts, and communes were designated "people's councils." Formally
+established by law in 1949, these bodies were organized into a
+centralized system in which the lower level councils were fully
+subordinated to the next higher council and all functioned under the
+direct control of the central organs of government.
+
+Changes that were effected in the political, social, and economic
+structure of the country after 1948 were incorporated into a new
+constitution in 1952. Patterned largely after the 1936 Constitution of
+the Soviet Union, the 1952 document specifically designated the Romanian
+Workers' Party (title of the Communist Party between 1948 and 1965) as
+the representative of the working class and the country's leading
+political force. The nation's close ties with the Soviet Union were
+strongly emphasized. Several references to the Soviet Union glorified
+its role in the liberation of the country from fascism during World War
+II and described the Soviets as great friends of the Romanian people.
+Whereas the 1948 Constitution declared that "the Romanian People's
+Republic was born amid the struggle conducted by the people, under the
+leadership of the working class, against fascism, reaction, and
+imperialism," that of 1952 asserted the republic "was born and
+consolidated following the liberation of the country by the armed forces
+of the Soviet Union."
+
+As did the 1948 Constitution, that of 1952 guaranteed full equality to
+the country's national minority groups, but the 1952 Constitution also
+established an autonomous administrative unit, the Hungarian Autonomous
+Region (Mures-Magyar), for the large Hungarian population. The region
+was given its own people's council and local authorities, although these
+were clearly subordinated to the organs of the central government.
+Including the Hungarian Autonomous Region, the country was administered
+through twenty regional units that, in turn, were subdivided into
+districts, towns, and rural localities.
+
+Citizens were guaranteed the right to work for remuneration; the right
+to rest, assured by the establishment of the eight-hour workday and paid
+annual vacations for workers and office employees; the right to material
+security when old, ill, or disabled; and the right to education. Full
+equality in all aspects of economic, political, and cultural life was
+guaranteed to all working people regardless of nationality, race, or
+sex.
+
+Freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and public demonstration were
+likewise assured, as was freedom of religion. Churches, however, were
+forbidden to operate schools except for the training of religious
+personnel. Other rights guaranteed the protection of the person from
+arbitrary arrest, the inviolability of the home, and the secrecy of the
+mail. The right of citizens to form public and private organizations was
+also assured, although associations having a "fascist or anti-democratic
+character" were prohibited.
+
+Citizen duties to the state included the observance of the constitution
+and the laws of the republic and the obligation to preserve and develop
+socialist property, to practice discipline in regard to work, and to
+work in general for the strengthening of the "regime of people's
+democracy." Military service and the defense of the nation were
+described as duties of honor for all citizens.
+
+In March 1961 the Grand National Assembly established a commission to
+prepare a new draft constitution. At the same time the 1952 Constitution
+was revised to transform the Presidium of the assembly into the Council
+of State. The new council, vested with supreme executive authority,
+consisted of a president, three vice presidents, and thirteen members.
+As was the case with the Presidium, the Council of State was elected by
+and from the assembly membership and was, in theory at least,
+responsible to it.
+
+The authority of the council was threefold, consisting of permanent
+powers, powers to be exercised between assembly sessions, and special
+powers that could be exercised in exceptional circumstances. The
+permanent powers were exercised by the president, who was by virtue of
+his position the head of state, and focused primarily on the
+representation of the republic in international relations. Between
+sessions of the assembly the Council of State was empowered to oversee
+the activity of the Council of Ministers, appoint and recall members of
+the Supreme Court and the commander in chief of the armed forces,
+supervise the functioning of the Office of the Prosecutor General, and
+convene standing commissions of the assembly.
+
+The council could also issue decrees having the force of law although,
+at least technically, these had to be submitted to the next assembly
+session for ratification. In the event of circumstances that might
+prevent the assembly from convening, the council was authorized to
+appoint the Council of Ministers, declare war, order mobilization,
+proclaim a state of emergency, approve the budget, and prepare economic
+plans. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, first secretary of the Romanian Workers'
+Party, was elected as president of the Council of State. Ion Gheorghe
+Maurer--who had been chairman of the assembly Presidium, and thus
+titular head of state, since 1958--became prime minister.
+
+Although the draft constitution prepared by the commission appointed in
+1961 was never adopted, it was used as the basis for the work of a
+second commission named in June 1965. Under the chairmanship of
+Ceausescu, the commission prepared a new draft and submitted it to the
+party congress and the Council of State. After being approved by these
+bodies the Constitution was adopted by the Grand National Assembly on
+August 20, 1965.
+
+
+The Constitution of 1965
+
+After the adoption of the first communist constitution in 1948 the
+country had officially borne the title of a people's republic. With the
+promulgation of the new Constitution in 1965 the name of the country was
+changed to the Socialist Republic of Romania (Republica Socialista
+Romania). In adopting this title, the Romanian leadership was asserting
+that the country had completed the transition from capitalism and had
+become a full-fledged socialist state.
+
+Observers of Eastern European politics considered the emphasis placed on
+national sovereignty and independence in the new Constitution to be
+significant. Whereas the 1952 Constitution repeatedly stressed the
+country's close ties to the Soviet Union and the role of the Soviet army
+in the liberation of Romania during World War II, the 1965 Constitution
+omits all reference to the Soviet Union. Instead, it refers only to the
+policy of maintaining friendly and fraternal relations with all
+socialist states and, in addition, expresses the intention of promoting
+friendly relations with nonsocialist states.
+
+There is also increased provision for civil liberties in the 1965
+Constitution, including the right of petition, the right of individual
+recourse to the courts in the event of illegal acts of state agencies,
+and rights equivalent to habeas corpus. The extent of individual freedom
+is qualified, however, by the declaration that the "freedom of speech,
+of the press, reunion, meeting and demonstration cannot be used for aims
+hostile to the socialist system and to the interests of the working
+people." While proclaiming freedom of association and organization, the
+1965 Constitution, as did that of 1952, prohibits associations of a
+"fascist or anti-democratic character."
+
+Perhaps owing to the declared advancement to the stage of socialism, the
+1965 Constitution contains no reference to the "private capitalist
+sector" of the economy, as had the 1952 document. Whereas the 1952
+Constitution had recognized the private sector as one of three elements
+of the economic system, along with the socialist sector and the sector
+described as "small-scale commodity production," that of 1965 declares
+the basis of the economy to rest solely on the socialist ownership of
+the means of production. Cooperative farmers, however, are permitted the
+personal ownership of some livestock and tools, certain craftsmen are
+guaranteed ownership of their workshops, and peasants who are not in
+cooperatives are able to own small parcels of land and some farm
+implements.
+
+Changes that had been made in the organizational structure of the
+government after 1952 were incorporated into the 1965 Constitution. The
+Council of State is described as the "supreme body of state power with a
+permanent activity," although it remains theoretically subordinate to
+the Grand National Assembly, which is designated as "the supreme body of
+state power." In contrast to the 1952 Constitution, which provided for
+representation to the Grand National Assembly on the basis of one deputy
+for every 40,000 persons, the 1965 document fixes the number of assembly
+deputies at 465 and requires the establishment of that number of
+constituencies of equal population.
+
+Although the Hungarian Autonomous Region continued to exist, the 1952
+provision guaranteeing "administrative and territorial autonomy" to the
+Hungarian population was omitted from the 1965 Constitution. All of the
+sixteen regional units were subsequently eliminated by a territorial
+reorganization of 1968, at which time a system of _judete_ (counties)
+was established.
+
+All power is ascribed to the people and exercised by their
+representatives in the people's councils and the Grand National
+Assembly. The Communist Party is described as the country's leading
+political force under whose leadership the working people have the
+expressed goal of building the socialist system to create "the
+conditions for transition to communism."
+
+
+THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF THE GOVERNMENT
+
+The Central Government
+
+According to the 1965 Constitution the major institutions of the central
+government are the Grand National Assembly, the Council of State, and
+the Council of Ministers (see fig. 1). Although the Constitution
+declares the Grand National Assembly and the Council of State to be the
+supreme organs of state power, in practice the authority of both of
+these organs ranks after that of the PCR. The Constitution itself states
+unequivocally that "the leading political force of the whole society is
+the Romanian Communist Party." The basic national policy decisions are
+made in the ruling bodies of the party and subsequently communicated to
+the government for adoption and implementation.
+
+ [Illustration: _Figure 7. Structure of the Government of Romania,
+ 1971._]
+
+
+The Grand National Assembly
+
+The Grand National Assembly, which supervises and controls the functions
+of all other state organs, consists of 465 deputies elected from an
+equal number of electoral districts for a four-year term of office. In
+the event of exceptional circumstances that prevent the holding of
+elections, however, the assembly is empowered to prolong its term of
+office for the duration of these circumstances. Regular assembly
+sessions are held twice yearly, and special sessions may be convened on
+the initiative of the Council of State or on demand of one-third of the
+total number of deputies.
+
+Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly is empowered to elect,
+supervise, and recall the members of the Council of State, the Council
+of Ministers, and the Supreme Court. It is also empowered to name the
+prosecutor general and control the activity of his office. It is given
+ultimate authority in the regulation of the electoral system, the
+national economic plan, the state budget, and the organization and
+functioning of the people's councils.
+
+The assembly is empowered to establish the general line of the country's
+foreign policy and has ultimate responsibility for the maintenance of
+public order and national defense. As a part of this responsibility the
+assembly appoints and recalls the supreme commander of the armed forces.
+Declarations of war, however, are constitutionally limited to the
+protection of Romanian national sovereignty in the event of aggression
+or in the event of aggression against another state with which Romania
+has mutual defense obligations.
+
+Other powers attributed to the assembly include adopting and amending
+the Constitution and the general control over its application. Assembly
+authority extends as well to the interpretation of the Constitution and
+decisions on the constitutionality of laws, making it in effect its own
+constitutional court. In exercising that power the assembly elects the
+Constitutional Commission, which functions for the duration of the
+legislative term. The Constitution specifies that up to one-third of the
+commission members may be persons who are not deputies, but members of
+the Supreme Court, college and university teachers, and scientific
+researchers are specifically excluded from commission membership. Duties
+of the commission focus primarily on providing the assembly with reports
+and opinions on constitutional questions.
+
+The Grand National Assembly functions under an elected chairman who
+presides over assembly sessions and is responsible for directing its
+activities. The chairman and four elected vice chairmen form the Bureau
+of the Grand National Assembly and are assisted in their duties by a
+panel of six executive secretaries. In addition to the Constitutional
+Commission, other standing commissions of the assembly include the
+Agriculture and Forestry Commission; Credentials Commission; Defense
+Commission; Economic and Financial Commission; Education, Science, and
+Culture Commission; Foreign Policy Commission; Health, Labor, and Social
+Welfare Commission; Industry, Construction, and Transportation
+Commission; Legal Commission; and the People's Councils and State
+Administration Commission. Any deputy may be elected to the standing
+commissions of the assembly or to temporary commissions created to
+perform specific functions. Reports, bills, or other legislative matters
+are submitted to the standing commissions by the assembly chairman for
+study and for recommendations on further action.
+
+The assembly may function if one-half of the deputies plus one
+additional deputy are present. Laws and decisions are adopted by simple
+majority vote with the exception of an amendment to the Constitution,
+which requires a two-thirds majority of the total number of assembly
+deputies. Laws and decisions are signed by the presiding officer present
+at the time the decision is voted. Within ten days after adoption, laws
+are required to be signed by the president of the Council of State and
+published in the _Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of
+Romania_.
+
+
+The Council of State
+
+Described as the supreme body of state power with a permanent activity,
+the Council of State exercises certain permanent powers as well as
+special powers that fall to it when the Grand National Assembly is not
+in session. Formed of nineteen members, the Council of State is elected
+by the assembly, from its own membership, at the first assembly session
+as it begins a new term of office. The council's authority continues
+until the election of a new Council of State by the succeeding
+legislature. Although the president of the council is the head of state,
+the Constitution asserts that the functioning of the council is to be
+based on the principle of collective leadership. Almost all the members
+of the Council of State also hold leading party posts.
+
+Among the most important permanent powers of the Council of State are
+the establishment of election dates; the appointment and recall of the
+heads of central government agencies, except for the Council of
+Ministers; and the ratification or denunciation of international
+treaties. The president of the council represents the republic in
+international relations. Other permanent powers include the granting of
+senior military ranks; the conferral of honors; the granting of
+citizenship, pardon, and refuge; and the appointment and recall of
+diplomatic representatives.
+
+Grand National Assembly powers that devolve to the Council of State
+between assembly sessions, or in the event of exceptional circumstances
+that prevent the assembly from acting, include the authority to appoint
+and recall members of the Council of Ministers, members of the Supreme
+Court, and the prosecutor general. Also included in this category are
+powers to establish norms having the power of law, control over the
+application of laws and decisions passed by the assembly, and
+supervision of the Council of Ministers and other central administrative
+bodies as well as the activities of the people's councils.
+
+Although the legal decisions passed by the council must be submitted for
+approval to the next session of the Grand National Assembly, they take
+effect as law immediately on passage by the council or on a date
+specified in the ruling itself. In the event of a national emergency the
+Council of State can also exercise the assembly's power to declare a
+state of war, subject to the same qualifications imposed upon the
+assembly--that is, in the event that Romania or one of its allies is the
+victim of external armed aggression.
+
+In December 1967 PCR General Secretary Ceausescu was elected president
+of the Council of State by the Grand National Assembly and, by virtue of
+this position, became the head of state. The reason given for the
+concentration of the principal party and government positions in
+Ceausescu's hands was the desire to provide unitary leadership both as a
+means of efficiency and of ensuring full party control at the highest
+level of the government. The decision to unite the two posts, as well as
+to combine a number of party and government positions on lower
+administrative levels, had been taken at a national party conference a
+few days earlier and followed action taken by the PCR Central Committee
+in October. Outside observers saw the move as one of a series of steps
+designed to ensure the continued subordination of the state apparatus to
+the party.
+
+In March 1970 the Grand National Assembly voted to establish the Defense
+Council, to be headed by Ceausescu and responsible to the Council of
+State. The formation of the Defense Council, which was given
+decisionmaking powers for high-level military affairs, served to
+strengthen Council of State control over the armed forces and further
+enhance Ceausescu's personal authority. The same legislation that
+established the Defense Council also decreed that foreign troops could
+not enter Romania under any circumstances without the prior approval of
+the assembly. Coming in the aftermath of the Soviet-led invasion of
+Czechoslovakia, observers of Eastern European affairs interpreted this
+ruling as a means of preventing any dissident group from inviting
+foreign intervention on the pretext of preserving orthodox communist
+rule.
+
+The membership of the Defense Council reflected the importance given it.
+Besides the head of state, other members of the council include the
+prime minister, the minister of the armed forces, the chairman of the
+Council of State Security, the minister of internal affairs, the
+minister of foreign affairs, the chairman of the State Planning
+Committee, and eight other members who also held leading government and
+party positions. The secretary of the council in 1971 was the chief of
+the general staff and a member of the PCR Central Committee.
+
+Also connected to the Council of State and subordinate to it is the
+Economic Council. This body functions to advise on economic matters,
+coordinate planning, and make recommendations to the Council of State
+for the development of the national economy and the improvement of state
+enterprises. In late 1971 the chairman of the Economic Council was also
+a member of the PCR Secretariat.
+
+
+The Council of Ministers
+
+Defined in the Constitution as the supreme body of state administration,
+the Council of Ministers exercises control over the activities of all
+state agencies on both the national and local levels. The council is
+composed of a chairman (who is the prime minister), a first deputy
+chairman, an unspecified number of deputy chairmen, the ministers, and
+the heads of certain other important government agencies (see fig. 8).
+Unlike the 1952 Constitution, in which twenty-six specific ministries
+were listed, that of 1965 fixes neither the number of ministries nor
+their particular areas of competence, this being left to other laws.
+
+In 1971 the Council of Ministers was composed of forty-four members,
+including the prime minister, first deputy, seven deputies, twenty-three
+ministers, and ten committee chiefs with ministerial rank. All but two
+of the members of the council were also members, or alternate members,
+of the PCR Central Committee, and the prime minister and his first
+deputy were members of the Standing Presidium of the party. These two,
+along with two other deputies, were also full members of the PCR
+Executive Committee.
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 8. Romania, Organization of the Council of
+  Ministers, 1971._]
+
+The Constitution charges the Council of Ministers with responsibility
+for the general implementation of the nation's domestic and foreign
+policies, the application of laws, and the maintenance of public order.
+As the supreme administrative body of the government, the council
+coordinates and controls the activity of the ministries and other state
+organs at all levels. In economic matters the council administers the
+drafting of the overall state plan and the national budget and provides
+for their implementation. In addition, it directs the establishment of
+the economic enterprises and other industrial and commercial
+organizations (see ch. 14). The council's responsibilities also include
+the general administration of relations with other states, the
+conclusion of international agreements, and the general organization of
+the armed forces.
+
+Formally elected by the Grand National Assembly at the beginning of each
+new assembly session, the council's term of office continues until the
+election of a new council by the succeeding assembly. Both collectively
+and individually, the council members are responsible to the Grand
+National Assembly; and in the interval between assembly sessions, to the
+Council of State. The Constitution asserts that the Council of Ministers
+is to operate on the principle of collective leadership to ensure the
+unity of its political and administrative actions.
+
+In late 1969 the Grand National Assembly enacted legislation aimed at
+strengthening the concept of collective leadership in the ministries and
+extending the principle to other national administrative agencies. In
+the case of the Council of Ministers, the measure provided for the
+establishment of a collegium in each ministry consisting of the
+minister, department heads, certain specialists, and representatives of
+labor unions or other organizations. Purposes of the collegium included
+collective decisionmaking, review of ministry activities, and
+recommendations on ministry programs and policies. The meetings of the
+collegium, at which decisions are made by majority vote, are also
+attended by representatives of the PCR appointed by the party Central
+Committee. In the event of serious disagreements within the collegium,
+the law provides for the matter to be referred to the Council of
+Ministers. No such disagreements have been reported, however.
+
+Since the promulgation of the 1965 Constitution, the Council of
+Ministers has been reorganized several times. In late 1971 the
+importance of a number of the ministries and state commissions was
+emphasized by the prominence of the party position held by their
+ministers or chairmen: almost all of the members of the Council of
+Ministers were either full or alternate members of the PCR Central
+Committee; the chairmen of the General Union of Trade Unions, the
+National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives, and the State
+Planning Committee were full members of the party Executive Committee;
+the chairmen of the Council of State Security and the State Committee
+for Local Economy and Administration were alternate members of the
+Executive Committee, as was the head of the Ministry of the Armed
+Forces. The chairmen of the State Planning Committee and the Council of
+State Security and the ministers of internal affairs and the armed
+forces also were members of the Defense Council.
+
+
+The Judicial System
+
+The general organization and functioning of the judiciary is established
+by the Constitution and by the 1968 Law on the Organization of the Court
+System. Overall responsibility for the functioning of the courts is
+vested in the Ministry of Justice, whereas the prosecutor general
+(attorney general) is charged with the general application of the law
+and the executing of criminal proceedings.
+
+To fulfill its responsibility for the functioning of the courts and the
+supervision of state marshals, state notaries, and the national bar
+organization, the Ministry of Justice is divided into six directorates:
+civil courts, military courts, studies and legislation, personnel,
+administration, and planning and accounting. In addition, the ministry
+includes a corps of inspectors, an office of legal affairs, the State
+Notary Office, and a lawyer and legal expert service.
+
+The court system includes the Supreme Court, _judet_ courts, lower
+courts, military courts, and local judicial commissions. The
+Constitution places the judiciary under the authority of the Grand
+National Assembly; and between assembly sessions, under the authority of
+the Council of State. The Supreme Court, seated in Bucharest, exercises
+general control over the judiciary activities of all lower courts.
+
+Members of the Supreme Court are professional judges appointed by the
+Grand National Assembly to four-year terms of office. The Supreme Court
+functions as an appeals court for sentences pronounced in lower
+tribunals and, in certain matters specified by law, may act as a court
+of first instance. It may also issue guidance, in the form of
+directives, on legal and constitutional questions for the judicial
+actions of lower courts and the administrative functions of government
+agencies. To fulfill its responsibilities, the Supreme Court is divided
+into three sections: civil, criminal, and military. Each of these
+sections is presided over by a panel of three judges, and plenary
+sessions of the entire court are held at least once every three months
+in the presence of the minister of justice for the purpose of issuing
+guidance directives.
+
+With the territorial-administrative reorganization of February 1968, the
+jurisdictions of the former regional and district courts were
+restructured to correspond to the new administrative units. Accordingly,
+there are thirty-nine _judet_ courts and the municipal court of
+Bucharest, which has _judet_ court status. Each court on this level is
+presided over by a panel of two judges and three lay jurors, known as
+people's assessors, and decisions are made by majority vote. People's
+assessors were first introduced in December 1947 and given additional
+legal status in 1952 by the Grand National Assembly's Law on the
+Organization of Justice. The law required these lay assessors to be
+Romanian citizens and at least twenty-three years of age. Most of the
+people's assessors are appointed by the PCR or by one of the district
+bodies of the mass organizations (see ch. 9).
+
+Below the _judet_ courts, and subordinate to them, are the lower courts.
+In the city of Bucharest these consist of eight sectional courts, which
+function under the supervision of the municipal court. For the remainder
+of the country the number of these lower courts and the extent of their
+territorial jurisdiction are established by the Ministry of Justice.
+Courts on this level are presided over by a panel composed of one judge
+and two people's assessors; decisions are based on a majority vote.
+
+Military courts are established on a territorial basis, subdivisions
+being determined by the Council of Ministers. The lower military
+tribunals have original jurisdiction over contraventions of the law
+committed by members of the armed forces; the territorial military
+tribunals exercise appellate jurisdiction for decisions of the lower
+units. In certain situations specified by law, cases involving civilians
+may be assigned to military courts. At each level, the military courts,
+when acting in the first instance, consist of two judges and three
+people's assessors. In appeals cases on the territorial level, the
+courts consist of three judges only. As in the civil courts, decisions
+are reached by majority vote.
+
+In 1968 the Grand National Assembly enacted a law establishing a system
+of judicial commissions to function as courts of special jurisdiction in
+the state economic enterprises and in localities. These commissions were
+designed as "an expression of socialist democracy" to provide for the
+increased participation of working people in the settlement of problems
+involving minor local disputes and local economic issues. Functioning
+under the direction of enterprise management or municipal executive
+committees, the judicial commissions are assigned such matters as labor
+disputes, misdemeanors, property disputes, and violations of proper
+social conduct, a category that appears to provide broad latitude for
+prosecution. As a rule, the commissions consist of five members elected
+for a term of two years; however, in labor disputes two additional
+members are added to the commission, one representing the enterprise
+management and one representing the labor union committee.
+
+General supervision over the application of the law and the initiation
+of criminal proceedings is exercised by the Office of the Prosecutor
+General. Headed by the prosecutor general, the office exercises
+supervisory powers that extend to all levels of the society, from the
+government ministries down to the ordinary citizen. Subunits of the
+Office of the Prosecutor General are hierarchically organized and
+include offices in each judicial district plus the prosecutor's military
+bureau. The prosecutor general is elected by the Grand National Assembly
+for a four-year term and is responsible to the assembly or, between
+assembly sessions, to the Council of State for the activities of his
+office. Three deputy prosecutors assist the prosecutor general in
+carrying out his official duties.
+
+An important part of the prosecutor general's responsibilities consists
+of supervising the activities of the courts to ensure the uniform
+application of the law. Prosecutors on the _judet_ level have a
+consultative vote in the meetings of local government agencies when
+important legal questions are being decided. The prosecutor general
+participates in those plenary sessions of the Supreme Court at which
+guidance decisions are made. In the event the prosecutor does not agree
+with a decision, he may appeal to the county people's council or to its
+executive committee for a review of the decision. On the national level,
+the Office of the Prosecutor General may appeal alleged violations of
+the law to the Council of Ministers.
+
+
+Local Government
+
+Local government bodies, known as people's councils, exist on the
+_judet_, town, and commune levels. The 1965 Constitution had also
+provided for subunits of state administration on regional and district
+levels, but a territorial-administrative reorganization voted by the
+Grand National Assembly in 1968 replaced the existing sixteen regions
+and 150 intermediate districts with a system of thirty-nine counties and
+forty-four independent municipal administrations. The expressed purpose
+of the change was the provision of more efficient administration.
+
+In addition to the establishment of county and municipal people's
+councils, local councils were also set up in 142 smaller towns, and
+communal councils were formed in rural areas. A number of the smaller
+communes were combined in order to give them a larger population base.
+Boundaries of each of the new _judete_ were drawn to include about fifty
+communes consisting of some 4,000 to 5,000 persons.
+
+Along with the territorial reorganization, the decision was also made to
+combine party and government functions of the _judet_ level so that the
+same person acted both as party committee first secretary and people's
+council chairman. In explaining this fusion of party and state
+authority, Ceausescu stated that there were many instances in which
+offices in both the party and the government dealt with the same areas
+of interest, a practice that resulted in inefficiency and the
+unnecessary duplication of party and state machinery. He asserted that
+the consolidation of these administrative positions would serve to
+eliminate this overlapping. At the same time, Ceausescu declared that,
+inasmuch as the government was responsible for the implementation of the
+PCR's economic decisions, there was no justification for the continued
+existence of the numerous economic sections of the party Central
+Committee and that future economic policy would be implemented within
+the structure of the government (see ch. 9).
+
+According to the Constitution and the 1968 Grand National Assembly's Law
+on the Organization and Operation of People's Councils, the people's
+councils are responsible for the implementation of central government
+decisions and the economic, social, and cultural administration of their
+particular jurisdictions. Deputies to the people's councils are elected
+to four-year terms--except for the communes where the term is two
+years--from single-member constituencies of equal population. Based on
+population, the _judet_ people's councils may have a maximum of 231, or
+a minimum of 141, deputies. The membership of the Bucharest People's
+Council is fixed at 369, and there are 151 deputies on the councils of
+each of its subdistricts. City people's councils range from eighty-one
+to 221 deputies, and those of the towns consist of from thirty-five to
+ninety-one deputies. Commune council memberships range from twenty-five
+to seventy-one persons.
+
+Organized on the basis of highly centralized control, the people's
+councils function under the general supervision of the Grand National
+Assembly; and between assembly sessions the councils function under the
+direction of the Council of State. The Law on the Organization and
+Operation of People's Councils specifically places the people's councils
+under the overall leadership of the PCR as the leading political force
+of the society.
+
+To expedite its work, each people's council established an executive
+committee as its chief administrative organ and a number of permanent
+committees to which it assigns specific responsibilities. The executive
+committee, consisting of a chairman, two or more deputy chairmen, and an
+unspecified number of other members, functions for the duration of the
+council's term of office. Each of the people's council executive
+committees also has a secretary, who is appointed with the approval of
+the next higher ranking council and is considered an employee of the
+central government rather than of the local executive committee itself.
+The chairman of executive committees in the cities, towns, and communes
+are officially considered the mayors of these units. The executive
+committees are responsible to the people's council that elected them as
+well as to the executive committee of the next higher council.
+
+The executive committee meets whenever necessary and is required to
+convene at least once a month; full council sessions are held every two
+months on the city, town, and commune level and every three months on
+the county level. Responsibilities of the executive committees include
+the implementation of laws, decrees, and decisions of the central
+government, the carrying out of the decisions made by the people's
+councils, the working out of the local budget, and the drafting of the
+local economic plan. The executive committee is also charged with the
+direction and control of the economic enterprises within its area of
+jurisdiction and with the exercising of supervision over the executive
+committees of the councils inferior to it. The executive committees are
+also responsible for the organization and functioning of public
+services, educational institutions, medical programs, and the militia.
+
+
+THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
+
+According to the 1965 Constitution, all power belongs to the working
+people joined in a worker-peasant alliance; power is exercised through
+the people's representative bodies--the Grand National Assembly and the
+several levels of people's councils. Theoretically, these bodies are
+elected by, controlled by, and responsible to the working people.
+Emphasis is placed on the direct participation of the citizens through
+their local people's councils, party units, and chapters of the mass
+organizations (see ch. 9).
+
+Although the Constitution asserts the right of all citizens eighteen
+years of age and older to participate in the election of all
+representative bodies on the basis of a universal, direct, equal, and
+secret vote, it does not determine how elections are to be organized or
+specify who is responsible for conducting them. The Constitution does
+declare, however, that the right to nominate candidates belongs to the
+PCR, as well as to all labor unions, cooperatives, youth and women's
+leagues, cultural associations, and other mass organizations. Citizens
+who have reached the age of twenty-three are eligible to be candidates
+for elective office.
+
+Separate legislation provides for general elections to be held every
+four years and local communal elections to be conducted every two years.
+Elections are organized under the direction of the Socialist Unity
+Front, the national entity that incorporates the country's numerous mass
+organizations under the leadership of the PCR (see ch. 9). All
+candidates for elective office must have the approval of the front in
+order to be placed on the ballot, a requirement that ensures that no
+candidate unacceptable to the front's leadership will be placed in
+nomination.
+
+The Socialist Unity Front was officially established in November 1968 as
+a replacement for the People's Democratic Front, which had existed since
+the Communists began to organize effectively in the country during World
+War II. The Socialist Unity Front lists among its member organizations,
+in addition to the PCR, the labor unions; cooperative farm
+organizations; consumer cooperatives; professional, scientific, and
+cultural associations; student, youth, women's, and veterans'
+organizations; religious bodies; and representatives of the Hungarian,
+German, Serbian, and Ukrainian minorities. At the time of its formation,
+Ceausescu was elected as the front's chairman, and Ion Gheorghe Maurer,
+the prime minister, was named as first vice chairman. Both continued in
+these positions in early 1972.
+
+General elections were conducted by the Socialist Unity Front in March
+1969. Official results indicated that ballots were cast by 99.96 percent
+of the country's 13,582,249 eligible voters. Of the votes cast, a
+reported 99.75 percent were marked in favor of the single list of
+Socialist Unity Front candidates. Although the great majority of the
+candidates for the Grand National Assembly who were placed on the ballot
+belonged to the PCR, some non-members gained front approval and were
+elected. Nearly half of the candidates elected were newcomers to the
+assembly and included forty-one Hungarian, twelve German, and nine other
+minority representatives. The front has scheduled the next general
+elections for 1973.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 9
+
+POLITICAL DYNAMICS AND VALUES
+
+
+At the beginning of 1972 the country's political system continued to be
+based on the leading position of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul
+Communist Roman--PCR). Within the party, political power was centralized
+in a small group of men who occupied the leading party and government
+offices. Political authority was particularly concentrated in the hands
+of the general secretary of the PCR, Nicolae Ceausescu, who was also the
+head of state.
+
+Regarding itself as the leading force of the society, the PCR has made
+the government apparatus an instrument of party policy and, through a
+broad network of subordinate mass organizations, has mobilized all
+elements of the society in support of its programs and goals. Individual
+and group participation in the political process was limited to the
+forms and means permitted by the PCR.
+
+The concentration of all political authority in the central bodies of
+the party has effectively precluded the emergence of any open opposition
+to the PCR leadership as well as the assertion of any particular group
+interests. Under Ceausescu's leadership the party has sought to
+strengthen its role in all spheres of social, economic, and political
+life and, at the same time, to broaden its base of support by taking
+steps to increase its membership. Although the party leaders have
+periodically demonstrated a cautious relaxation of the highly
+centralized system of control, the PCR has continued to be extremely
+sensitive to any potential threats or challenges to its position.
+
+In attempting to build a broad base of popular support the party has
+drawn upon the symbols of nationalism and has made extensive use of
+Romanian history and tradition. Its independent stance in relation to
+Soviet domination has served to enhance its image among the general
+population; at the same time, the fact that membership in the party has
+been made relatively easy has helped the PCR become one of the largest
+communist parties of Eastern Europe.
+
+In mid-1971 Ceausescu initiated a campaign to strengthen ideological and
+cultural orthodoxy and, for the first time in the six years since he had
+come to power, some political observers believed they were able to
+detect opposition to his proposals both within and outside the party.
+There was no indication, however, that the resistance was organized or
+was strong enough to affect Ceausescu's position. Throughout the period
+of Ceausescu's control there have never been any recognizable factions
+in the party in opposition to his leadership.
+
+
+MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1965 TO 1970
+
+The leadership of the PCR changed hands in March 1965 when Nicolae
+Ceausescu became first secretary after the death of Gheorghe
+Gheorghiu-Dej, who had headed the party almost continually since 1944
+(see ch. 2). Ceausescu's emergence as head of the party came in the
+midst of a period of growing Romanian nationalism that had begun in the
+early 1960s. Initiated by Gheorghiu-Dej, the policy of greater national
+autonomy was given additional form and substance by Ceausescu, who
+sought to cast himself in the role of the restorer of Romanian history
+and the country's national traditions.
+
+As Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Ceausescu was confronted with the
+necessity of consolidating his power. No member of the party Secretariat
+owed his position to Ceausescu, and he found particular challenges to
+his authority from three men who had been among Gheorghiu-Dej's closest
+associates: Chivu Stoica, a veteran party leader; Gheorghe Apostol,
+first deputy premier and a former PCR secretary; and Alexandru Draghici,
+minister of internal affairs and, as such, head of the powerful state
+security apparatus.
+
+A temporary solution to the problem was found in a system of collective
+leadership by which Ceausescu became head of the party and Stoica took
+over Gheorghiu-Dej's other leading position as president of the Council
+of State and, as such, head of state. Apostol continued as first deputy
+prime minister, and Draghici remained as minister of internal affairs.
+Ion Gheorghe Maurer, who had served as prime minister under
+Gheorghiu-Dej, continued in that position. At the same time, changes
+were made in the party statutes to prevent one man from holding dual
+party and government offices as Gheorghiu-Dej had done.
+
+In April, just one month after taking over as head of the PCR, Ceausescu
+announced that a party congress would be convened in July. During the
+month of June, while preparations were being made for the congress, he
+revealed plans to redefine the character and structure of the party and
+announced that its name would no longer be the Romanian Workers' Party,
+as it had been known since 1948, but would again be the Romanian
+Communist Party. Observers of East European political affairs saw the
+change of name as an assertion of the equality of Romanian communism
+with the communist parties of the Soviet Union and other communist
+states. During the same month the new PCR leaders also proclaimed that
+the official designation of the state would be the Socialist Republic of
+Romania rather than the Romanian People's Republic as it had previously
+been known (see ch. 8).
+
+At the July party congress Ceausescu was successful in adding a number
+of his supporters to an enlarged PCR Central Committee and in having his
+own title changed to general secretary. At the same time the party
+structure was changed to add a new body, the Executive Committee,
+between the Standing Presidium (Politburo) and the Central Committee.
+Although he was not able to gain full control of the Executive Committee
+immediately, in time this new body provided Ceausescu with the means for
+including his supporters in the leading organs of the PCR and for
+implementing his own policies.
+
+During the party congress Ceausescu was able to turn the PCR
+proscription against an individual's holding dual party and government
+positions to his own advantage by engineering the election of Draghici
+to the party Secretariat, a move that resulted in Draghici losing his
+power base as minister of internal affairs as well as his direct control
+over the state security forces. Later in the year the appointment of two
+additional "first deputy prime ministers" undermined the power of
+Apostol who had been, until that time, the only first deputy.
+Simultaneously, Ceausescu was making preparations for even more
+definitive actions against his rivals, preparations that took the form
+of an unpublicized decision of the PCR Central Committee, in November
+1965, to establish a commission of inquiry to reexamine the political
+trials conducted by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime during the 1950s. The
+commission was particularly directed to investigate the 1954 trial and
+execution of Lucretiu Patrascanu, who had been the Romanian minister of
+justice from 1944 to 1948 and an important member of the party
+hierarchy. The formation of the commission of inquiry and its findings
+were not announced publicly until April 1968.
+
+Political observers identified three principal factions within the PCR
+during the 1965-67 period: Ceausescu and his supporters; the veteran
+party men led by Stoica, Apostol, and Draghici; and the intellectuals,
+of whom Maurer was perhaps the nominal representative. Those allied with
+Ceausescu, who was forty-seven years old when he came to power, tended
+to be men of his own generation and outlook, and whenever possible he
+engineered their appointment or promotion into important party,
+government, and military positions.
+
+One of Ceausescu's foremost concerns was what he termed the
+revitalization of the PCR. To achieve this end, he not only brought his
+own younger men into the top party organs but also sought to broaden the
+professional skills represented in these bodies through the recruitment
+of technically trained men and academicians. At the same time, increased
+technical and scientific contacts were permitted with Western nations,
+and previously banned works of foreign writers and artists were allowed
+to be reintroduced--moves that helped Ceausescu gain additional support
+among the PCR's intellectuals.
+
+Although the party encouraged a revival of nationalism and introduced
+several limited domestic reforms, it did not relax its tight political
+control and continued to direct the country's economy through a highly
+centralized system. The maintenance of strict party control was
+evidenced in the congresses of the youth and labor union organizations
+in mid-1966, when the delegates were informed that the PCR would begin
+to enforce the "patriotic education" of their members.
+
+
+The 1967 National Party Conference
+
+At a specially convened National Conference of the PCR in December
+1967--the first such conference in twenty-two years--Ceausescu continued
+to strengthen his own position. The conference was attended by the
+members of the Central Committee as well as by 1,150 delegates from
+local party organizations. Ceausescu elected to employ the technique of
+the party conference rather than a special party congress in order to
+have his proposals approved by a larger body than the Central Committee.
+At the same time, he wanted to avoid the requirement of having to elect
+a new Central Committee, which would have been the case had a congress
+been held.
+
+In his address to the conference, Ceausescu declared that in order to
+modernize Romania as a socialist state it was imperative to adopt new
+organizational and ideological forms. To achieve this end, he proposed a
+number of reforms in the structure and functioning of both the party and
+the government and defended the country's policy of independent
+development. Speaking of the relationship between party and government
+responsibilities, Ceausescu asserted the need to eliminate overlapping
+and duplication in party and government functions. As a remedy, he
+proposed that only one individual, whether in the party or in the
+government, should deal with a particular sector of activity. In
+addition, he called for a clearer delineation of the responsibilities of
+the government and the party. It was not necessary, he declared, for the
+Central Committee to decide all questions of economic affairs and
+continue to maintain a number of economic departments that duplicated
+the functions of the Council of Ministers and the economic ministries.
+He proposed that the Central Committee limit itself to basic decisions
+of economic policy and that the specific matters of implementation be
+left to the government ministries.
+
+Political and ideological activity, Ceausescu proposed, would remain
+under the control of the Central Committee and would be given greater
+emphasis and direction through the creation of an ideological commission
+that would work to develop an intensified program of political
+education. A defense council, composed of the party's Standing Presidium
+and other members, would be established to deal with most military
+questions, but the basic questions of guidance for both the armed forces
+and the state security apparatus would continue to be the responsibility
+of the Central Committee. Major foreign policy questions would be
+decided by the Standing Presidium (see ch. 8).
+
+Ceausescu also proposed reforms in the organization and responsibilities
+of governmental organs. In addition to proposing a reorganization of the
+state's territorial subdivisions, he asserted the need to broaden the
+activities of the Grand National Assembly and to increase the
+responsibilities of the assembly commissions in order to give that body
+a greater role in the government. Ministers and other high government
+officials were to be more aware of their responsibilities to keep the
+assembly informed of the activities of their departments. Ceausescu also
+declared the need to strengthen the role and organization of the Council
+of Ministers to enable it to provide for long-term economic planning. In
+addition, he suggested that the heads of three of the more important
+mass organizations--the General Union of Trade Unions, the Union of
+Communist Youth, and the National Union of Agricultural Production
+Cooperatives--be included in the government and be given ministerial
+ranking.
+
+The party conference represented a major success for Ceausescu in his
+drive to gain undisputed political control. All of his proposals were
+unanimously adopted, and the party statutes were changed to enable him
+to become the head of state, as president of the Council of State, as
+well as head of the party, a reversal of the 1965 proscription against
+one individual simultaneously holding prominent posts in both the party
+and state. The nomination of Ceausescu was made by Stoica, the incumbent
+president of the Council of State, on the grounds that uniting the
+highest offices of the party and the state would eliminate the
+duplication of functions and increase efficiency. Stoica was given a
+position in the party Secretariat and later, in 1969, was named chairman
+of the Central Auditing Commission, a post he continued to hold in early
+1972.
+
+As a result of the approval of Ceausescu's recommendations, a number of
+changes were effected in local government and party organizations.
+Certain positions in the party and state organizations were fused, the
+county or city party first secretary also becoming chairman of the local
+people's council (see ch. 8). The secretaries of local party units and
+labor union representatives were included on the councils of the
+industrial enterprises.
+
+Following the recommendations of the party conference, the day after the
+conference adjourned the Grand National Assembly convened to elect
+Ceausescu as president of the Council of State, and it approved
+legislation to implement most of the other conference decisions. At the
+same time, the assembly elected a new Council of State consisting of (in
+addition to Ceausescu) three vice presidents and fifteen other members.
+A new Council of Ministers was also elected, with Maurer again named as
+prime minister. Apostol was demoted from his position as a first deputy
+prime minister to his previously held post as chairman of the General
+Union of Trade Unions. Draghici was removed from the party Secretariat
+and given a position as a deputy prime minister under Maurer. With the
+successful demotion of his chief rivals, Ceausescu emerged at the close
+of 1967 as the undisputed leader of both the party and the state.
+
+
+Rehabilitation and De-Stalinization
+
+With his power base firmly established, Ceausescu acted to fully
+disassociate his regime from the Gheorghiu-Dej era. In April 1968, at a
+plenary session of the Central Committee, the report of the commission
+of inquiry, which had been secretly established in late 1965, was made
+public. The Gheorghiu-Dej regime was severely indicated for fraudulently
+conspiring to arrange the trial and execution of Patrascanu in 1954 and
+for violations of justice in the other political show trials of the
+1950s. Patrascanu was exonerated of all charges, and several other of
+the trial victims were officially rehabilitated.
+
+Because of this close association with Gheorghiu-Dej and his position as
+head of the internal affairs ministry during the period of the trials,
+the Central Committee dismissed Draghici from all his positions. Apostol
+and Stoica were censured but were allowed to remain in their posts,
+although their standing in the party was considerably weakened.
+
+Throughout the 1968-70 period the Ceausescu regime continued a gradual
+and cautious policy of de-Stalinization in domestic affairs and
+continued, as well, to assert the country's independent stance in
+international relations. The domestic relaxation was limited, however,
+and, in an address to an association of artists in April 1968, Ceausescu
+cautioned both intellectuals and artists not to overstep the bounds
+established by the party.
+
+The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Treaty
+Organization (Warsaw Pact) in August 1968 posed a crisis to the
+Ceausescu regime and raised the possibility of Soviet intervention in
+Romania. Ceausescu's firm denunciation of the invasion, however, served
+to unify the population behind him. His call for national mobilization
+and the creation of a home guard for national defense elicited broad
+popular support and gained him stature as the defender of Romanian
+independence.
+
+In late 1968 the PCR leadership acted to establish a new national
+political organization, the Socialist Unity Front, in order to bring
+representatives of the major mass organizations and other associations
+into a party-dominated framework for the political mobilization of the
+population (see ch. 8). As a replacement for the older and largely
+ineffective People's Democratic Front, the new front organization was
+structured around a national council and, theoretically, was given
+advisory powers on important policy matters.
+
+In addition to the PCR, the Socialist Unity Front's National Council
+included representatives of: labor unions; cooperative farmers'
+organizations; consumers' cooperatives; professional, cultural, and
+scientific associations; women's youth, and veterans' organizations;
+religious bodies; and the councils of the Hungarian, German, Serbian,
+and Ukrainian minorities. Ceausescu was elected president of the front,
+and Maurer, the vice president.
+
+The first major activity of the Socialist Unity Front was the conducting
+of national elections on March 2, 1969. As only the front was allowed to
+nominate candidates, just one candidate was named for each Grand
+National Assembly seat. The official results indicated that over 99
+percent of the eligible voters cast their ballots and, of these, 99.75
+percent endorsed the Socialist Unity Front slate. Elections to the newly
+organized bodies of local government took place at the same time (see
+ch. 8).
+
+Convening ten days after the election, the new Grand National Assembly
+reelected Ceausescu as president of the Council of State and renamed
+Maurer as prime minister. At the same time, the assembly enacted
+legislation establishing the Defense Council that Ceausescu had earlier
+proposed. Observers of East European political affairs considered the
+timing of this enactment, coming just three days before an important
+meeting of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, as a further assertion of
+Romania's independent course in international affairs (see ch. 10).
+
+
+The Tenth Party Congress
+
+Almost 2,000 delegates attended the Tenth Party Congress of the PCR held
+in Bucharest from August 6 to 12, 1969. In addition, delegations were
+present from sixty-six foreign communist parties (see ch. 10). The main
+features of the congress included Ceausescu's unanimous reelection as
+general secretary of the party for a five-year term, the enlargement of
+the Central Committee from 121 to 165 members, and the approval of
+revisions of the party statutes.
+
+Among other things, the statute revisions provided for the election of
+the Central Committee by secret ballot and transferred the
+responsibility for electing the general secretary from the Central
+Committee to the party congress. It was also decided that party
+congresses would be convened every five years rather than every four so
+that each congress could discuss and adopt a five-year economic plan for
+the country. A unique feature of the congress was the division of the
+delegates into five working commissions, with their sessions open to
+foreign journalists.
+
+When it came time for the congress to elect the Central Committee,
+nearly half of the remaining older members were replaced by younger men
+who were supporters of Ceausescu. Apostol and Stoica were conspicuously
+not reelected and, immediately after the congress, Apostol was
+discharged from his position as chairman of the General Union of Trade
+Unions after being charged with "serious breaches of Communist
+morality."
+
+Although the modifications in the party statutes were designed to allow
+for more democratic procedures in party affairs, the principle of
+centralized control continued to be strongly maintained. Whereas all
+party members were encouraged to voice their opinions on any given
+issue, once a decision was adopted the minority was expected to yield to
+the majority and aid in implementation of policies. The congress
+resolved that party control and ideological guidance must reach into all
+aspects of the life of the people.
+
+
+POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
+
+The Romanian Communist Party
+
+Originally founded in 1921, the Romanian Communist Party was declared
+illegal in 1924 and forced into a clandestine existence until the
+closing years of World War II. After the war, fully supported by the
+Soviet Union, the party gradually consolidated power and sought to
+extend its base of popular support through intensified propaganda
+activity. In early 1948 the PCR merged with one wing of the Social
+Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers' Party. By the end of
+1952, however, almost all of the former Social Democrats had been
+expelled from the leading party bodies and replaced by active Communists
+(see ch. 2).
+
+
+Organization
+
+Basic decisions concerning the organization, operation, and membership
+of the PCR are contained in the party statutes, the fundamental document
+of the party. Originally adopted in May 1948, the statutes have
+undergone several modifications, with more significant revisions being
+made in 1955, 1965, 1967, and 1969.
+
+All organs of the party are closely interrelated and operate on the
+principle of democratic centralism. Derived from the Communist Party of
+the Soviet Union, the concept of democratic centralism provides for the
+election of party bodies at all levels but requires a firm hierarchical
+subordination of each party organ to the next higher unit. In practice,
+this means that party programs and policies are directed from a single
+center and that decisions of higher organs are unconditionally binding
+on all lower organs as well as on individual members. The statutes call
+for the free and open discussion of policy questions at congresses,
+conferences, local membership meetings, and in the party press; however,
+discipline requires that once a decision is made the minority fully
+submits to decisions of the majority.
+
+According to the party statutes, the supreme organ of the PCR is the
+party congress consisting of delegates elected by the county (_judet_)
+conferences on the basis of one delegate for every 1,000 party members.
+As revised in 1969, the statutes call for the convening of a party
+congress every five years. Duties of the congress include the election
+of the PCR general secretary, election of the Central Committee and the
+Central Auditing Commission, and the discussion and adoption of programs
+and policies proposed by the central organs of the party.
+
+Between congresses the leading party organ is the Central Committee.
+Consisting of 165 full members and 120 alternate members, the Central
+Committee is responsible for the overall direction of all party
+activities and the implementation of policies established by the party
+congress. In addition, the Central Committee screens nominations for the
+more important party and state positions. Party statutes require a
+plenary session of the Central Committee at least four times a year (see
+fig. 9).
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 9. Organization of the Romanian Communist
+  Party, 1972._]
+
+After its election by the party congress, the Central Committee in turn
+elects, from among its own number, the members of the leading party
+bodies: the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the
+Secretariat. The election is largely a formality, however, for in
+practice the Standing Presidium is the primary center of political power
+and is a self-perpetuating body. Any change in its membership or in that
+of the Secretariat is generated from within rather than through a
+democratic decision of the Central Committee. As general secretary of
+the party, Ceausescu heads both the Standing Presidium and the
+Secretariat and chairs the Executive Committee.
+
+To accomplish its administrative tasks the Central Committee is provided
+with an extensive bureaucratic structure that in many instances
+parallels the organization of the government ministries. A chancellery
+office, headed by a chief and three deputies, coordinates the
+committee's overall administrative activities. Party work is organized
+under three directorates, each headed by a supervisory secretary, and a
+number of administrative sections and functional commissions. The
+directorates, designated as international affairs and propaganda, party
+organization, and press and cultural affairs, supervise and direct the
+work of the administrative sections. Not all of these sections are
+listed in the party statutes or by the party press. A partial listing
+includes sections for the economy, local administration, propaganda,
+press, international affairs, party organs and personnel, national
+minorities, and state security.
+
+In addition to the directorates and administrative sections there were,
+in 1970, eight formally established commissions directly tied to the
+Central Committee. These were listed as the commissions for agriculture
+and forestry; economic problems; ideological and cultural-educational
+problems; international relations; organizational problems and internal
+party activity; training of cadres, education, and science; development
+of the social and state system; and social questions, public health, and
+living standards.
+
+Two party training institutions, the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy of
+Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres and the
+Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies, operate under the
+direct supervision of the Central Committee. Located in Bucharest, both
+of these institutions are designed to train and indoctrinate key
+bureaucratic personnel. The Central Committee also maintains a museum of
+party history in Bucharest.
+
+In charge of all of the political machinery of the PCR, the Standing
+Presidium of the Central Committee is the party's center for
+decisionmaking and policy control and, as such, is the most powerful
+body in the country. There were, at the beginning of 1972, four party
+leaders who held positions concurrently on the Standing Presidium, the
+Executive Committee, and the Secretariat: Ceausescu, Manea Manescu,
+Paul Niculescu-Mizil, and Gheorghe Pana. Political observers considered
+these men to be the most powerful in the party and, hence, the nation.
+All of the nine members of the Standing Presidium are also members of
+the Executive Committee.
+
+Little information is available on the responsibilities given the
+Executive Committee, although some observers have described it as
+providing an administrative link between the Standing Presidium and the
+Central Committee. In practice it has functioned as a rump Central
+Committee when the latter is not in session. The Secretariat serves as
+the continuing administrative unit of the party. It supervises the
+execution of policies decided upon by the Standing Presidium. Three
+members of the Secretariat serve as the supervising secretaries of the
+major directorates of the Central Committee.
+
+Two other important party organs function under the supervision of the
+Standing Presidium and the Secretariat: the Central Auditing Commission
+and the Central Collegium, formerly known as the Party Control
+Commission. Consisting of forty-five members (none of whom may belong to
+the Central Committee), the Central Auditing Commission is empowered to
+exercise general control over party financial affairs and examine the
+management of finances by the various party organs. The nine-member
+Central Collegium deals with matters of party discipline and serves as a
+type of appeals court for penalties imposed on members by county or
+local party committees.
+
+An interlocking of authority and functions at the highest level of the
+party and state is evidenced in the frequency with which the senior
+party officials also hold important government posts. All of the members
+of the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the Secretariat
+are also deputies to the Grand National Assembly, and most of them hold
+other prominent government positions in the Council of State, the
+Defense Council, or the Council of Ministers.
+
+The party statutes describe the local cell, the basic party unit, as the
+foundation of the party. Cells exist in factories, offices,
+cooperatives, military and police units, social and cultural
+organizations, and residential areas. Some of these cell groups consist
+of as few as three members, whereas those in the larger enterprises may
+have as many as 300 members. In 1969 there were an estimated 69,000 of
+these local party units.
+
+Functions of the local and occupational cell units include the
+implementation of party directives and programs, the recruitment and
+indoctrination of new members, and the dissemination of propaganda
+directed at those outside the party. Members have the duty to
+participate in social, economic, and cultural activities, particularly
+in the direction of the economic enterprises, and to critically examine
+production and community life in the light of party ideology and goals.
+In all of its activities the local cell is required to uphold the
+discipline of the party and to adhere to the policies established by the
+ruling bodies of the PCR.
+
+Between the local cell unit and the higher organs of the PCR stands a
+hierarchy of party committees organized on the county, town, and
+communal levels. Each of these units is directly subordinate to the next
+higher level of the party organization. In Bucharest a city party
+committee supervises the activities of the communal and enterprise
+cells. Each party committee sets up its own bureau and elects a
+secretariat. In most cases the secretariat consists of a first
+secretary, a first vice chairman, and three or more vice chairmen or
+secretaries.
+
+The activity of the bureaus is conducted through several functional
+departments, which generally consist of sections on personnel,
+administration, agitation and propaganda, economic enterprises, youth,
+and women's affairs. The county and city committees also have their own
+control commissions and training programs. The first secretary of the
+county committee also serves as chairman of the county people's council,
+interlocking the party and government offices (see ch. 8).
+
+The party leadership decided in late 1967 to require the active
+participation of the party secretaries in the administrative organs of
+the enterprises and other institutions in their respective areas. County
+committees are aided in their administrative duties by economic
+commissions that oversee the general economic development of the county
+and fix both current and long-range goals. In addition, the economic
+commissions are charged with the coordination of all economic activity,
+the conducting of studies and making of proposals for setting production
+goals, and the allocation of material and human resources in the county.
+
+At each of these levels--county, city, town, and commune--the highest
+authoritative organ is the party conference, which fills a role on these
+lower levels similar to that of the party congress on the national
+level. The party statutes as revised in 1969 call for the convening of
+conferences every fourth year in the counties, in the city of Bucharest,
+and in the larger towns. In the communes and smaller towns the
+conference is required to be held once every two years. Although the
+conferences are held ostensibly to discuss problems and formulate
+policies, they serve in practice as transmission belts for the official
+party line set down by the central PCR authorities. County conferences
+and the Bucharest city conference elect delegates to the national party
+congress.
+
+
+Membership
+
+The PCR emerged at the close of World War II with only about 1,000
+members. Four years later, just before its merger with the Social
+Democratic Party and after an intensive propaganda campaign and a strong
+membership drive, the party reported over 700,000 members. When the PCR
+merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers'
+Party in 1948, some 200,000 Social Democrats were added to the
+membership roll. A purge of so-called hostile and nominal members during
+1950 resulted in the expulsion of 190,000 persons from the party,
+reducing the total membership to about 720,000 at the beginning of 1951.
+
+During the early years of full communist control of Romania, the party
+considered itself the vanguard of the working class and made a sustained
+effort to recruit workers into party membership. By the end of 1950 the
+PCR reported that 64 percent of the leading party positions and 40
+percent of the higher government posts were filled by members of the
+working class. The efforts to recruit workers into the party have
+consistently fallen short of the set goals, however, and from time to
+time throughout the period since 1950 party leaders have decried the
+fact that the social composition of the membership has not included an
+adequate proportion of workers.
+
+By 1964 the party membership was reported at 1.2 million. This total was
+increased to 1.5 million by 1966, a figure that represented about 8
+percent of the country's population. Membership composition, in 1966,
+was reported as 40 percent workers, 32 percent peasants, and 22 percent
+intelligentsia, with the remaining 6 percent not classified.
+
+After Ceausescu's accession to power in 1965, he sought to increase the
+party's influence, broaden the base of popular support, and bring in new
+members. At a first step, he eliminated the probationary period, which
+had varied from one year for industrial workers to two years for
+peasants, white-collar workers, and intellectuals. Additional members
+were also sought by enticing those who had belonged to the old Social
+Democratic Party and the former Socialist Party by dating their
+membership from the time of their entry into those parties.
+
+The result of the membership drive, announced at the 1967 party
+conference, was the addition of 230,000 new PCR members, bringing the
+total to 1,730,000. At the 1969 party congress it was announced that the
+PCR had 1,924,500 members, representing about one-seventh of the total
+adult population. In February 1971 the Central Committee reported that
+the membership had grown to 2.1 million, making the PCR one of the
+largest communist parties in Eastern Europe.
+
+Statistics reported by the party press indicated the nationality
+composition of the PCR as consisting of 88.8 percent Romanians, 8.4
+percent Hungarians, and slightly over 1 percent Germans, with the
+remainder encompassing other nationalities. As the 1966 census had shown
+that Hungarians represented 8.4 percent of the total population, the
+Germans 2 percent, and other nationalities about 2 percent, the
+nationality composition of the party compares favorably with that of the
+country as a whole.
+
+Workers reportedly made up 44 percent of the party membership; peasants,
+26 percent; and intellectuals and white-collar workers, 23 percent.
+Seven percent were unclassified as to status. Statistics indicating the
+age composition of the party were also published, revealing that 24
+percent of the membership was under thirty years of age; persons between
+the ages of thirty and forty made up 36 percent of the membership, and
+40 percent of the members were over forty years old.
+
+The PCR membership campaign had been given particular emphasis in the
+major industries, such as the metal, machine-building, coal, petroleum,
+and chemical industries, where 27 to 36 percent of the workers were
+reported to belong to the party. Female membership was reported as 23
+percent, up from 17 percent in 1960 and 21 percent in 1965. The report
+contained a recommendation that a larger number of women be assigned to
+responsible positions. Statistics for the army revealed that 90 percent
+of the officers and 55 percent of the noncommissioned officers were
+party members. The fact that over 926,000 members lived in rural areas
+was asserted by the PCR leaders to be proof of peasant support and a
+demonstration of the effectiveness of the party in organizing at the
+village level.
+
+In 1970 the party press reported that an analysis of the leading
+national and local PCR bodies revealed that the greater proportion of
+their memberships consists of those drawn from the ranks of the working
+class. Of the 285 members and alternate members of the Central
+Committee, 197, or nearly 70 percent, were workers or persons who had
+come from the workers' ranks. Of the 4,698 members of county party
+committees, 2,144 or 45.6 percent were said to be workers or from the
+working class. Together, workers and peasants were reported to make up
+over 64 percent of the membership of county committees. As many as 81
+percent of the activists of the county, municipal, and communal party
+committees were--according to their basic professions--workers, foremen,
+or technicians.
+
+
+Party Training
+
+In early 1970 the PCR carried out a major reorganization of its primary
+institution for the training of leading party workers, the Stefan
+Gheorghiu Party Academy. With the reorganization, the full name of the
+institution became the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy for Social-Political
+Education and the Training of Leading Cadres. Its tasks were defined as
+the training of party activists and the development of party leaders
+capable of resolving problems and "applying the science of political
+leadership to the party and society."
+
+Ceausescu explained that the reorganization was necessary for upgrading
+the training of activists for the party as well as for various sectors
+of economic and state life. He also stated that the combination of party
+training with state and economic activity is based on the principle that
+the PCR is the leading force of the society and, as such, must ensure
+the proper training of the personnel needed to guide all sectors of
+activity.
+
+As reorganized, the academy is divided into two departments, one for the
+training of cadres in the party and in mass organizations and a second
+for the training of personnel who work in the economy and state
+administration. Each department is subdivided into a number of
+institutes, sections, and training centers. Within the first department
+is the Institute for Training Cadres in Social-Political Management,
+which in turn is subdivided into sections for political-organizational
+activity, political-ideological activity, and political-economic
+activity. Also within the same department are the Journalism Faculty,
+the Center for the Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization
+Cadres, the Center for Improving the Political-Ideological Training of
+Teachers of Social-Political Sciences in State Schools, and the Center
+for Activist Training Courses. The Center for Activist Training Courses
+provided programs of study for activists in the party, the youth
+organization, labor unions, and workers in offices of foreign affairs.
+The last two centers are divided into several sections that specialize
+in the training of particular classes of activists.
+
+The second department, that which provided training for state employees
+and for those working in economic activities, consists of the Central
+Institute for the Education of Leading Cadres in the Economy and State
+Administration, a section for short-term courses, and a section for
+training in specialized management and organizational problems. The
+institute includes sections on the organization and management of
+industrial activity, of construction, of transport and telecommunications,
+of agriculture, of circulation of goods and services, of planning, and
+of state administration. In addition, the department organizes courses
+for chairmen of agricultural production cooperatives.
+
+Admission to the academy programs is carefully controlled by the party.
+Courses in the first department last for four years, and candidates are
+selected from among the activists in the county and city party
+committees and the central PCR bodies and from loyal party workers in
+the mass organizations. Political activists in the Ministry of the Armed
+Forces, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the State Security Council
+are also eligible for training in the first department.
+
+PCR regulations stipulate that candidates for training in the first
+department must have worked for at least three years in production and
+have had at least three years' experience in mass organizations. In
+addition, the candidate must have completed at least a five-month course
+in one of the lower level party schools, have a high school diploma or
+its equivalent, and be thirty-five years of age or younger.
+
+Courses in the second department last for two years. Requirements for
+admission into this department include extensive experience in
+organization and management related to industry and labor, at least
+eight years of service, membership in the PCR, graduation from a higher
+education institute, and an age of forty years or younger.
+
+In addition to the broad program of the academy, the PCR also maintains
+other ideological training institutions. These include the Institute of
+Historical and Social-Political Studies in Bucharest, which functions
+under the direct supervision of the Central Committee, and lower level
+training programs that operate under the county party committees.
+
+During 1971 the PCR placed increased emphasis on both the political and
+general education of all party workers, and the Central Committee
+decreed that only those who can keep up to date in their fields of
+activity would be promoted. As a followup to the decree, the Central
+Committee initiated a series of twenty- to thirty-day training programs
+and required some 15,000 persons from party, state, and mass
+organizations to attend the sessions. The order included a warning that
+those who did not successfully complete the courses would lose their
+jobs.
+
+Observers of Romanian politics stated that the decision to require this
+additional training of state and party workers stemmed from the fact
+that the majority of personnel on both the central and local levels had
+been named to their positions on the basis of faithful party activity
+rather than their professional qualifications. The stipulation that
+those who do not successfully complete the courses would lose their jobs
+enables the party to replace those who are not qualified to fill their
+positions.
+
+The study programs, designed to include practical work, discussion of
+specific problems, and field trips, cover a number of subjects including
+"the basic Marxist-Leninist sciences of management and organization,"
+automatic data processing, the utilization of electronic calculators,
+methods of socioeconomic analysis, and the projection of plans, as well
+as a number of special subjects related to the various fields of
+activity of the participants. To facilitate the training of larger
+numbers, branches of the Stefan Gheorghiu Party Academy's Center for the
+Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization Cadres were set up
+in Bucharest and in seven counties.
+
+
+Mass Organizations
+
+The PCR has fostered the development of a large number of mass
+organizations that function as its auxiliaries. Comprised of members of
+an interest group or a profession whose welfare they purport to serve,
+the mass organizations provide channels for the transmission of policy
+and doctrine from the party to the general population. PCR leaders have
+described the duties of mass organizations as the mobilization of the
+working people for the fulfillment of party policies and the provision
+for their participation in the economic, political, and cultural life of
+the country. Leaders of the mass organizations are always reliable PCR
+members.
+
+Citizens are constitutionally guaranteed the right to join together in
+organizations. At the same time, the Constitution defines the leading
+role of the party in relation to the mass organizations, asserting that
+through such organizations the PCR "achieves an organized link with the
+working class, the peasantry, the intelligentsia, and the other
+categories of working people" and mobilizes them in "the struggle for
+the completion of the building of socialism."
+
+Two broad classes of organizations are included under the rubric of mass
+organizations: those based on common interests or common categories or
+persons, such as youth and women's associations, and those based on
+professions, such as the General Union of Trade Unions. Several of the
+organizations belong to international organizations and associations,
+such as the World Federation of Trade Unions and the World Federation of
+Democratic Youth.
+
+Among the more important of the mass organizations are the Union of
+Communist Youth, the General Union of Trade Unions, and the National
+Council of Women. The chairmen of the Union of Communist Youth and the
+General Union of Trade Unions sit on the Council of Ministers and have
+ministerial rank; the chairman of the youth union serves simultaneously
+as head of the Ministry of Youth Problems.
+
+
+The Union of Communist Youth
+
+At the time of its founding in early 1949 the Union of Communist Youth
+(Uniunea Tineretului Comunist--UTC) was looked upon as the youth branch
+of the PCR. It was set up with much the same organizational structure as
+the party and, in practice, functioned both as a youth political party
+and mass organization. Resulting from the party-decreed merger of all
+existing youth organizations, the UTC was given the task of educating
+the young in the spirit of Marxism-Leninism and mobilizing them, under
+the guidance of the party, for the building of socialism.
+
+In early 1972 the UTC continued to be one of the most powerful of the
+mass organizations in the country, with an estimated membership of 2.5
+million. Membership was open to young people between the ages of fifteen
+and twenty-six; those who have reached the age of eighteen could also
+become members of the PCR. The Tenth Party Congress, meeting in 1969,
+introduced the requirement that young people up to the age of twenty-six
+would be accepted into the party only if they were UTC members.
+Decisions on persons to fill the most important leadership positions in
+the UTC were made by the PCR Central Committee.
+
+The structure of the UTC has undergone a number of changes since it was
+originally established. In early 1972 the organization functioned on the
+national level with an eight-member Secretariat, including the first
+secretary who is also the UTC chairman, and a bureau of twenty-one full
+and seven alternate members. In each of the thirty-nine countries and
+the city of Bucharest there exist UTC committees that are similarly
+organized with secretariats and bureaus. The UTC has its own publishing
+facilities and publishes its own propaganda organ, _The Spark of Youth_
+(Scinteia Tineretului).
+
+Statistics on the composition of the youth organization, reported at the
+Ninth UTC Congress held in February 1971, indicated that the membership
+consisted of 30 percent workers, 39 percent students, and 17 percent
+peasants. The remainder consisted of those who were classified as
+intellectuals, clerks, and office workers.
+
+Periodically throughout the 1960s PCR leaders demonstrated growing
+concern for what they termed as shortcomings in the political education
+of the nation's youth. In 1968 this concern led to the establishment of
+the Research Center for Youth Problems and an increased effort to
+instill in the young people a sense of "socialist patriotism." Ceausescu
+asserted the need for all levels of education to be permeated with
+Marxist-Leninist ideology and placed particular emphasis on ideological
+training in the universities.
+
+Political education of young people, both members and non-members, and
+their mobilization in support of PCR policies is considered the primary
+duty of the UTC. It is charged with the organization of political and
+patriotic courses in schools, among peasant groups, and among workers
+and members of the armed forces. The UTC also guides and supervises the
+activities of the Union of Student Associations.
+
+A second youth movement, the Pioneers Organization, was created for
+young people between the ages of nine and fourteen. In late 1971 the
+Pioneers Organization reported a total membership of 1.6 million. The
+organization's responsibilities toward those of its age group parallel
+those of the UTC and involve political and patriotic training. Until
+1966 the Pioneers Organization functioned as an integral part of the
+UTC, but since that time it has been under the direct control of the
+party Central Committee.
+
+
+The General Union of Trade Unions
+
+As the official organization incorporating all blue-collar and
+white-collar workers, the General Union of Trade Unions (Uniunea
+Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania--UGSR) is the largest of the
+country's mass organizations, with a reported membership in early 1972
+of 4.6 million. Headed by a general council, the UGSR consists of twelve
+component labor union federations and forty area councils, one for each
+county and the city of Bucharest. The Central Council is structured with
+a chairman, appointed by the PCR Central Committee, seven secretaries,
+and an executive committee of twenty-seven full and nine alternate
+members. There are an estimated 12,000 local union units.
+
+The primary function of the labor unions is the transmission of party
+policies to the rank and file. The UGSR statutes specify that the
+organization will carry out all of its activities under the political
+leadership of the PCR, and a similar provision is also included in the
+statutes of the county UGSR committees. In addition, the statutes of
+the central body require the organization to work to mobilize labor
+union members to ensure the implementation of party policy. A 1969
+resolution of the Central Council of the UGSR declared that all labor
+union activities would focus on the mobilization of the working people
+to fulfill the state economic plan.
+
+In early 1971, after a period of increased labor discipline problems and
+following a time of severe labor unrest in Poland, the PCR took steps to
+reform the labor union organization. Announcing what he termed as the
+democratization of the UGSR and its component unions, Ceausescu promised
+the workers genuine protection of their interests and a voice in the
+appointment of industrial management. The goal of the PCR program was to
+improve the unions without losing party control, and Ceausescu defined
+democratization as meaning that the labor unions would serve the party
+as a framework for the organization of consultations with the masses and
+as a forum where workers can debate the country's economic and social
+development.
+
+New UGSR statutes were introduced in mid-1971. Observers of Romanian
+political affairs asserted, however, that there were no major changes in
+the system and pointed out that the new statutes still did not give
+labor unions the right to take the initiative in matters concerning
+wages or the living standard. In this regard the unions could fill only
+a watchdog role to assure that the regulations approved by the
+appropriate party and management bodies were being correctly carried
+out.
+
+
+PARTY POLICIES AND PROGRAMS
+
+The major domestic programs that the party sought to promote centered on
+the country's economic development, the integration of national
+minorities, the extension of so-called socialist democracy, and the
+PCR's cultural-ideological campaign. As a means of strengthening its
+leading role, the party leaders acted to improve communication between
+the central PCR organs and the county, city, and commune organizations
+and, at the same time, took additional steps to win mass support.
+
+
+The Economy
+
+In the area of economics the PCR continued its primary emphasis on
+industrial development and was only secondarily concerned with
+agriculture and consumer goods. This emphasis was evidenced in the
+economic plan adopted for the 1971-75 period, approved by the 1969 party
+congress, which concentrates on heavy industry at the expense of
+consumer goods. Although Romania was primarily an agricultural country,
+the PCR leadership in the early 1960s, rejected the plan of the Council
+for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for a division of labor between
+the participating communist states that would have had Romania place the
+greatest emphasis on the development of agriculture. Instead, the PCR
+launched a drive to modernize the country through industrialization (see
+ch. 14; ch. 10).
+
+The policies pursued by the PCR are designed to maintain firm party
+control of the economy. In the formulation of Romania's economic
+development plans, the will of the party is predominant, and the degree
+of party control was augmented by the territorial and administrative
+reorganization of 1968 when economic commissions were established in
+each of the new counties to function under the direct supervision of the
+county PCR committees. These commissions made it possible for the party
+to have a direct hand in the local economic programs.
+
+During 1970 and 1971 party leaders noted that, whereas the annual
+production increase envisaged by the Five-Year Plan (1971-75) had been
+fulfilled for industry, that for agriculture fell far short. Ceausescu
+called for a renewal of intensive efforts in both industry and
+agriculture to meet the requirements of the people and to enable the
+country to achieve the true socialist state of development.
+
+
+National Minorities
+
+The integration of the major non-Romanian national groups into the life
+of the country has posed periodic problems for the PCR throughout the
+post-World War II era. Each of the communist constitutions guaranteed
+equal rights to the national minorities, rights that included the
+opportunity to use their own language and to have representation on
+local bodies of government. The Hungarian Autonomous Region had been
+created by the 1952 Constitution but was not continued under the 1968
+territorial reorganization (see ch. 8; ch. 4).
+
+Party leaders explained the decision to abandon the concept of an
+autonomous region for the Hungarian population in terms of the need to
+integrate all of the minority groups fully into the Romanian political
+community. Spokesmen asserted that it is the policy of the PCR to
+respect the heritage of the various nationality groups and extend to
+them full political rights but at the same time to work to create
+conditions that will serve to unite all of the country under the
+leadership of the party.
+
+PCR leaders have feared the possibility of attempts by foreign elements
+to foster unrest among the country's larger minority groups. This was
+particularly true at the time of the Soviet-led invasion of
+Czechoslovakia, when Romanian leaders were apprehensive about the
+possibility of a similar intervention in their country. At that time PCR
+officials visited the areas where there were concentrations of Hungarian
+and German minorities, stressing national unity and equal rights for all
+national groups.
+
+These efforts were followed in November 1968 by the establishment of
+nationality councils: the Council of Working People of Hungarian
+Nationality and the Council of Working People of German Nationality.
+Units of the Hungarian council were established in fifteen counties, and
+units of the German council were established in nine counties. In
+counties where there existed substantial Serbian or Ukrainian
+populations, similar local councils were established for these groups,
+although only the Hungarian and German minorities maintained councils on
+the national level. The nationality councils were affiliated with the
+Socialist Unity Front. A month after the establishment of the councils
+the Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of the party, passed
+legislation granting the minorities increased representation on local
+government bodies.
+
+In explaining the purposes of the nationality councils, Ceausescu
+declared that they would "cultivate socialist patriotism, socialist
+internationalism, and devotion for our new order and for the common
+fatherland ... against any backward nationalistic concepts and
+manifestations." Observers of Romanian political affairs pointed out,
+however, that the councils are closely tied to the party and, although
+they can serve as means of communication between the PCR and the
+minority groups, they function primarily as transmission belts for party
+policies and as instruments for PCR political and educational
+activities.
+
+
+Social Democracy and Party Ideology
+
+At the same time that the PCR has sought to present itself as a
+progressive force seeking the participation of the people in political
+affairs, it has also carried on a campaign to strengthen what it calls
+the Marxist character of all ideological, cultural, and educational
+activities. Within limits, Ceausescu has encouraged what he has termed
+as "socialist democracy"--open communication between the masses and the
+party leadership--and he has publicly called for the people to express
+their views on political issues.
+
+Socialist democracy is defined by Ceausescu as a spirit of social
+responsibility by which the citizens are inspired to perform their
+duties in accordance with the needs and imperatives of the society as a
+whole. The goal of socialist democracy is to stimulate the masses to
+support the cause of socialism by involving them in the programs of the
+PCR to such an extent that the individual identifies his personal goals
+and values with those of the party.
+
+In mid-1971 Ceausescu announced a new ideological program and the
+tightening of party controls over government, science, and cultural
+life. Observers gave various interpretations to the campaign. Some saw
+it as a move to respond to Soviet criticism of Romanian foreign policy
+by reminding Moscow that socialism was not endangered in Romania and
+that this pretext could not be used to justify Soviet interference;
+others considered it as an assertion of authority by Ceausescu at a time
+when he judged it necessary to combat ideological laxity at home. The
+action may also have been prompted by a concern that party authority and
+discipline were being undermined by Western cultural influences.
+
+Partially directed at the youth of the nation, the campaign included
+curbs against alcohol in youth clubs and the screening of foreign
+television programs and music. Another objective of the campaign was
+increased party control over literature and cultural life; new
+ideological guidelines were issued for writers, publishers, and
+theaters. In speaking of the role of the arts, Ceausescu declared that
+they must serve the single purpose of socialist-communist education. At
+the same time, he called for increased guidance of the arts by all
+levels of the PCR and requested that works of art and literature be
+judged for their conformity with party standards and their service to
+the working class. Ceausescu ruled out repressive measures, however, and
+asserted that the party would rely on persuasion to implement the new
+ideological program (see ch. 7).
+
+The campaign encountered some resistance, although more passive than
+overt. A number of writers boycotted the literary magazines in protest
+against the restrictions imposed on publishing and, despite the fact
+that the official writers' union circulated a statement in support of
+the party's stand, many of the more prominent writers refused to endorse
+it. In August 1971 the editor of a leading literary journal, who was
+also a member of the PCR Central Committee, resigned both positions as a
+protest against the stricter party controls.
+
+Resistance was also evident in the party and state bureaucracy, where
+the ideological campaign was welcomed in principle but frequently
+ignored in practice. Many of the nation's youth also manifested
+disagreement with the restrictive content campaign. Assessing the
+progress of the program in late 1971, Ceausescu admitted that the new
+approach had not been generally adopted among the youth and asserted
+that the party organizations had not been diligent enough in the
+enforcement of the code. Particular criticism was directed at the
+Executive Committee and Secretariat for having failed to implement the
+decisions taken for the improvement of ideological activity.
+
+Although it is difficult for outside political observers to detect
+differences within the top bodies of the party, in regard to the
+ideological campaign tensions have been more evident. For the first time
+since Ceausescu came to power in 1965, the Central Committee plenum,
+meeting in November 1971, did not report unanimous agreement on all
+issues. Some observers indicated that the effect of the campaign has
+stimulated opposition to some of Ceausescu's policies. There was no
+evidence, however, that such opposition is organized or that it provides
+any serious threat to Ceausescu's position, and no leading figure in
+either the government or the party has openly expressed views that
+differ from those of the general secretary.
+
+
+POLITICAL VALUES AND ATTITUDES
+
+The Regime and the People
+
+Inasmuch as the PCR has proclaimed itself to be the only legitimate
+source of political power and, as well, the leading force in all aspects
+of economic and cultural life, the development of independent political
+and cultural values has been thoroughly circumscribed. Party control
+extends to all aspects of the society and embraces educational and
+professional opportunities. Although PCR leaders have promised changes
+in the manner of selection for advancement, promotions have been based
+more frequently on party activity and doctrinal reliability than on
+professional competence.
+
+Because of the breadth of party control, accurate information on the
+attitudes of the people toward the regime and toward specific political
+issues is difficult to obtain. The Romanian press functions under the
+direct supervision of the PCR, and tight restrictions are placed on
+foreign correspondents reporting on events inside the country. Observers
+have indicated, however, that not all of the regime's domestic policies
+have been welcomed by all segments of the population and that some party
+policies have left a wake of latent resentments.
+
+Some observers have pointed to the decrease in the number of peasants in
+the party (down 3 percent in the 1969-71 period) as an indication of
+peasant dissatisfaction with the poor living conditions in the rural
+areas and the low income of most of the agricultural cooperatives (see
+ch. 2). Frequently the party responds to signs of discontent by any
+segment of the population by increasing the ideological propaganda
+directed toward it, but the regime has also attempted various reforms to
+counter obvious inadequacies.
+
+Among the more overt examples of discontent with party policy is the
+resistance to accepting job assignments in rural areas shown by
+technical school graduates. Other graduates have also refused to leave
+their home areas to work on collectives; all of these were criticized in
+the party press for giving priority to personal interests instead of
+considering the interests of the society as a whole. PCR officials
+declared that the graduates had been trained at state expense and that
+their refusal to fulfill their obligations as assigned by the party
+could not be tolerated. This resistance to party-decreed transfers was
+also evident among other groups during 1969 and 1970, including
+teachers, builders, and administrative workers.
+
+Observers consider such situations as evidence that the party is having
+difficulty reconciling an essentially authoritarian system with a policy
+of socialist democracy that encourages public initiative and
+participation. The persistence with which Ceausescu pursued the new
+ideological campaign during 1971 gave some observers the impression that
+he had opted to put his weight down on the side of continued
+authoritarianism.
+
+
+Romanian Nationalism
+
+The regime scored a marked success in basing its appeal for popular
+support on nationalistic sentiments and in giving emphasis to Romanian
+history and cultural traditions. Ceausescu has attempted to broaden the
+communist movement to include the aspirations of the people as a whole.
+Whereas in the past the PCR leaders made reference only to communist
+achievements and attributed everything positive to the work of the
+party, Ceausescu has praised Romanian national heroes and has given
+positive emphasis to specifically Romanian contributions to socialist
+development.
+
+To a significant degree the revival of nationalism has gone hand in hand
+with anti-Soviet attitudes. The image of the party was bolstered by the
+PCR leader's refusal to follow the Soviet line on a number of
+significant national and international issues (see ch. 10). At the time
+of the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, Ceausescu's
+denunciation of the action and his call for national mobilization in the
+face of the crisis served to unite the population and strengthen his
+position. Observers have pointed out, however, that this unity has
+appeared to wane with the ebbing of the crisis and with the return to
+the realities of everyday life in Romania.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 10
+
+FOREIGN RELATIONS
+
+
+Throughout the 1960s Romanian foreign policy increasingly diverged from
+that of the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe as the
+Romanian leaders asserted the country's national interests. In early
+1972 the government continued to declare that its foreign policy was
+based on national independence, sovereignty, and the principle of
+noninterference in internal affairs. Government and party leaders
+asserted that Romania would continue to seek development of friendly and
+cooperative relations with all states without regard to differences in
+sociopolitical systems.
+
+Foreign policy was formulated under the direct control of the Standing
+Presidium of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist
+Roman--PCR) and administered through the government ministries. Although
+the regime of PCR General Secretary Nicolae Ceausescu has steadfastly
+sought to maintain an independent stance in foreign affairs and to
+develop political and economic relations with both communist and
+noncommunist states, it has continued to assert the Marxist-Leninist
+character of both its domestic and foreign policies. PCR leaders have
+repeatedly affirmed the party's commitment to the international
+communist movement and to the solidarity of all socialist states.
+
+In the development of an independent foreign policy position the PCR has
+sought to shift away from economic and political domination by the
+Soviet Union and to develop a form of communism geared to the country's
+national interests and in keeping with the regime's perspective on world
+affairs. Although such a course brought the Romanian party and
+government into frequent conflict with the Soviet Union, the Romanian
+leadership continued to insist on its own interpretation and adaptation
+of communism.
+
+In early 1972 Romania maintained full diplomatic relations with more
+than ninety governments, over forty of which maintained embassies in
+Bucharest. In addition, trade and cultural relations were conducted with
+a number of other states with which formal relations had not been
+established. Romania is a member of the United Nations (UN) and a number
+of several UN specialized agencies. It is also a member of the communist
+military alliance known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact)
+and the communist economic alliance called the Council for Mutual
+Economic Assistance (COMECON).
+
+During 1970 and 1971 the regime made increased efforts to cultivate and
+strengthen the country's relations with the developing states of Asia
+and Africa and to extend its relations with the nations of Latin
+America. Personal diplomacy by Ceausescu and other ranking party and
+government leaders served as an important means for maintaining the
+country's international relations.
+
+
+DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY
+
+Historical Factors
+
+After coming under full communist control in the early post-World War II
+period, the country was closely aligned with the international policies
+and goals of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Romania's
+international and domestic policies generally supported the political
+and economic goals of the Soviet Union. Beneath the surface, however, an
+internal party struggle was being waged in Romania between certain
+communist leaders who were fully oriented toward the Soviet Union and
+others who sought an orientation that was less Soviet dominated (see ch.
+2).
+
+Although the internal struggle involved personal ambitions as much as
+political and ideological goals, the group surrounding party First
+Secretary Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej urged the attainment of national goals
+through cooperation with the Soviet Union rather than a position of
+complete integration and exclusive dependence on the Soviets. By
+mid-1952 Gheorghiu-Dej was able to gain full control of the party, purge
+his leading opponents, and assume the dual role of party chief and head
+of the government. Shortly after assuming the premiership, Gheorghiu-Dej
+began a slow and cautious disengagement from Soviet domination, being
+careful, however, not to advocate goals that were at variance with the
+policies of Soviet Premier Josef Stalin. Domestic politics, in fact,
+remained strongly Stalinist in orientation, and it was not until after
+Stalin's death in March 1953 that the first significant steps were taken
+to diminish Soviet control.
+
+To a significant degree the country's foreign policy during the
+Gheorghiu-Dej era reflected the Romanian leader's struggle for his own
+political survival, particularly in the face of Soviet Premier Nikita
+Khrushchev's campaign to weaken the power of Stalinist-oriented Eastern
+European communist leaders. Important also was the growing Romanian
+determination to limit the influence of the Soviet Union in the
+country's internal affairs, especially in the realm of economic
+development. Political events within the communist world during the
+remainder of the 1950s and the early 1960s provided Gheorghiu-Dej the
+opportunity to assert an increasingly independent stance and to gain
+concessions from the Soviets.
+
+Faced with Khrushchev's emphasis on de-Stalinization and his demands for
+communist unity under Soviet leadership, the Gheorghiu-Dej regime
+responded by giving lip service to Soviet policies while, at the same
+time, supporting moves aimed at weakening Soviet hegemony in the
+communist world. In early 1954 Gheorghiu-Dej sensed the political
+significance of Khrushchev's "peaceful coexistence" theme for Romania
+and began to exploit the situation to gain leverage for the extracting
+of concessions from the Soviet Union. The first significant achievement
+came later that same year when negotiations led to the dissolution of
+the joint Soviet-Romanian industrial enterprises that had been the
+primary instrument of Soviet economic exploitation during the postwar
+period.
+
+The regime also sought to gain increased domestic support by emphasizing
+the country's historical traditions, by calling for "Romanian solutions
+to Romanian problems," and by cautiously exploiting the population's
+latent anti-Soviet sentiments. In August 1954, on the occasion of the
+tenth anniversary of the country's liberation from Nazi forces,
+Gheorghiu-Dej asserted that the primary credit for driving out the
+occupiers belonged to Romanian Communists rather than to the Soviet
+army, a view that was subsequently condemned by the Soviets and
+supported by the Communist Chinese.
+
+Although the Gheorghiu-Dej regime formally supported the Soviet action
+in suppressing the 1956 Hungarian revolt, the Romanian leaders attempted
+to exploit the situation in order to obtain additional concessions from
+the Soviets and to gain recognition of the legitimacy of the so-called
+Romanian road to socialism. At that time, one of their primary aims was
+the removal of Soviet occupation forces that had remained in the country
+throughout the post-World War II period. Although the regime was not
+successful in obtaining formal Soviet recognition of a Romanian variant
+of communism, an agreement was reached placing a time limit on the
+presence of the Soviet troops, the forces finally being withdrawn in
+1958.
+
+Important problems were posed to the Gheorghiu-Dej regime by the
+reactivation of COMECON and the Soviet intentions to integrate the
+economies of the member states. Initially established in 1949 as the
+Soviet counterpart to the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan),
+COMECON was largely dormant until 1955, when Khrushchev decided to
+revitalize the organization as an instrument of Soviet economic policy
+in Eastern Europe. COMECON plans called for the subordination of
+national economic plans to an overall planning body that would determine
+economic development for the member states as a whole. Romania was to be
+assigned the role of a supplier of raw materials and agricultural
+produce for the more industrially developed members (see ch. 2).
+
+Gheorghiu-Dej rejected such a subservient role for Romania and proceeded
+with his own plans for the country's industrial development, asserting
+the right of each COMECON member state to develop its own economy in
+accord with national needs and interests, a position that was, in turn,
+rejected by the Soviets. As a reaction to Soviet pressures and the need
+to lessen Romanian dependence on COMECON, the regime initiated a gradual
+and cautious expansion of economic relations with noncommunist states.
+
+In 1957 Ion Gheorghe Maurer became minister of foreign affairs and,
+under the direction of Gheorghiu-Dej, initiated programs that emphasized
+the national character of Romanian foreign policy. Included in these
+programs were plans for the attainment of self-sufficiency in the
+machine-tool industry and in the production of iron and steel. At the
+same time, additional steps were taken to increase trade with Western
+Europe and the United States.
+
+The conflict with the Soviet Union became more acute in 1962 when
+Gheorghiu-Dej again rejected the COMECON plan for Romania and, later in
+the year, announced that a contract for the construction of a large
+steel mill at Galati had been concluded with a British-French
+consortium. Romanian statements in support of Albania further
+antagonized the Soviet leaders. During 1963 and 1964 Romanian-Soviet
+relations continued to deteriorate as the Gheorghiu-Dej regime sought to
+exploit the Sino-Soviet dispute and moved closer to the Communist
+Chinese position on the equality of communist states and the rejection
+of the leading role of the Soviet party. In November 1963 Maurer
+declared the readiness of Romania to mediate the Sino-Soviet dispute, a
+suggestion that Moscow considered arrogant and anti-Soviet.
+
+A statement issued by the party Central Committee in April 1964 declared
+the right of Romania and all other nations to develop national policies
+in the light of their own interests and domestic requirements. During
+the remainder of that year the volume of economic and cultural contacts
+with Western nations increased significantly. The increased role of the
+United States in the Vietnam hostilities, however, served to curb the
+Gheorghiu-Dej regime's efforts to improve relations with the United
+States, and the sudden death of Gheorghiu-Dej in March 1965 raised
+questions as to the future direction of Romanian foreign policy.
+
+Under Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Nicolae Ceausescu, Romania's foreign
+policy continued to diverge from that of the Soviet Union and the other
+members of COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. Increasingly assertive of
+national interests, the Ceausescu regime antagonized the Soviet Union by
+its establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of
+Germany (West Germany) in 1967 and by its refusal to follow the Soviet
+lead in breaking relations with Israel in the wake of the 1967
+Arab-Israeli War.
+
+The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Pact
+in August 1968 posed a particular threat to Romania. Observers of
+Eastern European political affairs saw the invasion as a severe blow to
+the basic assumptions of Romanian foreign policy, which included the
+belief that the Soviet Union would not intervene militarily against
+another member of the Warsaw Pact as long as the system of communist
+party rule was firmly maintained and membership in the pact was
+continued.
+
+From the outset of the Czechoslovak crisis the Ceausescu regime asserted
+that the only basis for relations between states was respect for
+national independence and sovereignty and a policy of noninterference in
+another state's internal affairs. The actual invasion, however, marked a
+reversal for Romanian foreign policy and, although the initial response
+was one of condemnation and defiance, Romania was put on the defensive.
+
+The invasion of Czechoslovakia marked something of a turning point in
+Romania's relations with COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet
+enunciation of the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine--the concept that the
+protection of socialism in any communist state is the legitimate concern
+of all communist states--was intended as a clear warning to the
+Ceausescu regime.
+
+Pressures mounted on Romania to cooperate more fully in the Warsaw Pact
+and to agree to a supranational planning body within the framework of
+COMECON. Economic conditions as well as the political and military
+pressures pushed the Ceausescu regime toward closer cooperation with
+COMECON, although the Romanians continued to resist the Soviet efforts
+toward economic integration.
+
+As a result of these pressures, the 1968-70 period was one of relative
+passivity for the Romanians in foreign affairs, although the period was
+marked by several important events, including the visit of President
+Richard M. Nixon to Romania in August 1969 and the long-delayed signing
+of the friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in July 1970. By early
+1971 the Ceausescu regime again became more assertive of its independent
+line in foreign policy.
+
+
+Principles of Foreign Policy
+
+According to the 1965 Constitution, the foreign policy of the country is
+based on strict respect for the principles of national independence and
+sovereignty, equality of rights, noninterference in internal affairs,
+and interstate relations based on mutual advantage. The Constitution
+declares the nation's desire to maintain friendly and fraternal
+relations with all socialist states as well as to promote friendship and
+cooperation with states of other sociopolitical systems. Participation
+in international organizations is directed toward the furthering of
+peace and international understanding.
+
+Spokesmen for the regime have repeatedly asserted these principles as
+the only acceptable basis for relations between states both within and
+outside the world communist movement. In contrast to the Soviet position
+that socialism can only be fully realized by transcending national
+forms, Romanian policy gives primary emphasis to the distinct
+requirements of the nation. At the same time, however, Romania
+recognizes the duties of each socialist state toward cooperative and
+mutually advantageous relations with all socialist nations and fraternal
+communist parties.
+
+In keeping with these principles the PCR has rejected the so-called
+Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty of socialist states. Instead,
+regime spokesmen have asserted that within the socialist system all
+Marxist-Leninist parties are equal and have the exclusive right to
+determine appropriate solutions for their own problems and manage their
+own affairs. Romanian policy maintains that relations between socialist
+states must be based on equal rights, complete trust, mutual respect,
+and fraternal cooperation. In defending the country's policies, PCR
+leaders have repeatedly argued that, because the construction of
+communism is being carried out under a great variety of conditions,
+there will inevitably be different opinions regarding the forms and
+procedures employed as well as different points of view regarding
+international problems. Such differences, however, should not affect
+relations between socialist states or the unity of the socialist
+movement.
+
+In response to Soviet calls for socialist solidarity, a ranking member
+of the PCR Standing Presidium declared, "it would be unrealistic to
+think that fourteen socialist countries spread over three continents,
+each with its specific characteristics, should show themselves strictly
+identical in the building of a new society." Additional party statements
+insisted that each country must be allowed to apply the principles of
+Marxism-Leninism to its own particular conditions and that no general
+line for all parties could be established. In adjusting Marxism-Leninism
+to national needs each party must be able to make its own unique
+contribution to the enrichment of the entire communist movement.
+
+During the negotiations for the renewal of the friendship treaties with
+the other Warsaw Pact countries, the Ceausescu government repeatedly
+stressed that its own formula for developing international relations
+with noncommunist nations was based on the same principles as those
+applied to socialist states and that Romania was open to the
+establishment of such relations "without regard for difference in the
+social order." A party spokesman asserted that the country's foreign
+relations are not determined by short-term circumstances that are valid
+at one moment and superseded the next but by policies directed at
+long-term cooperation in all fields of common interests.
+
+PCR policy has sought to support the country's independent political
+stance by increasing its economic independence. This has led to the
+rejection of COMECON attempts to integrate the economies of its member
+states and to establish a division of labor among them. Instead, the PCR
+has followed a policy aimed at the industrialization of the country,
+based on the proposition that an expanded industrial base is what is
+most needed for Romania's overall economic development.
+
+In the same manner that the PCR has resisted complete integration into
+COMECON, the regime has also opposed Soviet plans for the fuller
+integration of military forces under the Warsaw Pact. Romanian
+objections to such integration stem from a concern for the preservation
+of the country's national sovereignty and a desire to limit Soviet
+hegemony in Eastern Europe. PCR leaders have described military blocs
+and the existence of foreign troops and military bases on the territory
+of other states as being incompatible with national independence and as
+the primary obstacles to cooperation among nations. On the other hand,
+party spokesmen have frequently stated that, as long as the North
+Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is continued, the socialist
+countries will be forced to maintain the Warsaw Pact.
+
+
+CONDUCT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
+
+Policy Formation
+
+The Constitution assigns to the Grand National Assembly the
+responsibility for establishing the general line of foreign policy and
+assigns its implementation to the Council of Ministers. It is the
+Council of State, however, that is given the overall executive functions
+of ratifying international treaties and establishing diplomatic
+relations with other states. As the head of state, the president of the
+Council of State is charged with representing the country in its
+international relations.
+
+In practice, however, the basic foreign policy decisions are made by the
+Standing Presidium of the PCR rather than the Grand National Assembly.
+Owing to the fact that the same men occupy leading positions in both
+party and government, decisions reached in the Standing Presidium are
+promulgated as decisions of the Council of State. Party spokesmen have
+described the country's foreign policy as being the result of the
+"unitary thinking and action of the leading party bodies based on the
+principle of collective leadership" (see ch. 8; ch. 9).
+
+Within the PCR, foreign policy decisions are channeled through the
+Central Committee's directorate for international affairs, which in turn
+transmits them in the form of directives to the appropriate government
+agencies and oversees their implementation. A commission on foreign
+policy in the Grand National Assembly functions largely to channel party
+decisions to the assembly for its official approval.
+
+As head of the PCR and president of the Council of State, Ceausescu
+personally exercised the primary decisionmaking powers in matters of
+foreign policy just as he did in domestic affairs. Observers of Eastern
+European politics also ascribe influential roles in the determination of
+foreign policy to Prime Minister Maurer and Foreign Minister Corneliu
+Manescu.
+
+Since coming to power in 1965 Ceausescu has been the dominant figure in
+the political life of the country and its principal spokesman in
+international affairs. Believing in the importance of personal
+diplomacy, Ceausescu has made frequent visits to other nations and
+cultivated personal relationships with other heads of state. The prime
+minister and the minister of foreign affairs have also made frequent
+visits to other states to foster international support for the country's
+foreign policy. Manescu had developed broad international contacts
+during his term as president of the twenty-second session of the UN
+General Assembly in 1967.
+
+
+Administration of Foreign Affairs
+
+The Council of Ministers is charged with the coordination and
+implementation of foreign policy and exercises these responsibilities
+through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign
+Trade. Since decisionmaking powers rest in the top echelons of the
+party, the ministries function almost exclusively as administrative
+agencies. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for the
+implementation of party directives in the country's foreign diplomatic
+relations and in the areas of educational, cultural, and scientific
+relations with other states and with international organizations. The
+Ministry of Foreign Trade functions as the central organ for the
+country's international trade and economic activities.
+
+In early 1972 the organizational structure of the Ministry of Foreign
+Affairs remained essentially the same as it had been established after
+the adoption of the new Constitution of 1965. The ministry is organized
+into six geographical departments, twelve functional directorates, and
+three administrative offices. The geographical directorates are
+designated as: the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary;
+the Balkans and the Near East; Western and Central Europe; North America
+and South America; Africa and the Middle East; and the Far East and
+Southeast and South Asia.
+
+The functional directorates are: international organization; cultural
+relations; political synthesis; economic relations; legal and treaties;
+consular; press; protocol; personnel; finance, accounting, and work
+organization; technical and administrative; and secretariat. The three
+administrative offices are designated the Chancellery, the Office of
+Services to the Diplomatic Corps, and the Legal Office. The entire
+organization functioned under the direction of the minister of foreign
+affairs and five deputy ministers.
+
+The Ministry of Foreign Trade is organized into nine bureaus, a legal
+office, and an office for protocol. Bureaus listed under the ministry in
+1970, the latest year for which information was available in early 1972,
+included: economic relations with socialist countries; economic
+relations with developed capitalist countries; economic relations with
+emerging nations; currency and plan coordination; imports and exports;
+personnel and training; administration; budgets; and accounting. The
+ministry functions under the direction of the minister of foreign trade,
+four deputy ministers, and a secretary general.
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
+
+In early 1972 diplomatic relations were maintained with ninety-six
+countries and the so-called Provisional Revolutionary Government of the
+Republic of South Vietnam (Viet Cong). Of these, forty-two governments
+maintained embassies in Bucharest. Nine other governments conducted
+relations through their embassies in Moscow; seven, through their
+embassies in Belgrade; two through their embassies in Prague; and one,
+through its embassy in Athens. The total includes Brazil, with which
+relations were maintained at the legation level, and Spain and San
+Marino, where Romania maintained consulates. Thirty-two of the states
+with which Romania maintained diplomatic relations had not established
+permanent embassies or legations in the country as of early 1972. Trade
+relations were conducted with several other states with which the
+government had not established formal diplomatic ties (see ch. 14).
+
+
+Relations with Communist States and Communist Parties
+
+The Soviet Union
+
+Romania's pursuit of an independent foreign policy has resulted in
+frequent conflicts with the Soviet Union and tense relations between the
+two states. In general, the policy disagreements have centered on
+Romania's unwillingness to participate more fully in the Warsaw Pact,
+rejection of the concept of economic integration under COMECON, refusal
+to take sides in the Sino-Soviet dispute, and development of a foreign
+policy toward the West that runs contrary to Soviet desires. Soviet
+leaders have interpreted the Romanian policies as a direct challenge to
+the leading role of the Soviet party in the world communist movement and
+a rejection of the PCR's obligations to promote "socialist solidarity."
+
+The general policy differences between the two countries were repeatedly
+demonstrated during the 1967-71 period in such instances as the Romanian
+establishment of diplomatic relations with West Germany, the refusal to
+follow the Soviet lead in regard to the Arab-Israeli conflict, the
+refusal to participate in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and
+Ceausescu's strong denunciation of the action, and the rejection of the
+Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty.
+
+Perhaps the most important element complicating relations with the
+Soviet Union has been Romania's refusal to take the Soviet side in the
+Sino-Soviet dispute. In keeping with its policy of maintaining friendly
+and fraternal relations with all socialist states, the Ceausescu regime
+has cultivated relations with the People's Republic of China and is
+thought by some observers to have played a role in the establishment of
+contacts between the Communist Chinese and the United States. In
+mid-1971 Romanian leaders also mediated the restoration of relations
+between the People's Republic of China and Yugoslavia. These actions led
+to charges in the Soviet press that Romania was organizing an
+anti-Soviet bloc in the Balkans under the patronage of the People's
+Republic of China.
+
+Despite the ups and downs of Soviet-Romanian relations throughout the
+period of the Ceausescu regime, the two states signed a twenty-year
+treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance in July 1970.
+This treaty replaced a similar 1948 accord that had been set to expire
+in 1968 but continued in force under an automatic five-year renewal
+clause. Negotiated before the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia,
+the actual signing of the treaty was delayed because of strained
+relations between the two states and Soviet attempts to insert a clause
+containing the essence of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The Ceausescu
+government refused to renegotiate the original agreement, however, and
+the treaty was finally signed at ceremonies in Bucharest.
+
+Brezhnev did not attend the ceremonies and, in contrast to similar
+Soviet treaties with other Eastern European communist states, which were
+signed by both the party leaders and the prime ministers of each
+country, the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed only by the prime
+ministers. Coming in the midst of serious disagreements between the two
+countries, the signing of the treaty was considered by some observers as
+a formality and something of a smokescreen intended to cover a widening
+split.
+
+
+Other Communist States
+
+In general, relations with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German
+Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, and Poland mirrored
+Romania's relations with the Soviet Union. The communist leaders of
+these countries followed the Soviet lead in the policy differences with
+the Ceausescu regime and, although each state had friendship treaties
+that expired in 1968 and 1969, only the treaty with Czechoslovakia was
+renewed before the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed. The Czechoslovakia
+treaty was concluded during the period of the government of Alexander
+Dubcek before the 1968 invasion.
+
+In its relations with the Eastern European communist regimes Romania had
+adhered to the principle of cultivating fraternal relations with all
+socialist countries despite policy differences. Long-term bilateral
+trade agreements were concluded with Hungary and Bulgaria in late 1969,
+and the major portion of the country's foreign trade continued to be
+with COMECON states throughout 1970 and 1971. Visits on the ministerial
+level were regularly exchanged. Relations with the East German regime
+proved more difficult, however, the major obstacle being Romania's
+establishment of diplomatic ties with West Germany in early 1967.
+Despite the recognition of the West German government, however, the
+Ceausescu regime has continued to insist on the reality of two German
+states and has pressed for international recognition of East Germany.
+
+Relations with Bulgaria had been generally cool throughout the latter
+period of the Gheorghiu-Dej regime but improved significantly after
+Ceausescu came to power in Romania in 1965. By the beginning of 1968,
+however, the policies pursued by the Ceausescu regime led to serious
+differences, although formal amenities continued to be observed.
+Relations remained correct but not cordial until after the signing of
+the Soviet-Romanian treaty of friendship and alliance in July 1970. This
+action paved the way for improved relations with Bulgaria, and in
+September Ceausescu met with Bulgarian prime minister Todor Zhivkov,
+marking the first top-level bilateral contact between the two
+governments in three years. This meeting was followed by the exchange of
+a series of high-level delegations with the announced purpose of
+improving relations and increasing cooperation.
+
+Friction with Hungary arose in mid-1971 over the Romanian region of
+Transylvania and the sizable Hungarian minority residing there. In the
+period of strained--Soviet-Romanian relations, the Budapest regime
+revived the Transylvanian minority question in order to put pressure on
+the Ceausescu government. Frequent visits of Soviet embassy personnel to
+Transylvania added to the concern of Romanian leaders, who initiated
+increased efforts to meet the needs and expectations of the country's
+minority groups (see ch. 4; ch. 9). By February 1972, tension between
+Hungary and Romania had eased and a friendship treaty was renewed.
+
+Relations with Albania and Yugoslavia differed from those with the other
+Eastern European communist regimes, as neither participated in the
+Warsaw Pact and both had also pursued policies independent of the Soviet
+Union. In 1960 Albania sided with the Communist Chinese in the
+Sino-Soviet dispute and withdrew its ambassadors from all the Eastern
+European countries after Khrushchev denounced the Albanian regime at the
+Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in
+1961. The Romanian position of neutrality in regard to the Sino-Soviet
+dispute opened the way for improved relations with Albania, and the
+Ceausescu government returned its ambassador to Tirana in 1964.
+
+The Ceausescu regime has maintained that the policies of the Albanian
+Communists (the Albanian Workers' Party) are legitimate manifestations
+of socialism developed according to national needs. Common fears of
+Soviet designs against their countries after the Warsaw Pact invasion of
+Czechoslovakia brought about increased cooperation between the two
+governments.
+
+Relations with Yugoslavia had progressed along lines of mutual interest
+throughout the period of the Ceausescu regime, and close cooperation had
+developed between the Romanian and Yugoslav heads of state as they
+sought each other's support for their independent foreign policies. The
+PCR was the only Eastern European party to send a delegation to the
+Ninth Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1969.
+
+Although the two governments indicated almost identical views on all
+important international issues, they manifested widely divergent
+approaches to domestic affairs and, owing to the fact that their
+economies are not complementary, economic relations between the two
+countries have not kept pace with political relations. Efforts to
+increase economic relations resulted in a new five-year trade agreement
+in 1971 designed to increase the exchange of goods by 128 percent in the
+period covered. Cooperation between the two states was also demonstrated
+in the joint construction of the Iron Gate hydroelectric station on the
+Danube (see ch. 3).
+
+During 1971 the PCR renewed efforts to promote cooperative relations
+among the Balkan states. The regime emphasized that the geographical
+isolation and the socialist systems of Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+and Romania make for common interest in increased economic, political,
+and cultural cooperation. Observers of Eastern European politics pointed
+out that Romania shares lengthy borders with Bulgaria, Hungary, and the
+Soviet Union and that improving relations with the other Balkan states
+would serve to overcome the country's relative physical isolation.
+
+PCR leaders have also called for all of the Balkan area, including both
+the communist and the noncommunist states, to be designated a nuclear
+free zone and for the removal of United States military bases from the
+area. Observers pointed out that the Ceausescu regime believed that such
+actions would serve to reduce the strategic significance of Romania in
+the eyes of the Soviet leaders and possibly result in greater tolerance
+for Romanian deviation from the Soviet line. Political observers also
+attributed the growing willingness of Albania and Yugoslavia to increase
+cooperation and give support to Romania's initiatives for the Balkan
+area to the growth of Soviet naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
+
+The Ceausescu regime successfully cultivated relations with the People's
+Republic of China and persisted in the development of these relations
+despite tremendous pressures from the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact
+states. An important byproduct of these relations has been increased
+economic exchanges between the two countries; in late 1970 the Communist
+Chinese extended Romania a long-term, interest-free credit amounting to
+the equivalent of US$244 million.
+
+In June 1971 Ceausescu made a twenty-five day visit to Asia that
+included nine days in mainland China, the first such visit by a party
+leader of a Warsaw Pact state since the Sino-Soviet dispute became
+public. In a joint communiqué the Communist Chinese and Romanian leaders
+emphasized the necessity of sovereign and equal relations among all
+communist states and parties. Ceausescu reiterated his government's
+support for the admission of the People's Republic of China to the
+United Nations and asserted that the rightful sovereignty over Taiwan
+belonged to the Peking regime. In August 1971 a Communist Chinese
+military delegation attended the twenty-seventh anniversary celebrations
+of the liberation of Romania from Nazi occupation.
+
+Maintenance of friendly relations with the People's Republic of China
+has also gained the Ceausescu regime support from other communist
+parties that have been critical of the Soviet Union in its conflict with
+the Communist Chinese, most notably the French and Italian parties. The
+PCR has taken special pains to cultivate relations with nonruling
+communist and workers' parties, efforts that were reflected in visits of
+top leaders from at least thirty of these parties to Romania during
+1970. All of these visitors were received personally by Ceausescu.
+Observers pointed out that the cultivation of relations with the
+nonruling parties was an important means of gaining support for
+Romania's independent policies.
+
+
+Relations With Noncommunist States
+
+Romania has continued to improve relations with Western nations and has
+sought to cultivate ties with the developing countries of Africa and
+Asia. The expansion of relations beyond the Soviet alignment system was
+cautiously initiated in the mid-1950s by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime when
+pressures were building for Romania's full economic integration into
+COMECON. In addition to the desire to develop trade relations with
+Western nations, the government was interested in utilizing Western
+technology and in seeking an increased measure of detente in the cold
+war.
+
+
+West Germany
+
+In the period that followed the initiation of limited relations with
+noncommunist states, Romania's resistance to the Soviet Union
+contributed to a receptive attitude on the part of several Western
+states. Aside from the gradual development of trade relations, however,
+significant political relations with Western Europe did not materialize
+until January 1967, when the Ceausescu regime agreed to establish formal
+diplomatic relations with West Germany, becoming the first of the Warsaw
+Pact states, other than the Soviet Union, to do so.
+
+Romanian leaders based the establishment of relations with West Germany
+on the so-called Bucharest Declaration issued by the leaders of the
+Warsaw Pact countries in 1966. The declaration affirmed that there were
+in West Germany "circles that oppose revanchism and militarism" and that
+seek the development of normal relations with countries of both the East
+and the West as well as a normalization of relations "between the two
+German states." Also included in the declaration was a statement
+affirming that a basic condition for European security was the
+establishment of normal relations between states "regardless of their
+social systems." The Ceausescu regime interpreted this as implying that
+bilateral relations could be developed between Eastern European states
+and West Germany.
+
+Although the West German government made overtures to other Eastern
+European communist states, Romania was the only one to agree to the
+establishment of formal diplomatic ties at that time. Political
+observers saw the move as a means for Romania to dramatically
+demonstrate independence from the Soviet Union and, as well, a means of
+avoiding COMECON integration pressures by increasing trade and the
+possibility of obtaining economic aid from the West.
+
+The establishment of diplomatic ties with West Germany did not alter the
+PCR position on the existence of two German states. Each country, at the
+time the diplomatic exchange was made public, simply reasserted its own
+positions: the West German government reiterated its right and
+obligation to speak for the entire German people, and the Bucharest
+government asserted that one of the fundamental realities of the
+post-World War II era "is the existence of two German states." Although
+Romania reaffirmed the existence of East Germany as a separate state, it
+did not make recognition of the East German regime by West Germany a
+precondition for the establishment of diplomatic relations with the West
+German government.
+
+The East German regime was highly critical of the Romanian establishment
+of relations with West Germany, and there followed a serious decline in
+Romanian-East German relations. PCR leaders responded to East German
+criticisms by declaring that "the foreign policy of a socialist state is
+laid down by the party and the government of the country in question and
+they need render account only to their people."
+
+In the period since 1967 relations with West Germany have continued
+without major difficulties. Although the Ceausescu regime has not
+hesitated to criticize elements of German policy with which it does not
+agree, the two governments have sought to minimize differences in
+ideology and in foreign and domestic policies in the interest of
+maintaining good relations. In economic exchanges between the two
+countries Romania has had a continuous balance of trade deficit, a
+situation that both countries were attempting to correct. In mid-1970
+Prime Minister Maurer paid an official visit to Bonn, becoming the first
+Eastern European head of government to do so. In May 1971 the West
+German government reciprocated, President Gustav Heinemann making a
+state visit to Romania.
+
+
+The United States
+
+Relations with the United States were initiated on a limited scale in
+the early 1960s, and ambassadors were exchanged in 1964, but relations
+declined with the increasing United States role in the Republic of
+Vietnam (South Vietnam). After the opening of the Paris peace talks and
+particularly after the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia that same
+year, relations between the two states improved significantly. Trade
+relations remained minimal, however, partly because of United States
+legal restrictions on trade with Eastern European countries.
+
+The improved relations between the two nations were demonstrated by the
+visit of President Nixon to Romania in August 1969, marking the first
+visit of a United States head of state to a communist country since the
+1945 Yalta Conference. Press reports indicated that the president
+received an enthusiastic welcome from the Romanian people and that in
+meetings with Ceausescu a wide range of international problems were
+discussed.
+
+At the close of the visit President Nixon reaffirmed that the United
+States "respects the sovereignty and equal rights of all countries,
+large and small, as well as their right to preserve their own national
+character." The two heads of state agreed upon the reciprocal
+establishment of libraries, the opening of negotiations for the
+conclusion of a consular convention, and the development and
+diversification of economic ties.
+
+The presidential visit was reciprocated by Ceausescu in October 1970
+when the Romanian leader traveled to New York to attend the twenty-fifth
+anniversary session of the UN General Assembly. Ceausescu followed the
+UN visit with a two-week coast-to-coast tour of the United States and
+talks at the White House with President Nixon. The Nixon administration
+moved to increase economic relations with Romania, and in early 1972
+legislation was pending in the United States Congress to grant that
+country most-favored-nation status (see ch. 14).
+
+
+Other States
+
+As part of its campaign to improve relations among the Balkan states and
+in keeping with its policy of establishing relations with all states
+regardless of their political systems, the Ceausescu regime initiated
+efforts to ameliorate its relations with Greece and Turkey. The
+development of ties with Turkey has progressed without serious setback
+throughout the period of Ceausescu's rule, but Greco-Romanian relations
+have fluctuated. Although the regime has followed a policy of
+noninterference in the internal affairs of another state, it left the
+Romanian embassy in Athens without an ambassador for a year after the
+1967 Greek military coup. In July 1968 the Romanian government returned
+an ambassador to Greece as a first step in improving relations between
+the two states. Increased trade and cultural exchanges followed,
+although the differing ideologies of the two regimes have kept official
+relations at a correct but cool level.
+
+Although Turkey did not respond positively to the Romanian call for a
+nuclear free zone in the Balkans and the removal of foreign military
+bases from the area, asserting that such an agreement would have to be
+included in a wider accord between NATO and Warsaw Pact nations,
+relations between the two states have continued to improve. Ceausescu
+paid a state visit to Turkey in 1969, and the Turkish president visited
+Romania in April 1970. The satisfactory political ties have resulted in
+a number of cultural and economic agreements, Romania obtaining Turkish
+raw materials, particularly iron, chrome, and manganese, and exporting
+machinery to Turkey.
+
+Political, economic, and cultural ties were expanded with a number of
+other Western countries during the 1965-70 period, particularly with
+Austria, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The Ceausescu regime
+placed primary emphasis on the cultivation of economic relations with
+these states, and several substantial trade agreements were concluded
+and high-level visits were exchanged during 1970 and 1971.
+
+PCR policy statements have proclaimed that one of the principal
+guidelines of Romanian foreign policy is the steady cultivation and
+broadening of political and economic relations with the young
+independent states of Asia and Africa as well as with the countries of
+Latin America. The regime has also repeatedly affirmed its support for
+"the struggle of the peoples of Africa, Asia and other regions of the
+world for liberation and national independence against neocolonialism
+and the aggressive actions of imperialism."
+
+Policy statements have also consistently voiced support for the
+communist effort in South Vietnam. The communist Provisional
+Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (Viet Cong) is
+recognized as the legitimate government of South Vietnam and maintains
+an embassy in Bucharest.
+
+The Middle East situation has posed a dilemma for the Ceausescu
+government, which has sought to maintain relations with both sides in
+the conflict. When, in August 1969, Romania and Israel announced an
+agreement to elevate their relations to the ambassadorial level, Syria
+and Sudan retaliated by breaking relations with Romania, and Iraq and
+the United Arab Republic reduced the level of their representation in
+Bucharest. Despite these actions by the Arab states, PCR leaders
+continued to voice support for "the struggle of the Arab people to
+defend their national independence and sovereignty" but called for a
+negotiated settlement of the conflict.
+
+The Ceausescu regime systematically cultivated relations with the
+developing countries, and particular efforts were directed toward
+increasing relations with African nations during 1970 and 1971.
+Ceausescu made a state visit to Morocco, and other high Romanian
+officials visited Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)--in late 1971
+became the Republic of Zaire--Burundi, Kenya, the Malagasy Republic,
+Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zambia. Several prominent African leaders, among
+them President Jean Bedel Bokassa of the Central African Republic and
+President Joseph Mobutu of Zaire visited Romania. Trade agreements were
+signed with a number of African nations, but little had been done to
+implement these agreements as of early 1972. As another means of
+increasing its influence in Africa and broadening relations there, the
+Ceausescu government established more than 400 scholarships for African
+students to study in Romania.
+
+
+Relations With International Organizations
+
+Romania became a member of the UN in 1955 and as of early 1972 also held
+membership in the following UN specialized agencies: the United Nations
+Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United
+Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations
+Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), and the International
+Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). It also participates in the work of the
+United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
+
+The two most important communist organizations to which the country
+belongs are the Warsaw Pact and COMECON. The Warsaw Pact was established
+in 1955 as a twenty-year mutual defense pact between the Soviet Union,
+Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and
+Romania. (Albania ceased its participation in the organization in 1961
+and officially withdrew in 1968 as a symbol of protest against the
+invasion of Czechoslovakia). As an instrument of Soviet foreign policy,
+the Warsaw Pact has served to maintain Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe
+and to provide the legal basis for the presence of Soviet troops on the
+territory of some of the participating states.
+
+Romania has consistently refused to acquiesce in Soviet proposals for
+greater integration of the military forces of the Warsaw Pact states and
+did not participate in the invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the
+Czechoslovak invasion the Ceausescu government established a defense
+council and proclaimed that foreign troops were not to enter Romania for
+any purpose without prior approval of the Grand National Assembly.
+During the 1968-71 period the Romanians limited their participation in
+pact activities as much as possible. Rather than Romanian troops taking
+part in joint maneuvers of pact forces, participation has generally been
+limited to a small group of staff officers who attend the exercises as
+observers.
+
+Official Romanian views on the integration of Eastern European communist
+forces under the pact were forcefully reiterated in early 1970 after the
+Soviet chief of staff spoke of "combined" or "unified" pact forces.
+Ceausescu responded by declaring that Romania's armed forces are not
+subordinated to any authority other than "the Romanian party,
+government, and Supreme National Command." Although he pledged continued
+cooperation with the pact and a fulfillment of his country's
+responsibilities, he asserted that no part of the party's and
+government's right to command and lead the armed forces would be ceded
+to any other body. In addition, Ceausescu gave emphasis to the defensive
+nature of the Warsaw Pact and reiterated the Romania position on
+noninterference in the internal affairs of another country.
+
+Romanian policy toward COMECON has been cooperative in regard to
+mutually advantageous trade relations with the other member states but
+has consistently opposed pressures for the integration of their
+economies. The Soviet Union and the more industrialized of the Eastern
+European communist states have pressed for economic integration that
+would include a division of labor among COMECON members and a
+specialization of production. Romanian leaders, preferring to develop a
+diversified national economy, have refused the role of supplier of
+agricultural goods and raw materials that COMECON would have assigned to
+their country.
+
+During the mid-1960s Romania successfully reoriented a substantial share
+of its trade toward the West and reduced its participation in COMECON.
+Trade with the West, however, produced sizable deficits and, along with
+other economic problems, including the disastrous floods of early 1970,
+forced the Ceausescu regime to again rely on its economic ties with the
+COMECON states. Despite these difficulties, the country has continued to
+develop its trade relations with noncommunist nations and has continued
+to resist COMECON integration pressures.
+
+In 1970 a prominent Romanian economist proposed that COMECON become an
+open-ended organization in which all countries, socialist and
+nonsocialist, could participate on a voluntary basis. In mid-1971 an
+official PCR party spokesman declared that economic cooperation with
+COMECON must "in no way affect the national economic plans or the
+independence of the economic units in each country."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 11
+
+PUBLIC INFORMATION
+
+
+In the early 1970s the media of public information, under complete party
+and government control and supervision, were utilized primarily to
+propagandize and indoctrinate the population in support of the regime's
+domestic and foreign policy objectives. The system of control was highly
+centralized and involved an interlocking group of party and state
+organizations, supervising bodies, and operating agencies whose
+authority extended to all radio and television facilities, film studios,
+printing establishments, newspapers, book publishers, and the single
+news agency. In addition, this control apparatus also regulated the
+access of the public to foreign publications, films, newscasts, books,
+and radio and television programs.
+
+Freedom of information, although never fully recognized in precommunist
+Romania, completely disappeared under the Communists after 1948. In late
+1971, as a result of an ideological campaign launched by the regime, the
+communications media experienced measures that served further to
+reemphasize their assigned role as political tools in the indoctrination
+of the people. The effects of this campaign had not become fully evident
+in early 1972, but changes and modifications had begun to appear that
+tended to inhibit liberalizing trends, which had been incorporated
+gradually into the system during the 1960s.
+
+
+GOVERNMENT AND FREEDOM OF INFORMATION
+
+Although freedom of information was theoretically guaranteed by the
+early constitutions of precommunist Romania, censorship of the press was
+not unusual and commonly took the form of banning or confiscating
+newspapers and periodicals considered hostile to the ruling group.
+Newspapers had traditionally been published by political parties and
+special interest groups, only a few being uncontrolled and truly
+independent. In consequence, the public has long regarded the press as
+generally biased, tainted with propaganda, and not reliable as a source
+of objective news.
+
+Under the dictatorship imposed by King Carol II in 1938 and during the
+wartime regime of Marshal Ion Antonescu, censorship was officially
+proclaimed and rigidly enforced. Since that time the communications
+media have enjoyed only one period of relative freedom, lasting only a
+few weeks following the coup d'etat of King Michael in August 1944.
+After Michael's deposition and during the struggle for power that
+followed, the Communists effectively controlled the press and radio
+through the unions serving these facilities, which they had heavily
+infiltrated. After their seizure of power in 1948, the Communists
+instituted a system of censorship and control that has continued without
+interruption.
+
+The 1965 Constitution, the third promulgated by the Communists since
+their takeover of the government, is less moderate in tone than its
+predecessors in preserving the fiction of the right of citizens to
+individual freedoms. The document states that freedom of speech, of the
+press, and of assembly "cannot be used for aims hostile to the socialist
+system and to the interests of the working people." This same article
+also prohibits associations of a "fascist" or "anti-democratic" nature,
+as well as the participation of citizens in such associations. The
+Constitution names the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist
+Roman--PCR) as the leading political force in the country; by virtue of
+its position, the party has become the ultimate authority in determining
+actions that are "fascist," "anti-democratic," or "hostile to the
+socialist system."
+
+In 1972 the regime continued to utilize the conventional information
+media--newspapers, magazines, books, radio, television, and motion
+pictures--as an integrated, governmental system for the indoctrination
+of the population and the molding of public opinion in support of the
+state and its policies. In keeping with this overall objective, a
+campaign for the increased ideological and political indoctrination of
+the public was undertaken in July 1971 that brought about a
+reenforcement of party authority over the highest information control
+and policymaking bodies in the government (see ch. 7). The former State
+Committee for Culture and Art, established with ministerial rank under
+the Council of Ministers, was reconstituted as the Council on Socialist
+Culture and Education and was made directly subordinate to the Central
+Committee of the PCR. Similar changes were made in the Committee of
+Radio and Television, which became the Council of Romanian Radio and
+Television.
+
+Under the direct guidance of the press and propaganda sections of the
+Central Committee, these two councils formulate policy guidelines and
+supervise all publication and dissemination procedures throughout the
+communications media. The policies and directives, in turn, are
+implemented by other government-controlled operating agencies, such as
+the General Directorate for the Press and Printing, the Romanian press
+agency, and the individual publishing houses, printing establishments,
+book distribution centers, motion picture studios, and radio and
+television stations. To further assure a uniform collective effort
+consistent with the party line, and two national councils are also
+empowered to organize wherever necessary permanent commissions,
+temporary working groups, and local committees to assist the councils in
+"analyzing" the way decisions are applied and in "improving" local
+activities.
+
+
+THE PRESS
+
+Newspapers
+
+According to the latest official statistics, there were a total of
+seventy-six "general information" newspapers published throughout the
+country in 1969. Of these, fifty-one were dailies, twenty-three were
+weeklies, and two appeared at infrequent intervals, from two to three
+times per week. Daily circulation estimates were available for very few
+newspapers. Together, these newspapers had a total annual circulation of
+more than 1.1 billion copies, a substantial increase over the 1950 level
+of 870 million copies that was achieved by the seventy-five newspapers
+then being published. The acceptance of high circulation figures as an
+indicator of reader appeal is of doubtful value, however, since many
+readers were required to subscribe to newspapers because of their party
+or work affiliation. Also, certain functionaries throughout the
+governmental apparatus and many supervisory workers had subscription
+costs automatically deducted from their salaries.
+
+Newspapers traditionally have been published in the national minority
+languages, but since the mid-1960s the government has published no
+official statistics on them, apparently in keeping with its
+integrationist policy (see ch. 7). In 1964 it was estimated by Western
+observers that the ethnic minorities were served by approximately twenty
+newspapers, including eight dailies, with an annual circulation of
+slightly more than 103 million copies.
+
+All newspapers are licensed by the General Directorate for the Press and
+Printing, the state agency that also controls the allocation of
+newsprint, the manufacture of ink and other printing supplies, and the
+distribution of all publications. Thus the government is in a position
+to prohibit the appearance of any newspaper or other publication either
+directly by revoking the license or indirectly by withholding essential
+supplies or services. Each newspaper is organized into a collective
+enterprise made up of the entire personnel of all departments. Chief
+responsibility for the content of the paper is vested in an "editorial
+collegium" headed by the chief editor. Meetings are held periodically
+between all chief editors and party representatives, which serve as an
+effective means of followup control in lieu of prepublication
+censorship.
+
+Major mass organizations, government-sponsored groups, local government
+organs, and the PCR and its subsidiaries publish the most important and
+influential papers, both in Bucharest and in the larger cities of the
+various counties (see table 3). Little latitude is allowed in the
+presentation of news, and almost all papers follow a serious, monotonous
+format that has little popular appeal. Shortly after renewed emphasis
+was placed on the ideological and political education of the population
+in mid-1971, a Western journalist likened the nation to a huge classroom
+in which unpopular and trite subjects were being presented to an
+unreceptive class by an exhortative mass media.
+
+The most authoritative and widely read newspaper is _Scinteia_, founded
+in 1931 as the official organ of the Central Committee of the party. It
+has, by far, the largest daily circulation and enjoys considerable
+prestige as the outlet for party policy pronouncements as well as for
+semiofficial government attitudes on both national and international
+issues. The eight-page newspaper appears seven days a week and is
+national in scope. Its editorials, feature sections, and chief articles
+are frequently reprinted, in whole or in part, by smaller newspapers in
+outlying areas. Quotations and summaries are also repeated regularly in
+shop bulletins and in information letters put on by many enterprises,
+plants, and factories.
+
+The next most important dailies are _Romania Libera_, established by the
+Socialist Unity Front in 1942; _Munca_, founded in 1943 as the voice of
+the Central Council of the General Union of Trade Unions and _Scinteia
+Tineretului_, the organ of the Union of Communist Youth, which has been
+published since 1944. Each of these newspapers is much smaller than
+_Scinteia_ and is directed at a particular group of readers of level of
+society. Although _Romania Libera_ contains items of both national and
+international interest, it deals primarily with the problems associated
+with the "building of socialism" at the local level. Similarly, _Munca_
+directs its major effort at the labor force and stresses the cooperative
+relationship between workers and industry. _Scinteia Tineretului_, in
+like manner, concentrates on the younger element of the population and
+stresses the ideological and political training of youth as the basis
+for a "sound socialist society."
+
+_Table 3. Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971_
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                Daily
+ Publication                 Circulation   Place         Publisher
+                            (in thousands)
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ _Crisana_                   ___    Oradea      Romanian Communist Party
+ _Dobrogea Noua_             ___    Constanta         Do.
+ _Drapelul Rosu_              54    Timisoara         Do.
+ _Drum Nou_                  ___    Brasov            Do.
+ _Drumul Socialismului_      ___    Deva              Do.
+ _Elore_[1]                  ___    Bucharest   Hungarian People's Council
+ _Faclia_                    ___    Cluj        Romanian Communist Party
+ _Faklya_[1]                 ___    Oradea      Hungarian People's Council
+ _Flacara Iasului_           ___    Iasi        Romanian Communist Party
+ _Flacara Rosie_             ___    Arad              Do.
+ _Flamura Prahovei_          ___    Ploiesti          Do.
+ _Igazsag_                   ___    Cluj              Do.
+ _Inainte_                   ___    Craiova           Do.
+ _Inainte_                   ___    Braila            Do.
+ _Informatia Bucurestiului_  ___    Bucharest         Do.
+ _Munca_                     ___        do     General Union of Trade Unions
+ _Neuer Weg_[2]              100        do     German People's Council
+ _Romania Libera_            200        do     Socialist Unity  Front
+ _Satul Socialist_           ___        do     Union of Agricultural
+                                                 Production Cooperatives
+ _Scinteia_                1,000        do     Romanian Communist Front
+ _Scinteia Tineretului_      300        do     Union of Communist Youth
+ _Sportul Popular_           ___        do     Union of Culture and Sports
+ _Steagul Rosu_              ___        do     Romanian Communist  Front
+ _Steau Rosie_               ___   Tirgu Mures         Do.
+ _Szabad Szo_[1]             ___   Timisoara   Hungarian People's Council
+ _Viata Noua_                ___   Galati      Romanian Communist Party
+ _Voros Zaszlo_[1]           ___   Tirgu Mures Hungarian People's Council
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ ___  circulation unknown
+ 1.   Published in Hungarian.
+ 2.   Published in German.
+
+
+The principal and most widely known minority-language newspapers are the
+Hungarian daily _Elore_ and the German _Neuer Weg_, also a daily. Both
+of these newspapers contain generally the same news as Romanian
+newspapers with additional local items of minority interest, such as
+cultural developments and problems associated with minority language use
+in education and other fields.
+
+
+Periodicals
+
+The number of periodicals published throughout the country increased
+from a total of 387 in 1960 to 581 in 1969, according to the latest
+government statistics. The total annual circulation of periodicals
+almost doubled during this time, increasing from about 105 million
+copies to approximately 209 million. More than 340 of these magazines
+and journals were published either quarterly or annually, the remainder
+appearing either weekly, monthly, or at some other intervals. No
+indication was given within this general classification of the number of
+publications that were issued in the minority languages or were directed
+at special minority interest groups.
+
+All periodicals are considered official publications of the various
+sponsoring organizations and are subject to the same licensing and
+supervising controls as newspapers. Virtually all magazines and journals
+are published by mass organizations and party or government-controlled
+activities, such as institutes, labor unions, cultural committees, and
+special interest groups. They cover a broad range of subjects and
+include technical and professional journals, among them magazines on
+literature, art, health, sports, medicine, statistics, politics,
+science, and economics. The technical and scientific journals are
+intended for scholars, engineers, and industrial technicians; cultural
+and political periodicals are aimed at writers, editors, journalists,
+artists, party workers, and enterprise managers; and general
+publications are intended to appeal to various segments of the
+population, such as youth, women, and both industrial and agricultural
+workers.
+
+Two of the best known and most widely circulated magazines are _Lupta de
+Clasa_ and _Contemporanul_. _Lupta de Clasa_, a monthly published by the
+Central Committee of the PCR, had an estimated circulation of about
+70,000 in 1969 and was considered to be the foremost political review.
+It deals with the theory of socialism and is extensively quoted in the
+daily press as a semiofficial voice in domestic affairs.
+_Contemporanul_, the weekly organ of the Council on Socialist Culture
+and Education, had a circulation of approximately 65,000 and was a
+leading authority on political, cultural, and social affairs. Through
+its wide range of articles it serves as a primary vehicle for conveying
+party policy to writers, journalists, editors, and publishers in all
+fields.
+
+Other periodicals cover a broad spectrum and included _Femeia_, the
+monthly magazine of the National Council of Women; _Probleme Economice_,
+the monthly review of the Society of Economic Sciences; _Tinarul
+Leninist_, a monthly magazine for members of the Union of Communist
+Youth; _Luceafarul_, a semimonthly review of foreign policy matters
+published by the Union of Writers; _Romania Literara_, a literary,
+artistic, and sociopolitical weekly also published by the Union of
+Writers; _Urzica_, a humorous and satirical semimonthly review published
+by the PCR; _Volk und Kultur_, a monthly review published in German by
+the Council on Socialist Culture and Education; and _Korunk_, the
+monthly sociocultural review in Hungarian, published by the Hungarian
+Peoples' Council.
+
+One of the magazines best known outside the country is _Romania Azi_, a
+richly illustrated social, economic, and cultural monthly magazine
+published by the Foreign Language Press. In addition to Romanian, it is
+also published in English, Chinese, French, German, Russian, and
+Spanish. The government also sponsors a series of scholarly reviews
+dealing with studies on southeastern Europe, the history of art,
+Romanian historical and artistic development, and linguistics. These
+reviews appear at infrequent intervals and, in addition to the Romanian
+edition, are offered on subscription in English, French, German,
+Russian, and Spanish.
+
+
+News Agencies
+
+The Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa--Agerpres) was
+established in 1949, with the exclusive right to the collection and
+distribution of all news, pictures, and other press items, both domestic
+and foreign. In recent years, however, it has concerned itself almost
+exclusively with news from foreign countries, leaving much of the
+domestic news coverage to the correspondents of the larger daily
+newspapers. Agerpres, in 1972, operated as an office of the central
+government under the direct supervision and control of the Central
+Committee of the party.
+
+The headquarters for Agerpres is maintained in Bucharest, with some
+sixteen branch offices located in other major towns and cities
+throughout the country. In addition, it staffs on a full-time basis
+twenty-one bureaus abroad, principally in the larger capital cities of
+Europe, Africa, South America, and the Far East. Until 1960 its most
+important source of foreign news was the Soviet central news agency,
+through which it received the bulk of its foreign news releases and
+international news summaries. This arrangement was replaced by news
+exchange agreements with selected agencies of both the Western countries
+and the countries of Eastern Europe.
+
+In addition to the Soviet agency, foreign news bureaus are maintained in
+Bucharest by the press agencies of Poland, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic (East
+Germany). To service these bureaus and its own correspondents abroad
+Agerpres issues the daily Agerpres News of the Day and the weekly
+Agerpres Information Bulletin. For domestic consumption Agerpres
+distributes about 45,000 words of foreign news coverage daily to
+official government and party offices, to various newspapers and
+periodicals, and to radio and television broadcasting stations.
+
+
+RADIO AND TELEVISION
+
+Radio Broadcasting
+
+In 1971 domestic radio broadcast service was provided by twenty AM
+(amplitude modulation) stations located in sixteen cities and by six FM
+(frequency modulation) stations located in Bucharest, Cluj, and
+Constanta. These stations are government owned and operate under the
+direct supervision of the Council of Romanian Radio and Television, an
+agency of the party's Central Committee. All broadcast stations are
+grouped into three major networks, known as Program I, Program II, and
+Program III. In addition, broadcast facilities are augmented by an
+extensive wired-broadcast network, which extended coverage into outlying
+areas where direct transmissions are subject to either geographic or
+atmospheric interference.
+
+The most powerful stations are located in Brasov, Iasi, Boldur,
+Bucharest, and Timisoara. They range in power from 135 to 1200 kilowatts
+and transmit in the low- and medium-frequency bands. The FM stations
+operate exclusively in the very high frequency range and are all
+moderately powered at four kilowatts. The majority of the programs
+originate at studios in Bucharest and are rebroadcast by the network
+stations, which add short local news broadcasts and, from time to time,
+originate coverage of special events of local interest. In addition to
+government-provided subsidies, the industry also benefits from the
+license fees collected from the almost 3.1 million owners of radio
+receivers.
+
+In 1971 scheduled regional programming was revised to include additional
+broadcast time for programs in the minority languages. These broadcasts
+were carried by four major stations including Radio Bucharest, with
+programs in Hungarian and German; Radio Cluj and Radio Tirgu Mures, with
+programs in Hungarian; and Radio Timisoara with programs in German and
+Serbo-Croatian. Most of these offerings are short and stress news,
+features, and talks by local personalities. These programs are also
+relayed over wire lines to local centers for distribution to public
+establishments, factories, and schools.
+
+The programs offered on Programs I and II are generally of good quality
+but have a high ideological content and are lacking in diversity. In
+addition to news and weather reports, programs include special
+broadcasts for children and rural listeners, scientific, theatrical,
+cultural, and literary presentations, and a great variety of musical
+programs. Program III, which is limited principally to the Sunday
+evening hours, carries many of the regular concerts given by the various
+national orchestras and choirs. Despite its limited broadcast schedule,
+Program III also carries indoctrination programs in the form of
+interviews and panel discussions.
+
+Foreign broadcasts in thirteen languages were beamed to Europe and
+overseas by Radio Bucharest on one mediumwave and six shortwave
+transmitters in early 1972. These programs were on the air for a
+combined total of approximately 200 hours per week, averaged one-half
+hour in length, and generally carried domestic news and comments on
+international developments. In addition to Romanian, the broadcasts to
+European listeners were presented in English, German, French, Greek,
+Italian, Portuguese, Serbo-Croatian, and Spanish. Overseas programs were
+beamed to North Africa and the Near East in Arabic, English, French, and
+Turkish; to Asia, in English and Persian; to the Pacific area, in
+English; to North America, in English, Romanian, and Yiddish; and to
+Latin America, in Portuguese and Spanish.
+
+
+Radio Audience
+
+The communist regime has long recognized the importance of radio
+broadcasting as a medium for both informing the people and for molding a
+favorable public attitude toward the government. As a result, the
+construction of broadcast facilities and the production of receiving
+sets have been steadily increased since 1960. Also, during this same
+period the number of radio receivers increased more than 50 percent,
+from 2 million in 1960 to almost 3.1 million in 1970. The number of
+licensed receiving sets included approximately 870,000 wired receivers
+and amplifiers that usually reached group audiences in public areas.
+
+By early 1972 the government had given no indication as to the results
+achieved by the radio in the intensified ideological campaign launched
+in mid-1971. Press reports revealed that, whereas radio programs
+continued to be criticized as to content and purpose, changes more
+favorable to the socialist concept of culture and political thought have
+not yet been extensive. Western programs, though fewer, were still being
+offered, and certain musical programs were being revised to favor the
+light and popular music of native composers over the modern Western
+style. Listener resistance to changes intended to improve the "communist
+education of the masses" was revealed by official statements that called
+for the need of radio editors and program coordinators "to improve their
+skill" in arousing and focusing the interest of the radio audience on
+"up-to-date" programs.
+
+
+Television Broadcasting
+
+Since its inception in 1956, television broadcasting has been closely
+linked with radio, by the regime, as an increasingly important
+instrument of "propaganda and socialist education of the masses." Like
+radio, television operated under supervision of the Council of Romanian
+Radio and Television, whose policy guidelines were received directly
+from the party apparatus. Also, as in the case of radio, television came
+under close scrutiny and criticism in mid-1971 in the intensified
+ideological campaign initiated by President Nicolae Ceausescu. By early
+1972 changes in television network programming resulting from this
+campaign had not been revealed, but the press indicated that most of
+them were intended to limit foreign influence in literary, theatrical,
+film, and artistic broadcasts and to stress the Marxist-Leninist
+interpretation in presenting current events.
+
+Although only recently developed as a new medium in mass communications,
+television has expanded more rapidly than radio. From the six stations
+that were operational in 1960, the industry had increased to a total of
+eighty-five in 1971. Of these, sixteen were principal transmitting
+stations located in various parts of the country, and sixty-nine were
+repeater stations. The number of television sets also increased
+significantly during this period, from 55,000 to almost 1.3 million. It
+was estimated by government authorities that programs aired over the 1.3
+million licensed sets covered more than 80 percent of the country and
+could be seen by between 5 million and 6 million viewers.
+
+The television network operates the Central European System of 625-line
+definition and broadcasts over two systems, Program I and Program II.
+Program I was on the air daily during the evening hours for a total of
+thirty-eight hours per week. Program II broadcast weekday mornings and
+evenings for a total of eighteen hours. Most presentations originate on
+Program I and include, in addition to political, literary, and cultural
+programs, sports, news, documentaries, and special programs for children
+and workers. Program II usually repeats most of the programs shown on
+Program I or summarizes certain telecasts for combined showings with
+other short features.
+
+Foreign programs, chiefly from neighboring communist countries, are also
+available to Romanian televiewers. Most of this material is procured on
+a mutual exchange basis through Intervision (Eastern European
+Television), an organization to which Romania belongs. A substantial
+number of foreign telecasts, however, are also available to residents in
+border areas, by direct transmission.
+
+
+BOOK PUBLISHING
+
+Before World War II Romania was one of the leading Balkan nations in the
+publishing field. Annually, some 2,500 titles were commonly published in
+editions of 2,000 to 5,000 copies, with a high percentage representing
+original works of Romanian authors. After the communist takeover in 1948
+all publishing facilities were nationalized, and the entire industry was
+converted to serve as a major propaganda and indoctrination instrument
+in support of the new regime. Between 1949 and 1953 the revamped
+publishing concerns turned out more than 13,500 separate titles, with a
+total of almost 250 million copies. This record amount of officially
+approved and censored material represented a whole new series of
+communist-oriented material needed to operate the highly centralized
+government, to reeducate the people, and to regulate their activities.
+
+By 1955 the number of titles issued annually had decreased to a little
+more than 5,000, but total circulation remained relatively high at more
+than 48 million copies. From 1955 to 1966 the number of titles gradually
+increased and reached a plateau of about 9,000, where it remained
+through 1969. Annual circulation figures over the same periods of time
+fluctuated in a fairly regular pattern showing a controlled average
+number of copies issued per title each year also to be about 9,000.
+Thus, the planned publishing requirements as set by the government
+apparently were achieved in 1966 and have varied very little since then.
+
+
+Publication
+
+Government and party control of all printing and publishing activities
+is centered in the Council on Socialist Culture and Education. This
+party-state organization formulates policy guidelines for the publishing
+industry and utilizes other government-controlled or government-owned
+agencies, such as the General Directorate for the Press and Printing,
+the various publishing houses, and book distribution centers to
+supervise and coordinate day-to-day operations. Within this control
+machinery all short- and long-range publication plans are approved, and
+the distribution of all printed material is specified. This central
+authority also allocates paper quotas, determines the number of books to
+be printed, and sets the prices at which all publications are to be
+sold.
+
+In 1972 about twenty-five publishing houses were in operation; of these,
+twenty-three were located in Bucharest, and one each was in Cluj and
+Iasi. Each of these enterprises produced books, pamphlets, periodicals,
+and other printed material within its own specialized field and was
+responsible, through its director, for the political acceptability and
+quality of its work. In 1969 some decentralization in publishing took
+place with the opening of branch offices of the larger houses in a few
+of the more heavily populated districts. Although this program was
+ostensibly initiated for the purpose of securing "a broader scope of
+reader preference" in the number and type of books to be published,
+press reports published in late 1971 indicated very little popular
+support for this experiment.
+
+Of the 9,399 titles published in 1969, the greatest numbers were in the
+fields of technology, industry, agriculture, and medicine. Also included
+in this group were books, treatises, studies, and reports in the general
+economic field as well as translations from foreign sources. This
+category of titles, although representing about 33 percent of those
+published, had an average circulation of only about 3,500 copies per
+title--well below the overall average of approximately 9,000.
+
+The second largest group of published titles was in the field of social
+sciences and represented approximately 22 percent of the total. This
+classification included all books dealing with political science and
+socioeconomic theory as well as all textbooks and materials used in the
+educational system. A particularly large segment of books in this area
+were documents and manuals used for party training, Marxist-Leninist
+classics, and party-directed studies and monographs dealing with the
+historical, philosophical, or sociological development of the communist
+movement.
+
+The material published in the fields of art, games, sports, and music
+dominated the third largest group and ranged from children's
+entertainment to musical scores. The fourth largest group, representing
+about 15 percent of the national publishing effort, related to general
+literature. This field covered novels, essays, short stories, and poetry
+written by recognized authors as well as by less well established modern
+writers, both domestic and foreign. The books selected from foreign
+sources were carefully scrutinized, and very few were published that
+dealt with contemporary Western subjects. Also banned, as a matter of
+general principle, was all material that (in the judgment of chief
+editors) "did not contribute actively to the socialist education of the
+new man" within the communist society.
+
+
+Distribution and Foreign Exchange
+
+The distribution and sale of books, both domestic and foreign, are
+vested in the Book Central, a state-owned organization that is also
+responsible for the coordination of all book production. The Book
+Central, with headquarters in Bucharest, operates directly under the
+Council on Socialist Culture and Education and maintains a network of
+bookshops throughout the country in district centers and other major
+towns. In addition to supplying major outlets such as libraries and
+schools with publications, the local bookshops also set up and operate
+bookstalls and book departments in rural areas, usually at industrial
+enterprises and farm collectives. Traveling bookmobiles are also used to
+serve factories, mines, or other isolated activities in outlying areas.
+Discount book clubs were reportedly established as early as 1952, but
+recent information was lacking as to their continued existence, size,
+and method of operation.
+
+After receiving approval of their individual publishing plans, the
+publishing houses distribute catalogs, bulletins, and other
+informational material to the Book Central for distribution to major
+purchasing outlets. In addition, the local bookshops issue periodic
+lists of all books in stock as well as those scheduled to be printed
+during specific periods. Official statistics concerning the wholesale
+and retail sale of books are not habitually published, but recurrent
+articles in the press criticize the lack of enthusiasm and general
+ineptness of booksellers as major factors in lagging book sales to
+individual buyers.
+
+The Book Central in Bucharest conducts all transactions involving the
+foreign exchange of publications. This agency issues annual lists of
+available Romanian publications, together with short bibliographic
+annotations or summaries as well as subscription details. Also, the sale
+of books is fostered at the various international book fairs in which
+Romania participates.
+
+
+LIBRARIES
+
+The Romanian library network consists of two broad categories--general
+libraries, administered by the central government and its territorial
+organs, and the various libraries administered by mass organizations,
+institutes, and enterprises. Those in the latter category are generally
+referred to as documentary libraries since most of them specialize in
+scientific and technical holdings. The number of general libraries
+declined appreciably from a total of almost 35,000 in 1960 to slightly
+more than 18,000 in 1971, due principally to the consolidation of
+facilities. Over the same period the number of documentary libraries
+remained fairly constant, averaging slightly more than 4,000, the total
+number existing in 1971.
+
+The greatest proportion of general libraries, by far, are those
+associated with primary and secondary schools and those that serve the
+general public. In addition, the state operates two national libraries,
+and forty-three others function as part of university and other higher
+level institutions. The total holdings of all these facilities exceeded
+95 million volumes, and the number of registered readers in the public
+libraries was reported to have reached almost 5 million in 1971. No
+information was available as to the total annual circulation of books on
+personal and interlibrary loan in the general library system, but the
+two national libraries were reported to have circulated 55,000 volumes
+in 1968, and the combined circulation of the forty-three
+university-level libraries approximated 178,000 volumes in the same
+year.
+
+The two national libraries, the Library of the Academy of the Socialist
+Republic of Romania and the Central State Library, together maintain
+stocks in excess of 10 million volumes, and both function as central
+book depositories. The Library of the Academy of the Socialist Republic
+of Romania, a precommunist institution founded in 1867, holds special
+collections of Romanian, Greek, Slavonic, Oriental, and Latin
+manuscripts, maps, and engravings as well as rare collections of
+documents, medals, and coins. The Central State Library, founded in
+1955, also has important collections of books, periodicals, musical
+works, maps, and photographs and, in addition, acts as the Central
+Stationery Office and the National Exchange for books. It also issues
+the National Bibliography and annual catalogs, which list all books
+printed in Romania and the holdings of all foreign books in the state
+library system.
+
+The largest libraries among the universities, each of which holds more
+than 1.5 million volumes, are those at Bucharest, Iasi, and Cluj. These
+holdings include the book stocks maintained in the libraries of the
+various faculties, hostels, and institutes associated with the
+universities as well as the central university library itself. The
+largest documentary library, the Library of the Medical-Pharmaceutical
+Institute, operates ninety-nine branch facilities, and its annual book
+inventory has been in excess of 1.2 million volumes.
+
+
+FILMS
+
+As in the case of other elements of the mass media, the small motion
+picture industry has also been affected by the intensified ideological
+campaign of mid-1971. In general, the regime has attempted to further
+limit the importation of foreign films, particularly those from the
+West, which are considered violent and decadent. There has also been a
+move to stimulate the production of more native films with a truly
+"profound ideological content which will express our Marxist-Leninist
+world outlook, convey the message of our own society in highly artistic
+terms, and reflect the life of the new man." Until more Romanian films
+of the appropriate type can be offered, the industry has been advised to
+utilize additional films from the National Film Library and to emphasize
+foreign presentations that are based on socialist concepts.
+
+
+Production
+
+Film production, distribution, and exhibition were controlled by the
+National Center of Cinematography, a state agency that operates under
+the supervision of the Council on Socialist Culture and Education. The
+national center operates two production studios: the Alexandru Sahia
+Film Studio in Bucharest, which produces documentaries, newsreels,
+cartoons, and puppet films, and the Bucharest Film Studio, which
+produces feature films at Buftea, a suburb about fifteen miles northwest
+of the capital.
+
+In 1970 cinema production consisted of thirty-nine feature and short
+pictures, about 1960 documentary films (including animated cartoons),
+and seventy-six newsreels. This output reflected a two-fold increase
+since 1960 in both feature and documentary films but a decrease of about
+15 percent in the number of newsreels. The largest growth in the motion
+picture industry occurred between 1923 and 1930, when production rose
+from about seven motion pictures per year to about twenty-five. This
+increased output was a combination of native films and features
+coproduced with France, Germany, and Hungary. After the communist
+takeover of the government in 1948, film production fell drastically and
+did not again reach its pre-World War II level until 1955.
+
+Romanian films, until 1968, continued to reflect much of the earlier
+French influence. Both the native and coproduced pictures of this period
+were of high quality, and several won awards at film festivals in
+Cannes, Trieste, and Chicago. Subjects treated were well diversified and
+included historical adventure, strong dramas, and both satirical and
+classical comedies. Beginning in 1968, the regime launched widespread
+criticism of the industry, and the quality of production decreased
+appreciably. The 1971 ideological campaign forced film making into a
+further regression. Western observers characterized post-1968 films as
+being totally lacking in originality.
+
+Because of the relatively low number of Romanian films produced, the
+industry has generally depended on the importation of sizable numbers of
+foreign films to meet its needs. The government no longer publishes
+official statistics dealing with film imports, but in 1960 the regime
+reported that 188 feature films and 150 documentaries from foreign
+countries were shown. Approximately 40 percent of these films came from
+the Soviet Union; the remainder came from France, East Germany, England,
+Italy, Czechoslovakia, and the United States.
+
+
+Distribution
+
+Despite the emphasis placed by the government on motion pictures as both
+a propaganda and an entertainment medium, the number of theaters and
+attendance at film showings has decreased steadily since 1965. This
+trend was due principally to the competition offered by the expanding
+television industry, but the falling off in the quality of films was
+also a contributing factor.
+
+Film theaters are of two types, those which show pictures regularly in
+designated movie houses or, periodically, in multipurpose recreation
+centers, and mobile film units, which exhibit documentary and
+educational films in schools or other local facilities in outlying
+areas. Motion picture houses of both types decreased in number from
+6,499 in 1965 to 6,275 in 1970, and in the same period annual attendance
+dropped more than 6 million from the 1965 high of almost 205 million.
+
+
+INFORMAL INFORMATION MEDIA
+
+Lectures, public and organizational meetings, exhibits, and
+demonstrations also serve as means of communication between the
+government and the population at large. Although less significant than
+the formal mass media, these events are fostered by officials of the
+regime as highly effective elements in the indoctrination process
+because they offer direct personal confrontations at the lower levels.
+Word-of-mouth communication is also an important and effective medium,
+particularly as a means of spreading news heard from Western radio
+transmissions, which were no longer subject to government jamming as a
+matter of policy.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY
+
+CHAPTER 12
+
+PUBLIC ORDER AND INTERNAL SECURITY
+
+
+By 1972 the internal security situation in Romania had changed a great
+deal from that of the post-World War II period and the first few years
+of the communist regime. In those days the regime had feared for its
+existence and for that of the system it was attempting to establish. It
+had feared interference from outside the country and active opposition
+from a large segment of the local population and had also doubted the
+reliability of a considerable number of those within its own ranks.
+
+In the police state atmosphere of that time a good portion of the people
+had also, and frequently with good reason, feared the regime. People
+whose greatest crime might have been lack of enthusiasm feared that they
+might be suspected of deviant political beliefs. Because of the brief
+time then being spent on investigation of a crime and seeking out an
+individual's possible innocence, such persons could easily emerge from
+hasty trials as political prisoners.
+
+By 1972 the security troops--successors to the secret police that had
+held the population in dread and terror twenty years before--still
+existed in considerable force. They had receded into the background,
+however, and only infrequently had any contact with the average citizen
+as he went about his daily routine.
+
+The population was undoubtedly not altogether content in 1972 and often
+chafed at bureaucratic red tape, at lackluster performance on the part
+of minor officials, and at other irritations. The youth, in particular,
+was showing reluctance to be molded into the uncompromising pattern of
+socialist society, and some of its resistance took on characteristics
+considered intolerable by the regime. On the other hand, there was
+little, if any, sign of organized opposition to the system or the
+leadership. The dominant attitude throughout the country was cooperative
+to the degree that, if the system was seen to be in need of change, it
+was preferable to attempt reform from within the system itself and along
+accepted guidelines.
+
+Reflecting the easing of internal tensions, the formal framework of the
+judicial system--the penal code, the code of criminal procedure, and the
+courts--was extensively changed in 1968. Although the new code
+emphasized protection of the state and society more than individual
+rights, the code it replaced had been one of the most severe and
+inflexible in Europe. The new codes clearly specified that there was no
+crime unless it was so defined in law and that there was to be no
+punishment unless it had been authorized by law.
+
+Procedures for criminal prosecution were set down in readily
+understandable language that, if adhered to, guaranteed equitable
+treatment during investigation, trial, and sentencing to a degree
+hitherto unknown in the court system. There were also provisions for
+appeal of lower and intermediate court sentences.
+
+Petty cases were disposed of by judicial commissions that did not have
+court status. Such commissions were set up in villages, institutions,
+collectives, or enterprises comprising as few as 200 people. Although
+authorized to administer only small fines or penalties, they were
+established in a fashion designed to involve large numbers of people in
+the judicial process and to exert local pressures on those appearing
+before them.
+
+
+INTERNAL SECURITY
+
+During the mid-1950s the militia (civil police force) and security
+troops were busily engaged in apprehending alleged spies, traitors,
+saboteurs, and those who persisted in voicing beliefs considered
+dangerous to the regime and the socialist system. In the early 1970s
+directives for security agencies still identified the 1950 threats to
+the regime and exhorted the agencies to continue to combat the same old
+enemies of the people. The emphasis has been altered, however, and
+national authorities appeared generally satisfied with the improved
+internal security situation in 1972.
+
+The regime had by then become seriously concerned much less over mass
+violence or organized subversion than over levels of unrest or passive
+resistance that are evidenced by widespread laxity, carelessness,
+indolence, or an obvious lack of popular support. The militia blamed a
+rash of railroad accidents in 1970 on laxity when investigation
+determined that the equipment had, in nearly all cases, operated
+properly and the people had received sufficient training to make the
+system work safely. It also blamed an excessive number of fires on
+carelessness and negligence. Classified political and economic data were
+found on several occasions during routine checks of unoccupied and
+unsecured automobiles. New laws were published in 1970 to deal with
+vagrancy, begging, prostitution, and persons not seeking employment or
+living what the authorities termed "useless lives."
+
+Although they have been relaxed, controls over the population remain
+strict by Western standards. A 1971 decree on the establishment of
+private residence placed rigid limitations on movement to the cities,
+allowing only those who get employment and are allocated housing to
+move. For example, military personnel must have had previous residence
+in a city in order to establish residence there after retiring from the
+service.
+
+All persons over fourteen years of age must carry identification cards.
+The cards are issued by the militia and are usually valid for ten-year
+periods to age forty-four, after which they have no expiration date.
+They are reissued, however, if the photograph no longer matches the
+appearance of the bearer or when a name change--such as that following
+marriage--affects the identity. In addition to the photograph and other
+data for identification, the card contains blood type and residence
+information. Identification cards of prisoners or persons held in
+preventive detention are withheld from them.
+
+
+Ministry of Internal Affairs
+
+The minister of internal affairs is one of the three members of the
+Council of Ministers who head governmental agencies charged with defense
+of the country and security of the regime and the social system. His
+ministry is responsible for the various police and related organizations
+that, although controlled from national headquarters, perform most of
+their functions at the local level in the defense of law, order, and
+property. It cooperates with the Ministry of the Armed Forces and with
+the State Security Council, a watchdog committee that oversees police
+activities, but neither of those agencies does a large share of its work
+with local government or party agencies (see ch. 8).
+
+Two-thirds of the ministry's major directorates deal with the militia.
+They include the militia's general inspectorate; its political council;
+and directorates relating to firefighting, special guard units, the
+Bucharest militia, and Bucharest traffic control. Other directorates of
+the ministry deal with prisons and labor settlements, reeducation of
+minors, and state archives.
+
+
+Militia
+
+The militia is organized at the national level under the Ministry of
+Internal Affairs and is probably also responsible to the State Security
+Council. The chain of command between the ministry and local police
+units appears to work from inspectorate general offices in the ministry
+through the thirty-nine _judet_ (county) inspectorates and one for the
+city of Bucharest. Local police units and local inspectorates, in
+addition to being subordinate to their counterparts at the next higher
+level, are also responsible to the locally elected people's councils.
+This dual subordination probably works because of the overriding
+influence of the Romanian Communist Party at all levels.
+
+Most of the police work is done, and by far the greatest part of the
+organization is situated, in the many local police offices. These are
+located any place in which there are sufficient numbers of people or
+enough valuable property to justify them--in towns, communes,
+enterprises, or cities, where there may be several. The ministry may
+also establish other individual police jurisdictions at railroad
+stations, ports, airfields, and large construction sites and in other
+special situations on a temporary or permanent basis.
+
+The militia is charged with defense of the regime and the society, with
+maintenance of public order, and with enforcement of laws. To accomplish
+the more general tasks, it is directed to detect criminal activities and
+to apprehend criminals. The militia is also given responsibility for
+preventing crime and for guiding, assisting, or directing other
+organizations involved in protection of the regime, the citizens, and
+state or private property. An increasing portion of routine police work
+is required in the control of highway traffic. The militia may also be
+called upon to assist in emergencies or in disaster situations.
+
+Militia regulations require the police to respect individual rights and
+the inviolability of homes and personal property in normal
+circumstances. Restrictions are removed, however, if circumstances
+warrant. Police may commandeer any vehicle or means of communication,
+private or otherwise, if the situation demands. During chase or during
+investigation of flagrant crimes, they may enter private homes without
+permission or search them without warrant.
+
+Citizens are directed to assist the militia when called upon or to act
+as police--to apprehend and hold violators--if no police are at the
+scene when a crime is committed. Provisions authorizing the formation of
+auxiliary police groups are established in law. Such auxiliaries would
+ordinarily be organized by the militia but, whatever their sponsorship,
+they would be expected to cooperate with local police authorities.
+
+According to the law defining the militia's organization, its personnel
+consist of military and civilian employees on the staff of the Ministry
+of Internal Affairs. Officers, military experts, and noncommissioned
+officers are recruited from the graduates of schools operated within the
+regular military establishment. Policemen may be drawn from those
+selected annually for compulsory military service. The armed forces'
+personnel regulations apply to militiamen acquired from the draft
+process or from military schools. Graduates of civilian schools are
+employed in the police force to meet its requirements for specialists
+who are not trained in the armed forces. These individuals and others
+who have had no association with the armed forces retain civilian status
+and are subject to the provisions of the labor code and other
+regulations applicable to civilian employees.
+
+The militia's personnel strength of 500,000 in 1972 means that about one
+person in every forty of the country's population is in, or employed by,
+the force. The reason for this high ratio is that the militia
+organization has branches at all government levels, from the national
+ministry down to the village. Also, its working groups include nearly
+all of the country's guard, regulatory, investigative, and paramilitary
+organizations, as well as those performing police and firefighting
+functions.
+
+
+Security Troops
+
+Security forces organized at the national level to protect the regime
+from subversive activities, whether locally or externally generated,
+were created in the late 1940s and are still maintained. The force in
+1972 numbered roughly 20,000 men. It is organized along military lines,
+and most, if not all, of its men have military rank. It receives its
+administrative and logistic support from the Ministry of Internal
+Affairs but is supervised by the State Security Council.
+
+According to pronouncements made during anniversary ceremonies held in
+August of 1968, during their twenty years of service the security troops
+had been a consistently reliable force. Their mission was described as
+identifying and apprehending foreign espionage agents and combating
+local spies, saboteurs, agitators, and terrorists. It was declared that
+the forces operated under the leadership and direct guidance of the
+party and governmental leadership and that local security forces were
+controlled by the party authorities in districts and cities.
+
+Pronouncements by the leadership about their local subordination
+notwithstanding, the security troops, which are the direct descendants
+of the old secret police, are still controlled at the national level.
+Because of their declining mission in counter-espionage and
+counter-subversion, they undoubtedly cooperate wherever possible in
+usual militia functions, but they appear to have only nominal
+responsibilities to local government agencies.
+
+The diminishing role of the security troops is evident in several areas.
+Their personnel strength in 1971 was a fraction of that of the militia.
+The country's efforts against external threat have been increasingly
+relegated to the regular armed forces. Also, although the chairman of
+the State Security Council--which was newly established in 1968--is a
+member of the Council of Ministers, in 1970 he was the only man on the
+security council who was a ranking party member, and he was no more than
+an alternate member of the Executive Committee of the Central Committee
+of the Romanian Communist Party. His vice chairmen were military
+officers, and only one of them was prominent enough in the party to have
+been a member of the Central Committee. It is evident that the State
+Security Council in Romania does not have the status of the high-level
+groups that in some countries have the responsibility for coordinating
+party and governmental activities relating to national security and for
+providing basic guidance to all of the various military, paramilitary,
+and police agencies.
+
+
+PUBLIC ORDER
+
+As is the case in the other communist countries that pattern their
+systems after that of the Soviet Union, Romania's leadership relies on
+the party and several mass organizations to foster a climate in which
+the people will actively support and cooperate with the regime. These
+organizations involve as large a segment of the population as possible
+in a broad spectrum of programs and functions. The efforts they elicit
+from their members may consist of activities within the organizations
+themselves or in local governments, judicial systems, and security
+groups. Mass popular involvement provides an influence that is generally
+subtle but that may become direct pressure.
+
+
+Mass Organizations
+
+The party attempts to attract the most competent and elite element of
+the people, to ensure that its members adhere to basic socialist
+ideology, and to maintain the power to direct and control all other
+groups involved in major social and governmental activities. The mass
+organizations support the party and carry its programs to special
+interest groups. They keep the party informed of the concerns of their
+members and may also, within certain limitations, have an influence upon
+the party's actions (see ch. 9).
+
+There are about a dozen mass organizations. The Socialist Unity Front is
+not typical of the group, as in theory it encompasses all of the others
+as well as the party--although it supports and serves the party. It
+functions as a coordinating agency in such things as running the
+national elections.
+
+The largest typical groups are the General Union of Trade Unions and the
+youth groups. There are three of the latter: the Union of Communist
+Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist--UTC), the Pioneers Organization,
+and the Union of Student Associations. The UTC is a general group whose
+members are between fifteen and twenty-six years of age, although
+members in leadership positions may retain their affiliation beyond the
+upper age limit. The pioneers are the younger children, seven through
+fourteen years old; their program is designed so that they move
+naturally into the UTC when they become fifteen. The student groups are
+organized in universities or in schools beyond the secondary level. They
+have experienced difficulties in attracting members and in persuading
+those they have attracted to accept all of the principles set down for
+them (see ch. 9).
+
+The other organizations are a miscellaneous aggregation, including a
+women's organization, the Red Cross, a sports and physical education
+group, one that involves the various ethnic nationalities, another that
+is a Jewish federation only, one that is designed to foster ties of
+friendship with the Soviet Union, and one designed for the defense of
+peace. Although they are highly dissimilar and vary widely in
+importance, all are designed to attract groups with special fields of
+interest and to guide such groups into activities that promote harmony
+and order.
+
+The labor and youth groups, in addition to being the largest, are also
+those most actively charged with supporting the regime. Labor union
+members are active in auxiliaries of the militia and in the military
+reserves. The UTC membership spans most of the age group that is drafted
+into the regular armed services and the security forces. Within the
+services it forms units throughout the organizational structures that
+either direct or actively assist in political indoctrination programs
+and manage sports and recreational activities. Where a party cell
+exists, the UTC is guided by it; where the military unit is too small to
+have a party cell, the UTC functions in its place.
+
+
+Youth Programs
+
+Although the economy has improved and the internal security situation
+has stabilized, youth problems have increased, and much effort is being
+expended on their solution. Officials point out that the percentage of
+young people that have become criminals or whose antisocial conduct gets
+most of the publicity is very small. They complain, however, that the
+number of those who will not associate with the UTC and who display
+other negative behavior is far too great. Negative behavior on the part
+of young people reportedly involves their manner of speech and dress,
+which "offends common decency," their creation of public disturbances,
+their apathy toward work, and the fact that many of them have become
+cynical and infatuated with "wrong beliefs."
+
+Authorities understand the youthful tendency to be nonconformist and
+accept the fact that a certain amount of the behavior they deplore is
+an attempt to affirm new and differing youth attitudes. Attitudes and
+conduct considered to have exceeded permissible bounds, however, are
+dealt with firmly. Leaders blame the inadequacies of some educational
+facilities; the ignorance, injustice, or excessive indulgence on the
+part of some parents and educators; and the overlenient courts.
+
+Solutions that have been proposed since the late 1960s have run the
+gamut from advice to parents to the creation of powerful governmental
+agencies. Parents are admonished to take a firm attitude toward their
+children. The first secretary of the Central Committee of the UTC was
+made a member of the Council of Ministers, as minister for youth
+problems. University student associations have been given much new
+attention, as have the other youth organizations and their programs. The
+militia, armed forces, and security troops have been required to
+undertake programs to cooperate with youth organizations.
+
+During 1969 the minister for youth problems was provided a research
+center by the Council of Ministers. Its purpose was to investigate the
+problems experienced by schools, universities, youth mass organizations,
+the militia, and the courts. As case studies are documented, the center
+is directed to evaluate the problems and the solutions found for them
+locally at the time they occurred and to disseminate the information,
+with additional comments and recommendations, as widely as possible.
+
+In early 1971 a considerably invigorated program was unveiled for the
+UTC. Wherever possible, all programs were to become more mature and more
+stimulating. Military exercises would involve field trips and more
+realistic maneuvers. Aerial sports would include parachuting, gliding,
+and powered flight. Hobbies, such as model ship building, amateur radio,
+and the study of topography, were to be given more adequate supervision.
+Better equipment and facilities would be supplied for touring,
+motorcycling, mountaineering, skiing, and hiking. More youths were to be
+scheduled for summer camps. No information concerning the effectiveness
+of the new programs had been made available by early 1972.
+
+Many university students held their party-sponsored associations in low
+regard during the middle and late 1960s, and eventually the
+then-existing student unions were dissolved or consolidated into the new
+Union of Student Associations. The incentives and pressures that were
+applied, in addition to revamping the union's programs, had succeeded by
+1970 in re-animating the association to the point that it was active in
+all of the country's universities and institutes of higher learning. It
+was authorized to make recommendations applicable to extracurricular
+sports and tourist programs, political education, and the entire
+academic area of the educational establishment.
+
+Programs for the young pioneer groups have probably not been the object
+of the same degree of reform effort that has been applied to the UTC and
+the student associations. A party spokesman stated in late 1971,
+however, that the 1.6 million pioneers were not too young to develop a
+socialist consciousness and to be given a communist education. He stated
+that their major programs should feature direct involvement in work of
+educational and civic value.
+
+To give young people a sense of accomplishment, as well as to keep them
+occupied in meaningful and productive work, large numbers of them are
+organized into youth construction groups. In typical situations
+temporary housing or camps are built near the project, and all necessary
+facilities are provided at the site. During the spring of 1970, for
+example, five such groups were scattered throughout the country,
+operating concurrently. A majority of the projects have involved land
+reclamation, irrigation, or drainage. Many of them are major
+undertakings, and thousands of young people take part in the program.
+
+
+CRIME AND THE PENAL SYSTEM
+
+During a 1971 discussion on the judiciary's philosophy with regard to
+the general subjects of law and freedom, the chairman of the Supreme
+Court stated that the penal code and criminal procedures adopted in 1968
+assign to the law the role of regulator of social behavior. The law has
+become, he said, not simply an instrument stipulating the rights and
+obligations of the citizen; its important social role provides a firm
+foundation for society's behavior. Other spokesmen have amplified this
+theme. They emphasize that, once an individual understands the law and
+its objectives, he appreciates the fact that individual freedom is
+related to the freedom of others and that a free individual is bound to
+respect accepted ideological concepts and accepted moral and judicial
+standards.
+
+Public prosecutors have a broad range of responsibility in the judicial
+and penal systems. Their duties are not confined to handling the
+prosecution of indicted individuals who have been brought to trial. As
+the appointed protectors of the civil liberties of the people, their
+duties extend from crime prevention to rehabilitation of criminals
+serving prison sentences. They are responsible for seeing that crimes
+are detected and investigated and that penal action is taken against the
+criminal. They also see to it that the criminal is held in preventive
+detention, if necessary, before trial. After sentencing, the prosecutors
+have access to any place in which the criminal might be detained and
+pass on the legalities of the detention and the conditions within the
+penal institution. If a sentence either does not involve imprisonment
+(but is, for example, in the form of a fine, restriction, or extra work)
+or is suspended, the prosecutors ensure that the terms of the sentence
+are carried out.
+
+Public prosecutors are monitored by the Office of the Prosecutor General
+at the national level. The prosecutor general (attorney general) assures
+that the work of local public prosecutors is consistent throughout the
+country, both in the choice of cases to pursue and in the diligence with
+which the prosecution is undertaken (see ch. 8).
+
+
+Crime
+
+Statistics released to the public do not include crime rates. Reliable
+data that would include petty crime would, in any event, be difficult to
+obtain because many minor infractions of law and all but the more
+serious of personal disputes are not termed crimes and are tried before
+the hundreds of local judicial commissions.
+
+A rough assessment of the overall crime situation can, however, be made
+from the concern expressed in the many speeches and articles published
+by government and party spokesmen. It is apparent that certain types of
+crime are considered to be adequately under control and occur
+infrequently enough to be statistically tolerable. There are, for
+example, few trials in the political category, such as those where
+dissidents are accused of attempting to undermine the authority of the
+regime or to subvert the population from the approved ideology. In an
+exceptional case (apparently at least his second serious offense) an
+engineer found guilty of passing economic information to a foreigner
+received a twenty-five-year sentence in March 1971 for espionage.
+Similar trials were a frequent occurrence during the early 1950s, but
+much of the publicity they have received since the mid-1960s has
+occurred because they have become so infrequent as to be noteworthy.
+
+Furthermore, to emphasize the more moderate and strictly legal
+procedures adhered to by police forces and the judiciary, some of the
+1950 political trials are being reexamined. Most of those sentenced to
+imprisonment from such trials have been amnestied, the largest group in
+1964. A few of those who were executed are still being posthumously
+rehabilitated.
+
+On the other hand, there is a greater percentage of crimes in the
+categories that are sometimes attributed to an improvement in the
+standard of living but that reflect dissatisfaction with the rate of the
+improvement. These include economic crimes--theft and embezzlement--misuse
+or abuse of property, and antisocial crimes and crimes of violence, which
+are committed most frequently by younger people. Party officials also
+deplore the prevalence of laxity in the use of state property and in the
+safeguarding of official information and documents.
+
+Measures taken to combat crime have had varying degrees of success.
+Speculation is illegal, but efforts to prevent private sales of new and
+used cars at excessive profit have been ineffective. Cars two to five
+years old sell for more than their original cost. Crimes such as
+vagrancy, begging, and prostitution were, as of late 1970, defying the
+best efforts of the militia and the courts. This type of crime had been
+prevalent during the early post-World War II period but declined after
+about 1950. During the late 1960s it again began to increase. The
+militia has also encountered a problem in the amount of popular
+cooperation it is able to count upon. Individuals who have identified
+persons as having committed criminal acts have been subjected to
+reprisals. The militia has, however, been able to show good results
+against vandalism, pilfering, and petty theft. By mid-1971 crimes of
+that category had been reduced to pre-1969 levels.
+
+The 1968 Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) invasion of
+Czechoslovakia generated a certain amount of disillusion that probably
+contributed to the increase, during the late 1960s, in attempts to
+emigrate illegally. An émigré reported that about 40 percent of the
+prison populations at Arad and Timisoara, or some 500 inmates, had
+failed in attempts to cross the border into Hungary. Most of them were
+reportedly twenty to thirty years old and were serving sentences of from
+one to five years.
+
+Modern crime-fighting facilities have been introduced more slowly than
+has been the case in the more prosperous European countries. During 1970
+the Ministry of Justice established the Central Crime Laboratory and two
+branch, or interdistrict, laboratories. All of them serve the militia,
+the security and armed forces, the courts, and the public prosecutors.
+They are equipped to assist in the investigation of all aspects of
+crimes except those where medical and legal services are required. They
+include facilities for handwriting, fingerprint, and ballistic analyses
+and analysis of documents (for counterfeiting or alteration) and for
+performing a number of other physical and chemical tests.
+
+
+Traffic Control
+
+Traffic control demands a sizable portion of police energies, although
+by 1972 highway use remained low in comparison to the rest of the
+continent. There had been few motor vehicles before World War II, and
+numbers for personal use or for motor transport increased slowly during
+the immediate postwar years. Since about 1955, however, both categories
+have become available at an accelerated rate.
+
+In 1963 traffic was up over 200 percent (and in 1965 approximately 300
+percent) from 1955 levels. Total numbers of vehicles increased at about
+10 percent a year during the late 1960s, and the number of those that
+were privately licensed doubled during the two-year period 1968 and
+1969. Encouraged by the government during approximately the same period,
+tourist traffic tripled.
+
+Irresponsible driving, lack of traffic controls, and lack of concern for
+their danger on the part of pedestrians, bicyclists, and wagon drivers
+contributed to an acceleration in the number of accidents and casualties
+that paralleled the increase in traffic. In 1969 there were 2,070 deaths
+resulting from about 5,300 reported accidents. Only about 40 percent of
+the victims were occupants of the vehicles involved and, of them, a
+considerably larger number of passengers than drivers were killed.
+Nearly 50 percent of the total fatalities were pedestrians; the
+remainder were on bicycles or wagons.
+
+Considering accident statistics higher than warranted by the rising
+volume of traffic, the regime had enacted a series of stricter control
+measures, the bulk of them in 1968. Officials analyzing the problem
+attributed most of the poor record to disregard for driving regulations
+and inadequate traffic controls. Excessive speed had accounted for about
+40 percent of the accidents. Driving under the influence of alcohol,
+failure to pay attention, and failure to yield the right of way
+accounted, in that order, for most of the others. Drivers were blamed
+for about 65 percent of accidents, pedestrians for 31 percent, and
+malfunction of vehicles for 4 percent. Accidents in which alcohol was a
+factor tended to be the most serious. One in every 2.3 alcohol-related
+accidents resulted in a fatality.
+
+After 1968 the more stringent regulations and measures to enforce them
+began to yield results. By 1970, although both the numbers of local
+automobiles and tourist traffic had continued to increase steadily,
+accidents had decreased by 8 percent; and deaths and injuries from them
+were down by 7 and 8 percent, respectively. Officials gave credit to an
+educational program in secondary schools, the beginnings of a vehicle
+inspection program, and positive actions taken to reduce driving after
+drinking, as well as to the new regulations and enforcement efforts.
+During 1970 the militia suspended about 20,000 operators' licenses,
+canceling a number of them.
+
+
+Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure
+
+The penal code in effect before 1968 was one of the most severe in
+Europe. The penal code and the code of criminal procedure that have
+replaced it attempt to ensure that criminals are not able to evade the
+penalties provided for in the law but, at the same time, there is a
+stated guarantee against the arrest, trial, or conviction of innocent
+persons. Protective measures for accused persons are to be respected by
+all law enforcement and judicial agencies.
+
+It is emphasized that an individual is found guilty according to the
+relevant evidence in his case. Courts are instructed to base sentences
+on the crime, rather than on an individual's reputation or extenuating
+circumstances. A Romanian assumes legal responsibility and is subject to
+the codes at age fourteen; he is considered an adult before the courts
+at age sixteen.
+
+If the possible sentence for an alleged crime is five years or more, the
+accused is guaranteed counsel during any part of the investigation that
+involves his presence after he has been taken into custody, in the
+preparation of his defense, and throughout his trial. Minors and
+enlisted military personnel are authorized counsel without regard to the
+possible sentence. The defense counsel has access to all findings that
+are uncovered by the prosecutor or other investigators during the
+investigation of the case. Except in special cases specified in the law,
+trials are public. Decisions as to guilt or innocence and the sentence
+handed down are concurred in by a majority vote of the judges and
+people's assessors on the court.
+
+The maximum prison sentence for a first offense is twenty years; for a
+repeated serious offense, it may be twenty-five years. The death
+sentence is also authorized, but it may be commuted to life
+imprisonment. The most severe sentences are still authorized for crimes
+in the political category--those endangering the state, the regime, or
+the society. Serious crimes against property and crimes of violence
+against a person are also considered grave but, unless they are
+exceptional, are not punishable by death. A person receiving the death
+penalty has five days in which to request a pardon. If the sentence is
+carried out, execution is by a firing squad.
+
+The new codes attempt to reduce court time spent on minor offenses.
+Those that constitute no significant danger to society and should be
+prevented from recurring by social pressures have been removed from the
+list of crimes and have been relegated to the judicial commissions. In
+other cases, where an act is still classified as a crime, an offender
+may elect to plead guilty without a trial. If he does, he is charged
+one-half the minimum fine for the offense, and the case is closed.
+
+Pretrial preventive detention is authorized to protect the individual,
+to assure that he will not elude trial, or to prevent his committing
+further criminal acts. Detention is ordinarily limited to five days for
+investigation of a crime or to thirty days if the person has been
+arrested and is awaiting trial. Extensions up to ninety days are
+authorized if requested by the prosecutor in the case. Longer extensions
+may be granted by the court.
+
+According to the Romanian press, which has commented on the way that the
+new codes have served the people, examples of poor performance are
+usually attributable to the inertia of the bureaucracy. When citizens'
+rights are withheld, red tape or over-worked personnel are most
+frequently to blame. Occasionally, however, officials are unresponsive
+to individuals' requests and provide services grudgingly without an
+adequate justification for delay.
+
+
+Courts
+
+The Constitution charges the judiciary with the defense of socialist
+order and the rights of citizens in the spirit of respect for the law.
+It also gives the courts responsibility for correcting and educating
+citizens who appear before them, to prevent further violations of the
+law. Party leader Nicolae Ceausescu, in a 1970 pronouncement, indicated
+that the party leadership may feel that the law should stress to an even
+greater extent the defense of the state and society rather than the
+rights of the individual. According to his statement, the first
+obligation of the courts is to collaborate with the militia and security
+forces and apply lawful punishment to those who disregard order and the
+laws of the country. He went on to say that he considered that the
+concepts of "solicitude for man" and "extenuating circumstances" were
+poorly understood and were abused by overlenient courts. In his view the
+courts had not shown sufficient firmness in cases involving trivial
+infractions, such as rowdiness or minor infractions of the norms of
+social relationships, or in cases dealing with persons who wish to live
+without working (see ch. 8).
+
+Nonetheless, the court organization, as it was redesigned in 1968, is
+required to operate within a framework that is compatible with the penal
+codes and is thoroughly described and established in the law. Of greater
+significance, there has been an effort to make sure that the system is
+run by adequately qualified personnel. People's assessors, who need have
+no legal education, may outnumber the judges on the lower courts.
+Decisions of these courts may, however, be appealed and, if higher court
+panels are not made up exclusively of professional judges, the judges
+always outnumber the people's assessors. Judges must be lawyers and are
+preferably doctors of law.
+
+The court system under the Ministry of Justice consists of the Supreme
+Court, _judet_ courts, and lower courts. The lower courts, which might
+be considered lower municipal courts, are usually referred to only as
+"the courts." Bucharest has a court that is an equivalent of a _judet_
+court, and it has several of the lower courts (see ch. 8).
+
+The lower courts are courts of first instance in all cases they hear.
+This could include cases that had previously been heard by judicial
+commissions. Such cases would not be considered to have been legally
+tried and would require reinvestigation and altogether new prosecutions,
+making sure that rights of the accused and all legal procedures were
+properly observed.
+
+Appeals from the lower courts are heard by _judet_ courts, which are
+also courts of first instance in more serious cases. Final appeal is to
+the Supreme Court. There is no appeal from its decisions, but it is not
+totally free and independent. It is within one of the government's
+ministries and is also responsive to the party leadership.
+
+Judicial commissions function at a level below the formal court system.
+Each such commission is composed of several members (usually five),
+handles a wide variety of cases, and attempts to hear as many of them as
+possible in public. Because the judicial commissions are not a part of
+the court system, their cases are not included among criminal
+statistics. Unless appealed, however, their sentences are binding.
+Official documents describe the commissions as public organs for
+exerting influence and legal control, organized so as to bring about
+broad participation of the masses, providing them with a socialist
+education in legality and promoting a correct attitude toward work and
+good social behavior. The educational benefits are intended both for
+those serving on the commissions and for those who are judged by them.
+
+The commissions handle small damage or personal disagreement suits
+between individuals--small first offense cases involving public
+property, petty thefts, misuse of property when no willful abuse is
+involved, negligence cases, and traffic violations. Judicial commissions
+set up in enterprises or collectives handle minor labor disputes and
+work-grievance cases. In all situations the commissions attempt to exert
+the influence of public opinion and, in personal disputes, to achieve
+reconciliations.
+
+
+Penal Institutions
+
+Depending upon the seriousness of a crime, its category, and the age and
+occupation of the individual, until the mid-1960s a convicted person was
+confined in a correction camp, a labor colony, a prison or, if subject
+to military law, a military disciplinary unit. Prisons included
+penitentiaries, prison factories, town jails, and detention facilities
+of the security troops.
+
+A majority of labor colony inmates were political prisoners and, if
+there were a few of them that had not completed their sentences or were
+not released in amnesties by the mid-1960s, they were probably
+transferred to penitentiaries. Increased use of judicial commissions for
+petty crimes and an accompanying change minimizing confinement in lesser
+cases have further reduced prison populations and eliminated the need
+for separate categories of correction institutions. As a result, the
+1970 law on the execution of court sentences treats all places of
+confinement as prisons or penitentiaries (under the authority of the
+Ministry of Internal Affairs) or as military disciplinary units (under
+the Ministry of the Armed Forces).
+
+Place of detention vary, nonetheless. Maximum security prisons are
+provided for those convicted of crimes against the state's security,
+serious economic crimes, homicides or other violent crimes, and
+recidivists. All convicted persons are obliged to perform useful work,
+and an effort must be made to educate and rehabilitate the inmates.
+Consequently, all but town jails and those facilities designed to hold
+persons for short stays have labor and educational facilities.
+
+A convict is paid according to the country's standard wage scales. He
+receives 10 percent of his wages; the remainder goes to the penitentiary
+administration as state income. The maximum working day is twelve hours.
+If work norms are regularly exceeded, sentences are shortened
+accordingly.
+
+Inmates are segregated for various reasons. Women are separated from
+men; minors, from adults; and recidivists and those convicted of serious
+crimes, from those serving short terms. Drug addicts and alcoholics are
+isolated whenever possible. Persons held in preventive arrest, not yet
+convicted of a crime, are separated when possible from convicted
+persons. Unless their conduct is considered intolerably uncooperative,
+they are not denied the ordinary prison privileges.
+
+Usual convict privileges include some visits, packages, and
+correspondence. Privileges allowed vary with the severity of the
+original sentence and may be increased, reduced, or done away with
+altogether, depending upon the inmate's attitude and behavior.
+Consistently good conduct may also earn parole. An inmate who performs
+an exceptional service may be pardoned altogether; many were freed for
+their work in combating the great floods during the spring of 1970.
+
+Other disciplinary measures include reprimand, simple isolation, severe
+isolation, or transfer to an institution with a more severe regimen.
+All convict mail is censored, and correspondence whose content is
+considered unsuitable is withheld. Conversation during visits is limited
+to Romanian or to a language familiar to someone available to monitor
+what is said.
+
+Amnesties are granted periodically. Some, such as those that freed
+political prisoners in 1964 and the one in late 1970, reduce prison
+populations considerably. They may, as in 1964, free a particular
+category of prisoner or, as in the December 30, 1970, amnesty, serve to
+reduce sentences of all types but on a basis of the amount of the term
+unserved. At that time full pardon was granted all who had less than a
+year of their sentences to serve, even if an individual had been
+sentenced but had not yet begun to serve the term. Full pardon was also
+granted to pregnant women, women with children under five years of age
+who had up to three years of their sentences remaining, and to all women
+over the age of sixty. The amnesty even applied to cases in court.
+Trials were to continue, but the amnesty would take effect if it were
+applicable to the sentence. If, however, an amnestied person committed
+another crime within three years, he would be confined for the unserved
+portion of his commuted sentence in addition to the new one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 13
+
+ARMED FORCES
+
+
+In 1971 Romania was a member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw
+Pact), but it was not fully cooperating in its activities nor in total
+agreement with the Soviet Union's interpretation of the organization's
+mission. Romania saw little threat to its territorial boundaries or to
+its ideology from the West. On the other hand, since the invasion of
+Czechoslovakia in 1968 by other pact members, various Romanian leaders
+have expressed concern about the danger to individual sovereignty from
+within the pact itself.
+
+Much of the nation's military history has been that of an alliance
+partner. It has not fought a major battle in any other capacity. How
+well it has fared at peace tables has depended in large part on the fate
+of its allies or how the peacemakers believed that the Balkan area of
+the continent should be divided. In this tradition Romania aligns itself
+without significant reservation with the Warsaw Pact.
+
+The military establishment consists of ground, naval, air and air
+defense, and frontier forces. They are administered by a defense
+ministry, which in turn is responsible to the chief of state. At topmost
+policy levels, party leaders are interwoven into the controlling group.
+Political education throughout the forces is supervised by a directorate
+of the ministry, but the directorate is responsible to the Romanian
+Communist Party.
+
+Military service has become a national tradition, although the tradition
+is based largely on the continuing existence of sizable armed forces.
+The people accept the military establishment willingly enough even
+though conscription removes a great part of the young male population
+from the labor force for periods of from sixteen to twenty-four months.
+The military services are not an overwhelming financial burden and, in
+local terms, the forces undoubtedly have value to the regime. They
+support it and give it an appearance of power. Also, the discipline and
+political indoctrination given the conscripts during their military
+service is considered beneficial to them and to the country.
+
+
+HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
+
+The armed forces have been dependent on some major power for arms supply
+during most of the country's independent history. Equipment and
+assistance were furnished by Germany between 1870 and 1916. During that
+time, although the country's population was hardly more than 10 million,
+with German help it was able to support a large army. It fielded about
+500,000 men against Bulgaria in 1913 during the Second Balkan War, for
+example. In 1916 Romania joined the World War I Allies, but its forces
+were defeated within a few months and were idled until a few days before
+the armistice in November 1918. From then until just before World War II
+they were assisted by France and, to a lesser degree by Great Britain
+(see ch. 2).
+
+Because of the political situation at the time, Romania was unable to
+offer resistance when the Soviet Union, by terms of its agreement with
+Germany in 1939, annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. In June 1941,
+however when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Romania joined the
+Germans. Its forces fought the Soviets until 1944 but, after the battle
+for Stalingrad in 1943, they became too war weary to perform at their
+best. In 1944, as the Germans were being pushed westward, Romania was
+overrun by Soviet armies and joined them against Germany.
+
+Nearly all of the military tradition cited by communist regimes since
+World War II starts at this point. On occasions honoring the forces they
+are reminded that they mobilized more than 500,000 men for this
+campaign, suffered 170,000 casualties, and liberated 3,800 localities
+while helping to push the German armies about 600 miles from central
+Romania.
+
+A postwar buildup of Romania's forces began in 1947. Since then all
+major weapons and heavy equipment have been of Soviet design, and
+organization and training largely followed the Soviet model.
+
+When the Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 its members were given alliance
+responsibilities, and new procedures were introduced to enable them to
+perform as an integrated force. More modern equipment was furnished,
+basic units were brought closer to authorized combat strengths, and
+training was undertaken on a larger and more exacting scale. Romania's
+forces were expanded to nearly the maximum that could be readily
+sustained by universal conscription. Strengths were greatest before
+1964, especially during the Berlin and Cuban crises of the early 1960s.
+Reduction of the tour of duty in 1964 to sixteen months for most
+conscripts necessitated a slight reduction in the overall size of the
+forces.
+
+
+GOVERNMENTAL AND PARTY CONTROL OVER THE ARMED FORCES
+
+The Ministry of the Armed Forces is the governmental agency that
+administers the military forces, but policymaking is a prerogative of
+the party hierarchy. Top ministry officials are always party members and
+often concurrently hold important party posts. In 1971 Nicolae
+Ceausescu--as president and chief of state, supreme commander of the
+armed forces, and chairman of the Defense Council--was, in each case,
+the immediate superior of the minister of the armed forces. At the same
+time, the minister of the armed forces was an alternate member of the
+executive committee of the party and, as such, not only was an important
+party leader but was again responsible to Ceausescu, this time in the
+latter's capacity as the party's general secretary.
+
+One of the deputy ministers of the armed forces is secretary of the
+Higher Political Council. Although administered within the ministry,
+this council is responsible to the party's Central Committee. It is in
+charge of political education in the military establishment and has an
+organization paralleling, and collocated with, that of the regular
+services. It penetrates into the lower service units to monitor the
+content and effectiveness of political training in troop units.
+
+The Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist--UTC), the
+junior affiliate of the Romanian Communist Party, has responsibility for
+premilitary training and for active political work among the troops in
+their duty organizations. The UTC's premilitary programs prepare youth
+for military duty by introducing them to basic training and technical
+skills in addition to political indoctrination. Within the military
+organization, UTC work includes political educational programs conducted
+on duty and sports, cultural, and recreational activities conducted off
+duty (see ch. 12).
+
+
+ORGANIZATION AND MISSION
+
+The regular forces, which include the frontier troops, are under
+administrative and tactical control of the Ministry of the Armed Forces.
+The minister has a number of deputies, including the chiefs of the main
+directorates for training, political affairs, and rear services
+(logistics) and the chief of the general staff. The heads of operational
+or major tactical commands are also immediately subordinate to the
+minister. The highest level of the tactical organization includes the
+headquarters of the naval and air forces, the frontier troops, and the
+military regions (see fig. 10).
+
+Area organization includes two military regions, with headquarters at
+Cluj and Iasi, and the Bucharest garrison. Regional headquarters, which
+are simultaneously corps headquarters of the ground forces, control
+support facilities for all services.
+
+ [Illustration:
+                              President
+                                  |
+                              Defense Council
+                                  |
+                              Council of
+                              Ministers
+                                  |
+                              Ministry of the
+                              Armed Forces
+                                  |
+       ---------------------------+---------------------------
+       |               |          |          |               |
+ General Staff   Directorate for  |    Directorate for  Directorate of
+                Political Affairs |     Rear Services      Training
+                                  |     (Logistics)
+                                  |
+       ---------------------------+---------------------------
+       |               |          |          |               |
+       |               |                 Air and             |
+ Ground Forces    Naval Forces    |    Air Defense    Frontier Troops
+                                  |       Forces
+                                  |
+          ------------------------+---------------------
+          |                       |                    |
+    Bucharest Garrison  Cluj Military Region    Iasi Military Region
+
+ _Figure 10. Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972._]
+
+All commanders and force personnel subordinate to the minister are part
+of the regular military establishment, although appointments to the
+higher commands may be determined in varying degrees by political
+considerations. The minister is a political appointee but, whether or
+not he has had a military background, he assumes a senior military rank.
+The Romanian practice deviates from the usual in such situations,
+however, where the minister is expected to have an actual or honorary
+rank superior to any officer in his forces. The minister of the armed
+forces in 1971, for example, was appointed in 1966. He was promoted from
+colonel general to army general after about four years in his position
+and, during the early period, was technically subordinate in rank to an
+army general who commanded the General Military Academy in Bucharest.
+
+In 1972 there were about 200,000 men in the regular forces. About 75
+percent were in ground force or in support units common to all services.
+About 5 percent were naval; 10 percent, air force; and the remainder,
+frontier troops. The air force percentage included air defense forces.
+
+When the mission of the armed forces is being described in relation to
+the Warsaw Pact, it is pointed out that the forces are structured and
+trained for major operations in concert with their allies against a
+common enemy. Because organized Romanian forces have not been involved
+in a major conflict except as junior partners in an alliance force, this
+experience makes the concept of participation in the Warsaw Pact mission
+easy to accept. Since about 1960, however, leaders have expressed
+ambitions to act somewhat independently of the Warsaw Pact. In this
+context the pact mission is occasionally downgraded or passed over in
+nonspecific terms. The forces' mission is then described as defense of
+the country only, and their use is said to be allowable only to resist
+aggression against Romania.
+
+
+Ground Forces
+
+The ground forces are commonly referred to as the army, although the
+Romanian People's Army comprises all of the regular armed forces
+administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces. The ground forces
+proper have two tank and seven motorized-rifle divisions and a few other
+smaller combat units, including mountain, airborne, and artillery
+outfits of varying sizes. Combat units are thought to be kept at about
+90 percent of their full authorized strengths. Most of the support
+agencies that provide services needed by all service organizations are
+manned by ground force personnel. Strength of the ground forces in 1972
+was estimated at between 130,000 and 170,000.
+
+Divisions are organized on the same pattern as those in the other Warsaw
+Pact countries. Tank divisions have one artillery, one motorized-rifle,
+and three tank regiments. Motorized-rifle divisions have one tank, one
+artillery, and three motorized-rifle regiments.
+
+The division is the basic combat unit, and all of them have their own
+essential service and support outfits. They are, however, subordinate to
+corps headquarters of the military regions rather than directly to the
+Ministry of the Armed Forces.
+
+
+Air and Air Defense Forces
+
+The commander of the air and air defense forces occupies a position
+parallel to that of the commanders of the military districts and the
+naval and frontier forces. His immediate superior is the minister of the
+armed forces. His tactical units include about twenty fighter-bomber and
+fighter-interceptor squadrons and a squadron each of transports,
+reconnaissance aircraft, and helicopters. These units have a total of
+about 250 aircraft; there are about the same number of trainers and
+light utility planes.
+
+Of the combat aircraft, MiG-17s would be used in the ground support
+role; MiG-19s and MiG-21s are interceptors that would be used in
+air-to-air combat. The reconnaissance squadron has Il-28 twin jet-engine
+light bombers. These airplanes are obsolescent, if not obsolete, and
+their crews are trained for reconnaissance only. A limited transport
+capability is provided by about a dozen twin-engine, piston-type
+transports. They are old and slow but are adequate for the
+short-distance work required of them. The helicopter squadron is
+equipped for air evacuation, for delivery of supplies to inaccessible
+areas, and for short-range reconnaissance.
+
+Interceptor squadrons are presumably integrated into the Warsaw Pact air
+defense network, which is designed to function as a unit over all of
+Eastern Europe. The small numbers of fighter-bombers are probably
+capable of providing no more than marginal support for Romania's own
+ground forces.
+
+Air defenses include surface-to-air missiles, antiaircraft artillery,
+and early warning and aircraft control sites. Surface-to-air missiles
+and their launching equipment, larger antiaircraft guns, radars, and
+most of the complex communication equipment are furnished by the Soviet
+Union.
+
+Air defenses in all of the Warsaw Pact countries are integrated into a
+common network. Romania's are important because the southwestern border
+with Yugoslavia is the point at which an attack from the western
+Mediterranean Sea could be first detected. Within the country, Bucharest
+and Ploiesti have point missile defenses.
+
+
+Naval Forces
+
+The naval organization includes headquarters, schools, a major base at
+Mangalia, a minor base at Constanta, and stations on the Danube River.
+Mangalia is a Black Sea port about twenty-five miles south of Constanta
+and just north of the Bulgarian border. Naval personnel in 1972 numbered
+somewhat fewer than 10,000. The force has almost 200 vessels, but they
+are an assortment of old and miscellaneous ships that have little
+capability outside their local environment. None of them is designed to
+operate more than a few miles from the coast line and definitely not
+beyond the Black Sea.
+
+Ships include minesweepers, escort vessels, patrol and torpedo boats,
+and a large assortment of small miscellaneous craft. Five of the patrol
+boats are of the modern Soviet Osa class and carry a short-range
+surface-to-surface missile. A few of the torpedo boats are fast,
+although they are not the latest models. Minesweepers have limited
+offshore capability but, if protected, could clear the Danube River and
+essential parts of its delta.
+
+
+Frontier Troops
+
+Borders with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia have defenses and are guarded, and
+there is some effort to patrol the Black Sea coastline. Borders with the
+Soviet Union and Hungary are not controlled except at highway and rail
+crossing points. Because the Danube River forms the greater share of the
+controlled borders, much of the patrolling is done by boat.
+
+During the 1950s and early 1960s frontier or border troops were
+subordinate to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and were difficult to
+distinguish, except in their deployment, from that ministry's security
+troops. During the latter part of the 1960s authority over the border
+forces passed to the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but the move was
+apparently accomplished over a period of time, and the decree
+formalizing the transfer was not published until September 1971. The
+commander of the frontier troops is one of the major operational
+commanders under the minister of the armed forces and is on a level with
+the chiefs of the military regions, the air and air defense force, and
+naval forces.
+
+Regulations defining border areas to be controlled and describing the
+authority of the forces were amended in late 1969. The border strip is a
+prohibited area, which is fenced in some places and often patrolled. On
+level, dry ground, it is sixty-five-feet wide but, where the borderline
+crosses marshy or rugged terrain, it may be widened enough to afford the
+troops easier access and control.
+
+A border zone varies in width but extends into the country from the
+strip and includes towns and communes. Frontier troops have overall
+control within the zone. They are instructed not to interfere more than
+necessary with usual human activities in it and to cooperate with the
+local police, whom they do not supplant. Although they are paramount in
+the zone, they are not restricted to it and may work fifteen or twenty
+miles into the interior if necessary.
+
+Troops are charged with controlling people, goods, and communications at
+the border and preventing unauthorized passage and smuggling. The major
+port city of Constanta, on the Black Sea coast, is listed as an
+exception to most of the border control regulations. Its city territory
+does not have a border strip, nor is it within a border zone. The
+regulation is presumably intended to facilitate port and shipping
+operations and to keep the more stringent controls inland from the port
+so that they do not interfere with international trade or tourist
+traffic.
+
+
+FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS
+
+Romania is a member of the Warsaw Pact, having joined when the pact was
+created in 1955. It also has bilateral treaties of friendship,
+cooperation, and mutual assistance with each of the other pact nations.
+Since each pact member has signed one of these treaties with all other
+members, all are bound to come to the assistance of any other that is
+attacked. In practical terms all are bound to the defense of any pact
+member in any conflict in which it might become involved since, no
+matter how it started, the other country would be branded the aggressor.
+
+Pact members commit a substantial portion, or all, of their fully
+trained and equipped units to the pact's use. Committed units are
+considered to be part of an integral force. Romanian forces have a role
+in pact plans but, because they have failed to participate in several
+recent pact maneuvers, Western observers have expressed doubt that the
+organization would depend upon effective Romanian cooperation during the
+first phase of a major conflict or for any participation in an action
+such as the Czechoslovak invasion of 1968.
+
+At the time of the pact's inception, leaders of the various member
+states were preoccupied with the security of their countries and their
+regimes. A threat from the new North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
+was real to them, as was danger from dissident elements within their own
+borders. It is doubtful whether in 1955 any one of the leadership groups
+seriously considered that its regime might--by itself or in deference to
+the wishes of its people--undertake economic or social practices or
+deviate from the ideology in ways that could be considered dangerous to
+the solidarity of the alliance. By 1965, however, Romania had embarked
+upon an independent course, to the extent that it, like Czechoslovakia,
+had reason to fear that it could be the object of retaliatory pact
+action.
+
+In his Bucharest Declaration of July 1966, Nicolae Ceausescu--who at
+that time was head of the party but had not yet taken over as chief of
+state--announced that he considered the Warsaw Pact a temporary alliance
+and that it would lose its validity if NATO were to cease functioning.
+Then, in 1968, Romania openly supported the Czechoslovak government,
+denounced the pact's invasion of that country, and did not participate
+in it. Since that time Romania has not permitted other Warsaw Pact
+forces either to hold exercises on its soil or to cross it for maneuvers
+in another country. As a result, Bulgaria can send forces to other
+Eastern European countries only by air or by way of the Black Sea and
+the Soviet Union. Pact exercises held in Bulgaria during the summer of
+1971 were performed by Bulgarian troops; other countries, including
+Romania, sent observers.
+
+In addition to holding its military relations with the Warsaw Pact to a
+minimum, Romania's armed forces have attempted to make contacts with the
+military establishments in other countries. A military delegation
+visited Yugoslavia in 1971, and feelers have been put out to arrange
+other such conferences. A ranking military spokesman has stated that the
+army was developing friendly relations with its counterparts in all the
+countries of the socialist system in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. He
+added that Romania is increasing its relations of cooperation and
+collaboration with the nonsocialist states, as a contribution to the
+development of mutual trust.
+
+
+MANPOWER, TRAINING, AND SUPPORT
+
+Manpower
+
+There are approximately 4.86 million men in the military age group, that
+is, the male population between the ages of eighteen and forty-nine.
+About 3.4 million--70 percent--are considered physically and otherwise
+fit for military service (see ch. 3).
+
+A somewhat larger percentage, however, of the 180,000 young men who
+reach the draft age annually are physically able to serve. The
+preponderance of armed forces and most security troop personnel are
+acquired during the annual draft calls. Because of the short duty tours
+required of conscripts, it was necessary in 1971 to call up most of the
+eligible group in order to maintain the forces' strengths.
+
+Men released from active duty, whether they served voluntarily or
+involuntarily, remain subject to recall until the age of fifty. Although
+nearly 100,000 men have been released from the services each year since
+about 1950, only a small portion of them are considered trained
+reserves. Only those recently discharged could be mobilized quickly and
+go into action without extensive retraining. There is insufficient
+emphasis on periodic reserve training to keep many of the older men in
+satisfactory physical condition or up to date on new weapons and
+tactics.
+
+Young men of draft age are potentially good soldier material. There is
+almost no illiteracy within the adult population under fifty-five years
+of age. A large percentage of conscripts have rural, village, or small
+city backgrounds and are in better physical condition than the average
+urban youth. On the minus side, because the country has a low standard
+of living, conscripts have little familiarity with mechanical and
+electronic equipment.
+
+Based on the numbers of males in lower age groups, the size of the
+annual military manpower pool will remain at about 1971 levels
+throughout the 1970s. It will then drop by nearly 25 percent during the
+first half of the 1980s but will rise sharply--and again temporarily--in
+the latter half of that decade. With the exception of the high and low
+periods during the 1980s, governmental population experts expect little
+overall change in available manpower during the remainder of the
+century.
+
+
+Training
+
+Since about the mid-1960s little public attention has been focused on
+the armed forces. Their capabilities, reliability, and preparedness have
+been taken for granted or have not been the subject of undue concern.
+Unit training and small exercises have been given little coverage in
+local media. Training programs, however, are dictated in large degree by
+organization and equipment and have changed little since 1960.
+
+With the standardization of units, weapons, and tactics accompanying the
+formation of the Warsaw Pact, training was accomplished in Romania as
+directed in translated Soviet manuals. In the Warsaw Pact system the
+training cycle starts when a conscript arrives at his duty organization
+for individual training. This includes strenuous physical conditioning,
+basic instruction in drill, care and use of personal weapons, and
+schooling in a variety of subjects ranging from basic military skills
+and tactics to political indoctrination.
+
+Individual training develops into small group instruction, usually
+around the weapon or equipment the individual will be using. As groups
+became more proficient with their equipment, they use it in exercises
+with larger tactical units under increasingly realistic conditions.
+Romanian forces have not participated since the late 1960s in the Warsaw
+Pact exercises that are usually held at the conclusion of the training
+cycle.
+
+During early individual training, men are selected for a variety of
+special schools. Short courses, in cooking and baking or shoe repairing,
+from which a man emerges ready to work, do not require volunteers and do
+not extend the mandatory duty tour. Longer courses may involve schooling
+for most of the conscript tour or require time on the job after the
+school is completed to develop a fully useful capability, leaving no
+time for the newly acquired skill to be of value to the service. In such
+cases, selections to a school are made from volunteers who are willing
+to extend their period of active duty.
+
+The most capable and cooperative conscripts are offered the opportunity
+to attend noncommissioned officer schools. They must accept voluntarily
+and agree to a longer period of service.
+
+Frontier troops receive much the same individual training as ground
+force conscripts. Their later instruction involves less large-unit
+tactics and more police training and special subjects dealing with order
+documents and regulations. Larger percentages of naval and air forces
+personnel are required in mechanical or electronic work. Most of those
+who attend technical schools are required to serve for two years.
+
+Reserve training receives little publicity and probably has low
+priority. A few reserves are sometimes called to active outfits for
+short refresher training, but there is little, if any, formal reserve
+training in local all-reserve types of units. The militia (a
+paramilitary organization subordinate to the Ministry of Internal
+Affairs) would probably be drawn upon to augment the services in an
+emergency. It could be expected to provide better trained personnel, in
+better physical condition, than would be acquired calling up untrained
+reserves (see ch. 12).
+
+The General Military Academy in Bucharest--usually called the Military
+Academy--is a four-year university-level school whose graduates receive
+regular officer commissions and who are expected to serve as career
+officers. It also offers mid-career command and staff types of courses.
+An advanced academy, the Military Technical Academy, requires that its
+applicants have a university degree; they may be military officers, but
+they are not required to have had military service or military education
+of any sort. The academy offers advanced degrees in military and
+aeronautical engineering and in a variety of other technical areas.
+
+
+Morale and Conditions of Service
+
+The mandatory tour of duty for basic ground and air force personnel was
+set at sixteen months in 1964. Naval conscripts and some air force
+personnel are required to serve two years. The length of extra service
+required of those who apply and are accepted for special training or who
+wish to become noncommissioned officers varies with the amount of
+training required, with the rank attained, or with the added
+responsibility of the new duty assignment; but it is accepted or
+rejected on a voluntary basis.
+
+Officers and noncommissioned officers serve voluntarily, and morale is
+usually satisfactory within those groups. The service experience of the
+noncommissioned-officer applicants and the long training period required
+of officer candidates assure that both leadership groups understand and
+freely accept the conditions of service before they assume their duty
+responsibilities.
+
+Conditions are reasonably good, and morale in the armed forces is not a
+source of unusual concern to the national leadership. There are few
+exhortations to put extra effort into political indoctrination; a
+large, heavily armed security force to counter a possibly unreliable
+army has not been created; and there are less elaborate ceremonial
+affairs involving the forces than is typical of the Eastern European
+countries.
+
+Romania has had compulsory military service at all times within the
+memory of the draft age group, and it is accepted as a routine fact of
+life. Exemptions from the draft are few, and a large proportion of them
+reflect upon the man because he cannot meet the qualifications for
+service. The tour of duty is brief. The standard of living in the
+country is low, and service life may offer some of the back-country
+young men the best opportunities for travel and excitement that they
+have yet experienced.
+
+
+Medicine
+
+Physicians required in the armed forces are ordinarily recruited from
+medical schools but may be called from their practices or from hospital
+residence assignments. They then attend a military medical institute in
+Bucharest for specialized instruction in procedures and practices that
+are peculiar to military medical work.
+
+Emergency treatment is given military personnel in the most convenient
+facility, whether or not it is a military clinic. The same is true for
+the civilian population. Inasmuch as military facilities are equipped to
+cope with wartime casualties, they are often better able to deal with
+emergencies or disasters than nonmilitary hospitals, although they are
+seldom kept at wartime strengths during peacetime. They were especially
+commended for their assistance during the great floods that occurred in
+the spring of 1970.
+
+
+Military Justice
+
+The national penal code enacted in 1968 applies both to military
+personnel and to the public at large. A special section of the code,
+however, deals with military crimes. These are crimes committed by
+military personnel or by nonmilitary personnel on military installations
+or infractions of military regulations. In theory, any court may pass
+judgment on a military crime, but the military court system employs
+specialists in military law who are better able to understand the
+seriousness of crimes committed in relation to the military
+establishment. Military courts seldom surrender cases over which they
+have jurisdiction to civil courts.
+
+There are two types of military courts: military tribunals and
+territorial military tribunals. The former are the lesser of the two and
+are established at major installations or are attached to large tactical
+units. They are the courts of first instance in all cases that come
+before them. The chairman, or judge, must be a major or higher ranking
+officer and have a degree in law. The judge is assisted by two people's
+assessors who, on military courts, are active duty officers. People's
+assessors need have no legal training but, as is the case for civil
+courts, they must be twenty-three years of age, have been graduated from
+secondary school, have a good reputation, and have no criminal record.
+In all military trials the judge and people's assessors must hold the
+same rank as, or higher than, the accused.
+
+The higher territorial military tribunals are the courts of first
+instance for very serious crimes or the courts to which sentences of
+lower courts are appealed. In cases in which they are the courts of
+first instance, the court panel consists of at least two judges and
+three people's assessors. When they are hearing an appealed case, the
+panel has a minimum of three judges.
+
+The Supreme Court of the land has final appeal jurisdiction over any
+case it may decide to hear, and it may review any case it chooses or
+that is sent to it by higher governmental agencies. It has a special
+military section that is headed by an officer of major general or higher
+rank. It may be the court of first instance for cases involving the most
+serious crimes or in lesser situations when an important legal precedent
+may be established.
+
+
+Logistics
+
+Military leaders state that their forces have adequate quantities of
+excellent and modern equipment. As is the situation with all other
+Warsaw Pact countries, Romania has received its heavy weapons and more
+complex equipment from the Soviet Union. Initially the Soviets
+distributed surplus World War II stocks. As these wore out or became
+obsolete, nearly all items were eventually replaced by postwar models.
+More complex and expensive weapons sometimes were used by Soviet forces
+first and appeared in Eastern Europe only after they had been replaced
+in the Soviet Union. In most circumstances, whether they were newly
+manufactured or secondhand, items have been supplied to other forces
+considerably after they were first issued to Soviet troops.
+
+Equipment that is in short supply has not been distributed to each of
+the pact allies on an equal priority basis. Distribution has depended
+upon the strategic importance of the recipient, capability for
+maintaining and using the equipment effectively, and probable
+reliability as an alliance partner. Romania is located where it would
+not be involved in first contacts with any potential enemy of the pact;
+its conscripts' tour, and the resulting time to train individual
+soldiers, is short; it is an underdeveloped country; and it has been
+probing for ways to assert its independence from Moscow. It has not
+therefore been the first to receive newer equipment. The distribution
+of tanks is illustrative. Romania has received adequate numbers to equip
+its combat units and has received all models that have been distributed
+among the pact allies. Romania, however, has been authorized a smaller
+ratio of armored, as compared with motorized-rifle, divisions than is
+average for pact members. Poland and Czechoslovakia have many more
+tanks, and larger percentages of them are modern.
+
+Ground forces have Soviet-made artillery, antitank guns and antitank
+wire-guided missiles, and some short-range surface-to-surface missiles.
+Weapons manufactured locally for the ground forces include all types of
+hand-carried weapons, antitank and antipersonnel grenade launchers, and
+mortars. Ammunition and explosives for most weapons, whether or not the
+weapon is locally produced, are manufactured in the country, as are
+common varieties of communication equipment and spare parts.
+
+All of the air forces' combat aircraft and nearly all of its training
+and miscellaneous types are received from the Soviet Union. Romania
+produces some small utility models. A new one, designed for spraying
+forests and crops, was introduced in 1970 and can be used for military
+liaison.
+
+Approximately the same situation exists with regard to naval vessels.
+The larger vessels and more complex smaller craft are built in the
+Soviet Union or by other members of the pact. Romania produces river
+craft and some smaller types, probably including the inshore
+minesweepers that operate in the Black Sea.
+
+Romania is attempting to reduce its dependence upon the Warsaw Pact by
+producing more military matériel within the country. The armed forces
+maintain the Military Achievements Exhibit, designed to show progress in
+local production capability. The exhibit is visited periodically by
+important party and government personalities. Much is made of these
+visits, attempting to show all possible encouragement to the various
+projects.
+
+
+Ranks, Uniforms, and Decorations
+
+Ranks conform to those in armies worldwide with a few minor exceptions.
+There are the usual four general officer ranks. Field grades are
+conventional and have the three most frequently used titles--major,
+lieutenant colonel, and colonel. Company grade ranks include captain and
+three lieutenant ranks. There are no warrant officers.
+
+Enlisted ranks also have familiar titles when translated. Basic soldiers
+hold the ranks of private and private first class. Conscripts serve their
+entire tours as privates unless they acquire a speciality or are put in
+charge of a small group. Corporal is the lowest noncommissioned officer
+rank. Senior noncommissioned-officer grades include the ordinarily used
+sergeant ranks, including one (and possibly more) that is seldom seen
+but is equivalent to sergeant major or senior master sergeant.
+
+Rank insignia tends to be ornate. All uniforms except the work and
+combat types display it on shoulderboards. Those of general officers
+have intricate gold designs with large gold stars. Other officer ranks
+have smaller stars clustered at the outer ends and stripes running the
+length of the boards. Stripes and borders on any one board are the same
+color, but the various service branches have different colors to
+identify them. For example, armored troops have black; frontier troops
+have light green.
+
+Enlisted men's shoulderboards have no borders, and the background color,
+like the stripes and borders of the officers', indicates the service
+branch. Rank is shown by stripes that run across the outer end of the
+board. Privates have no stripes, corporals and privates first class have
+yellow stripes, and sergeants have brass. Other devices that also
+identify the service branch appear on the inward end of the
+shoulderboard on all ranks except those of the general officers and
+privates.
+
+Cap insignia is more easily distinguished than that on the
+shoulderboard. Enlisted men wear a large brass star. General officers
+wear a star with a round blue center and red points mounted on an ornate
+round background. Other officers wear the red and blue star but without
+background.
+
+There is less variety in uniforms than is common in Western and most of
+the other Warsaw Pact forces. Other than for extreme weather and rough
+work, enlisted men have one type of uniform for winter and one for
+summer. Material for winter wear is olive-green wool; for summer it is
+cotton and may be olive green or khaki.
+
+Officers have a field or service uniform, which is similar to the
+enlisted men's, and a blue uniform for dress. The dress blouse has no
+belt, and shoes are low cut. The service uniform blouse is sometimes
+worn with a Sam Browne belt. Overcoats, except for buttons and insignia,
+are plain and conventional.
+
+Service and dress uniforms are generally well tailored and made from
+durable materials. Cloth in the officers' uniforms is more closely woven
+and of finer texture; that in enlisted men's uniforms is warmer and more
+durable, but it is bulkier and does not hold its shape as well. Combat
+and extreme-weather clothing is heavy and loose fitting, reminiscent of
+the Soviet World War II winter wear.
+
+A variety of decorations may be awarded to service personnel; a number
+of them may be given in three classes, and at least one of them is given
+in five. About a dozen have been authorized by the communist regime
+since 1948. Romanians may wear on their uniforms medals awarded by
+other Warsaw Pact countries but not those of any other foreign country.
+
+The highest decoration is the Hero of Socialist Labor--Golden Medal,
+Hammer and Sickle. This is considered a dual award, although the parts
+are always awarded together, and the medal itself is a single one. Other
+awards that may be given to both military personnel and civilians
+include the Order of the Star, Order of Labor, and a medal commemorating
+"Forty Years Since the Founding of the Communist Party of Romania." The
+third one of the group is given those who were active in the Communist
+Party between 1921 and 1961 or those who did party work between the two
+world wars or during the early days of the country's communist regime.
+
+Decorations designed exclusively for the armed forces include the Order
+of Defense of the Fatherland, the Medal of Military Valor, and the Order
+of Military Merit. Others recognize service during specific events, such
+as the Liberation from the Fascist Yoke medal and the Order of 23
+August, both of which commemorate World War II service against Germany.
+
+Despite the number of decorations authorized and the many classes
+provided for in several of them, medals are awarded less profusely in
+Romania's forces than in many armies, especially those that are made up
+largely of conscripts or that serve in a largely internal security role.
+Ceremonies that occur most often involve awards from foreign delegations
+at the conclusion of their visits to the country or the retirement of
+older, senior-ranking officers.
+
+
+THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
+
+Although the labor force is smaller than the national leadership
+considers adequate, almost all physically fit young men are conscripted.
+Only a few, those who are essential to the support of a family or who
+have other exceptional circumstances, are deferred or exempted. On the
+other hand, the approximately 4 percent of men in the military age group
+that serve in Romania's armed forces is about the European average and
+is lower than average for the Warsaw Pact nations.
+
+Some Romanian officials have suggested that the burden on the economy
+may be greater than that indicated by a comparison of national
+statistics arguing that, because labor productivity is low, the loss of
+4 percent of the labor force may diminish total production. On the other
+hand, some Western analysts have argued that, because most of the
+conscripts are unskilled and underemployed, the military's drain on the
+manpower pool entails no great loss to productive enterprise (see ch.
+14).
+
+In monetary terms the armed forces have been somewhat less of a burden.
+Between 1967 and 1970 their costs averaged approximately 3.1 percent of
+the gross national product (GNP), which is low when compared either with
+the average for Europe or with the average of the other Warsaw Pact
+members. Beginning in 1970, however, in an effort to reduce dependence
+upon the Soviet Union, Romania began to stimulate local production of
+military matériel and to purchase some items from other countries. This
+resulted in a sharp increase in defense spending in 1970. Unless the
+size of the armed forces is reduced, some continuing increase in
+expenses over pre-1970 levels will be necessary if Romania chooses to
+continue its policy of nondependence upon the Soviet Union.
+
+The armed forces engage in construction projects on a scale that local
+leaders say is an important contribution to the economy. They are
+employed in industrial construction, roadbuilding, railroad maintenance,
+and important agricultural and irrigation projects. Large numbers of
+troops participated in the disaster relief efforts made necessary by the
+great floods during the spring of 1970.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION IV. ECONOMIC
+
+CHAPTER 14
+
+CHARACTER AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY
+
+
+In 1972 Romania entered the second year of a five-year economic plan
+that is intended by the leadership to advance the country on the road to
+industrialization and to increase its economic potential sufficiently to
+make the economy one of the most dynamic in the world. This goal is to
+be attained mainly through a continued high rate of investment, a
+significant improvement in productivity, and an expanded and more
+efficient foreign trade. Although significant strides in industrial
+development had been made in the past, this achievement entailed a
+neglect of agriculture, an inadequate provision for consumer needs, and
+a balance of payments deficit with Western industrial nations that
+threatened to undermine the leadership's policy of political and
+economic independence from the Soviet Union (see ch. 10).
+
+Rigidly controlled by the PCR (see Glossary), the economy suffers from
+the basic weakness common to all centrally controlled economies, that
+is, a lack of adequate incentives for managers and workers. Rapid
+industrialization since 1950, made possible by massive inputs of capital
+and labor and aided by heavy imports of advanced Western industrial
+plants and technology, has involved a waste of resources on a scale that
+may hamper economic progress at the present stage of development. In
+trying to evolve a system of incentives that would lead to a more
+economic use of resources, the PCR is facing a dilemma. Greater
+efficiency requires more flexibility, which, in turn, implies a greater
+freedom of initiative at lower economic levels than the PCR has been
+prepared to grant thus far. In the search for a solution numerous
+administrative changes have been made since 1968 without basically
+altering the nature of the system.
+
+A major problem facing the economy is its heavy dependence on imports of
+raw materials and equipment and the failure, thus far, to develop a
+sufficient volume of exports salable in world markets. At the present
+stage of development, Romanian industrial products compete poorly with
+the output of advanced Western nations. Expansion of agricultural
+exports, which have a ready market in many areas, has been hampered by
+the slow development of the country's agricultural potential and by a
+growing domestic demand. Although greater attention is to be devoted to
+agriculture under the current Five-Year Plan (1971-75), the additional
+resources to be allocated to this sector are not commensurate with the
+magnitude of its needs. Instead, major emphasis is placed in the
+five-year period on the development of the chemical, electronic, and
+precision tool industries for domestic needs and export.
+
+The state of the economy in the early 1970s was revealed by two Romanian
+economists in articles evaluating their country's economic progress.
+According to their calculations, the per capita national income in
+Romania in 1975, provided that the economic targets for that year are
+reached, will approach the level attained by Italy and Austria in 1968
+and will be somewhat larger than half that in France and the Federal
+Republic of Germany (West Germany) in the same year. At the same time
+they estimated that, even with continued acceleration of the rates of
+industrial modernization and growth of labor productivity, it will
+require several more five-year periods to reach the 1971 economic level
+of the more developed nations.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION
+
+The economy is highly socialized. The state owns virtually all industry
+and shares with collective farms ownership of more than nine-tenths of
+the farmland. Private artisan shops contribute only a fraction of 1
+percent to the industrial output, and private farmers' limited holdings
+are confined mainly to marginal lands. The state owns all natural
+resources other than the collective and private farmlands; maintains
+complete control over the country's physical resources, finances, and
+labor; and has a monopoly of foreign trade and foreign exchange. The
+functioning of the economy is directed by comprehensive long-term and
+annual state plans, which are binding for all economic entities.
+
+Control over the economy is strongly centralized, despite half-hearted
+attempts since 1968 to grant more freedom of initiative to lower
+management levels in the interest of greater flexibility and efficiency.
+Supreme decisionmaking power rests with the Standing Presidium of the
+PCR and the Council of State, the memberships of which are almost
+identical (see ch. 9). Compliance with PCR decisions is enforced through
+an administrative hierarchy that consists of three distinct levels: the
+Council of Ministers, all of whose members hold high positions in the
+PCR; economic ministries, which are responsible for specific sectors of
+the economy; and trusts and combines, which group enterprises along
+functional or territorial lines. Specialized committees with ministerial
+rank administer certain aspects of economic activity; chief among these
+are the State Planning Committee and the Committee for Prices (see ch.
+8).
+
+The organizational structure of the economy has undergone frequent
+changes in efforts to resolve economic problems by administrative means.
+Officially, the reorganizations have been declared necessary to keep
+economic management abreast of the requirements of socialist economic
+development. The frequency of the changes, however, and a lack of
+clarity in many of the directives have brought about a blurring of
+jurisdictional lines with consequent overlapping of functions and
+conflicts of authority. The organizational problem has been compounded
+by the contradictory nature of the motives that have prompted the
+reforms--to grant more discretionary power to enterprise managers and,
+at the same time, to strengthen central controls by enhancing the
+directing role of the compulsory economic plans. In 1971 economic
+officials considered important aspects of the economic organization to
+be still in an experimental stage.
+
+
+STRUCTURE AND GROWTH
+
+Data on gross output and national income in absolute terms have not been
+published. Official statistics on these social accounts have been
+limited to a few index series for overall, productive sector, and per
+capita values and a percentage breakdown of gross output and national
+income by productive sector. The arbitrary nature of the pricing system
+and differences in statistical treatment compared to Western practice
+preclude a direct comparison of the published growth rates of the
+economy and its components with similar rates in Western countries. The
+same holds true for comparisons of economic structure. Independent
+studies of the economy by Western scholars in Western statistical terms
+yielded significantly lower rates of growth and a different structure of
+economic activities from those officially announced.
+
+According to official data, national income (net material product, which
+excludes private and government services not directly related to
+production) more than doubled between 1960 and 1970, and industrial
+output more than tripled. Agricultural production, by contrast,
+increased by less than one-third. The rates of economic and industrial
+growth, even when translated into Western terms, have been relatively
+high and among the highest in countries of Eastern Europe. Such high
+growth rates have usually been associated with early stages of
+industrial development. The high growth rates were made possible by an
+official policy that allocated more than 30 percent of national income
+to investment. Growth rates in the 1966-70 period were somewhat lower
+than in the preceding five years, with the exception of agriculture, the
+performance of which was slightly better.
+
+The predominant growth of industry has been a direct consequence of the
+leadership's policy. This policy was reflected in a disproportionately
+large allocation of investment to industry at the expense of other
+economic sectors. In the 1966-70 period, for instance, industry received
+55 percent of total investment--60 percent if the construction industry
+is included--compared to less than 13 percent granted to agriculture.
+
+Within industry preponderant emphasis has been placed on the development
+of the capital goods sector at the expense of consumer goods. Whereas
+total industrial output increased at an average annual rate of 11.8
+percent from 1966 to 1970, production of capital goods rose at a rate of
+12.7 percent, and production of consumer goods grew by only 9.5 percent
+annually.
+
+As a consequence of the uneven sectoral growth, the structure of the
+economy changed significantly between 1960 and 1970. According to
+official data the contribution of industry to the net material product
+rose from 44 to 61 percent, whereas that of agriculture declined from 33
+to 20 percent (see table 4). The relative importance of construction and
+transport rose slightly, but that of trade declined by half. A
+strikingly different structure of the economy emerges in terms of the
+Western concept of gross national product (GNP), which includes housing
+and services and treats both taxes and subsidies in a different manner.
+The contribution of industry was less than that of agriculture in 1960,
+but by 1967 it had increased more rapidly than is indicated by the
+official data (see table 5). The role of agriculture, on the other hand,
+declined more rapidly.
+
+_Table 4._ _National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania, by
+Economic Sector, 1960, 1967, and 1970_ (in percent)
+
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+  Economic Sector                   1960      1967      1970
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+  Industry and handicrafts          44.1      51.7      60.8
+  Construction                       9.0       8.4       9.6
+  Agriculture                       33.1      28.6      20.0
+  Transport and communications       3.8       4.2       4.2
+  Trade                              6.5       4.6       3.2
+  Other sectors                      3.5       2.5       2.2
+                                   -----     -----     -----
+  Total                            100.0     100.0     100.0
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970; and U.S. Department of
+  Commerce, Office of Technical Services, Joint Publications
+  Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington), _Translations on
+  Eastern Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs_, "Development
+  of National Income Discussed," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest,
+  April 1971, (JPRS 53,521, Series No. 491, 1971).
+
+Published labor statistics leave many serious gaps, and unofficially
+reported data do not always agree with official figures in the annual
+statistical yearbooks. Information released on the size of the
+economically active population is limited to percentage changes over the
+years.
+
+The economically active population increased by only 3.5 percent from
+1960 to 1967 and remained stationary thereafter to 1969. During the
+ten-year period the number of persons active in industry increased by
+half, whereas the number of those engaged in agriculture declined by 19
+percent. Nevertheless, in 1970 about half the population was still
+engaged in agriculture, and only 22 percent were active in industry.
+
+Although there is no officially recognized unemployment, a substantial
+amount of underemployment is reported to exist in industry and, even
+more so, in agriculture. The reasons advanced by Romanian economists for
+this situation are the duty and the right of every citizen to work and
+the inability to achieve quickly full and efficient employment in a
+country that inherited a backward and predominantly agrarian economy
+with a large peasant population. Efforts toward obtaining full and
+efficient employment have been handicapped by the rapidly rising volume
+of investment needed to create new nonagricultural jobs. The average
+investment per nonagricultural job increased almost fivefold to 324,000
+lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) from the 1951-55 period to the
+1966-70 period, and a further 40 percent rise in cost was projected for
+the 1971-75 period.
+
+_Table 5. Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin, 1960
+and 1967_ (in percent)
+
+ -------------------------------------------------
+       Economic Sector              1960      1967
+ -------------------------------------------------
+ Industry and handicrafts           24.4      32.9
+ Agriculture and forestry           31.8      22.0
+ Construction                        7.6      11.1
+ Transport and communications        7.6       8.8
+ Trade                               6.5       5.4
+ Housing                             9.2       7.0
+ Government and other services      12.9      12.8
+                                   -----     -----
+ Total                             100.0     100.0
+ -------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session, Joint
+  Economic Committee, _Economic Developments in Countries of
+  Eastern Europe_, Washington, GPO, 1970.
+
+
+PLANNING
+
+As in all communist states, comprehensive economic planning has been a
+basic element of the PCR's dogma. Planning is conceived of as an
+indispensable tool for economic development. Traditionally, five-year
+and annual plans for all segments and aspects of the economy have been
+formulated by a central planning agency with the participation of
+economic ministries, trusts, and enterprises. Planning has proceeded
+from broadly defined goals set by the PCR to minute instructions for all
+economic enterprises. In line with the established priorities, the main
+planning effort has been devoted to industry.
+
+The major problem in planning has been posed by the need to balance
+supply and demand, not only with regard to the final consumers but also
+at all stages of the production process and for each individual
+enterprise. This task entails detailed decisions on the allocation of
+thousands of different materials, machinery and equipment items,
+specialized labor skills, energy, and investment funds. With the
+expansion and growing complexity of the economy and, more particularly,
+of industry, the balancing task has assumed dimensions that defy
+solution by traditional means.
+
+At the same time, the imposition of detailed operational prescriptions
+deprived enterprises of the freedom to exercise constructive initiative
+and of the flexibility needed to meet unforeseen contingencies. A
+failure by an enterprise to fulfill its planned assignment necessarily
+produces a chain reaction involving the production programs of
+enterprises dependent upon the missing output. Failures of this nature
+have been frequent.
+
+The breakdown of the planning mechanism brought about a disorganization
+of the material and technical supply for enterprises, with adverse
+effects on productivity and output. It has been responsible for a
+general lag in the economy's performance in relation to official plans.
+
+The deficiency of the traditional system of central planning was
+officially recognized in 1967, when a decision was made by the National
+Party Conference to raise the quality of planning to the level demanded
+by the needs of a modern industrial state. This aim was to be achieved
+by granting a larger degree of autonomy to individual enterprises
+while, at the same time, maintaining and even strengthening the
+directing role of the central plan. The prolonged and intensive
+discussion engendered by the PCR decision has brought to light many
+flaws and proposals for change but has not provided a clear insight into
+the current planning process.
+
+Modifications of the traditional pattern have taken place as a result of
+organizational and administrative changes introduced after 1967. The
+intended adoption of a new system, however, that would take into account
+market relationships and give greater weight to the needs of consumers
+has been delayed by differences of views among economists and officials
+on essential elements of the system, by disagreement on the nature of
+such basic concepts as productivity, economic efficiency, and profit,
+and by the need for a prior reform of the price system. A draft of a new
+planning law was reported to be in preparation toward the end of 1971.
+
+As a means of decentralizing planning and mastering the intractable
+supply problem, the task of coordinating requirements with supplies was
+delegated to the centrals (see Glossary), trusts, and other enterprise
+associations and, ultimately, to the enterprises themselves by a law on
+economic contracts enacted in December 1969. Under the law, industrial
+and trade enterprises must enter into contracts with suppliers for all
+products and services needed to fulfill the tasks of the next year's
+economic plan. In theory, the demands of final consumers for consumption
+and capital goods would determine the nature of the contracts through
+all stages of production down to the producers of raw materials. This
+has not been the case in practice.
+
+Most contracts must be concluded at least six months before the
+beginning of the plan year because they are supposed to serve as the
+basis for developing the final version of the annual plan; they must
+take into account the economic tasks set for that year by the five-year
+plan. The central planning authorities formulate the ultimate annual
+plan by modifying individual contracts, where deemed necessary, in the
+light of official policies and anticipated availabilities of materials
+and other inputs. Correction of original contracts was reported to be
+essential because enterprises tended to exaggerate their true
+requirements as determined by official norms and standards. In 1970
+initial orders exceeded available resources of materials by from 20 to
+200 percent.
+
+In 1970 and 1971 a large number of inter-enterprise contracts were not
+concluded on time and, despite legal provisions for financial and other
+sanctions, thousands of contracts were not adhered to. This entailed a
+disruption of supplies and production, nonfulfillment of export
+obligations, and insufficient deliveries to the domestic market. In an
+attempt to cope with the supply problem, the Ministry of
+Technical-Material Supply and Control of the Management of Fixed Assets
+was created in September 1971--yet another example of trying to solve
+economic problems by administrative means.
+
+The final stage in the planning process, as in the past, continues to be
+the assignment to each enterprise of specific tasks bearing on all
+aspects of its operations. These tasks, generally known as plan
+indicators, spell out in minute detail such items as the production and
+investment program, the size of the labor force and the wage bill, costs
+of production, and profits. They also specify norms for the use of all
+materials, equipment, and labor and set goals for raising productivity.
+In the case of large enterprises the number of indicators runs into the
+thousands. The indicators are also used to evaluate the performance of
+enterprises in relation to the plan. The entire process has been said to
+represent the application of democratic centralism to planning.
+
+The number and type of indicators to be assigned to enterprises and
+their associations and the nature of the system of indicators best
+suited to stimulate greater efficiency and technological innovation have
+been subjects of wide-ranging and intensive debates. No clarification of
+the underlying issues, however, much less a consensus on appropriate
+measures to be undertaken, had emerged by early 1972. Officials have
+ascribed the lack of any significant progress in the planning reform to
+general inertia, organizational confusion, bureaucratic interests, and a
+reluctance on the part of many enterprise directors to assume the added
+measure of responsibility that is inherent in a greater freedom to
+exercise initiative. Most of the officials are aware, nevertheless, that
+the basic problem lies in the absence of adequate incentives. The
+reconciliation of an obligatory central plan with enterprise autonomy
+has thus far proved elusive.
+
+Planning in the field of collective agriculture has also been highly
+centralized, at least through 1971, despite measures introduced at the
+end of 1970 to reduce the number of plan indicators for individual
+farms. Detailed instructions on crop and livestock production and on the
+volume of farm products to be delivered to the state have been handed
+down to farms by higher authorities insufficiently familiar with their
+natural and economic conditions. This method of planning has entailed
+significant losses through improper use of land and other resources.
+The relatively minor relaxation of central controls beginning in 1971
+was intended to eliminate this waste. The extent to which central
+controls over farming operations were retained even after the announced
+decentralization of agricultural planning was illustrated by the Grand
+National Assembly's enactment of a law toward the end of 1971 concerning
+correct methods of producing and using livestock fodder. Information on
+the method of planning for state farms was not available.
+
+
+PRICE SYSTEM
+
+As in all centrally directed economies, prices are set by the
+government. In 1967 the National Party Conference called for a reform of
+the price system on the grounds that the prevailing prices failed to
+ensure the desired balance in economic development or to promote greater
+efficiency in production and foreign trade. After four years of
+intensive debate, a new price law was enacted in December 1971.
+Preliminary information on the provisions of the law indicated that
+prices would continue to be fixed by the government, although the method
+of calculating them had been modified. In contrast to the announced
+policy of decentralizing economic management, the law provided for
+strengthening central controls over prices.
+
+Until March 1970 there was no unified control over prices. The State
+Planning Committee and the Ministry of Finance administered industrial
+wholesale prices, and the State Committee for Prices had jurisdiction
+over prices of consumer goods and government procurement prices for farm
+products. In 1970 the reorganized State Committee for Prices was given
+authority to control all prices. Representation on the committee has
+been provided for the State Planning Committee; the ministries of
+finance, domestic trade, and foreign trade; the Central Statistical
+Bureau; and the Central Council of the General Union of Trade Unions.
+Participation by delegates from economic ministries and other organs is
+to be ensured at all sessions in which problems of interest to them are
+brought up for discussion.
+
+The basic criticism leveled against the price system concerned its
+tendency to undermine the government's drive for economic efficiency
+through the failure of prices to reflect production costs, improper
+relationships among prices, and price inflexibility. A comprehensive,
+unified approach to price reform was considered beyond the capability of
+the authorities; a piecemeal approach of dealing separately with
+different types of prices was therefore decided upon. Priority in this
+program was given to the improvement of industrial wholesale prices.
+
+Wholesale prices for industrial products have been based on average
+costs for each product in the relevant industrial branch. Prices have
+therefore been profitable for enterprises having below-average costs,
+whereas enterprises with costs above the average have had to rely upon
+state subsidies for continued operation. Wholesale prices were last
+fixed in 1963, and subsequent changes in technology and other aspects of
+production magnified the dissociation of prices and costs. For political
+reasons and because of general shortages the closing of uneconomic
+enterprises was not considered feasible. Maintenance of fixed prices
+over long periods of time has been deemed essential for purposes of
+planning.
+
+Under the prevailing price system, which assured high profits to many
+enterprises and provided subsidies for unprofitable ones, there was no
+incentive for enterprises to reduce costs. This tendency was reinforced
+by the methods used to calculate costs and prices. The fact that cost
+calculations did not include any charges for rent or capital induced
+waste in the use of land and equipment. Prices included an element of
+planned profit determined as a percentage of cost. In the price-setting
+procedure it was therefore advantageous for enterprises to overstate
+actual costs. This practice has been widely prevalent in fixing prices
+for new products.
+
+Prices for raw materials, including products of the extractive
+industries and agriculture, were generally set below the cost of
+production. This policy has been responsible for a wasteful use of many
+materials in manufacturing. A price discrepancy also served to negate
+the official fuel policy. Efforts to increase the use of coal in
+electric power production were frustrated by the relatively much lower
+price for natural gas. This led some economists to advocate that prices
+for fuels be based on their caloric content. The price system has also
+been reported to have produced various other inimical results, such as
+inhibiting innovation and rewarding the continued production of obsolete
+goods.
+
+Procurement prices for farm products have been deliberately kept low in
+relation to industrial prices; prices for farm requisites and consumer
+goods, on the other hand, have been fixed far above cost through the
+medium of a turnover tax channeled into the budget. In this manner the
+price system has served to transfer resources from agriculture to
+industry and to keep consumption low for the benefit of investment.
+
+Pending the completion of price reform legislation, a provisional
+measure was adopted in 1970 to lower wholesale prices for export goods
+and to reduce excess profits through a so-called regularization tax on
+domestic sales of the main products manufactured by state industry. The
+measure involved a recalculation of wholesale prices, based on the
+average cost of products within an industrial branch and a profit
+allowance of only 10 percent of cost. The difference between the
+recalculated prices and those in effect at the time was to be channeled
+into the budget by the tax. In the case of high-cost producers who would
+suffer losses under this procedure, the profit margin included in the
+price could be raised to a maximum of 15 percent. The new price measure
+put pressure on enterprises to lower the cost of production.
+
+The comprehensive new law on prices for goods and services that will
+come into effect in March 1972 will have no immediate impact on prices.
+On the basis of criteria outlined in the law and upon approval by the
+State Committee for Prices, economic ministries, central government
+agencies, collectives, and other public organizations are supposed first
+to issue norms for establishing and correlating prices within the areas
+of their respective jurisdictions, in accordance with the specific
+conditions of each producing branch, subbranch, or group of enterprises
+and the specific features of each product and service.
+
+The law makes provision for fixed and ceiling prices. Both types of
+prices may be either uniform or differentiated. Uniform prices will
+apply throughout the entire country and will be applicable to the main
+products and to services of major importance to the economy and the
+standard of living. Differentiated prices for a product may be set at
+various levels depending upon territorial or seasonal factors and the
+nature of the producers or buyers. These provisions will also apply to
+agricultural procurement prices.
+
+As in the past, uniform wholesale prices will be based on pre-calculated
+average costs for each product at branch level. For the first time,
+however, cost will also include taxes on capital and land (interest and
+rent) and expenditures for the introduction of new technology. An
+important change will also be made in determining the profit element of
+the wholesale price. In the future the planned profit level for
+enterprises, differentiated by branch and subbranch, will be calculated
+in relation to the fixed and circulating capital employed rather than in
+relation to cost.
+
+The new law also contains provisions for pricing imports and exports and
+for establishing retail prices of consumer goods. Retail prices will
+include a profit for the trade organization and a variable turnover tax
+applied to the wholesale price. The tax is to be relatively low on goods
+produced for children and high on those manufactured in small quantities
+and on luxury products. Changes in retail prices may be made only in
+the light of planned provisions for the real income of the population.
+
+Authority to set prices and control over the implementation of price
+policy will be shifted from the Council of Ministers to the Council of
+State and the Grand National Assembly. The Council of State will make
+decisions not only concerning general price levels and price changes but
+also about specific prices for products and services of particular
+importance to the economy and the standard of living and on prices of
+products earmarked exclusively for the defense sector. In an effort to
+ensure a uniform price policy under a decentralized process of price
+fixing, the law spells out the responsibilities of all entities
+concerned with pricing, from the Council of State down to the individual
+enterprise. Jurisdiction over prices for products and services is to be
+allocated among the various sectors and levels of the economy, and the
+State Committee for Prices will be responsible for the correct
+application of the law.
+
+In order to prevent further abuses in the formulation and changing of
+prices, a state price control inspectorate is to be created within the
+State Committee for Prices with power to supervise price control
+agencies in each county. Penalties for infractions of trade regulations
+have been increased to 2,000 lei, and persons guilty of price
+irregularities will be subject to prosecution under sections of the
+penal code on profiteering and fraud, which provide for imprisonment of
+from six months to seven years.
+
+The intricacy of price formulation, the complexity of the price law
+(which contains 157 paragraphs), and disagreement among officials about
+the efficacy of some of the law's provisions suggest that the new
+measure may not be the final answer to the country's price problems. The
+determination of the authorities to retain firm control over prices and
+not to allow market forces to play any significant role in price
+determination, however, was made clear in a statement by the chairman of
+the State Committee for Prices to the effect that the building of
+socialism cannot be directed by transferring the leadership and
+decisionmaking to some self-regulating mechanism or to instruments that
+cannot be controlled.
+
+
+BUDGET
+
+The annual state budgets are more comprehensive than budgets in Western
+countries because they also cover economic activities that are the
+province of private enterprise in the West. Information on the manner in
+which budgets are formulated is not available, except that they are
+closely related to the annual economic plans and are prepared under the
+direction of the Ministry of Finance. Budgets must be approved by the
+Council of Ministers, the PCR, and the Grand National Assembly. The
+consolidated budget is divided into a central and a local budget; the
+local budget is roughly one-fifth the size of the central budget.
+
+Official statistics on the budget are deficient in that only summary
+data are published on the major elements of revenue and expenditures and
+the source of one-third or more of the revenue is not disclosed. The
+published data show a small budgetary surplus each year, regardless of
+the vicissitudes of the economy and unforeseen emergency outlays.
+Information is not available on budgetary performance in 1970, when the
+country suffered a disastrous flood. In the planned budgets for 1971 and
+1972 revenues and expenditures were perfectly balanced.
+
+Budgetary revenues increased steadily from about 58 billion lei in 1960
+to 147 billion lei in 1969, and expenditures rose correspondingly from
+about 55 billion lei to 143 billion lei. The budgets for 1971 and 1972
+were planned to balance at a little more than 138 billion lei and 152
+billion lei, respectively. Reasons for the decline in the size of the
+1971 budget, the only decline reported in at least a decade, are not
+known.
+
+A turnover tax levied on consumer goods, farm products, and farm
+supplies and a profit on the income of economic enterprises and
+organizations constitute the main sources of budgetary revenue. The
+relative importance of the two levies changed after 1966; the yield from
+the profit tax approached that from the turnover tax in 1967 and grew
+relatively larger in 1968 and 1969. Together, these two levies accounted
+for from 50 to 56 percent of the annual revenues. Direct taxes on the
+population yielded close to 6 percent from 1960 to 1969, except that in
+the first and last years of that period their proportion approached 7
+percent. The magnitude of direct taxes does not reflect the real tax
+burden borne by the population, because the population ultimately pays
+both the turnover and the profit tax through higher prices of consumer
+goods.
+
+Financing the national economy absorbed an average of 64.6 percent of
+annual expenditure in the first half of the 1960s and 68.3 percent in
+the second half of the decade. At the same time the proportion of
+outlays for social and cultural purposes declined from an average of
+24.9 percent to 23.2 percent, although the absolute amount of these
+outlays more than doubled. Expenditures for defense declined from 6.1
+percent of total outlays in 1960 to 4.4 percent in 1969.
+
+
+BANKING
+
+The banking system operative in early 1972 was the end product of
+several institutional reorganizations, the last of which was completed
+in May 1971. The main purpose of the reorganizations was to make bank
+credit a more effective tool for promoting economic development and for
+controlling the operations of economic enterprises and organizations.
+Control through credit extension has been officially considered an
+important means for inducing enterprises and trusts to attain the
+targets of the economic plans. Little information is available on the
+banks' operations beyond the formal statement of their functions. Data
+relating to the money supply and foreign exchange reserves have also
+been kept secret.
+
+
+Banking Institutions
+
+The banking system consists of the National Bank of the Romanian
+Socialist Republic (referred to as the National Bank), the Investment
+Bank, the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank, the Bank for Agriculture and the
+Food Industry, and the Savings and Loan Bank. The functions of the
+Romanian Foreign Trade Bank and of the Bank for Agriculture and the Food
+Industry had been exercised to a more limited extent by the National
+Bank until 1968. The Economy and Consignment Fund, a department of the
+Savings and Loan Bank, makes credit available for the construction of
+privately owned housing--a function exercised by the Investment Bank
+until the end of 1969. Information on the interrelations between the
+specialized banks and the National Bank or between the banks and the
+Ministry of Finance was not available in early 1972.
+
+The National Bank, as reconstituted in December 1970 with a
+capitalization of 1 billion lei, is the country's central bank of issue,
+but it also acts as a banker for the government, a bankers' banker for
+the specialized financial institutions, and a short-term credit and
+discount agency for economic organizations. The main functions of the
+National Bank in the field of domestic finance include: the issue of
+currency and control over its circulation; management of the budgetary
+cash resources; coordination of all short-term credit and discount
+activities; and participation in the formulation of annual and five-year
+credit and cash plans, jointly with the State Planning Committee and the
+Ministry of Finance.
+
+The National Bank establishes official foreign exchange rates, engages
+in foreign exchange operations directly or through the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank and other authorized organizations, and participates in
+working out the balance of foreign payments and in following up on its
+execution. The National Bank also controls the production, processing,
+and use of precious metals and gems and, together with the State
+Planning Committee and the Ministry of Finance, develops plans for their
+acquisition and allocation at home and abroad. The bank has exclusive
+authority to purchase from individuals items made of precious metals or
+stones and items of artistic, historic, or documentary value.
+
+The National Bank is managed by an administrative council, the members
+of which must be approved by the Council of Ministers upon the
+recommendation of the bank's governor, who is also chairman of the
+administrative council. In addition to the chairman, the administrative
+council includes several vice presidents of the bank; the directors of
+the bank's fourteen divisions; superintendents of some of the
+subordinated units; delegates of the management of the Investment Bank,
+the Bank for Agriculture and the Food Industry, and the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank; experienced specialists from the bank's professional staff
+and from the outside; and a delegate of the labor unions, designated by
+the General Union of Trade Unions. The council as a whole and each
+individual member are responsible to the Council of Ministers for the
+entire activity of the bank.
+
+The Investment Bank, created in 1948 and last reorganized in September
+1971 with a capitalization of 700 million lei, serves to finance, and
+exercise control over, investment projects of all state, collective,
+consumer-cooperative, and other public organizations, with the exception
+of collective farms and organizations subordinate to the Ministry of
+Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters. The control powers of the bank
+extend not only to projects financed with its own resources but also to
+projects financed through budgetary allocations and out of enterprise
+profits. The bank's management is organized along the lines of the
+administrative council of the National Bank.
+
+The Investment Bank must participate in the preparation of draft plans
+for the financing of all investment projects undertaken by central and
+local state organizations from the ministerial down to the enterprise
+level. During the formulation and implementation of these plans the bank
+must ensure the most economical use of available resources. The bank is
+also called upon to determine appropriate rates of depreciation for
+fixed assets and to ensure that the required amortization payments to
+the budget are made on time.
+
+Two of the bank's main functions are the review of technical and
+economic investment criteria submitted to it for approval by ministries
+and other state agencies and the evaluation of the feasibility of
+proposed investment projects on the basis of accepted standards; the
+more important of these standards also require approval by the Council
+of Ministers. Approval may be granted by the bank only for investment
+projects that satisfy all legal requirements regarding need,
+suitability, and adherence to prescribed norms; have an adequate raw
+materials base and assured sales outlets; and serve to improve the
+economic performance of the organization that undertakes the investment.
+In the event of disagreement between the bank and the organization
+seeking investment approval, appeal may be made to higher authorities.
+
+The Romanian Foreign Trade Bank was established in July 1968. Its
+principal functions are to facilitate exports and, through strict
+controls over exchange allocations, to encourage import substitution by
+domestic producers. In 1970 about 73 percent of the bank's credits were
+devoted to exports, and only 21 percent were granted for imports. The
+remaining 6 percent of the credits were used to finance internal
+transport.
+
+In July 1971 the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank and a group of eight French
+financial institutions opened the Romanian-French Bank in Paris. This
+bank was organized as a private limited-liability company with a capital
+of 20 million French francs underwritten in equal parts by the Romanian
+Foreign Trade Bank and the French bankers. In the second half of 1971
+the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank acquired affiliates in London and Rome.
+
+The Bank for Agriculture and the Food Industry was created in May 1971
+by expanding the functions and changing the name of the Agricultural
+Bank established three years earlier. This reorganization followed the
+consolidation of previously independent ministries into the Ministry of
+Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters (referred to as the Ministry of
+Agriculture). The bank was capitalized at 500 million lei and was
+required to create a reserve out of profits equal to the amount of its
+capitalization. The bank's function is to provide investment and
+operating credits for enterprises under the jurisdiction of the Ministry
+of Agriculture, including collective farms, and to finance the
+distribution of their products within the country.
+
+A few summary data on credits extended by the Bank for Agriculture and
+the Food Industry to collective farms have been released to the
+country's press in an obvious effort to publicize official concern for
+this important but neglected farm sector (see ch. 15). Information on
+other aspects of this bank's operations have not been disclosed.
+
+The Savings and Loan Bank, an institution nationalized at an early stage
+of communist rule, had 1,560 branches and agencies in 1971, most of
+which were located in rural areas. The main function of the bank has
+been to mobilize the cash resources of the population for investment,
+through obligatory periodic transfers of deposited funds to the National
+Bank. In the 1966-70 period subsidiary functions of the bank gained in
+importance, including small-scale commercial bank transactions, personal
+loans, and tax collections. Receipts from personal savings deposits
+accounted for 70 percent of total cash receipts in 1970. Since the
+beginning of 1970 the bank has also made loans for private housing
+construction.
+
+The schedule of payments to the National Bank has been sufficiently
+stringent to induce the Savings and Loan Bank to mount special
+educational programs for attracting savings, particularly in rural
+areas, and to seek ways of stimulating cash collections from its other
+activities. To this end the bank is giving special attention to finding
+more effective means for identifying cash reserves held by the
+population. One avenue the bank has been exploring is to gain greater
+knowledge of the timing of income receipts and of the uses to which
+incomes are put.
+
+The volume of savings has been steadily mounting; it rose at an average
+annual rate of more than 20 percent in the 1966-70 period and was 2.5
+times larger at the period's end than at its beginning. In 1970, 13.6
+percent of the population's cash income was deposited in savings
+accounts, compared to 5.8 percent in 1960. More than 65 percent of the
+population's cash assets in 1970 were on deposit in savings accounts, as
+against 56.6 percent five years earlier. Under the economic plan for the
+1971-75 period, savings deposits of the Savings and Loan Bank are
+scheduled to increase by 87 percent--the equivalent of an annual 13.4
+percent growth rate. An important reason for the growth of savings has
+been a general shortage of consumer goods.
+
+Loans granted by the Savings and Loan Bank for private housing
+construction in 1970 amounted to 2.1 billion lei. In 1971 the bank
+planned to provide construction loans totaling 2.9 billion lei.
+Information on other bank transactions has not been published.
+
+
+Credit Policy
+
+Interest rates do not reflect the scarcity of money or the element of
+risk. They are used by the government as one of the economic levers
+intended to motivate enterprises toward greater efficiency. In 1969 the
+average rate for short-term operating credits was 2.9 percent; actual
+rates ranged from less than 1 percent to a level far above the average.
+New regulations issued about mid-1970 raised the interest rates,
+established greater uniformity among them, and introduced a
+differentiation among penalty rates based on the length of time that
+repayments remain in arrears or credits in excess of those planned are
+used. As a result of these measures, National Bank officials expected
+the average rate of interest to rise to 3.8 percent.
+
+A uniform interest rate of 5 percent was established on all operating
+credits for inventory and production purposes in economic sectors other
+than agriculture. Preferential rates for artisans' collectives were
+abolished on the grounds that the collectives had received enough state
+support in the past to place them on an equal footing with state
+enterprises with regard to credit. A rate of 3 percent was continued on
+credits used in the distribution of goods. Interest rates of 4 percent
+and 2 percent, respectively, were established for state and collective
+farms.
+
+The government attaches great importance to the penalty feature of the
+credit system, which allows it to discriminate between efficient
+enterprises that find themselves in temporary difficulties and
+enterprises that are poorly managed. Enterprises that require operating
+funds in excess of those prescribed by officially determined norms or
+are unable to repay credits on time must pay progressively higher
+interest rates. Excess and overdue credits carry an interest rate of up
+to 10 percent for the first three months and up to 12 percent for the
+next three months. Enterprises in the second stage are subject to a
+searching examination by a committee of experts and may be denied
+further credits. Information is lacking on the procedures followed in
+the case of enterprises that would be declared bankrupt in a Western
+economy.
+
+According to a National Bank official, the new credit regulations were
+to be rigorously applied in order to combat a rising trend in the volume
+of overdue credits that became apparent in the first half of 1970. The
+credit and interest policies were to be applied in a manner that would
+protect the economy from the bad effects of mismanagement and that would
+place the onus only on poorly run enterprises. This task was said to
+demand a high level of competence from those called upon to resolve the
+difficult problems of the enterprises.
+
+
+CURRENCY
+
+The currency unit of the country is the leu (plural, lei), divided into
+100 bani. It is nonconvertible and usable only within the country. The
+leu is officially defined to contain 148.112 milligrams of fine gold, so
+that 5.53 lei are equivalent to US$1. This basic rate of exchange became
+effective on December 23, 1971, in the wake of the agreement reached by
+the United States with other major Western trading nations to devalue
+the American dollar; before that date the rate was 6 lei per US$1. The
+basic rate is used in foreign trade accounting and is also applicable to
+nonresident accounts created by a transfer of foreign currencies into
+Romania.
+
+A wide range of official noncommercial or tourist exchange rates is in
+effect for residents of other communist countries. These rates vary from
+about one-third to more than double the basic rate. Tourist rates for
+noncommunist country currencies embody a bonus of 189 percent over the
+basic rate, making 16 lei equivalent to US$1. In addition to the
+official exchange rates there are at least thirty-seven semiofficial
+rates resulting from seven multilateral trade and payments agreements
+with members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
+thirty bilateral agreements with other communist and noncommunist
+states.
+
+The state has a monopoly of foreign exchange. Control over currency and
+foreign exchange is vested in the National Bank and administered by the
+bank jointly with the Ministry of Finance and the Romanian Foreign Trade
+Bank. All foreign exchange realized by state agencies from exports and
+other foreign operations must be surrendered to the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank, which also controls all exchange expenditures abroad.
+
+Transferability of funds by private individuals is strictly limited.
+Only 15 to 30 percent of inheritances, royalties, pensions, and support
+payments derived from abroad may be used or retransferred; from 70 to 85
+percent of the sums received must be surrendered at the tourist rate of
+exchange. Residents may send small amounts and get travel allocations to
+COMECON and some Western countries. Most currency transactions by
+individuals with residents in Western states are prohibited. Residents
+may not own foreign currencies or securities or have bank balances
+abroad without official permission, nor may they import or export
+Romanian banknotes. They are forbidden to own or trade in gold, to
+export jewelry and diamonds, and to engage in foreign merchandise trade.
+
+Controls over financial transactions by state agencies in domestic
+currency and foreign exchange were tightened by a decree issued in
+September 1971. A companion decree also provided for much stricter
+border controls over foreign exchange, precious metals, and jewelry
+carried by individuals entering or leaving the country. Violations were
+more precisely defined, and penalties were substantially increased to
+discourage illegal traffic.
+
+
+FOREIGN TRADE
+
+Foreign trade is of crucial importance to the country's industrial
+development because imports must be relied upon for a large part of the
+requirements for materials and equipment. Trade has been expanding at a
+rapid rate, and imports have been growing faster than exports. In a bid
+for economic and political independence from the Soviet Union, the
+country's leadership succeeded in reorienting a substantial portion of
+its trade toward the industrial nations of Western Europe during the
+mid-1960s (see ch. 10). After 1967, however, the inability to generate
+enough exports salable in Western markets to balance imports forced the
+country to turn increasingly to the Soviet Union and other Eastern
+European countries for its import needs.
+
+Foreign trade is a state monopoly. Trade policy is established by the
+PCR and the government, and its implementation is the responsibility of
+the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Authority to engage in foreign trade
+operations has been partially decentralized by a law enacted in March
+1971, although initial steps in this direction were taken under
+administrative regulations in the beginning of 1970. The main purpose of
+the law has been to raise the efficiency of foreign trade and to help
+expand exports. These ends are to be attained through greater exposure
+of domestic producers to international competition and by providing
+incentives for them to meet it. The law was also intended to create
+favorable conditions in the country for the establishment of industrial
+enterprises with foreign participation.
+
+Before the adoption of the trade reform law, only specialized foreign
+trade enterprises directly subordinated to the Ministry of Foreign Trade
+were empowered to carry on trade activities. Producing enterprises were
+completely divorced from foreign buyers. They delivered their export
+goods to the foreign trade enterprises at domestic prices, without
+knowing to whom or at what price the goods were sold abroad. Imports
+were also obtainable only through foreign trade enterprises at domestic
+prices, regardless of their acquisition cost. Foreign trade losses were
+covered out of the state budget, and enterprises assumed no risk
+whatever in foreign trade transactions. Producing enterprises had no
+interest in marketing their output abroad or in making their products
+competitive in world markets; neither were they interested in using
+domestic substitutes to avoid the need for imports.
+
+Under the new law authority to engage in foreign trade has been granted
+to some of the industrial ministries, trusts, and enterprises. Others
+must continue to trade through foreign trade enterprises. The delegation
+of authority has not involved a transfer of basic decisionmaking powers,
+and the continuance of central control is therefore assured. All trade
+must be conducted in accordance with binding state plans and guidelines
+issued by the minister of foreign trade. Every transaction requires
+approval by the Ministry of Foreign Trade in the form of an import or
+export license. Central controls have also been retained over foreign
+exchange and over export and import prices. The main advantage of the
+new regulation lies in the opportunity it provides for producers to
+develop direct customer relations, thus enabling them to learn at first
+hand the preferences of buyers and the nature of the competition they
+must face. It also encourages them to exercise initiative in seeking out
+potential customers.
+
+Under the law production for export must be given priority. Failure by
+economic units to discharge their export obligations adversely affects
+their profits, even if they meet their total output target, because in
+these circumstances the production plan is considered underfulfilled by
+the value of the undelivered exports. This provision applies equally to
+suppliers and subcontractors of export manufacturers. A positive
+incentive to exceed export quotas has been provided in the form of
+export bonuses. Export manufacturers, however, have a greater interest
+than their suppliers in exceeding the export plan because they are
+entitled to keep for their own use a portion of the above-plan foreign
+exchange earnings, whereas their suppliers have no opportunity to do so.
+This difference of interests has been interpreted by foreign observers
+as a weakness in the law, in that it may hamper manufacturers' efforts
+to maximize export production because the requisite supplies and
+components may not be forthcoming.
+
+The decentralization of foreign trade activities necessarily entails an
+increased need for well-qualified specialists in foreign trade and
+international finance, both at home and abroad. The shortage of experts
+in these fields is to be alleviated through an intensive personnel
+training program.
+
+Western economists believe the new law to be a step in the right
+direction in that it promotes an orientation of the economy toward
+exports. They hold the view, however, also shared by some Romanian
+economists, that, as long as the country's currency remains
+nonconvertible and prices fail to reflect the relative scarcity of
+goods, it will not be possible properly to calculate the profitability
+of foreign trade nor to improve the structure of the trade on the basis
+of such a calculation.
+
+In the 1960-70 period the annual trade turnover increased by 2.8 times
+to a volume of 22,8 billion lei. Exports rose at an average annual rate
+of 10 percent to 11.1 billion lei, and imports grew by 11.7 percent per
+year to 11.7 billion lei. From 1965 to 1970 the rise in trade was more
+rapid; the rates of growth were 11 percent for exports and 12.7 percent
+for imports.
+
+Although trade relations were officially reported to have expanded from
+twenty-nine countries in 1960 to 110 countries in 1970, the bulk of the
+trade was carried on with members of COMECON and the industrial
+countries of Western Europe (see table 6). Only 15 percent of the trade
+in 1970 involved countries outside these areas. Between 1960 and 1967
+trade with COMECON members increased by little more than half, whereas
+trade with Western so-called capitalist countries rose almost fourfold.
+The difference was even more marked in the case of imports from the
+West, which increased ninefold, so that imports from this area in 1967
+were larger than imports from COMECON. The trend was reversed after
+1967, mainly because of increasing balance of payments difficulties with
+Western trade partners.
+
+With a turnover of 5.5 billion lei in 1969, the Soviet Union has been by
+far the most important of Romania's trading partners. Czechoslovakia and
+the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) were next in importance
+within COMECON, with a trade volume of 1.5 billion and 1.2 billion lei,
+respectively, in 1969. Among trading partners in Western Europe, West
+Germany occupied first place, with a trade volume of almost 1.8 billion
+lei, followed by Italy with a volume of 1.2 billion lei and France with
+0.9 billion lei. The People's Republic of China has been the main
+communist trading partner outside Europe, with an annual volume of about
+0.5 billion lei in 1968 and 1969.
+
+_Table 6._ _Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960 and
+1969_ (in millions of lei)[1]
+
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                    1960[2]                    1969[2]
+                          -------------------------  ------------------------
+ Country Group             Exports  Imports  Total    Exports  Imports  Total
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Western industrial states    918      913   1,831     2,980    4,432   7,412
+ COMECON[3]                 2,821    2,636   5,458     5,042    4,819   9,862
+ Other communist states       318      206     524       781      506   1,286
+ Developing countries         245      131     376       996      686   1,682
+                            -----    -----   ------    -----   ------  ------
+ Total                      4,302    3,887   8,189     9,799   10,443  20,242
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1: For value of leu, see Glossary.
+  2: Totals may not add because of rounding.
+  3: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.
+  Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of
+  Technical Services, Joint Publications Research Service--JPRS
+  Series (Washington), _Translations on Eastern Europe: Economic
+  and Scientific Affairs_, "Foreign Trade Reform Analyzed,"
+  _Vierteljahresshefte zur Wirtschaftsvorschung_, West Berlin,
+  July-September 1971, (JPRS 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971).
+
+Trade between Romania and the United States has been small because of
+legal restrictions in the United States against trade with communist
+countries. The trade volume doubled from about US$40 million in 1969 to
+US$80 million in 1970 but declined to about US$65 million in 1971.
+About 80 percent of the trade in 1969 and 1970 was accounted for by
+Romanian imports; in 1971 the trade was more nearly balanced. Comparable
+Romanian statistics are available only for 1969. They show a lower
+volume of trade and a smaller trade deficit. No explanation of this
+discrepancy is available.
+
+Measures to exempt Romania from the restrictions directed against trade
+with communist countries have been taken in the United States. In
+November 1971 exports to Romania were made eligible for Export-Import
+Bank financing. With support from the administration, legislation has
+been introduced in both houses of the Congress of the United States to
+accord Romania most-favored-nation treatment. Sources in the United
+States, however, believe that Romania will not be able to balance its
+trade with that country even in the event that the proposed legislation
+is enacted into law.
+
+Imports have been overwhelmingly weighted in favor of capital goods.
+Machinery and equipment, fuels, and raw and processed materials
+constituted about 90 percent of all imports in the 1960s. Manufactured
+consumer goods accounted for from 5 to 7 percent of imports. Raw and
+processed food products made up the small balance. Machinery and
+equipment, including plant installations, were the major single import
+category; the share of machinery and equipment in total imports rose
+from about 33 percent in 1960 to 49 percent in 1967 but declined to 44
+percent in 1969 because of payments difficulties. Imported machinery and
+equipment covered about 30 percent of requirements in 1970.
+
+Exports in the 1960s consisted mainly of raw and processed materials and
+foodstuffs, about equally divided between products of agricultural and
+industrial origin. As a result of progressive industrialization, the
+proportion of these products in total exports declined from about 78
+percent in 1960 to 63 percent in 1969. During the same period the share
+of machinery and equipment rose from about 17 to 22 percent, and that of
+manufactured consumer goods increased from about 6 to 16 percent.
+Official foreign trade policy is directed toward increasing the
+proportion of processed goods in total exports.
+
+In the 1960-70 period the annual balance of trade was negative, with the
+exception of the years 1960 and 1965. The cumulative trade deficit at
+the end of 1970 amounted to about 5.1 billion lei--the equivalent of
+about US$850 million. The overall deficit, however, obscured the
+severity of the foreign exchange problem facing the country. Trade with
+the communist and developing countries during the period produced an
+export surplus that offset, in part, the deficit with Western trading
+partners. This surplus, however, could not be used to reduce foreign
+indebtedness because it did not generate hard currency earnings. The
+cumulative hard currency trade deficit with the West reached US$1.2
+billion in 1969 and an estimated US$1.5 billion in 1970.
+
+Information on the country's balance of payments has been kept secret,
+so that it is impossible to know how the trade deficit has been
+financed. Hard currency receipts from tourism, which could be applied
+toward repayment of the debt, equaled only a fraction of the annual
+trade deficit. Western sources estimated Romania's indebtedness to her
+Western industrial trading partners to have risen from about US$300
+million in 1966 to US$800 million in 1968 and to have increased further
+by 1970.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 15
+
+AGRICULTURE
+
+
+As a result of the government's industrialization policy, the relative
+importance of agriculture in the economy has declined. During the decade
+of the 1960s the contribution of agriculture to national income, in
+terms of arbitrarily established official prices, dropped from about 30
+to 20 percent, even though half the working population continued to be
+employed on farms and farm output was gradually rising. The growth in
+output, however, did not keep pace with official plans, mainly because
+of a lack of income incentives for farmers under the government's low
+farm-price policy and because of inadequate investment and fertilizer
+inputs. The farm problem has been exacerbated by the generally low
+qualifications of the farm labor force and by the prevalence of
+widespread underemployment.
+
+Various revisions in agricultural organization and methods of
+compensation made from 1968 to 1971 did not produce any marked
+improvement by the end of that period. The failure of agricultural
+output, including livestock products, to advance according to plans
+created economic difficulties by depriving the country of potential
+exports urgently needed to pay for industrial imports. It has also
+hampered the improvement of the population's protein-deficient diet.
+Substantial advances in all phases of agriculture are planned for the
+1971-75 period. In the light of past experience, attainment of the
+established goals is uncertain. The full production potential of
+agriculture remains largely unexploited.
+
+
+AGRICULTURAL REGIONS
+
+Natural conditions are generally favorable for agricultural development.
+A varied topography has produced diversified regional weather and soil
+conditions. The climate is basically continental, with warm summers and
+cold winters, but the growing season is relatively long--from 180 to 210
+days.
+
+The amount of precipitation fluctuates from year to year, which results
+in recurrent droughts. Rainfall averages about twenty-five inches,
+ranging from only fifteen inches on the Dobruja plateau to forty inches
+in the mountainous regions. In the principal farming regions, annual
+precipitation averages about twenty-three inches in the fertile
+southern plain but dips below twenty inches in the hilly regions of
+Moldavia in the northeastern part of the country. Moisture is generally
+sufficient during the spring growing period (see ch. 3).
+
+Soils vary from mountain-type soils to heavy, relatively infertile
+podzolic soils in the plateaus and rich chernozem (black earth) soils in
+the plains. About 20 percent of the agricultural land is of the
+chernozem type. Alluvial soils cover the flood plains of the Danube
+River.
+
+Topography and climate divide the country into five agricultural zones,
+the most important of which is Walachia. Walachia includes the rich
+southern plains, where half the country's grain is grown. Almost half
+the vineyards and orchards are located in the foothills surrounding the
+plains. Vegetable production is also important in this area, especially
+near the city of Bucharest. Despite the fertility of this region's
+soils, production in Walachia fluctuates because of recurrent summer
+droughts.
+
+Transylvania, the largely mountainous region in the central and
+northwestern parts of the country, receives substantial rainfall but has
+relatively infertile soils. Livestock production predominates on the
+mountain pastures and meadows. Grain and potatoes are the major crops in
+the central basin.
+
+Moldavia in northeastern Romania has generally poor soils and receives
+scant rainfall. Corn is the main crop in this zone, followed by wheat
+and potatoes.
+
+The Banat region on the country's western border has the most favorable
+natural conditions for agriculture. Chernozem soils predominate, and the
+seasonal distribution of rainfall is more propitious than in Walachia.
+Grain, primarily wheat, is the principal crop; fruits and vegetables are
+also important.
+
+The Dobruja plateau in southwestern Romania is the country's least
+important farming area. Although soils are generally fertile,
+cultivation is limited by inadequate rainfall. Grain, sunflowers, and
+legumes are grown in this area.
+
+To combat the destructive effects of recurrent droughts, a large-scale
+program of irrigation was undertaken by the government. Execution of the
+program, however, has consistently lagged behind the plans.
+
+
+LAND USE
+
+In 1970 agricultural land comprised almost 37 million acres (63 percent
+of the country), about two-thirds of which was arable. The balance was
+devoted to pastures, meadows, vineyards, and orchards. During the decade
+of the 1960s substantial additions to the agricultural area were made
+through various land improvement measures. At the same time, however,
+large acreages were diverted to industrial and residential uses,
+particularly of the more valuable arable land. The net result was an
+increase in the total farmland area, mainly in orchards and pastures,
+and a decline in the arable acreage (see table 7).
+
+
+_Table 7._ _Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70[1]_ (in
+thousands of acres)
+
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                 1960      1962      1969      1970
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Agricultural Land
+   Arable                       24,268    24,515    24,146    24,050
+   Pasture                       6,953     6,924     7,426     7,420
+   Meadow                        3,427     3,447     3,506     3,499
+   Vineyard                        768       744       857       857
+   Orchard                         529       662     1,053     1,067
+     Total Agricultural Land    35,945    36,292    36,988    36,893
+                                ------    ------    ------    ------
+ Forest Land                    15,822    15,807    15,607    15,604
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1. Agricultural land by type of use and forest area.
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania_, 1970 (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 246-247.
+
+Forests occupied an area of 15,604,000 acres in 1970, the equivalent of
+about 27 percent of the country's land surface. The forest acreage
+declined slowly but steadily after 1961, for a total loss of almost
+247,000 acres.
+
+Slightly more than two-thirds of the more than 24 million acres of crop
+area in 1969 was under grains. Technical crops for industrial uses,
+consisting mainly of oilseeds and sugar beets, and fodder crops occupied
+almost one-fourth of the sown area. The remainder of less than 10
+percent was devoted to legumes, potatoes, vegetables, and melons and to
+seed-producing and experimental plots. Half the grain acreage was
+devoted to corn, which is used for food and feed by the farmers; and
+more than two-fifths was under wheat, which is the staple food of the
+urban population.
+
+The grain acreage declined in absolute and in relative terms after 1960,
+when it accounted for almost three-fourths of the sown area. All other
+major crop acreages, excluding that under sugar beets, increased during
+the 1960-69 period (see table 8). Romanian economists attributed the
+shift in the crop pattern to the government's emphasis on adapting crop
+production to the economic needs of the country and to the natural
+conditions of individual farms. A severe flood in the spring of 1970,
+the worst in the country's history, reduced the crop area by nearly 1.25
+million acres below the level of 1969.
+
+
+_Table 8._ _Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and
+1969_ (in thousands of acres)
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------
+             Crop                              1960        1969
+ --------------------------------------------------------------
+ Grain
+   Wheat                                      7,008       6,817
+   Corn                                       8,826       8,137
+   Other                                      1,626       1,263
+                                             ------      ------
+     Total                                   17,460      16,217
+   Legumes                                      381         474
+ Technical crops (for industrial uses)
+   Oleaginous                                 1,396       1,576
+   Sugar beets                                  494         445
+   Other                                        252         341
+                                             ------      ------
+     Total                                    2,142       2,362
+   Potatoes                                     722         754
+   Vegetables and melons                        516         591
+   Fodder crops                               2,711       3,356
+   Seed-producing and experimental plots        119         235
+                                             ------      ------
+        Total Cultivated Acreage             24,051      23,989
+ --------------------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania 1970_, (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 306-307.
+
+Encroachment by builders upon agricultural and, more particularly,
+arable land was facilitated by the government's policy, pursued until
+the spring of 1968, of treating land as a free good and assigning no
+value to it in calculating the cost of industrial and housing investment
+projects. Arable land was especially attractive to builders because it
+required no expenditure for leveling.
+
+In an attempt to prevent further waste of valuable farmland, a law for
+the protection and conservation of agricultural land was passed in May
+1968. The law prohibited the diversion of farm acreages to
+nonagricultural uses, with the exception of special cases which,
+depending upon the nature and location of the land involved, required
+the approval of either the Council of State, the Council of Ministers,
+or the Superior Council of Agriculture (a government agency that
+functioned in lieu of a ministry for several years). Nonagricultural
+state organizations that held land that they could not cultivate were
+obligated to surrender it without payment to neighboring state or
+collective farms.
+
+The conservation law enjoined socialized (collective and state) farms
+and private farmers to put all land to optimum use; called for a review
+of the building code to reduce the land areas allowed to individual
+construction projects; provided for the inclusion of the value of land
+in construction costs; and spelled out various other measures to
+safeguard and improve agricultural land. The law also directed the
+establishment of a land register, excluding lands of the socialized
+farms, to facilitate stricter controls over the remaining private
+farmers, who held 9.2 percent of the agricultural land and 4.6 percent
+of the arable acreage.
+
+Heavy fines and criminal penalties, including imprisonment up to one
+year, were provided for infringements of the conservation law by
+enterprises and individuals. During the first year of the law's
+operation, fines were also to be imposed upon holders of uncultivated
+arable land, of improperly maintained orchards and vineyards, and of
+meadows and pastures on which maintenance work did not comply with
+agrotechnical rules. Like the establishment of the land register, this
+provision was also aimed at private farmers. A further provision stated
+that lands on which the described conditions continued after the first
+year were to be assigned to socialized farms for cultivation. The
+transferred land could be subsequently restored to the original owners
+under conditions prescribed by the Superior Council of Agriculture. The
+effect of the punitive regulations on private farm property was not
+apparent from the official statistics for 1968 and 1969.
+
+Shortly after the adoption of the conservation law, the deputy chairman
+of the State Committee for Construction, Architecture, and
+Systematization published an article in which he stated that mere
+administrative regulations by the committee and the Superior Council of
+Agriculture could not ensure the proper use of land, particularly on the
+collective farms. He called for the development of appropriate economic
+levers based on an adaptation of "the systems that limit land waste in
+some capitalistic markets." This official's concern about the efficacy
+of the new legislation was well based. By 1970 the arable acreage had
+declined by 158,000 acres, at an average annual rate more than half
+again as large as the annual losses during the 1962-68 period.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION
+
+Collective and state farms are the principal types of farm organization
+(see table 9). Substantial areas of state agricultural land are also
+operated as subsidiary farms by various industrial and other economic
+organizations. Small private farms survive mainly in the mountainous
+regions where collectivization is impractical. In 1970 the state owned
+30 percent of the farmland, about half of which was cultivated by state
+farms. Almost 61 percent of the land belonged to collective farms,
+including 6.6 percent in plots for the personal use of their members.
+The collective farm population consisted of almost 3.5 million families,
+including more than 10 million collective members. About 9 percent of
+the farmland was in the possession of private farmers.
+
+_Table 9. Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969_ (in
+thousands of acres)
+
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                      Arable   Pasture   Meadow   Vineyard   Orchard   Total
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ State agricultural
+   units               4,959    5,545      264      148        173    11,089
+     (State farms)    (4,129)    (688)    (170)    (133)      (148)   (5,218)
+ Collective farms     18,075    1,315    1,712      682        692    22,476
+     (Private plots)  (1,969)     (20)     (54)    (262)      (121)   (2,426)
+ Private farms         1,112      566    1,530       27        188     3,423
+                      ------    -----    -----      ---      -----    ------
+     Total            24,146    7,426    3,506      857      1,053    36,988
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuaral Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, p. 253.
+
+In order to raise agricultural productivity and output, the state and
+collective farm sectors underwent frequent organizational changes, the
+latest of which went into effect in February 1971. There was not
+sufficient evidence in early 1972 on the extent to which they had been
+put into practice and even less information on their economic effects.
+
+
+Collective Farms
+
+At the beginning of 1971 there were 4,626 collective farms, officially
+called agricultural production cooperatives, comprising more than 22
+million acres of farmland, about 18 million acres of which were arable.
+Their number had declined by 1,800 through consolidation during the
+preceding decade. The farms had an average of about 750 families and
+1,000 able-bodied members each.
+
+The average acreage of collective farmland per family in 1970 amounted
+to 6.4 acres, including a private family plot of about 0.7 acres.
+Although the family plots constituted only 6.6 percent of the country's
+farmland and 8.2 percent of the arable acreage, they accounted for a
+substantially larger share in the output of various crops and livestock
+products.
+
+Information on the organization of individual collective farms and of
+the collective farm sector as a whole is inadequate, particularly with
+regard to the range of responsibilities and authority of the various
+administrative entities. The organizational framework has been
+complicated by the proliferation of new measures and regulations since
+1967. Farm operations are carried out in common, under the direction of
+an administrative and management body theoretically accountable to the
+general assembly, composed of all the members of a collective farm.
+Groups of workers are organized into so-called brigades for the
+performance of specialized tasks. The farm management includes a
+chairman, a director, a management council, brigade leaders, and trained
+technicians specialized in various aspects of farm operation.
+
+Intercooperative councils are charged with responsibility for improving
+collective farm management by initiating and coordinating cooperation on
+various levels among neighboring farms for better use of their physical
+and human resources. Collective farms are subordinated to the National
+Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives and are also subject to
+the direction of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters
+(referred to as the Ministry of Agriculture) and of county authorities.
+Collective farm associations are organized for various types of
+specialized production.
+
+In theory and according to law, but not in actual practice, collective
+farms are jointly owned by their members. The ownership supposedly
+extends to the land, other productive resources, and the annual farm
+output. About 11 percent of the collective farm land, however, is
+allocated for the personal use of members, and almost half the livestock
+other than horses is individually owned. No information is available on
+the existence of any provision for the compensation of members who are
+authorized to leave the farms for employment in other sectors of the
+economy.
+
+Regulations concerning the allocation of their income by collective
+farms among investment funds and various social and other obligatory
+funds and distribution to members were modified in late 1970 or early
+1971 with a view to stimulating the members' interest in raising the
+efficiency of production. Under the old system, distribution to members
+was made from residual funds remaining after all statutory public and
+social obligations were met. The revised farm statutes authorize the
+farms' general assemblies to allocate net income in ratios ranging from
+18 to 25 percent for investment and from 75 to 82 percent for
+consumption. In actual practice, however, income distribution is
+reported to follow a somewhat different pattern, which tends to reduce
+the share available for distribution to members. The new regulations
+have not altered the generally acknowledged fact that farm incomes
+remain very low, particularly on the poorer farms.
+
+The system of remuneration for collective farmers was also modified in
+1970 with a view to strengthening work incentives. The new method
+provides for monthly payments on account, in cash and in kind, based on
+the farms' planned annual receipts and for a share of profits in excess
+of those planned. Payment to individual members is to be based on
+centrally established work norms and rates of pay for various categories
+of operations, similar to the practice in industry and construction. The
+system is intended to relate individual remuneration more closely to the
+quantity and quality of the work performed and thereby to eliminate
+inequities of the earlier method. It is also meant to provide a steady
+and assured income to all members who contribute a specified minimum of
+workdays per month. If, for reasons beyond its control, a farm's
+receipts turn out to be lower than the amount legally distributed to its
+members during the year, the shortage may be covered by a long-term bank
+credit. As a further inducement for farmers to remain on the land, their
+social security benefits, generally much lower than those of industrial
+workers, were substantially liberalized.
+
+The extent to which the new pay system has been put into practice is not
+known. Effective January 1, 1971, a minimum wage of 300 lei (for value
+of leu, see Glossary) per month was to be paid to all male farmers who
+worked regularly at least twenty days and to all women who worked
+fifteen days. A survey published by a collective farm organ in March of
+that year found that within a single county twenty-one out of twenty-two
+farms had not taken the trouble to forward the necessary documents to
+the Agricultural Bank and apply for the funds with which to pay their
+members. Various excuses were offered by the farm chairmen for their
+lack of action. The chairmen, farm directors, and brigade leaders,
+however, were reported to have taken appropriate steps to secure their
+own minimum pay.
+
+The marketing of farm products by collective farms is based on
+officially fixed prices and monopoly-buying powers of state procurement
+agencies and the food-processing industry. Products move into government
+stocks through contracts between the farms and state agencies for
+quantities specified by the government; through payments in kind for
+services rendered by agricultural mechanization stations, flour mills,
+and other specialized government agencies; and, in the case of meat and
+wool, in the form of compulsory deliveries. Any products remaining after
+the obligations to the state have been met may be sold in open markets.
+
+
+State Farms
+
+Through consolidation of 370 previously existing state agricultural
+enterprises, the farm reorganization of February 1971 created 145 larger
+enterprises subordinated to the Department of State Agriculture in the
+Ministry of Agriculture. In addition, seventy-four state agricultural
+enterprises for fattening hogs, raising poultry, and producing feeds and
+hothouse vegetables were subordinated to four specialized trusts. The
+consolidation increased the average size of the state enterprises from
+16,000 acres to 34,600 acres of farmland. The enterprises comprised
+about 3,000 state farms on an area of over 5 million acres. Romanian
+sources reported that the reorganization was intended to bring
+management closer to production, to ensure improvement in all aspects of
+farm operation, to intensify concentration and specialization of
+production, and gradually to attain agro-industrial integration.
+
+In official terminology, state agricultural enterprises will operate on
+the principle of economic self-administration. The enterprises will be
+responsible for their subordinate farms and will supervise operations
+according to the principle of internal economic administration. Briefly,
+this means that the agricultural enterprises and the farms must be
+financially self-sustaining, that directors of enterprises and farms are
+accorded a certain measure of discretion in planning and organizing
+production and in the use of resources, and that financial rewards
+beyond the normal pay accrue to each farm's managerial personnel and
+workers in accordance with the farm's own performance, regardless of the
+results obtained by other farms within the enterprise or by the parent
+enterprise itself.
+
+Individual state farms, nevertheless, have no juridical status or bank
+accounts, nor may they enter into direct relation with other economic
+entities outside the state agricultural enterprise of which they are a
+part. In large measure, they remain subject to the direction of the
+enterprise management. Information on the division of authority between
+the agricultural enterprises and the Department of State Agriculture in
+the ministry is not available. Complaints have been voiced in the
+Romanian press about unwarranted interference by higher authorities in
+the management of both the farms and the agricultural enterprises.
+
+Workers on state farms and other state agricultural units are salaried
+employees of the state, entitled to paid annual vacations, social
+security and medical assistance, allocations for children, age or
+disability pensions, and various other benefits provided by law for
+employees of state enterprises. During slack periods, workers may be
+allowed up to 120 days of unpaid vacation per year, without losing
+seniority or other rights.
+
+State farms are the best endowed agricultural units in the country.
+Although they included only about 17 percent of the arable land in 1969,
+they possessed almost 28 percent of the tractors, 24 percent of the
+grain combines, and similar proportions of other major types of farm
+machinery. Moreover, they received more than 37 percent of the chemical
+fertilizers delivered to agriculture and farmed almost 33 percent of the
+irrigated land. As a consequence, per-acre yields on state farms have
+been generally higher than yields on collective farms.
+
+
+Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises
+
+The bulk of the mechanized operations on collective farms has been
+performed for payment in cash and in kind by specialized state
+enterprises for the mechanization of agriculture, which control a large
+share of the country's farm machinery and tractors. This policy has
+provided the state with an added lever of control over the farms; it was
+used in the past to extract a substantial volume of farm produce for the
+state through payments in kind for services rendered. For political
+reasons, and also because of the weak financial position of many
+collective farms, the government has not followed the example of other
+Eastern European states that disbanded their machine-tractor stations
+and sold the equipment to the farms.
+
+In 1969 the agricultural mechanization enterprises controlled 70 percent
+of the available farm tractor power and an even larger share of the
+tractor-drawn and self-propelled farm machinery. State farms owned
+virtually all the balance. Collective farms, which cultivated 75 percent
+of the arable land, possessed only 1.6 percent of the tractor power and
+a still smaller proportion of major farm machinery items.
+
+As of January 1, 1971, the system of agricultural mechanization
+enterprises was reorganized with a view to improving the quality of
+their operations. Forty enterprises were established throughout the
+country--one in each of the thirty-nine counties and one in the
+Bucharest area--with 772 subordinate stations to service an equal number
+of farm associations and about 4,500 sections to work with individual
+collective farms. The main stated task of the mechanization sections is
+to introduce and expand the mechanization of plant and animal production
+on the farms.
+
+To accomplish the task, each mechanization section is to coordinate the
+use of its own equipment with that belonging to the collective. Within
+the framework of this cooperation, the state mechanization enterprises
+were made increasingly responsible for the agricultural production
+process. The planning of mechanized farm operations, the allocation of
+equipment for specific purposes, and the timing and supervision of all
+operations are joint responsibilities of the section chief and the
+farm's chief engineer. Close cooperation and a smooth working
+relationship between them is therefore needed for effective performance.
+
+Mechanized work on farms is carried on by permanent teams composed of
+agricultural mechanics and collective farm members. They take over
+assigned areas in all sectors of the farm and are in charge of all
+relevant operations until the crops have been stored. In slack period
+the mechanization sections work outside the cooperative farms in order
+to utilize more fully their manpower and equipment.
+
+The reorganization of the agricultural mechanization enterprises was
+accompanied by a change in the system of pay for mechanics and
+maintenance men to provide for greater incentives. For work done on the
+farms, these workers receive 80 percent of their annual salary, and the
+remainder is paid at the end of the year, in whole or in part, depending
+upon the degree to which the production plans of the farm on which they
+work are fulfilled. Provision was also made for bonus payments in the
+event of over-fulfillment of production plans. The shift in wage policy
+was accompanied by a raise in the rates of pay for mechanics,
+maintenance men, and personnel operating the equipment in the field on
+a piecework basis. This measure increases the burden on the already
+strained budgets of many collective farms.
+
+
+FARM LABOR
+
+The agricultural labor force presents a paradox of substantial
+underemployment associated with widespread labor shortages, particularly
+of more productive, skilled personnel; the shortages are especially
+prevalent during the planting and harvesting seasons. This phenomenon is
+an outgrowth primarily of a progressive qualitative deterioration of the
+agricultural manpower pool, owing to a continuing transfer of
+predominantly young male workers into nonagricultural occupations.
+Maldistribution of the labor force and poor management of the available
+manpower resources have been important contributing factors. The
+outmigration from agriculture has been spurred by a wide disparity in
+urban and rural incomes and by the relatively inferior living conditions
+on the farms. At the beginning of the 1970s the average income of
+farmworkers was only half as high as that of industrial workers.
+
+Only fragmentary information relating to the farm labor force has been
+published in official statistics. Agricultural employment in 1969
+constituted 51 percent of total employment, compared with 65.4 percent
+in 1960 and 74.1 percent in 1950. Published absolute figures bear only
+on employment by the state; in 1969 the state employed 431,200 persons,
+including 290,000 on state farms and 93,500 in agricultural
+mechanization enterprises. Data published in connection with a
+conference held by the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
+Sciences, however, implied that total agricultural employment in 1968
+amounted to 5.2 million persons, including 4.3 million able-bodied
+collective farm members. The proportion of women in the collective farm
+labor force was reported to be 57.5 percent in 1966; the proportion was
+much larger in highly developed industrial zones. More than 70 percent
+of the collective farm workers, but only about 10 to 15 percent of the
+workers on state farms, were engaged in crop production.
+
+Not all the collective farm members participate in the work of the
+collective. Some are permanently employed in nonagricultural branches of
+the economy. Others--as many as 25 percent of all farmers in 1969--work
+as day laborers in industry and construction, on state farms, and in
+other occupations. Housewives with small children and wives of salaried
+farm employees also take no part in the collective work. Members who do
+participate generally work only a portion of the year because there is
+not sufficient work for them to be fully occupied. In the years 1967 to
+1969, these members, on the average, contributed only from 139 to 142
+man-days per year. In 1968, for example, 22 percent of all collective
+farmers put in not more than forty man-days, and 55 percent of the
+farmers worked fewer than 120 days. Many farmers work only the minimum
+number of days required to keep their personal plots. There are wide
+variations in the degree of labor participation between geographic
+regions, between individual farms, and among production sectors of a
+single farm. At the beginning of the decade of the 1970s about 40
+percent of the income of collective farm families was derived from
+nonagricultural pursuits.
+
+Underemployment in agriculture is expected to continue at least
+throughout the 1970s. Industry, though growing very rapidly, will not be
+able to absorb any significant numbers of farmworkers because of the
+government's emphasis on mechanization and automation of production. In
+the 1971-75 period industrial manpower requirements will be met almost
+entirely through natural population increase. Relieving agricultural
+underemployment through an expansion of the services sector is not being
+given serious consideration on the grounds that "no further expansion of
+this sector can be undertaken at the expense of achieving a high level
+of productivity in the branches of material production and hence in
+agriculture, too."
+
+Raising the low productivity level of collective farm labor through
+greater capital inputs, and thereby increasing the incomes of members,
+presents a difficult problem not only because of a shortage of
+investment funds but also because the magnitude of the collective farm
+labor cannot be adjusted to the needs of production, as in the case of
+state farms; it is determined by the number of families living on the
+farm. The collective farm cannot limit the number of members who may
+participate in the work. Each member has the right and, at the same
+time, the duty to participate in the work performed for the collective,
+and the collective has the duty to provide equal opportunities for all
+its members to work and to earn adequate incomes; yet modernization of
+production necessarily brings with it an ever smaller need for manpower.
+
+A solution of the farm manpower problem was not in sight by late 1971.
+There was general agreement among Romanian economists concerned with the
+matter about a need to improve the utilization of the available labor
+resources, to increase farm incomes and, above all, to stop the
+migration of young people from villages to towns. No concrete program
+for attaining these ends, however, emerged from a national conference on
+farm labor held in mid-1970. Proposals advanced by a number of
+economists to expand industrial activities in the villages,
+particularly cottage industries and the processing of farm products,
+were questioned by others who feared that these activities would tend to
+drain some of the remaining productive elements from the collective farm
+labor force.
+
+As expressed by one of the conferees, the search was on for a hybrid
+solution that would ensure full employment of the redundant labor force
+despite the process of farm modernization--a policy that inevitably
+leads to the maintenance of low earnings on many farms because the
+available work must be spread among an excessive number of members. In
+this context, foreign observers adopted a wait-and-see attitude toward
+the changes in collective farm organization and in the method of payment
+to farmers introduced in January 1971 (see Organization, this ch.). They
+nevertheless expressed doubt about the ultimate efficacy of these
+measures because the income of farmers would still remain far below that
+of industrial workers.
+
+
+INVESTMENT AND CREDIT
+
+Investment
+
+Investment in agriculture has been rising steadily, reaching an annual
+volume of almost 13 billion lei in 1970. The share of agriculture in
+total investment, however, declined from 19.5 percent in the 1961-65
+period to 15.8 percent in the years 1966 through 1969. In relation to
+industrial investment during the same periods, investment in agriculture
+declined from 40 to 30 percent. Under the Five-Year Plan (1971-75),
+agriculture is to receive investments of at least 100 billion lei--an
+amount that is twice as large as the actual investment in the years 1966
+through 1970 and that represents a somewhat larger share of total
+investment than was allocated to agriculture in that period.
+
+No information is readily available on the proportion of the total
+investment used for the replacement of wornout assets and for the
+expansion of productive facilities. In the 1966-69 period replacement
+capital constituted about 30 percent of investments; in 1969 alone the
+proportion was as high as 46 percent.
+
+The largest part--and a rising proportion--of the agricultural
+investment has been financed by the state; collective farms supplied the
+balance out of their own income. The share of state funds in the total
+agricultural investment increased steadily from about 66 percent in 1963
+to 80 percent in 1969; this proportion is to be maintained during the
+Five-Year Plan (1971-75). Investment in collective farms has also been
+increasingly financed by the state through long-term credits; the share
+of government credits rose from 13 percent in 1965 to 35 percent in
+1969. Investment out of the collectives' own funds remained stable
+during this period, at from 2.2 billion lei to 2.4 billion lei per year.
+
+State farms have received a disproportionate amount of investment--38
+percent in the 1965-69 period, as against 34 percent for collective
+farms. The investment share of collective farms during this period
+declined from about 38 to 30 percent of the total. On the basis of
+farmland acreage, investment in collective farms in 1969 amounted to
+only 18 percent of the funds invested in state farms. If the state
+investment in agricultural mechanization enterprises is included as
+investment for the benefit of the collective farms, the ratio of
+collective to state farm investment per acre was still only 25 percent.
+
+Collective farm statutes require the farms to devote from 18 to 25
+percent of their annual gross income to investment. Some Romanian
+economists consider net income to be a more equitable base; under such a
+system more of the farms' income would remain for distribution to
+members. In calculating gross income, amortization of fixed assets is
+generally not included as an expense, which further raises the base used
+for the computation of the compulsory investment fund. An official of
+the Agricultural Bank reported that, in the last few years of the 1960s,
+one-fourth of all collective farms set aside for investment up to 10
+percent more than the maximum legal requirement.
+
+Only partial information is available on the use of investment funds.
+Roughly 40 percent of the investment in the 1962-69 period was devoted
+to construction and assembly work, and 33 percent was used to increase
+farm mechanization. It has not been made clear whether land improvement
+and irrigation are included in construction, but it seems likely that
+this is the case. Substantial funds were also invested in the expansion
+of orchards, vineyards, and livestock. Although significant advances
+were made in most of these areas, the level of farm mechanization and of
+irrigation remained low. In 1969 the equivalent of one fifteen-horsepower
+tractor was available for every 136 acres of arable land, and irrigated
+acreage constituted 6 percent of the arable area. The use of fertilizers
+lagged by comparison with other Eastern European countries.
+
+
+Credit
+
+Farm credit has been provided by the government through the Agricultural
+Bank, which was reconstituted as the Bank for Agriculture and the Food
+Industry in May 1971. Available information on the credit operations of
+the bank is limited to a few summary data on credits to collective
+farms. Information on the financing of state farms is lacking.
+
+As expressed by the bank's president, long-term credits for investment
+and short-term credits for production needs have been used by the state
+as levers for the economic and organizational development and for the
+consolidation of collective farms. Long-term credits granted during the
+1962-69 period amounted to 6.4 billion lei, or an average of 800 million
+lei per year. During the same period the farms received about 30 billion
+lei in short-term production credits, or about 3.75 billion lei per
+year. The annual volume of investment credits increased sharply after
+1967; it was reported to have reached 1.8 billion lei in 1970 and to
+have been planned at more than 2 billion lei for 1971. A rise was also
+reported in the yearly volume of production credit.
+
+Investment credits generally carry an annual 3-percent interest charge,
+but the interest rate may be reduced to 2 percent for economically
+weaker farms. Comparable information on production credit is not
+available, except for an official statement that a large part of it has
+been granted free of interest.
+
+Postponement of scheduled long-term credit repayments may be authorized
+by the bank with the approval of the Ministry of Finance for periods of
+up to one year in the case of collective farms that are unable to meet
+the due date for reasons beyond their control, such as a crop failure.
+At the same time the bank may discontinue credits or demand repayment
+before the due date in the event that borrowed funds are improperly or
+inefficiently used. Penalties are also provided for short-term borrowers
+who fail to respect contractual obligations. As a measure of assistance
+to poor cooperatives, the repayment of loans in the amount of 1.15
+billion lei, contracted before 1968 and due in 1972, was remitted by
+decision of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party in
+December 1971.
+
+The distribution of long-term credits to collective farms among
+different types of investment projects changed significantly during the
+1960s. In 1962 and 1963 more than half the credits were granted for the
+expansion of livestock production, and one-fourth of the credits were
+devoted to the construction of farm buildings. In the last two years of
+the decade, however, only 5 percent and 3 percent of the credits,
+respectively, were earmarked for these purposes. Emphasis shifted in the
+mid-1960s to land improvement, the extension of orchards and vineyards,
+and vegetable production. In the 1967-69 period 83 percent of the
+investment credits were used for these projects. A lack of significant
+progress in the livestock production of collective farms, despite the
+heavy investment, was the main reason for the drastic reduction in
+credits to this farm sector.
+
+In mid-1971 the bank was authorized to grant credits to private farmers
+and to individual members of collective farms for periods of up to five
+years at an annual interest rate of 3 percent. These credits may be used
+to purchase for breeding and production purposes a limited number of
+cattle, sheep, bee colonies with hives, and fruit tree seedlings for
+orchards up to 7.4 acres in size. Credits may be granted up to 70
+percent of the purchase value of these items. To ensure repayment of the
+loans, recipients must conclude contracts with state procurement
+agencies or collective farms for the sale of their products.
+
+Procedures for granting credits to collective farms were tightened in
+1969 in a move to ensure a more effective use of borrowed funds and the
+timely repayment of outstanding debts. Under the new regulations,
+credits may be granted only for investment projects and production
+expenditures that guarantee the attainment of planned returns and
+unconditionally ensure loan repayment on the due date. The principal
+criteria for granting long-term credits are the need for, and the
+economic effectiveness of, the investment projects and the outlook for
+completing the projects within prescribed time limits. Economic
+effectiveness is analyzed in terms of production growth, increase in
+output per acre or per head of livestock, and rise in labor productivity
+and revenues.
+
+Despite increasingly close supervision by the bank of its borrowers'
+activities, the effectiveness of investment credits in many instances
+has not measured up to expectations. Inadequate project analysis,
+construction delays, cost overruns, dissipation of funds, program
+changes that made partially or fully completed projects obsolete, and
+various other shortcomings have been cited by bank officials as the
+major reasons for this situation. As a means of resolving the problems,
+the officials have stressed the need for more profound project
+evaluation, greater stringency in granting loans, and increased firmness
+in the supervision of borrowers. They have also emphasized the criterion
+of ability to repay as being one of basic importance.
+
+
+PRODUCTION
+
+Total Farm Output
+
+Official statistics on total farm output are limited to a percentage
+distribution of the output between crop and livestock production. In the
+1965-69 period, for which comparable data are available, crop production
+accounted for 62 to 63 percent of output; and livestock production, for
+the remaining 37 to 38 percent. This ratio is reported to have prevailed
+throughout the 1950-70 period, even though the government has
+consistently sought to raise the contribution of the livestock sector to
+total output. An increase in the proportion of livestock products to
+40.6 percent in 1970, reported by another source, was attributable
+mainly to the damage sustained by crops from the spring flood in that
+year.
+
+Total gross agricultural output was unofficially reported to have
+reached 72.4 billion lei in 1969 and to have fallen to 68.7 billion lei
+in 1970 as a result of disastrous spring floods. The 1969 output volume,
+equal to that of 1967, represented the highest level attained through
+1970. According to official index data, farm output in 1967 and in 1969
+was 31 percent larger than it had been in 1960; the 1970 output was only
+24 percent larger. These figures are equivalent to annual growth rates
+of 3.9 percent for the 1960-67 period and 2.2 percent for the years 1969
+through 1970.
+
+Net farm output increased much more slowly because the cost of material
+outlays per unit of output was steadily rising. In the 1963-68 period
+the increase in material costs amounted to 33 percent.
+
+The growth of farm output during the 1960s was well below the planned
+levels of 70 to 80 percent for the years 1960 through 1965 and 26 to 32
+percent for the 1966-70 period. Instead of more than doubling, output
+increased by barely one-fourth. Unfavorable weather conditions during
+some of the years were only partly responsible for the nonfulfillment of
+the agricultural output plans. Other major factors included the
+government's failure to provide the planned volume of inputs and an
+apathetic attitude on the part of farmers owing to inadequate
+incentives.
+
+The shortfall in fertilizer deliveries during the 1966-70 period alone
+amounted to 1.3 million tons of nutrients, or one-third of the planned
+tonnage. For the decade as a whole, the shortfall approached 2 million
+tons. Deliveries of tractors and farm machinery also lagged behind
+schedule. Although an area of almost 2 million acres was to be irrigated
+by 1965 and, under revised plans, an acreage of from 1.6 million to 1.7
+million acres by 1970, only 550,000 acres had been actually irrigated by
+1965 and 1.45 million acres by 1969. A careful and sympathetic Western
+student of Romanian economy concluded that the production targets for
+1965 could not have been achieved even if all the planned inputs had
+been provided on schedule.
+
+In the view of some Western observers, an attitude of indifference on
+the part of farmers, based on the inadequacy of returns from farming,
+particularly on the collective farms, was an important contributing
+cause for the failure of agriculture to realize its growth potential.
+The real income of farmers was scheduled to rise by 20 to 25 percent
+during the 1966-70 period; the official announcement of the plan
+results, however, merely noted an increase in income, without citing any
+figure--a clear indication that the target was missed by a wide margin.
+
+The negative effects of the disparity in incomes on the collective
+farmers' sense of responsibility and, hence, on agricultural production
+were officially recognized. This recognition led to a revision of the
+system of compensation for collective farm work and to a reduction of
+farm taxes in early 1971 but did not significantly alter the position of
+agriculture within the economy (see Organization, this ch.). The
+possibility of alleviating the situation by raising farm incomes through
+a general increase in farm prices was rejected on the grounds that such
+an increase, without a corresponding rise in productivity per worker and
+per acre, would constitute a redistribution of national income
+incompatible with the best interests of the economy.
+
+
+Crop Production and Yields
+
+Production of major crops and of fruits was larger during the 1960s than
+it had been in the preceding decade. The greatest advances were made in
+the output of industrial and fodder crops, and the smallest were in
+potato and vegetable production (see table 10). In large measure, the
+rise in output was achieved through greater yields per acre, owing to an
+increased use of fertilizers; the introduction of improved varieties;
+and some improvement in crop production methods, particularly on state
+farms. Crop yields, nevertheless, remained among the lowest in Eastern
+Europe.
+
+
+Livestock and Livestock Products
+
+Livestock numbers increased slowly from 1961 to 1970 but, except for
+poultry, were generally lower at the end of that period than the peak
+levels reached for the different types between 1965 and 1968. From 1961
+to 1965 the number of cows declined but increased steadily thereafter,
+without, however, fully regaining the level of 1961.
+
+Development of the livestock economy has been hampered by an inadequate
+feed base, poor quality of livestock and livestock breeding, and
+inefficient production methods. Significant improvements in the
+livestock sector are planned for the 1971-75 period and beyond to 1980.
+
+Although livestock production failed to increase as a proportion of the
+total farm output, the volume of livestock products, nevertheless, rose
+significantly during the 1960s (see table 11). Compared with the average
+annual outputs of individual products attained in the 1962-65 period,
+increases in average annual production for the years 1966 through 1969
+ranged from 18 percent for wool to 24 percent for meat.
+
+_Table 10. Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected Years,
+1960-69_ (in thousand metric tons)
+
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Crop             1960    1963     1966     1967     1968     1969
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Grain[1]
+   Wheat         3,450    3,799    5,065    5,820    4,848    4,349
+   Corn          5,531    6,023    8,022    6,858    7,105    7,676
+   Other           845      614      812      834      817      799
+                 -----   ------   ------   ------   ------   ------
+     Total       9,826   10,436   13,899   13,512   12,770   12,824
+ Oilseeds
+   Sunflower       522      506      671      720      730      747
+   Other            93       54       63       61       41       59
+                 -----    -----    -----    -----    -----    -----
+     Total         615      560      734      781      771      806
+ Sugar beets     3,399    2,298    4,368    3,830    3,936    3,783
+ Tobacco            16       40       40       35       33       24
+ Potatoes        3,009    2,692    3,352    3,096    3,707    2,165
+ Vegetables      1,831    1,702    2,177    2,000    2,296    1,963
+ Fodder Crops
+   Hay           2,105    1,872    3,182    3,223    2,472    3,268
+   Green feed    1,222    2,922    4,749    4,380    3,995    3,885
+   Silage[2]     4,601    5,296    3,538    2,830    3,728    3,491
+   Root crops      276      293      371      269      302      420
+                 -----   ------   ------   ------   ------   ------
+     Total       8,204   10,383   11,840   10,702   10,497   11,064
+ Fruits            829    1,048    1,390    1,206    1,054    1,677
+ Grapes            874      937      954      910    1,167    1,189
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1. Grain production in 1971 was unofficially reported to have reached
+ about 14.5 million metric tons.
+ 2. Roughly 90 percent corn.
+ Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+ Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of
+ Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 312 315.
+
+_Table 11. Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected Years
+1960-69_
+
+ ------------------------------------------------------
+           Meat[1]     Milk[2]     Eggs[3]     Wool[4]
+ ------------------------------------------------------
+ 1960        969       856,472     2,355       21,850
+ 1965      1,116       859,061     2,630       25,410
+ 1966      1,265       987,531     2,814       26,072
+ 1967      1,356     1,089,320     3,011       28,626
+ 1968      1,297     1,012,628     3,113       30,583
+ 1969      1,271       992,762     3,315       30,752
+ -----------------------------------------------------
+  1: Thousand metric tons live weight.
+  2: Cow, goat, and buffalo in thousand gallons.
+  3: In millions.
+  4: In metric tons.
+ Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+ Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of
+ Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 430 431.
+
+Data on the contribution of the different types of farms to the total
+farm output are lacking, but detailed figures are available for
+individual products. The most noteworthy aspect of these data is the
+light that they shed on the importance of the collective farmers'
+personal plots and of the private sector in the production of the higher
+valued farm products. On their small personal plots, the collective
+farmers in 1969 produced roughly one-third of the wool, vegetables, and
+potatoes; two-fifths of the meat, milk, and fruit; and three-fifths of
+the eggs (see table 12). Together with the small number of private
+farms, they accounted for 35 to 80 percent of the output of these items.
+Foreign observers have interpreted this phenomenon as clear evidence of
+the inadequacy of incentives for work on state and collective farms.
+
+
+Exports
+
+Substantial quantities of farm products have been exported in raw and
+processed form. In the 1965-69 period exports of grain, fruits,
+vegetables, and eggs ranged from 10 to 13 percent of output. Exports of
+wool reached almost two-thirds of the total production volume. A wide
+range of other vegetable and livestock products were also exported,
+including pulses; sugar; sunflower seeds and oil; live cattle; fresh,
+frozen, and canned meat; butter; wine; and tobacco (see ch. 14).
+
+_Table 12. Crop Production and Livestock Products in Romania, by Type of
+Farm, 1969_ (in percent)
+
+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                        State
+ Product            Agricultural    State    Collective  Personal    Private
+                        Units      Farms[1]    Farms      Plots       Farms
+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Grains                 24.5         23.6       63.4       9.0         3.1
+ Fiber plants            5.2          4.7       92.1       0.6         2.1
+ Oilseeds               29.2         28.9       70.8      ---[2]      ---[2]
+ Sugar beets             0.4          0.3       99.6       0           0
+ Tobacco                 0.2          0         99.8       0           0
+ Potatoes                7.1          6.5       39.1      36.4        17.4
+ Vegetables             11.6         10.6       52.9      29.6         5.9
+ Perennials for hay     30.2         28.3       64.7      3.2         1.9
+ Annuals for hay        23.5         19.4       58.9      13.9         3.7
+ Annuals for green
+   feed                 38.0         35.6       60.1       1.6         0.3
+ Fodder roots           53.8         50.9       39.8       4.8         1.6
+ Silage crops           44.5         42.8       55.4       0.1         0
+ Fruits                 11.7          9.9       19.3      40.9        28.1
+ Meat                   27.0         24.2       21.2      39.3        12.5
+ Milk                   16.7         16.0       28.2      38.2        16.9
+ Eggs                   17.0         16.7        3.2      60.0        19.8
+ Wool                   17.7         16.8       38.4      33.1        10.8
+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1. Breakdown included within state agricultural units.
+ 2. Less than 0.1 percent.
+ Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+ Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of
+ Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 329-345, 406, 430-431.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 16
+
+INDUSTRY
+
+
+Stimulated by a high rate of investment and an infusion of Western
+technology, industry has expanded at a rapid rate. A qualitatively
+inadequate labor force, poor organization, and insufficiently
+experienced management personnel, however, have not been able to attain
+levels of efficiency and quality acceptable to the Romanian Communist
+Party and the government. Lowering the cost of production and improving
+quality are considered to be essential prerequisites for expanding
+exports, which are needed to pay for imports of materials and equipment.
+Various measures introduced since 1967 have not achieved the
+government's objectives. Economic plans for the 1971-75 period call for
+raising productivity through greater specialization of production and
+better utilization of plants and materials. To this end, several new
+economic laws were passed in December 1971, the contents of which were
+not yet known in early 1972.
+
+
+NATURAL RESOURCES
+
+Though widely varied, the country's mineral and agricultural resources
+are generally inadequate to maintain the current and planned levels of
+industrial production and exports. Natural gas is a major exception.
+Formerly plentiful supplies of crude oil are falling off, and the
+likelihood of discovering new deposits is considered poor by oil
+industry officials. The heavy dependence on outside sources of raw
+materials led the government to provide economic and technical
+assistance to several developing countries for the exploitation of their
+mineral resources in return for shipments of mined products. This
+dependence has also been a major determinant of the country's political
+relations with other members of the Council for Mutual Economic
+Assistance (COMECON), particularly the Soviet Union, and with
+noncommunist industrial nations of the West (see ch. 10).
+
+
+Minerals and Metals
+
+Information on the extent of most mineral reserves is unavailable. A
+delegation of Western petroleum experts who surveyed the petroleum
+industry at the end of 1970 made a tentative estimate that oil reserves
+would be exhausted in roughly eleven years at the current annual
+production rate of about 13 million tons. With a view to ensuring
+long-term crude oil supplies for the planned expansion of the domestic
+petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, the government has
+entered into economic cooperation agreements with several small
+petroleum-producing countries. The government has also discussed the
+possibility for joint exploration of offshore petroleum deposits in the
+Black Sea and elsewhere in the world with oil interests of various
+countries. In the meantime the government has been importing crude oil
+from Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Libya in exchange for industrial machinery
+and equipment. Oil imports from these countries in 1970 amounted to 2.1
+million tons.
+
+The major natural gas deposits that were exploited in 1970 are located
+in the Transylvanian basin and outside the Carpathian arc (see ch. 3).
+According to Romanian officials, the annual addition to reserves has
+been double the volume of annual production. Gas output has expanded
+steadily from about 365 billion cubic feet in 1960 to 845 billion cubic
+feet in 1969. Natural gas has been used for electric power production in
+thermal plants, for space heating, and as a raw material for the
+chemical industry. Less than 1 percent has been exported through a
+pipeline to Hungary.
+
+Western observers believe that imports of natural gas from the Soviet
+Union may be initiated in the early 1970s. This belief is based on
+information that a gas pipeline to be built from the Soviet Union to
+Bulgaria will pass through eastern Romania, fairly close to the major
+port of Constanta, which is far removed from domestic sources of gas.
+Negotiations to this effect are not known to have taken place.
+
+Deposits of coal are small and, with few exceptions, low grade. Known
+reserves in 1970 were reported to include less than 1 billion tons of
+bituminous and anthracite coal and 3.5 billion tons of lignite. Fields
+at Petrosani in the Jiu Valley of the southern Transylvania Alps contain
+98 percent of the bituminous coal reserves; 90 percent of the lignite
+reserves are located in Oltenia, in the southwestern part of the
+country. Open pit mining is possible in much of the lignite area.
+
+In order to conserve crude oil and natural gas, production of coal and
+lignite has been substantially increased and is scheduled to rise
+rapidly in the 1971-75 period. From 1950 to 1970 total coal output
+increased at an annual rate of 9.2 percent, including a growth of more
+than 15 percent per year in lignite output. By 1975 coal output is to
+reach from 37 million to 38.5 million tons, which corresponds to a
+planned annual increase of about 10.6 percent from the level of 22.8
+million tons mined in 1970. The production of lignite is scheduled to
+advance more rapidly than that of bituminous and anthracite coal.
+
+Two-thirds of the mined coal tonnage with 56 percent of its caloric
+content was used in 1970 to fuel electric power plants. Only 1.3 million
+tons were usable in the manufacture of coke, in large part as an
+admixture to imported coking coals of superior quality. The severe and
+growing shortage of domestic coke supplies poses a major obstacle to the
+expansion of the iron and steel industry. In 1969 it was necessary to
+import 2.1 million tons of metallurgical coke and 633,000 tons of coking
+coal.
+
+Workable deposits of iron ore are situated in the vicinity of Resita and
+Hunedoara in the southwest. Other known deposits, particularly those at
+Ruschita and Lueta, have a low metal content and harmful radioactive
+admixtures. Suitable mining and processing methods to handle these ores
+have not been developed and are not believed to be economically
+feasible. Domestic mines provided about 32 percent of requirements in
+1965 but only 17 percent in 1970; by 1975 the importance of native iron
+ores will have further declined. Imports of iron ores almost quadrupled
+in the 1960s and reached a volume of 3 million tons in 1969. Most of the
+imports came from the Soviet Union.
+
+Information on basic nonferrous ore reserves is tenuous and, in part,
+conflicting. The tenor of published reports points to a scarcity of
+reserves, low metal content of ores, and difficulties in ore processing.
+The great majority of existing mines are said to have only enough
+reserves left for a few years' production. Consideration has been given
+to the recovery of nonferrous metals from industrial wastes, such as
+blast furnace slag and metallurgical dross. For the time being, domestic
+reserves appear adequate to cover the needs of lead and zinc production
+and a portion of the requirements for smelting copper and aluminum. The
+bulk of bauxite and alumina and a substantial quantity of copper must be
+imported.
+
+Romania is reported to be extracting small amounts of gold and silver.
+It is also mining uranium ore, which has been exported to the Soviet
+Union in exchange for isotopes and enriched uranium for use in
+experimental nuclear installations.
+
+
+Timber
+
+The country's 6 million acres of forests constitute a valuable source of
+raw material. Information on the volume of the annual tree harvests has
+not been published. Substantial quantities of lumber and, increasingly,
+of lumber products and furniture have been exported, although at the
+expense of domestic consumption.
+
+In a program to conserve and rebuild this important resource, which was
+severely overexploited during World War II, a strict limitation was
+placed in the early 1950s on the annual volume of timber cut. A further
+reduction in the amount of timber felling was decreed for the 1971-75
+period. Through a more efficient utilization of the timber and the
+expansion of wood processing, including the manufacture of plywood,
+chipboard, and furniture, the value of the output, nevertheless,
+increased substantially. Exports of lumber and wood products accounted
+for 13.4 percent of total exports in 1970, but this ratio is scheduled
+to decline to 6 percent in 1975, not because of a reduction in the
+volume of these exports but as a result of a planned expansion of other
+industrial and food product exports.
+
+
+ELECTRIC POWER
+
+Electrical power development has proceeded at a rapid pace. The
+installed generating capacity of 7.3 million kilowatts in 1970 was four
+times larger than the capacity available a decade earlier. Eighty-four
+percent of the installed capacity in 1970 was in thermal power plants,
+and the remaining 16 percent, in hydroelectric stations. Hydroelectric
+capacity development had been relatively more rapid, with a sixfold
+increase during the decade.
+
+The production of electrical energy increased even faster than installed
+capacity because newly built plants operated at greater efficiency. The
+output of 35 billion kilowatt-hours in 1970 was 4.6 times greater than
+output in 1960. Power output is scheduled to reach 58 billion to 60.8
+billion kilowatt-hours in 1975. These figures imply an average annual
+increase in power production of 10.5 to 11.7 percent, compared with an
+average increase of 16.5 percent in the 1960-70 period. Thermal power
+plants accounted for 92 percent of the output in 1970, and hydroelectric
+stations, for only 8 percent. Output per unit of thermal capacity was
+more than double that of hydroelectric generators. The total
+hydroelectric power potential that could be economically developed has
+been estimated at 24 billion kilowatt-hours per year.
+
+The Romanian power grid is connected to the power grids of Bulgaria,
+Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. This tie-in makes possible a more
+efficient use of available power through mutual exchanges to equalize
+the load and provides some insurance in the event of regional power
+failures.
+
+Almost two-thirds of the thermal energy output in 1970 was based on
+natural gas fuel, and one-third, on coal--mostly coal of very low
+quality. Less than 3 percent of the fuel used was accounted for by oil.
+The proportion of natural gas in the fuel balance was roughly the same
+as in 1960 but ten percentage points lower than in 1965. The share of
+coal, particularly of low-grade coal, has been rising, in line with the
+government's policy of conserving natural gas for use in the
+petrochemical industry.
+
+In 1971 construction was virtually completed of a huge hydroelectric
+station at the Iron Gate on the Danube River, built jointly with
+Yugoslavia and equipped, in part, with turbines made in the Soviet
+Union. The station's twelve turbines have a total capacity of 2.1
+million kilowatts and are planned to produce about 11 billion
+kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. The output is to be evenly
+divided between the two participating countries. Nine of the twelve
+turbines were reported to have been in operation in September, and six
+were reported to have been connected to the Romanian national power grid
+in November. Completion of the Romanian portion of the project almost
+doubled the country's hydroelectric capacity and increased its power
+output potential by about 15 percent.
+
+A second, much smaller, hydroelectric station with a capacity of 400,000
+kilowatts and a planned output of 1.5 billion kilowatt-hours per year is
+to be built jointly with Yugoslavia on the Danube River below the Iron
+Gate plant. Plans for this station were to be initialed by the
+negotiators before the end of 1971, but information on the dates for the
+start and completion of construction is not available. Plans for the
+construction of yet another power station on the Danube River, as a
+joint venture with Bulgaria in the Cernavoda-Silistra area, were
+announced in the fall of 1971. This station is to have a capacity of
+760,000 kilowatts and an annual output of about 3.8 billion
+kilowatt-hours. Construction is apparently scheduled to begin in 1975.
+
+An agreement with the Soviet Union to build a 440,000-kilowatt nuclear
+power station, using a Soviet reactor, was signed in May 1970.
+Construction of the plant is to begin in 1972, and completion is
+scheduled for 1978. The agreement culminated extensive negotiations with
+the Soviet Union and several noncommunist countries. The ultimate choice
+is believed by Western observers to have been dictated primarily by
+political considerations.
+
+Initial plans for nuclear power plants called for an installed capacity
+of 1 million kilowatts by 1975 and 2.4 million kilowatts by 1980.
+Construction was to begin in the 1966-70 period, but this target was not
+met. A subsequently revised plan for the 1971-80 period envisaged the
+construction of nuclear plants with a total capacity of from 1.8 million
+to 2.4 million kilowatts. Construction of the plants was to begin
+between 1971 and 1975, and their commissioning was to take place in the
+1976-80 period. No information has been made public on the contemplated
+source or sources of the equipment for these plants, other than the
+agreed-upon Soviet unit. Romania must rely on foreign technical
+assistance for its nuclear energy program.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION
+
+In 1969 industry, excluding construction and small private artisan
+shops, comprised 1,151 enterprises employing almost 2 million persons.
+Seventy percent of the enterprises, which included 92 percent of the
+employed persons, were owned and operated by the state, and the
+remaining were run by collectives, including collective farms. State
+industry produced 95.7 percent of the gross output; collective
+enterprises contributed 4.1 percent; and private establishments
+accounted for only 0.2 percent of total production.
+
+Seventy percent of the state industrial enterprises, which included 89
+percent of the persons employed by the state, were administered by
+central authorities; the remaining were subject to the jurisdiction of
+local government bodies. Collective enterprises are subject to
+governmental controls; their activities are covered by the annual and
+five-year economic plans, and many of the enterprises act as suppliers
+of tools, spare parts, and miscellaneous equipment to state enterprises
+on a contractual basis. Their main function, however, is to provide
+consumer goods and services for the population.
+
+Centrally administered enterprises include the largest and most
+important industrial units. A consolidation of these enterprises in 1969
+reduced their number by half and correspondingly increased their average
+size. Employment per enterprise in 1969 averaged 2,860 persons; it
+ranged from 800 persons in printing to more than 8,000 persons in the
+leather and footwear industry. Individual enterprises may be composed of
+more than one plant, which accounts, in part, for the large number of
+workers. Over 60 percent of the enterprises under central government
+administration had more than 1,000 workers each, and almost 27 percent
+employed more than 3,000 workers per enterprise.
+
+Enterprises under local government jurisdiction were generally
+smaller--95 percent of these employed from 200 to 2,000 workers
+each--but even in this group there were some enterprises with more than
+5,000 workers. Collective enterprises were still smaller--77 percent
+employed no more than 500 workers per unit. One collective enterprise,
+nevertheless, employed between 2,000 and 3,000 workers.
+
+Employment in construction totaled 648,000 persons in 1969. Information
+on the number and organization of construction enterprises is not
+available.
+
+The internal management structure of state enterprises has undergone a
+transformation. By decision of the party's Central Committee in April
+1968, amplified by another decision in May 1970, the principle of
+collective management replaced that of one-man management in all
+enterprises and state economic organizations. Management committees are
+chaired by enterprise directors and consist of the following members:
+the managerial personnel, appointed by the ministry; the chairmen of the
+trade union, as legal representatives of the enterprise trade union
+committees; the secretaries of the party committees and of the communist
+youth organizations in the enterprises; and a number of employee
+representatives.
+
+The secretaries of the two party organizations were given full
+membership in May 1970 in a move to strengthen the control by the party.
+Before that date the secretaries of the party committees merely
+participated in the discussions, and the secretaries of the communist
+youth organizations played no role at all. County and municipal party
+organs also provide direction for the management committees' work.
+
+According to party decisions, the management committees are deliberative
+organs with powers to make decisions concerning the conduct of the
+technical, economic, and social activities of the enterprise. Two-thirds
+of the membership constitutes a quorum, and decisions can be adopted by
+a simple majority of those present. In cases of disagreement between the
+committee chairman (the enterprise director) and a majority of the
+management committee, the matter is submitted for resolution to the
+higher administrative body.
+
+A lack of legislation to legalize the institution of the management
+committees and conflict of the new party directive with earlier
+legislation that established the principle of one-man management
+hampered the introduction of the new management system. No clear-cut
+guidelines were provided for the scope of the management committees'
+competence or the numerical strength of employee representation. The
+function of the management committees was also undermined by higher
+administrative echelons through continued imposition of detailed
+directives concerning the work of the enterprises--contrary to the
+announced party policy of loosening central controls. Confusion
+prevailed about the relationships between management, management
+committees, and higher economic bodies.
+
+There is no evidence on the effectiveness of the supplemental party
+decision of May 1970 in resolving the problems besetting the functioning
+of the management committees. A new law on the organization and
+management of state enterprises and institutions was passed by the
+General Assembly toward the end of 1971, but information on the
+provisions of that law was not available in early 1972.
+
+Another new element in the management of enterprises is the general
+assembly of employees, introduced in 1968 along with the management
+committees in accordance with the principles of collective management
+and socialist democracy. Adequate legislation to formalize the new
+institution had not been passed by late 1971, but an appropriate
+provision may have been included in the new law on industrial
+organization.
+
+As described by a high government official, the general assembly of
+employees or, in the case of large enterprises, of employee
+representatives is a forum that will assure effective participation by
+workers and specialists in the organization and management of the
+economy and in decisionmaking concerning the fulfillment of enterprise
+plans. General assemblies are supposed to exercise control over the
+activities of management committees. Their authority extends beyond the
+discussion of problems and evaluation of performance to recommending and
+adopting decisions.
+
+General assemblies are convened twice a year. On these occasions the
+enterprise management committee must present to the assembly reports on
+the committee's activities, on the results of enterprise operations, and
+on the fulfillment by the enterprise of its economic and social
+obligations. Together with the trade union committee of the enterprise,
+the management committee must also present to the assembly for
+discussion and approval the draft of a new collective contract listing
+mutual obligations of the management committee and of the employees.
+Decisions reached by the general assembly are obligatory for the
+management committee. Decisions on measures that require action by
+higher authorities must be handled by the relevant bodies responsibly
+and expeditiously.
+
+Representatives of superior economic organs, including the ministries,
+and of county and local party committees participate in the work of the
+general assemblies of employees. The reason given for this participation
+is the opportunity that it provides for the management to become more
+familiar with problems of interest to the enterprise.
+
+Available evidence indicates a wide variation among enterprises in the
+degree of influence exercised by the general assemblies of employees.
+Toward the end of 1971 some management committees were still reported to
+be disregarding or downgrading general assembly proposals, but such
+instances were said to be growing progressively fewer.
+
+Industrial enterprises are grouped into combines, trusts, and, since
+1969, so-called industrial centrals. The centrals were created in an
+attempt to improve the organizational structure of industry, reduce
+control by the ministries and other central government agencies, and
+provide greater flexibility, in order to increase industrial
+efficiency. A major task assigned to the centrals is to introduce
+specialization of production.
+
+Neither the organizational forms of the centrals nor their authority and
+responsibility vis-à-vis the enterprises and ministries have been
+clearly defined or legally established. The resultant uncertainty,
+experimentation, and bureaucratic disharmony have created considerable
+confusion in the administration of industry, which has been inimical to
+the attainment of the efficiency goal. At the same time, a variety of
+factors, including a shortage of investment funds, an inflexible price
+structure, and the method of evaluating enterprise performance, have
+militated against the expansion of specialization. Industry officials
+believe that it may require from three to five years to resolve the
+organizational problems posed by the creation of the centrals and that
+many other problems will have to be solved before specialization can
+become a reality.
+
+Industrial combines, trusts, and centrals function under the
+jurisdiction of industrial ministries, of which there were eleven at the
+end of 1971 (see ch. 8). Industrial ministries have undergone an almost
+continuous process of reorganization. New ministries have been created;
+old ones, abolished; still others, amalgamated and split. Spheres of the
+ministries' activities have been reshuffled, and their internal
+structures have been modified--all in the interest of improving
+socialist industrial organization and raising the efficiency of
+production. One foreign observer remarked that, whenever something went
+wrong in the economy, reorganization in one form or another was
+undertaken in an effort to solve the problem through administrative
+means.
+
+
+LABOR
+
+The average number of persons employed in industry in 1969 was
+1,980,000, or about 40 percent of total employment excluding those
+employed on collective farms. Industrial employment had increased by
+725,000 persons in the 1960-69 period. Employment in construction grew
+more rapidly--from 372,000 persons in 1960 to almost 648,000 in 1969. At
+the end of 1969 women constituted 43 percent of employment in industry
+and less than 9 percent in construction. In industry, the proportion of
+women in blue-collar and white-collar jobs was about equal. In
+construction, however, women occupied one-third of the white-collar
+positions and only 5 percent of the blue-collar jobs.
+
+A distribution of employment by industry branches is available only for
+enterprises under the direct jurisdiction of the central government. Of
+these, machine building and metalworking absorbed 27 percent of the
+employed; fuels and metallurgy, 15 percent; forestry and woodworking,
+15 percent; textile production, 12 percent; and chemicals and food
+processing, 7 percent each. Several less important industry branches
+accounted for another 11 percent of industrial employment, and an
+unlisted residue of fifty enterprises employing almost 100,000 persons,
+presumably constituting the defense industry, made up the balance of 6
+percent.
+
+The growth of employment in the 1960-69 period varied widely among the
+different industry branches. Whereas the number of employed rose by 60
+percent for centrally administered industry as a whole, it increased by
+almost 2.4 times in the chemical branch, somewhat more than doubled in
+the production of cellulose and paper, and grew by 80 percent in
+nonferrous metallurgy and in machine building and metalworking. The
+lowest increases in employment occurred in the production of fuels, in
+ferrous metallurgy, and in the manufacture of glass and china. The
+increases in employment did not necessarily correspond to the priority
+ratings of the individual branches; high priority branches received
+relatively much larger investment.
+
+The labor force is numerically redundant but qualitatively inadequate
+for the needs of modern industry. Despite the existence of labor
+training programs, there is a shortage of skilled personnel at the
+intermediate level, such as technicians and foremen. Few workers have
+professional school training; most acquire their skills through short
+courses or on-the-job training. The number of skilled workers is too
+small to allow efficient two-shift operation of plants throughout most
+of industry. The lack of adequate skills and the associated inept
+handling and poor maintenance of imported sophisticated machinery have
+been responsible for frequent breakdowns. The resultant work stoppages
+and the under-utilization of available capacity have had a deleterious
+effect on productivity.
+
+Because of a high rate of investment and large-scale imports of advanced
+Western technology and equipment, productivity per worker nevertheless
+has been rising at a relatively rapid rate. According to official data,
+productivity in industry increased by an annual average of 7.5 percent
+in the 1960-69 period, but the increase in 1969 was less than 5 percent.
+Official plans for the 1971-75 period call for an annual growth in
+productivity of at least 7.3 percent. Western economists, however,
+estimated the rise in productivity to have been only 5.6 percent per
+year in the 1960-67 period, compared to an official figure of 8 percent.
+Despite the impressive gains, productivity in industry remains low,
+mainly because of the inadequate qualifications and work habits of the
+labor force and the shortcomings of industrial organization and
+management.
+
+Industrial labor discipline has been a subject of continuing concern to
+party and government. Both labor turnover and absenteeism have been
+high. During the first nine months of 1969 almost 455,000 workers left
+their jobs in centrally administered enterprises, in many instances
+without the requisite official permission. During the same period
+worktime losses from absenteeism amounted to about 12 million man-hours.
+Abuse of the provision for leave without pay and loafing on the job have
+also contributed significantly to losses of worktime. For centrally
+administered industry as a whole, the loss of worktime from all causes,
+including stoppages caused by deficiencies of the supply and
+distribution system, amounted to almost 47 million man-hours in the
+third quarter of 1969--the equivalent of about 74,400 workers.
+
+Poor labor discipline was officially blamed on the failure of the
+prevailing wage system to provide adequate work incentives. After some
+experimentation in the food-processing industry during 1968 and 1969 a
+new wage system was introduced throughout industry on March 1, 1970,
+still on an experimental basis. Some of the changes brought about by the
+highly complex new system included: a reduction in the spread between
+wage rates in different industry sectors and between the upper and lower
+limits within certain wage categories; the establishment of in-grade
+wage differentials depending upon the personal achievement of the
+worker; a rise in the proportion of basic wages to total pay (which also
+includes bonuses); and a tightening of the provisions concerning the
+payment of bonuses. Provision was also made for withholding a portion of
+the pay in the event that production targets are not fulfilled.
+
+Downgrading the importance of bonuses was intended to stimulate the
+raising of skill levels by making higher earnings dependent primarily
+upon promotion to higher wage categories, based on qualification rather
+than on surpassing quantitative production norms. As a means of reducing
+labor turnover, a seniority system was introduced, with wage increases
+based on length of service in the same unit. The reform of the wage
+system was accompanied by a general rise in wages averaging 12.3
+percent.
+
+A further increase in wages is planned for the 1971-75 period. The
+minimum wage of 800 lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) is to be raised
+to 1,000 lei in September 1972 and to 1,100 lei in 1975. The average
+wage is scheduled to reach almost 1,500 lei in 1972 and 1,805 lei at the
+end of the five-year period. In accordance with past policy, the rise in
+wages will be kept well below the increase in productivity (see ch. 14).
+
+Along with the modification of the wage system, legal measures were
+enacted to tighten labor discipline. These measures provide for the
+imposition of fines up to 10,000 lei for violations of economic
+contracts and fines of from 50 to 1,000 lei for negligence while on
+duty; they oblige employees to make good the full amount of any damage
+for which they are responsible; and they enable the enterprise
+management to reduce workers' wages when standards of social behavior
+are not met. Penalties may be imposed by the enterprise director or the
+management committee. The only recourse open to workers is an appeal to
+the higher administrative bodies.
+
+The broad concept of standards of behavior offers a wide latitude for
+the exercise of individual judgment by management. No criteria have been
+provided for determining the conditions under which wages may be cut or
+the maximum permissible amount of the wage cuts. The new rules thus
+introduced an element of discretionary exercise of punitive authority.
+They also deprived the accused of recourse to the courts, which had been
+available to them under earlier legislation.
+
+
+INVESTMENT AND CONSTRUCTION
+
+Industry has consistently received more than half the total investment
+in the economy. In the 1966-70 period industrial investment out of the
+state budget (centralized investment) amounted to 162.1 billion lei--a
+volume almost as great as that invested during the preceding fifteen
+years. Additional investment out of enterprise resources was only about
+1 percent of the total and had been even less in earlier years. From 86
+to 90 percent of the industrial investment was channeled into branches
+producing capital goods. Centralized investment in industry during the
+1971-75 period is planned at 281.2 billion lei, or about 60 percent of
+the total planned investment.
+
+Industries producing fuels and energy absorbed the largest share of
+investment, but their share declined from 51 percent in the 1951-55
+period to 31 percent in the 1966-70 period. The high priority accorded
+to the development of the chemical industry was reflected in a doubling
+of that industry's investment share from less than 7 percent in the
+former period to 14 percent in the 1960s. Similarly, a drive for
+qualitative improvement in machine building and metalworking was
+accompanied by an increase in the proportion of investment devoted to
+that industry from a level of 7 to 8 percent in the 1951-65 period to 14
+percent in the second half of the 1960s. Ferrous metallurgy absorbed
+about 10 percent of the investment in the fifteen-year period that ended
+in 1970. A need to expand exports of manufactured goods and to provide
+material incentives for the working population stimulated a rise of
+investment in the light and food industries to 13 percent of the total
+in the 1966-70 period, compared to a share ranging from 7.5 to 10
+percent in earlier five-year periods.
+
+About 48 percent of the industrial investment was absorbed by building
+construction and installation work, 37 percent was spent on machinery
+and equipment, and 15 percent was devoted to the increase of working
+capital. One-third of the investment in machinery and equipment from
+1966 to 1969 was used for procurement abroad, that proportion having
+increased from about one-fifth in the 1956-60 period.
+
+Although substantial progress has been made in the expansion of
+industrial capacity, construction of new industrial plants has been
+beset by many problems and has consistently lagged behind official
+plans. Inadequate planning, poor design, disregard of the limitations of
+the materials base and of potential markets, improper location,
+excessive size of projects, and long delays in project development and
+in construction have been among the difficulties most frequently
+discussed in the country's press. Completed plants often require years
+to attain the projected output level, and many plants have never reached
+it.
+
+Large losses to the economy have also been caused by long delays in
+installing new equipment, much of it imported at a heavy cost in foreign
+exchange. At the end of 1969 the Grand National Assembly was officially
+informed that the volume of unused equipment amounted to 3.5 billion
+lei; some of the equipment had been lying idle for from ten to twelve
+years. Government officials realize the urgent need to improve
+investment performance, particularly in view of the large investment
+program planned for the 1971-75 period.
+
+
+PRODUCTION
+
+Industrial production in 1970 was 3.8 times larger than it had been ten
+years earlier, according to official data. This increase is equivalent
+to an average annual growth rate of 12.8 percent. A rise of 11.2 percent
+in industrial output was unofficially reported for 1971. In terms of
+Western statistical concepts and methods, the annual increase in
+industrial output was estimated at 11.5 percent for the 1960-68 period,
+compared to an officially reported growth rate of 13.2 percent.
+Industrial growth in Romania has been among the highest in countries of
+Eastern Europe.
+
+In line with the government's priorities, production of capital goods
+increased at an annual (official) rate of 14.2 percent, and that of
+consumer goods advanced by 10.2 percent. The proportion of capital goods
+in the total output therefore increased from 62.9 percent in 1960 to
+70.6 percent in 1970; it is scheduled to reach 72.8 percent by 1975.
+Although the output of consumer goods increased 2.6 times during the
+ten-year period, the availability of goods to consumers did not rise
+proportionately because an increasing volume was exported to pay for
+imports of machinery and raw materials. Shortages of consumer goods,
+including foodstuffs, were not eliminated by 1971. The output of newly
+introduced products, such as chemicals and television sets, increased
+more rapidly in the 1960s than did the output of traditional items (see
+table 13).
+
+Improving the quality of manufactured products has been a major concern
+of the party and government, particularly from the point of view of
+competitiveness in foreign markets. With some exceptions, such as men's
+and women's knitwear, a lack of competitiveness was clearly demonstrated
+in mid-1971 by the results of a giant Romanian trade exhibition in
+Duesseldorf, West Germany. This exhibit was reported to have achieved
+just the reverse of what was intended and to have demonstrated the
+inferiority of Romanian goods compared to Western European and Japanese
+products. Quality considerations, however, did not inhibit an attempt to
+market a Romanian-built motor vehicle of the jeep type in the United
+States.
+
+_Table 13. Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960 and
+1969_
+
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Product                Unit of Measure            1960         1969
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Pig iron              thousand metric tons          1,014        3,477
+ Steel                          do                   1,806        5,540
+ Coal and lignite               do                   6,768       16,976
+ Crude oil                      do                  11,500       12,346
+ Natural gas           billion cubic feet              365          850
+ Electricity           million kilowatt-hours        7,650       31,509
+ Fertilizers[1]        thousand metric tons             71          720
+ Artificial fibers              do                       4           56
+ Plastics                       do                      12          137
+ Synthetic rubber               do                       0           55
+ Tires                 thousand units                  743        3,166
+ Paper                 thousand metric tons            140          398
+ Tractors              units                        17,102       24,895
+ Motor vehicles                 do                  12,123       56,998
+ Cement                thousand metric tons          3,054        7,515
+ Timber                million cubic feet              139          186
+ Textiles              million square yards            393          672
+ Footwear              million pairs                    30           63
+ Radios                thousand units                  167          428
+ Television sets                do                      15          221
+ Sugar                 thousand metric tons            391          428
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1. In terms of plant nutrients.
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 186-195.
+
+By decrees issued in 1970 and 1971 the State Inspectorate General for
+Product Quality was established as an organ of the Council of State with
+wide powers to establish and enforce quality standards, including the
+imposition of economic and criminal sanctions. At the same time, the
+decrees provided that extra payments be made to individuals and groups
+of workers who turn out products of superior quality. In announcing the
+creation of the new agency, Romanian commentators remarked that an
+administrative approach to the solution of the quality problem was made
+necessary by the failure of other measures.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Section I. SOCIAL
+
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+
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+  Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). _International Population Reports._ (U.S.
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+  Basdevant, Denise. _Against Tide and Tempest: The Story of Romania._
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+
+  Bass, Robert. "East European Communist Elites: Their Character and
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+
+  Blumenfeld, Yorick. _Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe._ New
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+
+  Cloranescu, George B. "Romania After Czechoslovakia: Ceausescu Walks a
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+
+  Constantinescu, and Curticapeanu. "The Contribution of Culture to the
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+
+  Cretzianu, Alexandre. (ed.). _Captive Romania._ New York: Praeger,
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+
+  Dimancescu, Dan. "Americans Afoot in Rumania," _National Geographic_,
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+
+  Ergang, R. _Europe Since Waterloo._ Boston: Heath, 1967.
+
+  Fejto, Francois. _A History of the People's Democracies._ New York:
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+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _Man, State, and Society in East European
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+
+  ----. _The New Rumania._ Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of
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+
+  ----. _The Socialist Republic of Rumania._ Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
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+
+  ----. _Twentieth Century Rumania._ New York: Columbia University
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+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen, (ed.). _Romania._ New York: Praeger, 1957.
+
+  Floyd, David. _Rumania, Russia's Dissident Ally._ New York: Praeger,
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+
+  Forwood, William. _Romanian Invitation._ London: Garnstone Press,
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+
+  Friendly, Alfred, Jr. "Rumanians Calm About Minipurge," _New York
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+  Ionescu-Bujor, C. _Higher Education in Rumania._ Bucharest: Meridiane
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+
+  Ionescu, Ghita. _The Break-Up of the Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe._
+    Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969.
+
+  ----. _Communism in Rumania 1944-1962._ London: Oxford University
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+
+  Ionescu, Grigore. "The Road of Romanian Architecture," _Romania Today_
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+
+  Langer, W.L. (ed.) _An Encyclopedia of World History._ Boston:
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+
+  Lendvai, P. _Eagles in Cobwebs._ Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.
+
+  Liber, Benzion, M.D. _The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited
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+
+  Lindsay, Jack. _Romanian Summer._ London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1953.
+
+  Lovinescu, Monica. "The Wave of Rumanian Writers," _East Europe_, XVI,
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+
+  Mackintosh, May. _Rumania._ London: Robert Hale, 1963.
+
+  Manolache, Anghel. _General Education in Rumania._ Bucharest:
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+
+  Matley, Ian M. _Romania: A Profile._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Mellor, R.E. _COMECON: Challenge to the West._ New York: Van Nostrand,
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+
+  Osborne, R.H. _East-Central Europe._ New York: Praeger, 1967.
+
+  Parkin, Frank. _Class Inequality and Political Order._ New York:
+    Praeger, 1971.
+
+  Pounds, Norman J.G. _Eastern Europe._ Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
+
+  Roberts, Henry L. _Eastern Europe: Politics, Revolution, and
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+
+  "Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in _Europa Yearbook, 1971_, I. London:
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+
+  "Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), _Worldmark Encyclopedia of
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+
+  Roucek, J., and Lottich, K. _Behind the Iron Curtain._ Caldwell,
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+
+  "Rumania." Pages 726-746 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago:
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+
+  "Rumania." Pages 965-975 in _World Survey of Education_, IV. New York:
+    United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
+    1966.
+
+  "Rumanian Literature." Pages 749-750 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_,
+    XIX. Chicago: William Benton, 1969.
+
+  Sbarces, George. "Jora at the Peak of His Creative Power," _Romania
+    Today_ [Bucharest], No. 151, July 1967, 25.
+
+  Schöpflin, George (ed.). _The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Seton-Watson, Hugh. _The East European Revolution._ New York: Praeger,
+    1968.
+
+  Seton-Watson, Robert W. _A History of the Roumanians from Roman Times
+    to the Completion of Unity._ New York: Archon Books, 1963.
+
+  Singleton, F.B. _Background to Eastern Europe._ New York: Pergamon
+    Press, 1965.
+
+  _Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._
+    Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
+
+  Stavrianos, L.S. _The Balkans, 1815-1914._ New York: Holt, Rinehart
+    and Winston, 1963.
+
+  Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," _Manchester
+    Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972,
+    6.
+
+  ----. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," _Manchester Guardian
+    Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
+
+  Steinberg, Jacob (ed.). _Introduction to Rumanian Literature._ New
+    York: Twayne Publishers, 1966.
+
+  Thompson, Juliet. _Old Romania._ New York: Scribner's, 1939.
+
+  Toland, John. _The Last 100 Days._ New York: Random House, 1966.
+
+  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
+    _International Conference on Public Education: Summary Report_ (XXXI
+    Session.) Geneva: 1968, 110-112.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS (Washington). The following
+    items are from the JPRS series _Translations on Eastern Europe:
+    Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
+
+    "Adult Education Program Examined," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, August 1970. (JPRS: 51,572, Series No. 272, 1970.)
+
+    "Adult Education Program, Examined, Praised," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, September 3, 1970. (JPRS: 51,745, Series No. 283,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Better Coordination Between Specialized Schools and
+      Production," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, April 20, 1971. (JPRS:
+      53,539, Series No. 377, 1971.)
+
+    "Care in Criticism of Past Culture Urged," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, December 1, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series No. 59,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Center for Education Information and Documentation," _Buletinul
+      Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, April
+      15, 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No. 364, 1971.)
+
+    "Changes in the Social Structure, 1960-1969," _Viata Economica_,
+      XVI, Bucharest, April 16, 1971. (JPRS: 53,159, Series No. 356,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Changes Urged in Policy of Admitting Students to Higher
+      Education," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 12, 1971. (JPRS:
+      52,452, Series No. 317, 1971.)
+
+    "Decree Governing Assignment of Graduates," _Buletinul Oficial
+      al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, June 8, 1970.
+      (JPRS: 51,399, Series No. 261, 1970.)
+
+    "Delays in Providing Modern School Equipment Cited," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, January 8, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Development of School System Discussed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      January 12, 1969. (JPRS: 47,411, Series No. 68, 1969.)
+
+    "Economy Modernization Discussed in Relation to
+      Socioprofessional Mobility," _Lupta de Clasa_, V, Bucharest,
+      May 1970. (JPRS: 50,830, Series No. 308, 1970.)
+
+    "Equality at Law for National Minorities," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, April 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,155, Series No. 355,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Government Revises Setup of Education," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, December 29, 1968.
+      (JPRS: 47,447, Series No. 68, 1969.)
+
+    "Harmful Influence of Religion Stressed," _Romania Libera_,
+      Bucharest, May 9, 1969. (JPRS: 48,249, Series No. 105, 1969.)
+
+    "Law on Education in Rumania," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, May
+      15, 1968. (JPRS: 45,795, Series No. 8, 1968.)
+
+    "New Secondary School Class Program Discussed," _Gazeta
+      Invatamintului_, Bucharest, August 28, 1968. (JPRS: 46,589,
+      Series No. 32, 1968.)
+
+    "New Stage in General Education Discussed," _Revista de
+      Pedagogu_, Bucharest, September 1969. (JPRS: 49,412, Series
+      No. 162, 1969.)
+
+    "Organization, Operation of the Department of Cults," _Buletinul
+      Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, August
+      15, 1970. (JPRS: 51,850, Series No. 289, 1970.)
+
+    "Political Education at Universities, Examined," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, January 29, 1969. (JPRS: 47,585, Series No. 75,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Position of First Deputy Minister of Education Established,"
+      _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, August 4, 1971. (JPRS: 54,004, Series No. 409,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Program for the Advanced Training of Teachers Explained,"
+      _Scinteia Tineretului_, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS:
+      52,487, Series No 318, 1971.)
+
+    "Proper Training of Teachers Stressed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      January 24, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
+
+    "Reorganization of Ministry of Education," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, January 14, 1969.
+      (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
+
+    "Role of Intelligentsia in Socialist Society," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,730, Series No. 393, 1971.)
+
+    "Role of Science Education in Economic Development," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No.
+      364, 1971.)
+
+    "Role of Technical Schools in Preparing Labor Force,"
+      _Invatamintul Professional si Technic_, Bucharest, June 1970.
+      (JPRS: 52,243, Series No. 249, 1970.)
+
+    "Romania Starts 10-Year Compulsory Education," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, June 4, 1969. (JPRS: 48,448, Series No. 115, 1969.)
+
+    "Rumanian Education Growth, Improvement Noted," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, September 16, 1968. (JPRS: 46,737, Series No. 37,
+      1968.)
+
+    "School-Workshops Planned for General and Secondary Education,"
+      _Scinteia_, Bucharest, August 10, 1971. (JPRS: 53,970, Series
+      No. 408, 1971.)
+
+    "Shortcomings in Workers' Universities Examined," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, September 17, 1968. (JPRS: 46,697, Series No. 36,
+      1968.)
+
+    "Social Mobility, Stratification, Examined," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, October 1970. (JPRS: 52,070, Series No. 298, 1970.)
+
+    "Social Responsibility of Schools Stressed," _Scinteia
+      Tineretului_, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS: 52,487,
+      Series No. 318, 1971.)
+
+    "Special Secondary Schools Train for Jobs," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 50,552, Series No. 216,
+      1970.)
+
+    "A Study of Rumanian Family Life, I, II," _Munca_, Bucharest,
+      August 29, 1967. (JPRS: 42,826, Series No. 427, 1967.)
+
+    "A Study of Rumanian Family Life, III, IV, V," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, September 9, 1967. (JPRS: 42,881, Series No. 473,
+      1967.)
+
+    "Training of Labor Force, Vocational Guidance of Youth," _Lupta
+      de Clasa_, Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,420, Series No.
+      315, 1971.)
+
+    "Unity of Rumanians and Ethnic Minorities Stressed," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, November 6, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 51,
+      1968.)
+
+    "Working Class Role in Modern Romania Sketched," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, December 1969. (JPRS: 49,942, Series
+      No. 188, 1970.)
+
+  U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Office of
+    Education. _Education in the Rumanian People's Republic_ by
+    Randolph L. Braham. (Bulletin OE-14087, I, pp 1-229.) Washington:
+    GPO, 1964.
+
+  U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. _Background Notes:
+    Socialist Republic of Romania._ (Department of State Publication
+    7890.) Washington: GPO, 1970.
+
+  Vali, F.A. "Transylvania and the Hungarian Minority," _Journal of
+    International Affairs_, XX, No. 1, 1966, 32-44.
+
+  Wardle, Irving. "Rumanian Theatre Plays Vital Part in Daily Life,"
+    _New York Times_, June 12, 1971, 18.
+
+  Warnstrom, Bennett. "With TV Camera Through Rumania," _East Europe_,
+    XVIII, No. 10, October 1969, 11-16.
+
+  "Wheeling and Dealing in Rumania," _Newsweek_, LXXVII, No. 14, April
+    5, 1971, 39.
+
+  Wolff, Robert L. _The Balkans in Our Time._ Cambridge: Harvard
+    University Press, 1956.
+
+  _World Population Data Sheet, 1970._ Washington: Population Reference
+    Bureau, 1970.
+
+  "Writer's Block," _Newsweek_, March 2, 1970, 38-43.
+
+
+Section II. POLITICAL
+
+  Andrews, Colman Robert. "The Rumanian Film Today," _East Europe_,
+    XVIII, Nos. 8-9, August-September 1969, 21-24.
+
+  _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970_
+    (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970).
+    Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.
+
+  Bromke, Adam (ed.). _The Communist States at the Crossroads._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1965.
+
+  Brown, J.F. "Rumania Today I: Towards Integration," _Problems of
+    Communism_, XVIII, No. 1, January-February 1969, 8-17.
+
+  ----. "Rumania Today II: The Strategy of Defiance," _Problems of
+    Communism_, XVIII, No. 2, March-April 1969, 32-38.
+
+  Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. "Communist State Relations: The Effect on
+    Ideology," _East Europe_, XVI, No. 3, March 1967, 1-5.
+
+  Byrnes, Robert F. (ed.) _The United States and Eastern Europe._
+    Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
+
+  Ceausescu, Nicolae. "Romania's Foreign Policy," _East Europe_, XX, No.
+    1, January 1971, 28-34.
+
+  Cretzianu, Alexandre (ed.). _Captive Romania._ New York: Praeger,
+    1956.
+
+  Davis, Fitzroy. "East Europe's Film Makers Look West," _East Europe_,
+    XVII, No. 5, May 1968, 27-31.
+
+  _Editor & Publisher International Yearbook, 1970._ New York: Editor &
+    Publisher, 1970.
+
+  Farlow, Robert L. "Romanian Foreign Policy: A Case of Partial
+    Alignment," _Problems of Communism_, XX, No. 6, November-December
+    1971, 54-63.
+
+  Farrell, R. Barry. _Political Leadership in Eastern Europe and the
+    Soviet Union._ Chicago: Aldine, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _The Socialist Republic of Rumania._
+    Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.
+
+  ----. _Twentieth Century Rumania._ New York: Columbia University
+    Press, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen (ed.). _Romania._ New York: Praeger, 1957.
+
+  Griffith, William E. (ed.) _Communism in Europe_, I and II. Cambridge:
+    Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  Ionescu, Ghita. _Communism in Rumania 1944-1962._ London: Oxford
+    University Press, 1964.
+
+  Jowitt, Kenneth. "The Romanian Communist Party and the World Socialist
+    System: A Redefinition of Unity," _World Politics_, XXIII, No. 1,
+    October 1970, 38-60.
+
+  Matley, Ian M. _Romania: A Profile._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Olson, Kenneth E. _The History Makers._ Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
+    University Press, 1966.
+
+  "Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in _Europa Yearbook, 1971_, I. London:
+    Europa Publications, 1971.
+
+  "Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), _Worldmark Encyclopedia of
+    the Nations_, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
+
+  Schöpflin, George (ed.). _The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Special Operations Research Office. The American University. Pages
+    1-69 in _Mass Communications in Eastern Europe-Romania_, VII.
+    Washington: GPO, 1958.
+
+  Stanley, Timothy W., and Whitt, Darnell M. _Detente Diplomacy: United
+    States and European Security in the 1970s._ Cambridge: Harvard
+    University Press, 1970.
+
+  _The Stateman's Year Book, 1971-1972._ (Ed., J. Paxton.) New York:
+    Saint Martin's Press, 1971.
+
+  _Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._
+    Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
+
+  Stebbins, R., and Amoia, A. _Political Handbook and Atlas of the
+    World._ New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970.
+
+  Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," _Manchester
+    Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972,
+    6.
+
+  ----. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," _Manchester Guardian
+    Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
+
+  "Television in Eastern Europe," _East Europe_, XV, No. 4, April 1966,
+    12-16.
+
+  Triska, Jan F. (ed.) _Constitutions of the Communist Party-States._
+    Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968.
+
+  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
+    _World Communications._ New York: 1970.
+
+  _United Nations Statistical Yearbook._ New York: United Nations
+    Statistical Office, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Congress. 80th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign
+    Relations. _The Warsaw Pact: Its Role in Soviet Bloc Affairs._
+    Washington: GPO, 1966.
+
+  U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session. Committee on the Judiciary. _World
+    Communism, 1967-1969: Soviet Efforts to Re-establish Control._
+    Washington: GPO, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS (Washington). The following
+    items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern Europe:
+    Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
+
+    "Ceausescu on Film Industry Shortcomings," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, March 7, 1970. (JPRS: 52,712, Series No. 330,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Cultural Responsibility of Editors," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      August 18, 1971. (JPRS: 54,448, Series No. 437, 1971.)
+
+    "Culture, Ideology and Current Events," _Luceafarul_, Bucharest,
+      May 11, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Series No. 9, 1968.)
+
+    "Current Publishing System Described," _Carti Noi_, Bucharest,
+      August 1971. (JPRS: 54,538, Series No. 443, 1971.)
+
+    "Democracy Equated with Worker Participation," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 391, 1971.)
+
+    "Draft Law on Establishing Judicial Commissions," _Romania
+      Libera_, Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series
+      No. 54, 1968.)
+
+    "Favoritism Hampers Bucharest Film Enterprise," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, March 15, 1970. (JPRS: 50,335, Series No. 206,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Fight Against Immoral Foreign Films Urged," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, July 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,927, Series No. 406, 1971.)
+
+    "Judicial Commissions Seen as Development," _Munca_, Bucharest,
+      November 7, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 55, 1968.)
+
+    "Mass and Public Organizations Studied," _Revista Romana de
+      Drept_, Bucharest, Vol. VI, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series
+      No. 30, 1968.)
+
+    "Measure Related to Operative of State Committee for Culture and
+      Art," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, July 24, 1970. (JPRS: 51,561, Series No. 271,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Membership in State Committee for Culture and Art Presented,"
+      _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, July 25, 1970. (JPRS: 51,507, Series No. 269,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Membership of Romanian National Radio-Television Council,"
+      _Munca_, Bucharest, March 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,052, Series No.
+      349, 1971.)
+
+    "National Sovereignty, Internationalism Discussed," _Lupta de
+      Clasa_, Bucharest, Vol. 4, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,631, Series
+      No. 221, 1970.)
+
+    "New Rules Govern State Radio-TV Committee," _Buletinul Oficial
+      al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, September 21,
+      1971. (JPRS: 54,687, Series No. 453, 1971.)
+
+    "Organization of Planning Commissions," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, Part I, No. 87,
+      July 20, 1970. (JPRS: 51,690, Series No. 280, 1970.)
+
+    "Party Initiative in Perfecting Socialist Law," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499, Series No. 376,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Party-Minded Principles Govern Ideology," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,641, Series No. 450, 1971.)
+
+    "Popescu Speaks at Party Conference on TV Problems," _Presa
+      Noastra_, Bucharest, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,854, Series No.
+      231, 1971.)
+
+    "Problems in Publishing Sociopolitical Literature," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, November 30, 1971. (JPRS: 54,835, Series No. 461,
+      1972.)
+
+    "Responsibilities of Editors Outlined," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      May 16, 1969. (JPRS: 48,291, Series No. 107, 1969.)
+
+    "Socialist Unity Front National Council Members," _Romania
+      Libera_, Bucharest, November 20, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series
+      No. 59, 1969.)
+
+    "Textbook Publication Schedule Lags," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      January 16, 1971. (JPRS: 52,347, Series No. 311, 1971.)
+
+    "Training of Cadres in Local Administration and Economy,"
+      _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499,
+      Series No. 376, 1971.)
+
+    "Trofin Attacks Radio-TV Producers for Indecent Attitudes,"
+      _Munca_, Bucharest, August 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,958, Series No.
+      407, 1971.)
+
+    "Work of Association of Jurists in Developing Socialist
+      Awareness," _Revista Romana de Drept_, Bucharest, May 1971.
+      (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 392, 1971.)
+
+  Urbanek, Lida. "Romania." Pages 714-727 in Richard F. Staar (ed.),
+    _Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1969._ Stanford:
+    Hoover Institution Press, 1970.
+
+  ----. "Romania." Pages 75-84 in Richard F. Staar (ed.), _Yearbook on
+    International Communist Affairs, 1970._ Stanford: Hoover Institution
+    Press, 1971.
+
+  Wolfe, Thomas W. _Soviet Power and Europe 1965-1969._ Santa Monica:
+    Rand Corporation, 1969.
+
+  _World of Learning, 1970-1971._ London: Europa Publications, 1970.
+
+  _World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971._ (Ed., J.M. Frost.) Hvidovre, Denmark:
+    World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971.
+
+  (Various issues of the following periodicals were also used in the
+    preparation of this section: _Current History_ [Philadelphia], April
+    1967; _East Europe_ [New York], January 1967-December 1971;
+    _Economist-Foreign Report_ [London], August-December 1971;
+    _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], January 1, 1972;
+    _Newsweek_ [New York], July 20, 1970, and August 9, 1971; _New York
+    Times,_ November 5, 1971-January 1972; _Washington Post_, October
+    19-December 27, 1971.)
+
+
+Section III. NATIONAL SECURITY
+
+  Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). _International Population Reports._ (U.S.
+    Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO,
+    1969.
+
+  Blumenfeld, Yorick. _Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968.
+
+  Bromke, Adam (ed.). _The Communist States at the Crossroads._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1965.
+
+  Dupuy, T.N. _Almanac of World Military Power._ Dun Loring, Virginia:
+    T.N. Dupuy Associates, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _The New Rumania._ Cambridge: Massachusetts
+    Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  Liber, Benzion, M.D. _The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited
+    After Sixty Years._ New York: Rational Living, 1958.
+
+  Mackintosh, May. _Rumania._ London: Robert Hale, 1963.
+
+  _The Military Balance, 1970-1971._ London: Institute for Strategic
+    Studies, 1970.
+
+  "Rumania." Pages 726-746 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago:
+    William Benton, 1969.
+
+  _Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._
+    Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington). The
+    following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern
+    Europe: Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
+
+    "Border Guards Removed from Ministry of Internal Affairs,"
+      _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, September 25, 1971. (JPRS: 54,397, Series No. 429,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Collaboration with Armies of All Socialist Countries
+      Stressed," _Scinteia_, May 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,397, Series No.
+      370, 1971.)
+
+    "Decree on Border Protection System Passed," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, November 14, 1969. (JPRS: 49,241, Series No. 156,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Decree Organizes Office of Prosecutor General," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, September 29, 1971. (JPRS: 54,361, Series No. 432,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Draft Law Established Judicial Commissions," _Romania Libera_,
+      Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series No. 54,
+      1968.)
+
+    "Law Concerning Public Prosecutor's Office Passes," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Law on Execution of Penalties Adopted," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 18, 1969.
+      (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)
+
+    "Law on Police Organization, Functions Adopted," _Buletinul
+      Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November
+      18, 1969. (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)
+
+    "Law Passed on Organization of Court System," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Mass and Public Organizations Studied," _Revista Romana de
+      Drept_, No. 6, Bucharest, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series No.
+      30, 1968.)
+
+    "New Law on Identification Cards, Moving, Residence," _Romania
+      Libera_, Bucharest, March 19, 1971. (JPRS: 53,014, Series No.
+      347, 1971.)
+
+    "Provisions of the New Penal Code Explained." _Revista Romana de
+      Drept_, Bucharest, December 1968. (JPRS: 47,525, Series No.
+      72, 1969.)
+
+    "Rumanian Code of Criminal Procedure," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 12, 1968.
+      (JPRS: 47,556, Series No. 74, 1969.)
+
+    "Statute of Union of Communist Youth," _Scinteia Tineretului_,
+      Bucharest, February 27, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726, Series No. 331,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Supreme Court Chairman Discusses Laws, Freedom," _Scinteia
+      Tineretului_, Bucharest, February 5, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726,
+      Series No. 331, 1971.)
+
+    "Training Youth for Military Described," _Viata Militara_,
+      Bucharest, July 1969. (JPRS: 48,913, Series No. 136, 1969.)
+
+    "Training Youth for National Defense," _Sport si Technica_,
+      Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 52,888, Series No. 340,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Warsaw Pact Defends Against Imperialism," _Romania Libera_,
+      Bucharest, May 7, 1971. (JPRS: 53,454, Series No. 374, 1971.)
+
+Section IV. ECONOMIC
+
+  _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970._
+    (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970).
+    Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.
+
+  Montias, John Michael. _Economic Development in Communist Romania._
+    Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  U.S. Congress. 91st, 2d Session. Joint Economic Committee. _Economic
+    Developments in Countries of Eastern Europe._ Washington: GPO, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. _The
+    Agricultural Economy and Trade of Romania._ (ERS-Foreign 320.)
+    Washington: GPO, 1971.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington). The
+    following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern
+    Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs_.
+
+    "Activities of Romanian Foreign Trade Banks Noted," _Finante si
+      Credit_, Bucharest, August 1971. (JPRS: 54,541, Series No.
+      568, 1971.)
+
+    "Antiquated Methods Hinder Conclusion of Economic Contracts,"
+      _Scinteia_, Bucharest, June 13, 1971. (JPRS: 53,695, Series
+      No. 506, 1971.)
+
+    "Better Use of Economic Potential," _Probleme Economice_,
+      Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,416, Series No. 485, 1971.)
+
+    "Development of National Income Discussed," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,521, Series No.
+      491, 1971.)
+
+    "Development of Trade with Socialist Countries Detailed," _Viata
+      Economica_, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 53,001, Series
+      No. 459, 1971.)
+
+    "Economic Planning Process Described," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, July 1971. (JPRS: 53,945, Series No. 524, 1971.)
+
+    "Foreign Trade, 1966-1970 Reviewed," _Viata Economica_,
+      Bucharest, February 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,736, Series No. 441,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Foreign Trade Reform Analyzed," _Vierteljahresshefte zur
+      Wirtschaftsvorschung_, West Berlin, July-September 1971.
+      (JPRS: 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971.)
+
+    "Improvement of Wholesale Prices Discussed by Specialists,"
+      _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, September 11, 1970. (JPRS:
+      51,680, Series No. 368, 1970.)
+
+    "Improvement of Wholesale Price System," _Viata Economica_,
+      Bucharest, September 18 and 25, 1970; October 2 and 16, 1970.
+      (JPRS: 52,117, Series No. 398, 1970.)
+
+    "Interest Rates in New Credit System," _Viata Economica_,
+      Bucharest, October 9, 1970. (JPRS: 52,001, Series No. 389,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Local Budgetary Problems, Proposed Measures Cited," _Finante si
+      Credit_, September 1971. (JPRS: 54,748, Series No. 584, 1971.)
+
+    "Manpower Distribution Analyzed," _Revista de Statistica_,
+      Bucharest, November 1970. (JPRS: 52,236, Series No. 407,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Measures for Increasing Foreign Trade Efficiency," _Gazeta
+      Finantelor_, Bucharest, December 22, 1970. (JPRS: 52,510,
+      Series No. 426, 1970.)
+
+    "Modernization of Planning Advocated," _Probleme Economice_,
+      Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,614, Series No. 434,
+      1970.)
+
+    "National Income in 1966-1970, 1971-1975," _Probleme Economice_,
+      Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,755, Series No. 510, 1971.)
+
+    "New Methods for Planning Agriculture Discussed," _Agricultura_,
+      Bucharest, December 10, 1970. (JPRS: 52,324, Series No. 413,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Profits Termed Essential Indicator of Economic Efficiency,"
+      _Scinteia_, Bucharest, November 27, 1971. (JPRS: 54,748,
+      Series No. 584, 1971.)
+
+    "Relationship of Domestic, Foreign Prices Influences Export
+      Efficiency," _Finante si Credit_, Bucharest, June 1971. (JPRS:
+      54,056, Series No. 531, 1971.)
+
+    "Significance of Accumulation Rate Analyzed," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,558, Series No.
+      570, 1971.)
+
+    "Socialist Planning in Light of World Planning," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,392, Series No.
+      484, 1971.)
+
+    "Structural Changes in Manpower Distribution in 1966-1970,"
+      _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,942,
+      Series No. 454, 1971.)
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+  centrals--Industrial associations that group enterprises engaged in
+    the same or similar lines of production or enterprises at
+    successive stages of production as, for example, iron mines and
+    steel mills.
+
+  COMECON--Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. Founded in 1949;
+    headquartered in Moscow. Members are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East
+    Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.
+    Purpose is to further economic cooperation among members.
+
+  _judet_ (pl., _judete_)--Local administrative division corresponding
+    to county or district. There are thirty-nine such counties plus the
+    municipality of Bucharest, which is administered as a judet. There
+    is no intermediate level between the central government and the
+    _judet_ government.
+
+  leu (pl., lei)--Standard unit of currency. Officially rated at the
+    level of 1 leu to US$0.18, the actual exchange rate varies according
+    to specific transactions, such as tourist exchange, foreign trade
+    exchange, hard currency purchase, or black-market transaction.
+
+  PCR--Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party). Founded in
+    1921. Declared illegal in 1924; operated underground until 1944.
+    Known as Romanian Workers' Party from 1948 until 1965.
+
+  UGSR--Uniunea Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania (General Union of
+    Trade Unions). Official organization incorporating all labor unions
+    of blue- and white-collar workers. Estimated membership in 1972 was
+    4.6 million.
+
+  UTC--Uniunea Tineretului Comunist (Union of Communist Youth). Official
+    organization that functions as the youth branch of the PCR (_q.v._).
+    Membership open to young people between ages fifteen and twenty-six.
+    Membership estimated in early 1972 at 2.5 million.
+
+  Warsaw Treaty Organization--Formal name for Warsaw Pact. Military
+    alliance of communist countries founded in 1955, with headquarters
+    in Moscow. The Soviet minister of defense is traditionally the
+    supreme commander of Warsaw Pact forces. Members are Bulgaria,
+    Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the
+    Soviet Union.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ abortion: 39, 57
+
+ administrative divisions: viii, 38
+
+ adult education: 7, 86-87
+
+ Africa: 156, 163, 168, 171, 172, 182, 183
+
+ Agerpres. _See_ Romanian Press Agency
+
+ Agricultural Bank: 261, 267
+
+ Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises: 262-264, 267
+
+ agriculture (_see also_ collective farms; livestock): v, viii, 8, 30, 31,
+     36, 41, 227, 229, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 241;
+   Commission, 117;
+   education, 76, 85, 87, 145;
+   labor, viii, 61, 233, 253, 262, 264-266;
+   production, 269-273, 274
+
+ aid foreign (_see also_ Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): 26, 103,
+     167, 169, 279;
+  military, 211-212, 216, 223
+
+ air forces: ix, 7, 211, 213, 214, 215-216, 219, 221, 224
+
+ air transport: ix, 45, 46-47, 196, 216
+
+ Albania: 27, 39, 42, 158, 166, 167, 172
+
+ Alecsandri, Vasile: 105
+
+ Alexandrescu, Grigore: 104
+
+ Allied Control Commission: 21, 24
+
+ Allies. _See_ World War I; World War II
+
+ Aman, Theodor: 97
+
+ Anti-Comintern Pact: 21
+
+ anti-Semitism: 17, 19, 56
+
+ anti-subversion. _See_ counter-subversion
+
+ Antonescu, Ion: 21, 175
+
+ Apostol, Gheorghe: 130, 131, 134, 136
+
+ Arad: 44, 193
+
+ archaeology: 94, 95, 99
+
+ architecture: 76, 99-100
+
+ Arghezi, Tudor: 106
+
+ aristocracy: 6, 12, 56, 75
+
+ armed forces (_see also_ military): ix, 7, 15, 16, 119, 120, 121, 133,
+     161, 200, 203, 211-216, 221-227;
+   command, 112, 116, 173, 213;
+   training, 220-221, 223
+
+ army (_see also_ ground force): ix, 7
+
+ arts and the artists: 7, 91, 92-94, 135, 152, 180;
+   education, 76, 81, 84, 85, 97;
+   union, 135
+
+ Asachi, Gheorghe: 104
+
+ Asia: 156, 163, 168, 171, 182, 183, 219
+
+ Aslan, Ana: 107
+
+ atheism: 5
+
+ Aurelian, Emperor: 11, 50
+
+ Austria (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 20, 24, 33, 46, 54
+
+ Austro-Hungarian Empire (_see also_ Habsburgs; Hungary): 9, 13, 14, 18,
+    33, 37
+
+ automobiles (_see also_ traffic): 42, 203-204, 288
+
+ Avars: 11
+
+
+ Baia-Mare: 44, 52
+
+ Balaga, Lucian: 106
+
+ Balcescu, Nicolae: 104
+
+ Balkans: 22, 29, 163, 167, 170, 171, 185, 211;
+   history, 3, 9, 10
+
+ Banat: 10, 11, 32, 254;
+   population, 52, 53, 55
+
+ Banks for Agriculture and the Food Industry: 242, 243, 244, 267-268
+
+ banks and banking (_see also_ individual banks): 110, 242-246
+
+ Bessarabia: 18, 20, 37, 54, 55, 212
+
+ Bihor Massif: 30, 31
+
+ birth control: 39
+
+ birth rate: 39-40, 57
+
+ Black Forest: 34
+
+ Black Sea: vii, xiv, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 46, 47, 48, 216, 217, 218,
+     224, 276;
+   history, 10
+
+ Bokassa, Jean Bebel, president of the Central African Republic: 172
+
+ Book Central: 187, 188
+
+ Boris, Tsar: 11
+
+ boundaries, national (_see also_ individual neighboring countries):
+     vii, xiv, 9, 29, 32, 37-38, 211
+
+ Braila: 48
+
+ Brancusi, Constantin: 98
+
+ Brasov: 38, 44, 53, 102, 182
+
+ Brezhnev, Leonid: 165;
+   doctrine, 28, 159, 160, 164, 165
+
+ Brincoveanu, Constantin, Prince: 100
+
+ Bucharest: viii, xiv, 10, 15, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 67, 70, 147, 148, 155,
+     163, 207, 214, 221, 254, 263;
+   cultural, 67, 91, 96, 97, 98, 104, 107;
+   government, 122, 123, 125;
+   history, 16, 18, 19, 21;
+   information, 177, 181, 182, 186, 188, 189;
+   politics, 139, 141, 142, 147;
+   population, 38, 41, 54;
+   security, 195, 213, 216;
+   transport, 43, 44, 47
+
+ Bucharest Declaration: 168, 218
+
+ budget: 41, 112, 116, 120, 240-241, 248, 286;
+   local, 126
+
+ Bukovina: 10, 18, 20, 33, 37, 71, 72, 212
+
+ Bulgaria: 7, 37, 165-166, 167, 172, 182, 218, 219, 276, 278, 279;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 32, 48, 216, 217;
+   history, 11, 20, 212
+
+
+ canals: ix, 29, 31, 46
+
+ Cantemir, Dimitrie: 104
+
+ capital punishment: 205
+
+ Carol I, King: 16, 17, 18
+
+ Carol II, King: 19, 20, 21, 175
+
+ Carpathian Mountains: vii, 29, 30, 31, 47, 94;
+   history, 11, 50
+
+ Ceausescu, Nicolae: 1, 2, 3, 27, 28, 93, 109, 113, 118, 119, 124-125,
+     127, 129, 130, 131-134, 136, 139, 140, 142, 144, 148, 149, 150, 151,
+     152, 153, 154, 184, 206, 213;
+   foreign relations, 7-8, 28, 132, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165,
+     166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172-173
+
+ censorship (_see also_ freedom of expression): 176
+
+ census: 54, 55;
+   (1930), 79;
+   (1956), 54, 79;
+   (1966), 39, 49, 52, 143
+
+ Central European System: 185
+
+ cereals: 254, 255, 256, 272, 273, 274
+
+ Cernavoda: 43, 44
+
+ Cernavoda-Silistra: 279
+
+ Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. _See_ Carol I
+
+ chernozem: 35, 254
+
+ children (_see also_ students): 6, 14, 40, 57, 58, 183, 187, 199, 200;
+   care, 80, 82-83;
+   education, 74, 75, 76, 79, 82
+
+ Christianity (_see also_ Protestants; Roman Catholicism; Romanian
+     Orthodox Church): introduction of, 11, 67
+
+ church-state relations: viii, 4, 5, 66-67, 68, 69, 70
+
+ civil rights (_see also_ freedom of expression; ownership; religion;
+     suffrage): 3, 16, 66, 111-112, 113, 146, 150, 151, 176, 194, 201, 206
+
+ clergy: 5, 14, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70;
+   training, 66, 69, 72, 112
+
+ climate: vii, 29, 33, 34-35, 36, 253, 254
+
+ Cluj: 44, 52, 71, 72, 91, 102, 182, 186, 189, 213
+
+ coal: 238, 276-277, 288
+
+ _cobza_: 100
+
+ Codreanu, Corneliu: 20
+
+ collective farms: 24, 41, 58, 87, 194, 230, 236, 244, 257-261, 262, 263,
+     266, 267, 273, 280;
+   labor, vii, 264
+
+ College of Saint Sava: 104
+
+ commerce (_see also_ trade): 15
+
+ Communists and communism (_see also_ Romanian Communist Party): v, 3,
+     56, 127, 157;
+   and culture, 91, 92-94, 98, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107;
+   and economy, 8, 24, 49, 132, 133, 149-150, 229, 234, 275;
+   and education, 73-74, 76-77, 78;
+   government, 2-3, 24-28, 38, 110;
+   and information, 176, 183, 185, 189;
+   and religion, 4, 5, 65, 68, 70;
+   rise to power, 9, 22-24;
+   and social structure, 6, 49, 58-62
+
+ Concordat (1927): 69
+
+ Congress of Paris: 16
+
+ conscripts and conscription (_see also_ military): 7, 212, 219, 220,
+     221, 223
+
+ Constanta: 4, 44, 47, 182, 216, 217, 276
+
+ Constitution: 3, 5, 116;
+   (1866), 16, 17;
+   (1923), 18; (1938), 20;
+   (1948), 5, 110, 111;
+   (1952), 5, 110, 112, 119, 150;
+   (1965), vii, 5, 28, 66, 109, 110, 113-114, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122,
+     124, 125, 126, 146, 160, 161, 163, 206;
+   Commission, 116, 117;
+   development, 110-113
+
+ construction: 227, 232, 256, 257, 279, 280, 283, 287;
+   private, 242, 245;
+   youth, 201
+ consumer goods: 149, 229, 232, 235, 237, 239, 241, 251, 287-288;
+   export, viii;
+   production, 8, 30, 42
+
+ cooperatives: 82, 85, 114, 126, 127;
+   agricultural, 59, 153
+
+ Council of Ministers: 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119-121, 123,
+     124, 133, 140, 147, 161, 162, 176, 195, 198, 200, 214, 230, 240,
+     241, 243, 244, 256
+
+ Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON): iv, 1, 2, 8, 26, 27,
+     150, 156, 157-158, 159, 161, 164, 168, 169, 172, 173, 174, 247,
+     249-250, 275
+
+ Council of Romanian Radio and Television: 182, 184
+
+ Council on Socialist Culture and Education: 94, 120, 176, 181, 186, 189
+
+ Council of State: vii, 109, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117-119, 121, 122, 124,
+     125, 133, 140, 161, 162, 230, 240, 256, 289
+
+ Council of State Security: 119, 120, 121
+
+ counter-subversion: ix, 194, 202, 205
+
+ county. _See judet_
+
+ courts: viii, 115, 122-124, 194, 200, 205, 206-207;
+   military, 223
+
+ credit policies: 242, 245-246, 260, 266, 267-269
+
+ crime (_see also_ penal system): 193, 194, 196, 199, 201-203, 205, 206,
+     223, 257
+
+ Crimean War: 16
+
+ _Crisana_: 10, 32, 179
+
+ cultural activity (_see also_ architecture; arts and the artists; folk
+     culture; literature; music; painting; sculpture): 4, 7, 12, 14, 41,
+     52, 53, 54, 85, 87, 91, 92, 152
+
+ cultural influences: 4, 7, 12, 14-15, 50, 51, 62, 63, 69, 76, 93, 95,
+     96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106;
+   nationalism, 7, 92, 97, 102, 104
+
+ currency (_see also_ exchange): 246-247
+
+ Cuza, Alexander: 16
+
+ Cyrillic alphabet: 14
+
+ Czechoslovakia: xiv, 20, 21, 30, 46, 163, 165, 172, 182, 190, 218, 224,
+     250, 278;
+   invasion of, 7, 9, 28, 119, 135, 150, 154, 159, 164, 165, 166, 170,
+     172, 211, 218
+
+
+ Dacia (_see also_ Dacians): 3, 11, 50, 67, 99
+
+ _Dacia Literata_: 104
+
+ Dacians (_see also_ Dacia; Daco-Romans): 2, 10, 11, 14, 50
+
+ Daco-Romans: 3
+
+ Danube River: 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45-46, 47, 48, 55,
+     167, 216, 217, 254, 279;
+   history, 10, 11, 12, 99
+
+ death rate: 39
+
+ defense (_see also_ armed forces; security): 116, 195, 241;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ Defence Council: 115, 118, 121, 133, 135, 140, 173, 213, 214
+
+ Densus: 99
+
+ Department of Cults: 5, 66
+
+ _Description of Moldavia_: 104
+
+ divorce: 57, 58
+
+ Dobruja: vii, 31, 32, 33, 34, 72, 99, 253;
+   history, 10, 20, 37;
+   population, 41, 55
+
+ Dogmatic Period: 92, 93
+
+ Dragan, Mircea: 103
+
+ Draghici, Alexandru: 130, 131, 134
+
+ droughts: 254
+
+ Dubcek, Alexander: 165
+
+
+ Eastern Europe: v, 8, 68, 94, 110, 155, 156, 158, 165, 166, 169, 172,
+     173, 182, 216, 218, 262;
+   economic relations, viii, 26, 170, 248
+
+ Eastern Orthodox Church (_see also_ Romanian Orthodox Church): 11, 13,
+     14, 53, 67, 99
+
+ Economic Council: 115, 119
+
+ economic development (_see also_ Five Year Plan): viii, 6, 8, 17, 61,
+     73, 119, 149-150, 156, 161, 242;
+   plans, 234-237, 242
+
+ economy (_see also_ agriculture; economic development; finance;
+     industry): v, viii, 8, 24, 25, 26, 42, 112, 113, 116, 120, 132,
+     133, 149, 158, 174, 226-227, 229-237;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ education (_see also_ adult education; indoctrination; schools;
+     technical/vocational education; universities): viii, 4, 6-7, 14, 15,
+     16, 60, 61, 62, 66, 73-83, 126, 200;
+   Act (1964), 74;
+   Commission, 117;
+   curricula, viii, 7, 74, 75, 77, 78, 82;
+   higher, 6, 59, 61, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 84, 85-86, 107-108;
+   law (1948), 77;
+   law (1968), 78, 87;
+   traffic, 204
+
+ Eforie Nord: 100
+
+ elections: vii, 23, 116, 117, 126-127;
+   (1937), 19;
+   (1948), 24;
+   (1969), 127, 135
+
+ electricity: ix, 277, 278-279, 288;
+   hydro, 29, 36, 167, 278, 279
+
+ elite class: 6, 60
+
+ emigration: 40-41, 53, 71;
+   illegal, 203;
+   Jews, 4, 72
+
+ Eminescu, Mihail: 105, 106
+
+ employment (_see also_ labor; wages): 41, 59, 84, 154, 195, 233-234,
+     253, 265, 266, 280, 284-286
+
+ Enescu, Georghe: 101
+
+ English language: 83, 181, 183
+
+ ethnic groups (_see also_ individual groups; minority ethnic groups):
+     vii, 3, 49-50, 55-56
+
+ European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan): 26, 157
+
+ Everac, Paul: 102
+
+ exchange, foreign: ix, 187, 230, 242, 244, 247
+
+ expenditure: 241
+
+ export: 236, 239, 244, 248-249, 251, 253, 286;
+   agricultural, viii, 36, 230, 273
+
+ Export-Import Bank: 251
+
+
+ family: 49, 56-58, 226, 257, 259
+
+ fauna. _See_ wildlife
+
+ Federal Republic of Germany: 28, 34, 43, 53, 159, 164, 165, 168-170,
+     190, 288
+
+ Ferdinand, King: 18, 19
+
+ films: 103, 175, 177, 189-190
+
+ finance (_see also_ budget; foreign exchange; investment; taxation;
+     trade): viii-ix
+
+ fishing and fisheries: 33
+
+ Five-Year Plan: viii, 8;
+   (1960-65), 26;
+   (1971-75), 8, 149-150, 229, 230, 245, 266, 275
+
+ floods: 43, 173, 208, 222, 227, 255, 270
+
+ folk culture: 65, 91, 94-96, 98, 100-101, 105
+
+ foodstuffs: 42-43; export, viii, 30
+
+ foreign exchange. _See_ exchange
+
+ foreign relations: 1, 2, 7, 25, 27, 28, 63, 118, 134, 136, 139, 154,
+     155, 162-174;
+   Commission, 117;
+   diplomatic representation, 118, 155, 159, 162, 163, 164-172;
+   economic. _See_ trade;
+   policy, 116, 120, 133, 152, 156-162, 175
+
+ forests and forestry: 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36, 85, 233, 255, 277-278, 284;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ France: 16, 20, 103, 168, 171, 212, 250;
+   cultural influence, 15, 62, 63, 76, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 190;
+   language, 83, 181, 183
+
+ freedom of expression (_see also_ press): 91-92, 111, 113, 175, 176
+
+ frontier troops: ix, 7, 211, 213, 214, 217, 221
+
+ fruit (_see also_ orchards and vineyards): 254, 272
+
+
+ Galati: 44, 48
+
+ gems: 243, 247
+
+ General Military Academy, Bucharest: 214, 221
+
+ General Regulation for Religious Cults (1948): 66, 70
+
+ General Union of Trade Unions: 120, 121, 133, 134, 136, 147, 148-149,
+     178, 198, 237, 243
+
+ geology: 30-32
+
+ Georgescu, Ion: 98
+
+ German Democratic Republic: 165, 172, 182, 190, 250
+
+ German ethnic group (_see also_ German language): vii, viii, 3, 4, 18,
+     49, 51, 53-54, 55, 56, 57, 69, 71, 102, 127, 135, 143, 151;
+   history, 11, 99
+
+ German language: vii, 51, 53, 54, 69, 83, 89, 180, 181, 183
+
+ Germany (_see also_ Federal Republic of Germany; German Democratic
+     Republic; Nazis): 18, 71, 101, 107, 212
+
+ Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe: 3, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 47, 110, 112, 130, 131,
+     134, 168;
+   foreign relations, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165
+
+ Giurgiu: 43, 44
+
+ gold: 277
+
+ Goths: 50
+
+ government (_see also_ Constitution; local government): vii, 17,
+     109-110, 115,
+  central, 114-124, 126
+
+ Grand National Assembly: 88, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121,
+     122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 133, 140, 151, 161, 162, 173, 237, 240, 241
+
+ Great Britain: 20, 23, 158, 171, 190, 212
+
+ Greater Romania: 18
+
+ Greece: 170-171
+
+ Grigorescu, Nicolae: 97
+
+ gross national product (GNP): 227, 233
+
+ ground force: 215, 224
+
+ Groza Petru: 23
+
+
+ Habsburgs (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 14
+
+ handcrafts: 94-96
+
+ health: 42, 126;
+   Commission, 117;
+   education, 85
+
+ Heinemann, Gustav, president of the federal Republic of Germany: 170
+
+ Higher Political Council: 213
+
+ _History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire_: 104
+
+ Hitler, Adolf: 20
+
+ Holy See. _See_ Vatican
+
+ housing: 40, 41, 42, 57, 58, 59, 61, 99, 195, 201, 233, 245, 256
+
+ Hungarian Autonomous Region (Mures-Magyar): 52, 111, 114, 150
+
+ Hungarian ethnic group (Magyars) (_see also_ Hungarian language): vii,
+     viii, 3, 4, 18, 49, 51, 52-53, 55, 56, 57, 69, 71, 72, 102, 111,
+     127, 135, 143, 151, 166;
+   history, 3, 11, 13, 37, 52, 63, 99
+
+ Hungarian language: vii, 51, 53, 69, 83, 89, 180, 181, 183
+
+ Hungarian People's Union: 23
+
+ Hungary (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 37, 43, 46, 54, 163, 165,
+     166, 167, 172, 182;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 38, 52, 203, 217;
+   history, 11, 19, 20, 21, 52, 53, 55, 67;
+   revolt, 26, 157
+
+
+ Iasi: 15, 105, 182, 186, 189, 213
+
+ ideological campaign: 152, 153, 154, 175, 178, 184
+
+ imports: 229, 239, 248, 249, 251, 253, 277, 284, 287;
+   substitute, 244
+
+ income: 40, 41, 59, 60, 61, 153, 240, 260, 264;
+   church, 66;
+   national, 231, 232, 253;
+   per capita, 230
+
+ independence: 15-17, 113, 135, 160;
+   'declaration of', 1, 2, 27
+
+ indoctrination, political (_see also_ propaganda): viii, ix, 132, 133,
+     139, 141, 144, 145, 146, 175, 176, 178, 183, 191, 201;
+   armed forces, 211, 221-222;
+   youth, 7, 73, 76, 77, 78-79, 80, 83, 84, 87, 132, 148, 180
+
+ industrialization (_see also_ industry): v, 6, 8, 15, 17, 18, 26, 41,
+     43, 49, 77, 85, 150, 161, 229, 247, 251, 253
+
+ industry (_see also_ construction; electricity; industrialization;
+     investment; nationalization): viii, 25, 110, 149, 157, 229-230, 232,
+     233, 275-283, 287-289;
+   commission, 117;
+   labor, vii-viii, 61, 264, 275, 283-286
+
+ information (_see also_ newspapers; periodicals; press; radio;
+     television): ix, 65, 175-177, 190-191;
+   foreign, 132, 152, 175, 181-182, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190
+
+ Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies: 139, 145
+
+ intelligentsia (_see also_ arts and the artists; professionals): 59, 60,
+     62, 142, 148
+
+ international commitments (_see also_ individual pacts): v, ix, 121,
+     160, 172-174, 218-219
+
+ Intervision: 185
+
+ Investment Bank: 242, 243-244
+
+ investment, capital: 30, 42, 229, 233, 243, 268;
+   in agriculture, viii, 266-267; foreign, 18;
+   in industry, viii, 232, 275, 286-287
+
+ Ionescu, Eugene: 102
+
+ iron: 277, 288
+
+ Iron Gate: 31, 34, 55;
+   hydroelectricity, 167, 279
+
+ Iron Guard: 19, 20, 21
+
+ irrigation: 201, 227, 254
+
+ Islam: 4, 72
+
+ Israel: 4, 28, 41, 72, 159, 164, 171
+
+ Italy: 20, 21, 101, 168, 171, 190, 250
+
+
+ Jalea, Ion: 98
+
+ Japan: 21
+
+ Jews and Judaism: 3, 4, 17, 18, 19, 41, 54, 56, 72, 199
+
+ Jiu Valley: 276
+
+ journalists: 7
+
+ _judet_: 109, 110, 114, 124, 148;
+   courts, 122, 123, 124, 207;
+   political, 137, 141, 142;
+   security, 195
+
+ judges: 122, 206, 223
+
+ judiciary (_see also_ courts; military): 122-124, 194, 202, 206
+
+ Junimea: 105
+
+ justice (_see also_ courts; judiciary; military; penal system): viii
+
+ Justinian, patriarch: 70
+
+
+ Khrushchev, Nikita, premier of the Soviet Union: 2, 25, 26, 156, 157, 166
+
+ Kingdom of Romania: v, vii, 16, 18, 19
+
+ Kiselev, Pavel, Count: 15
+
+ Koenig, Cardinal: 70
+
+ Kogalniceanu, Mihail: 104, 105
+
+
+ labor force (_see also_ labor unions): vii-viii, 43, 57, 73, 149, 211,
+     226, 230, 233, 253, 262, 264-266, 269, 280, 282, 283-286;
+   code, 197;
+   conditions of, 111;
+   disputes, 123
+
+ labor unions (_see also_ General Union of Trade Unions): 5, 22, 80, 87,
+     123, 126, 127, 132, 135, 144, 176, 180, 199, 243
+
+ lakes: 32, 33-34
+
+ land (_see also_ forests and forestry; marshland; reform): viii, 237;
+   agricultural, 33, 36, 254-257;
+   conservation, 256, 257;
+   ownership, 230
+
+ languages (_see also_ individual languages): vii, 4, 83, 87, 88, 177,
+     181, 183
+
+ _lautari_: 100
+
+ leu: viii, 246, 305
+
+ Liberal Party: 18, 19, 23
+
+ libraries: 188-189
+
+ life expectancy: 39, 42
+
+ Lipatti, Dinu: 101
+
+ literacy: 6, 68, 73, 76, 79, 219
+
+ literature: 7, 14, 93, 103-107, 152, 187
+
+ livestock: 260;
+   products, 253, 254, 268, 269-270, 271, 272, 273, 274
+
+ living standards: 17, 30, 41-43, 57, 59, 60, 61, 88, 149, 153, 202, 239,
+     240, 264
+
+ local government: viii, 6, 38, 109, 110, 111, 114, 124-126, 198
+
+ _Luceafarul_: 105
+
+ Luchian, Stefan: 97
+
+ Lupescu, Magda: 19
+
+
+ Magyars. _See_ Hungarian ethnic group
+
+ Mairescu, Titu: 105
+
+ Mamaia: 100
+
+ Manescu, Corneliu: 162
+
+ Manescu, Manea: 140
+
+ Mangalia: 48, 100, 216
+
+ Maniu, Iuliu: 19
+
+ Maramures: 10, 32
+
+ marriage: 57, 195
+
+ Marshall Plan. _See_ European Recovery Program
+
+ marshland: 31, 32, 34, 35, 41, 43
+
+ Marxism-Leninism: v, 5, 76, 83, 107, 146, 147, 148, 151, 155, 160, 184,
+     187, 189
+
+ mass organization (_see also_ labor unions; women; youth): 145, 146-149,
+     178, 198-201
+
+ Maurer, Ion Gheorghe: 112, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 158, 162, 169
+
+ medical services: 42;
+   military, 222
+
+ merchant marine: ix, 30, 47-48
+
+ metallurgy: 283, 286
+
+ Michael the Brave (1593-1601): 12, 13
+
+ Michael, King (son of Carol II): 19, 21, 23, 176
+
+ Middle East (_see also_ Israel): 46, 171, 276
+
+ migration, historical: 3, 11, 13, 50
+
+ military (_see also_ aid; armed forces): 7, 8, 118-119, 134, 198;
+   foreign, 167, 171, 173;
+   honours, 226;
+   justice, viii, 122, 123, 205, 207-208, 222-223;
+   personnel, 195, 213, 219-220;
+   service, 7, 112, 211, 212;
+   volunteers, 220
+
+ Military Achievement Exhibit: 224
+
+ militia: 194, 195-197, 200, 203, 204, 206, 221
+
+ minerals (_see also_ coal; iron; natural gas; oil): 36-37, 275
+
+ ministries and ministers (_see also_ Council of Ministers; individual
+     ministries): 115, 119, 120, 133;
+   economic, 231, 234, 282, 283
+
+ Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Industry and Waters: 243, 244, 259, 261,
+     262
+
+ Ministry of the Armed Forces: 7, 121, 145, 195, 208, 212, 213, 214,
+     215, 217;
+   minister, 119, 121, 213-214
+
+ Ministry of Defense: 211
+
+ Ministry of Education: 75, 80-82, 84, 86
+
+ Ministry of Finance: 237, 241, 242, 243, 247
+
+ Ministry of Foreign Affairs: 162, 163;
+   minister, 119
+
+ Ministry of Foreign Trade: 162, 163, 248
+
+ Ministry of Internal Affairs: ix, 145, 195, 196, 208, 217, 221;
+   minister, 119, 121, 195
+
+ Ministry of Justice: 122, 123, 203, 207;
+   minister, 122
+
+ Ministry of Technical Material Supply and Control of the Management of
+     Fixed Assets: 236
+
+ Ministry of Transportation: 43, 46
+
+ Ministry of Youth Problems: 147;
+   minister, 200
+
+ minority ethnic groups (_see also_ individual ethnic groups): vii, 3-4,
+     49-50, 54-55, 91, 135, 139, 149, 150-151, 166;
+   education, 78, 88-89;
+   rights, 111
+
+ missiles: 216
+
+ Mobutu, Joseph, president of Zaire: 172
+
+ Moldavia: vii, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 254;
+   cultural, 95, 96, 99, 103, 104;
+   history, 3, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 33, 37, 67, 74;
+   population, 41, 54
+
+ monarchy, constitutional: 19, 23
+
+ mountains (_see also_ individual ranges): ix, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36,
+     41, 253, 254
+
+ _Munca_: 178
+
+ Muntenia: 31
+
+ music: 100-101, 184;
+   education, 75, 83
+
+ Muslims (_see also_ Islam): 4
+
+ Mures-Magyar. _See_ Hungarian Autonomous Region
+
+
+ National Bank of the Romanian Socialist Republic: viii, 242, 243, 245, 246
+
+ National Center for Cinematography: 189
+
+ National Democratic Front: 22, 23
+
+ National Peasant Party: 19, 22, 23
+
+ National Popular Party: 23
+
+ National Renaissance Party: 20
+
+ National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives: 133, 259
+
+ nationalism: 2, 3, 7, 9, 14, 25, 56, 67, 92, 97, 102, 104, 129, 130,
+     132, 154
+
+ nationalization: 24, 55, 58, 110, 244
+
+ natural gas: ix, 29, 30, 36, 37, 47, 275, 276, 278, 288
+
+ navy: ix, 7, 48, 211, 213, 214, 216, 221
+
+ Nazis: 9, 19, 20-21, 37, 54, 157, 168
+
+ Negruzzi, Constantine: 104, 105
+
+ news agencies: 175, 181-182
+
+ newspapers: 53, 54, 104, 175, 176, 177-180, 182
+
+ Niculescu-Mizil, Paul: 140
+
+ Nixon, Richard M., president of the U.S.A.: 159, 170
+
+ North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): 8, 161, 171, 218
+
+ nuclear free zone: 167, 171
+
+ nuclear power: 279
+
+
+ Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of Romania: 117
+
+ oil: ix, 29, 36, 47, 275-276, 288
+
+ Old Catholics: 72
+
+ Old Church Slavonic: 67, 103
+
+ Old Kingdom. _See_ Kingdom of Romania
+
+ Olt River: 31
+
+ Oltenia: 10, 11, 31, 95, 276
+
+ Oradea: 52
+
+ orchards and vineyards: 31, 32, 36, 254, 255, 257, 268
+
+ Ottoman Empire and the Turks: 9, 12, 13, 16, 32, 55, 63, 67, 72, 91
+
+ ownership (_see also_ private sector): 110, 113-114, 259, 260
+
+
+ PCR. _See_ Romanian Communist Party
+
+ Paciurea, Dimitrie: 98
+
+ painting (_see also_ arts and the artists): 95-98
+
+ Pana, Gheorghe: 140
+
+ Pann, Anton: 101
+
+ party politics (_see also_ individual parties): 14, 17, 20, 22, 175;
+   single party, 2, 5
+
+ pasture: 32, 33, 36, 254, 255, 257
+
+ Patrascanu, Lucretiu: 131, 134
+
+ Pauker, Ana: 22, 24, 25
+
+ peasantry (_see also_ folk culture, working class): 53, 58, 61, 62, 68,
+     74, 148, 153;
+   history, 12, 13;
+   revolt, 17
+
+ penal system: 201-202, 257;
+   code, 194, 205-206, 222;
+   institutions, 207-209
+
+ people's councils: 111, 114, 115, 116, 124, 125, 126, 196;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ People's Democratic Front: 24, 127, 135
+
+ People's Republic of China (_see also_ Sino-Soviet issue): 1, 27, 157,
+     158, 164, 167, 168, 250
+
+ periodicals: 53, 176, 180-181, 182;
+   library, 105, 107, 152
+
+ Peter, tsar of Russia: 2
+
+ petroleum: ix, 17, 20, 29, 37, 47, 276, 278
+
+ Petrosani: 276
+
+ Phanariots: 12-13, 15
+
+ Pioneers Organization: 77, 80, 198, 199, 201
+
+ pipelines: ix, 29, 47
+
+ Ploiesti: 37, 41, 44, 47, 216
+
+ Plowmans Front: 22, 23
+
+ Poland: xiv, 165, 172, 182, 224
+
+ police (_see also_ militia): ix, 24, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203;
+   secret, 3, 25, 193, 197
+
+ pope: 14, 67, 68, 70, 71
+
+ Popescu-Gopo: 103
+
+ population: vii, 3, 30, 35, 38-41, 74
+
+ ports (_see also_ individual ports): ix, 17, 48, 196, 217
+
+ president, office and functions: 117, 118, 161, 214
+
+ Presidium: 110, 112
+
+ press: ix, 23, 93, 139, 176;
+   freedom, 16, 113, 153, 176
+
+ prices: 237-240, 249, 283
+
+ prime minister, office and functions: 110, 119, 120
+
+ private sector: 113-114, 230, 258, 268-269, 273, 280
+
+ professionals (_see also_ intelligentsia): 6;
+   unions, 94
+
+ propaganda (_see also_ indoctrination): v, 92, 139, 141, 153, 175, 176,
+     184, 190
+
+ Prosecutor General: 112, 115, 116, 118, 122, 123-124, 202
+
+ Protestants (_see also_ religion): viii, 4, 5, 13, 53, 71-72
+
+ Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam
+     (VietCong): 163, 171
+
+ Prut River: 29, 30, 31, 33, 38, 46
+
+ publishing: 147, 175, 176, 177, 185-187
+
+ purges, political: 3, 24, 25, 77, 142, 156
+
+
+ Radescu, Nicolae, General: 22, 23
+
+ radio: ix, 54, 101, 175, 176, 177, 182-184, 191, 288
+
+ Radulescu, Ehade: 104
+
+ railways: ix, 16, 29, 43-45, 194, 196, 227
+
+ reform: 14, 16, 19, 132, 133, 153;
+   economic, 8, 19, 231, 237, 248, 285;
+   education, 73, 77-79;
+   land, 16, 17, 18, 55, 58
+
+ religion (_see also_ church-state relations; clergy; Protestants; Roman
+     Catholicism; Romanian Orthodox Church): viii, 4, 5, 62, 65-66, 127;
+   education, 4, 14, 66, 69, 72, 75, 76, 112;
+   freedom of, viii, 5, 65, 68, 111;
+   persecution of, 4, 65, 68, 70
+
+ Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam): 170, 171
+
+ research: 107-108
+
+ revenue (_see also_ taxation): 241, 269
+
+ riparian rights: vii
+
+ rivers (_see also_ individual rivers; riparian rights; waterways): ix,
+     29, 31, 33-34, 36
+
+ roads and highways: ix, 29, 43, 44, 99, 203, 227
+
+ Rodin, Auguste: 98
+
+ Roman Catholicism (_see also_ church-state relations; religion): viii,
+     4, 13, 53, 67, 69-71
+
+ _Romania Libera_: 178, 179
+
+ Romanian Academy of Social and Political Sciences: 82
+
+ Romanian Air Transport (TAROM): ix, 46
+
+ Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman, PCR): vi, vii, 1, 3,
+     5, 6, 7, 8, 19, 22, 27, 55, 84, 92, 94, 98, 101, 109, 110, 111,
+     114, 118, 123, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 132-134, 135, 136-146, 147,
+     149, 153, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 171, 174, 176, 177, 196,
+     198, 211, 226, 229, 234, 235, 237, 248, 275, 280;
+   Central Auditing Committee, 133, 137, 140;
+   Central Collegium, 140;
+   Central Committee, 26, 27, 118, 119, 121, 125, 131, 132, 133, 134,
+     136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143, 145, 153, 158, 162, 176, 178, 180,
+     181, 182, 213, 268;
+   Executive Committee, 120, 121, 131, 138, 139, 140, 152, 198;
+   membership, 61, 129, 142-144, 153, 281;
+   organization, 137-142;
+   policies, 149-153;
+   Secretariat, 119, 138, 139, 140, 152;
+   Standing Presidium, 8, 119, 131, 133, 138, 139, 155, 160, 162, 230
+
+ Romanian ethnic group: 3, 17, 18, 33, 49, 50-52, 52-53, 55, 57, 143;
+   history, 13-14
+
+ Romanian Foreign Trade Bank: 242, 243, 244, 247
+
+ Romanian language: vii, 2, 4, 11, 14, 51, 54, 67, 75, 83, 103, 104, 209
+
+ Romanian Orthodox Church (_see also_ church-state relations; clergy
+     religion): viii, 4, 65, 67-69
+
+ Romanian People's Army. See armed forces
+
+ Romanian People's Republic: v, vii, 5, 24, 110, 111, 131
+
+ Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa, Agerpres): 181, 182
+
+ Romanian Workers' Party: 23, 27, 111, 112, 130, 137, 142
+
+ Romans and the Roman Empire: 3, 10-11, 14, 50, 67, 91, 99
+
+ rural society (_see also_ villages): 38, 41, 57, 62, 65, 68, 79, 87,
+     153, 154, 183, 187, 264;
+   population, 17, 52, 53
+
+ Russia (_see also_ Soviet Union): history, 2, 9, 15, 16, 18, 37, 54;
+   revolution, 19, 37
+
+ Russian language: 2, 27, 83, 181
+
+
+ Sadoveanu, Mihail: 106
+
+ sanitation: 42
+
+ Sarmizegetusa: 99
+
+ Savings and Loan Bank: 242, 244, 245
+
+ schools (_see also_ education; religion; students; universities): 2, 14,
+     27, 53, 54, 57, 65, 73, 74, 75, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83-88, 89, 97, 104,
+     148, 200, 201, 204
+
+ _Scinteia_: 178, 179
+
+ _Scinteia Tineretului_: 178-180
+
+ sculpture: 98
+
+ security (_see also_ crime; defence; police): 133, 139;
+   internal, 116, 120, 193-201;
+   national, ix, 20
+
+ security troops: 193, 194, 197-198, 203, 206, 219
+
+ services: 232, 239
+
+ Sibu: 53
+
+ Sighisoara: 53
+
+ Sino-Soviet issue: v, 1, 27, 158, 164, 166, 167
+
+ Siretul River: 30, 31, 41
+
+ size and location (_see also_ boundaries): vii, xiv, 3, 29, 32
+
+ Slavs: 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 49, 51, 55, 127, 151;
+   language and culture, 50, 51, 67
+
+ social benefits: 88, 260, 262
+
+ Social Democratic Party: 19, 22, 23, 137, 142
+
+ social structure: 6, 17, 58-62
+
+ socialism (_see also_ collective farms; nationalization; Socialist
+     Realism): v, 5, 73, 105, 151-153, 154, 198, 207, 230, 240
+
+ Socialist Party: 142
+
+ Socialist Realism: 7, 92, 93, 106
+
+ Socialist Republic of Romania: v, vii, 1, 3, 5, 28, 66, 113, 131
+
+ Socialist Unity Front: 126, 127, 135, 151, 177, 198
+
+ soils: 29, 35-36, 253, 254
+
+ Soviet Union (_see also_ Czechoslovakia; Sino-Soviet issue): 22, 23, 33,
+     34, 37, 54, 131, 159, 163, 164-165, 167, 172, 182, 199, 212, 216,
+     218, 223, 224, 275, 279;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 46, 217;
+   Communist Party, 137, 156, 166;
+   Constitution (1936), 5, 111;
+   independence of, 1-2, 3, 5, 8, 25, 26, 27, 28, 63, 113, 129, 134, 136,
+     154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 164, 169, 211, 227, 248;
+   influence over Romania, v, viii, 1, 5, 7, 9, 24, 76, 92, 110, 111,
+     137, 152, 156, 158, 198;
+   trade, viii, 190, 250, 276, 277;
+   World War II, 9, 20, 21
+
+ Stalin, Joseph (_see also_ Stalinism): 2, 7, 9, 25, 156
+
+ Stalinism: 2, 25, 156;
+   de-Stalinization, 7, 92, 134-136, 157
+
+ State Committee for Prices: 115,120, 237, 239, 240
+
+ state enterprises: 80, 82, 87, 119, 120, 126, 141, 188, 194, 230, 231,
+     234-237, 238, 239, 242, 243, 246, 248, 281, 283;
+   farms, 257, 258, 261-262, 267, 273;
+   industry, 280, 283
+
+ State Inspectorate General for Product Quality: 289
+
+ State Planning Committee: 119, 120, 121, 237, 242, 243
+
+ State Security Council: 195, 197, 198
+
+ Stephan Gheorghiu Academy of Social-Political Education and the
+     Training of Leading Cadres: 139, 144
+
+ Stephen the Great (1457-1504): 12
+
+ Stoica, Chivu: 130, 131, 133, 136
+
+ Storck, Carol: 98
+
+ Storck, Karl: 98
+
+ students (_see also_ schools): 73, 80, 86, 87, 148;
+   organizations, 77, 78, 80, 87, 199, 200
+
+ suffrage: 126
+
+ sugar beet: 255, 256, 272
+
+ Superior Council of Agriculture: 256, 257
+
+ Supreme Court: viii, 109, 112, 116, 118, 122, 124, 201, 223
+
+ Szeklers: 13, 52, 53
+
+ Szekelys. _See_ Szeklers
+
+
+ _tambal_: 100
+
+ TAROM. _See_ Romanian Air Transport
+
+ Tatars: 3, 4, 11, 12, 50, 51, 72
+
+ Tattarescu, Gheorghe: 97
+
+ taxation: 233, 239, 241, 245
+
+ teachers: 78, 79, 82, 83, 88, 154;
+   training, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 87-88, 89, 144
+
+ technical/vocational education: viii, 6, 7, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81,
+     84, 85, 87, 145, 284
+
+ television: ix, 54, 101, 152, 175, 176, 177, 182, 184-185, 288
+
+ text books: 2, 78, 80, 82
+
+ textiles: 95, 284, 288
+
+ theater: 53, 101-102, 105, 152
+
+ Thracians. _See_ Dacians
+
+ timber: 277-278, 288
+
+ Timisoara: 44, 193
+
+ Tirgu Mures: 44, 52
+
+ Tisza River: 31, 33, 46
+
+ Tonitza, Nicolae: 97
+
+ topography (_see also_ mountains; rivers): vii, 31, 253
+
+ tourists and tourism: 33, 217, 252;
+   exchange rate, ix, 247
+
+ trade (_see also_ export; import; individual countries): 232;
+   balance, viii, 8, 169, 173, 229, 242-243, 248, 251-252;
+   domestic, 236;
+   foreign, viii, 27, 155, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173,
+     217, 229, 230, 237, 246, 247-252
+
+ traffic, vehicular: 203-204
+
+ Trajan, Column of: 14
+
+ Trajan, Emperor: 11, 50, 99
+
+ transport (_see also_ air transport; pipelines; railways; roads and
+     highways; traffic; waterways): 43-48, 110, 216, 232
+
+ Transylvania (_see also_ Transylvanian Alps): vii, 3, 4, 32, 34, 35, 37,
+     47, 68, 99, 166, 254, 276;
+   cultural, 94, 95, 99, 103;
+   history, 3, 10, 11, 13-14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 37, 50, 55, 67, 70;
+   population, 41, 52, 53, 54, 56;
+   transport, 43, 47
+
+ Transylvanian Alps: vii, 30, 31-32, 33, 35, 47, 276
+
+ travel: 61
+
+ Treaty of Berlin (1878): 16
+
+ 'Tudor Vladimirescu': 21
+
+ Turkey (_see also_ Ottoman Empire and the Turks; Turks): vii, 15, 16,
+     170, 171
+
+ Turks (_see also_ Ottoman Empire and the Turks): 3, 4, 15, 50, 53, 55
+
+ Turnu Severin: 44, 99
+
+
+ UTC. _See_ Union of Communist Youth
+
+ underemployment: 233, 253, 264, 265
+
+ Uniate Church: 4, 13, 67, 68, 69
+
+ Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist, UTC): 77, 78,
+     80, 87, 120, 133, 147-148, 178, 181, 198-199, 200, 201, 213
+
+ Union of Student Associations: 77, 80, 198, 200
+
+ Unitarians: 4, 5, 13, 53, 73
+
+ United Nations: ix, 155, 168, 170, 172
+
+ United Principalities: 16
+
+ United States: 23, 167, 170, 190;
+   trade, 158, 246, 250-251
+
+ universities (_see also_ University of Bucharest): 75, 76, 80, 81, 84,
+     85-86, 88, 199, 200, 221;
+   foreign, 15;
+   teachers, 116;
+   workers, 87
+
+ University of Bucharest: 107
+
+ uranium: 277
+
+ urban society: 4, 15, 17, 38, 41, 49, 54, 57, 62, 75, 87, 102, 141,
+     255, 264;
+   government, 124, 125, 126
+
+
+ Vacarescu, Iancu: 104
+
+ Valbudea, Stefan Ionescu: 98
+
+ values and traditions: political, 153-154;
+   social, 49, 62-63, 65
+
+ Vatican (_see also_ pope): 69, 71
+
+ vegetables: 254, 256, 261, 268, 270, 272, 273
+
+ vegetation (_see also_ forests and forestry): 36
+
+ Vietnam (_see also_ Provisional Revolutionary Government of South
+     Vietnam; Republic of Vietnam): 158
+
+ villages: 38, 41, 91, 100;
+   justice, 194
+
+ Vlachs: 11, 12, 50
+
+ Vyshinsky, Andrei: 23
+
+
+ wages (_see also_ income): 88, 149, 260-261, 263-264, 285;
+   prisoners, 208
+
+ Walachia: vii, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 43, 47, 254;
+   cultural, 96, 97, 99, 103;
+   history, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 37, 67, 74;
+   population, 41, 54
+
+ Warsaw Pact. _See_ Warsaw Treaty Organization
+
+ Warsaw Treaty Organization (_see also_ Czechoslovakia): ix, 1, 2, 7, 8,
+     28, 46, 135, 136, 156, 159, 161, 164, 166, 167, 168, 171, 172, 203,
+     211, 212, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227
+
+ waterways: ix, 29, 44, 45-46, 48
+
+ West Germany. _See_ Federal Republic of Germany
+
+ Western nations (_see also_ individual nations): 163, 164, 169, 171, 182;
+   cultural influence (_see also_ France), 91, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101,
+     104, 105, 107, 132, 152, 168, 187, 189, 190;
+   economic relations, 8, 25, 27, 158, 168, 229, 230, 246, 247, 248,
+     250, 251, 275
+
+ wildlife: 32-33
+
+ women: viii, 39, 40, 57, 79, 141, 143, 180, 181, 208, 209;
+   labor, 56-57, 58, 264, 283;
+   organizations, 5, 126, 127, 135, 147, 199
+
+ working class (_see also_ peasantry): 6, 17, 58, 59-60, 61, 86, 92,
+     126, 142, 143, 148, 149, 152
+
+ World Council of Churches: 72
+
+ World War I: 3, 4, 9, 17-18, 32, 37, 40, 74, 212
+
+ World War II: 9, 20-21, 32, 33, 37, 40, 41, 54, 72, 113, 226, 277
+
+
+ youth (_see also_ students; Union of Communist Youth): 7, 73, 76, 78,
+     82, 141, 152, 180, 193, 199-201, 203, 219;
+   organizations, 5, 57, 77, 78, 105, 126, 127, 132, 135, 144, 147, 152,
+     198, 199, 200, 201, 281
+
+ Yugoslavia: 3, 33, 39, 46, 164, 166, 167, 182, 219, 278, 279;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 34, 37, 216, 217
+
+ Zhivkov, Todor: 166
+
+
+
+
+PUBLISHED AREA HANDBOOKS
+
+
+ 550-65  Afghanistan
+ 550-98  Albania
+ 550-44  Algeria
+ 550-59  Angola
+ 550-73  Argentina
+
+ 550-20  Brazil
+ 550-61  Burma
+ 550-83  Burundi
+ 550-50  Cambodia (Khmer Rep.)
+ 550-96  Ceylon
+
+ 550-159 Chad
+ 550-60  China, People's Republic of
+ 550-63  China, Republic of
+ 550-26  Colombia
+ 550-91  Congo (Brazzaville)
+
+ 550-67  Congo (Kinshasa) (Zaire)
+ 550-90  Costa Rica
+ 550-152 Cuba
+ 550-22  Cyprus
+ 550-158 Czechoslovakia
+
+ 550-54  Dominican Republic
+ 550-155 East Germany
+ 550-52  Ecuador
+ 550-150 El Salvador
+ 550-28  Ethiopia
+
+ 550-29  Germany
+ 556-153 Ghana
+ 550-87  Greece
+ 550-78  Guatemala
+ 550-82  Guyana
+
+ 550-151 Honduras
+ 550-21  India
+ 550-154 Indian Ocean Territories
+ 550-39  Indonesia
+ 550-68  Iran
+
+ 550-31  Iraq
+ 550-25  Israel
+ 550-30  Japan
+ 550-34  Jordan
+ 550-56  Kenya
+ 550-81  Korea, North
+
+ 550-41  Korea, Republic of
+ 550-58  Laos
+ 550-24  Lebanon
+ 550-38  Liberia
+
+ 550-85  Libya
+ 550-45  Malaysia
+ 550-    Mauritania
+ 550-76  Mongolia
+ 550-49  Morocco
+
+ 550-64  Mozambique
+ 550-35  Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan
+ 550-88  Nicaragua
+ 550-167 Nigeria
+ 550-94  Oceania
+
+ 550-48  Pakistan
+ 550-46  Panama
+ 550-156 Paraguay
+ 550-92  Peripheral States of the Arabian Peninsula
+ 550-42  Peru
+
+ 550-72  Philippines, Republic of
+ 550-160 Romania
+ 550-84  Rwanda
+ 550-51  Saudi Arabia
+ 550-70  Senegal
+
+ 550-86  Somalia
+ 550-93  South Africa, Republic of
+ 550-95  Soviet Union
+ 550-27  Sudan
+ 550-47  Syria
+
+ 550-62  Tanzania
+ 550-53  Thailand
+ 550-89  Tunisia
+ 550-80  Turkey
+ 550-74  Uganda
+
+ 550-43  United Arab Republic
+ 550-97  Uruguay
+ 550-71  Venezuela
+ 550-57  Vietnam, North
+ 550-55  Vietnam, South
+ 550-75  Zambia
+
+
+
+
+    +---------------------------------------------------+
+    |             Transcriber's Note:                   |
+    |                                                   |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the      |
+    | original document have been preserved.            |
+    |                                                   |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:       |
+    |                                                   |
+    | Page   6  apprent changed to apparent             |
+    | Page  12  fuedal changed to feudal                |
+    | Page  17  entrepreneuers changed to entrepreneurs |
+    | Page  42  quantitites changed to quantities       |
+    | Page  45  neglible changed to negligible          |
+    | Page  54  inincluding changed to including        |
+    | Page 100  intruments changed to instruments       |
+    | Page 142  it changed to its                       |
+    | Page 142  propanda changed to propaganda          |
+    | Page 150  comisssions changed to commissions      |
+    | Page 150  leaderwhip changed to leadership        |
+    | Page 159  indepedence changed to independence     |
+    | Page 160  spokemen changed to spokesmen           |
+    | Page 161  vaild changed to valid                  |
+    | Page 164  Doctine changed to Doctrine             |
+    | Page 165  Relatons changed to Relations           |
+    | Page 166  Romaian changed to Romanian             |
+    | Page 171  agressive changed to aggressive         |
+    | Page 171  statement changed to statements         |
+    | Page 172  vistied changed to visited              |
+    | Page 177  to changed to a                         |
+    | Page 185  snd changed to and                      |
+    | Page 186  them changed to then                    |
+    | Page 187  hisotrical changed to historical        |
+    | Page 188  principlally changed to principally     |
+    | Page 190  documenaries changed to documentaries   |
+    | Page 193  investigaton changed to investigation   |
+    | Page 193  trails changed to trials                |
+    | Page 200  informaton changed to information       |
+    | Page 201  trail changed to trial                  |
+    | Page 207  miltary changed to military             |
+    | Page 208  rehabilitiate changed to rehabilitate   |
+    | Page 229  indequate changed to inadequate         |
+    | Page 238  pecentage changed to percentage         |
+    | Page 238  indistry changed to industry            |
+    | Page 253  urgenly changed to urgently             |
+    | Page 255  peroid changed to period                |
+    | Page 270  yars changed to  years                  |
+    | Page 280  som changed to some                     |
+    | Page 186  earier changed to earlier               |
+    | Page 291  Prager changed to Praeger               |
+    | Page 291  Fisher changed to Fischer               |
+    | Page 301  Bulentinul changed to Buletinul         |
+    | Page 302  Spetember changed to September          |
+    | Page 307  archaelogy changed to archaeology       |
+    | Page 308  chernozen changed to chernozem          |
+    | Page 316  TARCM changed to TAROM                  |
+    +---------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA***
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Area Handbook for Romania, by Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M. Moore, and Neda A. Walpole</title>
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+<div class="pg">
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Area Handbook for Romania, by Eugene K.
+Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M.
+Moore, and Neda A. Walpole</h1>
+</div>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p class="noin">Title: Area Handbook for Romania</p>
+<p class="noin">Author: Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M. Moore, and Neda A. Walpole</p>
+<p class="noin">Release Date: June 8, 2010  [eBook #32700]</p>
+<p class="noin">Language: English</p>
+<p class="noin">Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p class="noin">***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="pg">
+<h3>E-text prepared by Barbara Kosker, Juliet Sutherland,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1> AREA HANDBOOK</h1>
+
+<h3> for</h3>
+
+<h1> ROMANIA</h1>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3> <i>Co-Authors</i><br />
+
+ Eugene K. Keefe<br />
+ Donald W. Bernier<br />
+ Lyle E. Brenneman<br />
+ William Giloane<br />
+ James M. Moore, Jr.<br />
+ Neda A. Walpole</h3>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4> Research and writing were completed February 1972<br />
+
+Published 1972</h4>
+
+<p class="right"><b>DA Pam 550-160</b></p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-600095</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<h5>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D.C. 20402&mdash;Price $2.75</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<br />
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span>
+<br />
+<h2>FOREWORD</h2>
+
+
+<p>This volume is one of a series of handbooks prepared by Foreign Area
+Studies (FAS) of The American University, designed to be useful to
+military and other personnel who need a convenient compilation of basic
+facts about the social, economic, political, and military institutions
+and practices of various countries. The emphasis is on objective
+description of the nation's present society and the kinds of possible or
+probable changes that might be expected in the future. The handbook
+seeks to present as full and as balanced an integrated exposition as
+limitations on space and research time permit. It was compiled from
+information available in openly published material. An extensive
+bibliography is provided to permit recourse to other published sources
+for more detailed information. There has been no attempt to express any
+specific point of view or to make policy recommendations. The contents
+of the handbook represent the work of the authors and FAS and do not
+represent the official view of the United States government.</p>
+
+<p>An effort has been made to make the handbook as comprehensive as
+possible. It can be expected, however, that the material,
+interpretations, and conclusions are subject to modification in the
+light of new information and developments. Such corrections, additions,
+and suggestions for factual, interpretive, or other change as readers
+may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. Comments may be
+addressed to:</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 60%;">
+<p class="noin">The Director<br />
+Foreign Area Studies<br />
+The American University<br />
+5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.<br />
+Washington, D.C. 20016</p>
+</div>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The former Kingdom of Romania emerged from the post-World War II chaos
+as the Romanian People's Republic, a communist satellite so closely
+aligned to the policies of the Soviet Union that it often appeared to be
+ruled from Moscow. During the 1950s, however, Romania cautiously began
+seeking to loosen its ties to Moscow and to assert some measure of
+autonomy. The widening Sino-Soviet rift of the early 1960s provided an
+atmosphere of tension among communist states that the Romanians used to
+their own advantage by remaining neutral in the communist struggle and
+by seeking greater contacts with noncommunist states. In internal
+affairs, the Romanian regime maintained a rigid hold on all elements of
+the society. In 1965 the regime changed the name of the country to the
+Socialist Republic of Romania and proclaimed that it was well on the way
+toward communism. In the early 1970s Romania remains a member of the
+Soviet-led military and economic alliances but has become known as the
+most independent member.</p>
+
+<p>The changes wrought by the Communists during a quarter century in power
+are numerous and far reaching. Despite the desires of the Soviet leaders
+that Romania remain predominantly agricultural, the new Romanian
+leadership was determined to industrialize. Enforced socialization and
+concurrent industrialization brought a host of problems in the
+political, social, and economic life of the country. Reorientation of
+the society and the political structure was brought about by force when
+necessary, but the restructuring of the economy within the framework of
+the avowed Marxist-Leninist ideology proved to be more difficult and led
+to problems that had still not been overcome by early 1972.</p>
+
+<p>This handbook attempts to describe the social, political, and economic
+bases of Romanian society and, more particularly, how these bases have
+been affected by Romania's independent stance within the alliances of
+Eastern European communist countries. The authors of the handbook have
+tried to be objective in order to provide a comprehensive exposition of
+the dominant aspects of Romanian life in the early 1970s. Often hampered
+by a lack of credible statistical information as well as an
+overabundance of biased propaganda, the authors have attempted to piece
+together sufficient factual material to present an accurate appraisal
+and an indication of observable trends.</p>
+
+<p>English usage follows <i>Webster's Seventh New Collegiate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>Dictionary</i>.
+Place names used in the text are those approved by the United States
+Board on Geographic Names. Tonnages are given in the metric system, but
+for other measurements standard United States terminology has been used.
+The use of Romanian words has been held to a minimum and, where used,
+they have been explained in the text and in the Glossary, which is
+appended for the reader's convenience. The acronym PCR, derived from
+Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party), is used throughout
+the book and is fully explained in the Glossary.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>COUNTRY SUMMARY</h2>
+
+
+<p>1. COUNTRY: Officially redesignated the Socialist Republic of Romania
+under Constitution of 1965. Established originally as the Kingdom of
+Romania in 1881, was converted into the Romanian People's Republic in
+1948 by communist party with Soviet backing.</p>
+
+<p>2. GOVERNMENT: Constitution of 1965 provides for a unicameral
+legislature and a collegial executive known as the Council of State.
+Romanian Communist Party controls elections and runs the government at
+all levels. Top party officials concurrently occupy top governmental
+offices. Ultimate political power rests in the party hierarchy,
+particularly in the person of the party general secretary who, since
+1967, has also been head of state.</p>
+
+<p>3. SIZE AND LOCATION: Area of over 91,700 square miles. In southeastern
+Europe, shares 1,975 miles of demarcated and undisputed land borders
+with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Soviet Union. With 150 miles
+of shoreline, shares riparian rights on Black Sea with Turkey, Bulgaria,
+and the Soviet Union.</p>
+
+<p>4. TOPOGRAPHY: Terrain is generally irregular. The Transylvania basin in
+the northwest occupies about one-third of the country and is separated
+from the plains and lowlands of Walachia, Dobruja, and Moldavia to the
+south and east by the curving course of the Carpathian Mountains and the
+Transylvanian Alps, which cut across the central portion of the country.</p>
+
+<p>5. CLIMATE: Generally Eastern European Continental, dominated by high
+pressure systems from European Soviet Union and north-central Asia.
+Little variation or moderation experienced in the prevailing long cold
+winters and short hot summers.</p>
+
+<p>6. POPULATION: Almost 20.6 million in 1971; annual growth rate of 1.3
+percent, among the highest in Eastern Europe. Density more than 224
+persons per square mile. Largest minority is Hungarian, comprising 8
+percent of population, followed by German, with 2 percent.</p>
+
+<p>7. LANGUAGE: Romanian, the official language, spoken by virtually all
+elements of the population. Hungarian and German also recognized and
+utilized in areas of large minority concentrations.</p>
+
+<p>8. LABOR: Working population employed by the state in 1969 numbered
+about 5 million. About 40 percent were employed in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>industry; about 51
+percent, in agriculture. Women constituted about 43 percent of the
+industrial and 57.5 percent of the collective farm labor forces.</p>
+
+<p>9. RELIGION: Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Constitution, but state
+controls all church activities. About two-thirds of population belong to
+Romanian Orthodox Church. Importance of Roman Catholic and Protestant
+minorities enhanced because of their identity with Hungarian and German
+ethnic groups.</p>
+
+<p>10. EDUCATION: Restructured in 1948 into a highly centralized system
+with a broad base, standardized curricula, mandatory attendance through
+tenth grade, and heavy emphasis on vocational and technical subjects
+above the elementary level. Political indoctrination permeates entire
+system.</p>
+
+<p>11. JUSTICE: Theoretically independent, the three-level court system
+(local, district, and Supreme Court) functions as part of executive
+branch. Military tribunals operate as part of system under Supreme
+Court.</p>
+
+<p>12. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS: Thirty-nine counties, each subdivided into
+varying numbers of communes, villages, and municipalities. Bucharest
+administered as an independent political entity. Governmental
+functioning ostensibly decentralized, but policy and control exercised
+by higher state and party organs.</p>
+
+<p>13. ECONOMY: Government controlled, with basic five-year plans patterned
+on Soviet model. Development hampered by scarcity of raw materials and
+manufacturing equipment and by insufficient number of experienced
+workers and managers.</p>
+
+<p>14. AGRICULTURE: About 63 percent of land is agricultural; of this, 65
+percent under cultivation. Food production adequate for domestic needs,
+but exports limited because of insufficient investment and lack of labor
+incentives.</p>
+
+<p>15. INDUSTRY: Rapid growth since 1950 stimulated by massive inputs of
+capital, labor, and imports of modern machinery and technology. Labor
+productivity and quality of manufactured products have improved but
+remain low.</p>
+
+<p>16. FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: Foreign trade is state monopoly and is
+conducted primarily with Soviet Union and East European communist
+countries. Balance of trade generally negative, reflecting imports of
+high-quality machinery from West necessary for industrial advancement.
+Exports limited to light machinery, foodstuffs, and some consumer goods.</p>
+
+<p>17. FINANCE: Monetary unit is the nonconvertible leu. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>to tourist
+rates of about 16 lei per US$1. Currency and foreign exchange are state
+controlled, administered through the National Bank.</p>
+
+<p>18. COMMUNICATIONS: All information media party or state owned and
+controlled. Press and radio more extensively developed than television,
+but all function as parts of ideological and political indoctrination
+system.</p>
+
+<p>19. RAILROADS: Important freight and passenger carrier. About 6,900
+miles of trunkline in operation, almost all standard gauge. About 100
+miles electrified, and rest of system converting to use of diesel
+locomotives.</p>
+
+<p>20. HIGHWAYS: Of 47,800 total road mileage, about 6,600 miles nationally
+maintained as principal operating network. System supplanting railroads
+as major short-haul carrier of freight and passengers.</p>
+
+<p>21. INLAND WATERWAYS: About 1,500 miles of principal rivers and canals
+are navigable. Water transport has minor role as a cargo carrier.</p>
+
+<p>22. AIRWAYS: Romanian Air Transport, the state-owned airline, operates
+domestic service to twelve principal cities and to about twenty national
+capitals in Europe and the Middle East.</p>
+
+<p>23. PIPELINES: Largest network serves oilfields and moves most liquid
+petroleum and refined products to refineries and ports. Natural gas
+lines exist, but mountainous terrain limits general distribution.</p>
+
+<p>24. MERCHANT MARINE: Small in number but operates modern ships and
+equipment. Transport limited principally to truck cargo and freight.</p>
+
+<p>25. ARMED FORCES: In 1972 consisted of about 200,000 men organized into
+ground, naval, air, air defense, and frontier forces, all administered
+by a single ministry. All elements operate as part of army, which is
+largest single component.</p>
+
+<p>26. SECURITY: Security forces, nationally organized and centrally
+controlled by Ministry of Internal Affairs, consist of ordinary police
+(militia) and security troops, which perform counter-espionage and
+counter-subversive functions.</p>
+
+<p>27. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the United Nations and a
+number of its specialized agencies. Member of the Warsaw Treaty
+Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic
+Assistance (COMECON).</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>ROMANIA</h2>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="15%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="70%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%" style="font-size: 80%;">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">FOREWORD</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_iii">iii</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">PREFACE</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">COUNTRY SUMMARY</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">SECTION I. SOCIAL</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Chapter 1.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">General Character of the Society</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">2.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Historical Setting</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Early Origin&mdash;Formation of the
+    Principalities&mdash;Western Influences&mdash;National Independence&mdash;World
+    War I&mdash;Interwar Years, 1918-40&mdash;World War II&mdash;
+    Communist Seizure of Power&mdash;The Communist State</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">3.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Physical Environment and Population</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Natural Features and Resources&mdash;Boundaries and
+             Political Subdivisions&mdash;Population&mdash;Living
+             Conditions&mdash;Transportation</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">4.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Social System and Values</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ethnic Composition&mdash;Social
+    Structure&mdash;Social Values</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">5.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Religion</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Church-State Relations&mdash;The Romanian Orthodox
+             Church&mdash;The Roman Catholic Church&mdash;Protestant
+             Churches&mdash;Other Religions and Churches</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">6.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Education</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Background&mdash;Educational Reforms Since
+    1948&mdash;<br />Literacy&mdash;The Educational System&mdash;Education of Minorities</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">7.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Artistic and Intellectual Expression</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Role of the Arts Under Communism&mdash;Art,
+    Sculpture, and Architecture&mdash;Music&mdash;Theater&mdash;Films&mdash;Literature&mdash;Scholarship
+    and Research</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">SECTION II. POLITICAL</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">8.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Governmental System</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Constitutional System&mdash;The Structure and
+    Functioning of the Government&mdash;The Electoral System</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">9.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Political Dynamics and Values</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Major Political Developments, 1965 to
+    1970&mdash;Political Organizations&mdash;Party Policies and Programs&mdash;Political
+    Values and Attitudes</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">10.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Foreign Relations</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Determinants of Foreign Policy&mdash;Conduct of
+    Foreign Affairs&mdash;International Relations</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">11.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Public Information</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Government and Freedom of Information&mdash;The
+    Press&mdash;Radio and Television&mdash;Book Publishing&mdash;Libraries&mdash;Films&mdash;Informal
+    Information Media</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">12.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Public Order and Internal Security</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Internal Security&mdash;Public Order&mdash;Crime and
+    the Penal System</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">13.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Armed Forces</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Historical Background&mdash;Governmental and Party
+    Control Over the Armed Forces&mdash;Organization and Mission&mdash;Foreign Military
+    Relations&mdash;Manpower, Training, and Support&mdash;The Military Establishment and the
+    National Economy</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">SECTION IV. ECONOMIC</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">14.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Character and Structure of the Economy</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Organization&mdash;Structure and
+    Growth&mdash;Planning&mdash;Price System&mdash;Budget&mdash;Banking&mdash;Currency&mdash;Foreign Trade</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">15.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Agriculture</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Agricultural Regions&mdash;Land
+    Use&mdash;Organization&mdash;Farm Labor&mdash;Investment and Credit&mdash;Production</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">16.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Industry</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Natural Resources&mdash;Electric
+    Power&mdash;Organization&mdash;Labor&mdash;Investment and Construction&mdash;Production</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">BIBLIOGRAPHY</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">GLOSSARY</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">INDEX</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="10%" style="font-size: 80%;">Figure</td>
+  <td class="tdlp" width="80%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%" style="font-size: 80%;">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">1</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagepxiv">xiv</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">2</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania, Historic Provinces</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep010">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">3</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Topography of Romania</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep031">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Transportation System</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep044">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep051">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">6</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania, Structure of Education, 1972</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep081">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">7</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">8</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep120">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">9</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep138">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#imagep214">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>LIST OF TABLES</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Tables">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="10%" style="font-size: 80%;">Table</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="80%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%" style="font-size: 80%;">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">1</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971 Estimate</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">2</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960, and 1969</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">3</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania by Economic Sector, 1960,
+    1967, and 1970</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin, 1960 and 1967</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">6</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960 and 1969</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">7</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">8</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and 1969</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">9</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">10&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected years, 1960-69</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">11&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected  Years, 1960-69</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">12&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Crop Production and Livestrock Products in Romania, by Type of Farm, 1969</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdct">13&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960 and 1969</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagepxiv" id="imagepxiv"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagepxiv.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagepxiv.jpg" width="45%" alt="Figure 1. Romania." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 1. Romania.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>SECTION I. SOCIAL</h2>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER 1</h2>
+
+<h2>GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SOCIETY</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman&mdash;PCR) is the
+leading force in the political, economic, and social life of Romania.
+The party general secretary, Nicolae Ceausescu, in early 1972 celebrated
+his seventh anniversary in power, displaying complete confidence in the
+stability of his regime. Ceausescu serves concurrently as the president
+of his country, which is known officially as the Socialist Republic of
+Romania. Although tied militarily and economically to the Soviet Union
+through membership in the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and
+the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), Romania since the
+mid-1950s has pursued an independent course in both its internal
+development and its foreign relations.</p>
+
+<p>In April 1964, in furtherance of its independent stance, the PCR Central
+Committee issued a statement concerning the rights of all communist
+parties and socialist states to choose their own methods of development
+according to "the concrete historic conditions prevailing in their own
+countries." This statement, which has been referred to as Romania's
+declaration of independence, was directed primarily to the leaders of
+the Soviet Union and, in effect, was a warning to them to cease their
+interference in the domestic and foreign affairs of Romania. It was a
+declaration of sovereign rights and self-determination by which the
+Romanian Communists asserted that they were the masters of their
+country's destiny rather than a puppet state to be manipulated by and
+for outside interests.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons that the Soviet Union did not crack down on its former
+subservient satellite are both obscure and complex. One factor operating
+in favor of the Romanians was the rift that had developed between the
+two communist giants&mdash;the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of
+China. The rift had become very deep, and the Soviets were striving to
+gain adherents to their position in the struggle and probably were
+reluctant to use force against Romania because of the danger of
+alienating other communist parties. It is probable that dissension
+within the Moscow <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>leadership, which shortly ended the career of Premier
+Nikita Khrushchev, also inhibited action against Romania.</p>
+
+<p>In their drive to establish rights of autonomy and free choice for their
+country, Romania's leaders have not tried to withdraw from the Soviet
+alliances, nor have they changed the basic nature of their communist
+government. Their actions have demonstrated that their goals have been
+to lessen the influence of the Soviet Union in Romania's domestic and
+foreign affairs, at the same time they themselves maintained an
+absolute, single-party monopoly of power.</p>
+
+<p>After issuing their declaration of independence, the Romanians in
+subsequent years earned a reputation for opposition to the Soviet Union
+within the Warsaw Pact and COMECON as well as in the conduct of their
+relations with noncommunist states. Pursuit of these goals has sometimes
+led the Romanians into situations that have been considered dangerous by
+outside observers, and the leadership has often expressed fears of
+Soviet retaliation against Romania's independent line.</p>
+
+<p>One obvious result of the independent status has been the resurgence of
+Romanian nationalism. Ceausescu, when he talks about "Romania for the
+Romanians," even though he may be speaking in the context of building a
+communist society, receives wide popular support and, at times, appears
+to have genuine appeal among the people he rules. In contrast to the new
+nationalism, during the early years of the Romanian communist era it was
+generally accepted (at least by party members) that the Soviet Union
+deserved to be emulated in every aspect of national life. Not only were
+the party and government patterned on Soviet models, but the entire
+social and economic life of the country was altered to the point of
+almost losing its Romanian uniqueness.</p>
+
+<p>Russian became a required language in the schools, and the history books
+were rewritten to play down the traditional orientation toward Western
+Europe and to highlight Russian influence in the country, which had been
+considerable since the time of Tsar Peter the Great but which had not
+always been beneficial from the Romanian point of view. Pseudoscholars
+intent on the Russification of their country were publishing papers in
+the late 1940s "proving" that the ancient Dacians, to whom modern
+Romanians trace their ancestry, were actually Slavic tribes&mdash;a thesis
+that had never before been suggested. Other spurious scholarship
+attempted to show that the Romanian language was Slavic-based rather
+than Latin-based as linguists had clearly shown.</p>
+
+<p>While Josef Stalin, Soviet dictator and generally acknowledged leader of
+world communism, was still alive, Romania was an obedient satellite, and
+Stalinism was the hallmark of communist <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>rule. Even before Stalin's
+death in March 1953, however, there was dissension in the Romanian
+communist ranks as a Moscow-oriented group vied for power with
+indigenous Communists. The latter group was eventually victorious and,
+after a series of purges, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej emerged as a party
+strong man; the first glimmerings of a distinctive brand of Romanian
+communism can be traced to this period in the early 1950s.</p>
+
+<p>The blending of nationalism and communism did not, however, ameliorate
+the conditions that existed in the country. Gheorghiu-Dej was a
+totalitarian ruler, the party brooked no opposition, few basic freedoms
+for the people existed except in the constitution, and the secret police
+was an effective instrument of control over the people. Gheorghiu-Dej
+did, however, establish a foundation, albeit a very shaky one, for a
+structure of national communism. He and his successor, Ceausescu,
+strengthened this structure through the years to the point that Romania
+became known as the most independent of the former Soviet satellites
+with the exception of Yugoslavia, which has been traveling its own path
+since 1948.</p>
+
+<p>The Socialist Republic of Romania, ruled in early 1972 by Ceausescu and
+the PCR, comprised over 91,700 square miles and contained a population
+of more than 20.6 million. The size and shape of modern Romania is
+remarkably similar to the ancient country of Dacia, which was conquered
+by the Romans in the early second century A.D. and became a province of
+the Roman Empire. Although Roman occupation lasted only about 165 years,
+it is to the mixture of Roman legionnaires and colonists with indigenous
+Dacians that modern Romanians trace their origin. These Daco-Romans are
+almost absent from history's pages for several centuries, but Romanian
+historians state that they existed in the mountains, tending their
+flocks and fending off the vast migrations and avoiding absorption by
+invaders who used the territory as a crossroads into the Balkans or into
+Europe. After they did achieve some semblance of autonomy during the
+Middle Ages, primarily in the historic provinces of Moldavia and
+Walachia, they were always pressured by powerful empires that existed
+during various historic epochs, and a great portion of former Dacia, the
+province of Transylvania, was occupied by Magyars (Hungarians) and was
+not joined to Romania until after World War I.</p>
+
+<p>The great majority of the people are ethnic Romanians, although two
+sizable minority groups, Hungarian and German, still resided within
+Romania's borders in 1972. Other, much smaller, minority groups include
+Jews, Ukrainians, Serbs, Russians, Bulgarians, Czechs and Slovaks,
+Tatars, Turks, and Gypsies. Most of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>the lesser minorities have been
+assimilated to some degree, particularly in the use of the Romanian
+language in the conduct of their daily affairs. The Hungarians and the
+Germans, however, have resisted assimilation, and their education,
+business, and social lives are carried on in their native tongues. Their
+cultural traditions also reflect their Hungarian or German background
+rather than that of the country in which they live.</p>
+
+<p>The religious affiliations of the people follow very closely their
+ethnic differentiations. The vast majority of ethnic Romanians are
+members of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which is one of the
+autocephalous branches of the Eastern Orthodox church. The Romanian
+Orthodox Church was traditionally considered the state or national
+church, which, with its great size, gave it a favored position. Although
+its near-monopoly position was contested by Roman Catholics, Uniates,
+and several Protestant denominations, particularly after the post-World
+War I inclusion of Transylvania within Romania's borders, it still
+remained the predominant religion and was able to retain this position
+even after the communist takeover.</p>
+
+<p>The Hungarians of Romania are Roman Catholics, Calvinists, and
+Unitarians; similarly, the Germans are divided between Roman Catholicism
+and Lutheranism. These religions suffered a period of repression under
+the Communists, some of their clergy being imprisoned and some of their
+churches falling into disrepair because of lack of funds. Nevertheless,
+their adherents still numbered in the hundreds of thousands in the early
+1970s, and the former vigorous effort by the government to discourage
+the practice of religion seems to have softened as the regime
+concentrates on dissuading young people from the acceptance of religious
+beliefs rather than trying to eliminate such beliefs in older
+generations.</p>
+
+<p>The post-World War II Romanian Jewish community has shrunk considerably
+through emigration to Israel, which has been allowed by the government
+and encouraged by Jewish leaders. There continue to be many Jewish
+enclaves, particularly in urban areas, but because Jews have not been
+listed separately in official statistics since the mid-1950s, it is
+difficult to estimate how many remain in the country. There are several
+operating synagogues, but most Jewish services are led by laymen because
+emigration has drained away almost all rabbis and none are being trained
+in the country; the last rabbinical school was closed during the late
+1950s because of lack of faculty and students.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the small Slavic minorities belong to the Orthodox faith, and
+the few remaining Muslims&mdash;Turks and Tatars&mdash;retain their adherence to
+Islam and have their principal mosque in the port city of Constanta.
+Relatively small numbers of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>Romanians are Baptists, Seventh-Day
+Adventists, and Unitarians. Officially, the communist-ruled country
+advocates atheism, but the Constitution allows for freedom of religion
+or freedom to profess no religion. Atheism does not seem to have made
+any great inroads into the established religions during the first
+quarter century of communist rule.</p>
+
+<p>The activities of all religions are supervised by the government through
+its Department of Cults. The separation of church and state is
+constitutionally guaranteed, but in practice this guarantee serves to
+impose limitations on the churches and clergy but does not in any manner
+restrict government interference in religious activities.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Communists were unsuccessful in eradicating religion in the
+country, they have been successful in transforming the politics,
+society, and economy. With the promulgation of the 1948 Constitution,
+based on the Soviet Constitution of 1936, and the establishment of the
+Romanian People's Republic, the new rulers were ready to construct a
+socialist state. Out of this transformation, the leaders were confident
+that a "new socialist man" would ultimately evolve, just as Marx and
+Lenin had prophesied.</p>
+
+<p>In more pragmatic areas the Communists altered the form of government,
+the social structure, and the economy. The 1948 Constitution established
+a form of government much like that of the Soviet Union and other
+communist-ruled states in that the government is structured to be the
+instrument through which the party runs the country. There is an
+interlocking of party and government positions that ensures party
+control over every facet of Romanian life. There are no competing
+political parties, but there are several mass organizations, thoroughly
+PCR dominated, in which the people are urged to participate. These
+include labor unions, youth leagues, women's organizations, and sports
+societies, which serve to involve the people in national and local
+affairs while the party hierarchy retains absolute authority in all
+areas.</p>
+
+<p>The 1948 Constitution was superseded by another in 1952 that brought no
+significant changes and did not greatly alter the structure that had
+been established earlier. The Constitution of 1965, however, changed the
+name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, and, in
+communist jargon, this change was of particular importance because it
+signified that the transition from bourgeois capitalism to socialism had
+been achieved and that Romania could now proceed on its path toward
+communism. Significant also in the 1965 Constitution was the absence of
+any mention of the Soviet Union, which had been featured prominently in
+the previous documents as a model to be copied and as the liberator of
+Romania.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent feature of the Romanian political system <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>is its
+extreme centralization in both the party structure and the government
+organization. The people vote for their representatives at all levels of
+government from a single list of party-approved candidates. Local
+governments always look for direction from a higher level or from the
+center. The PCR has a similar pyramidal structure, the topmost organs
+being self-selecting and self-perpetuating. The concentration of power
+in the hands of the party hierarchy has prevented the rise of any overt
+opposition groups, and there has been no observable coalition of
+dissenters within the party ranks.</p>
+
+<p>In the transformation of the social structure, the Communists brought
+down the former aristocracy and anyone else who they considered might be
+opposed to the new order. They then attempted to elevate the status of
+the former lower classes&mdash;that is, the workers and peasants&mdash;but because
+of the elitist structure of the party the great leveling process
+faltered, and new classes were created despite the prescribed ideology
+of a classless society. The party elite became the new upper class, and
+immediately below them was a growing group of lesser party
+functionaries, technocrats, managers, scientists, teachers, and other
+professionals. The privileges, life-styles, and aspirations of these
+groups ran far ahead of those of the workers and peasants who once again
+found themselves at the bottom of the social pyramid.</p>
+
+<p>Upward mobility is possible, and the key to it is education; the key to
+educational opportunity, however, is most often political influence,
+which also plays a large role in the accessibility to jobs that lead to
+higher social status. A stabilizing of the social structure that became
+apparent toward the end of the 1960s, although it did not block upward
+mobility, would seem to indicate that such social movement will be more
+difficult in the future. Children of workers and peasants will not be
+denied opportunity for higher education, but it would appear that the
+path to opportunity will be easier for children of the party elite and
+the professional classes.</p>
+
+<p>To the people, education is important as a means of social advancement;
+to the regime, however, the educational system is the prime means
+through which it inculcates socialist ideals and trains the
+professionals, technicians, and skilled workers needed to run the
+country. The first great goal under the Communists was the eradication
+of illiteracy, which, according to the government, had been achieved by
+1958. A concurrent and continuing goal was the training of skilled
+technicians, foremen, and middle-level managers. The country's rapid
+industrialization and economic growth caused severe shortages in these
+categories and, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>the early 1970s, the educational and training
+programs still had not met the demands for the upgrading of unskilled
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>Modifications of the educational system have been concentrated on the
+extension of basic primary education from the four-year program that
+existed after World War II to a compulsory ten-year program that is
+expected to be fully operative by 1973. Along with the expansion of
+curricula and the extension of the time spent in primary grades, the
+regime has also reemphasized the importance of ideological and political
+indoctrination for the nation's youth. Adult education has also been
+stressed by the government in its efforts to raise the overall
+educational and skill levels of the entire population.</p>
+
+<p>In the cultural area there has been a shifting of attitudes by the party
+overseers that has seemingly left artists and intellectuals confused and
+wary about the limits of creativity. In the early communist period there
+was slavish imitation of the Soviet doctrine known as Socialist Realism,
+which required that all expression reflect the struggle for social
+justice and the positive aspects of communist achievements. After the
+death of Stalin and particularly after the initiation of
+de-Stalinization in the Soviet Union, there was a relaxation of the
+dogmatic controls forced upon Romanian artists and intellectuals, and
+more emphasis was placed on historical themes and nationalism.
+Restrictions continued, however, and "art for art's sake" was not
+tolerated; even the mild liberalization permitted during the 1960s was
+curtailed to some degree in 1971 as the regime tightened controls on
+artistic and intellectual expression. The new hard-line approach of 1971
+did not signal a return to the extreme dogmatism of the early 1950s but
+was a stern reminder to artists, writers, and journalists of their
+duties to the socialist society.</p>
+
+<p>Militarily, Romania in 1972 maintained about 200,000 men in its armed
+forces, the great majority serving in the army and much smaller numbers
+serving in the navy, air force, and frontier troops. All armed services
+are administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but policymaking
+is a top-level function of the PCR. Manpower needs are filled through
+universal conscription, and serving a term in the military seems to be
+accepted as a normal way of life by young Romanian males.</p>
+
+<p>Romania is a signatory to the Warsaw Pact, but Ceausescu's refusal to
+participate in the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and his
+subsequent condemnation of that action placed the country in the
+position of being a rather reluctant ally within the pact. Ceausescu has
+also refused to allow Warsaw Pact maneuvers to be held in his country,
+and during the Czechoslovak invasion he refused to allow Bulgarian
+troops to cross Romanian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>territory. These actions, plus Ceausescu's
+repeated reference in public speeches to the desirability of the
+dissolution of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
+the Warsaw Pact, caused publication of anti-Romanian propaganda in the
+Soviet Union and the omission of an invitation to Ceausescu to attend a
+meeting of Eastern European leaders in the summer of 1971. The Romanian
+people were reportedly concerned about possible Soviet intervention in
+their internal affairs, as they had been often since 1968, but the
+situation seemed to stabilize in late 1971, at least in outward
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the military and political uncertainties brought about by
+Romania's independent stance in the Warsaw Pact and COMECON, the country
+has enjoyed a rapid economic growth rate. Direction of the country's
+economy is highly centralized and rigidly controlled by the PCR. A
+variety of economic ministries within the governmental structure are
+responsible for the administering of specific sectors of the economy,
+but policymaking is a function of the Standing Presidium of the party.
+The economy operates in accordance with five-year and annual plans that
+are all-encompassing and binding on all economic enterprises. Some
+attempts at decentralization have been made since 1968 in an effort to
+increase initiative on the part of lower level managers, but
+intransigence on the part of the hierarchy in releasing its hold has all
+but nullified the lukewarm reform efforts.</p>
+
+<p>In 1972 Romania was into the second year of its Five-Year Plan (1971-75)
+and was beset by a host of economic problems. The planners had set high
+goals for growth during the period, but past overemphasis on heavy
+industrialization had left a residue of problems in all other areas.
+Agriculture had been neglected, production of consumer goods had never
+reached planned goals, and balance of payment deficits with Western
+nations threatened the foreign trade base. In seeking political and
+economic independence from the Soviet Union, the regime had placed
+itself in a precarious position, which forced it to find ways of
+becoming more competitive in world markets and fulfilling the basic
+needs of its people at the same time it sought to mollify the
+resentments of its COMECON partners and retain its ideological
+commitments to socialism and ultimate communism. Despite its maverick
+approach and its growing relations with the West, Romania was still tied
+by treaty, ideology, and geography to the Soviet Union and to its
+Eastern European communist neighbors. </p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 2</h2>
+
+<h2>HISTORICAL SETTING</h2>
+
+
+<p>Romania's history as an independent state dates from about the middle of
+the nineteenth century; as a communist state, from about the end of
+World War II. The history of the Romanian people, however, is long,
+complex, and important when considered in the context of the overall
+history of the Balkan region. The origin and development of the
+Romanians remain controversial subjects among Romanian and Hungarian
+historians, whose arguments serve to support or deny claims to rightful
+ownership of large areas within Romania's borders (see fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p>Until the end of World War II Romania's history as a state was one of
+gains and losses of territory and shifting borders. As the Ottoman
+Empire in Europe receded, the Romanians found themselves pressured by
+the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. Borders arranged by the
+victorious powers after World War I increased Romania's territory but
+also increased its minority population, particularly the Hungarian.
+Between the two world wars the country experienced a period of fascist
+dictatorship and aligned itself with Nazi Germany early in World War II,
+but it eventually overthrew the fascists and finished the war on the
+side of the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>The borders arranged after World War II formalized the loss of territory
+to the Soviet Union but have remained stable since the end of the war.
+In the postwar chaos of the late 1940s, with Soviet troops occupying the
+country, Romania deposed its king and emerged as a communist state under
+the close scrutiny and supervision of its powerful northern neighbor,
+the Soviet Union. After the death of Josef Stalin the Romanian
+leadership began a slow pursuit of nationalist goals, which continued in
+the early 1970s. Although the Moscow-Bucharest ties have often been
+strained, the Romanians have carefully avoided a break that would
+provoke a reaction such as the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in
+1968.</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian people see themselves as a Latin island surrounded by Slavs
+and Magyars (Hungarians). They are proud of their long, distinctly
+different historical development and consider that their history is
+important to them as proof of their ethnic uniqueness in the area and as
+proof that Romania belongs to the Romanians.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>EARLY ORIGIN</p>
+
+<p>The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area included in present-day
+Romania were Thracian tribes, known as Dacians, who settled in the area
+well before the Christian Era and established a major center in
+Transylvania (see fig. 2). These people practiced a primitive form of
+agriculture and engaged in limited trade with Greek settlements along
+the western coast of the Black Sea. By the middle of the first century
+A.D. the Dacians had grouped themselves into a loosely formed state
+ruled by a series of kings who attempted to expand their power to the
+north and west and, most aggressively, to the south into the area below
+the lower Danube River.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep010" id="imagep010"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep010.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep010.jpg" width="63%" alt="Figure 2. Romania, Historic Provinces." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;"><i>Note.</i> Internal boundaries have not been shown because
+of the long history of expansion, contraction, and shifting borders and
+because the provinces are no longer political entities.</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 2. Romania, Historic Provinces.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In their advance southward the Dacians came into conflict with the
+Romans who, during the same period, were attempting to extend their
+control over the Balkan region and to push the northern border of their
+empire up to the natural barrier formed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>by the Danube River. In a
+series of campaigns between A.D. 101 and 106, the Roman emperor Trajan
+succeeded in conquering the areas known as Banat, Oltenia, and Walachia
+and in finally reducing the Dacian stronghold in Transylvania. After
+consolidating and unifying his control over the people, Trajan fortified
+the area, stationed Roman legions in garrisons at strategic points, and
+organized the region to serve as a province of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>As a border province, Dacia developed rapidly and became one of the most
+prosperous in the empire. Colonists were brought in from other parts of
+the empire, cities were built, agriculture and mineral resources were
+developed, and profitable commercial relations were established with
+other regions under Roman control. The province proved vulnerable to
+periodic barbarian incursions, however, and toward the end of the third
+century the Roman emperor Aurelian was forced to abandon Dacia and
+withdraw the Roman troops to defend similarly threatened areas farther
+to the south.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the romanization of the native population, little evidence of
+the occupation survived the Roman evacuation of Dacia. Among the traces
+of the Roman presence remaining were the vestiges of Christianity
+introduced in the second century and the legacy of the name of the
+future state of Romania as well as the Latin basis for its language.</p>
+
+<p>Lacking natural geographical barriers to invasion from the east and
+south, the greater part of the Dacian territory was overrun by
+successive waves of barbarian invaders for ten centuries after the
+withdrawal of the Romans. Little is known of the fate of the Daco-Roman
+population during this long, turbulent period until new settlements
+inhabited by a Latin-speaking people known as Vlachs emerged on the
+Romanian plains in the eleventh century. Although historic records are
+lacking, these Vlachs were believed to be descendants of the earlier
+Daco-Roman colonists, many of whom either sought refuge in the
+Carpathian Mountains of Transylvania or migrated south of the Danube
+River to escape the invaders. Having survived, they returned to
+reestablish themselves in their historic homeland.</p>
+
+<p>The succession of barbaric invasions exploited and devastated the
+country. The Germanic Goths were followed by Slavs and Avars, and not
+until the Bulgars overran the area in the seventh century was a
+semblance of civic order established. The region developed a rudimentary
+form of cultural life, and Christianity in the Eastern Orthodox form was
+introduced after the conversion of the Bulgar Tsar Boris in 864. The
+Bulgars were eventually displaced by Hungarians who, in turn, gave way
+to Asiatic Tatars, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>all of whom left limited, but lasting, influences on
+the land and its inhabitants.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPALITIES</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Walachia and Moldavia</p>
+
+<p>As the threats of invasion diminished, the Vlachs gradually moved
+farther into the foothills and plains of the Danube basin and fused with
+a population that, while retaining a small Vlach element, had by then
+acquired a heavy mixture of Slavs and Tatars. Two distinct groups
+eventually emerged, one settling in the area now known as Walachia and
+the other settling farther to the east and north in Moldavia. The
+earliest events surrounding the development of these areas are not
+known, but after a period of colonization the two regions emerged, in
+the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, respectively, as the
+semi-independent principalities of Walachia and Moldavia.</p>
+
+<p>When the Ottoman Empire overran southeastern Europe in the fifteenth
+century, these Danubian principalities were forced to accept Turkish
+suzerainty and remained Turkish dependencies until the middle of the
+nineteenth century. Unlike other areas under Turkish rule, the Romanian
+principalities were controlled by native princes, who maintained their
+position through concessions to the nobles, from among whom they had
+gained preeminence, and through the concurrence of the Turks, to whom a
+substantial annual tribute was paid. This system of political control
+led to intrigues and a long succession of rulers who, assisted by the
+nobles, systematically exploited the peasantry, from whom the heavy
+annual tribute was collected.</p>
+
+<p>Continued misrule and long-term economic exploitation of the regions
+seriously affected the social structure within the principalities. The
+lesser nobility, including the landed gentry, was reduced to the level
+of free peasants; the peasantry itself was placed in virtually complete
+serfdom; and cultural activity became almost nonexistent. Even the
+appearance of outstanding political and military leaders, such as
+Michael the Brave of Walachia (1593-1601) and Stephen the Great, prince
+of Moldavia (1457-1504), could not reverse the general trend of
+deterioration, although the harshness of the feudal system was somewhat
+lessened during their tenure in office.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the eighteenth century the Ottoman Empire began to
+decline, and the Turks instituted a system of direct control over
+Walachia and Moldavia, in order to ensure the continued receipt of
+maximum revenue from the countries. Greek merchants known as Phanariots,
+named for the Phanar district <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>of Constantinople, which was their
+center, were invested as rulers in the principalities upon direct
+payment of large sums of money. Since their period in office was
+indefinite and generally lasted only until outbid by a successor, an
+even more intensive system of exploitation within the countries was
+introduced to extract greater tribute in shorter periods of time. This
+period of oppressive rule lasted until 1821 and proved to be the most
+disastrous experienced by the inhabitants. Conditions under this corrupt
+system became almost intolerable and led to massive resistance and
+eventually to the heavy migration of the peasantry into neighboring
+areas, particularly Transylvania.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Transylvania</p>
+
+<p>The historic development of Transylvania was substantially different and
+more complex than that experienced by the principalities of Walachia and
+Moldavia. Overrun by Asiatic Magyars as early as the ninth century, the
+region was organized originally as a province in the eleventh century.
+In order to strengthen this eastern outpost, the Hungarians encouraged
+two groups of people&mdash;Szeklers, or Szekelys, an ethnic group of people
+akin to the Hungarians, and Germans&mdash;to emigrate from the west into the
+area. Although these colonists eventually reached substantial numbers,
+the native Romanian speakers remained in the majority (see ch. 4).</p>
+
+<p>With the expansion of Turkish power, Transylvania became the
+battleground for opposing Turkish and Hungarian forces. Under Turkish
+pressure Hungarian control declined in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, and by 1526 the region had become a semiautonomous
+principality ruled by Hungarian princes but still subject to Turkish
+authority. At the end of the sixteenth century Michael the Brave, the
+ruler of Walachia and Moldavia, succeeded in revolting against Turkish
+rule and united Transylvania with the other Romanian territories. This
+union, however, was short lived, and all three principalities
+subsequently reverted to Turkish control. Toward the end of the
+seventeenth century Austria conquered Hungary, and Transylvania as part
+of Hungary then was included in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest times the position of the Romanians in Transylvania
+was inferior to that of the other nationalities, and accounts of the
+long-term measures practiced against them have been perpetuated among
+their descendants. The Romanians were mostly serfs, and their social and
+economic status was the lowest in the province. Their Orthodox
+Christianity was not recognized, in contrast to the Lutheran, Calvinist,
+Unitarian, and Roman Catholic faiths practiced by the various other
+nationalities (see <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>ch. 5). To gain religious equality and to win a
+larger measure of economic and social recognition, many of the Romanians
+gradually abandoned their Eastern Orthodox creed and became Uniates by
+accepting papal authority in 1698.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Romanians were slow to benefit from the relatively high
+cultural and political level reached in Transylvania under the
+Austro-Hungarians, an appreciable number of concessions had been made to
+them by the middle of the nineteenth century. They began to share in the
+political life after political parties were established, schools were
+opened for Romanian children, and education became more widespread among
+the general population. Progress in these and associated fields
+stimulated the Romanian desire for full equality and the hope for
+eventual unification of all Romanians in their own national state.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">WESTERN INFLUENCES</p>
+
+<p>Although Romania was late in achieving national recognition, many of the
+factors that were to influence its Western orientation after
+independence began to evolve as early as the seventeenth century. In
+Transylvania the Uniate church became an important medium by which
+Romanian national identity was fostered in the struggle against foreign
+assimilation. The Habsburg rulers favored the expansion of the church
+and permitted the opening of seminaries for the training of young
+Romanian clergy. Many of these young clerics were sent to Rome to
+complete their studies and, while there, became aware of their Roman
+ancestry. They saw the famous column of Trajan, which recorded, in
+stone, the early conquest of their Dacian ancestors by the Romans, and
+they also discovered that Romanian was an essentially Latin language
+(see ch. 4).</p>
+
+<p>The contacts established with Rome encouraged the scholarly development
+of a "Latinist" movement in the homeland in the late eighteenth century,
+which produced many adherents among the Transylvanian Romanians. It was
+the efforts of this group that led to the replacement of the Cyrillic
+alphabet, then in common use, with the Latin, the writing of the first
+latinized Romanian grammar and, later, the introduction of the first
+dictionary that traced the full historical development of the Romanian
+language. These reforms helped to create a uniform literary language as
+an essential basis for the broad development of Romanian culture (see
+ch. 7).</p>
+
+<p>During their long experience under the Habsburgs and Hungarians, the
+Transylvanian Romanians also became intimately associated with the
+events of central and western Europe. Opportunities for travel and
+cultural contacts that later developed were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>also predominantly within
+Western areas and intensified the political consciousness of the
+Romanians along Western lines.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in Walachia and Moldavia interest in Western ideas and
+affairs was provided by French influences introduced initially by the
+Greek Phanariot princes, who were in power during most of the eighteenth
+century. These rulers established French as the court language, and many
+of the Greek merchants, clergymen, and teachers who followed them into
+the areas helped spread the use of French among the urban population in
+Bucharest and Iasi, the respective capital cities. Gradually, French was
+introduced into Romanian schools, and eventually Romanian students from
+the principalities were sent abroad in considerable numbers to study at
+French universities.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to Romanian students, many of the young sons of Romanian
+nobles traveled in France. These two groups gradually formed the nucleus
+of an intellectual class, which favored French philosophy and thought
+and which became receptive to the liberal ideas of the French Revolution
+and later periods.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE</p>
+
+<p>A phase of major significance and a turning point in Romanian history
+began in 1821 with a revolt led by Tudor Vladimirescu, a Romanian and
+former officer in the Russian army. This uprising against the harsh
+Phanariot rule was the first with a national character, and it attempted
+to give expression to the revolutionary ideas of emancipation and
+independence. Although the outbreak was suppressed by the Turks, it did
+achieve the objective of bringing about the early abolition of the
+Phanariot regime and the restoration of Romanian princes as rulers in
+the Danubian principalities.</p>
+
+<p>After the Russo-Turkish war from 1826 to 1828 Russian forces occupied
+both Walachia and Moldavia to ensure the payment of a large war
+indemnity by the Turks. Under the ensuing six-year enlightened and
+competent rule of the Russian governor Count Pavel Kiselev, the
+foundations were laid for a new Romanian state. The first constitutional
+assemblies were organized along identical lines in each province; a
+rudimentary governmental administration was established and modeled on
+that of the French; an educational system was begun; commerce and a
+modest industry were encouraged; and provisions were made for the
+creation of a national militia. The intentional similarity in the
+fundamental laws that were also enacted in each area further encouraged
+the two principalities to develop side by side.</p>
+
+<p>During the two decades after the departure of Russian occupying forces,
+the national movement within the two <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>principalities continued to grow
+under the rule of native princes who had been restored to power.
+Considerable stimulation was provided by the 1848 revolutionary events
+in France, the basic ideas of which were imported by the French-educated
+Romanians. Dissension arose, and street demonstrations took place during
+which demands were made for freedom of speech, assembly, and the press,
+as well as for the unification of all Romanians in one independent
+state. Similar emancipation efforts were also organized in Transylvania,
+but they, too, were forcibly repressed, as were those in Walachia and
+Moldavia.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the setbacks suffered by the intellectuals and other leaders of
+the revolutionary movement, the modern ideas of liberal government took
+firm root and continued to flourish. The dispute between Russia and
+Turkey that culminated in the Crimean War, however, provided the actual
+opportunity for the first step toward ultimate independence. French and
+Russian collaboration at the Congress of Paris, which concluded the war
+in 1858, succeeded in producing agreements that finally led to the
+establishment of the autonomous United Principalities of Walachia and
+Moldavia in 1859.</p>
+
+<p>Although still subject to Ottoman authority, the United Principalities
+moved rapidly under their newly elected leader, Alexander Cuza, to
+further unify and modernize themselves. Cuza fused the administration of
+the two principalities into a single government, established a single
+capital at Bucharest, and changed the name from United Principalities to
+Romania. Domestic reforms were also undertaken, among which were the
+emancipation of the serfs in 1864, the institution of a broad land
+distribution program, the introduction of free and compulsory education,
+and the adoption of the French civil and penal codes as the basis for a
+revised legal system. Political parties on the Western pattern began to
+take form as well, the conservatives representing the large landowners
+and the liberals representing the new urban class.</p>
+
+<p>The reforms instituted by Cuza were bold and progressive, but his
+methods proved to be harsh and unpopular. Forced to abdicate in 1866, he
+was succeeded by a German prince, Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
+Charles, who reigned from 1866 to 1914, extended the reforms initiated
+by Cuza. He gave the country its first formal constitution modeled after
+that of the Belgians, built the country's first railroad, and modernized
+and enlarged the small army. In 1878 the country's full independence was
+recognized by the Treaty of Berlin, which ended the two-year
+Russo-Turkish war in which Romania participated as an ally of Russia.
+The Kingdom of Romania was proclaimed formally in 1881 with the crowning
+of Prince Charles in Bucharest as Carol I.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>The period from 1878 to 1918 brought significant advances in Romania,
+largely in the economic and political fields. Under the initiative of
+King Carol I and with considerable backing from German capital, new
+industries were started, and others were expanded; railroad and port
+construction was emphasized; and the considerable petroleum resources of
+the country were developed and exploited. The goals of political parties
+and leaders became more clearly defined, and modern government
+institutions, including a bicameral parliament, were organized.</p>
+
+<p>Economic and formal political progress, however, was not matched by
+similar advancement of democratic processes in the social field. The
+liberal provisions of the 1866 Constitution were circumvented under the
+authoritarian governmental system, leaving much actual power in the
+hands of the landed aristocracy. The slowly rising middle class and
+small number of industrial entrepreneurs were granted some rights, but
+the increasing number of industrial workers and the great peasant
+majority shared very little in the political life of the country.</p>
+
+<p>A major peasant revolt in 1907 attempted unsuccessfully to rectify the
+serious social imbalance. The uprising was forcefully suppressed with
+extensive loss of life and, although some corrective measures were later
+instituted that improved working conditions and resulted in the division
+of more large landholdings, the general political strength and living
+standards of the peasants and workers were not materially improved.
+Related also to this social unrest was another problem that grew more
+intense during the latter half of the nineteenth century&mdash;that of the
+increasing size and economic importance of a large Jewish minority.</p>
+
+<p>Forbidden to own land and subject to many other restrictions, the Jews
+had settled in urban areas, engaged successfully in commercial
+activities and, as a class, gained economic influence and position
+generally out of proportion to their overall numerical strength in the
+population. To an unusual degree, they formed the prosperous urban
+middle class, overshadowing the far smaller number of native Romanians
+in that category. In rural centers, as moneylenders, they also became
+the middlemen between landlords and peasants; as such, the Jew became a
+symbol of oppression, which over the years was transferred into intense
+anti-Semitism. Consequently, the Jews were included as a target in the
+1907 uprising, and the animosity shown then remained a feature of later
+Romanian society.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">WORLD WAR I</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 Romania's leaders were indecisive
+and proclaimed an armed neutrality, which lasted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>for nearly two years.
+Much of the pro-Russian and pro-French political orientation of the
+1840s and 1850s still existed in the country, but this was offset in
+large measure by the strong ties of King Carol I with Bismarck's Germany
+and by the rapprochement with Germany that had resulted from the large
+investment of German capital in the country. In addition, territorial
+inducements, which were attractive to Romania, were made by each side to
+influence its entry into the conflict. The Central Powers offered
+Bessarabia to be taken from Russia, and the Allies promised the cession
+of Transylvania from Austro-Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of King Carol I and the accession of his nephew, King
+Ferdinand, to the throne, Romania entered the war on the Allied side in
+1916. By December 1917, however, Romania was forced to conclude an
+armistice when the Russian forces disintegrated on the Balkan front
+after the Bolshevik revolution of that year. Before the armistice was
+ratified, however, and as the defeat of the Central Powers was becoming
+apparent, the Romanian army, which had not been demobilized, reentered
+the war, liberated Bucharest from the Germans, and occupied much of
+Bessarabia and Transylvania. After the war, in response to the expressed
+will of the popular assemblies in Transylvania, Bessarabia, and
+Bukovina, those provinces were united with the Kingdom of Romania&mdash;often
+called the Old Kingdom. Formal treaties in 1919 and 1920 confirmed these
+decisions, and virtually all Romanians were finally reunited within the
+historic homeland.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INTERWAR YEARS, 1918-40</p>
+
+<p>With the annexation of Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina, postwar
+Romania, sometimes referred to as Greater Romania, doubled in size, as
+well as in population. Included among the newly acquired population were
+large ethnic minorities&mdash;principally Hungarians, Germans, and
+Jews&mdash;whose diverse backgrounds and development presented complex
+social, political, economic, and administrative problems for the
+Romanian government. The various traditions of the people within the
+acquired lands could not easily be transformed into new patterns,
+largely because of the government's reluctance to share power with any
+political leaders except those representing the Transylvanian Romanians.
+As a result, minority elements were largely excluded from national
+affairs, and discriminatory policies developed that bred resentment and
+increased political instability (see ch. 4).</p>
+
+<p>The immediate postwar years were dominated by the Liberal Party of the
+Old Kingdom. The party instituted a series of land reforms, fostered
+increased industrialization, and sponsored a broadly democratic
+constitution in 1923, which made the new <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>state a centralized
+constitutional monarchy. The Transylvanian Romanians, long accustomed to
+considerable autonomy and self-government under Hungarian rule, resented
+the imposition of central control, especially under the administration
+of officials from Bucharest. In protest, a new party, the National
+Peasant Party, was formed in 1926 by a fusion of the Transylvanian
+National Party with the Peasant Party in the Old Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Other parties were active during this early period, but all were
+overshadowed by the Liberal Party and the National Peasant Party. The
+Social Democratic Party had been organized at the beginning of the
+twentieth century but, lacking any sizable number of industrial workers,
+the socialist movement remained weak. After the Russian revolution,
+however, the radical left-wing elements of the Social Democratic Party
+seceded and formed the Romanian Communist Party in 1921. The Communists
+went underground after being banned in 1924 and were largely ineffective
+until after World War II.</p>
+
+<p>The death of King Ferdinand in 1927 and the elections of the following
+year brought significant changes in the Romanian government. Ferdinand's
+son, Carol II, was excluded from the succession because of his earlier
+renunciation of all claims to the throne to accept exile with his
+mistress, Magda Lupescu. A regency was therefore appointed to rule in
+the name of Carol's young son, Michael, and a new government led by
+Iuliu Maniu and the National Peasant Party was elected, thus ending the
+six-year tenure of the Liberals.</p>
+
+<p>Although Maniu's government instituted a series of reforms intended to
+improve general economic and social conditions, its efforts were largely
+offset by the adverse effects of the worldwide depression of the early
+1930s. Also, early dissatisfaction with the regency resulted in the
+return of Carol II from exile and his assumption of the crown in late
+1930. His agreement to sever relations with Magda Lupescu was not kept,
+however, and in protest Maniu resigned the premiership. In the unstable
+conditions that followed, King Carol II emerged as the chief political
+figure in the country, and his rule evolved into a royal dictatorship.</p>
+
+<p>King Carol's assumption of power was aided initially by the rise of a
+fanatical fascist and anti-Semitic group known as the Iron Guard. This
+group was strongly pro-German and employed tactics similar to those of
+the Nazi party, which was then emerging as the dominant political force
+in Germany. The fascist movement, with financial and indirect support
+from Germany, increased the influence of the Iron Guard, which was
+reflected in the 1937 elections. The coalition government that resulted
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>supported King Carol but was later overthrown, bringing to power a new
+coalition of right-wing extremists.</p>
+
+<p>In order to halt the increasing threat to his power, Carol proclaimed a
+personal dictatorship in 1938 and promulgated a new constitution that
+abolished all political parties and instituted censorship and other
+control measures. This action was followed by the suppression of the
+Iron Guard, whose leader, Corneliu Codreanu, was shot. Absolute
+authority was maintained by the king, who was supported by the army and
+by the National Renaissance Front, a monopoly party that he founded
+later in the same year.</p>
+
+<p>Internal instability and uncertainty were aggravated by rapidly
+developing international events that threatened the security of the
+state. The swift rise of Germany under Adolf Hitler resulted in the
+annexation of Austria in 1938 and the subsequent dismemberment and
+absorption of Czechoslovakia. These actions, unopposed by the Western
+powers, were early warnings of weakness in the Western-oriented
+collective security system on which Romania had depended since World War
+I. The lessening of confidence in the West led Romania in 1939 to
+conclude a treaty of economic collaboration with Germany. This agreement
+greatly increased German influence in the country and placed the
+extensive Romanian oil and other resources at Germany's disposal for
+later wartime use.</p>
+
+<p>Although Romania's territorial integrity had been guaranteed by both
+Great Britain and France after the fall of Czechoslovakia, these
+assurances were nullified by the early German military successes
+achieved following the outbreak of World War II. After the conclusion of
+a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Germany
+invaded and occupied Poland and, by mid-1940, had defeated France and
+forced the evacuation of the European mainland by British forces. Faced
+with the loss of its two strongest partners in the alliance system and
+with the aggressive ambitions of the two strongest totalitarian powers
+on the European continent&mdash;Germany and the Soviet Union&mdash;Romania had
+little chance of continued independent survival.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">WORLD WAR II</p>
+
+<p>The first claims against Romania were made by the Soviet Union, which in
+June 1940 demanded the immediate cession of Bessarabia and northern
+Bukovina. Under German pressure Romania acceded to these demands, as
+well as to the later loss of northern Transylvania, which Germany and
+Italy transferred to Hungary at a joint conference held in Vienna on
+August 30, 1940. A third loss of territory, also under German pressure,
+followed one week later with the return of southern Dobruja to Bulgaria,
+which had already entered the war on the side of Germany.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>The crisis caused by these territorial losses had a serious impact
+within the country. King Carol was forced to appoint a pro-German
+cabinet, and the government was heavily infiltrated with members of the
+Iron Guard, most of whom were released from custody under German
+pressure. A national protest against the king in early September
+culminated in his abdication in favor of his son, Michael. A new
+government under General Ion Antonescu was formed, composed almost
+entirely of members of the Iron Guard, whose leader was made vice
+premier. German troops entered the country under the pretext of
+protecting the oilfields, and on November 23, 1940, Romania joined
+Germany, Italy, and Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1941 members of the Iron Guard, attempting to seize full
+control of the government, initiated a terroristic campaign that was
+suppressed with much bloodshed by the Romanian army, which had remained
+loyal to the government. With the continued support of the Germans,
+Antonescu dissolved the Iron Guard and formed an almost exclusively
+military dictatorship. After stabilization of the government, Romania
+entered the war against the Soviet Union and incurred heavy losses in
+the prolonged fighting on the eastern front.</p>
+
+<p>After the defeat of the German and Romanian forces at Stalingrad in
+early 1943, the Soviets mounted a counteroffensive, which by mid-1944
+had liberated the southwestern portions of the Soviet Union and had
+advanced deep into Romania and threatened Bucharest. On August 23, 1944,
+King Michael, with the support of the major political and military
+leaders, overthrew the regime of Antonescu, halted all fighting, and
+installed a new, moderate, coalition government. Under the terms of the
+armistice that followed, Romania reentered the war on the side of the
+Allies, agreed to reparation payments, and accepted the military
+occupation of the country until the conclusion of a final peace
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian forces that continued the war were committed in support of the
+Soviet army in Transylvania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. Those engaged
+on the Moldavian front were disarmed, and control over the greater part
+of the country was maintained by the Soviets. Among the occupation
+troops stationed in Romania was the communist-indoctrinated "Tudor
+Vladimirescu" division, a force composed of captured Romanian prisoners
+that had been organized after the German-Romanian defeat at Stalingrad.
+In addition, the Soviets were given the chairmanship of the Allied
+Control Commission, the joint body that was established to administer
+the occupied country.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>COMMUNIST SEIZURE OF POWER</p>
+
+<p>The several conferences held by the Allied powers concerning postwar
+arrangements and the understandings that resulted from bilateral
+discussion among individual leaders indicated that the Soviet Union was
+to become the dominant military and political power in the Balkans. As a
+result, the Soviets, from the outset of their period of occupation,
+acted determinedly to consolidate their position within Romania and to
+influence the development of a permanent postwar governmental system
+designed along communist lines.</p>
+
+<p>Although Romania had surrendered in August 1944, it took several months
+to create a government stable enough to carry out essential programs.
+The first postwar coalition regimes included relatively few Communists
+who ostensibly cooperated with the revived traditional political
+parties. Despite their small numbers, however, they vigorously engaged
+in disruptive antigovernment tactics to prevent the stabilization of
+political authority along democratic lines. This course of action was
+dictated by the general weakness of the Communists who had surfaced
+after the war and was handicapped by the absence of partisan or
+resistance organizations, which could have been used as a basis for
+expanding political control.</p>
+
+<p>Lacking popular support, the Communist Party set about creating mass
+organizations, labor unions, and front organizations through which they
+could increase their power. Among the leaders in these activities were
+Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, an early Communist who had been imprisoned
+during the war, and Ana Pauker, who had spent the war years in Moscow
+before returning to Romania after the entry of Soviet forces. By the
+fall of 1944 the Communists had been successful in grouping a
+leftist-oriented agrarian party called the Plowman's Front, splinter
+elements of the Social Democratic Party, various labor unions, and
+several social welfare organizations into the National Democratic Front.
+The front became the principal instrument through which the party worked
+to achieve political dominance.</p>
+
+<p>The National Democratic Front received recognition in the December 1944
+government of General Nicolae Radescu and, although given a number of
+important posts, was generally held to a role subordinate to that of the
+National Peasant, the Liberal, and the Social Democratic parties. In
+late January 1945 after a visit to Moscow by Pauker and Gheorghiu-Dej,
+the leftist leadership within the government initiated a virulent
+campaign of disorder, agitation, and denunciation against Radescu and
+called for the replacement of his regime with one to be formed by the
+National Democratic Front.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>The anti-Radescu campaign was prolonged and intensified by the
+Communists who, through their control of the printer's union, were able
+to silence the opposition press and thus enhance their own propaganda.
+In February 1945, during a staged demonstration, the Communists provoked
+an incident in which several participants were killed. Demands were made
+for Radescu's arrest, and he was forced to seek asylum within a foreign
+mission. Using this latest incident as a pretext, Soviet Deputy
+Commissar for Foreign Affairs Andrei Vyshinsky, who arrived from Moscow
+within two days of the event, forced King Michael to accept a National
+Democratic Front government to be headed by Petru Groza, the leader of
+the Plowman's Front and longtime communist sympathizer.</p>
+
+<p>The government installed by Groza on March 6, 1945, was dominated by
+Communists and fellow travelers and represented an effective seizure of
+power by relatively peaceful means. Although a few dissident former
+members of the Liberal and National Peasant parties were given posts to
+maintain the facade of representative government, no leaders or
+representative members of the historic political parties were included.</p>
+
+<p>After recognition by the Soviet Union in August 1945 and by the United
+States and Great Britain in February 1946, the Groza government held
+rigged elections for the Grand National Assembly and emerged with 379 of
+the 414 seats. Having thus achieved legislative as well as executive
+control, the Communists proceeded methodically during the following year
+to eliminate all political opposition. National Peasant and Liberal
+leaders were arrested and tried, and these two major parties were
+outlawed in June 1947. This action was followed in the spring of 1948 by
+the fusion of the Social Democrats with the Communists into a new party
+called the Romanian Workers' Party, which the Communists controlled. As
+a final step the National Democratic Front was reorganized into the
+People's Democratic Front, which then included the Romanian Workers'
+Party, the Plowman's Front, and two new puppet organizations&mdash;the
+National Popular Party and the Hungarian People's Union.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of 1947 the only remaining link with the prewar system was
+the monarchy. King Michael, in addition to being a popular ruler,
+represented a national symbol around whom anticommunist opposition could
+rally and, as such, was an unacceptable threat to the embryonic
+communist dictatorship. Accordingly, in a meeting in December requested
+by Groza and Gheorghiu-Dej, King Michael was forced to abdicate under
+the threat of civil war. On the same day the government <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>announced the
+creation of the Romanian People's Republic. This action represented the
+last step in the seizure of power and placed Romania under complete
+communist control.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE COMMUNIST STATE</p>
+
+<p>Having seized effective control of the government, the Communists
+embarked on a program of organizing the state along totalitarian lines.
+As the first step toward consolidating their position, the Communists
+initiated extensive purges and liquidation of anticommunist elements in
+preparation for the holding of new parliamentary elections. The
+carefully controlled elections held in March 1948 overwhelmingly favored
+the single list of candidates put forward by the People's Democratic
+Front, which received 405 of the 414 seats. The new National Assembly
+met the following month, adopted a constitution modeled after that of
+the Soviet Union, and formalized the establishment of the Romanian
+People's Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Over the next five years the country rapidly assumed the characteristics
+of a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Allied Control Commission
+was withdrawn by mutual consent, and the Soviets were given the right to
+retain occupation troops in the country beyond the 1947 peace treaty
+date on the basis of an alleged need to protect the lines of
+communication with other Soviet forces being maintained in Austria.
+Under these favorable conditions and with close party supervision,
+locally appointed people's councils had little difficulty in
+administratively organizing the local governments in accordance with the
+Soviet system.</p>
+
+<p>Soviet-style instruments of control also appeared in a broad pattern in
+all major fields and included the collectivization of agriculture, the
+nationalization of industry, the centralization of control of the
+national economy on a planned basis, and the creation of militia and
+police forces whose function was to maintain the authority of the
+communist regime and to eliminate all actual or potential opposition to
+its policies.</p>
+
+<p>The 1951-53 show trials and political purges within the communist ranks,
+which were spearheaded from Moscow, served more to strengthen than to
+weaken Romanian leadership in the party. Although Gheorghiu-Dej, a
+native leader, had headed the party as its general secretary since 1945,
+his influence and that of other Romanian Communists in government
+affairs was limited. The Moscow-trained element led by Pauker, which
+followed the Soviet forces into Romania, had become dominant in the
+party organization, largely because it enjoyed both the support and
+confidence of the Soviets. This group, considered <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>essentially foreign
+within the Romanian communist movement, firmly controlled the party
+apparatus, including the secret police, the key posts that dealt with
+foreign affairs, and the domestic economy.</p>
+
+<p>This maldistribution of power within the ruling group led to factional
+disputes and internal bickerings, which were brought to the surface and
+finally solved by the purging of Pauker and the remainder of the
+Muscovite group in 1952. After the purges Gheorghiu-Dej and his close
+collaborators assumed full and undivided authority within the party. The
+party was successful in maintaining a high degree of homogeneity in its
+leadership, and the resultant stability within its ranks enabled it to
+adopt, and later carry out, policies that favored Romanian over
+international interests in communist affairs.</p>
+
+<p>After the purges Gheorghiu-Dej assumed the premiership and, as the
+government and party machinery were now in Romanian hands, the
+nationalistic character of the communist government began to appear. In
+the early stages emphasis was placed on disengaging the country from
+many of the tight Soviet controls that still existed. As an initial move
+the Romanians in 1954 successfully negotiated the dissolution of the
+onerous joint Soviet-Romanian industrial concerns that had been used by
+the Soviets to drain the Romanian economy during the postwar years. This
+was followed in 1958 by obtaining Soviet agreement to the withdrawal of
+all occupation forces from Romanian territory. At the same time efforts
+to stimulate and improve the economy led to the establishment of limited
+economic relations with several Western and noncommunist bloc countries
+(see ch. 14).</p>
+
+<p>Despite the nationalistic shift in Romanian external policy during this
+period, the Romanians were careful to indicate to Moscow that, although
+they wished to conduct their affairs with a minimum of Soviet
+interference, they had no intention either of abandoning their adherence
+to the Soviet bloc or of diminishing their efforts toward the
+achievement of all basic communist aims in the country. The manner and
+form of internal control in Romania remained repressive and essentially
+Stalinist; only minor liberalizing changes took place over the next
+several years.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Stalin in 1953 Gheorghiu-Dej supported the new form
+of collective leadership, which separated government and party
+functions. Following the Soviet pattern he gave up his party post but
+reclaimed it two years later, coincidentally with the emergence of
+Nikita Khrushchev as the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>leading figure in the Soviet hierarchy. Also,
+Romania further demonstrated its allegiance to the communist cause by
+formally endorsing the drastic action taken by the Soviets in
+suppressing the Hungarian revolt against the communist regime in 1956.</p>
+
+<p>The next step in the pursuit of national goals was taken in the economic
+field and consisted of measures that sought to lessen Romania's economic
+dependence on the Soviet Union and the more developed East European
+countries. These goals were embodied in the country's Five-Year Plan
+(1960-65), which called for the accelerated creation of an expanded
+industrial base supported by its own natural resources and technical
+assistance from the more advanced noncommunist countries. This ambitious
+program was vigorously pursued beginning in 1960 and, by 1962, had come
+into sharp conflict with Premier Khrushchev's announced plans of
+revitalizing the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
+transforming it into a unified system that would integrate the economies
+of all Eastern European member nations (see ch. 14).</p>
+
+<p>COMECON, set up by the Soviets in 1949 as a counterpoise to the European
+Recovery Program (Marshall Plan), was basically an economic commission
+designed to assist the economic development of the communist Eastern
+European nations during the post-World War II period. Within this
+organization Romania had acted largely as a supplier of agricultural
+products, petroleum, and other raw materials and depended on the more
+industrialized member states for most manufactured goods. Under the
+Khrushchev plan, Romania's role in this organization would remain
+unchanged, and all domestic plans that had been developed to produce a
+balanced economy through increased industrialization would be
+effectively nullified.</p>
+
+<p>Khrushchev, in pushing his revised plans for COMECON, publicly called
+for the creation of a supranational planning agency within the
+organization that would be empowered to select investment projects,
+allocate regional resources, and prescribe economic tasks to be
+undertaken by the individual member states on the basis of a majority
+vote. Romanian leaders reacted firmly and resolutely to this suggestion
+by publishing a statement of the party Central Committee that definitely
+rejected the policy of supranational economic integration and the
+utilization of majority decisions as a means of forcing economic
+cooperation. The committee's resolution further pointed out that
+economic collaboration should be based on respect <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>for national
+independence, sovereignty, and the equality inherent in the rights of
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>Pressure was exerted to bring the Romanian leadership into line. To
+counter this, the Romanians took steps to demonstrate their
+determination to hold to their independent views. A program of
+desovietization was begun throughout the country, during which Soviet
+bookshops were closed, the compulsory study of the Russian language in
+schools was ended, and those street names that had been changed to honor
+Soviet persons or events reverted to their original Romanian
+designations. Also, in the field of foreign policy Romania adopted an
+attitude of nonalignment in the Sino-Soviet dispute, resumed relations
+with Albania (which had been severed after that country left the Soviet
+bloc in 1961), and conducted negotiations for increased trade with the
+People's Republic of China as well as with several Western nations.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of 1963 it was apparent that Soviet plans for revising
+COMECON could not be implemented and, with Romania retaining its
+membership, it remained an organization of national economies
+cooperating with one another along both bilateral and multilateral
+lines. The Soviets, however, retained leadership of the organization and
+continued to be a major benefactor from its operation.</p>
+
+<p>The surfacing of the policy conflict with Moscow and the subsequent
+activities of the Romanians in defiance of general Soviet interests and
+leadership were followed in April 1964 by a formal statement published
+by the party Central Committee that proclaimed Romania's inalienable
+right to national autonomy and full equality in the communist world.
+This so-called declaration of independence made it abundantly clear that
+the national and independent character of Romanian policy had been
+extended to all fields and would be applied in both domestic and foreign
+relations.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of greater national autonomy and political independence from
+the Soviet Union was continued by Nicolae Ceausescu, who succeeded
+Gheorghiu-Dej as party chief after the latter's sudden death in March
+1965. A militant nationalist in the Gheorghiu-Dej pattern, Ceausescu
+acted quickly after assuming power not only to maintain the political
+momentum generated by the new national line but also to more closely
+identify the communist leadership and policies with this expression of
+traditional national aspiration (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>In April the name of the Romanian Workers' Party was changed to the
+Romanian Communist Party, and new organizational measures were adopted
+that were intended to broaden <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>the party's popular base. This action was
+followed by the adoption of a new constitution, which changed the name
+of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, a step that
+elevated the country to an advanced status in the communist system by
+self-proclamation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1967 Ceausescu's position was further strengthened when he assumed
+the presidency of the Council of State to become the head of the country
+in title as well as in fact. Since that time Romania has maintained a
+firm, orthodox communist control pattern in its domestic affairs but has
+continued to pursue an independent foreign policy, which has diverged
+remarkably, from time to time, from those of the Soviet Union and its
+Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) allies.</p>
+
+<p>Differences have included opposition to the full integration of the
+Warsaw Pact military alliance, refusal to joint the Soviet bloc in
+condemning Israel after the 1967 Six-Day Arab-Israeli War, and
+unilateral establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal
+Republic of Germany (West Germany). Perhaps the strongest position
+vis-&agrave;-vis the Soviet Union was taken in 1968, when Ceausescu denounced
+the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty among socialist
+nations, which was used by the Soviets to justify the invasion of
+Czechoslovakia (see ch. 10).</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 3</h2>
+
+<h2>PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Romania, located in southeastern Europe and usually referred to as one
+of the Balkan states, shares land borders with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+Hungary, and the Soviet Union and has a shoreline on the Black Sea (see
+fig. 1). The interior of the country is a broad plateau almost
+surrounded by mountains, which, in turn, are surrounded, except in the
+north, by plains. The mountains are not unduly rugged, and their gentle
+slopes plus the rolling interior plateau and the arc of lowlands on the
+country's periphery provide an unusually large percentage of arable
+land.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian historians have remarked that their country's history might
+have been different had its mountains been located on its borders rather
+than in the interior. Romania's mountains provided a refuge for
+indigenous populations but did not constitute barriers against invaders
+who sought to dominate the area or use it as a crossroad for deeper
+invasions of the Balkan region (see ch. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing weather is eastern European continental, with hot, clear
+summers and cold winters. Rainfall is adequate in all sections, and in
+normal seasons the greater share falls during the summer months when it
+is of most benefit to vegetation and crops. Soils on the average are
+fertile. Forests occupy about 27 percent of the land surface.</p>
+
+<p>All of the major streams drain eventually into the Danube River and to
+the Black Sea. The entire length of the Danube in or bordering the
+country is navigable. There are few canals, and the Prut River is the
+only other waterway that is navigable for any considerable distance.
+Several of the rivers originating in the Carpathians have a good
+potential for hydroelectric power but, because oil and natural gas are
+abundant, their development has not had high priority.</p>
+
+<p>In 1971 railroads carried by far the greatest volume of long-distance
+freight and passenger traffic, but highway transport was supplanting
+them in short-haul traffic of both types. Commercial aviation had
+multiplied its capacities since 1950 but still carried only a minute
+percentage of total traffic. Pipelines were the principal carriers of
+liquid petroleum and natural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>gas. The merchant marine had developed
+relatively rapidly after 1960 and, although still small, consisted
+almost entirely of modern ships and equipment.</p>
+
+<p>The population, estimated at more than 20.6 million in 1971, was growing
+at the second highest rate in Europe. The country's officials, however,
+did not expect the 1971 rate to be maintained throughout the remainder
+of the century.</p>
+
+<p>The standard of living was among the lowest in Europe. Living conditions
+improved markedly after 1950, but emphasis on heavy capital investment
+held down production of consumer goods. The land has been more than
+self-sufficient in the agricultural sector, but food products have been
+exported in quantities that have made some of them scarce locally.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">NATURAL FEATURES AND RESOURCES</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Topographical and Regional Description</p>
+
+<p>All of the mountains and uplands of the country are part of the
+Carpathian system. The Carpathian Mountains originate in Czechoslovakia,
+enter Romania in the north from the Soviet Union, and proceed to curl
+around the country in a semicircle (see fig. 3). The ranges in the east
+are referred to as the Moldavian Carpathians; the slightly higher
+southern ranges are called the Transylvanian Alps; and the more
+scattered but generally lower ranges in the west are known as the Bihor
+Massif. A few peaks in the Moldavian Carpathians rise to nearly 7,500
+feet, and several in the Transylvanian Alps reach 8,000 feet, but only a
+few points in the Bihor Massif approach 6,000 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Lowland areas are generally on the periphery of the country&mdash;east,
+south, and west of the mountains. A plateau, higher than the other
+lowlands but having elevations averaging only about 1,200 feet, occupies
+an area enclosed by the Carpathian ranges.</p>
+
+<p>Moldavia, in the northeast, constitutes about one-fourth of the
+country's area. It contains the easternmost ranges of the Carpathians
+and, between the Siretul and Prut rivers, an area of lower hills and
+plains. The Moldavian Carpathians have maximum elevations of about 7,500
+feet and are the most extensively forested part of the country. The
+western portion of the mountains contains a range of volcanic
+origin&mdash;the longest of its type in Europe&mdash;that is famous for its some
+2,000 mineral water springs. Small sections of the hilly country to the
+northeast also have forests, but most of the lower lands are rolling
+country, which becomes increasingly flatter in the south. Almost all of
+the nonforested portions are cultivated.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep031" id="imagep031"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep031.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep031.jpg" width="65%" alt="Figure 3. Topography of Romania." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 3. Topography of Romania.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Walachia, in the south, contains the southern part of the Transylvanian
+Alps&mdash;called the Southern Carpathians by Romanian geographers&mdash;and the
+lowlands that extend between them and the Danube River. West to east it
+extends from the Iron Gate to Dobruja, which is east of the Danube in
+the area where the river flows northward for about 100 miles before it
+again turns to the east for its final passage to the sea. Walachia is
+divided by the Olt River into Oltenia (Lesser Walachia) in the west and
+Muntenia (Greater Walachia), of which Bucharest is the approximate
+center, in the east. Nearly all of the Walachian lowlands, except for
+the marshes along the Danube River, and the seriously eroded foothills
+of the mountains are cultivated. Grain, sugar beets, and potatoes are
+grown in all parts of the flatland; the area around Bucharest produces
+much of the country's garden vegetables; and southern exposures along
+the mountains are ideally suited for orchards and vineyards.</p>
+
+<p>The Transylvanian Alps have the highest peaks and the steepest slopes in
+the country; the highest point, with an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>elevation of about 8,340 feet
+above sea level, is 100 miles northwest of Bucharest. Among the alpine
+features of the range are glacial lakes, upland meadows and pastures,
+and bare rock along the higher ridges. Portions of the mountains are
+predominantly limestone with characteristic phenomena, such as caves,
+waterfalls, and underground streams.</p>
+
+<p>Transylvania, the northwestern one-third of the country, includes the
+historic Transylvanian province and the portions of Maramures, Crisana,
+and Banat that became part of Romania after World War I. The last three
+borderland areas are occasionally identified individually.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all of the lowlands in the west and northwest and the plateau in
+the central part of the province are cultivated. The western mountain
+regions are not as rugged as those to the south and east, and average
+elevations run considerably lower. Many of the intermediate slopes are
+put to use as pasture or meadowland but, because the climate is colder,
+there are fewer orchards and vineyards in Transylvania than on the
+southern sides of the ranges in Walachia. Forests usually have more of
+the broadleaf deciduous tree varieties than is typical of the higher
+mountains, but much of the original forest cover has been removed from
+the gentler Transylvanian slopes.</p>
+
+<p>Dobruja provides Romania's access to the Black Sea. The Danube River
+forms the region's western border, and its northern side is determined
+by the northernmost of the three main channels in the Danube delta. The
+line in the south at which the region has been divided between Romania
+and Bulgaria is artificial and has been changed several times.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly 500 years preceding 1878, Dobruja was under Turkish rule.
+When the Turks were forced to relinquish their control, the largest
+elements of its population were Romanian and Bulgarian, and it was
+divided between the two countries. Romania received the larger, but more
+sparsely populated, northern portion. Between the two world wars Romania
+held the entire area, but in 1940 Bulgaria regained the southern
+portion. The 1940 boundaries were reconfirmed after World War II, and
+since then the Romanian portion has had an area of approximately 6,000
+square miles; Bulgaria's has been approximately one-half as large.</p>
+
+<p>Dobruja contains most of the Danube River delta marshland, much of which
+is not easily exploited for agricultural purposes, although some of the
+reeds and natural vegetation have limited commercial value. The delta is
+a natural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>wildlife preserve, particularly for waterfowl and is large
+enough so that many species can be protected.</p>
+
+<p>Fishing contributes to the local economy, and 90 percent of the
+country's catch is taken from the lower Danube and its delta, from
+Dobruja's lakes, or off the coast. Willows flourish in parts of the
+delta, and there are a few deciduous forests in the north-central
+section. To the west and south, the elevations are higher. The land
+drains satisfactorily and, although the rainfall average is the lowest
+in the country, it is adequate for dependable grain crops and vineyards.</p>
+
+<p>Along the southern one-half of the coastline there are pleasant beaches.
+In summer the dry sunny weather and low humidity make them attractive
+tourist resorts.</p>
+
+<p>Bukovina, more isolated than other parts of the country, has a
+part-Romanian and part-Ukrainian population. Romanian Bukovina is small,
+totaling only about 3,400 square miles. It was part of Moldavia from the
+fourteenth century until annexed by Austria in 1775. Romania acquired it
+from Austria-Hungary in 1918, but after World War II the Soviet Union
+annexed the 2,100-square-mile northern portion with its largely
+Ukrainian population.</p>
+
+<p>The approximately 1,300 square miles of the former province remaining in
+Romania is picturesque and mountainous. Less than one-third is arable,
+but domestic animals are kept on hillside pastures and meadows. Steeper
+slopes are forested.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Drainage</p>
+
+<p>All of Romania's rivers and streams drain to the Black Sea. Except for
+the minor streams that rise on the eastern slopes of the hills near the
+sea and flow directly into it, all join the Danube River. Those flowing
+southward and southeastward from the Transylvanian Alps drain to the
+Danube directly. Those flowing northward and eastward from Moldavia and
+Bukovina reach the Danube by way of the Prut River. Most of the
+Transylvanian streams draining to the north and west flow to the Tisza
+River, which joins the Danube in Yugoslavia, north of Belgrade.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian tourist literature states that the country has 2,500 lakes, but
+most are small, and lakes occupy only about 1 percent of the surface
+area. The largest lakes are along the Danube River and the Black Sea
+coast. Some of those along the coast are open to the sea and contain
+salt sea water. These and a few of the fresh water lakes are
+commercially important for their fish. The many smaller ones scattered
+throughout <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>the mountains are usually glacial in origin and add much to
+the beauty of the resort areas.</p>
+
+<p>The Danube drains a basin of 315,000 square miles that extends eastward
+from the Black Forest in the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
+and includes a portion of the southwestern Soviet Union. It is about
+1,775 miles long, including the 900 miles in or adjacent to Romania, and
+is fed by more than 300 tributaries, from which it collects an average
+of about 285,000 cubic feet per minute to discharge into the Black Sea.
+Much of the Danube delta and a band of up to twenty miles wide along
+most of the length of the river from the delta to the so-called Iron
+Gate&mdash;where it has cut a deep gorge through the mountains along the
+Yugoslav border&mdash;is marshland.</p>
+
+<p>For descriptive purposes the river is customarily divided into three
+sections; most of the portion in Romania&mdash;from the Iron Gate to the
+Black Sea&mdash;is its lower course. The northern bank of this course, on the
+Romanian side, is low, flat marshland and, as it approaches its delta,
+it divides into a number of channels. It also forms several lakes, some
+of them quite large. At its delta it divides into three major and
+several minor branches. The delta has an area of about 1,000 square
+miles and grows steadily as the river deposits some 2 billion cubic feet
+of sediment into the sea annually.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Climate</p>
+
+<p>The climate is continental and is characterized by hot summers and cold
+winters. Typical weather and precipitation result from the high pressure
+systems that predominate over European Soviet Union and north-central
+Asia. Southern Europe's Mediterranean weather and western European
+maritime systems occasionally extend into the area but not frequently,
+and they prevail only for short periods. Winters are long, and the
+months from November through March tend to be cold and cloudy, with
+frequent fog and snow. Although summers may be hot, they are sunny, and
+the humidity is usually at comfortable levels.</p>
+
+<p>Precipitation ranges from fifteen to fifty inches; the countrywide
+average is about twenty-eight inches. Dobruja, along the lower Danube
+River and adjacent to the Black Sea coast, averages the least, followed
+by the lowlands of Moldavia and southernmost Walachia, which usually
+receive less than twenty inches. The remaining lowlands of the country
+and the Transylvanian plateau average between about twenty and
+thirty-two inches. Bucharest receives about twenty-three inches. In <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>all
+of the agricultural regions the heaviest precipitation, most of it from
+thunderstorms and showers, occurs during the summer growing season when
+it is of maximum benefit to crops and vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered areas in the Transylvanian Alps and in the other mountains of
+the northern and western parts of the country receive more than fifty
+inches annually. Foothills on all exposures also get more than the
+country average. Western exposures benefit from the generally eastward
+movement of weather systems; southern and eastern slopes benefit from
+the clockwise circulation around the high-pressure systems that are
+characteristic of the continental climate.</p>
+
+<p>January is the coldest month; July, the warmest. Bucharest, located
+inland on the southern lowland, is one of the warmest points in summer
+and has one of the widest variations between average temperatures of the
+extreme hot and cold months. Its average January temperature is about
+27&deg; F, and in July it is 73&deg; F. Summer averages are about the same at
+other places in the eastern lowlands and along the Black Sea, but the
+moderating effect of winds off the sea makes for slightly warmer winters
+in those areas. Hilly and mountainous sections of the country are cooler
+but have less variation between winter and summer extremes.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere in the country is the climate the deciding factor on the
+distribution of population. There are no points where summer
+temperatures are oppressively high or winter temperatures are
+intolerably low. Rainfall is adequate in all regions and, in the lower
+Danube River area where it might be considered the most nearly marginal,
+marshes and poorly drained terrain are more of a problem than is lack of
+rainfall.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Soils</p>
+
+<p>The most fertile soils of the country occur generally on the plains of
+Moldavia and parts of Walachia. This is the black earth known as
+chernozem, which is rich in humus. Most of the black earth and some of
+the brown forest soils also have a high loess content, which tends to
+make them light, fine, and workable. These rich varieties also occur on
+the lowlands of the west and northwest and on the Transylvanian plateau.
+Lighter brown soils are more prevalent in rolling lands and in foothills
+throughout the country.</p>
+
+<p>Soils become progressively poorer at higher elevations and as the slopes
+become steeper. Layered soils, which take over as elevations increase,
+vary widely and tend to become thinner and poorer at higher elevations
+until bare rock is exposed. In some lower areas, where there are areas
+of brown forest <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>soils, erosion is a serious problem. Although the sandy
+and alluvial soils along the Danube River are of excellent quality and
+are valuable where drainage is good, those in a fairly wide belt along
+the river are too moist for cultivation of most crops.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Vegetation</p>
+
+<p>Before the land was cleared, lowland Romania was a wooded steppe area,
+but the natural vegetation has largely been removed and replaced by
+cultivated crops. Forests still predominate on the highlands. Of the
+country's total area, about 63 percent is agricultural land; 27 percent
+is forest; and 10 percent is bare mountain or water surface or is used
+in some way that makes it unsuitable for forest or cultivation. Of the
+agricultural land, 65 percent is under cultivation, 30 percent is
+pasture and meadow, and 5 percent is orchard and vineyard (see ch. 15).</p>
+
+<p>Forests remain on most of the slopes that are too steep for easy
+cultivation. Most of the larger forests are in Transylvania and western
+Moldavia in a roughly doughnut-shaped area that surrounds the
+Transylvanian plateau. Broadleaf deciduous and mixed forests occur at
+lower elevations; forests at higher levels are coniferous with
+needle-leaf evergreens. There are alpine sheep pastures at 5,000- and
+6,000-foot elevations, and tundra vegetation occurs at some of the
+highest locations.</p>
+
+<p>Orchards are found in all sections of the country. Peaches can be grown
+in Walachia, but only those fruits that can tolerate colder winters are
+raised in Moldavia and Transylvania. Vineyards, especially on the
+Walachian mountain slopes, have become more important since World War
+II, and wine, although it is not of a quality that receives
+international acclaim, is exported.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Natural Resources</p>
+
+<p>The most important natural resources are the expanses of rich arable
+land, the rivers, and the forests. The land is agriculturally
+self-sufficient and, when fertilizers become more readily available,
+crop yields will be appreciably larger. The rivers have a high potential
+for the generation of hydroelectric power. Most of them rise in the
+mountains and fall to the plains quite rapidly and could be profitably
+harnessed. Rainfall distribution is good throughout the year and would
+provide more than an ordinarily dependable source of waterpower. The
+potential was only beginning to be tapped in 1971 (see ch. 15).</p>
+
+<p>Large fields of oil and natural gas are the most important sub-surface
+assets. Both are of the best quality in Europe, with the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>possible
+exception of those near Baku in the Soviet Union. Liquid petroleum is
+pumped from large fields in the Ploiesti area and also from an area in
+central Moldavia. Natural gas is available under a large part of the
+Transylvanian plateau.</p>
+
+<p>A few minerals, such as lead, zinc, sulfur, and salt, are available in
+quantities needed domestically, but iron and coal are not plentiful.
+Deposits of lignite, gold, and several other minerals occur in
+concentrations having sufficient value to be mined.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">BOUNDARIES AND POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Boundaries</p>
+
+<p>When it gained full independence in 1878, Romania contained the historic
+provinces of Moldavia and Walachia, some of Bessarabia, and a portion of
+Dobruja. Substantial numbers of Romanians remained outside the original
+state's boundaries in Transylvania and in the Russian portion of
+Bessarabia. The first boundaries remained little changed until after
+World War I, although the strip of Dobruja was enlarged somewhat in
+1913, after the Second Balkan War (see ch. 2).</p>
+
+<p>In the 1918 settlement after World War I about 38,500 square miles were
+ceded to Romania from the dismantled Austro-Hungarian Empire. In
+addition to historic Transylvania, with its area of about 21,300 square
+miles, a strip along its western side, with a substantially Magyar
+population, and Bukovina, part of which is now the most north-central
+section of the country, were included. Also in the aftermath of World
+War I and the Russian revolution, Romania acquired Bessarabia from the
+new Bolshevik regime and enlarged its holdings in Dobruja at Bulgaria's
+expense.</p>
+
+<p>During the brief period of accord between the Soviet Union and Nazi
+Germany immediately before World War II, portions of Romania were sliced
+away and divided among Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. The
+post-World War II settlement, arrived at in 1947, again transferred
+Transylvania from Hungary to Romania, and Dobruja&mdash;with a somewhat
+modified southern border&mdash;was transferred from Bulgaria. The Soviet
+Union retained all of Bessarabia and the northern portion of Bukovina.
+In 1971 none of Romania's borders were disputed, and all of them were
+satisfactorily demarcated.</p>
+
+<p>The total circumference of the country is about 1,975 miles. The
+northern and eastern border with the Soviet Union extends for about 830
+miles; the southern border with Bulgaria, for 375 miles; the
+southwestern border with Yugoslavia, for 345 miles; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>and the
+northwestern border with Hungary, for 275 miles. The Black Sea coast is
+about 150 miles long. The eastern boundary generally follows the Prut
+River, and most of the southern boundary is formed by the Danube; in the
+west and north the border follows no distinctive terrain features, often
+having been drawn according to ethnic, rather than geographic,
+considerations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Political Subdivisions</p>
+
+<p>Until 1968 the communist regime had divided the country into seventeen
+regions&mdash;including one consisting of the Bucharest metropolitan area
+only&mdash;and 152 districts. In an extensive reorganization of local
+governments at that time, the regions were done away with and replaced
+by the prewar system of counties (<i>judete</i>). In 1971 there were
+thirty-nine counties, plus Bucharest and its suburban areas, which were
+still administered separately. Bucharest was one of forty-six
+municipalities, but it was the only one not subordinate to the district
+in which it was located. Each county is named for the town that is its
+administrative center. The newer organization has served to increase
+public participation in local government but has also increased the
+authority of the central government.</p>
+
+<p>Bucharest, with a population of nearly 1.5 million in 1969, was about
+six times larger than Brasov, the next largest city. The Bucharest
+district was smallest in area and greatest in population. Other
+districts had roughly similar areas and populations. They averaged about
+2,350 square miles in area and, although their populations varied
+between fewer than 200,000 and about 750,000, two-thirds of them had
+between 350,000 and 650,000 persons.</p>
+
+<p>The 1968 reorganization also made extensive changes in the lower portion
+of the local administrative structure, reducing the number of communes
+by about 40 percent and villages by nearly 15 percent. Typical counties
+had about fifty communes of about 4,000 to 5,000 persons each. The
+smaller local units were created, dissolved, or combined as population
+and local requirements changed but, as of January 1970, there were 236
+towns, 2,706 communes, and 13,149 villages. Of the towns, the
+forty-seven most important were classified as municipalities, and the
+communes included 145 that were suburban areas of the larger towns (see
+ch. 8).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">POPULATION</p>
+
+<p>The area approximating that defined by the 1971 boundaries of the
+country had a population estimated at about 8.2 million in 1860. Thirty
+years later it had increased to about 10 million. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>Growth began to
+accelerate slightly after 1890, with periods of greatest increases
+between 1930 and 1941 and between 1948 and 1956, until it reached an
+estimated 20.6 million in 1971.</p>
+
+<p>The 1971 estimate was derived from the 1966 census and projected from
+vital statistics compiled locally through 1970. On this basis the
+estimated annual rate of growth was 1.3 percent, exceeded in Europe only
+by that of Albania. Density of the population was 224 persons per square
+mile. Projected at the 1971 growth rate, the population in 1985 would be
+23.3 million, and it would take fifty-four years for the population of
+the country to double.</p>
+
+<p>The 1971 growth rate, however, may not be maintained. Legislation
+enacted in 1966 stringently restricted abortions and discouraged birth
+control practices, resulting in an increased birth rate for the next few
+years, but by 1971 there were indications that the rate was again
+declining. Unofficially, it is expected that the population will reach
+only 25.75 million by the year 2000, or about 27 percent more than in
+1970. The projection is based on a growth rate of less than that of the
+1970-71 period. It is expected to average about 1.1 percent for the
+1971-75 five-year period and to decrease thereafter, resulting in an
+average of between 0.7 and 0.8 percent over the entire period. Moreover,
+the increase is expected to be far greater in the over-sixty age group
+and to provide only about 14 percent more workers in the productive age
+brackets between fifteen and fifty-nine.</p>
+
+<p>In 1970 the birth rate, at 23.3 births per 1,000 of the population, was
+also exceeded only by Albania's in all of Europe. The rate of infant
+mortality, at 54.9 deaths during the first year of life for each 1,000
+live births, was slightly lower than those of Yugoslavia and Portugal
+and was exceeded significantly only by that of Albania. The death rate,
+at 10.1 per 1,000 was very close to the overall European rate of ten per
+1,000.</p>
+
+<p>According to the 1971 official estimate there were 10.1 million males
+and 10.4 million females, or 102.8 females for every 100 males in the
+population. Males outnumber females slightly in the childhood years and
+are the majority sex in each five-year segment of the population to
+about the age of thirty. Females outnumber males in the thirty to
+thirty-four age group, after which there is near numerical equality
+between ages thirty-five and forty-four. Females attain a clear majority
+beyond age forty-five. Female life expectancy, at 70.5 years, is
+approximately four years greater than that of males.</p>
+
+<p>The population group with ages from fifty to fifty-four had both a low
+overall figure and an abnormally low percentage of males (see table 1).
+The low total reflected a low birth rate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>during World War I years; the
+abnormal sex distribution reflected World War II combat losses. The low
+total in the twenty-five to twenty-nine group resulted from the low
+birth rate during World War II, and the low figure for the five-to-nine
+age group reflected the fewer number of parents in the group twenty
+years its senior and their disinclination to have children because of
+low incomes and inadequate housing.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the five-to-nine age group was of concern to the country's
+economists because it will provide a smaller than desirable augmentation
+to the labor force at the end of the 1970 decade and for the early
+1980s. The seemingly much larger group that was under five years of age
+in 1971, on the other hand, would appear on the surface to more than
+compensate for the smaller one preceding it. The country's economists,
+however, did not believe that an alleviation of the chronic shortage of
+people in the most productive working ages would occur during the
+twentieth century.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 1. Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971 Estimate</i>
+(in thousands)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 1">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">Age Group</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Total</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Percentage<br /> of Total<br /> Population</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Male</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Female</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">Number of<br /> Females for<br /> Each 100 Males</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Under 5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,255</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;11.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,149</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,106</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;96.4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;5-9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,392</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;713</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;679</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;95.3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">10-14</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,743</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;892</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;851</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;95.3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">15-19</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,787</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;911</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;876</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;95.6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">20-24</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,588</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;806</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;782</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;97.2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">25-29</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,316</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;666</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;650</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;97.6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">30-34</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,533</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;757</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;776</td>
+  <td class="tdc">102.4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">35-39</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,541</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;773</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;769</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;99.2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">40-44</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,502</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;752</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;750</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;99.6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">45-49</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,303</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6.3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;623</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;680</td>
+  <td class="tdc">109.2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">50-54</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;806</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;363</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;443</td>
+  <td class="tdc">121.7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">55-59</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,020</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;468</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;552</td>
+  <td class="tdc">117.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">60-64</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;950</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;452</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;498</td>
+  <td class="tdc">110.0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">65-69</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;737</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;351</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;386</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;109.6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">70-74</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;540</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;235</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;305</td>
+  <td class="tdc">129.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">75 and over</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;551</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;227</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;324</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;142.1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Total population</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">20,565</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">100.0</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">10,138</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">10,427</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">102.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Source: Adapted from Godfrey Baldwin (ed.), <i>International
+    Population Reports</i> (U.S. Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18), Washington,
+    1969, pp.32-33.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Aside from natural growth and additions and subtractions of territories
+and their occupants, the country's population has been comparatively
+stable. It has been affected to a lesser degree than others in eastern
+Europe by migrations during and after World <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>War II, probably losing
+between 300,000 and 400,000 persons in various resettlement and
+population exchange movements. The largest emigration involved Jews to
+Israel. Israeli data show an average of about 30,000 immigrants from
+Romania during the three immediate postwar years, and Jewish people
+accounted for a major share of all emigration between then and the late
+1960s.</p>
+
+<p>Within the country the greatest shift of people has been from rural to
+urban areas. The rural population grew by about 0.5 million, from 11.9
+million to 12.4 million, between 1945 and 1971. During the same period
+urban population increased by about 3.5 million, from 4.7 million to
+about 8.24 million, and has become about 40 percent of the total.
+Officials anticipate that the rural population will stabilize and that
+most future increases will be to the towns and cities.</p>
+
+<p>Of the 60 percent of the people who still live in small villages and
+settlements, most depend upon agriculture for their livelihood. Isolated
+farms and dwellings prevail in the more remote hills and mountains, and
+life in those areas has been little affected by industrialization of the
+country or by the collectivization of agricultural land, which has been
+accomplished in most of the better farming areas.</p>
+
+<p>Older villages most typically have individual family houses, with farm
+buildings adjacent and with considerable separation between houses. In
+areas that have been collectivized there has been some effort to remove
+buildings from productive land and to nucleate the villages.</p>
+
+<p>Population is most dense in the central portion of Walachia, centering
+on, and west of, Bucharest and Ploiesti and along the Siretul River in
+Moldavia. Southwestern Walachia and central and northwestern
+Transylvania are also more densely settled than the average for the
+country. The area around Dobruja, lands of high elevation, and
+marshlands along the lower Danube River are the most sparsely settled
+areas.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LIVING CONDITIONS</p>
+
+<p>According to semiofficial Romanian sources, the national income
+increased by six times during the twenty-year period between 1950 and
+1970, and real wages, by 2.7 times. Between 1966 and 1970 improved
+economic conditions and a broader based industry had created about
+800,000 new jobs, most of them in the industrial sector.</p>
+
+<p>Increases in national income have been accompanied by increased outlays
+for social and cultural programs. The 1970 allocations for such programs
+were ten times greater than in 1950 and amounted to 27.5 percent of the
+total national budget.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>Housing, production of consumer items, and changes in food consumption
+had also improved. Between 1966 and 1970 about 345,000 state-funded
+apartments and about 315,000 privately built dwellings became available.
+New facilities for production of automobiles, furniture, wearing
+apparel, television sets, and other domestic electrical appliances
+increased output in these areas by about seven times that of 1950. Foods
+with high nutritive value were consumed in larger quantities.
+Consumption of milk, garden vegetables, fruit, eggs, and fish nearly
+doubled between 1966 and 1970. More meat and cheese were also eaten, but
+the increase in their consumption was less spectacular.</p>
+
+<p>Efforts on behalf of public health were reflected in increasing the life
+expectancy from forty-two years in 1932 to a figure that was more than
+60 percent greater in 1970. Additional and better equipped hospitals and
+other medical facilities contributed to this, as did more emphasis on
+public sanitation and increased numbers of doctors and medical
+assistants. In 1970 there was a ratio of one physician for every 700
+inhabitants, which was near the overall European average.</p>
+
+<p>Despite an impressive record of achievements in the production of
+industrial goods, the standard of living&mdash;with the exception of
+Albania's and Portugal's&mdash;was probably the lowest in Europe in 1971.
+During the preceding twenty years production of consumer goods was held
+down, while heavy capital investment was encouraged. This was deliberate
+economic practice calculated to be of maximum benefit to the country in
+time but not intended to produce the greatest immediate results.</p>
+
+<p>The rent for an ordinary three-room apartment in 1971 was about
+one-third of the average worker's monthly wages; the cost of a new
+automobile was about forty times his monthly income. Housing area was
+small, the countrywide average being about eighty-two square feet of
+living space per person. Although about 140,000 urban apartment units
+became available in 1969 and similar numbers were programmed for
+succeeding years, the housing situation was worse in cities than in
+small towns and rural areas.</p>
+
+<p>Commentary on the lot of the consumer varies widely, frequently to the
+point of direct contradiction. Visitors that have had a less than
+totally favorable impression of the country report that food items&mdash;even
+the common staples, such as eggs, cheese, and sausage&mdash;are not always
+available and that, when they are, purchasers wait in long lines.
+Because food items are often available only in small shops individually
+specializing in milk, cheese and sausage, or vegetables and eggs, for
+example, the mere task of buying food is a time-consuming undertaking.
+Persons disenchanted with the situation also complain that, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>although
+poor harvests in 1968 and 1969 and floods in 1970 contributed further to
+food shortages, much was still exported during those years. In 1971 the
+government reiterated its plans to devote primary attention to the
+development of its heavy industrial base. Plans at that time, they
+alleged, would discourage increased production of consumer goods through
+1975 at the least.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">TRANSPORTATION</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Railroads</p>
+
+<p>Romania's early rail lines were developed largely in relation to
+external points rather than to serve local needs. Until World War I the
+one major trunk line ran south and east of the Carpathians from western
+Walachia to northern Moldavia. Feeder lines and branches connected to
+it, but there was little early construction in the marshy areas near the
+Danube River, and only one bridge, at Cernavoda, crossed it.
+Transylvania, not yet part of the country, was linked to the old
+provinces by only one line across the Carpathians. Total route mileage
+was about 2,200 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Hungary had developed lines connecting Budapest with Transylvania and
+branch lines within that province. When the area was annexed in 1918,
+Romania inherited the existing railroads and set about linking them more
+advantageously with the rest of the country. Most of the modern system
+was completed by 1938, but route mileage was increased by about another
+10 percent after World War II. Late construction included another bridge
+over the Danube River, this time at Giurgiu, south of Bucharest (see
+fig. 4).</p>
+
+<p>The system probably attained its maximum mileage in 1967, when it
+totaled almost 6,900 route-miles, all but about 400 of them standard
+gauge. About ten miles of line were retired during 1968 and 1969, and
+other little-used feeder lines will probably be abandoned as it becomes
+more practical to carry small loads over short distances by truck.</p>
+
+<p>Railroads transported nearly ten times as much freight in 1969, measured
+in ton-miles, as did the highways. Their average load was carried a
+greater distance, however, and motor transport actually handled a larger
+volume of cargo (see table 2). During 1969 the railroads also carried
+over 300 million passengers, for an average trip distance of thirty-two
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian State Railroads, directed by the Ministry of
+Transportation, operates all but a few minor lines and, in 1969, had
+about 147,000 employees. As steam locomotives are retired, they are
+being replaced by diesels. Only a little more than 100 route-miles have
+been electrified. Officials expect that roads and motor vehicles will
+take increasing percentages of short-haul cargo and short-trip
+passenger traffic. Airlines may cut somewhat into the long-distance
+passenger traffic, but the railroads are expected to remain important
+for both their freight and passenger services.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep044" id="imagep044"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep044.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep044.jpg" width="66%" alt="Figure 4. Romanian Transportation System." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 4. Romanian Transportation System.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span><i>Table 2. Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960, and
+1969</i></p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 2">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" rowspan="2">Cargo Traffic</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" colspan="3">Total Freight<br />(in million tons)</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" colspan="3">Ton-Miles<br />(in millions)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1950</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1969</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1950</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1969</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="27%">Railroads</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="12%">&nbsp;&nbsp;35.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="12%">&nbsp;&nbsp;77.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">155.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="3%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">4,740</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="12%">12,380</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">27,500</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Motor transport</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;56.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">215.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;26</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;583</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,830</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Inland waterways</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;418</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;540</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;728</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sea</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5.0&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;382</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;663</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24,400</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Air</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.003</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.003</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.02</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;21</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Pipeline</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;118</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;637</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;790</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" rowspan="2">Passenger Traffic</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" colspan="3">Total Passengers<br />(in million)</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" colspan="3">Passenger-Miles<br />(in millions)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1950</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1969</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1950</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">1969</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Railroads</td>
+  <td class="tdc">116.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">214.8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">305.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5,080</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,710</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10,450</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Motor transport</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;11.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;71.8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">306.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;242</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;887</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,220</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Inland waterways</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;25</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;43</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sea</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.05&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.08&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.02</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;59</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;17</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;14</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Air</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.04&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;54</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;550</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Roads</p>
+
+<p>Of the 47,800 miles of road, in 1969 about 6,000 miles&mdash;or 14
+percent&mdash;were considered modernized. A little more than one-third had
+gravel or crushed stone to harden them, and almost exactly one-half had
+unimproved dirt surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>About 7,600 miles were nationally maintained and included the greater
+portion&mdash;5,200 miles&mdash;of those in the modernized, improved category.
+Only about 1,400 miles of the local roads were modernized, and less than
+one-half of them had hardened surfaces. According to government planning
+reports, the road network is considered adequate in size, and all that
+can be allocated to it will be applied to its modernization. Motor
+transport was nearly negligible until after World War II, but between
+1950 and 1969 it assumed importance that rivaled the railroads in both
+cargo and passenger traffic.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Waterways</p>
+
+<p>Nearly 1,500 miles of the rivers are considered navigable. All of the
+Danube&mdash;over 900 miles&mdash;that is within or along the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>southern border of
+the country is navigable and, in fact, connects the Black Sea and
+Romania with all points upstream&mdash;through Yugoslavia, Hungary,
+Czechoslovakia, and Austria to Ulm in West Germany. The Prut, flowing
+along much of the eastern border with the Soviet Union, accounts for
+most of the remaining navigable mileage. Other streams are useful in
+some degree for timber rafting and for floating agricultural products
+downstream. Rapid currents in hilly sections, silting and meandering
+streambeds in the lowlands, and fog and ice in winter months, however,
+limit the commercial usefulness of the rivers. Ice stops traffic on the
+Danube River for an average of more than one month per year and on the
+other streams from two to three months.</p>
+
+<p>The country's topography does not lend itself to the development of an
+extensive system of canals. There are short canals in the western
+lowlands. Two of them connect to the Tisza River in Yugoslavia but, as
+with this pair, further development of the waterways in this portion of
+the country would be economically advantageous only when they connected
+to points in Hungary or Yugoslavia. Most of the northern and central
+regions are hilly or mountainous.</p>
+
+<p>Cargo shipped on rivers and canals in 1969 was less than 1 percent of
+that carried by the other transport systems, but most of it was
+transported for relatively long distances along the Danube River.
+Passengers carried constituted an even more minute percentage of the
+total and, because the largest numbers of them rode river ferries, the
+relative passenger mileage percentage was even lower.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Airlines</p>
+
+<p>Commercial aviation is altogether state owned and is operated by an
+office in the Department of Automotive, Maritime, and Air Transportation
+that, with the Department of Railroads, is part of the Ministry of
+Transportation. Romanian Air Transport&mdash;always referred to in common and
+in most official usage as TAROM, derived from Transporturi Aeriene
+Romane&mdash;serves a dozen or more cities in the country and contacts about
+twenty national capitals outside the country. These include Moscow, all
+of the capitals of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) member
+nations, and about a dozen capitals in Western Europe and the Middle
+East. Service to nearly all of the external points consists of no more
+than one round trip flight weekly to each. Domestic service has expanded
+steadily since 1950 but varies throughout the year to provide more
+frequent trips during the holiday and tourist seasons.</p>
+
+<p>The line carries some cargo but an insignificant amount when <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>compared
+with other modes of transportation. It has, however, begun to carry a
+more significant number of passengers. This traffic increased from less
+than 40,000 in 1950 to about 780,000 in 1969. Each year since 1965 it
+has carried approximately 100,000 more passengers than in the year
+preceding.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Pipelines</p>
+
+<p>Most liquid petroleum products and natural gas are moved via pipeline.
+The largest network of liquid lines serves the large oilfield in the
+Ploiesti area and the smaller one in west-central Walachia. They connect
+the fields with refineries and transport the refined products to Danube
+River ports and to Constanta on the Black Sea coast. Lines also transfer
+crude oil from the Moldavian oilfield to its refineries, but there were
+no lines in 1970 to transport finished products from those refineries.</p>
+
+<p>Natural gas is piped to all parts of Transylvania from sources in the
+center of the province, but the Carpathians are an obstacle to its
+distribution to other parts of the country. One major line crosses the
+Transylvanian Alps to serve the Bucharest area, and another crosses the
+Moldavian Carpathians through Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. It serves areas to
+the southeast as far as Galati, on the Danube River.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Merchant Marine</p>
+
+<p>The country has a small, but growing, merchant marine. Although most of
+its ships are new, the more than 100 percent increase&mdash;to nearly 0.5
+million deadweight tons&mdash;claimed to have been achieved between 1967 and
+1969 was accounted for by less than a dozen ships, consisting of two
+tankers and some bulk cargo carriers that were built in Japan. The
+government releases no official statistics on its merchant fleet, but
+fragmentary information indicates that before 1967 it consisted of about
+thirty-five ships. One of them was a 2,000-deadweight-ton
+passenger-cargo vessel, and there were a few tankers totaling something
+over 100,000 deadweight tons. The remainder were freighters, averaging
+about 5,000 deadweight tons each.</p>
+
+<p>Statistics on goods transported by sea substantiate the size and growth
+of the merchant marine fleet. Until about 1960 it had relatively little
+importance, but by 1966 cargo carried was almost ten times that of 1960,
+and by 1969 it had again tripled. The impressive growth statistics
+notwithstanding, sea transport in 1969 accounted for only about 1.5
+percent of the total cargo transported.</p>
+
+<p>Constanta is the major port on the Black Sea, but some smaller <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>seagoing
+vessels go up the Danube River to Galati and Braila. All of the larger
+river towns, and all of those on rail lines that cross it or terminate
+at the river, are considered river ports. Mangalia, on the Black Sea
+coast south of Constanta and about five miles from the Bulgarian border,
+is a secondary seaport but has the country's largest naval installation
+(see ch. 13).</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 4</h2>
+
+<h2>SOCIAL SYSTEM AND VALUES</h2>
+
+
+<p>Since the end of World War II Romanian society and its values have been
+in a state of flux. The aim of communist social and economic policies
+has been to destroy the old order and replace it with a new one that
+will reflect communist ideology. The resulting changes have been
+fundamental and far reaching, particularly in the structure of the
+society and the place occupied in it by particular individuals. The
+effect on values has been less easy to determine.</p>
+
+<p>The extent and the pace of change have been slowing down since the early
+1960s, and some aspects of the old social order were beginning to
+reemerge, although in different forms. The changes that were continuing
+to affect the society in the 1970s were more the result of economic
+growth than of conscious efforts to bring them about. This was
+particularly true of the changing role of the family, which has come
+about as a consequence of increased industrialization and urbanization
+as much as by government design.</p>
+
+<p>Least affected by the social upheaval since 1945 have been the ethnic
+composition of the country and the relations between the various ethnic
+groups. Although the population has always been predominantly Romanian,
+Hungarians and Germans constitute a majority in some areas of the
+country and remain a source of potential political and social problems.
+The Hungarian minority in particular, making up more than 8 percent of
+the population in 1966, has always been very sensitive to what it
+considers Romanian domination and has at times harbored irredentist
+feelings.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">ETHNIC COMPOSITION</p>
+
+<p>The population of Romania is basically homogeneous, although it includes
+elements of almost every ethnic group in Central and Eastern Europe. At
+the time of the 1966 census, Romanians constituted 88 percent of the
+population. The largest single minority group were the Magyars, or
+Hungarians, constituting 8.4 percent of the population. They were
+followed by the Germans with 2 percent of the population. All other
+ethnic groups&mdash;Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Ukrainians, Russians, Czechs,
+Slovaks, Turks, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>Tatars, Bulgarians, Jews and Gypsies&mdash;were simply
+listed as "other" and together made up only 1.6 percent of the
+population.</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution of 1965 guarantees equal rights to all citizens
+regardless of nationality or race and stipulates legal sanctions against
+both discrimination and instigation of national or racial animosities.
+National minorities are guaranteed the free use of their mother tongue
+in education, the communications media, and their dealings with
+government authorities and unrestricted perpetuation of their cultural
+traditions.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Romanians</p>
+
+<p>The origins of the Romanians and their language have been the subject of
+differing interpretations and controversy. Romanians are related to the
+Vlachs, a pastoral people speaking a Latin-derived language who are
+found in the mountainous regions of northern Greece and southern
+Yugoslavia.</p>
+
+<p>According to Romanian tradition, Romanians are the direct descendants of
+the Dacians, who inhabited the territory of modern Romania before the
+Christian Era. The Dacians were conquered by Roman legions under Emperor
+Trajan in A.D. 106 and became romanized during 165 years of Roman
+control. When Emperor Aurelian abandoned control of Dacia in 271, in the
+face of Gothic invasions, the romanized Dacians sought refuge in the
+rugged Carpathian Mountains, where they preserved their Latin language
+and culture until more settled conditions allowed them to return to the
+plains in the tenth century (see ch. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The period of Roman rule of Dacia is well documented, but the absence of
+any firm indication of the presence of a Latin-speaking population in
+the territory of contemporary Romania until the tenth century has given
+rise to another theory of the origin of Romanians, developed mostly by
+Hungarian historians. This theory maintains that the Dacians withdrew
+with the Roman legions south of the Danube. There they absorbed elements
+of Thracian and Slavic culture, in addition to that of their Roman
+rulers. Starting in the tenth century, a people speaking a Romance
+language moved northward across the Danube as far as Slovakia and
+settled in the area that later became Romania.</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian theory of their origin stresses that a people speaking a
+Romance language continuously occupied the territory claimed by the
+Romanian state, thus rendering legitimacy to the claim. The other theory
+stresses the absence of a Romance-language-speaking people in
+Transylvania at the time of the Magyar immigrations into that region,
+thus giving legitimacy to the Hungarian claim to Transylvania.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever their origin, Romanians have occupied the territory <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>of their
+present state since the Middle Ages. In 1966 they numbered 16.8 million
+and formed the majority population in most of the country (see fig. 5).</p>
+
+<p>Romanian, a Romance language, differs sharply from the languages of
+neighboring countries which, with the exception of Hungarian, are all
+Slavic tongues. The basis for Romanian seems to be the Vulgar Latin of
+ancient Rome. Long contact with Slavic-speaking peoples has left its
+mark on the vocabulary but has not affected grammar or syntax, which
+remain similar to those of other Romance languages. The vocabulary of
+literary Romanian is more purely of Latin origin than that of the spoken
+dialects. Frequently, parallel words of Latin and Slavic derivation
+exist for an object or concept and are used interchangeably. Turkish,
+Albanian, Hungarian, and German have also influenced the vocabulary of
+the spoken language in various parts of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep051" id="imagep051"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep051.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep051.jpg" width="65%" alt="Figure 5. Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Source: Adapted from Ian M. Matley, Romania: A Profile, New York, 1970, p. 276.</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 5. Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>Hungarians</p>
+
+<p>In the 1966 census Hungarians numbered 1.6 million, constituting 8.4
+percent of the total population. Since 1947, when Romania acquired its
+present borders, the number of Hungarians within its borders has
+remained relatively stable, although their percentage in the total
+population has been declining.</p>
+
+<p>Hungarians form the majority population in parts of Transylvania and in
+pockets along the Hungarian border. They form a significant minority of
+the population in the rest of Transylvania and in the Banat region. In
+1952 the area of greatest Hungarian concentration in eastern
+Transylvania was designated the Hungarian Autonomous Region
+(Mures-Magyar) and was given considerable degree of self-government to
+deal with complaints of political and cultural oppression by Romanians.
+The region was eliminated in the administrative reorganization of 1968
+(see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>In 1971 it was estimated that slightly more than half of Romania's
+Hungarian minority still lived in rural areas. Several Transylvanian
+cities&mdash;including Cluj, Oradea, Baia-Mare, and Tirgu Mures&mdash;also have a
+high percentage of Hungarian inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Hungarians first moved into the territory occupied by modern Romania in
+the ninth century as part of the Magyar invasion of the central European
+plain. Their number grew through colonization during the period of
+Hungarian rule of Transylvania, which began with the conquest of the
+area in the eleventh century and ended in 1918. One group of
+colonists&mdash;the Szeklers, or Szekelys&mdash;were settled in the eastern
+borderlands of Transylvania in the first part of the twelfth century to
+protect the plains from invaders. The ethnic origin of the Szeklers is
+in dispute. Some authorities claim they are Magyars; others claim they
+are non-Magyars who absorbed Magyar culture over long years of contact.
+During the Middle Ages, Szeklers were distinct from Magyars in political
+and social organization. Although the distinction between them and the
+Hungarians has disappeared in modern times and Romanian official
+statistics do not differentiate, Szekler culture is still considered
+more purely Magyar than that of other Hungarians who have absorbed
+influences from the West.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of some Szekler characteristics, the culture and
+language of the Hungarian minority in Romania are indistinguishable from
+those of their kinsmen in Hungary. They are, however, quite
+distinguishable from the Romanians. This distinction is accentuated by
+religious differences. Romanians <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>are predominantly Orthodox, whereas
+more than half of the Hungarians in the country are Roman Catholic, most
+of the remainder are Calvinists, and some are Unitarians.</p>
+
+<p>The culture and language of the Hungarian minority are being preserved
+and promoted through schools, newspapers, periodicals, books, theater,
+and other cultural activities. Members of the Hungarian minority,
+however, frequently complain that the number of schools, books, and
+other cultural material available to them in their own language is far
+short of the demand and not nearly proportionate to their numbers.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Germans</p>
+
+<p>Approximately 380,000 Germans lived in Romania in 1966. The size of the
+German minority was greatly reduced through voluntary repatriation since
+the 1930s, when it numbered over 600,000. It has continued to decrease
+since 1966 through emigration to the Federal Republic of Germany (West
+Germany) supported by the West German government and permitted in
+varying volume by the Romanian authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The German population is divided into two groups&mdash;the Saxons and the
+Swabians. Although more or less equal in size, the groups differ in
+origin and, partly, in culture. The origin of the group usually
+identified as Saxons is not quite clear, but it was settled by the
+Hungarian rulers in the Transylvanian borderlands in the twelfth century
+for the same purpose as the Szeklers. The Saxons live mainly in the
+cities, such as Sibiu, Brasov, and Sighisoara, which they themselves
+founded and which have distinctly German characteristics. Some live in
+rural areas surrounding these cities.</p>
+
+<p>Forming the majority population in a small area, the Saxons have lived
+in relative isolation until modern times. Their dialect and culture have
+retained medieval characteristics long abandoned by Germans elsewhere.
+All Saxons have been Lutheran since that denomination was introduced
+into Transylvania in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The Swabians are Roman Catholics and live in the Banat region. As with
+the Saxons, their designation as Swabians does not truly reflect their
+origin. They were settled in the Banat during the eighteenth century to
+work the land recently vacated by the Turks. Before their arrival there,
+the language and culture of the Swabians had undergone various
+modifications to which the Saxons had not been exposed. Most Swabians
+are peasants farming the rich plain around Timisoara.</p>
+
+<p>Like the Hungarians, the German minority in Romania has <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>resisted
+assimilation and maintains its cultural identity through German-language
+schools, books and newspapers, radio and television programs, and
+theatrical performances and through the perpetuation of their
+characteristic dress, dances, and folk art.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Jews</p>
+
+<p>In those censuses in which they are identified (but not including that
+of 1966), Jews are listed as an ethnic group or nationality rather than
+as members of a religious denomination. In the 1956 census they
+represented the third largest minority in the country with a membership
+of 146,000. In early 1972 Western observers roughly estimated the number
+of Jews still residing in Romania at slightly under 100,000.</p>
+
+<p>The influx of Jews into Romania took place during the first half of the
+nineteenth century when large numbers left the unsettled conditions of
+Poland and Russia to seek new opportunities in prospering Moldavia and,
+later, Walachia. A small number of Jews from various parts of
+Austria-Hungary settled in Transylvania at the same time and earlier. By
+1900 Jews constituted more than one-half of the urban population of
+Romania, most of them engaged in commerce, banking, or industry. Not
+allowed to assimilate by various restrictions on their movement and
+activities, the Jews remained apart from the rest of the population.
+This apartness and their role in the economy engendered distrust and
+resentment, which periodically erupted into persecution by some elements
+of the population (see ch. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The loss of Bessarabia to the Soviet Union and the deportations and
+exterminations during World War II by the Nazis reduced the Jewish
+population in Romania to its 1956 size. It has been further reduced
+since then through emigration to Israel.</p>
+
+<p>Despite their historic separateness from the rest of the society, most
+Jews in the mid-twentieth century tend to think of themselves as
+Romanians of the Jewish faith rather than an ethnic minority. All speak
+Romanian, and only one-fourth claimed Yiddish as their mother tongue in
+the 1950s. They continue to be urban oriented, and one-fourth of them
+lived in Bucharest in 1956.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Other Minorities</p>
+
+<p>Eight other ethnic groups were counted in the 1956 census. The largest
+was Ukrainian, numbering 60,000. Ukrainians formed the majority
+population in the southern part of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>Danube delta and in pockets
+along the Soviet border. Some 45,000 Yugoslavs, mostly Serbs, lived in
+the southern Banat around the Iron Gate. Other Slav minorities included
+39,000 Russians in northern Dobruja, near the Bessarabian border; 12,000
+Bulgarians, mostly in southern Dobruja; and between 18,000 and 35,000
+Czechs and Slovaks in the Banat.</p>
+
+<p>Other ethnic groups of significance were 20,000 Tatars and 12,000 to
+14,000 Turks in Dobruja, remnants of the period of Turkish rule.
+Gypsies, variously estimated between 50,000 to 100,000, are not
+recognized officially as an ethnic minority and not counted separately
+in censuses. This, combined with their still largely nomadic life, makes
+any reasonably accurate enumeration difficult.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Interethnic Relations</p>
+
+<p>Relations between Romanians and Hungarians, the two largest ethnic
+groups, have been less than smooth. During the eight centuries of
+Hungarian rule of Transylvania, Romanians, who constituted the poorest
+rural elements of the population, occupied a subservient position to the
+wealthier, more urbanized, and better educated Hungarians and Germans.
+With the joining of Transylvania to Romania in 1918, the Hungarian and
+German populations of the region lost much of their favored position
+and, through land reform and nationalization since World War II, they
+lost their source of wealth. These factors have engendered ill feeling
+between the groups and have made Transylvania a continuing source of
+potential problems (see ch. 2; ch. 10). Other factors dividing Romanians
+and Hungarians have been religious and cultural differences.</p>
+
+<p>Sensitive to the respective nationalist feelings of the Romanians and
+Hungarians and to the historical dissensions between them, government
+policy since 1947 has been one of promoting unity and cooperation among
+all groups for the good of the country as a whole. The theme of equality
+of all members of different ethnic groups and their close cooperation
+permeates all official documents, reports, and statements. The Romanian
+Communist Party, which before World War II had a high percentage from
+ethnic minorities, represents itself as the historic protector of
+minority populations and their rights. In the late 1960s the party
+claimed that over 11 percent of its membership were non-Romanians, in
+line with the proportional strength of minorities in the population.</p>
+
+<p>During the first decade of communist rule, the government and the people
+were so preoccupied with efforts to restructure <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>society and foster
+communist internationalism that ethnic chauvinism and problems of
+interethnic relations receded into the background. The 1960s, however,
+saw the development of Romanian independence vis-&agrave;-vis Soviet domination
+and a resurgence of Romanian nationalism, which again raised the
+potential for minority problems. As the government and party stressed
+Romanian national independence and gave new emphasis to the historic and
+cultural heritage of the Romanians, they also emphasized the unity,
+equality, and fraternal cooperation between Romanians and minority
+groups. National unity became a vital factor in August 1968, and
+people's councils were established in the Hungarian, German, and other
+minority communities to act as spokesmen for the ethnic minorities in
+the Socialist Unity Front (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>The German minority, while anxious to preserve its cultural identity and
+rights, seems to have good relations with the Romanians and with other
+ethnic groups. Although their historic experience and their religion
+give them a cultural affinity with the Hungarians, they have remained
+aloof from the Hungarian-Romanian issue in Transylvania. As a whole,
+Germans have remained to themselves in their own communities and have
+made little effort to integrate into the national society. This has
+engendered some resentment on the part of Romanians but no real
+hostility.</p>
+
+<p>Historically, the relations between Jews and other Romanians have been
+fraught with suspicion and resentment, which found expression in
+occasional outbursts of anti-Semitism (see ch. 2). Although the same
+emotions undoubtedly still color the attitudes and reactions of some of
+the people, they have been less evident since World War II, possibly
+because those Jews who survived and remained in the country have
+integrated themselves into society and identify with the Romanian
+majority.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">SOCIAL STRUCTURE</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Family</p>
+
+<p>Traditionally, the family had been the basic social unit that gave
+identity and security to the individual and furthered the values of
+society. Family cohesion was great, and close relations were maintained
+with parents, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, and first cousins.
+Increased mobility and changing life-styles have somewhat loosened this
+cohesion, particularly among urban families. A growing number of women
+work outside the home; many men combine work and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>study, or they work at
+more than one job in order to improve the family standard of living; and
+children spend most of their time in school or youth organization
+activities. Thus, members of the family spend less time together, and
+the emphasis in daily life is to some degree shifting from the family to
+the outside world.</p>
+
+<p>In official writing the family is hailed as the cornerstone of socialist
+society; and family cohesion, loyalty, and responsibility, as socialist
+virtues. Exemplary family life, particularly exemplary motherhood, is
+honored with citations and prizes. At the same time, however, all the
+factors that tend to undermine traditional family life, such as the
+employment of a greater number of women, are encouraged and promoted.</p>
+
+<p>Since World War II families have tended to be small, having one or two
+children. Among the German and Hungarian minorities, families have
+always tended to be small, but Romanian families in the past were
+larger, particularly in rural areas where children were an important
+source of labor. The government became so alarmed by the dropping birth
+rate that it passed strict new laws in the 1966-67 period to limit
+divorce, abortions, and the sale of contraceptives. The following years
+showed a sharp upsurge in the birth rate and a dramatic drop in the
+divorce rate, but in 1970 the birth rate again began to decline.</p>
+
+<p>The main reasons for the drop in the birth rate and reduction in family
+size have been low wages and a shortage of housing. Many wives must work
+to help support the family, but published interviews with working wives
+indicate that they want few, if any, children because they lack the time
+and energy to care for them as they would like. In addition, the
+continuing housing shortage in urban areas forces families to live in
+crowded and inadequate quarters, which mitigates against having
+children.</p>
+
+<p>In the eyes of the state, marriage is a secular matter. Religious
+ceremonies are permitted but must be preceded by a civil marriage. The
+minimum age for marriage without parental consent is eighteen for men
+and sixteen for women. People generally marry young&mdash;43 percent of the
+men married in 1968 were aged twenty to twenty-four, and another 30
+percent were twenty-five to twenty-nine; 46 percent of the women married
+that year were aged fifteen to nineteen, and another 32 percent were
+twenty to twenty-four. The urban marriage rate was dropping considerably
+in the late 1960s, probably owing to the housing shortage, but the rural
+marriage rate remained fairly stable during the decade.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>The law assigns equal rights and obligations to both marriage partners.
+In case of divorce the father is obliged to provide financial support
+for his children. After the passage of a stringent new divorce law in
+1967, the divorce rate dropped from 1.94 per 1,000 population in 1965 to
+0.35 per 1,000 population in 1969, making it the lowest rate in Eastern
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In most families the husband and wife are partners whose relationship is
+based on cooperation and mutual respect. The husband is the titular head
+of the family who represents it to the outside world, but within the
+family he customarily consults with his wife on almost all matters.
+Patriarchal families where the father is the undisputed head are
+encountered among some peasants. Ideally, the husband provides for the
+family and protects it from the outside world, and the wife concerns
+herself with keeping house and raising children.</p>
+
+<p>The diminution of the family's significance in rearing children has,
+however, fundamentally affected the role of the family in the second
+half of the twentieth century. As a result of the growing number of
+working women the roles of the husband and wife are no longer as clearly
+differentiated. Almost two-thirds of women aged over fifteen in 1966
+were employed. Approximately three-fourths of these were married women
+who had assumed some of the husband's role of provider for the family.
+At the same time they had relinquished some of their former functions in
+the household and with respect to children, some of which have been
+taken over by husbands or by outside institutions.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Social Stratification</p>
+
+<p>Patterns of social stratification have undergone a complete change since
+World War II. First, land reform immediately after the war eliminated
+the agricultural aristocracy and increased the number of small peasants
+who owned their own land. Then nationalization of industry and commerce
+in the late 1940s eliminated the urban propertied class. Finally,
+collectivization of agriculture eliminated most of the newly enlarged
+small peasant class. By the early 1950s the old system had been
+destroyed, and a new one was in the process of formation.</p>
+
+<p>The period of so-called socialist reconstruction of the 1950s resulted
+in a general leveling of social strata through the demotion of formerly
+privileged groups and the promotion of formerly underprivileged groups.
+Persons of peasant or worker origin received preferential treatment in
+the allocation of housing and other necessities of life that were in
+short supply, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>in the appointment to jobs, and in access to higher
+education. At the same time persons of middle or upper class background
+were deprived of their housing, removed from key jobs, and denied
+educational opportunities for their children through a discriminatory
+quota system at secondary and higher schools. A policy of equalizing
+incomes made little distinction between differing levels of education or
+skill, thus eliminating material rewards as a basis for social
+stratification. At the same time, however, a small group of party
+stalwarts, most of them of lower or middle class background, rose
+rapidly into the top positions of administrative and political power and
+became the new ruling elite.</p>
+
+<p>As viewed by its own ideologists and sociologists, Romania in 1971 was
+in the socialist stage of development heading toward a classless
+communist society. This meant that there were distinctions in income,
+standard of living, and prestige among different groups in the society;
+the distinctions, however, were based on occupation rather than
+ownership of property. Members of all groups were employees; the only
+employer was society as a whole through its organ, the state. The main
+basis for the distinction of classes was the difference between manual
+labor and intellectual work. This difference was gradually being
+eliminated through the continuous upgrading of the prestige of manual
+labor.</p>
+
+<p>Most Romanian writing on social strata or differentiation based on
+occupation separates society into three classes: workers,
+intelligentsia, and peasants. By most definitions, workers are all those
+engaged in productive occupations, including both the unskilled laborer
+and the highly skilled technician. Intelligentsia are all those engaged
+in nonproductive occupations, such as office work or service jobs,
+including both the unqualified clerk and the enterprise manager or
+university professor. Sometimes, however, the intelligentsia is defined
+as all those with a secondary or higher education without regard to
+their occupations. Members of agricultural cooperatives are classified
+as peasants, whereas employees of state farms are considered workers.
+The small number of peasants still working private agricultural holdings
+are considered to be a disappearing remnant of the past and, therefore,
+are not included in any segment of the socialist society.</p>
+
+<p>In 1969 workers were reported as constituting 40 percent of the
+population; intelligentsia, 12.3 percent; and peasants, 47.7 percent.
+Comparable statistics for 1960 divided the population into 28.6 percent
+worker, 9.5 percent intellectual, and 61.9 percent peasant. Thus, the
+peasant class was growing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>smaller while the worker and intellectual
+classes were expanding. A continuation of this trend was forecast for
+the 1970s.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting across this division was one based on skill and education. Thus
+the unskilled worker, the unskilled peasant, and the unqualified clerk
+were all members of the same stratum but of different classes. It was
+not clear whether or not a division into strata would continue after
+class distinctions were eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>This view of the social structure seems to be more a statement of
+ideology than an analysis of the actual structure. On the basis of
+material rewards, social prestige, and political power, the highest
+stratum is the ruling communist elite, followed in turn by the
+intelligentsia&mdash;professional, managerial, and administrative personnel
+with a higher education&mdash;skilled manual workers, lower level
+white-collar personnel, and unskilled workers and peasants.</p>
+
+<p>The ruling elite is composed of the top communist leadership in the
+party, government, mass organizations, and various branches of the
+economy. The main criterion for membership in that elite is power
+derived from approved ideological orientation and political activism.
+Most members of the ruling elite in 1971 were of lower class background
+and were veterans of the communist movement in the interwar period. The
+life-style and privileges enjoyed by the ruling elite do not differ much
+from those of the intelligentsia, the next level in the social scale,
+but the elite holds a monopoly of power.</p>
+
+<p>The intelligentsia consists of those professionals, managers,
+technicians, and middle-level party functionaries whose skill and talent
+are needed to run the society. Education and competence are usual
+criteria for membership in the group as is ideological orthodoxy. In
+1970 the intelligentsia numbered somewhat over 1 million persons,
+approximately 22 percent of the working population. The size of the
+group has been growing rapidly in line with the manpower demands of the
+expanding economy. Most members were relatively young, had advanced
+educations, and were loyal to communist principles. Their social origins
+represented the entire spectrum of precommunist society, but a high
+percentage were of peasant or worker background reflecting the
+educational advantages afforded to the former lower classes.</p>
+
+<p>The life-style and aspirations of the intelligentsia are those of an
+industrial middle class. Because of their key position in the economy,
+they command incomes and special benefits that afford them a standard of
+living considerably higher than that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>of the lower levels of the social
+scale. Among the benefits that individual members of the intelligentsia
+may enjoy are high-quality housing; the use of official cars; access to
+special facilities, such as clubs, restaurants, shops, and vacation
+resorts; and travel opportunities at home and abroad. The growing
+identification of the intelligentsia with the Romanian Communist Party
+has also enhanced its privileged status as a group. On an individual
+basis, party membership provides access to a network of informal
+contacts within the power and control structure, which can open many
+doors and win many favors.</p>
+
+<p>Skilled manual workers constitute the top level of the lower social
+strata. A considerable gap exists in the income, prestige, and
+commensurate standard of living between the skilled worker and the
+intelligentsia. The gap can be breached only by acquiring higher
+education. The skilled worker, however, enjoys considerable material
+advantages over the lowest levels of society by virtue of his important
+position in the economy. His prestige, although higher than that of
+unskilled workers, differs little from that of the lower level
+white-collar personnel because of the low esteem in which manual work
+continues to be held.</p>
+
+<p>The level of gradation in material rewards of peasants, unskilled
+workers, and lower level white-collar personnel is very slight. The
+difference among these groups is mainly one of prestige and opportunity
+for advancement. The first step up the social ladder is to leave
+agriculture and join the industrial labor force. Then, through education
+and training, one can advance to the various levels of skill and their
+respective income levels and benefits. Despite their lack of skill,
+lower level white-collar personnel hold a higher position on the social
+scale than other unskilled persons, principally because of the prestige
+attached to nonmanual work.</p>
+
+<p>The main avenue for upward mobility is education. Political
+considerations, however, influence both accessibility to education and
+accessibility to jobs that confer higher social status. Admission to
+educational facilities beyond the required minimum is strictly
+controlled and manipulated to achieve desired political, social, and
+economic goals (see ch. 6). The emphasis on educational credentials for
+upper level jobs limits the possibility of upward mobility through skill
+or competence alone. On-the-job training, however, does provide a means
+for mobility within the industrial labor force.</p>
+
+<p>Partly as a result of conscious government effort and partly as a
+natural consequence of rapid economic expansion, upward <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>mobility has
+been considerable since the end of World War II. In the early years of
+communist rule, this upward mobility was accompanied by a significant
+downward mobility of members of the former middle and upper classes who
+lost their property and their jobs and were forced to take up
+occupations at the lower end of the social scale. By the end of the
+1960s the social structure seemed to be stabilizing. The restructuring
+desired by the communist rulers had been accomplished, and the
+intelligentsia had grown to the point where it could satisfy from its
+own ranks most of the demand for professional and managerial personnel.
+This reduction of openings in the upper strata of society for recruits
+from the lower levels was beginning to solidify the social structure
+into self-perpetuating groups whose status and privileges, or their
+lack, are passed down from one generation to the next. The avenues of
+education and skill, however, remained open and, together with political
+loyalty, provided the means for social advancement.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">SOCIAL VALUES</p>
+
+<p>The differing life-styles of the rural and urban populations are
+reflected in somewhat differing values. Rural values are rooted in the
+land and in deep religious faith. Individualism, self-reliance, strength
+of character, and love of land and God are admired attributes of the
+rural population. For the mountain shepherd and the small farmer,
+self-reliance and resourcefulness are essential for survival. These
+qualities are praised in song and legend and are widely held responsible
+for the survival of the Romanian people and their culture during
+centuries of foreign domination. Loyalty is also a highly admired
+peasant quality&mdash;loyalty to the land, to the family, to God, to country,
+and even to one's animals.</p>
+
+<p>The strong religious convictions that pervade the life of most peasants
+in the form of carefully observed rules of conduct and rituals are
+viewed by some sophisticated urbanites and peasant youths as
+superstition and as a sign of backwardness (see ch. 5).</p>
+
+<p>The values of urban Romanians are more complex than those of peasants.
+They have been influenced by ideas and values from abroad, particularly
+by those emanating from France. Educated Romanians have long felt a
+kinship with the French emotionally and intellectually and have looked
+to French culture as a model to emulate. As a result, Bucharest was
+often referred to as the "Paris of the Balkans."</p>
+
+<p>Among the values shared by both urban and rural Romanians are
+self-reliance, resourcefulness, and patriotism or loyalty to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>country.
+Having been ruled by Turks and Hungarians for centuries and being almost
+surrounded by Slavic peoples, the Romanians are very proud of their
+Latin heritage and their connection with ancient Rome. It is the shared
+Latin heritage that probably makes Romanians look to France as their
+cultural contact in the West.</p>
+
+<p>The emphasis on self-reliance, resourcefulness, and making the best of a
+situation has given Romanians the reputation of being shrewd businessmen
+and hard bargainers.</p>
+
+<p>The extent to which communist efforts to change the traditional values
+of the people have been successful is difficult to determine. Such
+values as independence, resourcefulness, and patriotism continue to be
+reflected in the international relations of the country, particularly in
+its relations with the Soviet Union.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 5</h2>
+
+<h2>RELIGION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Romanians have traditionally been a very devout people. The vast
+majority belong to the Romanian Orthodox Church, and regular church
+attendance and participation in church functions have been a normal part
+of daily life. In rural areas the clergy are heavily depended upon as
+counselors and confidants. As in most peasant societies, the religious
+beliefs and practices fostered and approved by the churches are often
+intermingled with folklore. Belief in the evil eye, werewolves, and
+vampires is common among peasants, although younger ones are less likely
+to take such beliefs seriously.</p>
+
+<p>Aware of the deep-seated religious beliefs of the people, the communist
+government has done little to restrict their free expression, and
+officially religion is viewed as a private and personal matter.
+Religious persecution has been limited to clergymen who have openly
+opposed the government and its policies. Government efforts, however,
+have been aimed at controlling the churches and using their influence
+with the people to further official policies and programs. At the same
+time, public information media and schools have been attempting to
+undermine the hold of religion on younger people by equating religious
+faith with superstition and backwardness and stressing scientific and
+empirical knowledge as the basis for a modern world view. Many religious
+values are attacked as lacking a basis in true knowledge and reality.
+Those values that the government wants to preserve and promote are given
+a scientific-intellectual justification and are stripped of any
+religious meaning.</p>
+
+<p>In line with its view of religion as a private and personal matter, the
+government has not published any statistical or other information
+pertaining to the various religious communities since 1950. Research on
+the role of religion in the daily life of the people has been
+discouraged; therefore, up-to-date information is restricted to
+observations by foreign visitors to the country. According to reports
+from such observers, more than twenty years of communist effort to
+undermine religion as a force in the life of people has been
+unsuccessful. Some of the clergy have lost their former influence by
+openly working on behalf of the government, and some young people
+question the relevance of some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>beliefs and practices. The fundamental
+faith of the people, however, has been little changed. Even longstanding
+members of the party have been publicly criticized for subscribing to
+religious views and practices.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">CHURCH-STATE RELATIONS</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution of 1965 guarantees freedom of conscience and freedom of
+religion to all citizens. It also specifically guarantees the right not
+to profess any religion. The organization and activities of any church
+are regulated by state law, and religious organizations are prohibited
+from operating any educational institutions other than those for the
+training of clergy and members of religious orders.</p>
+
+<p>Within these broad guarantees and prohibitions, the state exercises
+strict control over the organization and activities of religious
+denominations through its Department of Cults, which functions in
+accordance with the General Regulations for Religious Cults passed by
+the Grand National Assembly in 1948. Under these regulations the state
+must approve the statute of organization and administration and the
+statement of beliefs of any church before it can be recognized as a
+legal body. Clerical appointments are subject to state approval, and all
+clergy must take an oath of allegiance to the Socialist Republic of
+Romania.</p>
+
+<p>All legally recognized churches receive state subsidies for salaries of
+clergy and other operating expenses; churches are not allowed to receive
+any income or financial assistance directly. Budgets are subject to
+approval by the Department of Cults, which may withhold funds for
+individual parishes or for salaries of individual clergymen if their
+activities are found to be in violation of the policies or laws of the
+state. The Department of Cults may also suspend any policy decision,
+regulation, or other measure passed by the governing body of a church if
+it is deemed contrary to the provisions of law either directly or
+indirectly.</p>
+
+<p>State supervision and control of administrative and financial affairs of
+religious denominations had existed in Romania before the communists
+took power. The terms of the General Regulations for Religious Cults
+followed in many ways the Law on Cults of 1928; however, several
+differences in the degree of control point out the fundamental
+difference in church-state relations in these two periods. Before 1948,
+for instance, the churches could receive income from property and
+donations in addition to the state subsidy. More important, however, the
+earlier law gave the state no right to interfere in matters of belief
+except in the case of minor sects whose specific beliefs were subject to
+approval. The 1948 law makes the state the ultimate authority on matters
+of faith as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>well as administration. Thus the intent of the earlier law
+appeared to be the regulation of the activities of essentially
+independent bodies, but the intent of the present law is to give
+complete authority and control to the state.</p>
+
+<p>In practice, state control of religious bodies has been carried out
+through its control over finances and through its confirmation of
+clerical appointments. No changes have been made in the traditional
+methods of selecting and appointing clergy and laymen for the various
+positions in the church. By using its power to confirm these selections,
+however, the state has managed to fill all the important positions and
+decisionmaking bodies with persons willing to cooperate and carry out
+state policy. The state has refused to grant recognition to the Roman
+Catholic Church because of the church's belief in the supremacy of the
+pope in all matters of faith and morals and in church administration;
+however, the church does function with the tacit agreement of the
+regime.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE ROMANIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian Orthodox Church is the most important church in the country
+and the one into which the vast majority of Romanians are born. It is an
+independent Eastern Orthodox church headed by a patriarch in Bucharest.
+Its membership in the 1950s, after the incorporation of the Uniate
+church, was estimated at more than 15 million.</p>
+
+<p>Romanians were introduced to Christianity during the period of Roman
+rule of Dacia. By the tenth century they were known to be following the
+Slavonic liturgy of the Eastern Christian Church. Old Church Slavonic
+remained the liturgical language until the late sixteenth century, when
+it began to be replaced by Romanian.</p>
+
+<p>During the period of Turkish rule in Walachia and Moldavia and of
+Hungarian rule in Transylvania, the Romanian Orthodox Church helped to
+maintain the national consciousness of the Romanian people and was
+active in their struggle to achieve national unity and independence (see
+ch. 2). The Turkish policy of religious tolerance enabled the church to
+thrive in Walachia and Moldavia; in Transylvania, however, a
+post-Reformation settlement between the Hungarian rulers and the various
+churches did not recognize the Romanian Orthodox Church as a legal
+denomination.</p>
+
+<p>In order to gain legal status and its accompanying freedoms and
+benefits, a major portion of Romanian Orthodox clergy and laymen in
+Transylvania agreed, in 1698, to accept the jurisdiction of the pope
+while retaining Orthodox liturgy and ritual. The resulting Uniate church
+was an important religious and political <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>force in Transylvania until
+the communist government forced it to reunite with the Romanian Orthodox
+Church in 1948. As the church of the Romanian people in Transylvania,
+the Uniate church played a major role in their emancipation and eventual
+integration into a greater Romania.</p>
+
+<p>With over 1.6 million adherents in 1948, the Uniate church in Romania
+was the second largest and second most influential church in the
+country. Fearing and resenting the influence of the Roman Catholic pope
+with such a large number of its people, the communist regime decreed
+that the Uniates be merged with the Romanian Orthodox Church and disavow
+allegiance to the pope. Some Uniate clergy and laymen resisted and were
+persecuted and imprisoned. The pattern for the dissolution of the Uniate
+church was the same everywhere in Eastern Europe, and from 1946 to 1950
+the Uniate congregations were absorbed into the various national
+Orthodox churches.</p>
+
+<p>Until the Romanian state was enlarged in 1918, the Orthodox faith was,
+with minor exceptions, the exclusive religion of the country. The
+Romanian Orthodox Church was legally accepted as the national church and
+was supported by the state. Its hierarchy generally supported the
+policies of the government both as individuals and as officials of the
+church. The close relationship between church and state was of
+particular significance in rural areas, where the church was often
+called on to carry out local government functions. As the only literate
+person in the area, the parish priest was often not only the spiritual
+mentor of the population but also the teacher, judge, and government
+official. The power of the church in relation to the population,
+therefore, was based on both spiritual and governmental authority. In
+the eyes of the devout peasant, the local priest was an important
+authority on a variety of matters as well as a confidant and adviser.</p>
+
+<p>The role of the Romanian Orthodox Church in the life of the country
+changed considerably after World War I with the addition of substantial
+populations of other faiths. Efforts to secure a favored position in its
+legal relationship to the state and to other denominations were defeated
+when pressure from the Roman Catholic and Uniate churches forced the
+government to guarantee religious freedom and the complete equality of
+all churches. At the same time, the Orthodox church's former role in the
+administration of governmental affairs at the local level was being lost
+to a growing secular civil service and educational system. The position
+of the church in the life of the average communicant, however, continued
+to be one of considerable power and influence. As the largest Orthodox
+church outside of the Soviet Union, the Romanian Orthodox Church also
+exercised a degree of leadership among other Orthodox churches.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>The revised statutes of the Romanian Orthodox Church issued in 1949
+differ little from those in effect before that date. Authority was
+somewhat more centralized, and the prerogatives of the patriarch were
+more clearly defined, but the structure of the church remained
+essentially the same. The patriarchate is divided into five
+metropolitanates, which in turn are divided into twelve dioceses. Each
+diocese is composed of parishes encompassing 1,500 to 2,500 communicants
+each. The clerical head at each level is assisted in his religious and
+administrative duties by a council composed of one-third clergymen and
+two-thirds laymen. The administration of monasteries falls under the
+jurisdiction of the head of the diocese. Since a 1952 reorganization of
+institutions for religious training, the Romanian Orthodox Church has
+had two theological institutes for the training of clergy and six
+schools for chanters and for monastic priests.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Catholic Church is second in size of membership to the
+Romanian Orthodox Church and, since the absorption of the Uniates by the
+Orthodox church, the most important minority religion. Its estimated
+membership of between 1.2 million and 1.5 million in the 1960s was
+composed mostly of Hungarians and German Swabians (see ch. 4).</p>
+
+<p>As the principal denomination of the Hungarian minority, the Roman
+Catholic Church has played a cultural and political role in the life of
+the country as well as a religious one. The well-organized body of the
+church and its related institutions have been a natural vehicle for the
+promotion of Hungarian group interests and the preservation of Hungarian
+cultural traditions. Catholic schools, which were independent of
+government control until 1948, most often used Hungarian or German as
+the language of instruction.</p>
+
+<p>The Concordat of 1927 between the Holy See and the Romanian state
+defined the legal position of the Roman Catholic Church in Romania until
+the communist takeover. It gave the church full equality with the
+dominant Romanian Orthodox Church and other denominations and granted it
+sole control over its educational institutions, hospitals, and
+charitable organizations. In contrast to all other denominations, the
+Roman Catholic Church was free from state administrative control and did
+not receive any financial support from the state. The concordat was
+abrogated by the Romanian government in 1948, and since that time the
+position of the Roman Catholic Church has been unclear.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic bishops have refused to recognize the supremacy of the
+state over church affairs as expressed in the General <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>Regulations for
+Religious Cults of 1948, and consequently the state has not granted the
+church legal recognition as a religious denomination. Between 1948 and
+1967 the government tried to force the church into submission by
+systematically weakening its position. Uncooperative clergy were either
+imprisoned or otherwise prevented from exercising their clerical and
+administrative duties; all church schools, hospitals, and charitable
+institutions were taken over by the government, and all other church
+assets were confiscated. All but two monasteries and three convents were
+disbanded, and even these were not permitted to accept new novices. In
+addition, the organization of the church was reduced from six to two
+dioceses, Alba-Iulia and Bucharest. Since the church has not been
+receiving a state subsidy and has been forbidden to seek contributions,
+most clergy have been supporting themselves by working at lay jobs.
+Church buildings have been deteriorating because of lack of maintenance,
+and many travelers have commented on the marked difference in appearance
+between the decaying Catholic churches and the well-maintained Orthodox
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>As part of a general political liberalization in 1967 the arch-bishop of
+Alba-Iulia, head of the Roman Catholic Church in Romania, and other
+clergy were released from imprisonment. The action marked the reopening
+of contacts between the Roman Catholic Church and the Romanian
+government in an effort to reach a satisfactory agreement that would
+normalize the position of the church in the country. Additional
+government effort to reach an accommodation with the church has been
+demonstrated by the appropriation of funds for the restoration of the
+historic cathedral of Alba-Iulia. Other denominations had been receiving
+regular funds for the maintenance and restoration of religious buildings
+of historic or artistic significance, but the Roman Catholic Church had
+been denied such funds until 1967. In 1972 contacts between Romania and
+the Holy See, which had begun in 1967, were continuing. Several meetings
+had taken place between the Romanian Orthodox patriarch, Justinian, and
+Cardinal Koenig, who heads the Vatican secretariat for nonbelievers. No
+agreement legalizing the position of the Roman Catholic Church in
+Romania has been reached, however.</p>
+
+<p>The government promoted the creation of the Catholic Church of Romania,
+which was formed in 1951. It is administratively independent of the pope
+and recognizes the supremacy of the state over church affairs. Legal
+justification for the move was found in a statute passed in Transylvania
+in the seventeenth century that placed the conduct of Catholic church
+affairs in the hands of clergy and laymen directly subordinate to the
+pope in order to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>preserve the church from engulfment by the
+Reformation. In early 1972 the Catholic Church of Romania was headed by
+a council composed of both lay and clerical members. It recognized the
+pope as supreme authority on matters of faith, morals, and dogma but
+rejected any organizational connection with the Holy See.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">PROTESTANT CHURCHES</p>
+
+<p>Protestantism is closely identified with the Hungarian and German
+minorities of Transylvania. Although the churches themselves have
+refrained from any political activity on behalf of the minorities, their
+ethnic composition has made them politically significant at times. The
+Protestant population, estimated at about 1.2 million in 1950, was
+divided into Calvinist, Lutheran, Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist,
+Evangelical, and Pentecostal churches.</p>
+
+<p>The largest Protestant denomination is the Reformed (Calvinist) Church,
+with a membership estimated at 780,000 in 1950. The membership of this
+church is almost entirely Hungarian, and its center is at Cluj, a
+Calvinist stronghold since the Reformation. Most of the Hungarian
+aristocracy in Transylvania adopted Calvinism during the Reformation, a
+period when the Roman Catholic Church was weak in that region. This
+weakness of the Roman Catholic Church and the political and economic
+independence of the Transylvanian nobles prevented an effective
+counterreformation and allowed Protestantism to remain strong in
+Transylvania while the rest of Hungary was Roman Catholic.</p>
+
+<p>Next in size are the Lutherans, with an estimated membership of 250,000
+in 1950. Lutheranism is represented by the Evangelical Church of the
+Augsburg Confession, headed by a bishop at Sibiu, and the Evangelical
+Synodal Presbyteral Church of the Augsburg Confession, headed by a
+bishop in Cluj. Membership of both churches is predominantly German.
+Lutheranism was adopted by the Transylvanian Saxons at the same time
+that Calvinism was adopted by the Hungarians. In 1938 there were 400,000
+Lutherans in Romania; their number was reduced through the loss of
+northern Bukovina and through the emigration of Saxons to Germany during
+the 1940s. Continued emigration is further reducing the Lutheran
+population.</p>
+
+<p>The Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, and Pentecostal churches were united
+by government decree in 1950 into the Federation of Protestant Cults.
+The estimates of the membership at the time of the merger vary greatly,
+but it probably included between 50,000 and 100,000 Baptists, 15,000 to
+70,000 Adventists, and about 5,000 Pentecostals. Before their merger
+none of these churches had a central organization in Romania, as their
+congregations were directed from abroad.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>In the reorganization of theological education in 1948, the Department
+of Cults assigned one school for church singers and one theological
+institute for the training of clergy to each Protestant denomination.
+There was some indication that all denominations had difficulty
+recruiting young men for the ministry after World War II. After more
+than a decade of complete isolation from their fellows in other
+countries, all the Protestant churches resumed an active association
+with the World Council of Churches in 1961.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">OTHER RELIGIONS AND CHURCHES</p>
+
+<p>Government statistics on the ethnic composition of the population in
+1956 listed 146,000 Jews. Jewish sources outside the country estimated
+the size of the community in 1968 at between 80,000 and 110,000. Once an
+important ethnic and religious minority, the Jewish community has shrunk
+as a result of territorial losses, extermination during World War II,
+and emigration. Between 1958 and 1969 large numbers of Jews emigrated to
+Israel with the encouragement of the chief rabbi and the Romanian
+government. Many of the rabbis have emigrated with their congregations,
+leaving only nine rabbis to care for some seventy congregations. Most of
+the congregations were directed by laymen but received regular visits
+from one of the rabbis. The only rabbinical school in the country was
+closed in the 1950s. The congregations are supervised by the Federation
+of Jewish Communities, which is the legally recognized representative
+body of the Jews in Romania and is headed by the chief rabbi.</p>
+
+<p>Islam is the religion of the Tatars and Turks in Dobruja. Moslems were
+estimated to number between 30,000 and 35,000 in the mid-1950s. Mosques,
+most of them built during the Turkish occupation of the area, are found
+throughout the region. The seat of the grand mufti, religious head of
+the Moslems in Romania, is at the Central Mosque in Constanta.</p>
+
+<p>Unitarianism was introduced into Transylvania in the mid-sixteenth
+century, when a group of former Calvinists founded a Unitarian church in
+Cluj. The church has always been closely connected with the Hungarian
+minority, from which it draws most of its members. The number of
+adherents in the mid-1950s was estimated at 70,000. The seat of the
+Unitarian Church is in Cluj, which is also the location of its seminary.</p>
+
+<p>Two other legally recognized churches are the Armenian-Gregorian Church
+and the Christians of the Old Rite. The Armenian-Gregorian Church is
+headed by a bishop in Bucharest, and the Christians of the Old Rite,
+also known as Old Catholics, by a bishop in Bukovina. Each had an
+estimated membership of 25,000 in the 1950s.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 6</h2>
+
+<h2>EDUCATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Romanian educational system has been transformed to fit the
+communist pattern of total subordination to the needs of the state.
+Since 1948 the educational system has developed as a major force for
+increasing the general educational level of the population, for
+inculcating members of society with socialist ideals in support of the
+regime and its policies, and for providing technical specialists and
+skilled workers for the nation's labor force. Modifications and
+adjustments in the system have taken place periodically, but such
+changes have largely reflected a shift in emphasis among these major
+objectives rather than any change in basic educational principles.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable progress has been made in the educational field since the
+end of World War II. An intensive campaign to eradicate illiteracy was
+undertaken and, according to the government, was successfully concluded
+by 1958. The number of schools was significantly increased, as were
+student enrollments throughout the system, although in 1972 the number
+of students continuing their education beyond the primary level was
+still proportionately low. The growth of the school structure was
+further indicated by the successive extension of the period of
+compulsory education from four years in 1948 to ten in 1968. Full
+enrollment under the ten-year program, however, was not expected to be
+achieved before 1973.</p>
+
+<p>To meet the demands for skilled and semiskilled industrial and
+agricultural workers, the educational system was gradually transformed,
+heavy emphasis being placed on scientific and technical programs and on
+vocational training. The most recent reforms, promulgated in 1968, not
+only reinforced education to meet national economic requirements but
+also placed renewed stress on the need for increased ideological and
+political training of the country's youth as a prime element in the
+successful development of the Romanian socialist state.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the progress achieved in producing a disciplined work force,
+which benefits the country's economic development, the educational
+system continued to show basic limitations and shortcomings.
+Overspecialization and excessive student workloads served to limit the
+effectiveness and efficiency of secondary and higher schools.
+Furthermore, the constant effort to expand the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>mass base of the system,
+although achieving uniform and satisfactory results by communist
+standards, lowered the quality of education and sacrificed individual
+creativity.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">BACKGROUND</p>
+
+<p>The educational history of Romania has followed closely the political
+development of the country. The earliest educational institutions were
+established in the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia during the
+sixteenth century and served as the basis of the first system of public
+education, which became operative in 1832. The unification of the
+principalities in 1859 led to the adoption of the Educational Act of
+1864, which established the principle of free and compulsory education,
+"where schools were available," under state supervision. Despite the
+legal provisions for an adequate school system, however, administrative
+and financial limitations kept the number of schools small and pupil
+enrollment low.</p>
+
+<p>Little progress was made in improving the scope and substance of public
+education until the latter half of the nineteenth century and the early
+part of the twentieth. Beginning in 1893, the country's educational
+process underwent extensive reorganization: the structure and functions
+of elementary and normal schools were revised, the curricula of
+secondary schools and institutions of higher education were revamped,
+and the position of vocational training in the system was strengthened.
+Although these advances served to improve the quality of education then
+available, the number of state-supported schools continued to be low.</p>
+
+<p>Romania's territorial acquisitions after World War I almost tripled its
+population and added greatly to the problems of public education.
+Educators considered the system deficient in many respects through the
+1930s and the mid-1940s, but they succeeded in achieving considerable
+uniformity among the school programs at the various educational levels
+and, in the main, imparted a basic general education to the majority of
+pupils who completed courses through the secondary school level.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Precommunist Education</p>
+
+<p>The educational system that had evolved in precommunist Romania was
+operated largely, but not exclusively, by the state and reflected the
+traditional European order of the times, in which the socially and
+economically privileged classes were the chief recipients of the
+benefits of education. Only a limited number of children of the
+peasantry received more than the four years of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>elementary education
+required by the state, and both they and the children of the urban lower
+classes were discouraged from going on to secondary schools either by
+the lack of sufficient institutions or by the inability of their parents
+to pay tuition fees beyond the compulsory level. The public,
+state-supported system administered by the Ministry of Education
+consisted of kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools,
+vocational schools, and institutions of higher learning. Academic
+standards were generally high, and advancement was based primarily on
+scholastic merit.</p>
+
+<p>Kindergartens were open to children between the ages of five and seven
+in both state and private schools. No specific subjects were taught and,
+although theoretically compulsory, attendance was seldom enforced.
+Attendance records for the 1929-38 period indicated that only
+approximately 13 percent of all eligible children attended public
+kindergartens and that fewer than 1.5 percent were enrolled in private
+ones.</p>
+
+<p>The seven-year elementary school system, four years of which were
+theoretically compulsory, comprised two types of institutions for
+children between the ages of seven and fourteen: four-year schools for
+pupils preparing for secondary schools and seven-year schools for
+students terminating their education at the elementary level. Elementary
+education was free except in private schools and, although attendance
+was supposedly mandatory, enrollments before 1940 averaged less than 75
+percent of all children of elementary school age.</p>
+
+<p>Curricular requirements were demanding at this level, particularly in
+the four-year primary schools. All students studied the Romanian
+language, literature, history, geography, and natural sciences, in
+addition to participating in physical education classes and handicraft
+programs. In the seven-year schools the curriculum during the last three
+years also included a variety of vocational subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Four types of educational institutions made up the secondary school
+system: lyceums, primarily preparatory schools for universities; teacher
+training schools; theological schools; and trade schools. Most of these
+institutions were public, and each type offered an eight-year course
+with varying degrees of specialization. Attendance was generally limited
+to children of the landed aristocracy and the urban upper class. All
+subjects, even those of a vocational nature, were taught on a
+theoretical basis. The general curricula in the lyceums included the
+Romanian language, history, literature, the physical sciences,
+mathematics, and music. Before being accepted in a university, all
+graduates of lyceums were required to have passed the baccalaureate, a
+special <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>comprehensive examination given after all graduation
+requirements had been met.</p>
+
+<p>The theological schools, also state supported, trained priests in the
+different faiths; the teacher training schools trained kindergarten and
+elementary school teachers; and the trade schools prepared students for
+work in business and commercial concerns. No qualifying examinations
+were given to graduates of theological, teacher training, or trade
+schools, since none were eligible for admission to higher level schools.
+Enrollment throughout the secondary schools was also low; statistics
+show that over the 1928-39 period less than 6 percent of the total
+number of students enrolled in elementary schools entered a secondary
+school after completing four years of compulsory elementary education.</p>
+
+<p>Higher education in precommunist Romania was centered in four
+universities; two polytechnical institutes; and a limited number of
+academies specializing in architecture, the arts, physical education,
+agronomy, and higher commercial and industrial studies. All academic
+disciplines could be pursued at one or another of these various
+institutions, and three to seven years were required to obtain the basic
+university degree. An additional two to four years of study and research
+were required for the awarding of an advanced degree. The number of
+students attending higher institutions was proportionately small, and
+the number receiving the basic degree was even smaller.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Communist Educational Policies</p>
+
+<p>After communist seizure of the government in 1948, the educational
+system was reoriented away from basic French educational concepts toward
+those based on the communist philosophy as developed in the Soviet
+Union. The ultimate objective of the reformed system was to make
+education available to as large a segment of the population as possible,
+with a view to transforming the citizenry into a cohesive and effective
+element for the building of a socialist society along Marxist-Leninist
+lines. The new system was specifically designed to be tightly
+controlled, uniform in operation and administration, exclusively secular
+and public, and fully coordinated with the labor needs of the planned
+economy.</p>
+
+<p>The August 1948 decree revamping education spelled out in detail the
+specific policies and methods that would be employed in meeting the new
+educational goals. Foremost among the basic aims were the eradication of
+illiteracy and the broadening of the educational base to include all
+children of school age. Other specific goals of the educational process
+included: inculcating all youth with the ideological spirit of so-called
+popular democracy; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>guiding the use of leisure time by organizing
+outside activities for students; educating, on a "scientific" basis, the
+higher and lower cadres of specialists needed for the construction of
+all aspects of a socialist society; and training the teachers necessary
+for the proper functioning of the educational system.</p>
+
+<p>Although these policies have been adjusted and modified and certain
+aspects have received additional emphasis at particular times, they have
+been retained as the basic guidelines for Romanian public education. The
+implementation of these policies since 1948 has resulted in the
+restructuring of the school system, the expansion of educational
+facilities, the recasting of the content of curricula and courses, and a
+major reorganization of the teaching profession, heavy stress being
+placed on teachers as indoctrinators as well as educators.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">EDUCATIONAL REFORMS SINCE 1948</p>
+
+<p>Although the educational reform law of August 1948 has been amended many
+times, most of the changes that have taken place have not materially
+altered the basic pattern of communist education that the law
+established but rather have reflected the vicissitudes of Romanian
+political life and the country's economic needs. Almost all changes in
+the educational process have served to implement the original concept
+that the role of public education is primarily to serve as a vital
+instrument in the creation of an industrialized society subservient to
+the interests of the state.</p>
+
+<p>The initial changes introduced by the Communists immediately after
+coming to power in 1948 affected the content more than the form of
+education. The public school structure was left virtually unchanged
+except for the addition of those religious and private educational
+facilities that had been expropriated by the government. An extensive
+purge of all categories of teachers was undertaken, and a number of
+special schools were set up for the political indoctrination of those
+retained in the system. In addition, the student bodies, particularly in
+the schools of higher learning, were carefully sifted, and adjustments
+were made in the availability of courses and in the size of classes in
+order to redirect students into selected fields of study.</p>
+
+<p>As a further means of control the regime organized students into
+associations comparable to communist labor unions. The groups included
+the Union of Student Associations, the Union of Communist Youth, and the
+Pioneers Organization. The activities of these organizations affected
+students at all levels and consisted of planned and supervised
+extracurricular <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>programs. Among the activities scheduled were special
+exhibitions, sports events, meetings, lectures, and competitions based
+on ideological themes.</p>
+
+<p>By the late 1950s the reorganization of the educational process along
+communist lines was virtually completed, and some expansion of
+facilities had taken place. Curricular requirements had been codified;
+new textbooks had been written, printed, and introduced throughout the
+system; new teaching methods were in general use; and the revised
+teacher training program had produced adequate numbers of "reliable"
+teachers at all school levels. Additional schools for minority groups
+had been built, and overall progress throughout the system was
+sufficient to permit the extension of the compulsory system of education
+from four to seven years beginning with the 1958/59 school year.</p>
+
+<p>In the early 1960s demands for skilled and semiskilled agricultural and
+industrial workers brought further changes in the educational system. A
+renewed general emphasis was placed on polytechnical education, and a
+period of practical on-the-job training before entering permanent
+employment was instituted for all secondary technical school graduates.
+The achievement of this new objective required a further extension of
+the compulsory education period to eight years and a relative deemphasis
+of the amount of class time allocated to the humanities and other purely
+academic subjects.</p>
+
+<p>In 1968 a new educational law was enacted that had far-reaching
+consequences, but by late 1971 it had not yet been fully implemented.
+Changes provided for under this law were intended to improve the general
+quality of education at all levels and to relate education more closely
+to expanding technological and industrial needs. In addition, the law
+instituted new measures that gave stronger impetus to the political
+indoctrination of youth in order to counteract student unrest and
+dissatisfaction as well as the spread of Western liberalism (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Specific modifications to be made in the system under the 1968 law
+included the extension of compulsory education to ten years, the
+establishment of additional specialized secondary schools, the
+introduction of more practical classroom work on vocational and
+technical subjects, closer coordination and supervision of
+extracurricular projects by the Union of Communist Youth, and the
+requirement that teachers include a greater number of political and
+ideological themes in all social science courses. The importance
+attached to the political aspects of the new program by the regime was
+indicated by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>the creation, in July 1971, of the new post of first
+deputy minister of education with the specific function of expanding and
+supervising all ideological indoctrination throughout the school system.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LITERACY</p>
+
+<p>Before World War II the literacy rate in Romania ranked among the lowest
+in Europe. In 1930, at the time of the first official census, more than
+38 percent of the population over seven years of age were considered
+illiterate&mdash;50 percent of the women and over 25 percent of the men in
+the entire population of about 18 million were unable to read or write.
+In rural areas, where most of the population lived, it was generally
+considered that the illiteracy rate was even higher. Much of the lack of
+literacy could be attributed to the fact that children of school age
+either were not enrolled in school or, if they were enrolled, did not
+attend classes regularly. There was also a fairly large percentage of
+children who left school without completing their studies or, having
+completed only the mandatory first four grades, relapsed into illiteracy
+in adult life.</p>
+
+<p>Although the proportion of literacy had been increased somewhat by the
+time the Communists came to power, it was still low. The emphasis given
+to expanded educational opportunities by the party and government
+between 1948 and 1956 brought a substantial decline in the number of
+illiterates. Classes were organized throughout the country by the
+various people's councils, and a determined campaign was undertaken to
+increase enrollment. Most of these courses lasted two years and were
+conducted on a weekly basis by both regular teachers and literate
+volunteers; successful completion was officially considered equivalent
+to graduation from a four-year elementary school.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of these increased efforts, the 1956 census showed an
+overall increase in the literacy rate to about 90 percent. According to
+this census the greatest proportion of illiterates was still to be found
+in the rural areas and among women. Literacy courses were continued
+until late 1958, when the government officially declared that illiteracy
+had been eliminated. Despite this authoritative statement, Western
+demographers consider that, although illiteracy has been significantly
+reduced, it probably still exists among older segments of the
+population, particularly in remote areas of the country.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p>In early 1972 the public education system included all levels of
+instruction from preschool or kindergarten through elementary,
+secondary, and higher polytechnical schools and universities (see fig.
+6). At the beginning of the 1971/72 academic year approximately 4.5
+million students were enrolled in the more than 16,000 schools operated
+throughout the system. Kindergartens and nurseries were organized on a
+voluntary basis, but attendance at elementary school and through the
+first two years of secondary school was compulsory for students between
+the ages of six and sixteen. Attendance at higher level institutions was
+voluntary, but admission was subject to selective procedures that
+included heavy emphasis on political reliability as well as scholastic
+achievement.</p>
+
+<p>All schools were state owned, and tuition, textbooks, and other
+classroom materials were free at all levels. An extensive system of
+scholarships existed, sponsored by government agencies, labor unions,
+state enterprises, and mass organizations. These scholarships were
+awarded on a selective basis to students in both secondary and higher
+schools to help defray transportation costs, living costs, and
+recreational expenses. The state also operated hostels, low-cost
+boardinghouses, child care centers, dining halls, and canteens for
+students above the elementary level. A planned increase in the number of
+these facilities, however, had not been achieved, and the authorities
+were under pressure to both improve and expand them.</p>
+
+<p>The educational system, in general, stressed technical, political, and
+economic subjects; and the classroom work in the elementary and
+secondary schools was underscored by the Pioneers Organization, whose
+extracurricular activities were considered an integral part of the
+educational program. The Union of Communist Youth and the Union of
+Student Associations performed similar functions in the higher schools.
+The academic year ran from October to September, and elementary and
+secondary classes ended at the end of May. At the university level all
+instruction was divided into two semesters, running respectively from
+October 1 to January 14 and from February 15 to June 30. The grading
+system at all levels utilized numbers from a high of ten to a low of
+one, five being the minimal passing grade.</p>
+<br />
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep081" id="imagep081"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep081.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep081.jpg" width="75%" alt="Figure 6. Romania, Structure of Education, 1972." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Note.&mdash;Attendance is compulsary through grade X.</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 6. Romania, Structure of Education, 1972.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Administration and Finance</p>
+
+<p>The Ministry of Education exercised overall control and direction of the
+educational system and implemented all party policies and directives
+concerning its management. In carrying <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>out this broad mission, the
+ministry cooperated with other central organs of state administration
+and principally with the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
+Sciences. Under the country's highly centralized control system, the
+ministry's specific functions included: the determination of the number
+and kinds of institutions to be organized in the school network and the
+types of trades and specialties to be taught; the drawing up of plans,
+curricula, syllabi, and textbooks and teaching materials; the
+supervision over the training, appointment, promotion, and dismissal of
+all educational personnel; the general supervision of research plans at
+higher institutions of learning; and the coordination of the assignment
+of graduates to meet the planned requirements of the economy.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The Ministry of Education also defined general policy for, and
+supervised the work of, the educational sections of the various regional
+and district people's councils, which were assigned certain
+responsibilities for organizing and administering local primary and
+secondary schools. The operation of these schools was subject to
+periodic detailed checks by a body of inspectors general to ensure the
+uniform application of government regulations and policies. All
+institutions of higher learning were controlled directly by the Ministry
+of Education, which appointed and dismissed all rectors and their
+assistants. The ministry also employed an intertwined system of advisory
+councils and commissions to ensure compliance with party and government
+directives and guidelines.</p>
+
+<p>The overall budgeting for the educational system was also coordinated by
+the Ministry of Education and consisted of the budgets submitted by the
+various people's councils for primary and secondary schools as well as
+the ministry's own estimated budget needs for vocational and higher
+schools and for operating the entire system. In 1969, the latest year
+for which official statistics were available, approximately 6 percent of
+the state budget was allocated to education.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Preschool Education</p>
+
+<p>Preschool education, consisting principally of kindergartens, was
+available on an optional basis for all children between the ages of
+three and six. Attendance was free, and enrollment was encouraged by the
+government as an essential step in the communist educational system of
+developing "correct" socialist values and attitudes in youth.
+Kindergartens were organized by districts and were located at the
+facilities of local enterprises, state organizations, and cooperative
+agencies. In certain areas, day nurseries attached to kindergartens
+provided <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>care for the children of working mothers, for which a fee,
+generally in proportion to the parents' wages, was charged.</p>
+
+<p>If the school was large enough, classes were generally organized on an
+age-group basis, each with a teacher or supervisor. The number of
+children attending kindergartens has steadily increased since 1960.
+During the 1969/70 school year more than 428,000 children, approximately
+40 percent of all those eligible, were enrolled in about 10,000
+kindergartens and nurseries. Official estimates anticipated that this
+attendance figure would increase appreciably in future years as more
+working mothers were added to the labor force.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Primary Education</p>
+
+<p>Primary education was provided, in early 1972, to all children between
+the ages of six and sixteen in eight-year elementary schools as part of
+the compulsory education program. During the 1969/70 school year
+enrollment was about 3.3 million students in about 15,000 schools
+throughout the country. Instruction was conducted principally in the
+Romanian language, but in those areas with large minority populations
+Hungarian- or German-speaking teachers were employed, and special texts
+were also available in those languages.</p>
+
+<p>Courses taught throughout the first four years, in addition to stressing
+the Romanian language, included history, geography, arithmetic,
+elementary biology, art, music, and physical education. Classes usually
+met six days a week for periods ranging from four to five hours,
+depending on the type of subject matter to be covered. Grades five
+through eight emphasized the development of the pupils' ability to
+express themselves orally and in writing through the intensified
+teaching of many of the subjects presented in the first four grades. In
+addition, foreign-language instruction was introduced in the fifth
+grade, offering a choice of French, German, Russian, or English. In all
+grades the foundation of political education was laid within the scope
+of Marxist-Leninist tenets concerning the materialistic development of
+society, usually presented as part of other general subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Examinations were held in each area of study at the end of the school
+year. Promotion to the next higher class required a passing grade of
+five (on the one-to-ten scale) in the substantive work covered, as well
+as a minimum grade of six for general conduct. A student was permitted
+to repeat an examination before being failed in a course but, if he
+failed that too, the entire course had to be repeated.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the eight-year program all graduates were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>required to
+pass written examinations in history, geography, and literature as well
+as oral tests in other selected subjects. Those successfully completing
+both examinations were awarded diplomas and became eligible to take the
+competitive entrance examinations for secondary school. It was at this
+point that students were grouped into general categories according to
+their aptitudes for advanced education: ultimate university-level study,
+teaching and technical training, the professional arts, and vocational
+training.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Secondary Education</p>
+
+<p>In late 1971 the necessary adjustments in the secondary school structure
+to accommodate the changeover from eight to ten years of compulsory
+education, as provided in the 1968 educational law, had not yet been
+completed. Although the extension of the program through the tenth grade
+began with the 1969/70 school year, shortages in funds, educational
+personnel, and facilities needed for higher student enrollment still
+existed and were not expected to be overcome until 1973. Secondary
+schools of all types numbered about 800 in 1970 and had an enrollment of
+about 370,000 students, roughly one-quarter of those of secondary school
+age.</p>
+
+<p>General education secondary schools were of the college preparatory
+type, offered a four-year program, and had the most rigid entrance
+requirements. Students could select a course either in the humanities or
+in the natural sciences. The humanities course included such subjects as
+the Romanian language, a modern language, Latin, history, psychology and
+logic, and the history of literature. The science course covered
+mathematics through advanced algebra and probability theory, astronomy,
+physics, chemistry, biology, and economic and political geography.
+Physical education and art were included in both courses, as was a
+subject called sociopolitical science, which covered elements of
+political economy, "scientific" socialism, and the history of the
+Communist Party and the labor movement in Romania.</p>
+
+<p>After satisfactory completion of either course of study, all students
+were required to take the state baccalaureate examination, which
+qualified them for admission to higher schools or for district
+employment in middle-level positions in government or in industry. The
+number of entrants to schools of higher education was determined by the
+Ministry of Education each year in the light of the needs of the various
+sectors of the economy and of cultural life. Since the number of
+applicants usually exceeded the number of spaces allocated to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>each
+higher institution, competitive examinations were held, and candidates
+were selected on the basis of marks received and their general political
+attitude. Those who either failed the entrance examination&mdash;that is, did
+not receive marks sufficiently high to qualify for a university or
+polytechnical institute&mdash;or were considered politically apathetic were
+usually placed in short-term vocational courses to qualify them for
+employment as technicians.</p>
+
+<p>Specialized secondary education was conducted in schools for the
+professional arts and in technical and teacher training schools. Studies
+in art schools lasted one or two years and consisted of combined courses
+of general subjects and specialized training in cultural activities,
+including various forms of art and drama. Technical schools specialized
+in industrial fields, agriculture and its associated subfields,
+forestry, socialist economics, and public health. Courses offered
+covered four or five years, the time depending on the area of
+specialization, and included basic courses in general education.
+Graduates in these technical fields were designated for employment in
+intermediate-level positions. Teacher training schools, also of four or
+five years' duration, trained students exclusively for teaching
+positions at the preschool and elementary levels.</p>
+
+<p>Vocational secondary education encompassed the largest number of schools
+and was reported to enroll almost 50 percent of all secondary school
+students. These schools provided a one- or two-year program of combined
+general education and vocational training in all the trades necessary
+for the national economy. Vocational schools were usually organized at
+the locations of industrial enterprises and socialist cooperatives, and
+students were trained as skilled workers. Additional vocational training
+was also provided in the form of apprentice or on-the-job training to
+workers already employed in industrial installations. The bulk of these
+trainees had either completed the compulsory level of education and then
+dropped out of school or had failed to be selected in the competitive
+examination for entrance into secondary school. Vocational training had
+not kept pace with increasing industrialization, and in 1972 the demand
+for trained workers continued to surpass the supply (see ch. 16).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Higher Education</p>
+
+<p>The system of higher education was comprised primarily of universities
+and polytechnical and specialized institutes, which in 1971 had a total
+enrollment of approximately 150,000 students. All institutions were
+under the direct supervision of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>Ministry of Education and were
+geared to produce specialists in the humanities, in the social, natural,
+physical, and engineering sciences, and in education as needed to fill
+positions in government and all sectors of the economy. The schools of
+higher learning were generally headed by a rector (university) or a
+director (technical institute), who was appointed by the Ministry of
+Education for a period of four years.</p>
+
+<p>Schools were divided into faculties, headed by deans; faculties, in
+turn, were divided into departments, each headed by a chairman.
+Collectively the rector, deans, chairmen, and certain other selected
+faculty members were grouped into an advisory council, which had broad
+authority in carrying out the government's educational policies,
+approving the faculty work programs, supervising the instruction carried
+out by the departments, and granting degrees at the graduate level.</p>
+
+<p>Students were admitted to all higher schools on the basis of competitive
+examination and assigned to particular faculties according to
+government-directed areas of study. Most degree courses at universities
+required three to six years to complete, and those at polytechnical
+institutes, from two to three years. Medical and dental degrees were
+granted at institutes attached to universities and required six years of
+study.</p>
+
+<p>After completing all course requirements and passing a comprehensive
+state examination, graduates of the various institutions were assigned
+to positions in the government or industry as dictated by their
+specialized work. Students who graduated with distinction were given
+preference in assignment to positions and in the selection of candidates
+for postgraduate study. Two higher degrees were available: the Candidate
+of Science, which required an additional three years of study, the
+passing of several examinations, and the successful defense of a thesis
+that made an original contribution to the student's field of
+specialization; and the Doctor of Science, which also required extensive
+study, the passing of oral and written examinations, and the successful
+defense of a thesis based on original and extensive research work in the
+student's selected field.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Adult Education</p>
+
+<p>Adult education as a supplementary form of instruction was considered an
+integral part of the educational process. Initiated in the early 1950s,
+the program was intended to give the workers and peasants the
+opportunity to improve their level of education and skill and, at the
+same time, to provide the government with the means of intensifying the
+ideological and political indoctrination of the general population.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>A variety of schools was established throughout the country that offered
+evening and correspondence courses to volunteer enrollees, mostly
+between the ages of forty and sixty. The courses consisted of lectures
+given by volunteer instructors in the social, natural, and political
+sciences; although no degree or diploma was offered, those who
+successfully completed courses were eligible, after passing a state
+examination, for certificates as elementary or higher school graduates.</p>
+
+<p>In 1958 the program was revised and expanded. In that year people's and
+workers' "universities" were established under the guidance of labor
+unions, local committees on art and culture, and committees of the Union
+of Communist Youth. These universities were established at cultural
+centers, in libraries, in museums, and at collective farms and
+industrial enterprises. The enrollment age was lowered to twenty to
+attract youthful school dropouts, and a greater variety of basic general
+educational and technical courses was introduced. Despite these changes,
+in 1967 the press reported a general lack of public support for the
+program. Deficiencies in the system included a lack of adequate
+classrooms and equipment, the low quality of instruction, and the
+absence of a vigorous recruitment program.</p>
+
+<p>After the enactment of the new law on education in 1968, the system was
+again revised; extensive modifications were made in the curricula, and
+closer supervision of the program was undertaken. In rural areas the
+school year was shortened to four or six months during the winter, and
+additional general cultural courses were offered, as well as special
+courses in foreign languages and modern agricultural techniques. In
+urban schools the program was reduced to eight or nine months, and
+modern courses in stenography, television repair, and automatic data
+processing were made available. As a result of these efforts, official
+reports in 1970 claimed that the number of schools providing adult
+education had increased to 171 and that student enrollment totaled
+almost 100,000.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Teacher Training</p>
+
+<p>Teachers and educators were considered important elements in the
+ideological and political conditioning process directed toward the
+country's youth. In addition to their primary task of teaching, they
+were relied upon to supplement the educational program by acting as
+disseminators and interpreters of the communist line and by encouraging
+and influencing young students to participate in state-sponsored
+activities. In 1971 there were approximately 200,000 teachers assigned
+to the 16,000 schools throughout the country, and this number was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>expected to increase with the continued emphasis on mass education.</p>
+
+<p>Teacher training was accomplished at three main levels: pedagogical
+schools for training preschool and elementary teachers; pedagogical
+faculties or departments at universities and teachers' institutes for
+training secondary teachers; and a postgraduate studies program to
+prepare lecturers and professors for higher educational institutions.
+There were also refresher training courses conducted at various centers,
+which all teachers were required to attend once every five years until
+they had accumulated twenty-five years of experience in the profession.
+These courses varied in length and generally stressed advances in
+pedagogical science, counseling techniques, and utilization of modern
+teaching aids.</p>
+
+<p>As evidence of the importance it placed on the teaching profession, the
+government, since 1967, has instituted many practices intended to
+improve the social position of teachers in the community as well as to
+increase their personal benefits. Among these innovations was the
+creation of the titles of professor emeritus, educator emeritus,
+outstanding professor, and outstanding educator in order to honor
+individuals for exceptional work. The government also authorized several
+orders and medals to be awarded to teachers for outstanding service and
+accomplishments.</p>
+
+<p>Teachers were also nominated for places on local people's councils, and
+increasing numbers were declared eligible for election to the Grand
+National Assembly. To raise the standard of living for the teaching
+corps, a new wage system was introduced in 1969, which granted pay
+increases at all teaching levels, improved promotions, and raised
+retirement benefits. Government assistance was made available to all
+teachers for the construction of individual homes in either urban or
+rural areas in which they were assigned.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">EDUCATION OF MINORITIES</p>
+
+<p>Although the government has recognized in principle the right of the
+national minorities to use their native languages in education, the
+implementation of official educational policies has reflected a strong
+preference for the incorporation or integration of all minority groups
+into the general population. The dissatisfaction of the large Hungarian
+and German minorities with the inadequacies of minority education
+eventually surfaced in early 1969 at the national congress of
+educational workers, and since that time the regime has taken steps to
+reduce inequalities in the system by providing additional <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>facilities,
+trained personnel, and teaching materials for the improvement of
+minority instruction.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this increased government support, groups as small as six
+were made eligible to be instructed by a full-time teacher in any
+non-Romanian native language. High schools with instruction in Hungarian
+or German were set up in a number of the larger cities and towns that
+had sizable populations in those nationalities. In addition, sections or
+classes were organized in certain vocational and industrial schools for
+the teaching of selected subjects in minority languages, and candidates
+for admission to higher schools were permitted to take competitive
+examinations in either Romanian or their native language. By the opening
+of the 1971/72 school year the government reported that more than
+280,000 minority students in 3,162 schools and sections were receiving
+instruction in their native languages from approximately 14,000
+teachers.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 7</h2>
+
+<h2>ARTISTIC AND INTELLECTUAL EXPRESSION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The arts and intellectual activity reflect Romania's position as a
+crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures. Elements of ancient Roman
+culture from the second and third centuries mingle with Byzantine
+elements (dating from the Middle Ages) and with Islamic elements
+(brought by the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century) (see ch. 2).
+In more recent times, these were joined by elements of Western European
+culture. Underlying all these influences from abroad are elements of a
+native peasant culture that can be traced back to the Neolithic
+settlement found on the territory of the Romanian state. The mixing of
+all the elements has produced a cultural mosaic that, although it has
+much in common with the cultures of neighboring countries, is purely
+Romanian.</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian people are very proud of their cultural heritage and of the
+artistic and intellectual expression that it has inspired. Artists and
+intellectuals have always occupied a favored position in society as
+transmitters of the aspirations of the people. They continue to feel an
+identity as the social class that is responsible for the spiritual
+well-being of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>The communist government has promoted this pride in the cultural
+heritage by devoting considerable funds and effort to the restoration
+and preservation of antiquities. It has also fostered the preservation
+of folk art and folk traditions through the establishment of the Village
+Museums in Bucharest and Cluj and through the continued urging of
+contemporary artists to produce a national art based on folk traditions.</p>
+
+<p>The various ethnic minorities have preserved their own cultural
+traditions and forms of expression. Although these forms reflect the
+same modern influences of foreign origins that have affected Romanian
+forms, they show relatively little direct borrowing from each other or
+from the Romanian majority.</p>
+
+<p>Because artistic and intellectual activity is a very effective means of
+protest and social criticism and, therefore, opposition to the
+established order, the communist leadership has tried to keep such
+expression under control and to use it for its own purposes. The degree
+of cultural freedom and the content of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>cultural output have been
+indicators of the political situation in the country.</p>
+
+<p>Despite controls, artists and intellectuals continue to create. Not all
+of their effort becomes public, and that which does is not necessarily
+sincere or direct. Symbolism and allusion have been developed to a high
+degree and are well understood by both the creator and his audience.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE ROLE OF THE ARTS UNDER COMMUNISM</p>
+
+<p>Since the communists took control of the government in 1947, artistic
+and intellectual expression has been dominated by the cultural policy of
+the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist Roman&mdash;PCR), which
+follows the model developed by the Soviet Union. The policy is based on
+the concept known as Socialist Realism, whereby an artist must strive to
+grasp the essence of human and social relations and depict them
+truthfully in the light of socialist ideals. Art must be directed toward
+the working man; therefore its style must be simple and straightforward.</p>
+
+<p>Adherence to this concept in the formulation and execution of cultural
+policy has varied, however, and generally reflects the political climate
+of the time and the particular outlook of the men in power. During the
+1950s, which has come to be known as the Dogmatic Period of cultural
+life in post-World War II Romania, the content of the arts and of
+intellectual expression was strictly controlled and restricted.
+Socialist Realism was interpreted to mean the presentation of the
+glories of communist ideals through the various forms of art and the use
+of such forms to further these ideals. All cultural effort, therefore,
+had to be directed to these goals, and no deviation was tolerated. The
+merits of a book, painting, or play were judged only by how well they
+fulfilled the propaganda function. Most individuals entrusted with
+passing judgment on what was or was not acceptable had no professional
+qualifications. As a result of all these factors, artistic production
+that was made public during this period was, with few exceptions, dull
+and mediocre.</p>
+
+<p>With the discrediting of Stalin and his policies in the mid-1950s,
+dogmatism in artistic expression gave way to a more liberal
+interpretation of what was considered appropriate. Emphasis on Socialist
+Realism was replaced with emphasis on nationalistic and historical
+themes, as Romania strove to gain greater political and economic
+independence from the Soviet Union. In order to be acceptable to the
+administrators of cultural policy, artistic expression no longer had to
+confine itself to the presentation of communist ideals in traditional
+styles, but it could address itself to a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>variety of themes and could
+experiment in innovative styles. Although artists were criticized for
+submitting to so-called decadent bourgeois culture if they moved too far
+away from the standards of Socialist Realism, they were not punished or
+enjoined from further creative activity unless their work could be
+interpreted as an attack on the regime or its policies.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, expanding relations between Romania and the
+noncommunist world brought artists and intellectuals into contact with
+cultural developments elsewhere and stimulated Romanian creative
+expression. Cultural exchanges with Western countries were often used by
+the government to allow artists more freedom of expression than could be
+politically justified at home. Artists were allowed to exhibit or
+perform abroad works that had been highly criticized at home. The
+critical praise received abroad was proudly publicized at home as an
+example of Romanian genius, at the same time that these very works were
+being criticized for not meeting the desired standards of artistic
+expression.</p>
+
+<p>The apparent inconsistency in the application of cultural policy in the
+late 1960s was indicative of a widespread effort to determine what the
+role of art and literature should be in a socialist society. By 1971
+this had become a much debated topic. Party ideologists, communist and
+noncommunist artists and critics, and other members of the intellectual
+elite, including students, aired their views through roundtable
+discussions, through polemics in the press, and through other means. The
+debates appeared to be unrestricted and lively, and the views expressed
+ranged from strict adherence to the concept of Socialist Realism to a
+plea for "art for art's sake." The opinion of the majority, however,
+seemed to be that art and literature in a socialist society, as in any
+other society, have both an aesthetic and a social role. Neither of
+these functions should overshadow the other; social and political
+elements in a work of art or literature should be implicit and
+artistically presented rather than the sole justification for the
+existence of the work.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1971 President Nicolae Ceausescu announced a tightening of
+cultural reins in order to bring cultural and educational activity back
+toward its socialist purpose. The statement was followed by the removal
+of some books from publication schedules, the cancellation of some
+theatrical productions, and the resignation or removal of several
+editors of literary and cultural periodicals. Most observers, however,
+agreed that, despite some tightening of controls, artistic and
+intellectual expression in Romania at the end of 1971 was far from
+returning to the restrictions of the Dogmatic Period of the 1950s.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>Cultural policy was administered in 1971 by the Council on Socialist
+Culture and Education, which had replaced the State Committee for
+Culture and Art. The council had the status of a ministry in the
+government, as had the committee that preceded it (see ch. 8). The main
+overseers of cultural policy and the principal organs of control on
+artistic and intellectual expression, however, have been the various
+professional unions. The role of the unions is to supervise and enforce
+established standards of creative expression and to act as
+representatives for the members of their professions. A close
+relationship exists between the union leadership and the communist
+party, whose control of the unions and, thereby, of the members is
+exercised through the party leadership (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Membership in the appropriate union is a prerequisite for effective
+artistic and intellectual activity. Only members can be employed in
+their professions and have their works published, performed, or
+exhibited. Deviation from established cultural policy results in
+expulsion from the union and consequent professional oblivion.
+Therefore, most artists and intellectuals exercise self-censorship
+rather than risk punishment, even if such censorship involves
+compromising principles and artistic standards.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">ART, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Folk Art</p>
+
+<p>A long heritage of decorative folk art, expressed in wood carving,
+embroidery, weaving, pottery, and other forms, has been important as
+artistic expression for the peasants and has served as inspiration for
+the more sophisticated painters, sculptors, and architects. Regional
+differences in styles and materials reflect the way of life of the
+people as well as their needs and the resources available to them.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the typical forms and motifs used through the ages have been
+found to date back to articles unearthed by archaeologists at Neolithic
+settlements. In common with the folk art of other countries of Eastern
+Europe, Romanian folk art uses mostly abstract and geometric designs.
+When floral or animal forms are used, they are usually stylized.</p>
+
+<p>The carving of wood is a natural form of folk expression in the heavily
+forested areas of the Carpathians and Transylvania. Pillars and frames
+of houses and other buildings, farmyard gates, and furniture are
+decorated with carved geometric designs. Wooden household utensils are
+also decorated with carved designs, as are farm tools and other objects
+used in daily life.</p>
+
+<p>Elaborate embroidery decorates the traditional costumes of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>both men and
+women. Those used on festive occasions are particularly richly
+embellished. Designs and colors vary with the regions and make it
+possible to identify specific costumes with specific parts of the
+country. Similar embroidery is also used to decorate household linens.</p>
+
+<p>Particularly well known outside the country are the woven rugs,
+tablecloths, and tapestries that decorate all rural homes and many urban
+ones. Designs are mostly geometric, and particular designs and color
+combinations are associated with particular regions. Well known for
+their unusual design and warm colors are Oltenian textiles in which a
+central animal, human, or floral design is surrounded by several frames
+of different colors. Muntenian textiles, on the other hand, have small
+geometric designs spread over the whole surface. Moldavian and
+Transylvanian textiles vary a great deal from one location to another
+and include both geometric and figurative designs. At one time, wool was
+used exclusively for weaving rugs and tapestries, but since the
+mid-nineteenth century cotton or hemp warp has been used in combination
+with wool. All-cotton and all-hemp rugs and wall hangings are also
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>Pottery of various kinds is made both as decorative objects and as
+household utensils. Plates, pots, and jugs are used to serve and store
+food, but they are also displayed on shelves along the walls of peasant
+houses, making the interiors colorful and cheerful. The shapes, colors,
+and designs of the pottery show the many cultural influences from
+Neolithic to modern West European. Two distinct types of pottery are
+produced: a black pottery made by incomplete firing of clay with much
+smoke, and the more common red pottery. Black pottery, the origins of
+which date back to the Bronze Age or earlier, is made mostly in Moldavia
+and eastern Transylvania. It has a highly polished finish, which is
+achieved by the use of a special stone. The widely produced red pottery
+may be glazed or unglazed and is usually decorated in some fashion&mdash;by
+painting, scratching a design into the wet clay, or applying a design in
+relief.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more unusual forms of folk art that continue to be practiced
+are the decoration of Easter eggs and painting on glass. Easter is a
+special time not only because of its religious significance but also
+because it heralds the beginning of the growing season, and Easter eggs
+as a symbol of fertility are an important element of the festivities.
+Eggs are decorated with highly ornamental patterns in various ways and
+often become respected works of art.</p>
+
+<p>Painting on glass was introduced into Transylvania in the seventeenth
+century from Bohemia and was used for the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>production of religious
+icons. Icon painting formed an important bridge between folk art and the
+fine arts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no longer
+widely practiced.</p>
+
+<p>A number of contemporary artists utilize the various forms of folk art
+as their medium of artistic expression. Their designs include not only
+the traditional but also elements of modern art styles, such as cubism
+and abstraction.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Fine Arts</p>
+
+<p>The beginnings of fine art in Romania date back to the fourteenth
+century when frescoes and other paintings were created to decorate the
+churches of the period. All of the early art was created in connection
+with churches, although not all of it was religious in content.
+Portraits of those responsible for the building of churches or
+monasteries, and of their families, were often included among the
+pictures of saints and biblical scenes that decorate the interior and
+exterior walls of medieval religious buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian church art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
+recognized as some of the finest and most unusual of the later period of
+Byzantine art. It differs somewhat in style from other examples of
+Byzantine art of that period by reflecting the influence of folk art.
+Some of the finest examples are found at the Moldavian monasteries of
+Putna, Sucevita, and Voronet. They are unusual in that they were painted
+on the outside walls in order to educate the peasants in church history
+and in elements of their faith. The quality and imaginativeness of these
+frescoes has been termed one of the great contributions to European
+religious art. Their freshness after more than 400 years of exposure to
+the elements is remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to paintings, religious art of the medieval period also
+included various objects, such as vestments, furniture, and vessels
+worked in wood, gold, or silver and richly decorated. Collections of
+these objects are preserved at the monasteries, the largest exhibits
+being at Sucevita and Putna.</p>
+
+<p>During the seventeenth century a change in style took place in painting
+and other decorative arts, although the subject matter remained
+religious. Russian artists who had come to Moldavia and Walachia
+introduced the small, detailed painting of Russian iconography, which
+became evident in the murals and other painting of Romanian artists. At
+the same time, the simple, folk art decorative forms were replaced by a
+more elaborate style showing both Baroque and Oriental influences. A
+distinct Walachian style developed, and schools emerged in Bucharest and
+other cities. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>most notable achievements of the Walachian school are
+the interior frescoes of the Hurez Monastery.</p>
+
+<p>A secular trend was introduced into art in the eighteenth century with a
+greater involvement of merchants, craftsmen, and landowners as patrons.
+Not until the nineteenth century, however, did a completely secular art
+come into being, mostly through foreign influences. The earliest secular
+artists reflect in their styles the training they had received as
+religious artists.</p>
+
+<p>In the early nineteenth century several foreign painters lived and
+worked in Romania and exerted a strong influence on young Romanian
+artists who, in turn, helped to train other artists of the nineteenth
+century. The spirit of nationalism and revolution that was sweeping
+Europe during that century involved Romanian artists as it did those in
+other countries under foreign rule. Art was a medium for expressing
+nationalist sentiments and the fight for self-determination. Most of the
+art of the period, therefore, represents historic and heroic subjects.
+Foremost among the revolutionary artists were Gheorghe Tattarescu and
+Theodor Aman, both extremely popular in their lifetime. Together, they
+exerted a great influence on the development of fine arts in Romania by
+founding the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest and by training young
+artists. Aman, in particular, is considered the country's first great
+modern painter.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most outstanding artist of the nineteenth century was Nicolae
+Grigorescu. His work remains extremely popular among Romanians, and his
+lyrical landscapes and scenes of Romanian life are well known abroad.</p>
+
+<p>The work of Stefan Luchian at the beginning of the twentieth century
+introduced to Romania some of the avant-garde styles that were appearing
+in European art elsewhere. Although he followed his predecessors in
+painting landscapes and rural subjects, he opposed their conservative
+style and introduced into his paintings a greater use of color than had
+been common. He also introduced social themes into his paintings by
+depicting the misery and poverty that were characteristic of the lives
+of most people. His best paintings, however, are flower studies, which
+bring out his love of color and of nature.</p>
+
+<p>Luchian's break with tradition and his use of color were followed by a
+number of artists, the most celebrated of whom was Nicolae Tonitza.
+These and other artists of the interwar period were greatly influenced
+by the impressionist and postimpressionist painters in Paris and Munich,
+where they studied. Their landscapes, flower studies, and portraits show
+the effective use of bright colors, which is considered characteristic
+of Romanian art.</p>
+
+<p>Because landscapes, floral studies, and other neutral subjects <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>have
+traditionally been the main concern of Romanian painters, this form of
+artistic expression was the least affected by the strict controls of the
+first decade of communist rule. A number of interwar artists and several
+younger ones continued to produce their canvases in the precommunist
+tradition, but during the 1960s some young artists experimented with
+various avant-garde techniques and styles that were then current in
+Western Europe. Although the government disapproved of these works, it
+allowed the artists to exhibit them abroad and win considerable acclaim
+for Romanian art. In the late 1960s the PCR was disturbed by the extent
+to which abstract art had blossomed despite party disapproval. Artists
+had been introducing cubism and primitivism into their work under the
+guise of folk art, which is supposed to serve as their main inspiration.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Sculpture</p>
+
+<p>Romanian sculpture has its origins in the tombstones and other grave
+markers dating back to the Middle Ages. As a fine art, sculpture began
+to develop in the mid-nineteenth century when the German sculptor Karl
+Storck arrived in Bucharest to teach at the School of Fine Arts. Among
+the earliest sculptors he trained were Ion Georgescu and his own son,
+Carol Storck, both known for their statuary and busts. Stefan Ionescu
+Valbudea, also in that group, was best known for his romantic statues
+and classical male figures in movement.</p>
+
+<p>In the period between the two world wars, several sculptors produced
+large monumental works visible in public places. Dimitrie Paciurea was
+the first in this group. He was followed by his students Corneal Madrea,
+Ion Jalea, and Oscar Han. In addition to his monumental sculptures,
+Jalea is also known for his busts and bas-reliefs. Han is particularly
+known for his busts and statutes of famous Romanians.</p>
+
+<p>Best known of all Romanian sculptors is Constantin Brancusi, who is
+considered one of the great sculptors of the world. Brancusi studied in
+Bucharest and in Paris. His earliest work, mostly busts, shows a strong
+influence of Auguste Rodin. Gradually he broke with tradition and
+developed a highly stylized and abstract style utilizing the simplest
+forms. His best known works are found in important collections
+throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>The work of contemporary sculptors included a wide range of styles and
+mediums. Modernistic works in stone, wood, and various metals, some of
+them completely abstract, can be seen in parks and other public places
+throughout the country. A number of contemporary sculptors have taken
+inspiration from folk art for their often massive works in wood.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>Architecture</p>
+
+<p>Architecture, more than any other form of artistic expression, reflects
+the many cultural influences that have been exerted on the people of
+Romania over the ages. The abundance of architectural styles found in
+the country has been a source of great pride for Romanians who have
+devoted much time and money to preserve them.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest architectural forms are those of the peasant houses made of
+wood and clay. The style and building technique of many of these houses
+have been traced back to those used in Neolithic settlements.</p>
+
+<p>Vestiges of Roman architecture can be found in Dobruja, Walachia, and
+Transylvania. The most important of these are the remains of the bridge
+built by Emperor Trajan across the Danube at Turnu Severin. A large
+amphitheater has been unearthed at the site of the Dacian-Roman capital
+of Sarmizegetusa at the southwestern tip of the Transylvanian plain.
+Other Roman remains include several monuments as well as sections of
+roads and aqueducts.</p>
+
+<p>The period of greatest architectural creativity is usually referred to
+as the feudal period, dating from the tenth century to the beginning of
+the nineteenth century. The oldest structures of that period are the
+fully preserved Byzantine church at Densus, Transylvania, and the ruins
+of the Prince's Court at Curtea de Arges. Beginning in the fourteenth
+century, distinctive architectural styles developed in Walachia,
+Moldavia, and Transylvania.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of Walachia and Moldavia shows strong Byzantine
+influences and includes all the special forms and decorative styles of
+the several periods of Byzantine art. Specifically Romanian variations
+are the exterior frescoes and the massive protecting walls of some of
+the churches and monasteries.</p>
+
+<p>Transylvanian architecture of the feudal period reflects Western
+European influences, including Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and
+Baroque styles. The fortified churches and castles built by German and
+Hungarian settlers are reminiscent of similar structures in central
+Europe but distinguished by their massiveness and fortifications. The
+older architecture of several cities in central Transylvania is
+completely Germanic or Hungarian in character, contrasting sharply with
+that of Walachian and Moldavian cities. The typical Romanian
+architecture found throughout the Transylvanian countryside is
+particularly prominent in many rural wooden churches, which invariably
+feature fine pointed spires.</p>
+
+<p>During the seventeenth century the Brancovan style of architecture was
+developed in Walachia, the name being derived from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>that of the ruling
+Prince Constantin Brincoveanu. It is characterized by the use of open
+porches supported by large pillars. The pillars and door and window
+frames are usually elaborately carved with floral designs. The exterior
+of the building is usually ringed by a wide, carved wooden band.
+Outstanding examples of the Brancovan style are the Hurez Monastery and
+the Mogosoaia Palace in Bucharest. More recent adaptations of the style
+are seen in several public buildings and private villas built in
+Bucharest before World War I.</p>
+
+<p>Starting in the nineteenth century, Byzantine influences began to
+disappear from architecture. Most building after that period followed
+contemporary European styles, although elements of Romanian folk art
+were often incorporated in the decorative details. Modern architecture
+began to develop in the period between the world wars and reached a high
+level of accomplishment in the 1950s and 1960s with the construction of
+the seaside resorts of Mangalia, Eforie Nord, and Mamaia. Most
+contemporary architecture, however, is oversized and utilitarian. The
+needs for rapid and cheap construction forced architects to disregard
+aesthetics and produce monotonous, dreary structures.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">MUSIC</p>
+
+<p>Romanians have the reputation of being a musical people. Song and dance
+play an important role in their daily lives, particularly among the
+peasants. A rich heritage of folk music, both vocal and instrumental,
+has been passed down from generation to generation and has formed the
+background for serious Romanian music that began to develop in the
+mid-nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Folk music can be broadly classified as dance music, ballads and
+laments, and pastoral music. Dance music is most frequently performed
+and is a major component of any festivity. Dance tunes are generally
+lively to accompany the fast and intricate steps of the dancers.
+Sometimes they are sung by the dancers, but more often they are played
+by one or more of the traditional instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The basic instrument in folk music is the violin. It is often
+accompanied by the <i>cobza</i>, a large stringed instrument resembling the
+lute, or by a <i>tambal</i>, a zither-like instrument played with small
+hammers. A variety of flutes are also used both as solo instruments and
+in orchestras. The accordion is popular as a solo accompaniment for
+singing or dancing.</p>
+
+<p>Folk musicians are known as <i>lautari</i> (lute players) and are often
+Gypsies. Small orchestras are found at weddings and other celebrations
+in every village and in the cities. Larger, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>specially formed folk
+ensembles perform on radio and television and give concerts.</p>
+
+<p>Ballads and laments vary in style and subject matter from region to
+region. Over the years, ballads have lost most of their importance as a
+contemporary musical form, although they retain value as poetry.
+Laments, however, continue to play an important role in the musical life
+of the people. They reflect in song the hardships and problems of daily
+life and the trials and tribulations of love. Some laments have a
+distinctly Oriental quality.</p>
+
+<p>Pastoral music was developed by the shepherds of the Carpathians as a
+diversion for their long, lonely days in the mountains and as a means of
+communication. The melodies are very simple, usually played on any of
+several types of alphorns or on flutes. With the changing way of life in
+the mountains, pastoral music has been disappearing as a musical form.</p>
+
+<p>In the early nineteenth century folklorist Anton Pann began to collect
+Romanian folk music, to publish it, and to popularize it among educated
+Romanians, who were more familiar with the classical music of Germany,
+Italy, and France than with their own musical heritage. This resulted in
+the emergence of a group of Romanian composers who utilized folk
+melodies in the composition of operas, symphonies, and chamber music.</p>
+
+<p>The period between the two world wars saw several composers adding to
+the repertoire of Romanian music. One who achieved international fame
+was Georghe Enescu. Dinu Lipatti became well known as a pianist,
+although he was also a composer.</p>
+
+<p>The music of the interwar composers showed the influence of German
+romanticism and postromanticism and of modern French music. All of it,
+however, had a strongly Romanian character attained through the use of
+intonations and rhythms borrowed from folk music.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the interwar composers were still active in 1970, together
+with new younger composers. Their music is regularly performed in
+Romania and in some of the other communist countries, but it is not well
+known elsewhere. Some of the young composers have experimented with
+avant-garde styles that have not been well received by the guardians of
+cultural policy. Composers are urged to use folklore as their source of
+inspiration and to write compositions reflecting the cultural policies
+of the PCR.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THEATER</p>
+
+<p>Theater has always played a vital role in the life of the educated
+Romanian, and regular attendance at plays, operas, and ballets is
+considered an essential part of his cultural and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>intellectual life. The
+performing arts, therefore, have had a faithful and critical audience in
+all urban centers, which has stimulated playwrights and directors. In
+cities such as Cluj and Brasov, which have sizable minority populations,
+Hungarian and German theaters thrive beside the Romanian.</p>
+
+<p>Since the end of the rigid restrictions of the 1950s, the performing
+arts have been flourishing with talented performers, directors, and
+writers. The government has been promoting the presentation of Romanian
+plays, and Romanian playwrights have striven to compete for audience
+favor with the best of contemporary and classical foreign plays, which
+are regularly presented.</p>
+
+<p>Among contemporary playwrights who have achieved critical acclaim at
+home and abroad are Paul Everac, D. R. Popescu, Horia Lovinescu, Iosif
+Naghiu, and Paul Anghel. Eugene Ionesco, although Romanian by birth, is
+generally considered a French playwright since he writes in French.
+Romanians, however, proudly claim him as one of their own, even though
+his plays do not follow the desired standards of form and content.</p>
+
+<p>Most contemporary plays have been categorized by critics as tribunal
+drama in that they pass judgment on ideas or actions and follow a format
+where one or more characters take the role of the accused and others act
+as prosecutors. Some plays are in the form of confessions of wrongdoings
+or wrongthinking. Both forms lend themselves well to imparting a
+message. Pure entertainment plays are usually boulevard comedies.
+Historic themes seem to be popular and safe topics, particularly if they
+promote Romanian nationalism. For the most part, plays are of local
+rather than universal interest, for they deal with matters limited in
+time and space. They usually arouse interest outside Romania for what
+they reveal of the Romanian character and society rather than for
+artistic merit.</p>
+
+<p>The tightening of cultural reins in July 1971 seems to have had a
+greater effect on the theater than on any other form of artistic
+expression. The management of several major theaters was changed in late
+1971 following admission by the replaced managers of having favored
+artistic merit over ideological value in the selection of plays for
+their repertory. The new managers pledged themselves to presenting plays
+that contain a clear-cut message conforming to high political,
+ideological, and educational standards. They also pledged themselves to
+encourage young playwrights to write such plays. In the meantime, the
+plays selected for the 1971-72 season were almost all true and tried
+classics, devoid of any political implications. Romanian directors,
+nevertheless, have shown themselves in the past to be able to impart to
+the audience a great deal of political meaning through their
+interpretation of such seemingly innocuous plays.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>FILMS</p>
+
+<p>The film industry has a long and venerable history dating back to 1912,
+when the first full-length feature was produced. The silent comedies of
+the 1920s compare favorably with those produced by the best film makers
+of the time. In the 1930s and 1940s, until the communist takeover,
+Romanian musicals and tales of suspense and of the supernatural were
+popular at home and abroad. Most of these films were produced with
+technical and financial assistance from France and other countries (see
+ch. 11).</p>
+
+<p>Cultural restrictions in the 1950s and early 1960s prevented the
+Romanian film industry from taking part in the technical and artistic
+developments that were changing the film industry in France and other
+Western countries. As a result, films produced in Romania as late as
+1970 were technically and artistically old-fashioned compared to those
+produced in noncommunist countries and even in Czechoslovakia. Most
+critics outside the country compare them to the good films produced by
+Hollywood in the 1940s. Nevertheless, several Romanian films in the
+1960s have won prizes at lesser known international film festivals.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the important directors in the late 1960s were Mircea Dragan and
+Ion Popescu-Gopo. Dragan specializes in historic adventure films of epic
+proportions, whereas Popescu-Gopo concentrates on fantasies, including
+science fiction. Popescu-Gopo is also well known for his animated films.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LITERATURE</p>
+
+<p>Literature in the form of folk tales and poetry is of ancient origin. A
+vast collection of legends, tales, ballads, proverbs, and riddles has
+been preserved and is known to both rural and urban Romanians. Legends
+and tales deal with the daring exploits of a national hero, sometimes
+real and sometimes imaginary. In the oldest tales, the adversaries are
+monsters and inhabitants of the underworld; in later ones, they are the
+foreign conquerors and occupiers.</p>
+
+<p>Ballads were originally intended to be sung but are now more often
+recited as poems. They deal with the same subjects as legends and tales,
+and many are of epic proportions. In the mountains of Transylvania and
+Moldavia separate groups of ballads developed dealing with the pastoral
+life of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest known texts written in Romania are chronicles in Old Church
+Slavonic. In the sixteenth century a number of religious texts were
+translated into Romanian, and the introductions to them are the first
+known original writings in the Romanian language.</p>
+
+<p>Of significance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>chronicles written by a number of writers in Moldavia and in Walachia.
+Dimitrie Cantemir, ruler of Moldavia, wrote the <i>Description of
+Moldavia</i> and <i>History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>
+during the same period. A Transylvanian school of writing stressed the
+Latin origin of the Romanian people and their language and utilized a
+latinized Romanian in its writing. It was influential in awakening the
+national consciousness of Transylvanian Romanians.</p>
+
+<p>Four members of the Vacarescu family wrote lyrical poetry in the
+eighteenth century. The best of them, Iancu Vacarescu, is regarded as
+the father of Romanian poetry. The lyric tradition was carried on in the
+early nineteenth century, and much of the poetry dealt with historic
+subjects and expressed the growing patriotism and nationalist sentiment
+of the time.</p>
+
+<p>In the early nineteenth century the Latinist movement of Transylvania
+spread into Moldavia and Walachia and began to Romanianize the hitherto
+Hellenic culture of the Romanian upper class. The founding of the
+College of Saint Sava in Bucharest, using Romanian as the language of
+instruction, laid the foundation for the development of a reading public
+for Romanian literature. At the same time, the founding of a
+Romanian-language newspaper with a literary supplement gave writers a
+publication outlet. The newspaper was founded by Eliade Radulescu, who
+also founded the Philharmonic Society and the Romanian Academy, thus
+giving major impetus to the development of Romanian literature and
+culture.</p>
+
+<p>In Moldavia, Gheorghe Asachi originated the historical short story,
+wrote verse, and also founded a newspaper. The literary supplement of
+Asachi's newspaper provided an outlet for Moldavian writers.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century was the romantic age of Romanian literature.
+Writers and poets wrote under the influence of Russian, French, and
+English romanticists whose works were widely translated. Outstanding
+among the poets was Grigore Alexandrescu, who also wrote fables and
+satires along the lines of Alphonse de Lamartine and Jean de LaFontaine.
+Many historical works were written by Nicolae Balcescu and Mihail
+Kogalniceanu, both of whom were political figures in the nationalist
+movement of their time as well as important writers. The founding in
+1840 of the literary magazine <i>Dacia Literata</i> by Kogalniceanu marked
+the beginning of the traditionalist school, which was characterized by
+the use of specifically Romanian themes. An outstanding exponent of this
+school was the short story writer, Constantine Negruzzi.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>The second half of the nineteenth century saw the development of modern
+literature through the impetus of serious criticism based on German and
+French philosophical thought and cultural trends. The period was
+dominated by Vasile Alecsandri and Mihail Eminescu. During Alecsandri's
+long career, he produced outstanding works in every form of literary
+expression&mdash;prose, poetry, drama, and nonfiction. Together with Negruzzi
+and Kogalniceanu, he was one of the early directors of the National
+Theatre in Iasi.</p>
+
+<p>Eminescu is Romania's outstanding poet and holds his place among the
+important poets of the world. His lyrical poetry is influenced by
+Romanian folklore, Hindu thought, and German philosophy. His ballad
+<i>Luceafarul</i> (Evening Star) is a well-known classic. In addition to
+poetry, Eminescu wrote short stories and political and philosophical
+essays. He was one of the leaders of the Junimea, a literary circle for
+youth in Iasi, which was founded by the important critic Titu Mairescu.
+Other important members of the circle were Ion Luca Caragiale, a
+playwright who first introduced social comedy to Romania, and Ion
+Creanga, who wrote about the peasant life from which he stemmed.</p>
+
+<p>Around the beginning of the twentieth century the growing popularity of
+peasant themes and descriptions of peasant life in the writing of such
+authors as Ion Slavici and Gheorghe Cosbuc led to the publication of a
+new literary periodical, <i>Samanatorul</i>, and the development of a
+literary school that took its name. The school stressed the national
+heritage of Romania, its folklore, and its rustic life as subjects for
+literary creation, in contrast to the cosmopolitan outlook of the
+Junimea circle.</p>
+
+<p>Parallel to the Samanatorul school developed <i>poporanism</i> (of the
+people), which was similar to the then-current Russian populism in its
+social and political motivation. Its organ was <i>Viata Romaneasca</i>, which
+featured populist causes.</p>
+
+<p>Several writers remained apart from any of the schools. Among them was
+Barbu Delavrancea, well-known for his trilogy about Stephen the Great
+and for stories of Walachian peasant life, and the poet Alexandru
+Macedonski, who introduced French symbolism to Romanian literature.</p>
+
+<p>The period between the two world wars gave rise to the novel, which
+quickly took its place beside lyrical poetry as an important form of
+literary expression. An important contributor to the development of the
+novel was Liviu Rebreanu, whose <i>Forest of the Hanged</i> is a powerful
+description of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>horrors of war. His other important novels are
+<i>Ion</i>, dealing with peasant life, and <i>Ciuleandra</i>, a psychological
+novel.</p>
+
+<p>Mihail Sadoveanu, whose most important works were published in the 1920s
+and 1930s, is considered the foremost realist of the twentieth century.
+His writings deal mostly with history and with peasant life. In 1924 he
+won the national prize for literature, and in 1949, the Gold Peace
+Medal.</p>
+
+<p>Outstanding interwar poets were Lucian Blaga, Ion Barbu, and Tudor
+Arghezi. Blaga's poetry was an exposition of his philosophy based on the
+traditional way of life interpreted as a cosmic mystery. Barbu's poems
+are of an abstract and esoteric nature. Arghezi is considered the
+greatest poet since Eminescu on the basis of his use of language and
+symbolism.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after World War II poetry again took the lead in literary
+expression. Although much prose was published, none of it was considered
+of particular importance. The poetry can be divided into three main
+schools: surrealist poetry, poetry of spiritual revolt, and a
+return-to-tradition balladry.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the prewar writers and poets continued to produce after the
+communist takeover and subjected themselves to the constraints of
+Socialist Realism. Among them were Sadoveanu, Calinescu, Camil Petrescu,
+and Arghezi. Others were denounced for their previous writings and
+became silent. The literary output of the 1950s is generally regarded as
+second rate. Several notable novels, however, were published in the
+early 1960s. Among them were George Calinescu's <i>Bietul Ioanide</i> (Poor
+Ioanide), Ion Sadoveanu's <i>Ion Sintu</i> (Saint John), and Petru Dimitriu's
+<i>Cronica de Familie</i> (Family Chronicle). Of particularly outstanding
+merit and lasting quality are Marin Preda's peasant epic <i>Morometii</i>
+(The Moroments) and Eugen Barbu's naturalist novel <i>Groapa</i> (The
+Trench).</p>
+
+<p>With the relaxing of cultural controls in the mid-1960s, many of those
+who had been silent resumed their writing, together with a new group of
+younger writers. The mid-and late-1960s saw an outpouring of literary
+creativity that had been pent up during the preceding decade. The
+variety of genres and styles was impressive; some continued the
+traditions of the past, others repudiated their literary traditions and
+ventured into new areas of expression. Lyricism dominated the poetry of
+Ion Alexandru, Adrian Paunescu, Marin Sorescu, and others. Their
+greatest appeal was among young people whose doubts, hopes, and
+restlessness they expressed.</p>
+
+<p>Prose showed two trends: realism, which was now free to examine all
+aspects of human existence; and antirealism, which showed influences of
+some contemporary French writers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>Literary criticism, which had played an important role in the
+development of Romanian literature, was revived as a literary art and
+was removed from politics. Both old and new works were examined and
+evaluated, and Romanian literary traditions were studied and analyzed.
+The literary output of the 1950s was attacked for its lack of
+imagination and creativity.</p>
+
+<p>The retightening of controls in 1971 reduced the volume of new works
+being published, and many writers retreated into a self-censorship,
+which restricted their creativity. Literary periodicals and other
+publication media were more selective in deciding what to publish,
+whereas some critics attacked the volume and quality of the recent
+literary output.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">SCHOLARSHIP AND RESEARCH</p>
+
+<p>A tradition of scholarship and research has in the past been limited to
+a small intellectual elite centered in Bucharest and Iasi. The group was
+oriented toward France and, to a lesser extent, Germany in terms of
+professional contacts and sources of inspiration. During the 1930s a
+number of sociologists at the University of Bucharest established a
+reputation for outstanding and original work in their field.</p>
+
+<p>The great expansion of the educational system since the 1940s has
+provided a much broader base for scholarly activity but, in keeping with
+ideological dictates, scholarly activity must be socially useful, that
+is, directly applicable to the needs of the society. Therefore, great
+emphasis has been placed on applied research in the sciences and
+technology designed to improve the economy. All research is sponsored by
+the state and is directed and supervised by the National Council for
+Scientific Research.</p>
+
+<p>The interest in sociology has continued, but work in this field, as in
+the other social sciences, has suffered from the restrictions imposed by
+communist ideology. The only accepted philosophy is that of
+Marxism-Leninism, and all scholarly work must be based on its precepts,
+which frequently leads to sterile research or preconceived results.</p>
+
+<p>Two developments by Romanians in the field of medicine have caused
+considerable controversy among specialists in other parts of the world.
+One is a regeneration therapy for the aged based on the administration
+of procaine, which was developed by Anna Aslan of the Institute of
+Gerontology. The therapy, strongly backed by the government, is intended
+to free the elderly from the various chronic discomforts of advanced age
+and thereby make them more active. Many prominent gerontologists have
+questioned the efficacy of the treatments and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>results claimed by
+the Institute of Gerontology, but others have reported it to be fully
+effective. A Romanian-developed drug used in the treatment is
+extensively sold in Europe. The other medical development acclaimed by
+Romania but questioned by many specialists in the field is the use of an
+extract obtained from cattle eyes for the treatment of many human eye
+diseases. The extract was developed by Professor Petre Vancea.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>SECTION II. POLITICAL</h2>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER 8</h2>
+
+<h2>GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM</h2>
+
+
+<p>As of early 1972 the structure of the government remained essentially
+the same as that established by the 1965 Constitution. Power is declared
+to belong to the working people united under the leadership of the
+Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman&mdash;PCR). That power is
+said to be expressed through their representatives to the Grand National
+Assembly, the nation's sole legislative body, and through the people's
+councils, the organs of government on county and local levels.
+Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly, as the highest voice of
+the people, is asserted to be the supreme organ of state power, and all
+other government bodies are theoretically subordinate to it.</p>
+
+<p>Actual political power, however, is monopolized by the PCR and
+particularly by the highest organs of the party under the leadership of
+Nicolae Ceausescu, who is simultaneously head of state. Although the
+system of government is, in theory, designed to emphasize participatory
+democracy, the government functions largely as the administrative
+structure through which the party exerts its will in all aspects of
+Romanian society (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>There is no separation of powers between the branches of the government,
+and it is difficult to draw distinctions between the executive and the
+legislative functions. The Council of State is closely tied to the
+structure and membership of the Grand National Assembly and functions as
+a permanent assembly presidium. The nation's highest administrative
+body, the Council of Ministers, is elected by the assembly and
+responsible to both the assembly and the Council of State. Although it
+is theoretically independent in its judicial decisions, the Supreme
+Court is also constitutionally responsible to the assembly.</p>
+
+<p>The entire structure of the government, from national down to local
+levels, is organized on a principle of centralized control by which all
+lower bodies are subject to the authority and control of the next higher
+unit, the ultimate power resting <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>in the central government. The
+governmental system consists of nominally representative bodies at
+community, town, and county levels, which are hierarchically
+subordinated to the authority of the central government. Throughout the
+entire system the predominant influence of the party is evident, the key
+positions at each level being held by party members.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Constitutional Development</p>
+
+<p>Since coming under full communist control in December 1947, Romania has
+had three constitutions. The first, designating the country a "People's
+Republic," was adopted by the Grand National Assembly in April 1948,
+just four weeks after the assembly had been reorganized under new
+communist leadership. The second, officially adopted in September 1952,
+had first been made public the preceding July after Gheorghe
+Gheorghiu-Dej had assumed the post of prime minister in addition to his
+position as head of the party. A third constitution, incorporating the
+elements of Romania's changed social and ideological position, entered
+into force on August 20, 1965.</p>
+
+<p>In many ways similar to the initial constitutions of the other
+Soviet-dominated states of Eastern Europe, the 1948 Constitution was
+designed to mark Romania's entry into the first stage of the transition
+from capitalism to socialism. As a people's democracy, state power was
+said to derive from the people as expressed through the Grand National
+Assembly, nominally, the supreme organ of state power. A nineteen-member
+Presidium was elected by and from the membership of the assembly to
+provide continuity of legislative authority when the assembly itself was
+not in session. The highest executive and administrative organ was the
+Council of Ministers, which functioned under the direction of the prime
+minister. Although it was not mentioned in the constitution, the
+Communist Party functioned as the supreme decisionmaking authority over
+and above that of the government.</p>
+
+<p>The right of ownership of private property was guaranteed, although the
+constitution provided that privately held means of production, banks,
+and insurance companies could be nationalized when the "general
+interest" so required. Less than two months after the adoption of the
+constitution, the Grand National Assembly applied this "general
+interest" principle and nationalized all banking, industrial, insurance,
+mining, and transportation enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>Described in the constitution in anticipation of their actual
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>establishment, the organs of state power in the regions, counties,
+districts, and communes were designated "people's councils." Formally
+established by law in 1949, these bodies were organized into a
+centralized system in which the lower level councils were fully
+subordinated to the next higher council and all functioned under the
+direct control of the central organs of government.</p>
+
+<p>Changes that were effected in the political, social, and economic
+structure of the country after 1948 were incorporated into a new
+constitution in 1952. Patterned largely after the 1936 Constitution of
+the Soviet Union, the 1952 document specifically designated the Romanian
+Workers' Party (title of the Communist Party between 1948 and 1965) as
+the representative of the working class and the country's leading
+political force. The nation's close ties with the Soviet Union were
+strongly emphasized. Several references to the Soviet Union glorified
+its role in the liberation of the country from fascism during World War
+II and described the Soviets as great friends of the Romanian people.
+Whereas the 1948 Constitution declared that "the Romanian People's
+Republic was born amid the struggle conducted by the people, under the
+leadership of the working class, against fascism, reaction, and
+imperialism," that of 1952 asserted the republic "was born and
+consolidated following the liberation of the country by the armed forces
+of the Soviet Union."</p>
+
+<p>As did the 1948 Constitution, that of 1952 guaranteed full equality to
+the country's national minority groups, but the 1952 Constitution also
+established an autonomous administrative unit, the Hungarian Autonomous
+Region (Mures-Magyar), for the large Hungarian population. The region
+was given its own people's council and local authorities, although these
+were clearly subordinated to the organs of the central government.
+Including the Hungarian Autonomous Region, the country was administered
+through twenty regional units that, in turn, were subdivided into
+districts, towns, and rural localities.</p>
+
+<p>Citizens were guaranteed the right to work for remuneration; the right
+to rest, assured by the establishment of the eight-hour workday and paid
+annual vacations for workers and office employees; the right to material
+security when old, ill, or disabled; and the right to education. Full
+equality in all aspects of economic, political, and cultural life was
+guaranteed to all working people regardless of nationality, race, or
+sex.</p>
+
+<p>Freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and public demonstration were
+likewise assured, as was freedom of religion. Churches, however, were
+forbidden to operate schools except <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>for the training of religious
+personnel. Other rights guaranteed the protection of the person from
+arbitrary arrest, the inviolability of the home, and the secrecy of the
+mail. The right of citizens to form public and private organizations was
+also assured, although associations having a "fascist or anti-democratic
+character" were prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>Citizen duties to the state included the observance of the constitution
+and the laws of the republic and the obligation to preserve and develop
+socialist property, to practice discipline in regard to work, and to
+work in general for the strengthening of the "regime of people's
+democracy." Military service and the defense of the nation were
+described as duties of honor for all citizens.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1961 the Grand National Assembly established a commission to
+prepare a new draft constitution. At the same time the 1952 Constitution
+was revised to transform the Presidium of the assembly into the Council
+of State. The new council, vested with supreme executive authority,
+consisted of a president, three vice presidents, and thirteen members.
+As was the case with the Presidium, the Council of State was elected by
+and from the assembly membership and was, in theory at least,
+responsible to it.</p>
+
+<p>The authority of the council was threefold, consisting of permanent
+powers, powers to be exercised between assembly sessions, and special
+powers that could be exercised in exceptional circumstances. The
+permanent powers were exercised by the president, who was by virtue of
+his position the head of state, and focused primarily on the
+representation of the republic in international relations. Between
+sessions of the assembly the Council of State was empowered to oversee
+the activity of the Council of Ministers, appoint and recall members of
+the Supreme Court and the commander in chief of the armed forces,
+supervise the functioning of the Office of the Prosecutor General, and
+convene standing commissions of the assembly.</p>
+
+<p>The council could also issue decrees having the force of law although,
+at least technically, these had to be submitted to the next assembly
+session for ratification. In the event of circumstances that might
+prevent the assembly from convening, the council was authorized to
+appoint the Council of Ministers, declare war, order mobilization,
+proclaim a state of emergency, approve the budget, and prepare economic
+plans. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, first secretary of the Romanian Workers'
+Party, was elected as president of the Council of State. Ion Gheorghe
+Maurer&mdash;who had been chairman of the assembly Presidium, and thus
+titular head of state, since 1958&mdash;became prime minister.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>Although the draft constitution prepared by the commission appointed in
+1961 was never adopted, it was used as the basis for the work of a
+second commission named in June 1965. Under the chairmanship of
+Ceausescu, the commission prepared a new draft and submitted it to the
+party congress and the Council of State. After being approved by these
+bodies the Constitution was adopted by the Grand National Assembly on
+August 20, 1965.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">The Constitution of 1965</p>
+
+<p>After the adoption of the first communist constitution in 1948 the
+country had officially borne the title of a people's republic. With the
+promulgation of the new Constitution in 1965 the name of the country was
+changed to the Socialist Republic of Romania (Republica Socialista
+Romania). In adopting this title, the Romanian leadership was asserting
+that the country had completed the transition from capitalism and had
+become a full-fledged socialist state.</p>
+
+<p>Observers of Eastern European politics considered the emphasis placed on
+national sovereignty and independence in the new Constitution to be
+significant. Whereas the 1952 Constitution repeatedly stressed the
+country's close ties to the Soviet Union and the role of the Soviet army
+in the liberation of Romania during World War II, the 1965 Constitution
+omits all reference to the Soviet Union. Instead, it refers only to the
+policy of maintaining friendly and fraternal relations with all
+socialist states and, in addition, expresses the intention of promoting
+friendly relations with nonsocialist states.</p>
+
+<p>There is also increased provision for civil liberties in the 1965
+Constitution, including the right of petition, the right of individual
+recourse to the courts in the event of illegal acts of state agencies,
+and rights equivalent to habeas corpus. The extent of individual freedom
+is qualified, however, by the declaration that the "freedom of speech,
+of the press, reunion, meeting and demonstration cannot be used for aims
+hostile to the socialist system and to the interests of the working
+people." While proclaiming freedom of association and organization, the
+1965 Constitution, as did that of 1952, prohibits associations of a
+"fascist or anti-democratic character."</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps owing to the declared advancement to the stage of socialism, the
+1965 Constitution contains no reference to the "private capitalist
+sector" of the economy, as had the 1952 document. Whereas the 1952
+Constitution had recognized the private sector as one of three elements
+of the economic system, along with the socialist sector and the sector
+described as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>"small-scale commodity production," that of 1965 declares
+the basis of the economy to rest solely on the socialist ownership of
+the means of production. Cooperative farmers, however, are permitted the
+personal ownership of some livestock and tools, certain craftsmen are
+guaranteed ownership of their workshops, and peasants who are not in
+cooperatives are able to own small parcels of land and some farm
+implements.</p>
+
+<p>Changes that had been made in the organizational structure of the
+government after 1952 were incorporated into the 1965 Constitution. The
+Council of State is described as the "supreme body of state power with a
+permanent activity," although it remains theoretically subordinate to
+the Grand National Assembly, which is designated as "the supreme body of
+state power." In contrast to the 1952 Constitution, which provided for
+representation to the Grand National Assembly on the basis of one deputy
+for every 40,000 persons, the 1965 document fixes the number of assembly
+deputies at 465 and requires the establishment of that number of
+constituencies of equal population.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Hungarian Autonomous Region continued to exist, the 1952
+provision guaranteeing "administrative and territorial autonomy" to the
+Hungarian population was omitted from the 1965 Constitution. All of the
+sixteen regional units were subsequently eliminated by a territorial
+reorganization of 1968, at which time a system of <i>judete</i> (counties)
+was established.</p>
+
+<p>All power is ascribed to the people and exercised by their
+representatives in the people's councils and the Grand National
+Assembly. The Communist Party is described as the country's leading
+political force under whose leadership the working people have the
+expressed goal of building the socialist system to create "the
+conditions for transition to communism."</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF THE GOVERNMENT</p>
+
+<p class="cen">The Central Government</p>
+
+<p>According to the 1965 Constitution the major institutions of the central
+government are the Grand National Assembly, the Council of State, and
+the Council of Ministers (see fig. 1). Although the Constitution
+declares the Grand National Assembly and the Council of State to be the
+supreme organs of state power, in practice the authority of both of
+these organs ranks after that of the PCR. The Constitution itself states
+unequivocally that "the leading political force of the whole society is
+the Romanian Communist Party." The basic national policy decisions are
+made in the ruling bodies of the party and subsequently communicated to
+the government for adoption and implementation.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep115" id="imagep115"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep115.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep115.jpg" width="75%" alt="Figure 7. Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 7. Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>The Grand National Assembly</p>
+
+<p>The Grand National Assembly, which supervises and controls the functions
+of all other state organs, consists of 465 deputies elected from an
+equal number of electoral districts for a four-year term of office. In
+the event of exceptional circumstances that prevent the holding of
+elections, however, the assembly is empowered to prolong its term of
+office for the duration of these circumstances. Regular assembly
+sessions are held twice yearly, and special sessions may be convened on
+the initiative of the Council of State or on demand of one-third of the
+total number of deputies.</p>
+
+<p>Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly is empowered to elect,
+supervise, and recall the members of the Council of State, the Council
+of Ministers, and the Supreme Court. It is also empowered to name the
+prosecutor general and control the activity of his office. It is given
+ultimate authority in the regulation of the electoral system, the
+national economic plan, the state budget, and the organization and
+functioning of the people's councils.</p>
+
+<p>The assembly is empowered to establish the general line of the country's
+foreign policy and has ultimate responsibility for the maintenance of
+public order and national defense. As a part of this responsibility the
+assembly appoints and recalls the supreme commander of the armed forces.
+Declarations of war, however, are constitutionally limited to the
+protection of Romanian national sovereignty in the event of aggression
+or in the event of aggression against another state with which Romania
+has mutual defense obligations.</p>
+
+<p>Other powers attributed to the assembly include adopting and amending
+the Constitution and the general control over its application. Assembly
+authority extends as well to the interpretation of the Constitution and
+decisions on the constitutionality of laws, making it in effect its own
+constitutional court. In exercising that power the assembly elects the
+Constitutional Commission, which functions for the duration of the
+legislative term. The Constitution specifies that up to one-third of the
+commission members may be persons who are not deputies, but members of
+the Supreme Court, college and university teachers, and scientific
+researchers are specifically excluded from commission membership. Duties
+of the commission focus primarily on providing the assembly with reports
+and opinions on constitutional questions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>The Grand National Assembly functions under an elected chairman who
+presides over assembly sessions and is responsible for directing its
+activities. The chairman and four elected vice chairmen form the Bureau
+of the Grand National Assembly and are assisted in their duties by a
+panel of six executive secretaries. In addition to the Constitutional
+Commission, other standing commissions of the assembly include the
+Agriculture and Forestry Commission; Credentials Commission; Defense
+Commission; Economic and Financial Commission; Education, Science, and
+Culture Commission; Foreign Policy Commission; Health, Labor, and Social
+Welfare Commission; Industry, Construction, and Transportation
+Commission; Legal Commission; and the People's Councils and State
+Administration Commission. Any deputy may be elected to the standing
+commissions of the assembly or to temporary commissions created to
+perform specific functions. Reports, bills, or other legislative matters
+are submitted to the standing commissions by the assembly chairman for
+study and for recommendations on further action.</p>
+
+<p>The assembly may function if one-half of the deputies plus one
+additional deputy are present. Laws and decisions are adopted by simple
+majority vote with the exception of an amendment to the Constitution,
+which requires a two-thirds majority of the total number of assembly
+deputies. Laws and decisions are signed by the presiding officer present
+at the time the decision is voted. Within ten days after adoption, laws
+are required to be signed by the president of the Council of State and
+published in the <i>Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of
+Romania</i>.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">The Council of State</p>
+
+<p>Described as the supreme body of state power with a permanent activity,
+the Council of State exercises certain permanent powers as well as
+special powers that fall to it when the Grand National Assembly is not
+in session. Formed of nineteen members, the Council of State is elected
+by the assembly, from its own membership, at the first assembly session
+as it begins a new term of office. The council's authority continues
+until the election of a new Council of State by the succeeding
+legislature. Although the president of the council is the head of state,
+the Constitution asserts that the functioning of the council is to be
+based on the principle of collective leadership. Almost all the members
+of the Council of State also hold leading party posts.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most important permanent powers of the Council of State are
+the establishment of election dates; the appointment and recall of the
+heads of central government agencies, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>except for the Council of
+Ministers; and the ratification or denunciation of international
+treaties. The president of the council represents the republic in
+international relations. Other permanent powers include the granting of
+senior military ranks; the conferral of honors; the granting of
+citizenship, pardon, and refuge; and the appointment and recall of
+diplomatic representatives.</p>
+
+<p>Grand National Assembly powers that devolve to the Council of State
+between assembly sessions, or in the event of exceptional circumstances
+that prevent the assembly from acting, include the authority to appoint
+and recall members of the Council of Ministers, members of the Supreme
+Court, and the prosecutor general. Also included in this category are
+powers to establish norms having the power of law, control over the
+application of laws and decisions passed by the assembly, and
+supervision of the Council of Ministers and other central administrative
+bodies as well as the activities of the people's councils.</p>
+
+<p>Although the legal decisions passed by the council must be submitted for
+approval to the next session of the Grand National Assembly, they take
+effect as law immediately on passage by the council or on a date
+specified in the ruling itself. In the event of a national emergency the
+Council of State can also exercise the assembly's power to declare a
+state of war, subject to the same qualifications imposed upon the
+assembly&mdash;that is, in the event that Romania or one of its allies is the
+victim of external armed aggression.</p>
+
+<p>In December 1967 PCR General Secretary Ceausescu was elected president
+of the Council of State by the Grand National Assembly and, by virtue of
+this position, became the head of state. The reason given for the
+concentration of the principal party and government positions in
+Ceausescu's hands was the desire to provide unitary leadership both as a
+means of efficiency and of ensuring full party control at the highest
+level of the government. The decision to unite the two posts, as well as
+to combine a number of party and government positions on lower
+administrative levels, had been taken at a national party conference a
+few days earlier and followed action taken by the PCR Central Committee
+in October. Outside observers saw the move as one of a series of steps
+designed to ensure the continued subordination of the state apparatus to
+the party.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1970 the Grand National Assembly voted to establish the Defense
+Council, to be headed by Ceausescu and responsible to the Council of
+State. The formation of the Defense Council, which was given
+decisionmaking powers for high-level military <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>affairs, served to
+strengthen Council of State control over the armed forces and further
+enhance Ceausescu's personal authority. The same legislation that
+established the Defense Council also decreed that foreign troops could
+not enter Romania under any circumstances without the prior approval of
+the assembly. Coming in the aftermath of the Soviet-led invasion of
+Czechoslovakia, observers of Eastern European affairs interpreted this
+ruling as a means of preventing any dissident group from inviting
+foreign intervention on the pretext of preserving orthodox communist
+rule.</p>
+
+<p>The membership of the Defense Council reflected the importance given it.
+Besides the head of state, other members of the council include the
+prime minister, the minister of the armed forces, the chairman of the
+Council of State Security, the minister of internal affairs, the
+minister of foreign affairs, the chairman of the State Planning
+Committee, and eight other members who also held leading government and
+party positions. The secretary of the council in 1971 was the chief of
+the general staff and a member of the PCR Central Committee.</p>
+
+<p>Also connected to the Council of State and subordinate to it is the
+Economic Council. This body functions to advise on economic matters,
+coordinate planning, and make recommendations to the Council of State
+for the development of the national economy and the improvement of state
+enterprises. In late 1971 the chairman of the Economic Council was also
+a member of the PCR Secretariat.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">The Council of Ministers</p>
+
+<p>Defined in the Constitution as the supreme body of state administration,
+the Council of Ministers exercises control over the activities of all
+state agencies on both the national and local levels. The council is
+composed of a chairman (who is the prime minister), a first deputy
+chairman, an unspecified number of deputy chairmen, the ministers, and
+the heads of certain other important government agencies (see fig. 8).
+Unlike the 1952 Constitution, in which twenty-six specific ministries
+were listed, that of 1965 fixes neither the number of ministries nor
+their particular areas of competence, this being left to other laws.</p>
+
+<p>In 1971 the Council of Ministers was composed of forty-four members,
+including the prime minister, first deputy, seven deputies, twenty-three
+ministers, and ten committee chiefs with ministerial rank. All but two
+of the members of the council were also members, or alternate members,
+of the PCR Central Committee, and the prime minister and his first
+deputy were members of the Standing Presidium of the party. These two,
+along with two other deputies, were also full members of the PCR
+Executive Committee.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep120" id="imagep120"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep120.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep120.jpg" width="50%" alt="Figure 8. Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 8. Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>The Constitution charges the Council of Ministers with responsibility
+for the general implementation of the nation's domestic and foreign
+policies, the application of laws, and the maintenance of public order.
+As the supreme administrative body of the government, the council
+coordinates and controls the activity of the ministries and other state
+organs at all levels. In economic matters the council administers the
+drafting of the overall state plan and the national budget and provides
+for their implementation. In addition, it directs the establishment of
+the economic enterprises and other industrial and commercial
+organizations (see ch. 14). The council's responsibilities also include
+the general <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>administration of relations with other states, the
+conclusion of international agreements, and the general organization of
+the armed forces.</p>
+
+<p>Formally elected by the Grand National Assembly at the beginning of each
+new assembly session, the council's term of office continues until the
+election of a new council by the succeeding assembly. Both collectively
+and individually, the council members are responsible to the Grand
+National Assembly; and in the interval between assembly sessions, to the
+Council of State. The Constitution asserts that the Council of Ministers
+is to operate on the principle of collective leadership to ensure the
+unity of its political and administrative actions.</p>
+
+<p>In late 1969 the Grand National Assembly enacted legislation aimed at
+strengthening the concept of collective leadership in the ministries and
+extending the principle to other national administrative agencies. In
+the case of the Council of Ministers, the measure provided for the
+establishment of a collegium in each ministry consisting of the
+minister, department heads, certain specialists, and representatives of
+labor unions or other organizations. Purposes of the collegium included
+collective decisionmaking, review of ministry activities, and
+recommendations on ministry programs and policies. The meetings of the
+collegium, at which decisions are made by majority vote, are also
+attended by representatives of the PCR appointed by the party Central
+Committee. In the event of serious disagreements within the collegium,
+the law provides for the matter to be referred to the Council of
+Ministers. No such disagreements have been reported, however.</p>
+
+<p>Since the promulgation of the 1965 Constitution, the Council of
+Ministers has been reorganized several times. In late 1971 the
+importance of a number of the ministries and state commissions was
+emphasized by the prominence of the party position held by their
+ministers or chairmen: almost all of the members of the Council of
+Ministers were either full or alternate members of the PCR Central
+Committee; the chairmen of the General Union of Trade Unions, the
+National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives, and the State
+Planning Committee were full members of the party Executive Committee;
+the chairmen of the Council of State Security and the State Committee
+for Local Economy and Administration were alternate members of the
+Executive Committee, as was the head of the Ministry of the Armed
+Forces. The chairmen of the State Planning Committee and the Council of
+State Security and the ministers of internal affairs and the armed
+forces also were members of the Defense Council.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>The Judicial System</p>
+
+<p>The general organization and functioning of the judiciary is established
+by the Constitution and by the 1968 Law on the Organization of the Court
+System. Overall responsibility for the functioning of the courts is
+vested in the Ministry of Justice, whereas the prosecutor general
+(attorney general) is charged with the general application of the law
+and the executing of criminal proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>To fulfill its responsibility for the functioning of the courts and the
+supervision of state marshals, state notaries, and the national bar
+organization, the Ministry of Justice is divided into six directorates:
+civil courts, military courts, studies and legislation, personnel,
+administration, and planning and accounting. In addition, the ministry
+includes a corps of inspectors, an office of legal affairs, the State
+Notary Office, and a lawyer and legal expert service.</p>
+
+<p>The court system includes the Supreme Court, <i>judet</i> courts, lower
+courts, military courts, and local judicial commissions. The
+Constitution places the judiciary under the authority of the Grand
+National Assembly; and between assembly sessions, under the authority of
+the Council of State. The Supreme Court, seated in Bucharest, exercises
+general control over the judiciary activities of all lower courts.</p>
+
+<p>Members of the Supreme Court are professional judges appointed by the
+Grand National Assembly to four-year terms of office. The Supreme Court
+functions as an appeals court for sentences pronounced in lower
+tribunals and, in certain matters specified by law, may act as a court
+of first instance. It may also issue guidance, in the form of
+directives, on legal and constitutional questions for the judicial
+actions of lower courts and the administrative functions of government
+agencies. To fulfill its responsibilities, the Supreme Court is divided
+into three sections: civil, criminal, and military. Each of these
+sections is presided over by a panel of three judges, and plenary
+sessions of the entire court are held at least once every three months
+in the presence of the minister of justice for the purpose of issuing
+guidance directives.</p>
+
+<p>With the territorial-administrative reorganization of February 1968, the
+jurisdictions of the former regional and district courts were
+restructured to correspond to the new administrative units. Accordingly,
+there are thirty-nine <i>judet</i> courts and the municipal court of
+Bucharest, which has <i>judet</i> court status. Each court on this level is
+presided over by a panel of two judges and three lay jurors, known as
+people's assessors, and decisions are made by majority vote. People's
+assessors were first introduced in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>December 1947 and given additional
+legal status in 1952 by the Grand National Assembly's Law on the
+Organization of Justice. The law required these lay assessors to be
+Romanian citizens and at least twenty-three years of age. Most of the
+people's assessors are appointed by the PCR or by one of the district
+bodies of the mass organizations (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Below the <i>judet</i> courts, and subordinate to them, are the lower courts.
+In the city of Bucharest these consist of eight sectional courts, which
+function under the supervision of the municipal court. For the remainder
+of the country the number of these lower courts and the extent of their
+territorial jurisdiction are established by the Ministry of Justice.
+Courts on this level are presided over by a panel composed of one judge
+and two people's assessors; decisions are based on a majority vote.</p>
+
+<p>Military courts are established on a territorial basis, subdivisions
+being determined by the Council of Ministers. The lower military
+tribunals have original jurisdiction over contraventions of the law
+committed by members of the armed forces; the territorial military
+tribunals exercise appellate jurisdiction for decisions of the lower
+units. In certain situations specified by law, cases involving civilians
+may be assigned to military courts. At each level, the military courts,
+when acting in the first instance, consist of two judges and three
+people's assessors. In appeals cases on the territorial level, the
+courts consist of three judges only. As in the civil courts, decisions
+are reached by majority vote.</p>
+
+<p>In 1968 the Grand National Assembly enacted a law establishing a system
+of judicial commissions to function as courts of special jurisdiction in
+the state economic enterprises and in localities. These commissions were
+designed as "an expression of socialist democracy" to provide for the
+increased participation of working people in the settlement of problems
+involving minor local disputes and local economic issues. Functioning
+under the direction of enterprise management or municipal executive
+committees, the judicial commissions are assigned such matters as labor
+disputes, misdemeanors, property disputes, and violations of proper
+social conduct, a category that appears to provide broad latitude for
+prosecution. As a rule, the commissions consist of five members elected
+for a term of two years; however, in labor disputes two additional
+members are added to the commission, one representing the enterprise
+management and one representing the labor union committee.</p>
+
+<p>General supervision over the application of the law and the initiation
+of criminal proceedings is exercised by the Office of the Prosecutor
+General. Headed by the prosecutor general, the office <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>exercises
+supervisory powers that extend to all levels of the society, from the
+government ministries down to the ordinary citizen. Subunits of the
+Office of the Prosecutor General are hierarchically organized and
+include offices in each judicial district plus the prosecutor's military
+bureau. The prosecutor general is elected by the Grand National Assembly
+for a four-year term and is responsible to the assembly or, between
+assembly sessions, to the Council of State for the activities of his
+office. Three deputy prosecutors assist the prosecutor general in
+carrying out his official duties.</p>
+
+<p>An important part of the prosecutor general's responsibilities consists
+of supervising the activities of the courts to ensure the uniform
+application of the law. Prosecutors on the <i>judet</i> level have a
+consultative vote in the meetings of local government agencies when
+important legal questions are being decided. The prosecutor general
+participates in those plenary sessions of the Supreme Court at which
+guidance decisions are made. In the event the prosecutor does not agree
+with a decision, he may appeal to the county people's council or to its
+executive committee for a review of the decision. On the national level,
+the Office of the Prosecutor General may appeal alleged violations of
+the law to the Council of Ministers.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Local Government</p>
+
+<p>Local government bodies, known as people's councils, exist on the
+<i>judet</i>, town, and commune levels. The 1965 Constitution had also
+provided for subunits of state administration on regional and district
+levels, but a territorial-administrative reorganization voted by the
+Grand National Assembly in 1968 replaced the existing sixteen regions
+and 150 intermediate districts with a system of thirty-nine counties and
+forty-four independent municipal administrations. The expressed purpose
+of the change was the provision of more efficient administration.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the establishment of county and municipal people's
+councils, local councils were also set up in 142 smaller towns, and
+communal councils were formed in rural areas. A number of the smaller
+communes were combined in order to give them a larger population base.
+Boundaries of each of the new <i>judete</i> were drawn to include about fifty
+communes consisting of some 4,000 to 5,000 persons.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the territorial reorganization, the decision was also made to
+combine party and government functions of the <i>judet</i> level so that the
+same person acted both as party committee first secretary and people's
+council chairman. In explaining this fusion of party and state
+authority, Ceausescu stated that there <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>were many instances in which
+offices in both the party and the government dealt with the same areas
+of interest, a practice that resulted in inefficiency and the
+unnecessary duplication of party and state machinery. He asserted that
+the consolidation of these administrative positions would serve to
+eliminate this overlapping. At the same time, Ceausescu declared that,
+inasmuch as the government was responsible for the implementation of the
+PCR's economic decisions, there was no justification for the continued
+existence of the numerous economic sections of the party Central
+Committee and that future economic policy would be implemented within
+the structure of the government (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>According to the Constitution and the 1968 Grand National Assembly's Law
+on the Organization and Operation of People's Councils, the people's
+councils are responsible for the implementation of central government
+decisions and the economic, social, and cultural administration of their
+particular jurisdictions. Deputies to the people's councils are elected
+to four-year terms&mdash;except for the communes where the term is two
+years&mdash;from single-member constituencies of equal population. Based on
+population, the <i>judet</i> people's councils may have a maximum of 231, or
+a minimum of 141, deputies. The membership of the Bucharest People's
+Council is fixed at 369, and there are 151 deputies on the councils of
+each of its subdistricts. City people's councils range from eighty-one
+to 221 deputies, and those of the towns consist of from thirty-five to
+ninety-one deputies. Commune council memberships range from twenty-five
+to seventy-one persons.</p>
+
+<p>Organized on the basis of highly centralized control, the people's
+councils function under the general supervision of the Grand National
+Assembly; and between assembly sessions the councils function under the
+direction of the Council of State. The Law on the Organization and
+Operation of People's Councils specifically places the people's councils
+under the overall leadership of the PCR as the leading political force
+of the society.</p>
+
+<p>To expedite its work, each people's council established an executive
+committee as its chief administrative organ and a number of permanent
+committees to which it assigns specific responsibilities. The executive
+committee, consisting of a chairman, two or more deputy chairmen, and an
+unspecified number of other members, functions for the duration of the
+council's term of office. Each of the people's council executive
+committees also has a secretary, who is appointed with the approval of
+the next higher ranking council and is considered an employee of the
+central government rather than of the local executive committee itself.
+The chairman of executive committees in the cities, towns, and communes
+are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>officially considered the mayors of these units. The executive
+committees are responsible to the people's council that elected them as
+well as to the executive committee of the next higher council.</p>
+
+<p>The executive committee meets whenever necessary and is required to
+convene at least once a month; full council sessions are held every two
+months on the city, town, and commune level and every three months on
+the county level. Responsibilities of the executive committees include
+the implementation of laws, decrees, and decisions of the central
+government, the carrying out of the decisions made by the people's
+councils, the working out of the local budget, and the drafting of the
+local economic plan. The executive committee is also charged with the
+direction and control of the economic enterprises within its area of
+jurisdiction and with the exercising of supervision over the executive
+committees of the councils inferior to it. The executive committees are
+also responsible for the organization and functioning of public
+services, educational institutions, medical programs, and the militia.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p>According to the 1965 Constitution, all power belongs to the working
+people joined in a worker-peasant alliance; power is exercised through
+the people's representative bodies&mdash;the Grand National Assembly and the
+several levels of people's councils. Theoretically, these bodies are
+elected by, controlled by, and responsible to the working people.
+Emphasis is placed on the direct participation of the citizens through
+their local people's councils, party units, and chapters of the mass
+organizations (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Although the Constitution asserts the right of all citizens eighteen
+years of age and older to participate in the election of all
+representative bodies on the basis of a universal, direct, equal, and
+secret vote, it does not determine how elections are to be organized or
+specify who is responsible for conducting them. The Constitution does
+declare, however, that the right to nominate candidates belongs to the
+PCR, as well as to all labor unions, cooperatives, youth and women's
+leagues, cultural associations, and other mass organizations. Citizens
+who have reached the age of twenty-three are eligible to be candidates
+for elective office.</p>
+
+<p>Separate legislation provides for general elections to be held every
+four years and local communal elections to be conducted every two years.
+Elections are organized under the direction of the Socialist Unity
+Front, the national entity that incorporates the country's numerous mass
+organizations under the leadership of the PCR (see ch. 9). All
+candidates for elective office must have the approval of the front in
+order to be placed on the ballot, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>a requirement that ensures that no
+candidate unacceptable to the front's leadership will be placed in
+nomination.</p>
+
+<p>The Socialist Unity Front was officially established in November 1968 as
+a replacement for the People's Democratic Front, which had existed since
+the Communists began to organize effectively in the country during World
+War II. The Socialist Unity Front lists among its member organizations,
+in addition to the PCR, the labor unions; cooperative farm
+organizations; consumer cooperatives; professional, scientific, and
+cultural associations; student, youth, women's, and veterans'
+organizations; religious bodies; and representatives of the Hungarian,
+German, Serbian, and Ukrainian minorities. At the time of its formation,
+Ceausescu was elected as the front's chairman, and Ion Gheorghe Maurer,
+the prime minister, was named as first vice chairman. Both continued in
+these positions in early 1972.</p>
+
+<p>General elections were conducted by the Socialist Unity Front in March
+1969. Official results indicated that ballots were cast by 99.96 percent
+of the country's 13,582,249 eligible voters. Of the votes cast, a
+reported 99.75 percent were marked in favor of the single list of
+Socialist Unity Front candidates. Although the great majority of the
+candidates for the Grand National Assembly who were placed on the ballot
+belonged to the PCR, some non-members gained front approval and were
+elected. Nearly half of the candidates elected were newcomers to the
+assembly and included forty-one Hungarian, twelve German, and nine other
+minority representatives. The front has scheduled the next general
+elections for 1973.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 9</h2>
+
+<h2>POLITICAL DYNAMICS AND VALUES</h2>
+
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1972 the country's political system continued to be
+based on the leading position of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul
+Communist Roman&mdash;PCR). Within the party, political power was centralized
+in a small group of men who occupied the leading party and government
+offices. Political authority was particularly concentrated in the hands
+of the general secretary of the PCR, Nicolae Ceausescu, who was also the
+head of state.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding itself as the leading force of the society, the PCR has made
+the government apparatus an instrument of party policy and, through a
+broad network of subordinate mass organizations, has mobilized all
+elements of the society in support of its programs and goals. Individual
+and group participation in the political process was limited to the
+forms and means permitted by the PCR.</p>
+
+<p>The concentration of all political authority in the central bodies of
+the party has effectively precluded the emergence of any open opposition
+to the PCR leadership as well as the assertion of any particular group
+interests. Under Ceausescu's leadership the party has sought to
+strengthen its role in all spheres of social, economic, and political
+life and, at the same time, to broaden its base of support by taking
+steps to increase its membership. Although the party leaders have
+periodically demonstrated a cautious relaxation of the highly
+centralized system of control, the PCR has continued to be extremely
+sensitive to any potential threats or challenges to its position.</p>
+
+<p>In attempting to build a broad base of popular support the party has
+drawn upon the symbols of nationalism and has made extensive use of
+Romanian history and tradition. Its independent stance in relation to
+Soviet domination has served to enhance its image among the general
+population; at the same time, the fact that membership in the party has
+been made relatively easy has helped the PCR become one of the largest
+communist parties of Eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In mid-1971 Ceausescu initiated a campaign to strengthen ideological and
+cultural orthodoxy and, for the first time in the six years since he had
+come to power, some political observers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>believed they were able to
+detect opposition to his proposals both within and outside the party.
+There was no indication, however, that the resistance was organized or
+was strong enough to affect Ceausescu's position. Throughout the period
+of Ceausescu's control there have never been any recognizable factions
+in the party in opposition to his leadership.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1965 TO 1970</p>
+
+<p>The leadership of the PCR changed hands in March 1965 when Nicolae
+Ceausescu became first secretary after the death of Gheorghe
+Gheorghiu-Dej, who had headed the party almost continually since 1944
+(see ch. 2). Ceausescu's emergence as head of the party came in the
+midst of a period of growing Romanian nationalism that had begun in the
+early 1960s. Initiated by Gheorghiu-Dej, the policy of greater national
+autonomy was given additional form and substance by Ceausescu, who
+sought to cast himself in the role of the restorer of Romanian history
+and the country's national traditions.</p>
+
+<p>As Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Ceausescu was confronted with the
+necessity of consolidating his power. No member of the party Secretariat
+owed his position to Ceausescu, and he found particular challenges to
+his authority from three men who had been among Gheorghiu-Dej's closest
+associates: Chivu Stoica, a veteran party leader; Gheorghe Apostol,
+first deputy premier and a former PCR secretary; and Alexandru Draghici,
+minister of internal affairs and, as such, head of the powerful state
+security apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>A temporary solution to the problem was found in a system of collective
+leadership by which Ceausescu became head of the party and Stoica took
+over Gheorghiu-Dej's other leading position as president of the Council
+of State and, as such, head of state. Apostol continued as first deputy
+prime minister, and Draghici remained as minister of internal affairs.
+Ion Gheorghe Maurer, who had served as prime minister under
+Gheorghiu-Dej, continued in that position. At the same time, changes
+were made in the party statutes to prevent one man from holding dual
+party and government offices as Gheorghiu-Dej had done.</p>
+
+<p>In April, just one month after taking over as head of the PCR, Ceausescu
+announced that a party congress would be convened in July. During the
+month of June, while preparations were being made for the congress, he
+revealed plans to redefine the character and structure of the party and
+announced that its name would no longer be the Romanian Workers' Party,
+as it had been known since 1948, but would again be the Romanian
+Communist Party. Observers of East European political affairs saw the
+change of name as an assertion of the equality of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>Romanian communism
+with the communist parties of the Soviet Union and other communist
+states. During the same month the new PCR leaders also proclaimed that
+the official designation of the state would be the Socialist Republic of
+Romania rather than the Romanian People's Republic as it had previously
+been known (see ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>At the July party congress Ceausescu was successful in adding a number
+of his supporters to an enlarged PCR Central Committee and in having his
+own title changed to general secretary. At the same time the party
+structure was changed to add a new body, the Executive Committee,
+between the Standing Presidium (Politburo) and the Central Committee.
+Although he was not able to gain full control of the Executive Committee
+immediately, in time this new body provided Ceausescu with the means for
+including his supporters in the leading organs of the PCR and for
+implementing his own policies.</p>
+
+<p>During the party congress Ceausescu was able to turn the PCR
+proscription against an individual's holding dual party and government
+positions to his own advantage by engineering the election of Draghici
+to the party Secretariat, a move that resulted in Draghici losing his
+power base as minister of internal affairs as well as his direct control
+over the state security forces. Later in the year the appointment of two
+additional "first deputy prime ministers" undermined the power of
+Apostol who had been, until that time, the only first deputy.
+Simultaneously, Ceausescu was making preparations for even more
+definitive actions against his rivals, preparations that took the form
+of an unpublicized decision of the PCR Central Committee, in November
+1965, to establish a commission of inquiry to reexamine the political
+trials conducted by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime during the 1950s. The
+commission was particularly directed to investigate the 1954 trial and
+execution of Lucretiu Patrascanu, who had been the Romanian minister of
+justice from 1944 to 1948 and an important member of the party
+hierarchy. The formation of the commission of inquiry and its findings
+were not announced publicly until April 1968.</p>
+
+<p>Political observers identified three principal factions within the PCR
+during the 1965-67 period: Ceausescu and his supporters; the veteran
+party men led by Stoica, Apostol, and Draghici; and the intellectuals,
+of whom Maurer was perhaps the nominal representative. Those allied with
+Ceausescu, who was forty-seven years old when he came to power, tended
+to be men of his own generation and outlook, and whenever possible he
+engineered their appointment or promotion into important party,
+government, and military positions.</p>
+
+<p>One of Ceausescu's foremost concerns was what he termed the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>revitalization of the PCR. To achieve this end, he not only brought his
+own younger men into the top party organs but also sought to broaden the
+professional skills represented in these bodies through the recruitment
+of technically trained men and academicians. At the same time, increased
+technical and scientific contacts were permitted with Western nations,
+and previously banned works of foreign writers and artists were allowed
+to be reintroduced&mdash;moves that helped Ceausescu gain additional support
+among the PCR's intellectuals.</p>
+
+<p>Although the party encouraged a revival of nationalism and introduced
+several limited domestic reforms, it did not relax its tight political
+control and continued to direct the country's economy through a highly
+centralized system. The maintenance of strict party control was
+evidenced in the congresses of the youth and labor union organizations
+in mid-1966, when the delegates were informed that the PCR would begin
+to enforce the "patriotic education" of their members.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">The 1967 National Party Conference</p>
+
+<p>At a specially convened National Conference of the PCR in December
+1967&mdash;the first such conference in twenty-two years&mdash;Ceausescu continued
+to strengthen his own position. The conference was attended by the
+members of the Central Committee as well as by 1,150 delegates from
+local party organizations. Ceausescu elected to employ the technique of
+the party conference rather than a special party congress in order to
+have his proposals approved by a larger body than the Central Committee.
+At the same time, he wanted to avoid the requirement of having to elect
+a new Central Committee, which would have been the case had a congress
+been held.</p>
+
+<p>In his address to the conference, Ceausescu declared that in order to
+modernize Romania as a socialist state it was imperative to adopt new
+organizational and ideological forms. To achieve this end, he proposed a
+number of reforms in the structure and functioning of both the party and
+the government and defended the country's policy of independent
+development. Speaking of the relationship between party and government
+responsibilities, Ceausescu asserted the need to eliminate overlapping
+and duplication in party and government functions. As a remedy, he
+proposed that only one individual, whether in the party or in the
+government, should deal with a particular sector of activity. In
+addition, he called for a clearer delineation of the responsibilities of
+the government and the party. It was not necessary, he declared, for the
+Central Committee to decide all questions of economic affairs and
+continue to maintain a number of economic departments that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>duplicated
+the functions of the Council of Ministers and the economic ministries.
+He proposed that the Central Committee limit itself to basic decisions
+of economic policy and that the specific matters of implementation be
+left to the government ministries.</p>
+
+<p>Political and ideological activity, Ceausescu proposed, would remain
+under the control of the Central Committee and would be given greater
+emphasis and direction through the creation of an ideological commission
+that would work to develop an intensified program of political
+education. A defense council, composed of the party's Standing Presidium
+and other members, would be established to deal with most military
+questions, but the basic questions of guidance for both the armed forces
+and the state security apparatus would continue to be the responsibility
+of the Central Committee. Major foreign policy questions would be
+decided by the Standing Presidium (see ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Ceausescu also proposed reforms in the organization and responsibilities
+of governmental organs. In addition to proposing a reorganization of the
+state's territorial subdivisions, he asserted the need to broaden the
+activities of the Grand National Assembly and to increase the
+responsibilities of the assembly commissions in order to give that body
+a greater role in the government. Ministers and other high government
+officials were to be more aware of their responsibilities to keep the
+assembly informed of the activities of their departments. Ceausescu also
+declared the need to strengthen the role and organization of the Council
+of Ministers to enable it to provide for long-term economic planning. In
+addition, he suggested that the heads of three of the more important
+mass organizations&mdash;the General Union of Trade Unions, the Union of
+Communist Youth, and the National Union of Agricultural Production
+Cooperatives&mdash;be included in the government and be given ministerial
+ranking.</p>
+
+<p>The party conference represented a major success for Ceausescu in his
+drive to gain undisputed political control. All of his proposals were
+unanimously adopted, and the party statutes were changed to enable him
+to become the head of state, as president of the Council of State, as
+well as head of the party, a reversal of the 1965 proscription against
+one individual simultaneously holding prominent posts in both the party
+and state. The nomination of Ceausescu was made by Stoica, the incumbent
+president of the Council of State, on the grounds that uniting the
+highest offices of the party and the state would eliminate the
+duplication of functions and increase efficiency. Stoica was given a
+position in the party Secretariat and later, in 1969, was named chairman
+of the Central Auditing Commission, a post he continued to hold in early
+1972.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>As a result of the approval of Ceausescu's recommendations, a number of
+changes were effected in local government and party organizations.
+Certain positions in the party and state organizations were fused, the
+county or city party first secretary also becoming chairman of the local
+people's council (see ch. 8). The secretaries of local party units and
+labor union representatives were included on the councils of the
+industrial enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>Following the recommendations of the party conference, the day after the
+conference adjourned the Grand National Assembly convened to elect
+Ceausescu as president of the Council of State, and it approved
+legislation to implement most of the other conference decisions. At the
+same time, the assembly elected a new Council of State consisting of (in
+addition to Ceausescu) three vice presidents and fifteen other members.
+A new Council of Ministers was also elected, with Maurer again named as
+prime minister. Apostol was demoted from his position as a first deputy
+prime minister to his previously held post as chairman of the General
+Union of Trade Unions. Draghici was removed from the party Secretariat
+and given a position as a deputy prime minister under Maurer. With the
+successful demotion of his chief rivals, Ceausescu emerged at the close
+of 1967 as the undisputed leader of both the party and the state.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Rehabilitation and De-Stalinization</p>
+
+<p>With his power base firmly established, Ceausescu acted to fully
+disassociate his regime from the Gheorghiu-Dej era. In April 1968, at a
+plenary session of the Central Committee, the report of the commission
+of inquiry, which had been secretly established in late 1965, was made
+public. The Gheorghiu-Dej regime was severely indicated for fraudulently
+conspiring to arrange the trial and execution of Patrascanu in 1954 and
+for violations of justice in the other political show trials of the
+1950s. Patrascanu was exonerated of all charges, and several other of
+the trial victims were officially rehabilitated.</p>
+
+<p>Because of this close association with Gheorghiu-Dej and his position as
+head of the internal affairs ministry during the period of the trials,
+the Central Committee dismissed Draghici from all his positions. Apostol
+and Stoica were censured but were allowed to remain in their posts,
+although their standing in the party was considerably weakened.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the 1968-70 period the Ceausescu regime continued a gradual
+and cautious policy of de-Stalinization in domestic affairs and
+continued, as well, to assert the country's independent stance in
+international relations. The domestic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>relaxation was limited, however,
+and, in an address to an association of artists in April 1968, Ceausescu
+cautioned both intellectuals and artists not to overstep the bounds
+established by the party.</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Treaty
+Organization (Warsaw Pact) in August 1968 posed a crisis to the
+Ceausescu regime and raised the possibility of Soviet intervention in
+Romania. Ceausescu's firm denunciation of the invasion, however, served
+to unify the population behind him. His call for national mobilization
+and the creation of a home guard for national defense elicited broad
+popular support and gained him stature as the defender of Romanian
+independence.</p>
+
+<p>In late 1968 the PCR leadership acted to establish a new national
+political organization, the Socialist Unity Front, in order to bring
+representatives of the major mass organizations and other associations
+into a party-dominated framework for the political mobilization of the
+population (see ch. 8). As a replacement for the older and largely
+ineffective People's Democratic Front, the new front organization was
+structured around a national council and, theoretically, was given
+advisory powers on important policy matters.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the PCR, the Socialist Unity Front's National Council
+included representatives of: labor unions; cooperative farmers'
+organizations; consumers' cooperatives; professional, cultural, and
+scientific associations; women's youth, and veterans' organizations;
+religious bodies; and the councils of the Hungarian, German, Serbian,
+and Ukrainian minorities. Ceausescu was elected president of the front,
+and Maurer, the vice president.</p>
+
+<p>The first major activity of the Socialist Unity Front was the conducting
+of national elections on March 2, 1969. As only the front was allowed to
+nominate candidates, just one candidate was named for each Grand
+National Assembly seat. The official results indicated that over 99
+percent of the eligible voters cast their ballots and, of these, 99.75
+percent endorsed the Socialist Unity Front slate. Elections to the newly
+organized bodies of local government took place at the same time (see
+ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Convening ten days after the election, the new Grand National Assembly
+reelected Ceausescu as president of the Council of State and renamed
+Maurer as prime minister. At the same time, the assembly enacted
+legislation establishing the Defense Council that Ceausescu had earlier
+proposed. Observers of East <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>European political affairs considered the
+timing of this enactment, coming just three days before an important
+meeting of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, as a further assertion of
+Romania's independent course in international affairs (see ch. 10).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">The Tenth Party Congress</p>
+
+<p>Almost 2,000 delegates attended the Tenth Party Congress of the PCR held
+in Bucharest from August 6 to 12, 1969. In addition, delegations were
+present from sixty-six foreign communist parties (see ch. 10). The main
+features of the congress included Ceausescu's unanimous reelection as
+general secretary of the party for a five-year term, the enlargement of
+the Central Committee from 121 to 165 members, and the approval of
+revisions of the party statutes.</p>
+
+<p>Among other things, the statute revisions provided for the election of
+the Central Committee by secret ballot and transferred the
+responsibility for electing the general secretary from the Central
+Committee to the party congress. It was also decided that party
+congresses would be convened every five years rather than every four so
+that each congress could discuss and adopt a five-year economic plan for
+the country. A unique feature of the congress was the division of the
+delegates into five working commissions, with their sessions open to
+foreign journalists.</p>
+
+<p>When it came time for the congress to elect the Central Committee,
+nearly half of the remaining older members were replaced by younger men
+who were supporters of Ceausescu. Apostol and Stoica were conspicuously
+not reelected and, immediately after the congress, Apostol was
+discharged from his position as chairman of the General Union of Trade
+Unions after being charged with "serious breaches of Communist
+morality."</p>
+
+<p>Although the modifications in the party statutes were designed to allow
+for more democratic procedures in party affairs, the principle of
+centralized control continued to be strongly maintained. Whereas all
+party members were encouraged to voice their opinions on any given
+issue, once a decision was adopted the minority was expected to yield to
+the majority and aid in implementation of policies. The congress
+resolved that party control and ideological guidance must reach into all
+aspects of the life of the people.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS</p>
+
+<p class="cen">The Romanian Communist Party</p>
+
+<p>Originally founded in 1921, the Romanian Communist Party was declared
+illegal in 1924 and forced into a clandestine existence until the
+closing years of World War II. After the war, fully supported by the
+Soviet Union, the party gradually consolidated power and sought to
+extend its base of popular support through intensified propaganda
+activity. In early 1948 the PCR merged with one wing of the Social
+Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers' Party. By the end of
+1952, however, almost all of the former Social Democrats had been
+expelled from the leading party bodies and replaced by active Communists
+(see ch. 2).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">Organization</p>
+
+<p>Basic decisions concerning the organization, operation, and membership
+of the PCR are contained in the party statutes, the fundamental document
+of the party. Originally adopted in May 1948, the statutes have
+undergone several modifications, with more significant revisions being
+made in 1955, 1965, 1967, and 1969.</p>
+
+<p>All organs of the party are closely interrelated and operate on the
+principle of democratic centralism. Derived from the Communist Party of
+the Soviet Union, the concept of democratic centralism provides for the
+election of party bodies at all levels but requires a firm hierarchical
+subordination of each party organ to the next higher unit. In practice,
+this means that party programs and policies are directed from a single
+center and that decisions of higher organs are unconditionally binding
+on all lower organs as well as on individual members. The statutes call
+for the free and open discussion of policy questions at congresses,
+conferences, local membership meetings, and in the party press; however,
+discipline requires that once a decision is made the minority fully
+submits to decisions of the majority.</p>
+
+<p>According to the party statutes, the supreme organ of the PCR is the
+party congress consisting of delegates elected by the county (<i>judet</i>)
+conferences on the basis of one delegate for every 1,000 party members.
+As revised in 1969, the statutes call for the convening of a party
+congress every five years. Duties of the congress include the election
+of the PCR general secretary, election of the Central Committee and the
+Central Auditing Commission, and the discussion and adoption of programs
+and policies proposed by the central organs of the party.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>Between congresses the leading party organ is the Central Committee.
+Consisting of 165 full members and 120 alternate members, the Central
+Committee is responsible for the overall direction of all party
+activities and the implementation of policies established by the party
+congress. In addition, the Central Committee screens nominations for the
+more important party and state positions. Party statutes require a
+plenary session of the Central Committee at least four times a year (see
+fig. 9).</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep138" id="imagep138"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep138.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep138.jpg" width="55%" alt="Figure 9. Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 9. Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>After its election by the party congress, the Central Committee in turn
+elects, from among its own number, the members of the leading party
+bodies: the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the
+Secretariat. The election is largely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>a formality, however, for in
+practice the Standing Presidium is the primary center of political power
+and is a self-perpetuating body. Any change in its membership or in that
+of the Secretariat is generated from within rather than through a
+democratic decision of the Central Committee. As general secretary of
+the party, Ceausescu heads both the Standing Presidium and the
+Secretariat and chairs the Executive Committee.</p>
+
+<p>To accomplish its administrative tasks the Central Committee is provided
+with an extensive bureaucratic structure that in many instances
+parallels the organization of the government ministries. A chancellery
+office, headed by a chief and three deputies, coordinates the
+committee's overall administrative activities. Party work is organized
+under three directorates, each headed by a supervisory secretary, and a
+number of administrative sections and functional commissions. The
+directorates, designated as international affairs and propaganda, party
+organization, and press and cultural affairs, supervise and direct the
+work of the administrative sections. Not all of these sections are
+listed in the party statutes or by the party press. A partial listing
+includes sections for the economy, local administration, propaganda,
+press, international affairs, party organs and personnel, national
+minorities, and state security.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the directorates and administrative sections there were,
+in 1970, eight formally established commissions directly tied to the
+Central Committee. These were listed as the commissions for agriculture
+and forestry; economic problems; ideological and cultural-educational
+problems; international relations; organizational problems and internal
+party activity; training of cadres, education, and science; development
+of the social and state system; and social questions, public health, and
+living standards.</p>
+
+<p>Two party training institutions, the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy of
+Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres and the
+Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies, operate under the
+direct supervision of the Central Committee. Located in Bucharest, both
+of these institutions are designed to train and indoctrinate key
+bureaucratic personnel. The Central Committee also maintains a museum of
+party history in Bucharest.</p>
+
+<p>In charge of all of the political machinery of the PCR, the Standing
+Presidium of the Central Committee is the party's center for
+decisionmaking and policy control and, as such, is the most powerful
+body in the country. There were, at the beginning of 1972, four party
+leaders who held positions concurrently on the Standing Presidium, the
+Executive Committee, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>and the Secretariat: Ceausescu, Manea Manescu,
+Paul Niculescu-Mizil, and Gheorghe Pana. Political observers considered
+these men to be the most powerful in the party and, hence, the nation.
+All of the nine members of the Standing Presidium are also members of
+the Executive Committee.</p>
+
+<p>Little information is available on the responsibilities given the
+Executive Committee, although some observers have described it as
+providing an administrative link between the Standing Presidium and the
+Central Committee. In practice it has functioned as a rump Central
+Committee when the latter is not in session. The Secretariat serves as
+the continuing administrative unit of the party. It supervises the
+execution of policies decided upon by the Standing Presidium. Three
+members of the Secretariat serve as the supervising secretaries of the
+major directorates of the Central Committee.</p>
+
+<p>Two other important party organs function under the supervision of the
+Standing Presidium and the Secretariat: the Central Auditing Commission
+and the Central Collegium, formerly known as the Party Control
+Commission. Consisting of forty-five members (none of whom may belong to
+the Central Committee), the Central Auditing Commission is empowered to
+exercise general control over party financial affairs and examine the
+management of finances by the various party organs. The nine-member
+Central Collegium deals with matters of party discipline and serves as a
+type of appeals court for penalties imposed on members by county or
+local party committees.</p>
+
+<p>An interlocking of authority and functions at the highest level of the
+party and state is evidenced in the frequency with which the senior
+party officials also hold important government posts. All of the members
+of the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the Secretariat
+are also deputies to the Grand National Assembly, and most of them hold
+other prominent government positions in the Council of State, the
+Defense Council, or the Council of Ministers.</p>
+
+<p>The party statutes describe the local cell, the basic party unit, as the
+foundation of the party. Cells exist in factories, offices,
+cooperatives, military and police units, social and cultural
+organizations, and residential areas. Some of these cell groups consist
+of as few as three members, whereas those in the larger enterprises may
+have as many as 300 members. In 1969 there were an estimated 69,000 of
+these local party units.</p>
+
+<p>Functions of the local and occupational cell units include the
+implementation of party directives and programs, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>recruitment and
+indoctrination of new members, and the dissemination of propaganda
+directed at those outside the party. Members have the duty to
+participate in social, economic, and cultural activities, particularly
+in the direction of the economic enterprises, and to critically examine
+production and community life in the light of party ideology and goals.
+In all of its activities the local cell is required to uphold the
+discipline of the party and to adhere to the policies established by the
+ruling bodies of the PCR.</p>
+
+<p>Between the local cell unit and the higher organs of the PCR stands a
+hierarchy of party committees organized on the county, town, and
+communal levels. Each of these units is directly subordinate to the next
+higher level of the party organization. In Bucharest a city party
+committee supervises the activities of the communal and enterprise
+cells. Each party committee sets up its own bureau and elects a
+secretariat. In most cases the secretariat consists of a first
+secretary, a first vice chairman, and three or more vice chairmen or
+secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>The activity of the bureaus is conducted through several functional
+departments, which generally consist of sections on personnel,
+administration, agitation and propaganda, economic enterprises, youth,
+and women's affairs. The county and city committees also have their own
+control commissions and training programs. The first secretary of the
+county committee also serves as chairman of the county people's council,
+interlocking the party and government offices (see ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>The party leadership decided in late 1967 to require the active
+participation of the party secretaries in the administrative organs of
+the enterprises and other institutions in their respective areas. County
+committees are aided in their administrative duties by economic
+commissions that oversee the general economic development of the county
+and fix both current and long-range goals. In addition, the economic
+commissions are charged with the coordination of all economic activity,
+the conducting of studies and making of proposals for setting production
+goals, and the allocation of material and human resources in the county.</p>
+
+<p>At each of these levels&mdash;county, city, town, and commune&mdash;the highest
+authoritative organ is the party conference, which fills a role on these
+lower levels similar to that of the party congress on the national
+level. The party statutes as revised in 1969 call for the convening of
+conferences every fourth year in the counties, in the city of Bucharest,
+and in the larger towns. In the communes and smaller towns the
+conference is required to be held once every two years. Although <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>the
+conferences are held ostensibly to discuss problems and formulate
+policies, they serve in practice as transmission belts for the official
+party line set down by the central PCR authorities. County conferences
+and the Bucharest city conference elect delegates to the national party
+congress.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">Membership</p>
+
+<p>The PCR emerged at the close of World War II with only about 1,000
+members. Four years later, just before its merger with the Social
+Democratic Party and after an intensive propaganda campaign and a strong
+membership drive, the party reported over 700,000 members. When the PCR
+merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers'
+Party in 1948, some 200,000 Social Democrats were added to the
+membership roll. A purge of so-called hostile and nominal members during
+1950 resulted in the expulsion of 190,000 persons from the party,
+reducing the total membership to about 720,000 at the beginning of 1951.</p>
+
+<p>During the early years of full communist control of Romania, the party
+considered itself the vanguard of the working class and made a sustained
+effort to recruit workers into party membership. By the end of 1950 the
+PCR reported that 64 percent of the leading party positions and 40
+percent of the higher government posts were filled by members of the
+working class. The efforts to recruit workers into the party have
+consistently fallen short of the set goals, however, and from time to
+time throughout the period since 1950 party leaders have decried the
+fact that the social composition of the membership has not included an
+adequate proportion of workers.</p>
+
+<p>By 1964 the party membership was reported at 1.2 million. This total was
+increased to 1.5 million by 1966, a figure that represented about 8
+percent of the country's population. Membership composition, in 1966,
+was reported as 40 percent workers, 32 percent peasants, and 22 percent
+intelligentsia, with the remaining 6 percent not classified.</p>
+
+<p>After Ceausescu's accession to power in 1965, he sought to increase the
+party's influence, broaden the base of popular support, and bring in new
+members. At a first step, he eliminated the probationary period, which
+had varied from one year for industrial workers to two years for
+peasants, white-collar workers, and intellectuals. Additional members
+were also sought by enticing those who had belonged to the old Social
+Democratic Party and the former Socialist Party by dating their
+membership from the time of their entry into those parties.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the membership drive, announced at the 1967 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>party
+conference, was the addition of 230,000 new PCR members, bringing the
+total to 1,730,000. At the 1969 party congress it was announced that the
+PCR had 1,924,500 members, representing about one-seventh of the total
+adult population. In February 1971 the Central Committee reported that
+the membership had grown to 2.1 million, making the PCR one of the
+largest communist parties in Eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Statistics reported by the party press indicated the nationality
+composition of the PCR as consisting of 88.8 percent Romanians, 8.4
+percent Hungarians, and slightly over 1 percent Germans, with the
+remainder encompassing other nationalities. As the 1966 census had shown
+that Hungarians represented 8.4 percent of the total population, the
+Germans 2 percent, and other nationalities about 2 percent, the
+nationality composition of the party compares favorably with that of the
+country as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>Workers reportedly made up 44 percent of the party membership; peasants,
+26 percent; and intellectuals and white-collar workers, 23 percent.
+Seven percent were unclassified as to status. Statistics indicating the
+age composition of the party were also published, revealing that 24
+percent of the membership was under thirty years of age; persons between
+the ages of thirty and forty made up 36 percent of the membership, and
+40 percent of the members were over forty years old.</p>
+
+<p>The PCR membership campaign had been given particular emphasis in the
+major industries, such as the metal, machine-building, coal, petroleum,
+and chemical industries, where 27 to 36 percent of the workers were
+reported to belong to the party. Female membership was reported as 23
+percent, up from 17 percent in 1960 and 21 percent in 1965. The report
+contained a recommendation that a larger number of women be assigned to
+responsible positions. Statistics for the army revealed that 90 percent
+of the officers and 55 percent of the noncommissioned officers were
+party members. The fact that over 926,000 members lived in rural areas
+was asserted by the PCR leaders to be proof of peasant support and a
+demonstration of the effectiveness of the party in organizing at the
+village level.</p>
+
+<p>In 1970 the party press reported that an analysis of the leading
+national and local PCR bodies revealed that the greater proportion of
+their memberships consists of those drawn from the ranks of the working
+class. Of the 285 members and alternate members of the Central
+Committee, 197, or nearly 70 percent, were workers or persons who had
+come from the workers' ranks. Of the 4,698 members of county party
+committees, 2,144 or 45.6 percent were said to be workers or from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>the
+working class. Together, workers and peasants were reported to make up
+over 64 percent of the membership of county committees. As many as 81
+percent of the activists of the county, municipal, and communal party
+committees were&mdash;according to their basic professions&mdash;workers, foremen,
+or technicians.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">Party Training</p>
+
+<p>In early 1970 the PCR carried out a major reorganization of its primary
+institution for the training of leading party workers, the Stefan
+Gheorghiu Party Academy. With the reorganization, the full name of the
+institution became the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy for Social-Political
+Education and the Training of Leading Cadres. Its tasks were defined as
+the training of party activists and the development of party leaders
+capable of resolving problems and "applying the science of political
+leadership to the party and society."</p>
+
+<p>Ceausescu explained that the reorganization was necessary for upgrading
+the training of activists for the party as well as for various sectors
+of economic and state life. He also stated that the combination of party
+training with state and economic activity is based on the principle that
+the PCR is the leading force of the society and, as such, must ensure
+the proper training of the personnel needed to guide all sectors of
+activity.</p>
+
+<p>As reorganized, the academy is divided into two departments, one for the
+training of cadres in the party and in mass organizations and a second
+for the training of personnel who work in the economy and state
+administration. Each department is subdivided into a number of
+institutes, sections, and training centers. Within the first department
+is the Institute for Training Cadres in Social-Political Management,
+which in turn is subdivided into sections for political-organizational
+activity, political-ideological activity, and political-economic
+activity. Also within the same department are the Journalism Faculty,
+the Center for the Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization
+Cadres, the Center for Improving the Political-Ideological Training of
+Teachers of Social-Political Sciences in State Schools, and the Center
+for Activist Training Courses. The Center for Activist Training Courses
+provided programs of study for activists in the party, the youth
+organization, labor unions, and workers in offices of foreign affairs.
+The last two centers are divided into several sections that specialize
+in the training of particular classes of activists.</p>
+
+<p>The second department, that which provided training for state employees
+and for those working in economic activities, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>consists of the Central
+Institute for the Education of Leading Cadres in the Economy and State
+Administration, a section for short-term courses, and a section for
+training in specialized management and organizational problems. The
+institute includes sections on the organization and management of
+industrial activity, of construction, of transport and
+telecommunications, of agriculture, of circulation of goods and
+services, of planning, and of state administration. In addition, the
+department organizes courses for chairmen of agricultural production
+cooperatives.</p>
+
+<p>Admission to the academy programs is carefully controlled by the party.
+Courses in the first department last for four years, and candidates are
+selected from among the activists in the county and city party
+committees and the central PCR bodies and from loyal party workers in
+the mass organizations. Political activists in the Ministry of the Armed
+Forces, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the State Security Council
+are also eligible for training in the first department.</p>
+
+<p>PCR regulations stipulate that candidates for training in the first
+department must have worked for at least three years in production and
+have had at least three years' experience in mass organizations. In
+addition, the candidate must have completed at least a five-month course
+in one of the lower level party schools, have a high school diploma or
+its equivalent, and be thirty-five years of age or younger.</p>
+
+<p>Courses in the second department last for two years. Requirements for
+admission into this department include extensive experience in
+organization and management related to industry and labor, at least
+eight years of service, membership in the PCR, graduation from a higher
+education institute, and an age of forty years or younger.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the broad program of the academy, the PCR also maintains
+other ideological training institutions. These include the Institute of
+Historical and Social-Political Studies in Bucharest, which functions
+under the direct supervision of the Central Committee, and lower level
+training programs that operate under the county party committees.</p>
+
+<p>During 1971 the PCR placed increased emphasis on both the political and
+general education of all party workers, and the Central Committee
+decreed that only those who can keep up to date in their fields of
+activity would be promoted. As a followup to the decree, the Central
+Committee initiated a series of twenty- to thirty-day training programs
+and required some 15,000 persons from party, state, and mass
+organizations to attend the sessions. The order included a warning that
+those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>who did not successfully complete the courses would lose their
+jobs.</p>
+
+<p>Observers of Romanian politics stated that the decision to require this
+additional training of state and party workers stemmed from the fact
+that the majority of personnel on both the central and local levels had
+been named to their positions on the basis of faithful party activity
+rather than their professional qualifications. The stipulation that
+those who do not successfully complete the courses would lose their jobs
+enables the party to replace those who are not qualified to fill their
+positions.</p>
+
+<p>The study programs, designed to include practical work, discussion of
+specific problems, and field trips, cover a number of subjects including
+"the basic Marxist-Leninist sciences of management and organization,"
+automatic data processing, the utilization of electronic calculators,
+methods of socioeconomic analysis, and the projection of plans, as well
+as a number of special subjects related to the various fields of
+activity of the participants. To facilitate the training of larger
+numbers, branches of the Stefan Gheorghiu Party Academy's Center for the
+Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization Cadres were set up
+in Bucharest and in seven counties.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Mass Organizations</p>
+
+<p>The PCR has fostered the development of a large number of mass
+organizations that function as its auxiliaries. Comprised of members of
+an interest group or a profession whose welfare they purport to serve,
+the mass organizations provide channels for the transmission of policy
+and doctrine from the party to the general population. PCR leaders have
+described the duties of mass organizations as the mobilization of the
+working people for the fulfillment of party policies and the provision
+for their participation in the economic, political, and cultural life of
+the country. Leaders of the mass organizations are always reliable PCR
+members.</p>
+
+<p>Citizens are constitutionally guaranteed the right to join together in
+organizations. At the same time, the Constitution defines the leading
+role of the party in relation to the mass organizations, asserting that
+through such organizations the PCR "achieves an organized link with the
+working class, the peasantry, the intelligentsia, and the other
+categories of working people" and mobilizes them in "the struggle for
+the completion of the building of socialism."</p>
+
+<p>Two broad classes of organizations are included under the rubric of mass
+organizations: those based on common interests <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>or common categories or
+persons, such as youth and women's associations, and those based on
+professions, such as the General Union of Trade Unions. Several of the
+organizations belong to international organizations and associations,
+such as the World Federation of Trade Unions and the World Federation of
+Democratic Youth.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more important of the mass organizations are the Union of
+Communist Youth, the General Union of Trade Unions, and the National
+Council of Women. The chairmen of the Union of Communist Youth and the
+General Union of Trade Unions sit on the Council of Ministers and have
+ministerial rank; the chairman of the youth union serves simultaneously
+as head of the Ministry of Youth Problems.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">The Union of Communist Youth</p>
+
+<p>At the time of its founding in early 1949 the Union of Communist Youth
+(Uniunea Tineretului Comunist&mdash;UTC) was looked upon as the youth branch
+of the PCR. It was set up with much the same organizational structure as
+the party and, in practice, functioned both as a youth political party
+and mass organization. Resulting from the party-decreed merger of all
+existing youth organizations, the UTC was given the task of educating
+the young in the spirit of Marxism-Leninism and mobilizing them, under
+the guidance of the party, for the building of socialism.</p>
+
+<p>In early 1972 the UTC continued to be one of the most powerful of the
+mass organizations in the country, with an estimated membership of 2.5
+million. Membership was open to young people between the ages of fifteen
+and twenty-six; those who have reached the age of eighteen could also
+become members of the PCR. The Tenth Party Congress, meeting in 1969,
+introduced the requirement that young people up to the age of twenty-six
+would be accepted into the party only if they were UTC members.
+Decisions on persons to fill the most important leadership positions in
+the UTC were made by the PCR Central Committee.</p>
+
+<p>The structure of the UTC has undergone a number of changes since it was
+originally established. In early 1972 the organization functioned on the
+national level with an eight-member Secretariat, including the first
+secretary who is also the UTC chairman, and a bureau of twenty-one full
+and seven alternate members. In each of the thirty-nine countries and
+the city of Bucharest there exist UTC committees that are similarly
+organized with secretariats and bureaus. The UTC has its own publishing
+facilities and publishes its own propaganda organ, <i>The Spark of Youth</i>
+(Scinteia Tineretului).</p>
+
+<p>Statistics on the composition of the youth organization, reported at the
+Ninth UTC Congress held in February 1971, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>indicated that the membership
+consisted of 30 percent workers, 39 percent students, and 17 percent
+peasants. The remainder consisted of those who were classified as
+intellectuals, clerks, and office workers.</p>
+
+<p>Periodically throughout the 1960s PCR leaders demonstrated growing
+concern for what they termed as shortcomings in the political education
+of the nation's youth. In 1968 this concern led to the establishment of
+the Research Center for Youth Problems and an increased effort to
+instill in the young people a sense of "socialist patriotism." Ceausescu
+asserted the need for all levels of education to be permeated with
+Marxist-Leninist ideology and placed particular emphasis on ideological
+training in the universities.</p>
+
+<p>Political education of young people, both members and non-members, and
+their mobilization in support of PCR policies is considered the primary
+duty of the UTC. It is charged with the organization of political and
+patriotic courses in schools, among peasant groups, and among workers
+and members of the armed forces. The UTC also guides and supervises the
+activities of the Union of Student Associations.</p>
+
+<p>A second youth movement, the Pioneers Organization, was created for
+young people between the ages of nine and fourteen. In late 1971 the
+Pioneers Organization reported a total membership of 1.6 million. The
+organization's responsibilities toward those of its age group parallel
+those of the UTC and involve political and patriotic training. Until
+1966 the Pioneers Organization functioned as an integral part of the
+UTC, but since that time it has been under the direct control of the
+party Central Committee.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">The General Union of Trade Unions</p>
+
+<p>As the official organization incorporating all blue-collar and
+white-collar workers, the General Union of Trade Unions (Uniunea
+Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania&mdash;UGSR) is the largest of the
+country's mass organizations, with a reported membership in early 1972
+of 4.6 million. Headed by a general council, the UGSR consists of twelve
+component labor union federations and forty area councils, one for each
+county and the city of Bucharest. The Central Council is structured with
+a chairman, appointed by the PCR Central Committee, seven secretaries,
+and an executive committee of twenty-seven full and nine alternate
+members. There are an estimated 12,000 local union units.</p>
+
+<p>The primary function of the labor unions is the transmission of party
+policies to the rank and file. The UGSR statutes specify that the
+organization will carry out all of its activities under the political
+leadership of the PCR, and a similar provision is also included in the
+statutes of the county UGSR committees. In <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>addition, the statutes of
+the central body require the organization to work to mobilize labor
+union members to ensure the implementation of party policy. A 1969
+resolution of the Central Council of the UGSR declared that all labor
+union activities would focus on the mobilization of the working people
+to fulfill the state economic plan.</p>
+
+<p>In early 1971, after a period of increased labor discipline problems and
+following a time of severe labor unrest in Poland, the PCR took steps to
+reform the labor union organization. Announcing what he termed as the
+democratization of the UGSR and its component unions, Ceausescu promised
+the workers genuine protection of their interests and a voice in the
+appointment of industrial management. The goal of the PCR program was to
+improve the unions without losing party control, and Ceausescu defined
+democratization as meaning that the labor unions would serve the party
+as a framework for the organization of consultations with the masses and
+as a forum where workers can debate the country's economic and social
+development.</p>
+
+<p>New UGSR statutes were introduced in mid-1971. Observers of Romanian
+political affairs asserted, however, that there were no major changes in
+the system and pointed out that the new statutes still did not give
+labor unions the right to take the initiative in matters concerning
+wages or the living standard. In this regard the unions could fill only
+a watchdog role to assure that the regulations approved by the
+appropriate party and management bodies were being correctly carried
+out.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">PARTY POLICIES AND PROGRAMS</p>
+
+<p>The major domestic programs that the party sought to promote centered on
+the country's economic development, the integration of national
+minorities, the extension of so-called socialist democracy, and the
+PCR's cultural-ideological campaign. As a means of strengthening its
+leading role, the party leaders acted to improve communication between
+the central PCR organs and the county, city, and commune organizations
+and, at the same time, took additional steps to win mass support.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">The Economy</p>
+
+<p>In the area of economics the PCR continued its primary emphasis on
+industrial development and was only secondarily concerned with
+agriculture and consumer goods. This emphasis was evidenced in the
+economic plan adopted for the 1971-75 period, approved by the 1969 party
+congress, which concentrates on heavy industry at the expense of
+consumer goods. Although Romania was primarily an agricultural country,
+the PCR leadership in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>early 1960s, rejected the plan of the Council
+for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for a division of labor between
+the participating communist states that would have had Romania place the
+greatest emphasis on the development of agriculture. Instead, the PCR
+launched a drive to modernize the country through industrialization (see
+ch. 14; ch. 10).</p>
+
+<p>The policies pursued by the PCR are designed to maintain firm party
+control of the economy. In the formulation of Romania's economic
+development plans, the will of the party is predominant, and the degree
+of party control was augmented by the territorial and administrative
+reorganization of 1968 when economic commissions were established in
+each of the new counties to function under the direct supervision of the
+county PCR committees. These commissions made it possible for the party
+to have a direct hand in the local economic programs.</p>
+
+<p>During 1970 and 1971 party leaders noted that, whereas the annual
+production increase envisaged by the Five-Year Plan (1971-75) had been
+fulfilled for industry, that for agriculture fell far short. Ceausescu
+called for a renewal of intensive efforts in both industry and
+agriculture to meet the requirements of the people and to enable the
+country to achieve the true socialist state of development.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">National Minorities</p>
+
+<p>The integration of the major non-Romanian national groups into the life
+of the country has posed periodic problems for the PCR throughout the
+post-World War II era. Each of the communist constitutions guaranteed
+equal rights to the national minorities, rights that included the
+opportunity to use their own language and to have representation on
+local bodies of government. The Hungarian Autonomous Region had been
+created by the 1952 Constitution but was not continued under the 1968
+territorial reorganization (see ch. 8; ch. 4).</p>
+
+<p>Party leaders explained the decision to abandon the concept of an
+autonomous region for the Hungarian population in terms of the need to
+integrate all of the minority groups fully into the Romanian political
+community. Spokesmen asserted that it is the policy of the PCR to
+respect the heritage of the various nationality groups and extend to
+them full political rights but at the same time to work to create
+conditions that will serve to unite all of the country under the
+leadership of the party.</p>
+
+<p>PCR leaders have feared the possibility of attempts by foreign elements
+to foster unrest among the country's larger minority groups. This was
+particularly true at the time of the Soviet-led invasion of
+Czechoslovakia, when Romanian leaders were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>apprehensive about the
+possibility of a similar intervention in their country. At that time PCR
+officials visited the areas where there were concentrations of Hungarian
+and German minorities, stressing national unity and equal rights for all
+national groups.</p>
+
+<p>These efforts were followed in November 1968 by the establishment of
+nationality councils: the Council of Working People of Hungarian
+Nationality and the Council of Working People of German Nationality.
+Units of the Hungarian council were established in fifteen counties, and
+units of the German council were established in nine counties. In
+counties where there existed substantial Serbian or Ukrainian
+populations, similar local councils were established for these groups,
+although only the Hungarian and German minorities maintained councils on
+the national level. The nationality councils were affiliated with the
+Socialist Unity Front. A month after the establishment of the councils
+the Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of the party, passed
+legislation granting the minorities increased representation on local
+government bodies.</p>
+
+<p>In explaining the purposes of the nationality councils, Ceausescu
+declared that they would "cultivate socialist patriotism, socialist
+internationalism, and devotion for our new order and for the common
+fatherland ... against any backward nationalistic concepts and
+manifestations." Observers of Romanian political affairs pointed out,
+however, that the councils are closely tied to the party and, although
+they can serve as means of communication between the PCR and the
+minority groups, they function primarily as transmission belts for party
+policies and as instruments for PCR political and educational
+activities.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Social Democracy and Party Ideology</p>
+
+<p>At the same time that the PCR has sought to present itself as a
+progressive force seeking the participation of the people in political
+affairs, it has also carried on a campaign to strengthen what it calls
+the Marxist character of all ideological, cultural, and educational
+activities. Within limits, Ceausescu has encouraged what he has termed
+as "socialist democracy"&mdash;open communication between the masses and the
+party leadership&mdash;and he has publicly called for the people to express
+their views on political issues.</p>
+
+<p>Socialist democracy is defined by Ceausescu as a spirit of social
+responsibility by which the citizens are inspired to perform their
+duties in accordance with the needs and imperatives of the society as a
+whole. The goal of socialist democracy is to stimulate the masses to
+support the cause of socialism by involving them in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>programs of the
+PCR to such an extent that the individual identifies his personal goals
+and values with those of the party.</p>
+
+<p>In mid-1971 Ceausescu announced a new ideological program and the
+tightening of party controls over government, science, and cultural
+life. Observers gave various interpretations to the campaign. Some saw
+it as a move to respond to Soviet criticism of Romanian foreign policy
+by reminding Moscow that socialism was not endangered in Romania and
+that this pretext could not be used to justify Soviet interference;
+others considered it as an assertion of authority by Ceausescu at a time
+when he judged it necessary to combat ideological laxity at home. The
+action may also have been prompted by a concern that party authority and
+discipline were being undermined by Western cultural influences.</p>
+
+<p>Partially directed at the youth of the nation, the campaign included
+curbs against alcohol in youth clubs and the screening of foreign
+television programs and music. Another objective of the campaign was
+increased party control over literature and cultural life; new
+ideological guidelines were issued for writers, publishers, and
+theaters. In speaking of the role of the arts, Ceausescu declared that
+they must serve the single purpose of socialist-communist education. At
+the same time, he called for increased guidance of the arts by all
+levels of the PCR and requested that works of art and literature be
+judged for their conformity with party standards and their service to
+the working class. Ceausescu ruled out repressive measures, however, and
+asserted that the party would rely on persuasion to implement the new
+ideological program (see ch. 7).</p>
+
+<p>The campaign encountered some resistance, although more passive than
+overt. A number of writers boycotted the literary magazines in protest
+against the restrictions imposed on publishing and, despite the fact
+that the official writers' union circulated a statement in support of
+the party's stand, many of the more prominent writers refused to endorse
+it. In August 1971 the editor of a leading literary journal, who was
+also a member of the PCR Central Committee, resigned both positions as a
+protest against the stricter party controls.</p>
+
+<p>Resistance was also evident in the party and state bureaucracy, where
+the ideological campaign was welcomed in principle but frequently
+ignored in practice. Many of the nation's youth also manifested
+disagreement with the restrictive content campaign. Assessing the
+progress of the program in late 1971, Ceausescu admitted that the new
+approach had not been generally adopted among the youth and asserted
+that the party organizations had not been diligent enough in the
+enforcement of the code. Particular criticism was directed at the
+Executive Committee and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>Secretariat for having failed to implement the
+decisions taken for the improvement of ideological activity.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is difficult for outside political observers to detect
+differences within the top bodies of the party, in regard to the
+ideological campaign tensions have been more evident. For the first time
+since Ceausescu came to power in 1965, the Central Committee plenum,
+meeting in November 1971, did not report unanimous agreement on all
+issues. Some observers indicated that the effect of the campaign has
+stimulated opposition to some of Ceausescu's policies. There was no
+evidence, however, that such opposition is organized or that it provides
+any serious threat to Ceausescu's position, and no leading figure in
+either the government or the party has openly expressed views that
+differ from those of the general secretary.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">POLITICAL VALUES AND ATTITUDES</p>
+
+<p class="cen">The Regime and the People</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the PCR has proclaimed itself to be the only legitimate
+source of political power and, as well, the leading force in all aspects
+of economic and cultural life, the development of independent political
+and cultural values has been thoroughly circumscribed. Party control
+extends to all aspects of the society and embraces educational and
+professional opportunities. Although PCR leaders have promised changes
+in the manner of selection for advancement, promotions have been based
+more frequently on party activity and doctrinal reliability than on
+professional competence.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the breadth of party control, accurate information on the
+attitudes of the people toward the regime and toward specific political
+issues is difficult to obtain. The Romanian press functions under the
+direct supervision of the PCR, and tight restrictions are placed on
+foreign correspondents reporting on events inside the country. Observers
+have indicated, however, that not all of the regime's domestic policies
+have been welcomed by all segments of the population and that some party
+policies have left a wake of latent resentments.</p>
+
+<p>Some observers have pointed to the decrease in the number of peasants in
+the party (down 3 percent in the 1969-71 period) as an indication of
+peasant dissatisfaction with the poor living conditions in the rural
+areas and the low income of most of the agricultural cooperatives (see
+ch. 2). Frequently the party responds to signs of discontent by any
+segment of the population by increasing the ideological propaganda
+directed toward it, but the regime has also attempted various reforms to
+counter obvious inadequacies.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>Among the more overt examples of discontent with party policy is the
+resistance to accepting job assignments in rural areas shown by
+technical school graduates. Other graduates have also refused to leave
+their home areas to work on collectives; all of these were criticized in
+the party press for giving priority to personal interests instead of
+considering the interests of the society as a whole. PCR officials
+declared that the graduates had been trained at state expense and that
+their refusal to fulfill their obligations as assigned by the party
+could not be tolerated. This resistance to party-decreed transfers was
+also evident among other groups during 1969 and 1970, including
+teachers, builders, and administrative workers.</p>
+
+<p>Observers consider such situations as evidence that the party is having
+difficulty reconciling an essentially authoritarian system with a policy
+of socialist democracy that encourages public initiative and
+participation. The persistence with which Ceausescu pursued the new
+ideological campaign during 1971 gave some observers the impression that
+he had opted to put his weight down on the side of continued
+authoritarianism.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Romanian Nationalism</p>
+
+<p>The regime scored a marked success in basing its appeal for popular
+support on nationalistic sentiments and in giving emphasis to Romanian
+history and cultural traditions. Ceausescu has attempted to broaden the
+communist movement to include the aspirations of the people as a whole.
+Whereas in the past the PCR leaders made reference only to communist
+achievements and attributed everything positive to the work of the
+party, Ceausescu has praised Romanian national heroes and has given
+positive emphasis to specifically Romanian contributions to socialist
+development.</p>
+
+<p>To a significant degree the revival of nationalism has gone hand in hand
+with anti-Soviet attitudes. The image of the party was bolstered by the
+PCR leader's refusal to follow the Soviet line on a number of
+significant national and international issues (see ch. 10). At the time
+of the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, Ceausescu's
+denunciation of the action and his call for national mobilization in the
+face of the crisis served to unite the population and strengthen his
+position. Observers have pointed out, however, that this unity has
+appeared to wane with the ebbing of the crisis and with the return to
+the realities of everyday life in Romania.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 10</h2>
+
+<h2>FOREIGN RELATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Throughout the 1960s Romanian foreign policy increasingly diverged from
+that of the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe as the
+Romanian leaders asserted the country's national interests. In early
+1972 the government continued to declare that its foreign policy was
+based on national independence, sovereignty, and the principle of
+noninterference in internal affairs. Government and party leaders
+asserted that Romania would continue to seek development of friendly and
+cooperative relations with all states without regard to differences in
+sociopolitical systems.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign policy was formulated under the direct control of the Standing
+Presidium of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist
+Roman&mdash;PCR) and administered through the government ministries. Although
+the regime of PCR General Secretary Nicolae Ceausescu has steadfastly
+sought to maintain an independent stance in foreign affairs and to
+develop political and economic relations with both communist and
+noncommunist states, it has continued to assert the Marxist-Leninist
+character of both its domestic and foreign policies. PCR leaders have
+repeatedly affirmed the party's commitment to the international
+communist movement and to the solidarity of all socialist states.</p>
+
+<p>In the development of an independent foreign policy position the PCR has
+sought to shift away from economic and political domination by the
+Soviet Union and to develop a form of communism geared to the country's
+national interests and in keeping with the regime's perspective on world
+affairs. Although such a course brought the Romanian party and
+government into frequent conflict with the Soviet Union, the Romanian
+leadership continued to insist on its own interpretation and adaptation
+of communism.</p>
+
+<p>In early 1972 Romania maintained full diplomatic relations with more
+than ninety governments, over forty of which maintained embassies in
+Bucharest. In addition, trade and cultural relations were conducted with
+a number of other states with which formal relations had not been
+established. Romania is a member of the United Nations (UN) and a number
+of several UN specialized agencies. It is also a member of the communist
+military <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>alliance known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact)
+and the communist economic alliance called the Council for Mutual
+Economic Assistance (COMECON).</p>
+
+<p>During 1970 and 1971 the regime made increased efforts to cultivate and
+strengthen the country's relations with the developing states of Asia
+and Africa and to extend its relations with the nations of Latin
+America. Personal diplomacy by Ceausescu and other ranking party and
+government leaders served as an important means for maintaining the
+country's international relations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Historical Factors</p>
+
+<p>After coming under full communist control in the early post-World War II
+period, the country was closely aligned with the international policies
+and goals of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Romania's
+international and domestic policies generally supported the political
+and economic goals of the Soviet Union. Beneath the surface, however, an
+internal party struggle was being waged in Romania between certain
+communist leaders who were fully oriented toward the Soviet Union and
+others who sought an orientation that was less Soviet dominated (see ch.
+2).</p>
+
+<p>Although the internal struggle involved personal ambitions as much as
+political and ideological goals, the group surrounding party First
+Secretary Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej urged the attainment of national goals
+through cooperation with the Soviet Union rather than a position of
+complete integration and exclusive dependence on the Soviets. By
+mid-1952 Gheorghiu-Dej was able to gain full control of the party, purge
+his leading opponents, and assume the dual role of party chief and head
+of the government. Shortly after assuming the premiership, Gheorghiu-Dej
+began a slow and cautious disengagement from Soviet domination, being
+careful, however, not to advocate goals that were at variance with the
+policies of Soviet Premier Josef Stalin. Domestic politics, in fact,
+remained strongly Stalinist in orientation, and it was not until after
+Stalin's death in March 1953 that the first significant steps were taken
+to diminish Soviet control.</p>
+
+<p>To a significant degree the country's foreign policy during the
+Gheorghiu-Dej era reflected the Romanian leader's struggle for his own
+political survival, particularly in the face of Soviet Premier Nikita
+Khrushchev's campaign to weaken the power of Stalinist-oriented Eastern
+European communist leaders. Important also was the growing Romanian
+determination to limit the influence of the Soviet Union in the
+country's internal affairs, especially in the realm of economic
+development. Political events <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>within the communist world during the
+remainder of the 1950s and the early 1960s provided Gheorghiu-Dej the
+opportunity to assert an increasingly independent stance and to gain
+concessions from the Soviets.</p>
+
+<p>Faced with Khrushchev's emphasis on de-Stalinization and his demands for
+communist unity under Soviet leadership, the Gheorghiu-Dej regime
+responded by giving lip service to Soviet policies while, at the same
+time, supporting moves aimed at weakening Soviet hegemony in the
+communist world. In early 1954 Gheorghiu-Dej sensed the political
+significance of Khrushchev's "peaceful coexistence" theme for Romania
+and began to exploit the situation to gain leverage for the extracting
+of concessions from the Soviet Union. The first significant achievement
+came later that same year when negotiations led to the dissolution of
+the joint Soviet-Romanian industrial enterprises that had been the
+primary instrument of Soviet economic exploitation during the postwar
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The regime also sought to gain increased domestic support by emphasizing
+the country's historical traditions, by calling for "Romanian solutions
+to Romanian problems," and by cautiously exploiting the population's
+latent anti-Soviet sentiments. In August 1954, on the occasion of the
+tenth anniversary of the country's liberation from Nazi forces,
+Gheorghiu-Dej asserted that the primary credit for driving out the
+occupiers belonged to Romanian Communists rather than to the Soviet
+army, a view that was subsequently condemned by the Soviets and
+supported by the Communist Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Gheorghiu-Dej regime formally supported the Soviet action
+in suppressing the 1956 Hungarian revolt, the Romanian leaders attempted
+to exploit the situation in order to obtain additional concessions from
+the Soviets and to gain recognition of the legitimacy of the so-called
+Romanian road to socialism. At that time, one of their primary aims was
+the removal of Soviet occupation forces that had remained in the country
+throughout the post-World War II period. Although the regime was not
+successful in obtaining formal Soviet recognition of a Romanian variant
+of communism, an agreement was reached placing a time limit on the
+presence of the Soviet troops, the forces finally being withdrawn in
+1958.</p>
+
+<p>Important problems were posed to the Gheorghiu-Dej regime by the
+reactivation of COMECON and the Soviet intentions to integrate the
+economies of the member states. Initially established in 1949 as the
+Soviet counterpart to the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan),
+COMECON was largely dormant until 1955, when Khrushchev decided to
+revitalize the organization as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>an instrument of Soviet economic policy
+in Eastern Europe. COMECON plans called for the subordination of
+national economic plans to an overall planning body that would determine
+economic development for the member states as a whole. Romania was to be
+assigned the role of a supplier of raw materials and agricultural
+produce for the more industrially developed members (see ch. 2).</p>
+
+<p>Gheorghiu-Dej rejected such a subservient role for Romania and proceeded
+with his own plans for the country's industrial development, asserting
+the right of each COMECON member state to develop its own economy in
+accord with national needs and interests, a position that was, in turn,
+rejected by the Soviets. As a reaction to Soviet pressures and the need
+to lessen Romanian dependence on COMECON, the regime initiated a gradual
+and cautious expansion of economic relations with noncommunist states.</p>
+
+<p>In 1957 Ion Gheorghe Maurer became minister of foreign affairs and,
+under the direction of Gheorghiu-Dej, initiated programs that emphasized
+the national character of Romanian foreign policy. Included in these
+programs were plans for the attainment of self-sufficiency in the
+machine-tool industry and in the production of iron and steel. At the
+same time, additional steps were taken to increase trade with Western
+Europe and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The conflict with the Soviet Union became more acute in 1962 when
+Gheorghiu-Dej again rejected the COMECON plan for Romania and, later in
+the year, announced that a contract for the construction of a large
+steel mill at Galati had been concluded with a British-French
+consortium. Romanian statements in support of Albania further
+antagonized the Soviet leaders. During 1963 and 1964 Romanian-Soviet
+relations continued to deteriorate as the Gheorghiu-Dej regime sought to
+exploit the Sino-Soviet dispute and moved closer to the Communist
+Chinese position on the equality of communist states and the rejection
+of the leading role of the Soviet party. In November 1963 Maurer
+declared the readiness of Romania to mediate the Sino-Soviet dispute, a
+suggestion that Moscow considered arrogant and anti-Soviet.</p>
+
+<p>A statement issued by the party Central Committee in April 1964 declared
+the right of Romania and all other nations to develop national policies
+in the light of their own interests and domestic requirements. During
+the remainder of that year the volume of economic and cultural contacts
+with Western nations increased significantly. The increased role of the
+United States in the Vietnam hostilities, however, served to curb the
+Gheorghiu-Dej regime's efforts to improve relations with the United
+States, and the sudden death of Gheorghiu-Dej in March 1965 raised
+questions as to the future direction of Romanian foreign policy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>Under Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Nicolae Ceausescu, Romania's foreign
+policy continued to diverge from that of the Soviet Union and the other
+members of COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. Increasingly assertive of
+national interests, the Ceausescu regime antagonized the Soviet Union by
+its establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of
+Germany (West Germany) in 1967 and by its refusal to follow the Soviet
+lead in breaking relations with Israel in the wake of the 1967
+Arab-Israeli War.</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Pact
+in August 1968 posed a particular threat to Romania. Observers of
+Eastern European political affairs saw the invasion as a severe blow to
+the basic assumptions of Romanian foreign policy, which included the
+belief that the Soviet Union would not intervene militarily against
+another member of the Warsaw Pact as long as the system of communist
+party rule was firmly maintained and membership in the pact was
+continued.</p>
+
+<p>From the outset of the Czechoslovak crisis the Ceausescu regime asserted
+that the only basis for relations between states was respect for
+national independence and sovereignty and a policy of noninterference in
+another state's internal affairs. The actual invasion, however, marked a
+reversal for Romanian foreign policy and, although the initial response
+was one of condemnation and defiance, Romania was put on the defensive.</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of Czechoslovakia marked something of a turning point in
+Romania's relations with COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet
+enunciation of the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine&mdash;the concept that the
+protection of socialism in any communist state is the legitimate concern
+of all communist states&mdash;was intended as a clear warning to the
+Ceausescu regime.</p>
+
+<p>Pressures mounted on Romania to cooperate more fully in the Warsaw Pact
+and to agree to a supranational planning body within the framework of
+COMECON. Economic conditions as well as the political and military
+pressures pushed the Ceausescu regime toward closer cooperation with
+COMECON, although the Romanians continued to resist the Soviet efforts
+toward economic integration.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of these pressures, the 1968-70 period was one of relative
+passivity for the Romanians in foreign affairs, although the period was
+marked by several important events, including the visit of President
+Richard M. Nixon to Romania in August 1969 and the long-delayed signing
+of the friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in July 1970. By early
+1971 the Ceausescu regime again became more assertive of its independent
+line in foreign policy.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>Principles of Foreign Policy</p>
+
+<p>According to the 1965 Constitution, the foreign policy of the country is
+based on strict respect for the principles of national independence and
+sovereignty, equality of rights, noninterference in internal affairs,
+and interstate relations based on mutual advantage. The Constitution
+declares the nation's desire to maintain friendly and fraternal
+relations with all socialist states as well as to promote friendship and
+cooperation with states of other sociopolitical systems. Participation
+in international organizations is directed toward the furthering of
+peace and international understanding.</p>
+
+<p>Spokesmen for the regime have repeatedly asserted these principles as
+the only acceptable basis for relations between states both within and
+outside the world communist movement. In contrast to the Soviet position
+that socialism can only be fully realized by transcending national
+forms, Romanian policy gives primary emphasis to the distinct
+requirements of the nation. At the same time, however, Romania
+recognizes the duties of each socialist state toward cooperative and
+mutually advantageous relations with all socialist nations and fraternal
+communist parties.</p>
+
+<p>In keeping with these principles the PCR has rejected the so-called
+Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty of socialist states. Instead,
+regime spokesmen have asserted that within the socialist system all
+Marxist-Leninist parties are equal and have the exclusive right to
+determine appropriate solutions for their own problems and manage their
+own affairs. Romanian policy maintains that relations between socialist
+states must be based on equal rights, complete trust, mutual respect,
+and fraternal cooperation. In defending the country's policies, PCR
+leaders have repeatedly argued that, because the construction of
+communism is being carried out under a great variety of conditions,
+there will inevitably be different opinions regarding the forms and
+procedures employed as well as different points of view regarding
+international problems. Such differences, however, should not affect
+relations between socialist states or the unity of the socialist
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>In response to Soviet calls for socialist solidarity, a ranking member
+of the PCR Standing Presidium declared, "it would be unrealistic to
+think that fourteen socialist countries spread over three continents,
+each with its specific characteristics, should show themselves strictly
+identical in the building of a new society." Additional party statements
+insisted that each country must be allowed to apply the principles of
+Marxism-Leninism to its own particular conditions and that no general
+line for all parties could be established. In adjusting Marxism-Leninism
+to national <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>needs each party must be able to make its own unique
+contribution to the enrichment of the entire communist movement.</p>
+
+<p>During the negotiations for the renewal of the friendship treaties with
+the other Warsaw Pact countries, the Ceausescu government repeatedly
+stressed that its own formula for developing international relations
+with noncommunist nations was based on the same principles as those
+applied to socialist states and that Romania was open to the
+establishment of such relations "without regard for difference in the
+social order." A party spokesman asserted that the country's foreign
+relations are not determined by short-term circumstances that are valid
+at one moment and superseded the next but by policies directed at
+long-term cooperation in all fields of common interests.</p>
+
+<p>PCR policy has sought to support the country's independent political
+stance by increasing its economic independence. This has led to the
+rejection of COMECON attempts to integrate the economies of its member
+states and to establish a division of labor among them. Instead, the PCR
+has followed a policy aimed at the industrialization of the country,
+based on the proposition that an expanded industrial base is what is
+most needed for Romania's overall economic development.</p>
+
+<p>In the same manner that the PCR has resisted complete integration into
+COMECON, the regime has also opposed Soviet plans for the fuller
+integration of military forces under the Warsaw Pact. Romanian
+objections to such integration stem from a concern for the preservation
+of the country's national sovereignty and a desire to limit Soviet
+hegemony in Eastern Europe. PCR leaders have described military blocs
+and the existence of foreign troops and military bases on the territory
+of other states as being incompatible with national independence and as
+the primary obstacles to cooperation among nations. On the other hand,
+party spokesmen have frequently stated that, as long as the North
+Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is continued, the socialist
+countries will be forced to maintain the Warsaw Pact.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">CONDUCT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Policy Formation</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution assigns to the Grand National Assembly the
+responsibility for establishing the general line of foreign policy and
+assigns its implementation to the Council of Ministers. It is the
+Council of State, however, that is given the overall executive functions
+of ratifying international treaties and establishing diplomatic
+relations with other states. As the head of state, the president of the
+Council of State is charged with representing the country in its
+international relations.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>In practice, however, the basic foreign policy decisions are made by the
+Standing Presidium of the PCR rather than the Grand National Assembly.
+Owing to the fact that the same men occupy leading positions in both
+party and government, decisions reached in the Standing Presidium are
+promulgated as decisions of the Council of State. Party spokesmen have
+described the country's foreign policy as being the result of the
+"unitary thinking and action of the leading party bodies based on the
+principle of collective leadership" (see ch. 8; ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Within the PCR, foreign policy decisions are channeled through the
+Central Committee's directorate for international affairs, which in turn
+transmits them in the form of directives to the appropriate government
+agencies and oversees their implementation. A commission on foreign
+policy in the Grand National Assembly functions largely to channel party
+decisions to the assembly for its official approval.</p>
+
+<p>As head of the PCR and president of the Council of State, Ceausescu
+personally exercised the primary decisionmaking powers in matters of
+foreign policy just as he did in domestic affairs. Observers of Eastern
+European politics also ascribe influential roles in the determination of
+foreign policy to Prime Minister Maurer and Foreign Minister Corneliu
+Manescu.</p>
+
+<p>Since coming to power in 1965 Ceausescu has been the dominant figure in
+the political life of the country and its principal spokesman in
+international affairs. Believing in the importance of personal
+diplomacy, Ceausescu has made frequent visits to other nations and
+cultivated personal relationships with other heads of state. The prime
+minister and the minister of foreign affairs have also made frequent
+visits to other states to foster international support for the country's
+foreign policy. Manescu had developed broad international contacts
+during his term as president of the twenty-second session of the UN
+General Assembly in 1967.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Administration of Foreign Affairs</p>
+
+<p>The Council of Ministers is charged with the coordination and
+implementation of foreign policy and exercises these responsibilities
+through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign
+Trade. Since decisionmaking powers rest in the top echelons of the
+party, the ministries function almost exclusively as administrative
+agencies. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for the
+implementation of party directives in the country's foreign diplomatic
+relations and in the areas of educational, cultural, and scientific
+relations with other states and with international organizations. The
+Ministry of Foreign Trade functions <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>as the central organ for the
+country's international trade and economic activities.</p>
+
+<p>In early 1972 the organizational structure of the Ministry of Foreign
+Affairs remained essentially the same as it had been established after
+the adoption of the new Constitution of 1965. The ministry is organized
+into six geographical departments, twelve functional directorates, and
+three administrative offices. The geographical directorates are
+designated as: the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary;
+the Balkans and the Near East; Western and Central Europe; North America
+and South America; Africa and the Middle East; and the Far East and
+Southeast and South Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The functional directorates are: international organization; cultural
+relations; political synthesis; economic relations; legal and treaties;
+consular; press; protocol; personnel; finance, accounting, and work
+organization; technical and administrative; and secretariat. The three
+administrative offices are designated the Chancellery, the Office of
+Services to the Diplomatic Corps, and the Legal Office. The entire
+organization functioned under the direction of the minister of foreign
+affairs and five deputy ministers.</p>
+
+<p>The Ministry of Foreign Trade is organized into nine bureaus, a legal
+office, and an office for protocol. Bureaus listed under the ministry in
+1970, the latest year for which information was available in early 1972,
+included: economic relations with socialist countries; economic
+relations with developed capitalist countries; economic relations with
+emerging nations; currency and plan coordination; imports and exports;
+personnel and training; administration; budgets; and accounting. The
+ministry functions under the direction of the minister of foreign trade,
+four deputy ministers, and a secretary general.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS</p>
+
+<p>In early 1972 diplomatic relations were maintained with ninety-six
+countries and the so-called Provisional Revolutionary Government of the
+Republic of South Vietnam (Viet Cong). Of these, forty-two governments
+maintained embassies in Bucharest. Nine other governments conducted
+relations through their embassies in Moscow; seven, through their
+embassies in Belgrade; two through their embassies in Prague; and one,
+through its embassy in Athens. The total includes Brazil, with which
+relations were maintained at the legation level, and Spain and San
+Marino, where Romania maintained consulates. Thirty-two of the states
+with which Romania maintained diplomatic relations had not established
+permanent embassies or legations in the country as of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>early 1972. Trade
+relations were conducted with several other states with which the
+government had not established formal diplomatic ties (see ch. 14).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Relations with Communist States and Communist Parties</p>
+
+<p class="noin">The Soviet Union</p>
+
+<p>Romania's pursuit of an independent foreign policy has resulted in
+frequent conflicts with the Soviet Union and tense relations between the
+two states. In general, the policy disagreements have centered on
+Romania's unwillingness to participate more fully in the Warsaw Pact,
+rejection of the concept of economic integration under COMECON, refusal
+to take sides in the Sino-Soviet dispute, and development of a foreign
+policy toward the West that runs contrary to Soviet desires. Soviet
+leaders have interpreted the Romanian policies as a direct challenge to
+the leading role of the Soviet party in the world communist movement and
+a rejection of the PCR's obligations to promote "socialist solidarity."</p>
+
+<p>The general policy differences between the two countries were repeatedly
+demonstrated during the 1967-71 period in such instances as the Romanian
+establishment of diplomatic relations with West Germany, the refusal to
+follow the Soviet lead in regard to the Arab-Israeli conflict, the
+refusal to participate in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and
+Ceausescu's strong denunciation of the action, and the rejection of the
+Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most important element complicating relations with the
+Soviet Union has been Romania's refusal to take the Soviet side in the
+Sino-Soviet dispute. In keeping with its policy of maintaining friendly
+and fraternal relations with all socialist states, the Ceausescu regime
+has cultivated relations with the People's Republic of China and is
+thought by some observers to have played a role in the establishment of
+contacts between the Communist Chinese and the United States. In
+mid-1971 Romanian leaders also mediated the restoration of relations
+between the People's Republic of China and Yugoslavia. These actions led
+to charges in the Soviet press that Romania was organizing an
+anti-Soviet bloc in the Balkans under the patronage of the People's
+Republic of China.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the ups and downs of Soviet-Romanian relations throughout the
+period of the Ceausescu regime, the two states signed a twenty-year
+treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance in July 1970.
+This treaty replaced a similar 1948 accord that had been set to expire
+in 1968 but continued in force under an automatic five-year renewal
+clause. Negotiated before <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia,
+the actual signing of the treaty was delayed because of strained
+relations between the two states and Soviet attempts to insert a clause
+containing the essence of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The Ceausescu
+government refused to renegotiate the original agreement, however, and
+the treaty was finally signed at ceremonies in Bucharest.</p>
+
+<p>Brezhnev did not attend the ceremonies and, in contrast to similar
+Soviet treaties with other Eastern European communist states, which were
+signed by both the party leaders and the prime ministers of each
+country, the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed only by the prime
+ministers. Coming in the midst of serious disagreements between the two
+countries, the signing of the treaty was considered by some observers as
+a formality and something of a smokescreen intended to cover a widening
+split.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">Other Communist States</p>
+
+<p>In general, relations with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German
+Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, and Poland mirrored
+Romania's relations with the Soviet Union. The communist leaders of
+these countries followed the Soviet lead in the policy differences with
+the Ceausescu regime and, although each state had friendship treaties
+that expired in 1968 and 1969, only the treaty with Czechoslovakia was
+renewed before the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed. The Czechoslovakia
+treaty was concluded during the period of the government of Alexander
+Dubcek before the 1968 invasion.</p>
+
+<p>In its relations with the Eastern European communist regimes Romania had
+adhered to the principle of cultivating fraternal relations with all
+socialist countries despite policy differences. Long-term bilateral
+trade agreements were concluded with Hungary and Bulgaria in late 1969,
+and the major portion of the country's foreign trade continued to be
+with COMECON states throughout 1970 and 1971. Visits on the ministerial
+level were regularly exchanged. Relations with the East German regime
+proved more difficult, however, the major obstacle being Romania's
+establishment of diplomatic ties with West Germany in early 1967.
+Despite the recognition of the West German government, however, the
+Ceausescu regime has continued to insist on the reality of two German
+states and has pressed for international recognition of East Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Relations with Bulgaria had been generally cool throughout the latter
+period of the Gheorghiu-Dej regime but improved significantly after
+Ceausescu came to power in Romania in 1965. By the beginning of 1968,
+however, the policies pursued by the Ceausescu regime led to serious
+differences, although formal amenities continued to be observed.
+Relations remained correct but not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>cordial until after the signing of
+the Soviet-Romanian treaty of friendship and alliance in July 1970. This
+action paved the way for improved relations with Bulgaria, and in
+September Ceausescu met with Bulgarian prime minister Todor Zhivkov,
+marking the first top-level bilateral contact between the two
+governments in three years. This meeting was followed by the exchange of
+a series of high-level delegations with the announced purpose of
+improving relations and increasing cooperation.</p>
+
+<p>Friction with Hungary arose in mid-1971 over the Romanian region of
+Transylvania and the sizable Hungarian minority residing there. In the
+period of strained&mdash;Soviet-Romanian relations, the Budapest regime
+revived the Transylvanian minority question in order to put pressure on
+the Ceausescu government. Frequent visits of Soviet embassy personnel to
+Transylvania added to the concern of Romanian leaders, who initiated
+increased efforts to meet the needs and expectations of the country's
+minority groups (see ch. 4; ch. 9). By February 1972, tension between
+Hungary and Romania had eased and a friendship treaty was renewed.</p>
+
+<p>Relations with Albania and Yugoslavia differed from those with the other
+Eastern European communist regimes, as neither participated in the
+Warsaw Pact and both had also pursued policies independent of the Soviet
+Union. In 1960 Albania sided with the Communist Chinese in the
+Sino-Soviet dispute and withdrew its ambassadors from all the Eastern
+European countries after Khrushchev denounced the Albanian regime at the
+Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in
+1961. The Romanian position of neutrality in regard to the Sino-Soviet
+dispute opened the way for improved relations with Albania, and the
+Ceausescu government returned its ambassador to Tirana in 1964.</p>
+
+<p>The Ceausescu regime has maintained that the policies of the Albanian
+Communists (the Albanian Workers' Party) are legitimate manifestations
+of socialism developed according to national needs. Common fears of
+Soviet designs against their countries after the Warsaw Pact invasion of
+Czechoslovakia brought about increased cooperation between the two
+governments.</p>
+
+<p>Relations with Yugoslavia had progressed along lines of mutual interest
+throughout the period of the Ceausescu regime, and close cooperation had
+developed between the Romanian and Yugoslav heads of state as they
+sought each other's support for their independent foreign policies. The
+PCR was the only Eastern European party to send a delegation to the
+Ninth Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1969.</p>
+
+<p>Although the two governments indicated almost identical views on all
+important international issues, they manifested widely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>divergent
+approaches to domestic affairs and, owing to the fact that their
+economies are not complementary, economic relations between the two
+countries have not kept pace with political relations. Efforts to
+increase economic relations resulted in a new five-year trade agreement
+in 1971 designed to increase the exchange of goods by 128 percent in the
+period covered. Cooperation between the two states was also demonstrated
+in the joint construction of the Iron Gate hydroelectric station on the
+Danube (see ch. 3).</p>
+
+<p>During 1971 the PCR renewed efforts to promote cooperative relations
+among the Balkan states. The regime emphasized that the geographical
+isolation and the socialist systems of Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+and Romania make for common interest in increased economic, political,
+and cultural cooperation. Observers of Eastern European politics pointed
+out that Romania shares lengthy borders with Bulgaria, Hungary, and the
+Soviet Union and that improving relations with the other Balkan states
+would serve to overcome the country's relative physical isolation.</p>
+
+<p>PCR leaders have also called for all of the Balkan area, including both
+the communist and the noncommunist states, to be designated a nuclear
+free zone and for the removal of United States military bases from the
+area. Observers pointed out that the Ceausescu regime believed that such
+actions would serve to reduce the strategic significance of Romania in
+the eyes of the Soviet leaders and possibly result in greater tolerance
+for Romanian deviation from the Soviet line. Political observers also
+attributed the growing willingness of Albania and Yugoslavia to increase
+cooperation and give support to Romania's initiatives for the Balkan
+area to the growth of Soviet naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>The Ceausescu regime successfully cultivated relations with the People's
+Republic of China and persisted in the development of these relations
+despite tremendous pressures from the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact
+states. An important byproduct of these relations has been increased
+economic exchanges between the two countries; in late 1970 the Communist
+Chinese extended Romania a long-term, interest-free credit amounting to
+the equivalent of US$244 million.</p>
+
+<p>In June 1971 Ceausescu made a twenty-five day visit to Asia that
+included nine days in mainland China, the first such visit by a party
+leader of a Warsaw Pact state since the Sino-Soviet dispute became
+public. In a joint communiqu&eacute; the Communist Chinese and Romanian leaders
+emphasized the necessity of sovereign and equal relations among all
+communist states and parties. Ceausescu reiterated his government's
+support for the admission <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>of the People's Republic of China to the
+United Nations and asserted that the rightful sovereignty over Taiwan
+belonged to the Peking regime. In August 1971 a Communist Chinese
+military delegation attended the twenty-seventh anniversary celebrations
+of the liberation of Romania from Nazi occupation.</p>
+
+<p>Maintenance of friendly relations with the People's Republic of China
+has also gained the Ceausescu regime support from other communist
+parties that have been critical of the Soviet Union in its conflict with
+the Communist Chinese, most notably the French and Italian parties. The
+PCR has taken special pains to cultivate relations with nonruling
+communist and workers' parties, efforts that were reflected in visits of
+top leaders from at least thirty of these parties to Romania during
+1970. All of these visitors were received personally by Ceausescu.
+Observers pointed out that the cultivation of relations with the
+nonruling parties was an important means of gaining support for
+Romania's independent policies.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Relations With Noncommunist States</p>
+
+<p>Romania has continued to improve relations with Western nations and has
+sought to cultivate ties with the developing countries of Africa and
+Asia. The expansion of relations beyond the Soviet alignment system was
+cautiously initiated in the mid-1950s by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime when
+pressures were building for Romania's full economic integration into
+COMECON. In addition to the desire to develop trade relations with
+Western nations, the government was interested in utilizing Western
+technology and in seeking an increased measure of detente in the cold
+war.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">West Germany</p>
+
+<p>In the period that followed the initiation of limited relations with
+noncommunist states, Romania's resistance to the Soviet Union
+contributed to a receptive attitude on the part of several Western
+states. Aside from the gradual development of trade relations, however,
+significant political relations with Western Europe did not materialize
+until January 1967, when the Ceausescu regime agreed to establish formal
+diplomatic relations with West Germany, becoming the first of the Warsaw
+Pact states, other than the Soviet Union, to do so.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian leaders based the establishment of relations with West Germany
+on the so-called Bucharest Declaration issued by the leaders of the
+Warsaw Pact countries in 1966. The declaration affirmed that there were
+in West Germany "circles that oppose revanchism and militarism" and that
+seek the development of normal relations with countries of both the East
+and the West as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>well as a normalization of relations "between the two
+German states." Also included in the declaration was a statement
+affirming that a basic condition for European security was the
+establishment of normal relations between states "regardless of their
+social systems." The Ceausescu regime interpreted this as implying that
+bilateral relations could be developed between Eastern European states
+and West Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Although the West German government made overtures to other Eastern
+European communist states, Romania was the only one to agree to the
+establishment of formal diplomatic ties at that time. Political
+observers saw the move as a means for Romania to dramatically
+demonstrate independence from the Soviet Union and, as well, a means of
+avoiding COMECON integration pressures by increasing trade and the
+possibility of obtaining economic aid from the West.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of diplomatic ties with West Germany did not alter the
+PCR position on the existence of two German states. Each country, at the
+time the diplomatic exchange was made public, simply reasserted its own
+positions: the West German government reiterated its right and
+obligation to speak for the entire German people, and the Bucharest
+government asserted that one of the fundamental realities of the
+post-World War II era "is the existence of two German states." Although
+Romania reaffirmed the existence of East Germany as a separate state, it
+did not make recognition of the East German regime by West Germany a
+precondition for the establishment of diplomatic relations with the West
+German government.</p>
+
+<p>The East German regime was highly critical of the Romanian establishment
+of relations with West Germany, and there followed a serious decline in
+Romanian-East German relations. PCR leaders responded to East German
+criticisms by declaring that "the foreign policy of a socialist state is
+laid down by the party and the government of the country in question and
+they need render account only to their people."</p>
+
+<p>In the period since 1967 relations with West Germany have continued
+without major difficulties. Although the Ceausescu regime has not
+hesitated to criticize elements of German policy with which it does not
+agree, the two governments have sought to minimize differences in
+ideology and in foreign and domestic policies in the interest of
+maintaining good relations. In economic exchanges between the two
+countries Romania has had a continuous balance of trade deficit, a
+situation that both countries were attempting to correct. In mid-1970
+Prime Minister Maurer paid an official visit to Bonn, becoming the first
+Eastern European head of government to do so. In May 1971 the West
+German government <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>reciprocated, President Gustav Heinemann making a
+state visit to Romania.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">The United States</p>
+
+<p>Relations with the United States were initiated on a limited scale in
+the early 1960s, and ambassadors were exchanged in 1964, but relations
+declined with the increasing United States role in the Republic of
+Vietnam (South Vietnam). After the opening of the Paris peace talks and
+particularly after the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia that same
+year, relations between the two states improved significantly. Trade
+relations remained minimal, however, partly because of United States
+legal restrictions on trade with Eastern European countries.</p>
+
+<p>The improved relations between the two nations were demonstrated by the
+visit of President Nixon to Romania in August 1969, marking the first
+visit of a United States head of state to a communist country since the
+1945 Yalta Conference. Press reports indicated that the president
+received an enthusiastic welcome from the Romanian people and that in
+meetings with Ceausescu a wide range of international problems were
+discussed.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the visit President Nixon reaffirmed that the United
+States "respects the sovereignty and equal rights of all countries,
+large and small, as well as their right to preserve their own national
+character." The two heads of state agreed upon the reciprocal
+establishment of libraries, the opening of negotiations for the
+conclusion of a consular convention, and the development and
+diversification of economic ties.</p>
+
+<p>The presidential visit was reciprocated by Ceausescu in October 1970
+when the Romanian leader traveled to New York to attend the twenty-fifth
+anniversary session of the UN General Assembly. Ceausescu followed the
+UN visit with a two-week coast-to-coast tour of the United States and
+talks at the White House with President Nixon. The Nixon administration
+moved to increase economic relations with Romania, and in early 1972
+legislation was pending in the United States Congress to grant that
+country most-favored-nation status (see ch. 14).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin">Other States</p>
+
+<p>As part of its campaign to improve relations among the Balkan states and
+in keeping with its policy of establishing relations with all states
+regardless of their political systems, the Ceausescu regime initiated
+efforts to ameliorate its relations with Greece and Turkey. The
+development of ties with Turkey has progressed without serious setback
+throughout the period of Ceausescu's rule, but Greco-Romanian relations
+have fluctuated. Although the regime has followed a policy of
+noninterference in the internal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>affairs of another state, it left the
+Romanian embassy in Athens without an ambassador for a year after the
+1967 Greek military coup. In July 1968 the Romanian government returned
+an ambassador to Greece as a first step in improving relations between
+the two states. Increased trade and cultural exchanges followed,
+although the differing ideologies of the two regimes have kept official
+relations at a correct but cool level.</p>
+
+<p>Although Turkey did not respond positively to the Romanian call for a
+nuclear free zone in the Balkans and the removal of foreign military
+bases from the area, asserting that such an agreement would have to be
+included in a wider accord between NATO and Warsaw Pact nations,
+relations between the two states have continued to improve. Ceausescu
+paid a state visit to Turkey in 1969, and the Turkish president visited
+Romania in April 1970. The satisfactory political ties have resulted in
+a number of cultural and economic agreements, Romania obtaining Turkish
+raw materials, particularly iron, chrome, and manganese, and exporting
+machinery to Turkey.</p>
+
+<p>Political, economic, and cultural ties were expanded with a number of
+other Western countries during the 1965-70 period, particularly with
+Austria, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The Ceausescu regime
+placed primary emphasis on the cultivation of economic relations with
+these states, and several substantial trade agreements were concluded
+and high-level visits were exchanged during 1970 and 1971.</p>
+
+<p>PCR policy statements have proclaimed that one of the principal
+guidelines of Romanian foreign policy is the steady cultivation and
+broadening of political and economic relations with the young
+independent states of Asia and Africa as well as with the countries of
+Latin America. The regime has also repeatedly affirmed its support for
+"the struggle of the peoples of Africa, Asia and other regions of the
+world for liberation and national independence against neocolonialism
+and the aggressive actions of imperialism."</p>
+
+<p>Policy statements have also consistently voiced support for the
+communist effort in South Vietnam. The communist Provisional
+Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (Viet Cong) is
+recognized as the legitimate government of South Vietnam and maintains
+an embassy in Bucharest.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle East situation has posed a dilemma for the Ceausescu
+government, which has sought to maintain relations with both sides in
+the conflict. When, in August 1969, Romania and Israel announced an
+agreement to elevate their relations to the ambassadorial level, Syria
+and Sudan retaliated by breaking relations with Romania, and Iraq and
+the United Arab Republic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>reduced the level of their representation in
+Bucharest. Despite these actions by the Arab states, PCR leaders
+continued to voice support for "the struggle of the Arab people to
+defend their national independence and sovereignty" but called for a
+negotiated settlement of the conflict.</p>
+
+<p>The Ceausescu regime systematically cultivated relations with the
+developing countries, and particular efforts were directed toward
+increasing relations with African nations during 1970 and 1971.
+Ceausescu made a state visit to Morocco, and other high Romanian
+officials visited Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)&mdash;in late 1971
+became the Republic of Zaire&mdash;Burundi, Kenya, the Malagasy Republic,
+Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zambia. Several prominent African leaders, among
+them President Jean Bedel Bokassa of the Central African Republic and
+President Joseph Mobutu of Zaire visited Romania. Trade agreements were
+signed with a number of African nations, but little had been done to
+implement these agreements as of early 1972. As another means of
+increasing its influence in Africa and broadening relations there, the
+Ceausescu government established more than 400 scholarships for African
+students to study in Romania.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Relations With International Organizations</p>
+
+<p>Romania became a member of the UN in 1955 and as of early 1972 also held
+membership in the following UN specialized agencies: the United Nations
+Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United
+Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations
+Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), and the International
+Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). It also participates in the work of the
+United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).</p>
+
+<p>The two most important communist organizations to which the country
+belongs are the Warsaw Pact and COMECON. The Warsaw Pact was established
+in 1955 as a twenty-year mutual defense pact between the Soviet Union,
+Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and
+Romania. (Albania ceased its participation in the organization in 1961
+and officially withdrew in 1968 as a symbol of protest against the
+invasion of Czechoslovakia). As an instrument of Soviet foreign policy,
+the Warsaw Pact has served to maintain Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe
+and to provide the legal basis for the presence of Soviet troops on the
+territory of some of the participating states.</p>
+
+<p>Romania has consistently refused to acquiesce in Soviet proposals for
+greater integration of the military forces of the Warsaw Pact states and
+did not participate in the invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the
+Czechoslovak invasion the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>Ceausescu government established a defense
+council and proclaimed that foreign troops were not to enter Romania for
+any purpose without prior approval of the Grand National Assembly.
+During the 1968-71 period the Romanians limited their participation in
+pact activities as much as possible. Rather than Romanian troops taking
+part in joint maneuvers of pact forces, participation has generally been
+limited to a small group of staff officers who attend the exercises as
+observers.</p>
+
+<p>Official Romanian views on the integration of Eastern European communist
+forces under the pact were forcefully reiterated in early 1970 after the
+Soviet chief of staff spoke of "combined" or "unified" pact forces.
+Ceausescu responded by declaring that Romania's armed forces are not
+subordinated to any authority other than "the Romanian party,
+government, and Supreme National Command." Although he pledged continued
+cooperation with the pact and a fulfillment of his country's
+responsibilities, he asserted that no part of the party's and
+government's right to command and lead the armed forces would be ceded
+to any other body. In addition, Ceausescu gave emphasis to the defensive
+nature of the Warsaw Pact and reiterated the Romania position on
+noninterference in the internal affairs of another country.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian policy toward COMECON has been cooperative in regard to
+mutually advantageous trade relations with the other member states but
+has consistently opposed pressures for the integration of their
+economies. The Soviet Union and the more industrialized of the Eastern
+European communist states have pressed for economic integration that
+would include a division of labor among COMECON members and a
+specialization of production. Romanian leaders, preferring to develop a
+diversified national economy, have refused the role of supplier of
+agricultural goods and raw materials that COMECON would have assigned to
+their country.</p>
+
+<p>During the mid-1960s Romania successfully reoriented a substantial share
+of its trade toward the West and reduced its participation in COMECON.
+Trade with the West, however, produced sizable deficits and, along with
+other economic problems, including the disastrous floods of early 1970,
+forced the Ceausescu regime to again rely on its economic ties with the
+COMECON states. Despite these difficulties, the country has continued to
+develop its trade relations with noncommunist nations and has continued
+to resist COMECON integration pressures.</p>
+
+<p>In 1970 a prominent Romanian economist proposed that COMECON become an
+open-ended organization in which all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>countries, socialist and
+nonsocialist, could participate on a voluntary basis. In mid-1971 an
+official PCR party spokesman declared that economic cooperation with
+COMECON must "in no way affect the national economic plans or the
+independence of the economic units in each country."</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 11</h2>
+
+<h2>PUBLIC INFORMATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the early 1970s the media of public information, under complete party
+and government control and supervision, were utilized primarily to
+propagandize and indoctrinate the population in support of the regime's
+domestic and foreign policy objectives. The system of control was highly
+centralized and involved an interlocking group of party and state
+organizations, supervising bodies, and operating agencies whose
+authority extended to all radio and television facilities, film studios,
+printing establishments, newspapers, book publishers, and the single
+news agency. In addition, this control apparatus also regulated the
+access of the public to foreign publications, films, newscasts, books,
+and radio and television programs.</p>
+
+<p>Freedom of information, although never fully recognized in precommunist
+Romania, completely disappeared under the Communists after 1948. In late
+1971, as a result of an ideological campaign launched by the regime, the
+communications media experienced measures that served further to
+reemphasize their assigned role as political tools in the indoctrination
+of the people. The effects of this campaign had not become fully evident
+in early 1972, but changes and modifications had begun to appear that
+tended to inhibit liberalizing trends, which had been incorporated
+gradually into the system during the 1960s.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">GOVERNMENT AND FREEDOM OF INFORMATION</p>
+
+<p>Although freedom of information was theoretically guaranteed by the
+early constitutions of precommunist Romania, censorship of the press was
+not unusual and commonly took the form of banning or confiscating
+newspapers and periodicals considered hostile to the ruling group.
+Newspapers had traditionally been published by political parties and
+special interest groups, only a few being uncontrolled and truly
+independent. In consequence, the public has long regarded the press as
+generally biased, tainted with propaganda, and not reliable as a source
+of objective news.</p>
+
+<p>Under the dictatorship imposed by King Carol II in 1938 and during the
+wartime regime of Marshal Ion Antonescu, censorship was officially
+proclaimed and rigidly enforced. Since <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>that time the communications
+media have enjoyed only one period of relative freedom, lasting only a
+few weeks following the coup d'etat of King Michael in August 1944.
+After Michael's deposition and during the struggle for power that
+followed, the Communists effectively controlled the press and radio
+through the unions serving these facilities, which they had heavily
+infiltrated. After their seizure of power in 1948, the Communists
+instituted a system of censorship and control that has continued without
+interruption.</p>
+
+<p>The 1965 Constitution, the third promulgated by the Communists since
+their takeover of the government, is less moderate in tone than its
+predecessors in preserving the fiction of the right of citizens to
+individual freedoms. The document states that freedom of speech, of the
+press, and of assembly "cannot be used for aims hostile to the socialist
+system and to the interests of the working people." This same article
+also prohibits associations of a "fascist" or "anti-democratic" nature,
+as well as the participation of citizens in such associations. The
+Constitution names the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist
+Roman&mdash;PCR) as the leading political force in the country; by virtue of
+its position, the party has become the ultimate authority in determining
+actions that are "fascist," "anti-democratic," or "hostile to the
+socialist system."</p>
+
+<p>In 1972 the regime continued to utilize the conventional information
+media&mdash;newspapers, magazines, books, radio, television, and motion
+pictures&mdash;as an integrated, governmental system for the indoctrination
+of the population and the molding of public opinion in support of the
+state and its policies. In keeping with this overall objective, a
+campaign for the increased ideological and political indoctrination of
+the public was undertaken in July 1971 that brought about a
+reenforcement of party authority over the highest information control
+and policymaking bodies in the government (see ch. 7). The former State
+Committee for Culture and Art, established with ministerial rank under
+the Council of Ministers, was reconstituted as the Council on Socialist
+Culture and Education and was made directly subordinate to the Central
+Committee of the PCR. Similar changes were made in the Committee of
+Radio and Television, which became the Council of Romanian Radio and
+Television.</p>
+
+<p>Under the direct guidance of the press and propaganda sections of the
+Central Committee, these two councils formulate policy guidelines and
+supervise all publication and dissemination procedures throughout the
+communications media. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>policies and directives, in turn, are
+implemented by other government-controlled operating agencies, such as
+the General Directorate for the Press and Printing, the Romanian press
+agency, and the individual publishing houses, printing establishments,
+book distribution centers, motion picture studios, and radio and
+television stations. To further assure a uniform collective effort
+consistent with the party line, and two national councils are also
+empowered to organize wherever necessary permanent commissions,
+temporary working groups, and local committees to assist the councils in
+"analyzing" the way decisions are applied and in "improving" local
+activities.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE PRESS</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Newspapers</p>
+
+<p>According to the latest official statistics, there were a total of
+seventy-six "general information" newspapers published throughout the
+country in 1969. Of these, fifty-one were dailies, twenty-three were
+weeklies, and two appeared at infrequent intervals, from two to three
+times per week. Daily circulation estimates were available for very few
+newspapers. Together, these newspapers had a total annual circulation of
+more than 1.1 billion copies, a substantial increase over the 1950 level
+of 870 million copies that was achieved by the seventy-five newspapers
+then being published. The acceptance of high circulation figures as an
+indicator of reader appeal is of doubtful value, however, since many
+readers were required to subscribe to newspapers because of their party
+or work affiliation. Also, certain functionaries throughout the
+governmental apparatus and many supervisory workers had subscription
+costs automatically deducted from their salaries.</p>
+
+<p>Newspapers traditionally have been published in the national minority
+languages, but since the mid-1960s the government has published no
+official statistics on them, apparently in keeping with its
+integrationist policy (see ch. 7). In 1964 it was estimated by Western
+observers that the ethnic minorities were served by approximately twenty
+newspapers, including eight dailies, with an annual circulation of
+slightly more than 103 million copies.</p>
+
+<p>All newspapers are licensed by the General Directorate for the Press and
+Printing, the state agency that also controls the allocation of
+newsprint, the manufacture of ink and other printing supplies, and the
+distribution of all publications. Thus the government is in a position
+to prohibit the appearance of any newspaper or other publication either
+directly by revoking <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>the license or indirectly by withholding essential
+supplies or services. Each newspaper is organized into a collective
+enterprise made up of the entire personnel of all departments. Chief
+responsibility for the content of the paper is vested in an "editorial
+collegium" headed by the chief editor. Meetings are held periodically
+between all chief editors and party representatives, which serve as an
+effective means of followup control in lieu of prepublication
+censorship.</p>
+
+<p>Major mass organizations, government-sponsored groups, local government
+organs, and the PCR and its subsidiaries publish the most important and
+influential papers, both in Bucharest and in the larger cities of the
+various counties (see table 3). Little latitude is allowed in the
+presentation of news, and almost all papers follow a serious, monotonous
+format that has little popular appeal. Shortly after renewed emphasis
+was placed on the ideological and political education of the population
+in mid-1971, a Western journalist likened the nation to a huge classroom
+in which unpopular and trite subjects were being presented to an
+unreceptive class by an exhortative mass media.</p>
+
+<p>The most authoritative and widely read newspaper is <i>Scinteia</i>, founded
+in 1931 as the official organ of the Central Committee of the party. It
+has, by far, the largest daily circulation and enjoys considerable
+prestige as the outlet for party policy pronouncements as well as for
+semiofficial government attitudes on both national and international
+issues. The eight-page newspaper appears seven days a week and is
+national in scope. Its editorials, feature sections, and chief articles
+are frequently reprinted, in whole or in part, by smaller newspapers in
+outlying areas. Quotations and summaries are also repeated regularly in
+shop bulletins and in information letters put on by many enterprises,
+plants, and factories.</p>
+
+<p>The next most important dailies are <i>Romania Libera</i>, established by the
+Socialist Unity Front in 1942; <i>Munca</i>, founded in 1943 as the voice of
+the Central Council of the General Union of Trade Unions and <i>Scinteia
+Tineretului</i>, the organ of the Union of Communist Youth, which has been
+published since 1944. Each of these newspapers is much smaller than
+<i>Scinteia</i> and is directed at a particular group of readers of level of
+society. Although <i>Romania Libera</i> contains items of both national and
+international interest, it deals primarily with the problems associated
+with the "building of socialism" at the local level. Similarly, <i>Munca</i>
+directs its major effort at the labor force and stresses the cooperative
+relationship between workers and industry. <i>Scinteia Tineretului</i>, in
+like manner, concentrates on the younger element of the population and
+stresses the ideological and political training of youth as the basis
+for a "sound socialist society."</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span><i>Table 3. Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 3">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="30%">Publication</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="18%">Daily<br /> Circulation (in thousands)</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Place</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="37%">Publisher</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Crisana</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oradea</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Dobrogea Noua</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Constanta</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Drapelul Rosu</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;54</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Timisoara</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Drum Nou</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Brasov</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Drumul Socialismului</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Deva</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Elore¹</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hungarian People's Council</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Faclia</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Cluj</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Faklya¹</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oradea</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hungarian People's Council</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Flacara Iasului</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Iasi</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Flacara Rosie</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Arad</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Flamura Prahovei</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ploiesti</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Igazsag</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Cluj</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Inainte</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Craiova</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Inainte</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Braila</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Informatia Bucurestiului</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Munca</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">General Union of Trade Unions</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Neuer Weg²</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;100</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">German People's Council</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Romania Libera</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;200</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Socialist Unity Front</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: top;"><i>Satul Socialist</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="vertical-align: top;">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp" style="vertical-align: top;">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Scinteia</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,000</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Scinteia Tineretului</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;300</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Union of Communist Youth</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Sportul Popular</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Union of Culture and Sports</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Steagul Rosu</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bucharest</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Steau Rosie</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Tirgu Mures</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Szabad Szo¹</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Timisoara</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hungarian People's Council</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Viata Noua</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Galati</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Romanian Communist Party</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz"><i>Voros Zaszlo¹</i></td>
+  <td class="tdcz">-</td>
+  <td class="tdlp" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;">Tirgu Mures</td>
+  <td class="tdlp" style="border-bottom: .5pt black solid;">Hungarian People's Council</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="4">- circulation unknown.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="4">¹ Published in Hungarian.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="4">² Published in German.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>The principal and most widely known minority-language newspapers are the
+Hungarian daily <i>Elore</i> and the German <i>Neuer Weg</i>, also a daily. Both
+of these newspapers contain generally the same news as Romanian
+newspapers with additional local items of minority interest, such as
+cultural developments and problems associated with minority language use
+in education and other fields.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Periodicals</p>
+
+<p>The number of periodicals published throughout the country increased
+from a total of 387 in 1960 to 581 in 1969, according to the latest
+government statistics. The total annual circulation of periodicals
+almost doubled during this time, increasing from about 105 million
+copies to approximately 209 million. More than 340 of these magazines
+and journals were published either quarterly or annually, the remainder
+appearing either weekly, monthly, or at some other intervals. No
+indication was given within this general classification of the number of
+publications that were issued in the minority languages or were directed
+at special minority interest groups.</p>
+
+<p>All periodicals are considered official publications of the various
+sponsoring organizations and are subject to the same licensing and
+supervising controls as newspapers. Virtually all magazines and journals
+are published by mass organizations and party or government-controlled
+activities, such as institutes, labor unions, cultural committees, and
+special interest groups. They cover a broad range of subjects and
+include technical and professional journals, among them magazines on
+literature, art, health, sports, medicine, statistics, politics,
+science, and economics. The technical and scientific journals are
+intended for scholars, engineers, and industrial technicians; cultural
+and political periodicals are aimed at writers, editors, journalists,
+artists, party workers, and enterprise managers; and general
+publications are intended to appeal to various segments of the
+population, such as youth, women, and both industrial and agricultural
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the best known and most widely circulated magazines are <i>Lupta de
+Clasa</i> and <i>Contemporanul</i>. <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>, a monthly published by the
+Central Committee of the PCR, had an estimated circulation of about
+70,000 in 1969 and was considered to be the foremost political review.
+It deals with the theory of socialism and is extensively quoted in the
+daily <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>press as a semiofficial voice in domestic affairs.
+<i>Contemporanul</i>, the weekly organ of the Council on Socialist Culture
+and Education, had a circulation of approximately 65,000 and was a
+leading authority on political, cultural, and social affairs. Through
+its wide range of articles it serves as a primary vehicle for conveying
+party policy to writers, journalists, editors, and publishers in all
+fields.</p>
+
+<p>Other periodicals cover a broad spectrum and included <i>Femeia</i>, the
+monthly magazine of the National Council of Women; <i>Probleme Economice</i>,
+the monthly review of the Society of Economic Sciences; <i>Tinarul
+Leninist</i>, a monthly magazine for members of the Union of Communist
+Youth; <i>Luceafarul</i>, a semimonthly review of foreign policy matters
+published by the Union of Writers; <i>Romania Literara</i>, a literary,
+artistic, and sociopolitical weekly also published by the Union of
+Writers; <i>Urzica</i>, a humorous and satirical semimonthly review published
+by the PCR; <i>Volk und Kultur</i>, a monthly review published in German by
+the Council on Socialist Culture and Education; and <i>Korunk</i>, the
+monthly sociocultural review in Hungarian, published by the Hungarian
+Peoples' Council.</p>
+
+<p>One of the magazines best known outside the country is <i>Romania Azi</i>, a
+richly illustrated social, economic, and cultural monthly magazine
+published by the Foreign Language Press. In addition to Romanian, it is
+also published in English, Chinese, French, German, Russian, and
+Spanish. The government also sponsors a series of scholarly reviews
+dealing with studies on southeastern Europe, the history of art,
+Romanian historical and artistic development, and linguistics. These
+reviews appear at infrequent intervals and, in addition to the Romanian
+edition, are offered on subscription in English, French, German,
+Russian, and Spanish.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">News Agencies</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa&mdash;Agerpres) was
+established in 1949, with the exclusive right to the collection and
+distribution of all news, pictures, and other press items, both domestic
+and foreign. In recent years, however, it has concerned itself almost
+exclusively with news from foreign countries, leaving much of the
+domestic news coverage to the correspondents of the larger daily
+newspapers. Agerpres, in 1972, operated as an office of the central
+government under the direct supervision and control of the Central
+Committee of the party.</p>
+
+<p>The headquarters for Agerpres is maintained in Bucharest, with some
+sixteen branch offices located in other major towns <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>and cities
+throughout the country. In addition, it staffs on a full-time basis
+twenty-one bureaus abroad, principally in the larger capital cities of
+Europe, Africa, South America, and the Far East. Until 1960 its most
+important source of foreign news was the Soviet central news agency,
+through which it received the bulk of its foreign news releases and
+international news summaries. This arrangement was replaced by news
+exchange agreements with selected agencies of both the Western countries
+and the countries of Eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the Soviet agency, foreign news bureaus are maintained in
+Bucharest by the press agencies of Poland, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic (East
+Germany). To service these bureaus and its own correspondents abroad
+Agerpres issues the daily Agerpres News of the Day and the weekly
+Agerpres Information Bulletin. For domestic consumption Agerpres
+distributes about 45,000 words of foreign news coverage daily to
+official government and party offices, to various newspapers and
+periodicals, and to radio and television broadcasting stations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">RADIO AND TELEVISION</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Radio Broadcasting</p>
+
+<p>In 1971 domestic radio broadcast service was provided by twenty AM
+(amplitude modulation) stations located in sixteen cities and by six FM
+(frequency modulation) stations located in Bucharest, Cluj, and
+Constanta. These stations are government owned and operate under the
+direct supervision of the Council of Romanian Radio and Television, an
+agency of the party's Central Committee. All broadcast stations are
+grouped into three major networks, known as Program I, Program II, and
+Program III. In addition, broadcast facilities are augmented by an
+extensive wired-broadcast network, which extended coverage into outlying
+areas where direct transmissions are subject to either geographic or
+atmospheric interference.</p>
+
+<p>The most powerful stations are located in Brasov, Iasi, Boldur,
+Bucharest, and Timisoara. They range in power from 135 to 1200 kilowatts
+and transmit in the low- and medium-frequency bands. The FM stations
+operate exclusively in the very high frequency range and are all
+moderately powered at four kilowatts. The majority of the programs
+originate at studios in Bucharest and are rebroadcast by the network
+stations, which add short local news broadcasts and, from time to time,
+originate coverage of special events of local <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>interest. In addition to
+government-provided subsidies, the industry also benefits from the
+license fees collected from the almost 3.1 million owners of radio
+receivers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1971 scheduled regional programming was revised to include additional
+broadcast time for programs in the minority languages. These broadcasts
+were carried by four major stations including Radio Bucharest, with
+programs in Hungarian and German; Radio Cluj and Radio Tirgu Mures, with
+programs in Hungarian; and Radio Timisoara with programs in German and
+Serbo-Croatian. Most of these offerings are short and stress news,
+features, and talks by local personalities. These programs are also
+relayed over wire lines to local centers for distribution to public
+establishments, factories, and schools.</p>
+
+<p>The programs offered on Programs I and II are generally of good quality
+but have a high ideological content and are lacking in diversity. In
+addition to news and weather reports, programs include special
+broadcasts for children and rural listeners, scientific, theatrical,
+cultural, and literary presentations, and a great variety of musical
+programs. Program III, which is limited principally to the Sunday
+evening hours, carries many of the regular concerts given by the various
+national orchestras and choirs. Despite its limited broadcast schedule,
+Program III also carries indoctrination programs in the form of
+interviews and panel discussions.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign broadcasts in thirteen languages were beamed to Europe and
+overseas by Radio Bucharest on one mediumwave and six shortwave
+transmitters in early 1972. These programs were on the air for a
+combined total of approximately 200 hours per week, averaged one-half
+hour in length, and generally carried domestic news and comments on
+international developments. In addition to Romanian, the broadcasts to
+European listeners were presented in English, German, French, Greek,
+Italian, Portuguese, Serbo-Croatian, and Spanish. Overseas programs were
+beamed to North Africa and the Near East in Arabic, English, French, and
+Turkish; to Asia, in English and Persian; to the Pacific area, in
+English; to North America, in English, Romanian, and Yiddish; and to
+Latin America, in Portuguese and Spanish.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Radio Audience</p>
+
+<p>The communist regime has long recognized the importance of radio
+broadcasting as a medium for both informing the people and for molding a
+favorable public attitude toward the government. As a result, the
+construction of broadcast facilities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>and the production of receiving
+sets have been steadily increased since 1960. Also, during this same
+period the number of radio receivers increased more than 50 percent,
+from 2 million in 1960 to almost 3.1 million in 1970. The number of
+licensed receiving sets included approximately 870,000 wired receivers
+and amplifiers that usually reached group audiences in public areas.</p>
+
+<p>By early 1972 the government had given no indication as to the results
+achieved by the radio in the intensified ideological campaign launched
+in mid-1971. Press reports revealed that, whereas radio programs
+continued to be criticized as to content and purpose, changes more
+favorable to the socialist concept of culture and political thought have
+not yet been extensive. Western programs, though fewer, were still being
+offered, and certain musical programs were being revised to favor the
+light and popular music of native composers over the modern Western
+style. Listener resistance to changes intended to improve the "communist
+education of the masses" was revealed by official statements that called
+for the need of radio editors and program coordinators "to improve their
+skill" in arousing and focusing the interest of the radio audience on
+"up-to-date" programs.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Television Broadcasting</p>
+
+<p>Since its inception in 1956, television broadcasting has been closely
+linked with radio, by the regime, as an increasingly important
+instrument of "propaganda and socialist education of the masses." Like
+radio, television operated under supervision of the Council of Romanian
+Radio and Television, whose policy guidelines were received directly
+from the party apparatus. Also, as in the case of radio, television came
+under close scrutiny and criticism in mid-1971 in the intensified
+ideological campaign initiated by President Nicolae Ceausescu. By early
+1972 changes in television network programming resulting from this
+campaign had not been revealed, but the press indicated that most of
+them were intended to limit foreign influence in literary, theatrical,
+film, and artistic broadcasts and to stress the Marxist-Leninist
+interpretation in presenting current events.</p>
+
+<p>Although only recently developed as a new medium in mass communications,
+television has expanded more rapidly than radio. From the six stations
+that were operational in 1960, the industry had increased to a total of
+eighty-five in 1971. Of these, sixteen were principal transmitting
+stations located in various parts of the country, and sixty-nine were
+repeater stations. The number of television sets also increased
+significantly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>during this period, from 55,000 to almost 1.3 million. It
+was estimated by government authorities that programs aired over the 1.3
+million licensed sets covered more than 80 percent of the country and
+could be seen by between 5 million and 6 million viewers.</p>
+
+<p>The television network operates the Central European System of 625-line
+definition and broadcasts over two systems, Program I and Program II.
+Program I was on the air daily during the evening hours for a total of
+thirty-eight hours per week. Program II broadcast weekday mornings and
+evenings for a total of eighteen hours. Most presentations originate on
+Program I and include, in addition to political, literary, and cultural
+programs, sports, news, documentaries, and special programs for children
+and workers. Program II usually repeats most of the programs shown on
+Program I or summarizes certain telecasts for combined showings with
+other short features.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign programs, chiefly from neighboring communist countries, are also
+available to Romanian televiewers. Most of this material is procured on
+a mutual exchange basis through Intervision (Eastern European
+Television), an organization to which Romania belongs. A substantial
+number of foreign telecasts, however, are also available to residents in
+border areas, by direct transmission.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">BOOK PUBLISHING</p>
+
+<p>Before World War II Romania was one of the leading Balkan nations in the
+publishing field. Annually, some 2,500 titles were commonly published in
+editions of 2,000 to 5,000 copies, with a high percentage representing
+original works of Romanian authors. After the communist takeover in 1948
+all publishing facilities were nationalized, and the entire industry was
+converted to serve as a major propaganda and indoctrination instrument
+in support of the new regime. Between 1949 and 1953 the revamped
+publishing concerns turned out more than 13,500 separate titles, with a
+total of almost 250 million copies. This record amount of officially
+approved and censored material represented a whole new series of
+communist-oriented material needed to operate the highly centralized
+government, to reeducate the people, and to regulate their activities.</p>
+
+<p>By 1955 the number of titles issued annually had decreased to a little
+more than 5,000, but total circulation remained relatively high at more
+than 48 million copies. From 1955 to 1966 the number of titles gradually
+increased and reached a plateau of about 9,000, where it remained
+through 1969. Annual <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>circulation figures over the same periods of time
+fluctuated in a fairly regular pattern showing a controlled average
+number of copies issued per title each year also to be about 9,000.
+Thus, the planned publishing requirements as set by the government
+apparently were achieved in 1966 and have varied very little since then.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Publication</p>
+
+<p>Government and party control of all printing and publishing activities
+is centered in the Council on Socialist Culture and Education. This
+party-state organization formulates policy guidelines for the publishing
+industry and utilizes other government-controlled or government-owned
+agencies, such as the General Directorate for the Press and Printing,
+the various publishing houses, and book distribution centers to
+supervise and coordinate day-to-day operations. Within this control
+machinery all short- and long-range publication plans are approved, and
+the distribution of all printed material is specified. This central
+authority also allocates paper quotas, determines the number of books to
+be printed, and sets the prices at which all publications are to be
+sold.</p>
+
+<p>In 1972 about twenty-five publishing houses were in operation; of these,
+twenty-three were located in Bucharest, and one each was in Cluj and
+Iasi. Each of these enterprises produced books, pamphlets, periodicals,
+and other printed material within its own specialized field and was
+responsible, through its director, for the political acceptability and
+quality of its work. In 1969 some decentralization in publishing took
+place with the opening of branch offices of the larger houses in a few
+of the more heavily populated districts. Although this program was
+ostensibly initiated for the purpose of securing "a broader scope of
+reader preference" in the number and type of books to be published,
+press reports published in late 1971 indicated very little popular
+support for this experiment.</p>
+
+<p>Of the 9,399 titles published in 1969, the greatest numbers were in the
+fields of technology, industry, agriculture, and medicine. Also included
+in this group were books, treatises, studies, and reports in the general
+economic field as well as translations from foreign sources. This
+category of titles, although representing about 33 percent of those
+published, had an average circulation of only about 3,500 copies per
+title&mdash;well below the overall average of approximately 9,000.</p>
+
+<p>The second largest group of published titles was in the field of social
+sciences and represented approximately 22 percent of the total. This
+classification included all books dealing with political <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>science and
+socioeconomic theory as well as all textbooks and materials used in the
+educational system. A particularly large segment of books in this area
+were documents and manuals used for party training, Marxist-Leninist
+classics, and party-directed studies and monographs dealing with the
+historical, philosophical, or sociological development of the communist
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>The material published in the fields of art, games, sports, and music
+dominated the third largest group and ranged from children's
+entertainment to musical scores. The fourth largest group, representing
+about 15 percent of the national publishing effort, related to general
+literature. This field covered novels, essays, short stories, and poetry
+written by recognized authors as well as by less well established modern
+writers, both domestic and foreign. The books selected from foreign
+sources were carefully scrutinized, and very few were published that
+dealt with contemporary Western subjects. Also banned, as a matter of
+general principle, was all material that (in the judgment of chief
+editors) "did not contribute actively to the socialist education of the
+new man" within the communist society.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Distribution and Foreign Exchange</p>
+
+<p>The distribution and sale of books, both domestic and foreign, are
+vested in the Book Central, a state-owned organization that is also
+responsible for the coordination of all book production. The Book
+Central, with headquarters in Bucharest, operates directly under the
+Council on Socialist Culture and Education and maintains a network of
+bookshops throughout the country in district centers and other major
+towns. In addition to supplying major outlets such as libraries and
+schools with publications, the local bookshops also set up and operate
+bookstalls and book departments in rural areas, usually at industrial
+enterprises and farm collectives. Traveling bookmobiles are also used to
+serve factories, mines, or other isolated activities in outlying areas.
+Discount book clubs were reportedly established as early as 1952, but
+recent information was lacking as to their continued existence, size,
+and method of operation.</p>
+
+<p>After receiving approval of their individual publishing plans, the
+publishing houses distribute catalogs, bulletins, and other
+informational material to the Book Central for distribution to major
+purchasing outlets. In addition, the local bookshops issue periodic
+lists of all books in stock as well as those scheduled to be printed
+during specific periods. Official statistics concerning the wholesale
+and retail sale of books are not habitually published, but recurrent
+articles in the press criticize the lack of enthusiasm <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>and general
+ineptness of booksellers as major factors in lagging book sales to
+individual buyers.</p>
+
+<p>The Book Central in Bucharest conducts all transactions involving the
+foreign exchange of publications. This agency issues annual lists of
+available Romanian publications, together with short bibliographic
+annotations or summaries as well as subscription details. Also, the sale
+of books is fostered at the various international book fairs in which
+Romania participates.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LIBRARIES</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian library network consists of two broad categories&mdash;general
+libraries, administered by the central government and its territorial
+organs, and the various libraries administered by mass organizations,
+institutes, and enterprises. Those in the latter category are generally
+referred to as documentary libraries since most of them specialize in
+scientific and technical holdings. The number of general libraries
+declined appreciably from a total of almost 35,000 in 1960 to slightly
+more than 18,000 in 1971, due principally to the consolidation of
+facilities. Over the same period the number of documentary libraries
+remained fairly constant, averaging slightly more than 4,000, the total
+number existing in 1971.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest proportion of general libraries, by far, are those
+associated with primary and secondary schools and those that serve the
+general public. In addition, the state operates two national libraries,
+and forty-three others function as part of university and other higher
+level institutions. The total holdings of all these facilities exceeded
+95 million volumes, and the number of registered readers in the public
+libraries was reported to have reached almost 5 million in 1971. No
+information was available as to the total annual circulation of books on
+personal and interlibrary loan in the general library system, but the
+two national libraries were reported to have circulated 55,000 volumes
+in 1968, and the combined circulation of the forty-three
+university-level libraries approximated 178,000 volumes in the same
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The two national libraries, the Library of the Academy of the Socialist
+Republic of Romania and the Central State Library, together maintain
+stocks in excess of 10 million volumes, and both function as central
+book depositories. The Library of the Academy of the Socialist Republic
+of Romania, a precommunist institution founded in 1867, holds special
+collections of Romanian, Greek, Slavonic, Oriental, and Latin
+manuscripts, maps, and engravings as well as rare collections of
+documents, medals, and coins. The Central State Library, founded in
+1955, also has important collections of books, periodicals, musical
+works, maps, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>and photographs and, in addition, acts as the Central
+Stationery Office and the National Exchange for books. It also issues
+the National Bibliography and annual catalogs, which list all books
+printed in Romania and the holdings of all foreign books in the state
+library system.</p>
+
+<p>The largest libraries among the universities, each of which holds more
+than 1.5 million volumes, are those at Bucharest, Iasi, and Cluj. These
+holdings include the book stocks maintained in the libraries of the
+various faculties, hostels, and institutes associated with the
+universities as well as the central university library itself. The
+largest documentary library, the Library of the Medical-Pharmaceutical
+Institute, operates ninety-nine branch facilities, and its annual book
+inventory has been in excess of 1.2 million volumes.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">FILMS</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of other elements of the mass media, the small motion
+picture industry has also been affected by the intensified ideological
+campaign of mid-1971. In general, the regime has attempted to further
+limit the importation of foreign films, particularly those from the
+West, which are considered violent and decadent. There has also been a
+move to stimulate the production of more native films with a truly
+"profound ideological content which will express our Marxist-Leninist
+world outlook, convey the message of our own society in highly artistic
+terms, and reflect the life of the new man." Until more Romanian films
+of the appropriate type can be offered, the industry has been advised to
+utilize additional films from the National Film Library and to emphasize
+foreign presentations that are based on socialist concepts.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Production</p>
+
+<p>Film production, distribution, and exhibition were controlled by the
+National Center of Cinematography, a state agency that operates under
+the supervision of the Council on Socialist Culture and Education. The
+national center operates two production studios: the Alexandru Sahia
+Film Studio in Bucharest, which produces documentaries, newsreels,
+cartoons, and puppet films, and the Bucharest Film Studio, which
+produces feature films at Buftea, a suburb about fifteen miles northwest
+of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>In 1970 cinema production consisted of thirty-nine feature and short
+pictures, about 1960 documentary films (including animated cartoons),
+and seventy-six newsreels. This output reflected a two-fold increase
+since 1960 in both feature and documentary films but a decrease of about
+15 percent in the number of newsreels. The largest growth in the motion
+picture industry occurred <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>between 1923 and 1930, when production rose
+from about seven motion pictures per year to about twenty-five. This
+increased output was a combination of native films and features
+coproduced with France, Germany, and Hungary. After the communist
+takeover of the government in 1948, film production fell drastically and
+did not again reach its pre-World War II level until 1955.</p>
+
+<p>Romanian films, until 1968, continued to reflect much of the earlier
+French influence. Both the native and coproduced pictures of this period
+were of high quality, and several won awards at film festivals in
+Cannes, Trieste, and Chicago. Subjects treated were well diversified and
+included historical adventure, strong dramas, and both satirical and
+classical comedies. Beginning in 1968, the regime launched widespread
+criticism of the industry, and the quality of production decreased
+appreciably. The 1971 ideological campaign forced film making into a
+further regression. Western observers characterized post-1968 films as
+being totally lacking in originality.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the relatively low number of Romanian films produced, the
+industry has generally depended on the importation of sizable numbers of
+foreign films to meet its needs. The government no longer publishes
+official statistics dealing with film imports, but in 1960 the regime
+reported that 188 feature films and 150 documentaries from foreign
+countries were shown. Approximately 40 percent of these films came from
+the Soviet Union; the remainder came from France, East Germany, England,
+Italy, Czechoslovakia, and the United States.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Distribution</p>
+
+<p>Despite the emphasis placed by the government on motion pictures as both
+a propaganda and an entertainment medium, the number of theaters and
+attendance at film showings has decreased steadily since 1965. This
+trend was due principally to the competition offered by the expanding
+television industry, but the falling off in the quality of films was
+also a contributing factor.</p>
+
+<p>Film theaters are of two types, those which show pictures regularly in
+designated movie houses or, periodically, in multipurpose recreation
+centers, and mobile film units, which exhibit documentary and
+educational films in schools or other local facilities in outlying
+areas. Motion picture houses of both types decreased in number from
+6,499 in 1965 to 6,275 in 1970, and in the same period annual attendance
+dropped more than 6 million from the 1965 high of almost 205 million.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INFORMAL INFORMATION MEDIA</p>
+
+<p>Lectures, public and organizational meetings, exhibits, and
+demonstrations also serve as means of communication between <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>the
+government and the population at large. Although less significant than
+the formal mass media, these events are fostered by officials of the
+regime as highly effective elements in the indoctrination process
+because they offer direct personal confrontations at the lower levels.
+Word-of-mouth communication is also an important and effective medium,
+particularly as a means of spreading news heard from Western radio
+transmissions, which were no longer subject to government jamming as a
+matter of policy.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY</h2>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER 12</h2>
+
+<h2>PUBLIC ORDER AND INTERNAL SECURITY</h2>
+
+
+<p>By 1972 the internal security situation in Romania had changed a great
+deal from that of the post-World War II period and the first few years
+of the communist regime. In those days the regime had feared for its
+existence and for that of the system it was attempting to establish. It
+had feared interference from outside the country and active opposition
+from a large segment of the local population and had also doubted the
+reliability of a considerable number of those within its own ranks.</p>
+
+<p>In the police state atmosphere of that time a good portion of the people
+had also, and frequently with good reason, feared the regime. People
+whose greatest crime might have been lack of enthusiasm feared that they
+might be suspected of deviant political beliefs. Because of the brief
+time then being spent on investigation of a crime and seeking out an
+individual's possible innocence, such persons could easily emerge from
+hasty trials as political prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>By 1972 the security troops&mdash;successors to the secret police that had
+held the population in dread and terror twenty years before&mdash;still
+existed in considerable force. They had receded into the background,
+however, and only infrequently had any contact with the average citizen
+as he went about his daily routine.</p>
+
+<p>The population was undoubtedly not altogether content in 1972 and often
+chafed at bureaucratic red tape, at lackluster performance on the part
+of minor officials, and at other irritations. The youth, in particular,
+was showing reluctance to be molded into the uncompromising pattern of
+socialist society, and some of its resistance took on characteristics
+considered intolerable by the regime. On the other hand, there was
+little, if any, sign of organized opposition to the system or the
+leadership. The dominant attitude throughout the country was cooperative
+to the degree that, if the system was seen to be in need of change, it
+was preferable to attempt reform from within the system itself and along
+accepted guidelines.</p>
+
+<p>Reflecting the easing of internal tensions, the formal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>framework of the
+judicial system&mdash;the penal code, the code of criminal procedure, and the
+courts&mdash;was extensively changed in 1968. Although the new code
+emphasized protection of the state and society more than individual
+rights, the code it replaced had been one of the most severe and
+inflexible in Europe. The new codes clearly specified that there was no
+crime unless it was so defined in law and that there was to be no
+punishment unless it had been authorized by law.</p>
+
+<p>Procedures for criminal prosecution were set down in readily
+understandable language that, if adhered to, guaranteed equitable
+treatment during investigation, trial, and sentencing to a degree
+hitherto unknown in the court system. There were also provisions for
+appeal of lower and intermediate court sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Petty cases were disposed of by judicial commissions that did not have
+court status. Such commissions were set up in villages, institutions,
+collectives, or enterprises comprising as few as 200 people. Although
+authorized to administer only small fines or penalties, they were
+established in a fashion designed to involve large numbers of people in
+the judicial process and to exert local pressures on those appearing
+before them.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INTERNAL SECURITY</p>
+
+<p>During the mid-1950s the militia (civil police force) and security
+troops were busily engaged in apprehending alleged spies, traitors,
+saboteurs, and those who persisted in voicing beliefs considered
+dangerous to the regime and the socialist system. In the early 1970s
+directives for security agencies still identified the 1950 threats to
+the regime and exhorted the agencies to continue to combat the same old
+enemies of the people. The emphasis has been altered, however, and
+national authorities appeared generally satisfied with the improved
+internal security situation in 1972.</p>
+
+<p>The regime had by then become seriously concerned much less over mass
+violence or organized subversion than over levels of unrest or passive
+resistance that are evidenced by widespread laxity, carelessness,
+indolence, or an obvious lack of popular support. The militia blamed a
+rash of railroad accidents in 1970 on laxity when investigation
+determined that the equipment had, in nearly all cases, operated
+properly and the people had received sufficient training to make the
+system work safely. It also blamed an excessive number of fires on
+carelessness and negligence. Classified political and economic data were
+found on several occasions during routine checks of unoccupied and
+unsecured automobiles. New laws were published in 1970 to deal with
+vagrancy, begging, prostitution, and persons not seeking employment or
+living what the authorities termed "useless lives."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>Although they have been relaxed, controls over the population remain
+strict by Western standards. A 1971 decree on the establishment of
+private residence placed rigid limitations on movement to the cities,
+allowing only those who get employment and are allocated housing to
+move. For example, military personnel must have had previous residence
+in a city in order to establish residence there after retiring from the
+service.</p>
+
+<p>All persons over fourteen years of age must carry identification cards.
+The cards are issued by the militia and are usually valid for ten-year
+periods to age forty-four, after which they have no expiration date.
+They are reissued, however, if the photograph no longer matches the
+appearance of the bearer or when a name change&mdash;such as that following
+marriage&mdash;affects the identity. In addition to the photograph and other
+data for identification, the card contains blood type and residence
+information. Identification cards of prisoners or persons held in
+preventive detention are withheld from them.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Ministry of Internal Affairs</p>
+
+<p>The minister of internal affairs is one of the three members of the
+Council of Ministers who head governmental agencies charged with defense
+of the country and security of the regime and the social system. His
+ministry is responsible for the various police and related organizations
+that, although controlled from national headquarters, perform most of
+their functions at the local level in the defense of law, order, and
+property. It cooperates with the Ministry of the Armed Forces and with
+the State Security Council, a watchdog committee that oversees police
+activities, but neither of those agencies does a large share of its work
+with local government or party agencies (see ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Two-thirds of the ministry's major directorates deal with the militia.
+They include the militia's general inspectorate; its political council;
+and directorates relating to firefighting, special guard units, the
+Bucharest militia, and Bucharest traffic control. Other directorates of
+the ministry deal with prisons and labor settlements, reeducation of
+minors, and state archives.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Militia</p>
+
+<p>The militia is organized at the national level under the Ministry of
+Internal Affairs and is probably also responsible to the State Security
+Council. The chain of command between the ministry and local police
+units appears to work from inspectorate general offices in the ministry
+through the thirty-nine <i>judet</i> (county) inspectorates and one for the
+city of Bucharest. Local police units and local inspectorates, in
+addition to being subordinate to their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>counterparts at the next higher
+level, are also responsible to the locally elected people's councils.
+This dual subordination probably works because of the overriding
+influence of the Romanian Communist Party at all levels.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the police work is done, and by far the greatest part of the
+organization is situated, in the many local police offices. These are
+located any place in which there are sufficient numbers of people or
+enough valuable property to justify them&mdash;in towns, communes,
+enterprises, or cities, where there may be several. The ministry may
+also establish other individual police jurisdictions at railroad
+stations, ports, airfields, and large construction sites and in other
+special situations on a temporary or permanent basis.</p>
+
+<p>The militia is charged with defense of the regime and the society, with
+maintenance of public order, and with enforcement of laws. To accomplish
+the more general tasks, it is directed to detect criminal activities and
+to apprehend criminals. The militia is also given responsibility for
+preventing crime and for guiding, assisting, or directing other
+organizations involved in protection of the regime, the citizens, and
+state or private property. An increasing portion of routine police work
+is required in the control of highway traffic. The militia may also be
+called upon to assist in emergencies or in disaster situations.</p>
+
+<p>Militia regulations require the police to respect individual rights and
+the inviolability of homes and personal property in normal
+circumstances. Restrictions are removed, however, if circumstances
+warrant. Police may commandeer any vehicle or means of communication,
+private or otherwise, if the situation demands. During chase or during
+investigation of flagrant crimes, they may enter private homes without
+permission or search them without warrant.</p>
+
+<p>Citizens are directed to assist the militia when called upon or to act
+as police&mdash;to apprehend and hold violators&mdash;if no police are at the
+scene when a crime is committed. Provisions authorizing the formation of
+auxiliary police groups are established in law. Such auxiliaries would
+ordinarily be organized by the militia but, whatever their sponsorship,
+they would be expected to cooperate with local police authorities.</p>
+
+<p>According to the law defining the militia's organization, its personnel
+consist of military and civilian employees on the staff of the Ministry
+of Internal Affairs. Officers, military experts, and noncommissioned
+officers are recruited from the graduates of schools operated within the
+regular military establishment. Policemen may be drawn from those
+selected annually for compulsory military service. The armed forces'
+personnel regulations apply to militiamen acquired from the draft
+process or from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>military schools. Graduates of civilian schools are
+employed in the police force to meet its requirements for specialists
+who are not trained in the armed forces. These individuals and others
+who have had no association with the armed forces retain civilian status
+and are subject to the provisions of the labor code and other
+regulations applicable to civilian employees.</p>
+
+<p>The militia's personnel strength of 500,000 in 1972 means that about one
+person in every forty of the country's population is in, or employed by,
+the force. The reason for this high ratio is that the militia
+organization has branches at all government levels, from the national
+ministry down to the village. Also, its working groups include nearly
+all of the country's guard, regulatory, investigative, and paramilitary
+organizations, as well as those performing police and firefighting
+functions.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Security Troops</p>
+
+<p>Security forces organized at the national level to protect the regime
+from subversive activities, whether locally or externally generated,
+were created in the late 1940s and are still maintained. The force in
+1972 numbered roughly 20,000 men. It is organized along military lines,
+and most, if not all, of its men have military rank. It receives its
+administrative and logistic support from the Ministry of Internal
+Affairs but is supervised by the State Security Council.</p>
+
+<p>According to pronouncements made during anniversary ceremonies held in
+August of 1968, during their twenty years of service the security troops
+had been a consistently reliable force. Their mission was described as
+identifying and apprehending foreign espionage agents and combating
+local spies, saboteurs, agitators, and terrorists. It was declared that
+the forces operated under the leadership and direct guidance of the
+party and governmental leadership and that local security forces were
+controlled by the party authorities in districts and cities.</p>
+
+<p>Pronouncements by the leadership about their local subordination
+notwithstanding, the security troops, which are the direct descendants
+of the old secret police, are still controlled at the national level.
+Because of their declining mission in counter-espionage and
+counter-subversion, they undoubtedly cooperate wherever possible in
+usual militia functions, but they appear to have only nominal
+responsibilities to local government agencies.</p>
+
+<p>The diminishing role of the security troops is evident in several areas.
+Their personnel strength in 1971 was a fraction of that of the militia.
+The country's efforts against external threat have been increasingly
+relegated to the regular armed forces. Also, although the chairman of
+the State Security Council&mdash;which was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>newly established in 1968&mdash;is a
+member of the Council of Ministers, in 1970 he was the only man on the
+security council who was a ranking party member, and he was no more than
+an alternate member of the Executive Committee of the Central Committee
+of the Romanian Communist Party. His vice chairmen were military
+officers, and only one of them was prominent enough in the party to have
+been a member of the Central Committee. It is evident that the State
+Security Council in Romania does not have the status of the high-level
+groups that in some countries have the responsibility for coordinating
+party and governmental activities relating to national security and for
+providing basic guidance to all of the various military, paramilitary,
+and police agencies.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">PUBLIC ORDER</p>
+
+<p>As is the case in the other communist countries that pattern their
+systems after that of the Soviet Union, Romania's leadership relies on
+the party and several mass organizations to foster a climate in which
+the people will actively support and cooperate with the regime. These
+organizations involve as large a segment of the population as possible
+in a broad spectrum of programs and functions. The efforts they elicit
+from their members may consist of activities within the organizations
+themselves or in local governments, judicial systems, and security
+groups. Mass popular involvement provides an influence that is generally
+subtle but that may become direct pressure.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Mass Organizations</p>
+
+<p>The party attempts to attract the most competent and elite element of
+the people, to ensure that its members adhere to basic socialist
+ideology, and to maintain the power to direct and control all other
+groups involved in major social and governmental activities. The mass
+organizations support the party and carry its programs to special
+interest groups. They keep the party informed of the concerns of their
+members and may also, within certain limitations, have an influence upon
+the party's actions (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>There are about a dozen mass organizations. The Socialist Unity Front is
+not typical of the group, as in theory it encompasses all of the others
+as well as the party&mdash;although it supports and serves the party. It
+functions as a coordinating agency in such things as running the
+national elections.</p>
+
+<p>The largest typical groups are the General Union of Trade Unions and the
+youth groups. There are three of the latter: the Union of Communist
+Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist&mdash;UTC), the Pioneers Organization,
+and the Union of Student Associations. The UTC is a general group whose
+members are between <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>fifteen and twenty-six years of age, although
+members in leadership positions may retain their affiliation beyond the
+upper age limit. The pioneers are the younger children, seven through
+fourteen years old; their program is designed so that they move
+naturally into the UTC when they become fifteen. The student groups are
+organized in universities or in schools beyond the secondary level. They
+have experienced difficulties in attracting members and in persuading
+those they have attracted to accept all of the principles set down for
+them (see ch. 9).</p>
+
+<p>The other organizations are a miscellaneous aggregation, including a
+women's organization, the Red Cross, a sports and physical education
+group, one that involves the various ethnic nationalities, another that
+is a Jewish federation only, one that is designed to foster ties of
+friendship with the Soviet Union, and one designed for the defense of
+peace. Although they are highly dissimilar and vary widely in
+importance, all are designed to attract groups with special fields of
+interest and to guide such groups into activities that promote harmony
+and order.</p>
+
+<p>The labor and youth groups, in addition to being the largest, are also
+those most actively charged with supporting the regime. Labor union
+members are active in auxiliaries of the militia and in the military
+reserves. The UTC membership spans most of the age group that is drafted
+into the regular armed services and the security forces. Within the
+services it forms units throughout the organizational structures that
+either direct or actively assist in political indoctrination programs
+and manage sports and recreational activities. Where a party cell
+exists, the UTC is guided by it; where the military unit is too small to
+have a party cell, the UTC functions in its place.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Youth Programs</p>
+
+<p>Although the economy has improved and the internal security situation
+has stabilized, youth problems have increased, and much effort is being
+expended on their solution. Officials point out that the percentage of
+young people that have become criminals or whose antisocial conduct gets
+most of the publicity is very small. They complain, however, that the
+number of those who will not associate with the UTC and who display
+other negative behavior is far too great. Negative behavior on the part
+of young people reportedly involves their manner of speech and dress,
+which "offends common decency," their creation of public disturbances,
+their apathy toward work, and the fact that many of them have become
+cynical and infatuated with "wrong beliefs."</p>
+
+<p>Authorities understand the youthful tendency to be nonconformist and
+accept the fact that a certain amount of the behavior <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>they deplore is
+an attempt to affirm new and differing youth attitudes. Attitudes and
+conduct considered to have exceeded permissible bounds, however, are
+dealt with firmly. Leaders blame the inadequacies of some educational
+facilities; the ignorance, injustice, or excessive indulgence on the
+part of some parents and educators; and the overlenient courts.</p>
+
+<p>Solutions that have been proposed since the late 1960s have run the
+gamut from advice to parents to the creation of powerful governmental
+agencies. Parents are admonished to take a firm attitude toward their
+children. The first secretary of the Central Committee of the UTC was
+made a member of the Council of Ministers, as minister for youth
+problems. University student associations have been given much new
+attention, as have the other youth organizations and their programs. The
+militia, armed forces, and security troops have been required to
+undertake programs to cooperate with youth organizations.</p>
+
+<p>During 1969 the minister for youth problems was provided a research
+center by the Council of Ministers. Its purpose was to investigate the
+problems experienced by schools, universities, youth mass organizations,
+the militia, and the courts. As case studies are documented, the center
+is directed to evaluate the problems and the solutions found for them
+locally at the time they occurred and to disseminate the information,
+with additional comments and recommendations, as widely as possible.</p>
+
+<p>In early 1971 a considerably invigorated program was unveiled for the
+UTC. Wherever possible, all programs were to become more mature and more
+stimulating. Military exercises would involve field trips and more
+realistic maneuvers. Aerial sports would include parachuting, gliding,
+and powered flight. Hobbies, such as model ship building, amateur radio,
+and the study of topography, were to be given more adequate supervision.
+Better equipment and facilities would be supplied for touring,
+motorcycling, mountaineering, skiing, and hiking. More youths were to be
+scheduled for summer camps. No information concerning the effectiveness
+of the new programs had been made available by early 1972.</p>
+
+<p>Many university students held their party-sponsored associations in low
+regard during the middle and late 1960s, and eventually the
+then-existing student unions were dissolved or consolidated into the new
+Union of Student Associations. The incentives and pressures that were
+applied, in addition to revamping the union's programs, had succeeded by
+1970 in re-animating the association to the point that it was active in
+all of the country's universities and institutes of higher learning. It
+was authorized to make recommendations applicable to extracurricular
+sports and tourist programs, political education, and the entire
+academic area of the educational establishment.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>Programs for the young pioneer groups have probably not been the object
+of the same degree of reform effort that has been applied to the UTC and
+the student associations. A party spokesman stated in late 1971,
+however, that the 1.6 million pioneers were not too young to develop a
+socialist consciousness and to be given a communist education. He stated
+that their major programs should feature direct involvement in work of
+educational and civic value.</p>
+
+<p>To give young people a sense of accomplishment, as well as to keep them
+occupied in meaningful and productive work, large numbers of them are
+organized into youth construction groups. In typical situations
+temporary housing or camps are built near the project, and all necessary
+facilities are provided at the site. During the spring of 1970, for
+example, five such groups were scattered throughout the country,
+operating concurrently. A majority of the projects have involved land
+reclamation, irrigation, or drainage. Many of them are major
+undertakings, and thousands of young people take part in the program.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">CRIME AND THE PENAL SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p>During a 1971 discussion on the judiciary's philosophy with regard to
+the general subjects of law and freedom, the chairman of the Supreme
+Court stated that the penal code and criminal procedures adopted in 1968
+assign to the law the role of regulator of social behavior. The law has
+become, he said, not simply an instrument stipulating the rights and
+obligations of the citizen; its important social role provides a firm
+foundation for society's behavior. Other spokesmen have amplified this
+theme. They emphasize that, once an individual understands the law and
+its objectives, he appreciates the fact that individual freedom is
+related to the freedom of others and that a free individual is bound to
+respect accepted ideological concepts and accepted moral and judicial
+standards.</p>
+
+<p>Public prosecutors have a broad range of responsibility in the judicial
+and penal systems. Their duties are not confined to handling the
+prosecution of indicted individuals who have been brought to trial. As
+the appointed protectors of the civil liberties of the people, their
+duties extend from crime prevention to rehabilitation of criminals
+serving prison sentences. They are responsible for seeing that crimes
+are detected and investigated and that penal action is taken against the
+criminal. They also see to it that the criminal is held in preventive
+detention, if necessary, before trial. After sentencing, the prosecutors
+have access to any place in which the criminal might be detained and
+pass on the legalities of the detention and the conditions within the
+penal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>institution. If a sentence either does not involve imprisonment
+(but is, for example, in the form of a fine, restriction, or extra work)
+or is suspended, the prosecutors ensure that the terms of the sentence
+are carried out.</p>
+
+<p>Public prosecutors are monitored by the Office of the Prosecutor General
+at the national level. The prosecutor general (attorney general) assures
+that the work of local public prosecutors is consistent throughout the
+country, both in the choice of cases to pursue and in the diligence with
+which the prosecution is undertaken (see ch. 8).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Crime</p>
+
+<p>Statistics released to the public do not include crime rates. Reliable
+data that would include petty crime would, in any event, be difficult to
+obtain because many minor infractions of law and all but the more
+serious of personal disputes are not termed crimes and are tried before
+the hundreds of local judicial commissions.</p>
+
+<p>A rough assessment of the overall crime situation can, however, be made
+from the concern expressed in the many speeches and articles published
+by government and party spokesmen. It is apparent that certain types of
+crime are considered to be adequately under control and occur
+infrequently enough to be statistically tolerable. There are, for
+example, few trials in the political category, such as those where
+dissidents are accused of attempting to undermine the authority of the
+regime or to subvert the population from the approved ideology. In an
+exceptional case (apparently at least his second serious offense) an
+engineer found guilty of passing economic information to a foreigner
+received a twenty-five-year sentence in March 1971 for espionage.
+Similar trials were a frequent occurrence during the early 1950s, but
+much of the publicity they have received since the mid-1960s has
+occurred because they have become so infrequent as to be noteworthy.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, to emphasize the more moderate and strictly legal
+procedures adhered to by police forces and the judiciary, some of the
+1950 political trials are being reexamined. Most of those sentenced to
+imprisonment from such trials have been amnestied, the largest group in
+1964. A few of those who were executed are still being posthumously
+rehabilitated.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there is a greater percentage of crimes in the
+categories that are sometimes attributed to an improvement in the
+standard of living but that reflect dissatisfaction with the rate of the
+improvement. These include economic crimes&mdash;theft and
+embezzlement&mdash;misuse or abuse of property, and antisocial crimes and
+crimes of violence, which are committed most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>frequently by younger
+people. Party officials also deplore the prevalence of laxity in the use
+of state property and in the safeguarding of official information and
+documents.</p>
+
+<p>Measures taken to combat crime have had varying degrees of success.
+Speculation is illegal, but efforts to prevent private sales of new and
+used cars at excessive profit have been ineffective. Cars two to five
+years old sell for more than their original cost. Crimes such as
+vagrancy, begging, and prostitution were, as of late 1970, defying the
+best efforts of the militia and the courts. This type of crime had been
+prevalent during the early post-World War II period but declined after
+about 1950. During the late 1960s it again began to increase. The
+militia has also encountered a problem in the amount of popular
+cooperation it is able to count upon. Individuals who have identified
+persons as having committed criminal acts have been subjected to
+reprisals. The militia has, however, been able to show good results
+against vandalism, pilfering, and petty theft. By mid-1971 crimes of
+that category had been reduced to pre-1969 levels.</p>
+
+<p>The 1968 Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) invasion of
+Czechoslovakia generated a certain amount of disillusion that probably
+contributed to the increase, during the late 1960s, in attempts to
+emigrate illegally. An &eacute;migr&eacute; reported that about 40 percent of the
+prison populations at Arad and Timisoara, or some 500 inmates, had
+failed in attempts to cross the border into Hungary. Most of them were
+reportedly twenty to thirty years old and were serving sentences of from
+one to five years.</p>
+
+<p>Modern crime-fighting facilities have been introduced more slowly than
+has been the case in the more prosperous European countries. During 1970
+the Ministry of Justice established the Central Crime Laboratory and two
+branch, or interdistrict, laboratories. All of them serve the militia,
+the security and armed forces, the courts, and the public prosecutors.
+They are equipped to assist in the investigation of all aspects of
+crimes except those where medical and legal services are required. They
+include facilities for handwriting, fingerprint, and ballistic analyses
+and analysis of documents (for counterfeiting or alteration) and for
+performing a number of other physical and chemical tests.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Traffic Control</p>
+
+<p>Traffic control demands a sizable portion of police energies, although
+by 1972 highway use remained low in comparison to the rest of the
+continent. There had been few motor vehicles before World War II, and
+numbers for personal use or for motor transport increased slowly during
+the immediate postwar years. Since <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>about 1955, however, both categories
+have become available at an accelerated rate.</p>
+
+<p>In 1963 traffic was up over 200 percent (and in 1965 approximately 300
+percent) from 1955 levels. Total numbers of vehicles increased at about
+10 percent a year during the late 1960s, and the number of those that
+were privately licensed doubled during the two-year period 1968 and
+1969. Encouraged by the government during approximately the same period,
+tourist traffic tripled.</p>
+
+<p>Irresponsible driving, lack of traffic controls, and lack of concern for
+their danger on the part of pedestrians, bicyclists, and wagon drivers
+contributed to an acceleration in the number of accidents and casualties
+that paralleled the increase in traffic. In 1969 there were 2,070 deaths
+resulting from about 5,300 reported accidents. Only about 40 percent of
+the victims were occupants of the vehicles involved and, of them, a
+considerably larger number of passengers than drivers were killed.
+Nearly 50 percent of the total fatalities were pedestrians; the
+remainder were on bicycles or wagons.</p>
+
+<p>Considering accident statistics higher than warranted by the rising
+volume of traffic, the regime had enacted a series of stricter control
+measures, the bulk of them in 1968. Officials analyzing the problem
+attributed most of the poor record to disregard for driving regulations
+and inadequate traffic controls. Excessive speed had accounted for about
+40 percent of the accidents. Driving under the influence of alcohol,
+failure to pay attention, and failure to yield the right of way
+accounted, in that order, for most of the others. Drivers were blamed
+for about 65 percent of accidents, pedestrians for 31 percent, and
+malfunction of vehicles for 4 percent. Accidents in which alcohol was a
+factor tended to be the most serious. One in every 2.3 alcohol-related
+accidents resulted in a fatality.</p>
+
+<p>After 1968 the more stringent regulations and measures to enforce them
+began to yield results. By 1970, although both the numbers of local
+automobiles and tourist traffic had continued to increase steadily,
+accidents had decreased by 8 percent; and deaths and injuries from them
+were down by 7 and 8 percent, respectively. Officials gave credit to an
+educational program in secondary schools, the beginnings of a vehicle
+inspection program, and positive actions taken to reduce driving after
+drinking, as well as to the new regulations and enforcement efforts.
+During 1970 the militia suspended about 20,000 operators' licenses,
+canceling a number of them.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure</p>
+
+<p>The penal code in effect before 1968 was one of the most severe in
+Europe. The penal code and the code of criminal procedure that have
+replaced it attempt to ensure that criminals are not able to evade the
+penalties provided for in the law but, at the same time, there is a
+stated guarantee against the arrest, trial, or conviction of innocent
+persons. Protective measures for accused persons are to be respected by
+all law enforcement and judicial agencies.</p>
+
+<p>It is emphasized that an individual is found guilty according to the
+relevant evidence in his case. Courts are instructed to base sentences
+on the crime, rather than on an individual's reputation or extenuating
+circumstances. A Romanian assumes legal responsibility and is subject to
+the codes at age fourteen; he is considered an adult before the courts
+at age sixteen.</p>
+
+<p>If the possible sentence for an alleged crime is five years or more, the
+accused is guaranteed counsel during any part of the investigation that
+involves his presence after he has been taken into custody, in the
+preparation of his defense, and throughout his trial. Minors and
+enlisted military personnel are authorized counsel without regard to the
+possible sentence. The defense counsel has access to all findings that
+are uncovered by the prosecutor or other investigators during the
+investigation of the case. Except in special cases specified in the law,
+trials are public. Decisions as to guilt or innocence and the sentence
+handed down are concurred in by a majority vote of the judges and
+people's assessors on the court.</p>
+
+<p>The maximum prison sentence for a first offense is twenty years; for a
+repeated serious offense, it may be twenty-five years. The death
+sentence is also authorized, but it may be commuted to life
+imprisonment. The most severe sentences are still authorized for crimes
+in the political category&mdash;those endangering the state, the regime, or
+the society. Serious crimes against property and crimes of violence
+against a person are also considered grave but, unless they are
+exceptional, are not punishable by death. A person receiving the death
+penalty has five days in which to request a pardon. If the sentence is
+carried out, execution is by a firing squad.</p>
+
+<p>The new codes attempt to reduce court time spent on minor offenses.
+Those that constitute no significant danger to society and should be
+prevented from recurring by social pressures have been removed from the
+list of crimes and have been relegated to the judicial commissions. In
+other cases, where an act is still classified as a crime, an offender
+may elect to plead guilty without a trial. If he does, he is charged
+one-half the minimum fine for the offense, and the case is closed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>Pretrial preventive detention is authorized to protect the individual,
+to assure that he will not elude trial, or to prevent his committing
+further criminal acts. Detention is ordinarily limited to five days for
+investigation of a crime or to thirty days if the person has been
+arrested and is awaiting trial. Extensions up to ninety days are
+authorized if requested by the prosecutor in the case. Longer extensions
+may be granted by the court.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Romanian press, which has commented on the way that the
+new codes have served the people, examples of poor performance are
+usually attributable to the inertia of the bureaucracy. When citizens'
+rights are withheld, red tape or over-worked personnel are most
+frequently to blame. Occasionally, however, officials are unresponsive
+to individuals' requests and provide services grudgingly without an
+adequate justification for delay.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Courts</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution charges the judiciary with the defense of socialist
+order and the rights of citizens in the spirit of respect for the law.
+It also gives the courts responsibility for correcting and educating
+citizens who appear before them, to prevent further violations of the
+law. Party leader Nicolae Ceausescu, in a 1970 pronouncement, indicated
+that the party leadership may feel that the law should stress to an even
+greater extent the defense of the state and society rather than the
+rights of the individual. According to his statement, the first
+obligation of the courts is to collaborate with the militia and security
+forces and apply lawful punishment to those who disregard order and the
+laws of the country. He went on to say that he considered that the
+concepts of "solicitude for man" and "extenuating circumstances" were
+poorly understood and were abused by overlenient courts. In his view the
+courts had not shown sufficient firmness in cases involving trivial
+infractions, such as rowdiness or minor infractions of the norms of
+social relationships, or in cases dealing with persons who wish to live
+without working (see ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Nonetheless, the court organization, as it was redesigned in 1968, is
+required to operate within a framework that is compatible with the penal
+codes and is thoroughly described and established in the law. Of greater
+significance, there has been an effort to make sure that the system is
+run by adequately qualified personnel. People's assessors, who need have
+no legal education, may outnumber the judges on the lower courts.
+Decisions of these courts may, however, be appealed and, if higher court
+panels are not made up exclusively of professional judges, the judges
+always outnumber the people's assessors. Judges must be lawyers and are
+preferably doctors of law.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>The court system under the Ministry of Justice consists of the Supreme
+Court, <i>judet</i> courts, and lower courts. The lower courts, which might
+be considered lower municipal courts, are usually referred to only as
+"the courts." Bucharest has a court that is an equivalent of a <i>judet</i>
+court, and it has several of the lower courts (see ch. 8).</p>
+
+<p>The lower courts are courts of first instance in all cases they hear.
+This could include cases that had previously been heard by judicial
+commissions. Such cases would not be considered to have been legally
+tried and would require reinvestigation and altogether new prosecutions,
+making sure that rights of the accused and all legal procedures were
+properly observed.</p>
+
+<p>Appeals from the lower courts are heard by <i>judet</i> courts, which are
+also courts of first instance in more serious cases. Final appeal is to
+the Supreme Court. There is no appeal from its decisions, but it is not
+totally free and independent. It is within one of the government's
+ministries and is also responsive to the party leadership.</p>
+
+<p>Judicial commissions function at a level below the formal court system.
+Each such commission is composed of several members (usually five),
+handles a wide variety of cases, and attempts to hear as many of them as
+possible in public. Because the judicial commissions are not a part of
+the court system, their cases are not included among criminal
+statistics. Unless appealed, however, their sentences are binding.
+Official documents describe the commissions as public organs for
+exerting influence and legal control, organized so as to bring about
+broad participation of the masses, providing them with a socialist
+education in legality and promoting a correct attitude toward work and
+good social behavior. The educational benefits are intended both for
+those serving on the commissions and for those who are judged by them.</p>
+
+<p>The commissions handle small damage or personal disagreement suits
+between individuals&mdash;small first offense cases involving public
+property, petty thefts, misuse of property when no willful abuse is
+involved, negligence cases, and traffic violations. Judicial commissions
+set up in enterprises or collectives handle minor labor disputes and
+work-grievance cases. In all situations the commissions attempt to exert
+the influence of public opinion and, in personal disputes, to achieve
+reconciliations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Penal Institutions</p>
+
+<p>Depending upon the seriousness of a crime, its category, and the age and
+occupation of the individual, until the mid-1960s a convicted person was
+confined in a correction camp, a labor colony, a prison or, if subject
+to military law, a military disciplinary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>unit. Prisons included
+penitentiaries, prison factories, town jails, and detention facilities
+of the security troops.</p>
+
+<p>A majority of labor colony inmates were political prisoners and, if
+there were a few of them that had not completed their sentences or were
+not released in amnesties by the mid-1960s, they were probably
+transferred to penitentiaries. Increased use of judicial commissions for
+petty crimes and an accompanying change minimizing confinement in lesser
+cases have further reduced prison populations and eliminated the need
+for separate categories of correction institutions. As a result, the
+1970 law on the execution of court sentences treats all places of
+confinement as prisons or penitentiaries (under the authority of the
+Ministry of Internal Affairs) or as military disciplinary units (under
+the Ministry of the Armed Forces).</p>
+
+<p>Place of detention vary, nonetheless. Maximum security prisons are
+provided for those convicted of crimes against the state's security,
+serious economic crimes, homicides or other violent crimes, and
+recidivists. All convicted persons are obliged to perform useful work,
+and an effort must be made to educate and rehabilitate the inmates.
+Consequently, all but town jails and those facilities designed to hold
+persons for short stays have labor and educational facilities.</p>
+
+<p>A convict is paid according to the country's standard wage scales. He
+receives 10 percent of his wages; the remainder goes to the penitentiary
+administration as state income. The maximum working day is twelve hours.
+If work norms are regularly exceeded, sentences are shortened
+accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>Inmates are segregated for various reasons. Women are separated from
+men; minors, from adults; and recidivists and those convicted of serious
+crimes, from those serving short terms. Drug addicts and alcoholics are
+isolated whenever possible. Persons held in preventive arrest, not yet
+convicted of a crime, are separated when possible from convicted
+persons. Unless their conduct is considered intolerably uncooperative,
+they are not denied the ordinary prison privileges.</p>
+
+<p>Usual convict privileges include some visits, packages, and
+correspondence. Privileges allowed vary with the severity of the
+original sentence and may be increased, reduced, or done away with
+altogether, depending upon the inmate's attitude and behavior.
+Consistently good conduct may also earn parole. An inmate who performs
+an exceptional service may be pardoned altogether; many were freed for
+their work in combating the great floods during the spring of 1970.</p>
+
+<p>Other disciplinary measures include reprimand, simple isolation, severe
+isolation, or transfer to an institution with a more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>severe regimen.
+All convict mail is censored, and correspondence whose content is
+considered unsuitable is withheld. Conversation during visits is limited
+to Romanian or to a language familiar to someone available to monitor
+what is said.</p>
+
+<p>Amnesties are granted periodically. Some, such as those that freed
+political prisoners in 1964 and the one in late 1970, reduce prison
+populations considerably. They may, as in 1964, free a particular
+category of prisoner or, as in the December 30, 1970, amnesty, serve to
+reduce sentences of all types but on a basis of the amount of the term
+unserved. At that time full pardon was granted all who had less than a
+year of their sentences to serve, even if an individual had been
+sentenced but had not yet begun to serve the term. Full pardon was also
+granted to pregnant women, women with children under five years of age
+who had up to three years of their sentences remaining, and to all women
+over the age of sixty. The amnesty even applied to cases in court.
+Trials were to continue, but the amnesty would take effect if it were
+applicable to the sentence. If, however, an amnestied person committed
+another crime within three years, he would be confined for the unserved
+portion of his commuted sentence in addition to the new one.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 13</h2>
+
+<h2>ARMED FORCES</h2>
+
+
+<p>In 1971 Romania was a member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw
+Pact), but it was not fully cooperating in its activities nor in total
+agreement with the Soviet Union's interpretation of the organization's
+mission. Romania saw little threat to its territorial boundaries or to
+its ideology from the West. On the other hand, since the invasion of
+Czechoslovakia in 1968 by other pact members, various Romanian leaders
+have expressed concern about the danger to individual sovereignty from
+within the pact itself.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the nation's military history has been that of an alliance
+partner. It has not fought a major battle in any other capacity. How
+well it has fared at peace tables has depended in large part on the fate
+of its allies or how the peacemakers believed that the Balkan area of
+the continent should be divided. In this tradition Romania aligns itself
+without significant reservation with the Warsaw Pact.</p>
+
+<p>The military establishment consists of ground, naval, air and air
+defense, and frontier forces. They are administered by a defense
+ministry, which in turn is responsible to the chief of state. At topmost
+policy levels, party leaders are interwoven into the controlling group.
+Political education throughout the forces is supervised by a directorate
+of the ministry, but the directorate is responsible to the Romanian
+Communist Party.</p>
+
+<p>Military service has become a national tradition, although the tradition
+is based largely on the continuing existence of sizable armed forces.
+The people accept the military establishment willingly enough even
+though conscription removes a great part of the young male population
+from the labor force for periods of from sixteen to twenty-four months.
+The military services are not an overwhelming financial burden and, in
+local terms, the forces undoubtedly have value to the regime. They
+support it and give it an appearance of power. Also, the discipline and
+political indoctrination given the conscripts during their military
+service is considered beneficial to them and to the country.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">HISTORICAL BACKGROUND</p>
+
+<p>The armed forces have been dependent on some major power for arms supply
+during most of the country's independent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>history. Equipment and
+assistance were furnished by Germany between 1870 and 1916. During that
+time, although the country's population was hardly more than 10 million,
+with German help it was able to support a large army. It fielded about
+500,000 men against Bulgaria in 1913 during the Second Balkan War, for
+example. In 1916 Romania joined the World War I Allies, but its forces
+were defeated within a few months and were idled until a few days before
+the armistice in November 1918. From then until just before World War II
+they were assisted by France and, to a lesser degree by Great Britain
+(see ch. 2).</p>
+
+<p>Because of the political situation at the time, Romania was unable to
+offer resistance when the Soviet Union, by terms of its agreement with
+Germany in 1939, annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. In June 1941,
+however when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Romania joined the
+Germans. Its forces fought the Soviets until 1944 but, after the battle
+for Stalingrad in 1943, they became too war weary to perform at their
+best. In 1944, as the Germans were being pushed westward, Romania was
+overrun by Soviet armies and joined them against Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all of the military tradition cited by communist regimes since
+World War II starts at this point. On occasions honoring the forces they
+are reminded that they mobilized more than 500,000 men for this
+campaign, suffered 170,000 casualties, and liberated 3,800 localities
+while helping to push the German armies about 600 miles from central
+Romania.</p>
+
+<p>A postwar buildup of Romania's forces began in 1947. Since then all
+major weapons and heavy equipment have been of Soviet design, and
+organization and training largely followed the Soviet model.</p>
+
+<p>When the Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 its members were given alliance
+responsibilities, and new procedures were introduced to enable them to
+perform as an integrated force. More modern equipment was furnished,
+basic units were brought closer to authorized combat strengths, and
+training was undertaken on a larger and more exacting scale. Romania's
+forces were expanded to nearly the maximum that could be readily
+sustained by universal conscription. Strengths were greatest before
+1964, especially during the Berlin and Cuban crises of the early 1960s.
+Reduction of the tour of duty in 1964 to sixteen months for most
+conscripts necessitated a slight reduction in the overall size of the
+forces.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">GOVERNMENTAL AND PARTY CONTROL OVER THE ARMED FORCES</p>
+
+<p>The Ministry of the Armed Forces is the governmental agency that
+administers the military forces, but policymaking is a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>prerogative of
+the party hierarchy. Top ministry officials are always party members and
+often concurrently hold important party posts. In 1971 Nicolae
+Ceausescu&mdash;as president and chief of state, supreme commander of the
+armed forces, and chairman of the Defense Council&mdash;was, in each case,
+the immediate superior of the minister of the armed forces. At the same
+time, the minister of the armed forces was an alternate member of the
+executive committee of the party and, as such, not only was an important
+party leader but was again responsible to Ceausescu, this time in the
+latter's capacity as the party's general secretary.</p>
+
+<p>One of the deputy ministers of the armed forces is secretary of the
+Higher Political Council. Although administered within the ministry,
+this council is responsible to the party's Central Committee. It is in
+charge of political education in the military establishment and has an
+organization paralleling, and collocated with, that of the regular
+services. It penetrates into the lower service units to monitor the
+content and effectiveness of political training in troop units.</p>
+
+<p>The Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist&mdash;UTC), the
+junior affiliate of the Romanian Communist Party, has responsibility for
+premilitary training and for active political work among the troops in
+their duty organizations. The UTC's premilitary programs prepare youth
+for military duty by introducing them to basic training and technical
+skills in addition to political indoctrination. Within the military
+organization, UTC work includes political educational programs conducted
+on duty and sports, cultural, and recreational activities conducted off
+duty (see ch. 12).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">ORGANIZATION AND MISSION</p>
+
+<p>The regular forces, which include the frontier troops, are under
+administrative and tactical control of the Ministry of the Armed Forces.
+The minister has a number of deputies, including the chiefs of the main
+directorates for training, political affairs, and rear services
+(logistics) and the chief of the general staff. The heads of operational
+or major tactical commands are also immediately subordinate to the
+minister. The highest level of the tactical organization includes the
+headquarters of the naval and air forces, the frontier troops, and the
+military regions (see fig. 10).</p>
+
+<p>Area organization includes two military regions, with headquarters at
+Cluj and Iasi, and the Bucharest garrison. Regional headquarters, which
+are simultaneously corps headquarters of the ground forces, control
+support facilities for all services.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep214" id="imagep214"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep214.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep214.jpg" width="65%" alt="Figure 10. Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><i>Figure 10. Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>All commanders and force personnel subordinate to the minister are part
+of the regular military establishment, although appointments to the
+higher commands may be determined in varying degrees by political
+considerations. The minister is a political appointee but, whether or
+not he has had a military background, he assumes a senior military rank.
+The Romanian practice deviates from the usual in such situations,
+however, where the minister is expected to have an actual or honorary
+rank superior to any officer in his forces. The minister of the armed
+forces in 1971, for example, was appointed in 1966. He was promoted from
+colonel general to army general after about four years in his position
+and, during the early period, was technically subordinate in rank to an
+army general who commanded the General Military Academy in Bucharest.</p>
+
+<p>In 1972 there were about 200,000 men in the regular forces. About 75
+percent were in ground force or in support units common to all services.
+About 5 percent were naval; 10 percent, air force; and the remainder,
+frontier troops. The air force percentage included air defense forces.</p>
+
+<p>When the mission of the armed forces is being described in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>relation to
+the Warsaw Pact, it is pointed out that the forces are structured and
+trained for major operations in concert with their allies against a
+common enemy. Because organized Romanian forces have not been involved
+in a major conflict except as junior partners in an alliance force, this
+experience makes the concept of participation in the Warsaw Pact mission
+easy to accept. Since about 1960, however, leaders have expressed
+ambitions to act somewhat independently of the Warsaw Pact. In this
+context the pact mission is occasionally downgraded or passed over in
+nonspecific terms. The forces' mission is then described as defense of
+the country only, and their use is said to be allowable only to resist
+aggression against Romania.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Ground Forces</p>
+
+<p>The ground forces are commonly referred to as the army, although the
+Romanian People's Army comprises all of the regular armed forces
+administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces. The ground forces
+proper have two tank and seven motorized-rifle divisions and a few other
+smaller combat units, including mountain, airborne, and artillery
+outfits of varying sizes. Combat units are thought to be kept at about
+90 percent of their full authorized strengths. Most of the support
+agencies that provide services needed by all service organizations are
+manned by ground force personnel. Strength of the ground forces in 1972
+was estimated at between 130,000 and 170,000.</p>
+
+<p>Divisions are organized on the same pattern as those in the other Warsaw
+Pact countries. Tank divisions have one artillery, one motorized-rifle,
+and three tank regiments. Motorized-rifle divisions have one tank, one
+artillery, and three motorized-rifle regiments.</p>
+
+<p>The division is the basic combat unit, and all of them have their own
+essential service and support outfits. They are, however, subordinate to
+corps headquarters of the military regions rather than directly to the
+Ministry of the Armed Forces.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Air and Air Defense Forces</p>
+
+<p>The commander of the air and air defense forces occupies a position
+parallel to that of the commanders of the military districts and the
+naval and frontier forces. His immediate superior is the minister of the
+armed forces. His tactical units include about twenty fighter-bomber and
+fighter-interceptor squadrons and a squadron each of transports,
+reconnaissance aircraft, and helicopters. These units have a total of
+about 250 aircraft; there are about the same number of trainers and
+light utility planes.</p>
+
+<p>Of the combat aircraft, MiG-17s would be used in the ground support
+role; MiG-19s and MiG-21s are interceptors that would <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>be used in
+air-to-air combat. The reconnaissance squadron has Il-28 twin jet-engine
+light bombers. These airplanes are obsolescent, if not obsolete, and
+their crews are trained for reconnaissance only. A limited transport
+capability is provided by about a dozen twin-engine, piston-type
+transports. They are old and slow but are adequate for the
+short-distance work required of them. The helicopter squadron is
+equipped for air evacuation, for delivery of supplies to inaccessible
+areas, and for short-range reconnaissance.</p>
+
+<p>Interceptor squadrons are presumably integrated into the Warsaw Pact air
+defense network, which is designed to function as a unit over all of
+Eastern Europe. The small numbers of fighter-bombers are probably
+capable of providing no more than marginal support for Romania's own
+ground forces.</p>
+
+<p>Air defenses include surface-to-air missiles, antiaircraft artillery,
+and early warning and aircraft control sites. Surface-to-air missiles
+and their launching equipment, larger antiaircraft guns, radars, and
+most of the complex communication equipment are furnished by the Soviet
+Union.</p>
+
+<p>Air defenses in all of the Warsaw Pact countries are integrated into a
+common network. Romania's are important because the southwestern border
+with Yugoslavia is the point at which an attack from the western
+Mediterranean Sea could be first detected. Within the country, Bucharest
+and Ploiesti have point missile defenses.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Naval Forces</p>
+
+<p>The naval organization includes headquarters, schools, a major base at
+Mangalia, a minor base at Constanta, and stations on the Danube River.
+Mangalia is a Black Sea port about twenty-five miles south of Constanta
+and just north of the Bulgarian border. Naval personnel in 1972 numbered
+somewhat fewer than 10,000. The force has almost 200 vessels, but they
+are an assortment of old and miscellaneous ships that have little
+capability outside their local environment. None of them is designed to
+operate more than a few miles from the coast line and definitely not
+beyond the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p>Ships include minesweepers, escort vessels, patrol and torpedo boats,
+and a large assortment of small miscellaneous craft. Five of the patrol
+boats are of the modern Soviet Osa class and carry a short-range
+surface-to-surface missile. A few of the torpedo boats are fast,
+although they are not the latest models. Minesweepers have limited
+offshore capability but, if protected, could clear the Danube River and
+essential parts of its delta.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>Frontier Troops</p>
+
+<p>Borders with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia have defenses and are guarded, and
+there is some effort to patrol the Black Sea coastline. Borders with the
+Soviet Union and Hungary are not controlled except at highway and rail
+crossing points. Because the Danube River forms the greater share of the
+controlled borders, much of the patrolling is done by boat.</p>
+
+<p>During the 1950s and early 1960s frontier or border troops were
+subordinate to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and were difficult to
+distinguish, except in their deployment, from that ministry's security
+troops. During the latter part of the 1960s authority over the border
+forces passed to the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but the move was
+apparently accomplished over a period of time, and the decree
+formalizing the transfer was not published until September 1971. The
+commander of the frontier troops is one of the major operational
+commanders under the minister of the armed forces and is on a level with
+the chiefs of the military regions, the air and air defense force, and
+naval forces.</p>
+
+<p>Regulations defining border areas to be controlled and describing the
+authority of the forces were amended in late 1969. The border strip is a
+prohibited area, which is fenced in some places and often patrolled. On
+level, dry ground, it is sixty-five-feet wide but, where the borderline
+crosses marshy or rugged terrain, it may be widened enough to afford the
+troops easier access and control.</p>
+
+<p>A border zone varies in width but extends into the country from the
+strip and includes towns and communes. Frontier troops have overall
+control within the zone. They are instructed not to interfere more than
+necessary with usual human activities in it and to cooperate with the
+local police, whom they do not supplant. Although they are paramount in
+the zone, they are not restricted to it and may work fifteen or twenty
+miles into the interior if necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Troops are charged with controlling people, goods, and communications at
+the border and preventing unauthorized passage and smuggling. The major
+port city of Constanta, on the Black Sea coast, is listed as an
+exception to most of the border control regulations. Its city territory
+does not have a border strip, nor is it within a border zone. The
+regulation is presumably intended to facilitate port and shipping
+operations and to keep the more stringent controls inland from the port
+so that they do not interfere with international trade or tourist
+traffic.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS</p>
+
+<p>Romania is a member of the Warsaw Pact, having joined when the pact was
+created in 1955. It also has bilateral treaties of friendship,
+cooperation, and mutual assistance with each of the other pact nations.
+Since each pact member has signed one of these treaties with all other
+members, all are bound to come to the assistance of any other that is
+attacked. In practical terms all are bound to the defense of any pact
+member in any conflict in which it might become involved since, no
+matter how it started, the other country would be branded the aggressor.</p>
+
+<p>Pact members commit a substantial portion, or all, of their fully
+trained and equipped units to the pact's use. Committed units are
+considered to be part of an integral force. Romanian forces have a role
+in pact plans but, because they have failed to participate in several
+recent pact maneuvers, Western observers have expressed doubt that the
+organization would depend upon effective Romanian cooperation during the
+first phase of a major conflict or for any participation in an action
+such as the Czechoslovak invasion of 1968.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the pact's inception, leaders of the various member
+states were preoccupied with the security of their countries and their
+regimes. A threat from the new North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
+was real to them, as was danger from dissident elements within their own
+borders. It is doubtful whether in 1955 any one of the leadership groups
+seriously considered that its regime might&mdash;by itself or in deference to
+the wishes of its people&mdash;undertake economic or social practices or
+deviate from the ideology in ways that could be considered dangerous to
+the solidarity of the alliance. By 1965, however, Romania had embarked
+upon an independent course, to the extent that it, like Czechoslovakia,
+had reason to fear that it could be the object of retaliatory pact
+action.</p>
+
+<p>In his Bucharest Declaration of July 1966, Nicolae Ceausescu&mdash;who at
+that time was head of the party but had not yet taken over as chief of
+state&mdash;announced that he considered the Warsaw Pact a temporary alliance
+and that it would lose its validity if NATO were to cease functioning.
+Then, in 1968, Romania openly supported the Czechoslovak government,
+denounced the pact's invasion of that country, and did not participate
+in it. Since that time Romania has not permitted other Warsaw Pact
+forces either to hold exercises on its soil or to cross it for maneuvers
+in another country. As a result, Bulgaria can send forces to other
+Eastern European countries only by air or by way of the Black Sea and
+the Soviet Union. Pact exercises held in Bulgaria during <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>the summer of
+1971 were performed by Bulgarian troops; other countries, including
+Romania, sent observers.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to holding its military relations with the Warsaw Pact to a
+minimum, Romania's armed forces have attempted to make contacts with the
+military establishments in other countries. A military delegation
+visited Yugoslavia in 1971, and feelers have been put out to arrange
+other such conferences. A ranking military spokesman has stated that the
+army was developing friendly relations with its counterparts in all the
+countries of the socialist system in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. He
+added that Romania is increasing its relations of cooperation and
+collaboration with the nonsocialist states, as a contribution to the
+development of mutual trust.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">MANPOWER, TRAINING, AND SUPPORT</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Manpower</p>
+
+<p>There are approximately 4.86 million men in the military age group, that
+is, the male population between the ages of eighteen and forty-nine.
+About 3.4 million&mdash;70 percent&mdash;are considered physically and otherwise
+fit for military service (see ch. 3).</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat larger percentage, however, of the 180,000 young men who
+reach the draft age annually are physically able to serve. The
+preponderance of armed forces and most security troop personnel are
+acquired during the annual draft calls. Because of the short duty tours
+required of conscripts, it was necessary in 1971 to call up most of the
+eligible group in order to maintain the forces' strengths.</p>
+
+<p>Men released from active duty, whether they served voluntarily or
+involuntarily, remain subject to recall until the age of fifty. Although
+nearly 100,000 men have been released from the services each year since
+about 1950, only a small portion of them are considered trained
+reserves. Only those recently discharged could be mobilized quickly and
+go into action without extensive retraining. There is insufficient
+emphasis on periodic reserve training to keep many of the older men in
+satisfactory physical condition or up to date on new weapons and
+tactics.</p>
+
+<p>Young men of draft age are potentially good soldier material. There is
+almost no illiteracy within the adult population under fifty-five years
+of age. A large percentage of conscripts have rural, village, or small
+city backgrounds and are in better physical condition than the average
+urban youth. On the minus side, because the country has a low standard
+of living, conscripts have little familiarity with mechanical and
+electronic equipment.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>Based on the numbers of males in lower age groups, the size of the
+annual military manpower pool will remain at about 1971 levels
+throughout the 1970s. It will then drop by nearly 25 percent during the
+first half of the 1980s but will rise sharply&mdash;and again temporarily&mdash;in
+the latter half of that decade. With the exception of the high and low
+periods during the 1980s, governmental population experts expect little
+overall change in available manpower during the remainder of the
+century.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Training</p>
+
+<p>Since about the mid-1960s little public attention has been focused on
+the armed forces. Their capabilities, reliability, and preparedness have
+been taken for granted or have not been the subject of undue concern.
+Unit training and small exercises have been given little coverage in
+local media. Training programs, however, are dictated in large degree by
+organization and equipment and have changed little since 1960.</p>
+
+<p>With the standardization of units, weapons, and tactics accompanying the
+formation of the Warsaw Pact, training was accomplished in Romania as
+directed in translated Soviet manuals. In the Warsaw Pact system the
+training cycle starts when a conscript arrives at his duty organization
+for individual training. This includes strenuous physical conditioning,
+basic instruction in drill, care and use of personal weapons, and
+schooling in a variety of subjects ranging from basic military skills
+and tactics to political indoctrination.</p>
+
+<p>Individual training develops into small group instruction, usually
+around the weapon or equipment the individual will be using. As groups
+became more proficient with their equipment, they use it in exercises
+with larger tactical units under increasingly realistic conditions.
+Romanian forces have not participated since the late 1960s in the Warsaw
+Pact exercises that are usually held at the conclusion of the training
+cycle.</p>
+
+<p>During early individual training, men are selected for a variety of
+special schools. Short courses, in cooking and baking or shoe repairing,
+from which a man emerges ready to work, do not require volunteers and do
+not extend the mandatory duty tour. Longer courses may involve schooling
+for most of the conscript tour or require time on the job after the
+school is completed to develop a fully useful capability, leaving no
+time for the newly acquired skill to be of value to the service. In such
+cases, selections to a school are made from volunteers who are willing
+to extend their period of active duty.</p>
+
+<p>The most capable and cooperative conscripts are offered the opportunity
+to attend noncommissioned officer schools. They must accept voluntarily
+and agree to a longer period of service.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>Frontier troops receive much the same individual training as ground
+force conscripts. Their later instruction involves less large-unit
+tactics and more police training and special subjects dealing with order
+documents and regulations. Larger percentages of naval and air forces
+personnel are required in mechanical or electronic work. Most of those
+who attend technical schools are required to serve for two years.</p>
+
+<p>Reserve training receives little publicity and probably has low
+priority. A few reserves are sometimes called to active outfits for
+short refresher training, but there is little, if any, formal reserve
+training in local all-reserve types of units. The militia (a
+paramilitary organization subordinate to the Ministry of Internal
+Affairs) would probably be drawn upon to augment the services in an
+emergency. It could be expected to provide better trained personnel, in
+better physical condition, than would be acquired calling up untrained
+reserves (see ch. 12).</p>
+
+<p>The General Military Academy in Bucharest&mdash;usually called the Military
+Academy&mdash;is a four-year university-level school whose graduates receive
+regular officer commissions and who are expected to serve as career
+officers. It also offers mid-career command and staff types of courses.
+An advanced academy, the Military Technical Academy, requires that its
+applicants have a university degree; they may be military officers, but
+they are not required to have had military service or military education
+of any sort. The academy offers advanced degrees in military and
+aeronautical engineering and in a variety of other technical areas.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Morale and Conditions of Service</p>
+
+<p>The mandatory tour of duty for basic ground and air force personnel was
+set at sixteen months in 1964. Naval conscripts and some air force
+personnel are required to serve two years. The length of extra service
+required of those who apply and are accepted for special training or who
+wish to become noncommissioned officers varies with the amount of
+training required, with the rank attained, or with the added
+responsibility of the new duty assignment; but it is accepted or
+rejected on a voluntary basis.</p>
+
+<p>Officers and noncommissioned officers serve voluntarily, and morale is
+usually satisfactory within those groups. The service experience of the
+noncommissioned-officer applicants and the long training period required
+of officer candidates assure that both leadership groups understand and
+freely accept the conditions of service before they assume their duty
+responsibilities.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions are reasonably good, and morale in the armed forces is not a
+source of unusual concern to the national leadership. There are few
+exhortations to put extra effort into political <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>indoctrination; a
+large, heavily armed security force to counter a possibly unreliable
+army has not been created; and there are less elaborate ceremonial
+affairs involving the forces than is typical of the Eastern European
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>Romania has had compulsory military service at all times within the
+memory of the draft age group, and it is accepted as a routine fact of
+life. Exemptions from the draft are few, and a large proportion of them
+reflect upon the man because he cannot meet the qualifications for
+service. The tour of duty is brief. The standard of living in the
+country is low, and service life may offer some of the back-country
+young men the best opportunities for travel and excitement that they
+have yet experienced.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Medicine</p>
+
+<p>Physicians required in the armed forces are ordinarily recruited from
+medical schools but may be called from their practices or from hospital
+residence assignments. They then attend a military medical institute in
+Bucharest for specialized instruction in procedures and practices that
+are peculiar to military medical work.</p>
+
+<p>Emergency treatment is given military personnel in the most convenient
+facility, whether or not it is a military clinic. The same is true for
+the civilian population. Inasmuch as military facilities are equipped to
+cope with wartime casualties, they are often better able to deal with
+emergencies or disasters than nonmilitary hospitals, although they are
+seldom kept at wartime strengths during peacetime. They were especially
+commended for their assistance during the great floods that occurred in
+the spring of 1970.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Military Justice</p>
+
+<p>The national penal code enacted in 1968 applies both to military
+personnel and to the public at large. A special section of the code,
+however, deals with military crimes. These are crimes committed by
+military personnel or by nonmilitary personnel on military installations
+or infractions of military regulations. In theory, any court may pass
+judgment on a military crime, but the military court system employs
+specialists in military law who are better able to understand the
+seriousness of crimes committed in relation to the military
+establishment. Military courts seldom surrender cases over which they
+have jurisdiction to civil courts.</p>
+
+<p>There are two types of military courts: military tribunals and
+territorial military tribunals. The former are the lesser of the two and
+are established at major installations or are attached to large tactical
+units. They are the courts of first instance in all cases that come
+before them. The chairman, or judge, must be a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>major or higher ranking
+officer and have a degree in law. The judge is assisted by two people's
+assessors who, on military courts, are active duty officers. People's
+assessors need have no legal training but, as is the case for civil
+courts, they must be twenty-three years of age, have been graduated from
+secondary school, have a good reputation, and have no criminal record.
+In all military trials the judge and people's assessors must hold the
+same rank as, or higher than, the accused.</p>
+
+<p>The higher territorial military tribunals are the courts of first
+instance for very serious crimes or the courts to which sentences of
+lower courts are appealed. In cases in which they are the courts of
+first instance, the court panel consists of at least two judges and
+three people's assessors. When they are hearing an appealed case, the
+panel has a minimum of three judges.</p>
+
+<p>The Supreme Court of the land has final appeal jurisdiction over any
+case it may decide to hear, and it may review any case it chooses or
+that is sent to it by higher governmental agencies. It has a special
+military section that is headed by an officer of major general or higher
+rank. It may be the court of first instance for cases involving the most
+serious crimes or in lesser situations when an important legal precedent
+may be established.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Logistics</p>
+
+<p>Military leaders state that their forces have adequate quantities of
+excellent and modern equipment. As is the situation with all other
+Warsaw Pact countries, Romania has received its heavy weapons and more
+complex equipment from the Soviet Union. Initially the Soviets
+distributed surplus World War II stocks. As these wore out or became
+obsolete, nearly all items were eventually replaced by postwar models.
+More complex and expensive weapons sometimes were used by Soviet forces
+first and appeared in Eastern Europe only after they had been replaced
+in the Soviet Union. In most circumstances, whether they were newly
+manufactured or secondhand, items have been supplied to other forces
+considerably after they were first issued to Soviet troops.</p>
+
+<p>Equipment that is in short supply has not been distributed to each of
+the pact allies on an equal priority basis. Distribution has depended
+upon the strategic importance of the recipient, capability for
+maintaining and using the equipment effectively, and probable
+reliability as an alliance partner. Romania is located where it would
+not be involved in first contacts with any potential enemy of the pact;
+its conscripts' tour, and the resulting time to train individual
+soldiers, is short; it is an underdeveloped country; and it has been
+probing for ways to assert its independence from Moscow. It has not
+therefore been the first to receive newer <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>equipment. The distribution
+of tanks is illustrative. Romania has received adequate numbers to equip
+its combat units and has received all models that have been distributed
+among the pact allies. Romania, however, has been authorized a smaller
+ratio of armored, as compared with motorized-rifle, divisions than is
+average for pact members. Poland and Czechoslovakia have many more
+tanks, and larger percentages of them are modern.</p>
+
+<p>Ground forces have Soviet-made artillery, antitank guns and antitank
+wire-guided missiles, and some short-range surface-to-surface missiles.
+Weapons manufactured locally for the ground forces include all types of
+hand-carried weapons, antitank and antipersonnel grenade launchers, and
+mortars. Ammunition and explosives for most weapons, whether or not the
+weapon is locally produced, are manufactured in the country, as are
+common varieties of communication equipment and spare parts.</p>
+
+<p>All of the air forces' combat aircraft and nearly all of its training
+and miscellaneous types are received from the Soviet Union. Romania
+produces some small utility models. A new one, designed for spraying
+forests and crops, was introduced in 1970 and can be used for military
+liaison.</p>
+
+<p>Approximately the same situation exists with regard to naval vessels.
+The larger vessels and more complex smaller craft are built in the
+Soviet Union or by other members of the pact. Romania produces river
+craft and some smaller types, probably including the inshore
+minesweepers that operate in the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p>Romania is attempting to reduce its dependence upon the Warsaw Pact by
+producing more military mat&eacute;riel within the country. The armed forces
+maintain the Military Achievements Exhibit, designed to show progress in
+local production capability. The exhibit is visited periodically by
+important party and government personalities. Much is made of these
+visits, attempting to show all possible encouragement to the various
+projects.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Ranks, Uniforms, and Decorations</p>
+
+<p>Ranks conform to those in armies worldwide with a few minor exceptions.
+There are the usual four general officer ranks. Field grades are
+conventional and have the three most frequently used titles&mdash;major,
+lieutenant colonel, and colonel. Company grade ranks include captain and
+three lieutenant ranks. There are no warrant officers.</p>
+
+<p>Enlisted ranks also have familiar titles when translated. Basic soldiers
+hold the ranks of private and private first class. Conscripts serve
+their entire tours as privates unless they acquire a speciality or are
+put in charge of a small group. Corporal is the lowest
+noncommissioned-officer rank. Senior noncommissioned-officer grades
+include the ordinarily used sergeant ranks, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>including one (and possibly
+more) that is seldom seen but is equivalent to sergeant major or senior
+master sergeant.</p>
+
+<p>Rank insignia tends to be ornate. All uniforms except the work and
+combat types display it on shoulderboards. Those of general officers
+have intricate gold designs with large gold stars. Other officer ranks
+have smaller stars clustered at the outer ends and stripes running the
+length of the boards. Stripes and borders on any one board are the same
+color, but the various service branches have different colors to
+identify them. For example, armored troops have black; frontier troops
+have light green.</p>
+
+<p>Enlisted men's shoulderboards have no borders, and the background color,
+like the stripes and borders of the officers', indicates the service
+branch. Rank is shown by stripes that run across the outer end of the
+board. Privates have no stripes, corporals and privates first class have
+yellow stripes, and sergeants have brass. Other devices that also
+identify the service branch appear on the inward end of the
+shoulderboard on all ranks except those of the general officers and
+privates.</p>
+
+<p>Cap insignia is more easily distinguished than that on the
+shoulderboard. Enlisted men wear a large brass star. General officers
+wear a star with a round blue center and red points mounted on an ornate
+round background. Other officers wear the red and blue star but without
+background.</p>
+
+<p>There is less variety in uniforms than is common in Western and most of
+the other Warsaw Pact forces. Other than for extreme weather and rough
+work, enlisted men have one type of uniform for winter and one for
+summer. Material for winter wear is olive-green wool; for summer it is
+cotton and may be olive green or khaki.</p>
+
+<p>Officers have a field or service uniform, which is similar to the
+enlisted men's, and a blue uniform for dress. The dress blouse has no
+belt, and shoes are low cut. The service uniform blouse is sometimes
+worn with a Sam Browne belt. Overcoats, except for buttons and insignia,
+are plain and conventional.</p>
+
+<p>Service and dress uniforms are generally well tailored and made from
+durable materials. Cloth in the officers' uniforms is more closely woven
+and of finer texture; that in enlisted men's uniforms is warmer and more
+durable, but it is bulkier and does not hold its shape as well. Combat
+and extreme-weather clothing is heavy and loose fitting, reminiscent of
+the Soviet World War II winter wear.</p>
+
+<p>A variety of decorations may be awarded to service personnel; a number
+of them may be given in three classes, and at least one of them is given
+in five. About a dozen have been authorized by the communist regime
+since 1948. Romanians may <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>wear on their uniforms medals awarded by
+other Warsaw Pact countries but not those of any other foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>The highest decoration is the Hero of Socialist Labor&mdash;Golden Medal,
+Hammer and Sickle. This is considered a dual award, although the parts
+are always awarded together, and the medal itself is a single one. Other
+awards that may be given to both military personnel and civilians
+include the Order of the Star, Order of Labor, and a medal commemorating
+"Forty Years Since the Founding of the Communist Party of Romania." The
+third one of the group is given those who were active in the Communist
+Party between 1921 and 1961 or those who did party work between the two
+world wars or during the early days of the country's communist regime.</p>
+
+<p>Decorations designed exclusively for the armed forces include the Order
+of Defense of the Fatherland, the Medal of Military Valor, and the Order
+of Military Merit. Others recognize service during specific events, such
+as the Liberation from the Fascist Yoke medal and the Order of 23
+August, both of which commemorate World War II service against Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the number of decorations authorized and the many classes
+provided for in several of them, medals are awarded less profusely in
+Romania's forces than in many armies, especially those that are made up
+largely of conscripts or that serve in a largely internal security role.
+Ceremonies that occur most often involve awards from foreign delegations
+at the conclusion of their visits to the country or the retirement of
+older, senior-ranking officers.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY</p>
+
+<p>Although the labor force is smaller than the national leadership
+considers adequate, almost all physically fit young men are conscripted.
+Only a few, those who are essential to the support of a family or who
+have other exceptional circumstances, are deferred or exempted. On the
+other hand, the approximately 4 percent of men in the military age group
+that serve in Romania's armed forces is about the European average and
+is lower than average for the Warsaw Pact nations.</p>
+
+<p>Some Romanian officials have suggested that the burden on the economy
+may be greater than that indicated by a comparison of national
+statistics arguing that, because labor productivity is low, the loss of
+4 percent of the labor force may diminish total production. On the other
+hand, some Western analysts have argued that, because most of the
+conscripts are unskilled and underemployed, the military's drain on the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>manpower pool entails no great loss to productive enterprise (see ch.
+14).</p>
+
+<p>In monetary terms the armed forces have been somewhat less of a burden.
+Between 1967 and 1970 their costs averaged approximately 3.1 percent of
+the gross national product (GNP), which is low when compared either with
+the average for Europe or with the average of the other Warsaw Pact
+members. Beginning in 1970, however, in an effort to reduce dependence
+upon the Soviet Union, Romania began to stimulate local production of
+military mat&eacute;riel and to purchase some items from other countries. This
+resulted in a sharp increase in defense spending in 1970. Unless the
+size of the armed forces is reduced, some continuing increase in
+expenses over pre-1970 levels will be necessary if Romania chooses to
+continue its policy of nondependence upon the Soviet Union.</p>
+
+<p>The armed forces engage in construction projects on a scale that local
+leaders say is an important contribution to the economy. They are
+employed in industrial construction, roadbuilding, railroad maintenance,
+and important agricultural and irrigation projects. Large numbers of
+troops participated in the disaster relief efforts made necessary by the
+great floods during the spring of 1970.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>SECTION IV. ECONOMIC</h2>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER 14</h2>
+
+<h2>CHARACTER AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY</h2>
+
+
+<p>In 1972 Romania entered the second year of a five-year economic plan
+that is intended by the leadership to advance the country on the road to
+industrialization and to increase its economic potential sufficiently to
+make the economy one of the most dynamic in the world. This goal is to
+be attained mainly through a continued high rate of investment, a
+significant improvement in productivity, and an expanded and more
+efficient foreign trade. Although significant strides in industrial
+development had been made in the past, this achievement entailed a
+neglect of agriculture, an inadequate provision for consumer needs, and
+a balance of payments deficit with Western industrial nations that
+threatened to undermine the leadership's policy of political and
+economic independence from the Soviet Union (see ch. 10).</p>
+
+<p>Rigidly controlled by the PCR (see Glossary), the economy suffers from
+the basic weakness common to all centrally controlled economies, that
+is, a lack of adequate incentives for managers and workers. Rapid
+industrialization since 1950, made possible by massive inputs of capital
+and labor and aided by heavy imports of advanced Western industrial
+plants and technology, has involved a waste of resources on a scale that
+may hamper economic progress at the present stage of development. In
+trying to evolve a system of incentives that would lead to a more
+economic use of resources, the PCR is facing a dilemma. Greater
+efficiency requires more flexibility, which, in turn, implies a greater
+freedom of initiative at lower economic levels than the PCR has been
+prepared to grant thus far. In the search for a solution numerous
+administrative changes have been made since 1968 without basically
+altering the nature of the system.</p>
+
+<p>A major problem facing the economy is its heavy dependence on imports of
+raw materials and equipment and the failure, thus far, to develop a
+sufficient volume of exports salable in world markets. At the present
+stage of development, Romanian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>industrial products compete poorly with
+the output of advanced Western nations. Expansion of agricultural
+exports, which have a ready market in many areas, has been hampered by
+the slow development of the country's agricultural potential and by a
+growing domestic demand. Although greater attention is to be devoted to
+agriculture under the current Five-Year Plan (1971-75), the additional
+resources to be allocated to this sector are not commensurate with the
+magnitude of its needs. Instead, major emphasis is placed in the
+five-year period on the development of the chemical, electronic, and
+precision tool industries for domestic needs and export.</p>
+
+<p>The state of the economy in the early 1970s was revealed by two Romanian
+economists in articles evaluating their country's economic progress.
+According to their calculations, the per capita national income in
+Romania in 1975, provided that the economic targets for that year are
+reached, will approach the level attained by Italy and Austria in 1968
+and will be somewhat larger than half that in France and the Federal
+Republic of Germany (West Germany) in the same year. At the same time
+they estimated that, even with continued acceleration of the rates of
+industrial modernization and growth of labor productivity, it will
+require several more five-year periods to reach the 1971 economic level
+of the more developed nations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">ORGANIZATION</p>
+
+<p>The economy is highly socialized. The state owns virtually all industry
+and shares with collective farms ownership of more than nine-tenths of
+the farmland. Private artisan shops contribute only a fraction of 1
+percent to the industrial output, and private farmers' limited holdings
+are confined mainly to marginal lands. The state owns all natural
+resources other than the collective and private farmlands; maintains
+complete control over the country's physical resources, finances, and
+labor; and has a monopoly of foreign trade and foreign exchange. The
+functioning of the economy is directed by comprehensive long-term and
+annual state plans, which are binding for all economic entities.</p>
+
+<p>Control over the economy is strongly centralized, despite half-hearted
+attempts since 1968 to grant more freedom of initiative to lower
+management levels in the interest of greater flexibility and efficiency.
+Supreme decisionmaking power rests with the Standing Presidium of the
+PCR and the Council of State, the memberships of which are almost
+identical (see ch. 9). Compliance with PCR decisions is enforced through
+an administrative hierarchy that consists of three distinct levels: the
+Council of Ministers, all of whose members hold high positions in the
+PCR; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>economic ministries, which are responsible for specific sectors of
+the economy; and trusts and combines, which group enterprises along
+functional or territorial lines. Specialized committees with ministerial
+rank administer certain aspects of economic activity; chief among these
+are the State Planning Committee and the Committee for Prices (see ch.
+8).</p>
+
+<p>The organizational structure of the economy has undergone frequent
+changes in efforts to resolve economic problems by administrative means.
+Officially, the reorganizations have been declared necessary to keep
+economic management abreast of the requirements of socialist economic
+development. The frequency of the changes, however, and a lack of
+clarity in many of the directives have brought about a blurring of
+jurisdictional lines with consequent overlapping of functions and
+conflicts of authority. The organizational problem has been compounded
+by the contradictory nature of the motives that have prompted the
+reforms&mdash;to grant more discretionary power to enterprise managers and,
+at the same time, to strengthen central controls by enhancing the
+directing role of the compulsory economic plans. In 1971 economic
+officials considered important aspects of the economic organization to
+be still in an experimental stage.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">STRUCTURE AND GROWTH</p>
+
+<p>Data on gross output and national income in absolute terms have not been
+published. Official statistics on these social accounts have been
+limited to a few index series for overall, productive sector, and per
+capita values and a percentage breakdown of gross output and national
+income by productive sector. The arbitrary nature of the pricing system
+and differences in statistical treatment compared to Western practice
+preclude a direct comparison of the published growth rates of the
+economy and its components with similar rates in Western countries. The
+same holds true for comparisons of economic structure. Independent
+studies of the economy by Western scholars in Western statistical terms
+yielded significantly lower rates of growth and a different structure of
+economic activities from those officially announced.</p>
+
+<p>According to official data, national income (net material product, which
+excludes private and government services not directly related to
+production) more than doubled between 1960 and 1970, and industrial
+output more than tripled. Agricultural production, by contrast,
+increased by less than one-third. The rates of economic and industrial
+growth, even when translated into Western terms, have been relatively
+high and among the highest in countries of Eastern Europe. Such high
+growth rates <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>have usually been associated with early stages of
+industrial development. The high growth rates were made possible by an
+official policy that allocated more than 30 percent of national income
+to investment. Growth rates in the 1966-70 period were somewhat lower
+than in the preceding five years, with the exception of agriculture, the
+performance of which was slightly better.</p>
+
+<p>The predominant growth of industry has been a direct consequence of the
+leadership's policy. This policy was reflected in a disproportionately
+large allocation of investment to industry at the expense of other
+economic sectors. In the 1966-70 period, for instance, industry received
+55 percent of total investment&mdash;60 percent if the construction industry
+is included&mdash;compared to less than 13 percent granted to agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>Within industry preponderant emphasis has been placed on the development
+of the capital goods sector at the expense of consumer goods. Whereas
+total industrial output increased at an average annual rate of 11.8
+percent from 1966 to 1970, production of capital goods rose at a rate of
+12.7 percent, and production of consumer goods grew by only 9.5 percent
+annually.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 4.</i> <i>National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania, by
+Economic Sector,<br /> 1960, 1967, and 1970</i> (in percent)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 4">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="55%">Economic Sector</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1967</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1970</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Industry and handicrafts</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;44.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;51.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;60.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Construction</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9.6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Agriculture</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;33.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;28.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;20.0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Transport and communications</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4.2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Trade</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Other sectors</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2.2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">100.0</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">100.0</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">100.0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii
+    Socialiste Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania,
+    1970), Bucharest, 1970; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, Joint
+    Publications Research Service&mdash;<br />JPRS Series (Washington), <i>Translations on Eastern
+    Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs</i>, "Development of National Income Discussed,"
+    <i>Probleme Economice</i>, Bucharest, April 1971, (JPRS 53,521, Series No. 491, 1971).</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a consequence of the uneven sectoral growth, the structure of the
+economy changed significantly between 1960 and 1970. According to
+official data the contribution of industry to the net material product
+rose from 44 to 61 percent, whereas that of agriculture declined from 33
+to 20 percent (see table 4). The relative importance of construction and
+transport rose slightly, but that of trade declined by half. A
+strikingly different <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>structure of the economy emerges in terms of the
+Western concept of gross national product (GNP), which includes housing
+and services and treats both taxes and subsidies in a different manner.
+The contribution of industry was less than that of agriculture in 1960,
+but by 1967 it had increased more rapidly than is indicated by the
+official data (see table 5). The role of agriculture, on the other hand,
+declined more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Published labor statistics leave many serious gaps, and unofficially
+reported data do not always agree with official figures in the annual
+statistical yearbooks. Information released on the size of the
+economically active population is limited to percentage changes over the
+years.</p>
+
+<p>The economically active population increased by only 3.5 percent from
+1960 to 1967 and remained stationary thereafter to 1969. During the
+ten-year period the number of persons active in industry increased by
+half, whereas the number of those engaged in agriculture declined by 19
+percent. Nevertheless, in 1970 about half the population was still
+engaged in agriculture, and only 22 percent were active in industry.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 5. Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin,<br /> 1960
+and 1967</i> (in percent)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 5">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="60%">Economic Sector</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">1967</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Industry and handicrafts</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;24.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;32.9</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Agriculture and forestry</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;31.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;22.0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Construction</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;11.1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Transportation and communications</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Trade</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5.4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Housing</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Government and other services</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;12.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;12.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">100.0</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">100.0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Source: Adapted from U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session, Joint
+    Economic Committee, <i>Economic Developments in Countries of Eastern Europe</i>,
+    Washington, GPO, 1970.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although there is no officially recognized unemployment, a substantial
+amount of underemployment is reported to exist in industry and, even
+more so, in agriculture. The reasons advanced by Romanian economists for
+this situation are the duty and the right of every citizen to work and
+the inability to achieve quickly full and efficient employment in a
+country that inherited a backward and predominantly agrarian economy
+with a large peasant population. Efforts toward obtaining full and
+efficient employment have been handicapped by the rapidly rising volume
+of investment needed to create new nonagricultural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>jobs. The average
+investment per nonagricultural job increased almost fivefold to 324,000
+lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) from the 1951-55 period to the
+1966-70 period, and a further 40 percent rise in cost was projected for
+the 1971-75 period.</p>
+
+<p class="cen">PLANNING</p>
+
+<p>As in all communist states, comprehensive economic planning has been a
+basic element of the PCR's dogma. Planning is conceived of as an
+indispensable tool for economic development. Traditionally, five-year
+and annual plans for all segments and aspects of the economy have been
+formulated by a central planning agency with the participation of
+economic ministries, trusts, and enterprises. Planning has proceeded
+from broadly defined goals set by the PCR to minute instructions for all
+economic enterprises. In line with the established priorities, the main
+planning effort has been devoted to industry.</p>
+
+<p>The major problem in planning has been posed by the need to balance
+supply and demand, not only with regard to the final consumers but also
+at all stages of the production process and for each individual
+enterprise. This task entails detailed decisions on the allocation of
+thousands of different materials, machinery and equipment items,
+specialized labor skills, energy, and investment funds. With the
+expansion and growing complexity of the economy and, more particularly,
+of industry, the balancing task has assumed dimensions that defy
+solution by traditional means.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, the imposition of detailed operational prescriptions
+deprived enterprises of the freedom to exercise constructive initiative
+and of the flexibility needed to meet unforeseen contingencies. A
+failure by an enterprise to fulfill its planned assignment necessarily
+produces a chain reaction involving the production programs of
+enterprises dependent upon the missing output. Failures of this nature
+have been frequent.</p>
+
+<p>The breakdown of the planning mechanism brought about a disorganization
+of the material and technical supply for enterprises, with adverse
+effects on productivity and output. It has been responsible for a
+general lag in the economy's performance in relation to official plans.</p>
+
+<p>The deficiency of the traditional system of central planning was
+officially recognized in 1967, when a decision was made by the National
+Party Conference to raise the quality of planning to the level demanded
+by the needs of a modern industrial state. This aim was to be achieved
+by granting a larger degree <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>of autonomy to individual enterprises
+while, at the same time, maintaining and even strengthening the
+directing role of the central plan. The prolonged and intensive
+discussion engendered by the PCR decision has brought to light many
+flaws and proposals for change but has not provided a clear insight into
+the current planning process.</p>
+
+<p>Modifications of the traditional pattern have taken place as a result of
+organizational and administrative changes introduced after 1967. The
+intended adoption of a new system, however, that would take into account
+market relationships and give greater weight to the needs of consumers
+has been delayed by differences of views among economists and officials
+on essential elements of the system, by disagreement on the nature of
+such basic concepts as productivity, economic efficiency, and profit,
+and by the need for a prior reform of the price system. A draft of a new
+planning law was reported to be in preparation toward the end of 1971.</p>
+
+<p>As a means of decentralizing planning and mastering the intractable
+supply problem, the task of coordinating requirements with supplies was
+delegated to the centrals (see Glossary), trusts, and other enterprise
+associations and, ultimately, to the enterprises themselves by a law on
+economic contracts enacted in December 1969. Under the law, industrial
+and trade enterprises must enter into contracts with suppliers for all
+products and services needed to fulfill the tasks of the next year's
+economic plan. In theory, the demands of final consumers for consumption
+and capital goods would determine the nature of the contracts through
+all stages of production down to the producers of raw materials. This
+has not been the case in practice.</p>
+
+<p>Most contracts must be concluded at least six months before the
+beginning of the plan year because they are supposed to serve as the
+basis for developing the final version of the annual plan; they must
+take into account the economic tasks set for that year by the five-year
+plan. The central planning authorities formulate the ultimate annual
+plan by modifying individual contracts, where deemed necessary, in the
+light of official policies and anticipated availabilities of materials
+and other inputs. Correction of original contracts was reported to be
+essential because enterprises tended to exaggerate their true
+requirements as determined by official norms and standards. In 1970
+initial orders exceeded available resources of materials by from 20 to
+200 percent.</p>
+
+<p>In 1970 and 1971 a large number of inter-enterprise contracts were not
+concluded on time and, despite legal provisions for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>financial and other
+sanctions, thousands of contracts were not adhered to. This entailed a
+disruption of supplies and production, nonfulfillment of export
+obligations, and insufficient deliveries to the domestic market. In an
+attempt to cope with the supply problem, the Ministry of
+Technical-Material Supply and Control of the Management of Fixed Assets
+was created in September 1971&mdash;yet another example of trying to solve
+economic problems by administrative means.</p>
+
+<p>The final stage in the planning process, as in the past, continues to be
+the assignment to each enterprise of specific tasks bearing on all
+aspects of its operations. These tasks, generally known as plan
+indicators, spell out in minute detail such items as the production and
+investment program, the size of the labor force and the wage bill, costs
+of production, and profits. They also specify norms for the use of all
+materials, equipment, and labor and set goals for raising productivity.
+In the case of large enterprises the number of indicators runs into the
+thousands. The indicators are also used to evaluate the performance of
+enterprises in relation to the plan. The entire process has been said to
+represent the application of democratic centralism to planning.</p>
+
+<p>The number and type of indicators to be assigned to enterprises and
+their associations and the nature of the system of indicators best
+suited to stimulate greater efficiency and technological innovation have
+been subjects of wide-ranging and intensive debates. No clarification of
+the underlying issues, however, much less a consensus on appropriate
+measures to be undertaken, had emerged by early 1972. Officials have
+ascribed the lack of any significant progress in the planning reform to
+general inertia, organizational confusion, bureaucratic interests, and a
+reluctance on the part of many enterprise directors to assume the added
+measure of responsibility that is inherent in a greater freedom to
+exercise initiative. Most of the officials are aware, nevertheless, that
+the basic problem lies in the absence of adequate incentives. The
+reconciliation of an obligatory central plan with enterprise autonomy
+has thus far proved elusive.</p>
+
+<p>Planning in the field of collective agriculture has also been highly
+centralized, at least through 1971, despite measures introduced at the
+end of 1970 to reduce the number of plan indicators for individual
+farms. Detailed instructions on crop and livestock production and on the
+volume of farm products to be delivered to the state have been handed
+down to farms by higher authorities insufficiently familiar with their
+natural and economic conditions. This method of planning has entailed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>significant losses through improper use of land and other resources.
+The relatively minor relaxation of central controls beginning in 1971
+was intended to eliminate this waste. The extent to which central
+controls over farming operations were retained even after the announced
+decentralization of agricultural planning was illustrated by the Grand
+National Assembly's enactment of a law toward the end of 1971 concerning
+correct methods of producing and using livestock fodder. Information on
+the method of planning for state farms was not available.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">PRICE SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p>As in all centrally directed economies, prices are set by the
+government. In 1967 the National Party Conference called for a reform of
+the price system on the grounds that the prevailing prices failed to
+ensure the desired balance in economic development or to promote greater
+efficiency in production and foreign trade. After four years of
+intensive debate, a new price law was enacted in December 1971.
+Preliminary information on the provisions of the law indicated that
+prices would continue to be fixed by the government, although the method
+of calculating them had been modified. In contrast to the announced
+policy of decentralizing economic management, the law provided for
+strengthening central controls over prices.</p>
+
+<p>Until March 1970 there was no unified control over prices. The State
+Planning Committee and the Ministry of Finance administered industrial
+wholesale prices, and the State Committee for Prices had jurisdiction
+over prices of consumer goods and government procurement prices for farm
+products. In 1970 the reorganized State Committee for Prices was given
+authority to control all prices. Representation on the committee has
+been provided for the State Planning Committee; the ministries of
+finance, domestic trade, and foreign trade; the Central Statistical
+Bureau; and the Central Council of the General Union of Trade Unions.
+Participation by delegates from economic ministries and other organs is
+to be ensured at all sessions in which problems of interest to them are
+brought up for discussion.</p>
+
+<p>The basic criticism leveled against the price system concerned its
+tendency to undermine the government's drive for economic efficiency
+through the failure of prices to reflect production costs, improper
+relationships among prices, and price inflexibility. A comprehensive,
+unified approach to price reform was considered beyond the capability of
+the authorities; a piecemeal approach of dealing separately with
+different types of prices <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>was therefore decided upon. Priority in this
+program was given to the improvement of industrial wholesale prices.</p>
+
+<p>Wholesale prices for industrial products have been based on average
+costs for each product in the relevant industrial branch. Prices have
+therefore been profitable for enterprises having below-average costs,
+whereas enterprises with costs above the average have had to rely upon
+state subsidies for continued operation. Wholesale prices were last
+fixed in 1963, and subsequent changes in technology and other aspects of
+production magnified the dissociation of prices and costs. For political
+reasons and because of general shortages the closing of uneconomic
+enterprises was not considered feasible. Maintenance of fixed prices
+over long periods of time has been deemed essential for purposes of
+planning.</p>
+
+<p>Under the prevailing price system, which assured high profits to many
+enterprises and provided subsidies for unprofitable ones, there was no
+incentive for enterprises to reduce costs. This tendency was reinforced
+by the methods used to calculate costs and prices. The fact that cost
+calculations did not include any charges for rent or capital induced
+waste in the use of land and equipment. Prices included an element of
+planned profit determined as a percentage of cost. In the price-setting
+procedure it was therefore advantageous for enterprises to overstate
+actual costs. This practice has been widely prevalent in fixing prices
+for new products.</p>
+
+<p>Prices for raw materials, including products of the extractive
+industries and agriculture, were generally set below the cost of
+production. This policy has been responsible for a wasteful use of many
+materials in manufacturing. A price discrepancy also served to negate
+the official fuel policy. Efforts to increase the use of coal in
+electric power production were frustrated by the relatively much lower
+price for natural gas. This led some economists to advocate that prices
+for fuels be based on their caloric content. The price system has also
+been reported to have produced various other inimical results, such as
+inhibiting innovation and rewarding the continued production of obsolete
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>Procurement prices for farm products have been deliberately kept low in
+relation to industrial prices; prices for farm requisites and consumer
+goods, on the other hand, have been fixed far above cost through the
+medium of a turnover tax channeled into the budget. In this manner the
+price system has served to transfer resources from agriculture to
+industry and to keep consumption low for the benefit of investment.</p>
+
+<p>Pending the completion of price reform legislation, a provisional
+measure was adopted in 1970 to lower wholesale prices for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>export goods
+and to reduce excess profits through a so-called regularization tax on
+domestic sales of the main products manufactured by state industry. The
+measure involved a recalculation of wholesale prices, based on the
+average cost of products within an industrial branch and a profit
+allowance of only 10 percent of cost. The difference between the
+recalculated prices and those in effect at the time was to be channeled
+into the budget by the tax. In the case of high-cost producers who would
+suffer losses under this procedure, the profit margin included in the
+price could be raised to a maximum of 15 percent. The new price measure
+put pressure on enterprises to lower the cost of production.</p>
+
+<p>The comprehensive new law on prices for goods and services that will
+come into effect in March 1972 will have no immediate impact on prices.
+On the basis of criteria outlined in the law and upon approval by the
+State Committee for Prices, economic ministries, central government
+agencies, collectives, and other public organizations are supposed first
+to issue norms for establishing and correlating prices within the areas
+of their respective jurisdictions, in accordance with the specific
+conditions of each producing branch, subbranch, or group of enterprises
+and the specific features of each product and service.</p>
+
+<p>The law makes provision for fixed and ceiling prices. Both types of
+prices may be either uniform or differentiated. Uniform prices will
+apply throughout the entire country and will be applicable to the main
+products and to services of major importance to the economy and the
+standard of living. Differentiated prices for a product may be set at
+various levels depending upon territorial or seasonal factors and the
+nature of the producers or buyers. These provisions will also apply to
+agricultural procurement prices.</p>
+
+<p>As in the past, uniform wholesale prices will be based on pre-calculated
+average costs for each product at branch level. For the first time,
+however, cost will also include taxes on capital and land (interest and
+rent) and expenditures for the introduction of new technology. An
+important change will also be made in determining the profit element of
+the wholesale price. In the future the planned profit level for
+enterprises, differentiated by branch and subbranch, will be calculated
+in relation to the fixed and circulating capital employed rather than in
+relation to cost.</p>
+
+<p>The new law also contains provisions for pricing imports and exports and
+for establishing retail prices of consumer goods. Retail prices will
+include a profit for the trade organization and a variable turnover tax
+applied to the wholesale price. The tax is to be relatively low on goods
+produced for children and high on those manufactured in small quantities
+and on luxury products. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>Changes in retail prices may be made only in
+the light of planned provisions for the real income of the population.</p>
+
+<p>Authority to set prices and control over the implementation of price
+policy will be shifted from the Council of Ministers to the Council of
+State and the Grand National Assembly. The Council of State will make
+decisions not only concerning general price levels and price changes but
+also about specific prices for products and services of particular
+importance to the economy and the standard of living and on prices of
+products earmarked exclusively for the defense sector. In an effort to
+ensure a uniform price policy under a decentralized process of price
+fixing, the law spells out the responsibilities of all entities
+concerned with pricing, from the Council of State down to the individual
+enterprise. Jurisdiction over prices for products and services is to be
+allocated among the various sectors and levels of the economy, and the
+State Committee for Prices will be responsible for the correct
+application of the law.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent further abuses in the formulation and changing of
+prices, a state price control inspectorate is to be created within the
+State Committee for Prices with power to supervise price control
+agencies in each county. Penalties for infractions of trade regulations
+have been increased to 2,000 lei, and persons guilty of price
+irregularities will be subject to prosecution under sections of the
+penal code on profiteering and fraud, which provide for imprisonment of
+from six months to seven years.</p>
+
+<p>The intricacy of price formulation, the complexity of the price law
+(which contains 157 paragraphs), and disagreement among officials about
+the efficacy of some of the law's provisions suggest that the new
+measure may not be the final answer to the country's price problems. The
+determination of the authorities to retain firm control over prices and
+not to allow market forces to play any significant role in price
+determination, however, was made clear in a statement by the chairman of
+the State Committee for Prices to the effect that the building of
+socialism cannot be directed by transferring the leadership and
+decisionmaking to some self-regulating mechanism or to instruments that
+cannot be controlled.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">BUDGET</p>
+
+<p>The annual state budgets are more comprehensive than budgets in Western
+countries because they also cover economic activities that are the
+province of private enterprise in the West. Information on the manner in
+which budgets are formulated is not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>available, except that they are
+closely related to the annual economic plans and are prepared under the
+direction of the Ministry of Finance. Budgets must be approved by the
+Council of Ministers, the PCR, and the Grand National Assembly. The
+consolidated budget is divided into a central and a local budget; the
+local budget is roughly one-fifth the size of the central budget.</p>
+
+<p>Official statistics on the budget are deficient in that only summary
+data are published on the major elements of revenue and expenditures and
+the source of one-third or more of the revenue is not disclosed. The
+published data show a small budgetary surplus each year, regardless of
+the vicissitudes of the economy and unforeseen emergency outlays.
+Information is not available on budgetary performance in 1970, when the
+country suffered a disastrous flood. In the planned budgets for 1971 and
+1972 revenues and expenditures were perfectly balanced.</p>
+
+<p>Budgetary revenues increased steadily from about 58 billion lei in 1960
+to 147 billion lei in 1969, and expenditures rose correspondingly from
+about 55 billion lei to 143 billion lei. The budgets for 1971 and 1972
+were planned to balance at a little more than 138 billion lei and 152
+billion lei, respectively. Reasons for the decline in the size of the
+1971 budget, the only decline reported in at least a decade, are not
+known.</p>
+
+<p>A turnover tax levied on consumer goods, farm products, and farm
+supplies and a profit on the income of economic enterprises and
+organizations constitute the main sources of budgetary revenue. The
+relative importance of the two levies changed after 1966; the yield from
+the profit tax approached that from the turnover tax in 1967 and grew
+relatively larger in 1968 and 1969. Together, these two levies accounted
+for from 50 to 56 percent of the annual revenues. Direct taxes on the
+population yielded close to 6 percent from 1960 to 1969, except that in
+the first and last years of that period their proportion approached 7
+percent. The magnitude of direct taxes does not reflect the real tax
+burden borne by the population, because the population ultimately pays
+both the turnover and the profit tax through higher prices of consumer
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>Financing the national economy absorbed an average of 64.6 percent of
+annual expenditure in the first half of the 1960s and 68.3 percent in
+the second half of the decade. At the same time the proportion of
+outlays for social and cultural purposes declined from an average of
+24.9 percent to 23.2 percent, although the absolute amount of these
+outlays more than doubled. Expenditures for defense declined from 6.1
+percent of total outlays in 1960 to 4.4 percent in 1969.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>BANKING</p>
+
+<p>The banking system operative in early 1972 was the end product of
+several institutional reorganizations, the last of which was completed
+in May 1971. The main purpose of the reorganizations was to make bank
+credit a more effective tool for promoting economic development and for
+controlling the operations of economic enterprises and organizations.
+Control through credit extension has been officially considered an
+important means for inducing enterprises and trusts to attain the
+targets of the economic plans. Little information is available on the
+banks' operations beyond the formal statement of their functions. Data
+relating to the money supply and foreign exchange reserves have also
+been kept secret.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Banking Institutions</p>
+
+<p>The banking system consists of the National Bank of the Romanian
+Socialist Republic (referred to as the National Bank), the Investment
+Bank, the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank, the Bank for Agriculture and the
+Food Industry, and the Savings and Loan Bank. The functions of the
+Romanian Foreign Trade Bank and of the Bank for Agriculture and the Food
+Industry had been exercised to a more limited extent by the National
+Bank until 1968. The Economy and Consignment Fund, a department of the
+Savings and Loan Bank, makes credit available for the construction of
+privately owned housing&mdash;a function exercised by the Investment Bank
+until the end of 1969. Information on the interrelations between the
+specialized banks and the National Bank or between the banks and the
+Ministry of Finance was not available in early 1972.</p>
+
+<p>The National Bank, as reconstituted in December 1970 with a
+capitalization of 1 billion lei, is the country's central bank of issue,
+but it also acts as a banker for the government, a bankers' banker for
+the specialized financial institutions, and a short-term credit and
+discount agency for economic organizations. The main functions of the
+National Bank in the field of domestic finance include: the issue of
+currency and control over its circulation; management of the budgetary
+cash resources; coordination of all short-term credit and discount
+activities; and participation in the formulation of annual and five-year
+credit and cash plans, jointly with the State Planning Committee and the
+Ministry of Finance.</p>
+
+<p>The National Bank establishes official foreign exchange rates, engages
+in foreign exchange operations directly or through the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank and other authorized organizations, and participates in
+working out the balance of foreign <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>payments and in following up on its
+execution. The National Bank also controls the production, processing,
+and use of precious metals and gems and, together with the State
+Planning Committee and the Ministry of Finance, develops plans for their
+acquisition and allocation at home and abroad. The bank has exclusive
+authority to purchase from individuals items made of precious metals or
+stones and items of artistic, historic, or documentary value.</p>
+
+<p>The National Bank is managed by an administrative council, the members
+of which must be approved by the Council of Ministers upon the
+recommendation of the bank's governor, who is also chairman of the
+administrative council. In addition to the chairman, the administrative
+council includes several vice presidents of the bank; the directors of
+the bank's fourteen divisions; superintendents of some of the
+subordinated units; delegates of the management of the Investment Bank,
+the Bank for Agriculture and the Food Industry, and the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank; experienced specialists from the bank's professional staff
+and from the outside; and a delegate of the labor unions, designated by
+the General Union of Trade Unions. The council as a whole and each
+individual member are responsible to the Council of Ministers for the
+entire activity of the bank.</p>
+
+<p>The Investment Bank, created in 1948 and last reorganized in September
+1971 with a capitalization of 700 million lei, serves to finance, and
+exercise control over, investment projects of all state, collective,
+consumer-cooperative, and other public organizations, with the exception
+of collective farms and organizations subordinate to the Ministry of
+Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters. The control powers of the bank
+extend not only to projects financed with its own resources but also to
+projects financed through budgetary allocations and out of enterprise
+profits. The bank's management is organized along the lines of the
+administrative council of the National Bank.</p>
+
+<p>The Investment Bank must participate in the preparation of draft plans
+for the financing of all investment projects undertaken by central and
+local state organizations from the ministerial down to the enterprise
+level. During the formulation and implementation of these plans the bank
+must ensure the most economical use of available resources. The bank is
+also called upon to determine appropriate rates of depreciation for
+fixed assets and to ensure that the required amortization payments to
+the budget are made on time.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the bank's main functions are the review of technical and
+economic investment criteria submitted to it for approval by ministries
+and other state agencies and the evaluation of the feasibility of
+proposed investment projects on the basis of accepted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>standards; the
+more important of these standards also require approval by the Council
+of Ministers. Approval may be granted by the bank only for investment
+projects that satisfy all legal requirements regarding need,
+suitability, and adherence to prescribed norms; have an adequate raw
+materials base and assured sales outlets; and serve to improve the
+economic performance of the organization that undertakes the investment.
+In the event of disagreement between the bank and the organization
+seeking investment approval, appeal may be made to higher authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian Foreign Trade Bank was established in July 1968. Its
+principal functions are to facilitate exports and, through strict
+controls over exchange allocations, to encourage import substitution by
+domestic producers. In 1970 about 73 percent of the bank's credits were
+devoted to exports, and only 21 percent were granted for imports. The
+remaining 6 percent of the credits were used to finance internal
+transport.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1971 the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank and a group of eight French
+financial institutions opened the Romanian-French Bank in Paris. This
+bank was organized as a private limited-liability company with a capital
+of 20 million French francs underwritten in equal parts by the Romanian
+Foreign Trade Bank and the French bankers. In the second half of 1971
+the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank acquired affiliates in London and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The Bank for Agriculture and the Food Industry was created in May 1971
+by expanding the functions and changing the name of the Agricultural
+Bank established three years earlier. This reorganization followed the
+consolidation of previously independent ministries into the Ministry of
+Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters (referred to as the Ministry of
+Agriculture). The bank was capitalized at 500 million lei and was
+required to create a reserve out of profits equal to the amount of its
+capitalization. The bank's function is to provide investment and
+operating credits for enterprises under the jurisdiction of the Ministry
+of Agriculture, including collective farms, and to finance the
+distribution of their products within the country.</p>
+
+<p>A few summary data on credits extended by the Bank for Agriculture and
+the Food Industry to collective farms have been released to the
+country's press in an obvious effort to publicize official concern for
+this important but neglected farm sector (see ch. 15). Information on
+other aspects of this bank's operations have not been disclosed.</p>
+
+<p>The Savings and Loan Bank, an institution nationalized at an early stage
+of communist rule, had 1,560 branches and agencies in 1971, most of
+which were located in rural areas. The main function of the bank has
+been to mobilize the cash resources of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>population for investment,
+through obligatory periodic transfers of deposited funds to the National
+Bank. In the 1966-70 period subsidiary functions of the bank gained in
+importance, including small-scale commercial bank transactions, personal
+loans, and tax collections. Receipts from personal savings deposits
+accounted for 70 percent of total cash receipts in 1970. Since the
+beginning of 1970 the bank has also made loans for private housing
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>The schedule of payments to the National Bank has been sufficiently
+stringent to induce the Savings and Loan Bank to mount special
+educational programs for attracting savings, particularly in rural
+areas, and to seek ways of stimulating cash collections from its other
+activities. To this end the bank is giving special attention to finding
+more effective means for identifying cash reserves held by the
+population. One avenue the bank has been exploring is to gain greater
+knowledge of the timing of income receipts and of the uses to which
+incomes are put.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of savings has been steadily mounting; it rose at an average
+annual rate of more than 20 percent in the 1966-70 period and was 2.5
+times larger at the period's end than at its beginning. In 1970, 13.6
+percent of the population's cash income was deposited in savings
+accounts, compared to 5.8 percent in 1960. More than 65 percent of the
+population's cash assets in 1970 were on deposit in savings accounts, as
+against 56.6 percent five years earlier. Under the economic plan for the
+1971-75 period, savings deposits of the Savings and Loan Bank are
+scheduled to increase by 87 percent&mdash;the equivalent of an annual 13.4
+percent growth rate. An important reason for the growth of savings has
+been a general shortage of consumer goods.</p>
+
+<p>Loans granted by the Savings and Loan Bank for private housing
+construction in 1970 amounted to 2.1 billion lei. In 1971 the bank
+planned to provide construction loans totaling 2.9 billion lei.
+Information on other bank transactions has not been published.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Credit Policy</p>
+
+<p>Interest rates do not reflect the scarcity of money or the element of
+risk. They are used by the government as one of the economic levers
+intended to motivate enterprises toward greater efficiency. In 1969 the
+average rate for short-term operating credits was 2.9 percent; actual
+rates ranged from less than 1 percent to a level far above the average.
+New regulations issued about mid-1970 raised the interest rates,
+established greater uniformity among them, and introduced a
+differentiation among penalty rates based on the length of time that
+repayments remain in arrears or credits in excess of those planned are
+used. As a result <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>of these measures, National Bank officials expected
+the average rate of interest to rise to 3.8 percent.</p>
+
+<p>A uniform interest rate of 5 percent was established on all operating
+credits for inventory and production purposes in economic sectors other
+than agriculture. Preferential rates for artisans' collectives were
+abolished on the grounds that the collectives had received enough state
+support in the past to place them on an equal footing with state
+enterprises with regard to credit. A rate of 3 percent was continued on
+credits used in the distribution of goods. Interest rates of 4 percent
+and 2 percent, respectively, were established for state and collective
+farms.</p>
+
+<p>The government attaches great importance to the penalty feature of the
+credit system, which allows it to discriminate between efficient
+enterprises that find themselves in temporary difficulties and
+enterprises that are poorly managed. Enterprises that require operating
+funds in excess of those prescribed by officially determined norms or
+are unable to repay credits on time must pay progressively higher
+interest rates. Excess and overdue credits carry an interest rate of up
+to 10 percent for the first three months and up to 12 percent for the
+next three months. Enterprises in the second stage are subject to a
+searching examination by a committee of experts and may be denied
+further credits. Information is lacking on the procedures followed in
+the case of enterprises that would be declared bankrupt in a Western
+economy.</p>
+
+<p>According to a National Bank official, the new credit regulations were
+to be rigorously applied in order to combat a rising trend in the volume
+of overdue credits that became apparent in the first half of 1970. The
+credit and interest policies were to be applied in a manner that would
+protect the economy from the bad effects of mismanagement and that would
+place the onus only on poorly run enterprises. This task was said to
+demand a high level of competence from those called upon to resolve the
+difficult problems of the enterprises.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">CURRENCY</p>
+
+<p>The currency unit of the country is the leu (plural, lei), divided into
+100 bani. It is nonconvertible and usable only within the country. The
+leu is officially defined to contain 148.112 milligrams of fine gold, so
+that 5.53 lei are equivalent to US$1. This basic rate of exchange became
+effective on December 23, 1971, in the wake of the agreement reached by
+the United States with other major Western trading nations to devalue
+the American dollar; before that date the rate was 6 lei per US$1. The
+basic rate is used in foreign trade accounting and is also applicable to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>nonresident accounts created by a transfer of foreign currencies into
+Romania.</p>
+
+<p>A wide range of official noncommercial or tourist exchange rates is in
+effect for residents of other communist countries. These rates vary from
+about one-third to more than double the basic rate. Tourist rates for
+noncommunist country currencies embody a bonus of 189 percent over the
+basic rate, making 16 lei equivalent to US$1. In addition to the
+official exchange rates there are at least thirty-seven semiofficial
+rates resulting from seven multilateral trade and payments agreements
+with members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
+thirty bilateral agreements with other communist and noncommunist
+states.</p>
+
+<p>The state has a monopoly of foreign exchange. Control over currency and
+foreign exchange is vested in the National Bank and administered by the
+bank jointly with the Ministry of Finance and the Romanian Foreign Trade
+Bank. All foreign exchange realized by state agencies from exports and
+other foreign operations must be surrendered to the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank, which also controls all exchange expenditures abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Transferability of funds by private individuals is strictly limited.
+Only 15 to 30 percent of inheritances, royalties, pensions, and support
+payments derived from abroad may be used or retransferred; from 70 to 85
+percent of the sums received must be surrendered at the tourist rate of
+exchange. Residents may send small amounts and get travel allocations to
+COMECON and some Western countries. Most currency transactions by
+individuals with residents in Western states are prohibited. Residents
+may not own foreign currencies or securities or have bank balances
+abroad without official permission, nor may they import or export
+Romanian banknotes. They are forbidden to own or trade in gold, to
+export jewelry and diamonds, and to engage in foreign merchandise trade.</p>
+
+<p>Controls over financial transactions by state agencies in domestic
+currency and foreign exchange were tightened by a decree issued in
+September 1971. A companion decree also provided for much stricter
+border controls over foreign exchange, precious metals, and jewelry
+carried by individuals entering or leaving the country. Violations were
+more precisely defined, and penalties were substantially increased to
+discourage illegal traffic.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">FOREIGN TRADE</p>
+
+<p>Foreign trade is of crucial importance to the country's industrial
+development because imports must be relied upon for a large part of the
+requirements for materials and equipment. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>Trade has been expanding at a
+rapid rate, and imports have been growing faster than exports. In a bid
+for economic and political independence from the Soviet Union, the
+country's leadership succeeded in reorienting a substantial portion of
+its trade toward the industrial nations of Western Europe during the
+mid-1960s (see ch. 10). After 1967, however, the inability to generate
+enough exports salable in Western markets to balance imports forced the
+country to turn increasingly to the Soviet Union and other Eastern
+European countries for its import needs.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign trade is a state monopoly. Trade policy is established by the
+PCR and the government, and its implementation is the responsibility of
+the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Authority to engage in foreign trade
+operations has been partially decentralized by a law enacted in March
+1971, although initial steps in this direction were taken under
+administrative regulations in the beginning of 1970. The main purpose of
+the law has been to raise the efficiency of foreign trade and to help
+expand exports. These ends are to be attained through greater exposure
+of domestic producers to international competition and by providing
+incentives for them to meet it. The law was also intended to create
+favorable conditions in the country for the establishment of industrial
+enterprises with foreign participation.</p>
+
+<p>Before the adoption of the trade reform law, only specialized foreign
+trade enterprises directly subordinated to the Ministry of Foreign Trade
+were empowered to carry on trade activities. Producing enterprises were
+completely divorced from foreign buyers. They delivered their export
+goods to the foreign trade enterprises at domestic prices, without
+knowing to whom or at what price the goods were sold abroad. Imports
+were also obtainable only through foreign trade enterprises at domestic
+prices, regardless of their acquisition cost. Foreign trade losses were
+covered out of the state budget, and enterprises assumed no risk
+whatever in foreign trade transactions. Producing enterprises had no
+interest in marketing their output abroad or in making their products
+competitive in world markets; neither were they interested in using
+domestic substitutes to avoid the need for imports.</p>
+
+<p>Under the new law authority to engage in foreign trade has been granted
+to some of the industrial ministries, trusts, and enterprises. Others
+must continue to trade through foreign trade enterprises. The delegation
+of authority has not involved a transfer of basic decisionmaking powers,
+and the continuance of central control is therefore assured. All trade
+must be conducted in accordance with binding state plans and guidelines
+issued by the minister of foreign trade. Every transaction requires
+approval by the Ministry of Foreign Trade in the form of an import or
+export <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>license. Central controls have also been retained over foreign
+exchange and over export and import prices. The main advantage of the
+new regulation lies in the opportunity it provides for producers to
+develop direct customer relations, thus enabling them to learn at first
+hand the preferences of buyers and the nature of the competition they
+must face. It also encourages them to exercise initiative in seeking out
+potential customers.</p>
+
+<p>Under the law production for export must be given priority. Failure by
+economic units to discharge their export obligations adversely affects
+their profits, even if they meet their total output target, because in
+these circumstances the production plan is considered underfulfilled by
+the value of the undelivered exports. This provision applies equally to
+suppliers and subcontractors of export manufacturers. A positive
+incentive to exceed export quotas has been provided in the form of
+export bonuses. Export manufacturers, however, have a greater interest
+than their suppliers in exceeding the export plan because they are
+entitled to keep for their own use a portion of the above-plan foreign
+exchange earnings, whereas their suppliers have no opportunity to do so.
+This difference of interests has been interpreted by foreign observers
+as a weakness in the law, in that it may hamper manufacturers' efforts
+to maximize export production because the requisite supplies and
+components may not be forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>The decentralization of foreign trade activities necessarily entails an
+increased need for well-qualified specialists in foreign trade and
+international finance, both at home and abroad. The shortage of experts
+in these fields is to be alleviated through an intensive personnel
+training program.</p>
+
+<p>Western economists believe the new law to be a step in the right
+direction in that it promotes an orientation of the economy toward
+exports. They hold the view, however, also shared by some Romanian
+economists, that, as long as the country's currency remains
+nonconvertible and prices fail to reflect the relative scarcity of
+goods, it will not be possible properly to calculate the profitability
+of foreign trade nor to improve the structure of the trade on the basis
+of such a calculation.</p>
+
+<p>In the 1960-70 period the annual trade turnover increased by 2.8 times
+to a volume of 22,8 billion lei. Exports rose at an average annual rate
+of 10 percent to 11.1 billion lei, and imports grew by 11.7 percent per
+year to 11.7 billion lei. From 1965 to 1970 the rise in trade was more
+rapid; the rates of growth were 11 percent for exports and 12.7 percent
+for imports.</p>
+
+<p>Although trade relations were officially reported to have expanded from
+twenty-nine countries in 1960 to 110 countries in 1970, the bulk of the
+trade was carried on with members of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>COMECON and the industrial
+countries of Western Europe (see table 6). Only 15 percent of the trade
+in 1970 involved countries outside these areas. Between 1960 and 1967
+trade with COMECON members increased by little more than half, whereas
+trade with Western so-called capitalist countries rose almost fourfold.
+The difference was even more marked in the case of imports from the
+West, which increased ninefold, so that imports from this area in 1967
+were larger than imports from COMECON. The trend was reversed after
+1967, mainly because of increasing balance of payments difficulties with
+Western trade partners.</p>
+
+<p>With a turnover of 5.5 billion lei in 1969, the Soviet Union has been by
+far the most important of Romania's trading partners. Czechoslovakia and
+the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) were next in importance
+within COMECON, with a trade volume of 1.5 billion and 1.2 billion lei,
+respectively, in 1969. Among trading partners in Western Europe, West
+Germany occupied first place, with a trade volume of almost 1.8 billion
+lei, followed by Italy with a volume of 1.2 billion lei and France with
+0.9 billion lei. The People's Republic of China has been the main
+communist trading partner outside Europe, with an annual volume of about
+0.5 billion lei in 1968 and 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 6.</i> <i>Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960 and
+1969</i><br /> (in millions of lei)¹</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 6">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" rowspan="2">Country Group</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" colspan="3">1960²</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" colspan="3">1969²</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcz8">Exports</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">Imports</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">Total</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">Exports</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">Imports</td>
+  <td class="tdcz8">Total</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="31%">Westeren industrial states</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="11%">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;918</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;913</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">1,831</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="3%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">2,980</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,432</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,412</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">COMECON³</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,821</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,636</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5,458</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5,042</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,819</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;9,862</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Other communist states</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;318</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;206</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;524</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;781</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;506</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,286</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Developing countries</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;245</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;131</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;376</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;996</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;686</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,682</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">4,302</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">3,887</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">8,189</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">9,799</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">10,443</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">20.242</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="8">¹ For value of leu, see Glossary.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="8">² Totals may not add because of rounding.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="8">³ Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="8">Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of
+    Technical Services, Joint Publications Research Service&mdash;JPRS Series (Washington),
+    <i>Translations on Eastern Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs</i>, "Foreign Trade
+    Reform Analyzed," <i>Vierteljahresshefte zur Wirtschaftsvorschung</i>, West Berlin,
+    July-September 1971, (JPRS 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971).</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Trade between Romania and the United States has been small because of
+legal restrictions in the United States against trade with communist
+countries. The trade volume doubled from about US$40 million in 1969 to
+US$80 million in 1970 but declined to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>about US$65 million in 1971.
+About 80 percent of the trade in 1969 and 1970 was accounted for by
+Romanian imports; in 1971 the trade was more nearly balanced. Comparable
+Romanian statistics are available only for 1969. They show a lower
+volume of trade and a smaller trade deficit. No explanation of this
+discrepancy is available.</p>
+
+<p>Measures to exempt Romania from the restrictions directed against trade
+with communist countries have been taken in the United States. In
+November 1971 exports to Romania were made eligible for Export-Import
+Bank financing. With support from the administration, legislation has
+been introduced in both houses of the Congress of the United States to
+accord Romania most-favored-nation treatment. Sources in the United
+States, however, believe that Romania will not be able to balance its
+trade with that country even in the event that the proposed legislation
+is enacted into law.</p>
+
+<p>Imports have been overwhelmingly weighted in favor of capital goods.
+Machinery and equipment, fuels, and raw and processed materials
+constituted about 90 percent of all imports in the 1960s. Manufactured
+consumer goods accounted for from 5 to 7 percent of imports. Raw and
+processed food products made up the small balance. Machinery and
+equipment, including plant installations, were the major single import
+category; the share of machinery and equipment in total imports rose
+from about 33 percent in 1960 to 49 percent in 1967 but declined to 44
+percent in 1969 because of payments difficulties. Imported machinery and
+equipment covered about 30 percent of requirements in 1970.</p>
+
+<p>Exports in the 1960s consisted mainly of raw and processed materials and
+foodstuffs, about equally divided between products of agricultural and
+industrial origin. As a result of progressive industrialization, the
+proportion of these products in total exports declined from about 78
+percent in 1960 to 63 percent in 1969. During the same period the share
+of machinery and equipment rose from about 17 to 22 percent, and that of
+manufactured consumer goods increased from about 6 to 16 percent.
+Official foreign trade policy is directed toward increasing the
+proportion of processed goods in total exports.</p>
+
+<p>In the 1960-70 period the annual balance of trade was negative, with the
+exception of the years 1960 and 1965. The cumulative trade deficit at
+the end of 1970 amounted to about 5.1 billion lei&mdash;the equivalent of
+about US$850 million. The overall deficit, however, obscured the
+severity of the foreign exchange problem facing the country. Trade with
+the communist and developing countries during the period produced an
+export surplus that offset, in part, the deficit with Western trading
+partners. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>surplus, however, could not be used to reduce foreign
+indebtedness because it did not generate hard currency earnings. The
+cumulative hard currency trade deficit with the West reached US$1.2
+billion in 1969 and an estimated US$1.5 billion in 1970.</p>
+
+<p>Information on the country's balance of payments has been kept secret,
+so that it is impossible to know how the trade deficit has been
+financed. Hard currency receipts from tourism, which could be applied
+toward repayment of the debt, equaled only a fraction of the annual
+trade deficit. Western sources estimated Romania's indebtedness to her
+Western industrial trading partners to have risen from about US$300
+million in 1966 to US$800 million in 1968 and to have increased further
+by 1970.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 15</h2>
+
+<h2>AGRICULTURE</h2>
+
+
+<p>As a result of the government's industrialization policy, the relative
+importance of agriculture in the economy has declined. During the decade
+of the 1960s the contribution of agriculture to national income, in
+terms of arbitrarily established official prices, dropped from about 30
+to 20 percent, even though half the working population continued to be
+employed on farms and farm output was gradually rising. The growth in
+output, however, did not keep pace with official plans, mainly because
+of a lack of income incentives for farmers under the government's low
+farm-price policy and because of inadequate investment and fertilizer
+inputs. The farm problem has been exacerbated by the generally low
+qualifications of the farm labor force and by the prevalence of
+widespread underemployment.</p>
+
+<p>Various revisions in agricultural organization and methods of
+compensation made from 1968 to 1971 did not produce any marked
+improvement by the end of that period. The failure of agricultural
+output, including livestock products, to advance according to plans
+created economic difficulties by depriving the country of potential
+exports urgently needed to pay for industrial imports. It has also
+hampered the improvement of the population's protein-deficient diet.
+Substantial advances in all phases of agriculture are planned for the
+1971-75 period. In the light of past experience, attainment of the
+established goals is uncertain. The full production potential of
+agriculture remains largely unexploited.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">AGRICULTURAL REGIONS</p>
+
+<p>Natural conditions are generally favorable for agricultural development.
+A varied topography has produced diversified regional weather and soil
+conditions. The climate is basically continental, with warm summers and
+cold winters, but the growing season is relatively long&mdash;from 180 to 210
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of precipitation fluctuates from year to year, which results
+in recurrent droughts. Rainfall averages about twenty-five inches,
+ranging from only fifteen inches on the Dobruja plateau to forty inches
+in the mountainous regions. In the principal farming regions, annual
+precipitation averages about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>twenty-three inches in the fertile
+southern plain but dips below twenty inches in the hilly regions of
+Moldavia in the northeastern part of the country. Moisture is generally
+sufficient during the spring growing period (see ch. 3).</p>
+
+<p>Soils vary from mountain-type soils to heavy, relatively infertile
+podzolic soils in the plateaus and rich chernozem (black earth) soils in
+the plains. About 20 percent of the agricultural land is of the
+chernozem type. Alluvial soils cover the flood plains of the Danube
+River.</p>
+
+<p>Topography and climate divide the country into five agricultural zones,
+the most important of which is Walachia. Walachia includes the rich
+southern plains, where half the country's grain is grown. Almost half
+the vineyards and orchards are located in the foothills surrounding the
+plains. Vegetable production is also important in this area, especially
+near the city of Bucharest. Despite the fertility of this region's
+soils, production in Walachia fluctuates because of recurrent summer
+droughts.</p>
+
+<p>Transylvania, the largely mountainous region in the central and
+northwestern parts of the country, receives substantial rainfall but has
+relatively infertile soils. Livestock production predominates on the
+mountain pastures and meadows. Grain and potatoes are the major crops in
+the central basin.</p>
+
+<p>Moldavia in northeastern Romania has generally poor soils and receives
+scant rainfall. Corn is the main crop in this zone, followed by wheat
+and potatoes.</p>
+
+<p>The Banat region on the country's western border has the most favorable
+natural conditions for agriculture. Chernozem soils predominate, and the
+seasonal distribution of rainfall is more propitious than in Walachia.
+Grain, primarily wheat, is the principal crop; fruits and vegetables are
+also important.</p>
+
+<p>The Dobruja plateau in southwestern Romania is the country's least
+important farming area. Although soils are generally fertile,
+cultivation is limited by inadequate rainfall. Grain, sunflowers, and
+legumes are grown in this area.</p>
+
+<p>To combat the destructive effects of recurrent droughts, a large-scale
+program of irrigation was undertaken by the government. Execution of the
+program, however, has consistently lagged behind the plans.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LAND USE</p>
+
+<p>In 1970 agricultural land comprised almost 37 million acres (63 percent
+of the country), about two-thirds of which was arable. The balance was
+devoted to pastures, meadows, vineyards, and orchards. During the decade
+of the 1960s substantial additions to the agricultural area were made
+through various land <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>improvement measures. At the same time, however,
+large acreages were diverted to industrial and residential uses,
+particularly of the more valuable arable land. The net result was an
+increase in the total farmland area, mainly in orchards and pastures,
+and a decline in the arable acreage (see table 7).</p>
+
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 7.</i> <i>Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70¹</i><br /> (in
+thousands of acres)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 7">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="40%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1962</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1969</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">1970</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Agricultural Land</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Arable</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24,268</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24,515</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24,146</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24,050</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pasture</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,953</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,924</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,426</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,420</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Meadow</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,427</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,447</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,506</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,499</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Vineyard</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;768</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;744</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;857</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;857</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;529</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;662</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,053</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,067</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total Agricultural Land</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">35,945</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">36,292</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">36,988</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">36,893</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Foreset Land</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">15,822</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">15,807</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">15,607</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">15,604</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">¹ Agricultural land by type of use and forest area.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970),
+    Bucharest, 1970, pp. 246-247.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Forests occupied an area of 15,604,000 acres in 1970, the equivalent of
+about 27 percent of the country's land surface. The forest acreage
+declined slowly but steadily after 1961, for a total loss of almost
+247,000 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Slightly more than two-thirds of the more than 24 million acres of crop
+area in 1969 was under grains. Technical crops for industrial uses,
+consisting mainly of oilseeds and sugar beets, and fodder crops occupied
+almost one-fourth of the sown area. The remainder of less than 10
+percent was devoted to legumes, potatoes, vegetables, and melons and to
+seed-producing and experimental plots. Half the grain acreage was
+devoted to corn, which is used for food and feed by the farmers; and
+more than two-fifths was under wheat, which is the staple food of the
+urban population.</p>
+
+<p>The grain acreage declined in absolute and in relative terms after 1960,
+when it accounted for almost three-fourths of the sown area. All other
+major crop acreages, excluding that under sugar beets, increased during
+the 1960-69 period (see table 8). Romanian economists attributed the
+shift in the crop pattern to the government's emphasis on adapting crop
+production to the economic needs of the country and to the natural
+conditions of individual farms. A severe flood in the spring of 1970,
+the worst in the country's history, reduced the crop area by nearly 1.25
+million acres below the level of 1969.</p>
+
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span><i>Table 8.</i> <i>Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and
+1969</i><br /> (in thousands of acres)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 8">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="60%">Crop</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">1969</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Grain</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Wheat</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,008</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,817</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Corn</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;8,826</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;8,137</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,626</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,263</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdc">17,460</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16,217</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Legumes</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;381</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;474</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Technical crops (for industrial uses)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Oleaginous</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,396</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,576</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sugar beets</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;494</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;445</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;252</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;341</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,142</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,362</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Potatoes</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;722</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;754</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Vegetables and melons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;516</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;591</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fodder crops</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,711</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,356</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Seed-producing and experimental plots</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;119</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;235</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total Cultivated Acreage</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">24,051</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">23,989</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+    of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 306-307.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Encroachment by builders upon agricultural and, more particularly,
+arable land was facilitated by the government's policy, pursued until
+the spring of 1968, of treating land as a free good and assigning no
+value to it in calculating the cost of industrial and housing investment
+projects. Arable land was especially attractive to builders because it
+required no expenditure for leveling.</p>
+
+<p>In an attempt to prevent further waste of valuable farmland, a law for
+the protection and conservation of agricultural land was passed in May
+1968. The law prohibited the diversion of farm acreages to
+nonagricultural uses, with the exception of special cases which,
+depending upon the nature and location of the land involved, required
+the approval of either the Council of State, the Council of Ministers,
+or the Superior Council of Agriculture (a government agency that
+functioned in lieu of a ministry for several years). Nonagricultural
+state organizations that held land that they could not cultivate were
+obligated to surrender it without payment to neighboring state or
+collective farms.</p>
+
+<p>The conservation law enjoined socialized (collective and state) farms
+and private farmers to put all land to optimum use; called for a review
+of the building code to reduce the land areas allowed to individual
+construction projects; provided for the inclusion of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>the value of land
+in construction costs; and spelled out various other measures to
+safeguard and improve agricultural land. The law also directed the
+establishment of a land register, excluding lands of the socialized
+farms, to facilitate stricter controls over the remaining private
+farmers, who held 9.2 percent of the agricultural land and 4.6 percent
+of the arable acreage.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy fines and criminal penalties, including imprisonment up to one
+year, were provided for infringements of the conservation law by
+enterprises and individuals. During the first year of the law's
+operation, fines were also to be imposed upon holders of uncultivated
+arable land, of improperly maintained orchards and vineyards, and of
+meadows and pastures on which maintenance work did not comply with
+agrotechnical rules. Like the establishment of the land register, this
+provision was also aimed at private farmers. A further provision stated
+that lands on which the described conditions continued after the first
+year were to be assigned to socialized farms for cultivation. The
+transferred land could be subsequently restored to the original owners
+under conditions prescribed by the Superior Council of Agriculture. The
+effect of the punitive regulations on private farm property was not
+apparent from the official statistics for 1968 and 1969.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the adoption of the conservation law, the deputy chairman
+of the State Committee for Construction, Architecture, and
+Systematization published an article in which he stated that mere
+administrative regulations by the committee and the Superior Council of
+Agriculture could not ensure the proper use of land, particularly on the
+collective farms. He called for the development of appropriate economic
+levers based on an adaptation of "the systems that limit land waste in
+some capitalistic markets." This official's concern about the efficacy
+of the new legislation was well based. By 1970 the arable acreage had
+declined by 158,000 acres, at an average annual rate more than half
+again as large as the annual losses during the 1962-68 period.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">ORGANIZATION</p>
+
+<p>Collective and state farms are the principal types of farm organization
+(see table 9). Substantial areas of state agricultural land are also
+operated as subsidiary farms by various industrial and other economic
+organizations. Small private farms survive mainly in the mountainous
+regions where collectivization is impractical. In 1970 the state owned
+30 percent of the farmland, about half of which was cultivated by state
+farms. Almost 61 percent of the land belonged to collective farms,
+including 6.6 percent in plots for the personal use of their members.
+The collective farm population consisted of almost 3.5 million families,
+including more than 10 million collective members. About 9 percent of
+the farmland was in the possession of private farmers.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span><i>Table 9. Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969</i><br /> (in
+thousands of acres)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 9">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="28%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">Arable</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">Pasture</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">Meadow</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">Vineyard</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">Orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">Total</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">State agricultural  units</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4,959&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;5,545&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;264&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;148&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;173&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;11,089&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(State farms)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;4,129)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;688)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;170)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(133)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;148)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;5,218)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Collective farms</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;18,075&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;1,315&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;1,712&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;682&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;692&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;22,476&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Private plots)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;1,969)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;20)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;54)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(262)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;121)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(&nbsp;&nbsp;2,426)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Private farms</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1,112&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;566&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;1,580&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;27&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;188&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3,423&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;24,146&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;7,426&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;3,506&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;857&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;1,053&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;36,988&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuaral Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970),
+    Bucharest, 1970, p. 253.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>In order to raise agricultural productivity and output, the state and
+collective farm sectors underwent frequent organizational changes, the
+latest of which went into effect in February 1971. There was not
+sufficient evidence in early 1972 on the extent to which they had been
+put into practice and even less information on their economic effects.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Collective Farms</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1971 there were 4,626 collective farms, officially
+called agricultural production cooperatives, comprising more than 22
+million acres of farmland, about 18 million acres of which were arable.
+Their number had declined by 1,800 through consolidation during the
+preceding decade. The farms had an average of about 750 families and
+1,000 able-bodied members each.</p>
+
+<p>The average acreage of collective farmland per family in 1970 amounted
+to 6.4 acres, including a private family plot of about 0.7 acres.
+Although the family plots constituted only 6.6 percent of the country's
+farmland and 8.2 percent of the arable acreage, they accounted for a
+substantially larger share in the output of various crops and livestock
+products.</p>
+
+<p>Information on the organization of individual collective farms and of
+the collective farm sector as a whole is inadequate, particularly with
+regard to the range of responsibilities and authority of the various
+administrative entities. The organizational framework has been
+complicated by the proliferation of new measures and regulations since
+1967. Farm operations are carried out in common, under the direction of
+an administrative and management body theoretically accountable to the
+general assembly, composed of all the members of a collective farm.
+Groups of workers are organized into so-called brigades for the
+performance of specialized tasks. The farm management includes a
+chairman, a director, a management council, brigade leaders, and trained
+technicians specialized in various aspects of farm operation.</p>
+
+<p>Intercooperative councils are charged with responsibility for improving
+collective farm management by initiating and coordinating cooperation on
+various levels among neighboring farms for better use of their physical
+and human resources. Collective farms are subordinated to the National
+Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives and are also subject to
+the direction of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters
+(referred to as the Ministry of Agriculture) and of county authorities.
+Collective farm associations are organized for various types of
+specialized production.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>In theory and according to law, but not in actual practice, collective
+farms are jointly owned by their members. The ownership supposedly
+extends to the land, other productive resources, and the annual farm
+output. About 11 percent of the collective farm land, however, is
+allocated for the personal use of members, and almost half the livestock
+other than horses is individually owned. No information is available on
+the existence of any provision for the compensation of members who are
+authorized to leave the farms for employment in other sectors of the
+economy.</p>
+
+<p>Regulations concerning the allocation of their income by collective
+farms among investment funds and various social and other obligatory
+funds and distribution to members were modified in late 1970 or early
+1971 with a view to stimulating the members' interest in raising the
+efficiency of production. Under the old system, distribution to members
+was made from residual funds remaining after all statutory public and
+social obligations were met. The revised farm statutes authorize the
+farms' general assemblies to allocate net income in ratios ranging from
+18 to 25 percent for investment and from 75 to 82 percent for
+consumption. In actual practice, however, income distribution is
+reported to follow a somewhat different pattern, which tends to reduce
+the share available for distribution to members. The new regulations
+have not altered the generally acknowledged fact that farm incomes
+remain very low, particularly on the poorer farms.</p>
+
+<p>The system of remuneration for collective farmers was also modified in
+1970 with a view to strengthening work incentives. The new method
+provides for monthly payments on account, in cash and in kind, based on
+the farms' planned annual receipts and for a share of profits in excess
+of those planned. Payment to individual members is to be based on
+centrally established work norms and rates of pay for various categories
+of operations, similar to the practice in industry and construction. The
+system is intended to relate individual remuneration more closely to the
+quantity and quality of the work performed and thereby to eliminate
+inequities of the earlier method. It is also meant to provide a steady
+and assured income to all members who contribute a specified minimum of
+workdays per month. If, for reasons beyond its control, a farm's
+receipts turn out to be lower than the amount legally distributed to its
+members during the year, the shortage may be covered by a long-term bank
+credit. As a further inducement for farmers to remain on the land, their
+social security benefits, generally much lower than those of industrial
+workers, were substantially liberalized.</p>
+
+<p>The extent to which the new pay system has been put into practice is not
+known. Effective January 1, 1971, a minimum wage of 300 lei (for value
+of leu, see Glossary) per month was to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>be paid to all male farmers who
+worked regularly at least twenty days and to all women who worked
+fifteen days. A survey published by a collective farm organ in March of
+that year found that within a single county twenty-one out of twenty-two
+farms had not taken the trouble to forward the necessary documents to
+the Agricultural Bank and apply for the funds with which to pay their
+members. Various excuses were offered by the farm chairmen for their
+lack of action. The chairmen, farm directors, and brigade leaders,
+however, were reported to have taken appropriate steps to secure their
+own minimum pay.</p>
+
+<p>The marketing of farm products by collective farms is based on
+officially fixed prices and monopoly-buying powers of state procurement
+agencies and the food-processing industry. Products move into government
+stocks through contracts between the farms and state agencies for
+quantities specified by the government; through payments in kind for
+services rendered by agricultural mechanization stations, flour mills,
+and other specialized government agencies; and, in the case of meat and
+wool, in the form of compulsory deliveries. Any products remaining after
+the obligations to the state have been met may be sold in open markets.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">State Farms</p>
+
+<p>Through consolidation of 370 previously existing state agricultural
+enterprises, the farm reorganization of February 1971 created 145 larger
+enterprises subordinated to the Department of State Agriculture in the
+Ministry of Agriculture. In addition, seventy-four state agricultural
+enterprises for fattening hogs, raising poultry, and producing feeds and
+hothouse vegetables were subordinated to four specialized trusts. The
+consolidation increased the average size of the state enterprises from
+16,000 acres to 34,600 acres of farmland. The enterprises comprised
+about 3,000 state farms on an area of over 5 million acres. Romanian
+sources reported that the reorganization was intended to bring
+management closer to production, to ensure improvement in all aspects of
+farm operation, to intensify concentration and specialization of
+production, and gradually to attain agro-industrial integration.</p>
+
+<p>In official terminology, state agricultural enterprises will operate on
+the principle of economic self-administration. The enterprises will be
+responsible for their subordinate farms and will supervise operations
+according to the principle of internal economic administration. Briefly,
+this means that the agricultural enterprises and the farms must be
+financially self-sustaining, that directors of enterprises and farms are
+accorded a certain measure <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>of discretion in planning and organizing
+production and in the use of resources, and that financial rewards
+beyond the normal pay accrue to each farm's managerial personnel and
+workers in accordance with the farm's own performance, regardless of the
+results obtained by other farms within the enterprise or by the parent
+enterprise itself.</p>
+
+<p>Individual state farms, nevertheless, have no juridical status or bank
+accounts, nor may they enter into direct relation with other economic
+entities outside the state agricultural enterprise of which they are a
+part. In large measure, they remain subject to the direction of the
+enterprise management. Information on the division of authority between
+the agricultural enterprises and the Department of State Agriculture in
+the ministry is not available. Complaints have been voiced in the
+Romanian press about unwarranted interference by higher authorities in
+the management of both the farms and the agricultural enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>Workers on state farms and other state agricultural units are salaried
+employees of the state, entitled to paid annual vacations, social
+security and medical assistance, allocations for children, age or
+disability pensions, and various other benefits provided by law for
+employees of state enterprises. During slack periods, workers may be
+allowed up to 120 days of unpaid vacation per year, without losing
+seniority or other rights.</p>
+
+<p>State farms are the best endowed agricultural units in the country.
+Although they included only about 17 percent of the arable land in 1969,
+they possessed almost 28 percent of the tractors, 24 percent of the
+grain combines, and similar proportions of other major types of farm
+machinery. Moreover, they received more than 37 percent of the chemical
+fertilizers delivered to agriculture and farmed almost 33 percent of the
+irrigated land. As a consequence, per-acre yields on state farms have
+been generally higher than yields on collective farms.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the mechanized operations on collective farms has been
+performed for payment in cash and in kind by specialized state
+enterprises for the mechanization of agriculture, which control a large
+share of the country's farm machinery and tractors. This policy has
+provided the state with an added lever of control over the farms; it was
+used in the past to extract a substantial volume of farm produce for the
+state through payments in kind for services rendered. For political
+reasons, and also because of the weak financial position of many
+collective farms, the government has not followed the example of other
+Eastern European <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>states that disbanded their machine-tractor stations
+and sold the equipment to the farms.</p>
+
+<p>In 1969 the agricultural mechanization enterprises controlled 70 percent
+of the available farm tractor power and an even larger share of the
+tractor-drawn and self-propelled farm machinery. State farms owned
+virtually all the balance. Collective farms, which cultivated 75 percent
+of the arable land, possessed only 1.6 percent of the tractor power and
+a still smaller proportion of major farm machinery items.</p>
+
+<p>As of January 1, 1971, the system of agricultural mechanization
+enterprises was reorganized with a view to improving the quality of
+their operations. Forty enterprises were established throughout the
+country&mdash;one in each of the thirty-nine counties and one in the
+Bucharest area&mdash;with 772 subordinate stations to service an equal number
+of farm associations and about 4,500 sections to work with individual
+collective farms. The main stated task of the mechanization sections is
+to introduce and expand the mechanization of plant and animal production
+on the farms.</p>
+
+<p>To accomplish the task, each mechanization section is to coordinate the
+use of its own equipment with that belonging to the collective. Within
+the framework of this cooperation, the state mechanization enterprises
+were made increasingly responsible for the agricultural production
+process. The planning of mechanized farm operations, the allocation of
+equipment for specific purposes, and the timing and supervision of all
+operations are joint responsibilities of the section chief and the
+farm's chief engineer. Close cooperation and a smooth working
+relationship between them is therefore needed for effective performance.</p>
+
+<p>Mechanized work on farms is carried on by permanent teams composed of
+agricultural mechanics and collective farm members. They take over
+assigned areas in all sectors of the farm and are in charge of all
+relevant operations until the crops have been stored. In slack period
+the mechanization sections work outside the cooperative farms in order
+to utilize more fully their manpower and equipment.</p>
+
+<p>The reorganization of the agricultural mechanization enterprises was
+accompanied by a change in the system of pay for mechanics and
+maintenance men to provide for greater incentives. For work done on the
+farms, these workers receive 80 percent of their annual salary, and the
+remainder is paid at the end of the year, in whole or in part, depending
+upon the degree to which the production plans of the farm on which they
+work are fulfilled. Provision was also made for bonus payments in the
+event of over-fulfillment of production plans. The shift in wage policy
+was accompanied by a raise in the rates of pay for mechanics,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>maintenance men, and personnel operating the equipment in the field on
+a piecework basis. This measure increases the burden on the already
+strained budgets of many collective farms.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">FARM LABOR</p>
+
+<p>The agricultural labor force presents a paradox of substantial
+underemployment associated with widespread labor shortages, particularly
+of more productive, skilled personnel; the shortages are especially
+prevalent during the planting and harvesting seasons. This phenomenon is
+an outgrowth primarily of a progressive qualitative deterioration of the
+agricultural manpower pool, owing to a continuing transfer of
+predominantly young male workers into nonagricultural occupations.
+Maldistribution of the labor force and poor management of the available
+manpower resources have been important contributing factors. The
+outmigration from agriculture has been spurred by a wide disparity in
+urban and rural incomes and by the relatively inferior living conditions
+on the farms. At the beginning of the 1970s the average income of
+farmworkers was only half as high as that of industrial workers.</p>
+
+<p>Only fragmentary information relating to the farm labor force has been
+published in official statistics. Agricultural employment in 1969
+constituted 51 percent of total employment, compared with 65.4 percent
+in 1960 and 74.1 percent in 1950. Published absolute figures bear only
+on employment by the state; in 1969 the state employed 431,200 persons,
+including 290,000 on state farms and 93,500 in agricultural
+mechanization enterprises. Data published in connection with a
+conference held by the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
+Sciences, however, implied that total agricultural employment in 1968
+amounted to 5.2 million persons, including 4.3 million able-bodied
+collective farm members. The proportion of women in the collective farm
+labor force was reported to be 57.5 percent in 1966; the proportion was
+much larger in highly developed industrial zones. More than 70 percent
+of the collective farm workers, but only about 10 to 15 percent of the
+workers on state farms, were engaged in crop production.</p>
+
+<p>Not all the collective farm members participate in the work of the
+collective. Some are permanently employed in nonagricultural branches of
+the economy. Others&mdash;as many as 25 percent of all farmers in 1969&mdash;work
+as day laborers in industry and construction, on state farms, and in
+other occupations. Housewives with small children and wives of salaried
+farm employees also take no part in the collective work. Members who do
+participate generally work only a portion of the year because there is
+not sufficient <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>work for them to be fully occupied. In the years 1967 to
+1969, these members, on the average, contributed only from 139 to 142
+man-days per year. In 1968, for example, 22 percent of all collective
+farmers put in not more than forty man-days, and 55 percent of the
+farmers worked fewer than 120 days. Many farmers work only the minimum
+number of days required to keep their personal plots. There are wide
+variations in the degree of labor participation between geographic
+regions, between individual farms, and among production sectors of a
+single farm. At the beginning of the decade of the 1970s about 40
+percent of the income of collective farm families was derived from
+nonagricultural pursuits.</p>
+
+<p>Underemployment in agriculture is expected to continue at least
+throughout the 1970s. Industry, though growing very rapidly, will not be
+able to absorb any significant numbers of farmworkers because of the
+government's emphasis on mechanization and automation of production. In
+the 1971-75 period industrial manpower requirements will be met almost
+entirely through natural population increase. Relieving agricultural
+underemployment through an expansion of the services sector is not being
+given serious consideration on the grounds that "no further expansion of
+this sector can be undertaken at the expense of achieving a high level
+of productivity in the branches of material production and hence in
+agriculture, too."</p>
+
+<p>Raising the low productivity level of collective farm labor through
+greater capital inputs, and thereby increasing the incomes of members,
+presents a difficult problem not only because of a shortage of
+investment funds but also because the magnitude of the collective farm
+labor cannot be adjusted to the needs of production, as in the case of
+state farms; it is determined by the number of families living on the
+farm. The collective farm cannot limit the number of members who may
+participate in the work. Each member has the right and, at the same
+time, the duty to participate in the work performed for the collective,
+and the collective has the duty to provide equal opportunities for all
+its members to work and to earn adequate incomes; yet modernization of
+production necessarily brings with it an ever smaller need for manpower.</p>
+
+<p>A solution of the farm manpower problem was not in sight by late 1971.
+There was general agreement among Romanian economists concerned with the
+matter about a need to improve the utilization of the available labor
+resources, to increase farm incomes and, above all, to stop the
+migration of young people from villages to towns. No concrete program
+for attaining these ends, however, emerged from a national conference on
+farm labor held in mid-1970. Proposals advanced by a number of
+economists to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>expand industrial activities in the villages,
+particularly cottage industries and the processing of farm products,
+were questioned by others who feared that these activities would tend to
+drain some of the remaining productive elements from the collective farm
+labor force.</p>
+
+<p>As expressed by one of the conferees, the search was on for a hybrid
+solution that would ensure full employment of the redundant labor force
+despite the process of farm modernization&mdash;a policy that inevitably
+leads to the maintenance of low earnings on many farms because the
+available work must be spread among an excessive number of members. In
+this context, foreign observers adopted a wait-and-see attitude toward
+the changes in collective farm organization and in the method of payment
+to farmers introduced in January 1971 (see Organization, this ch.). They
+nevertheless expressed doubt about the ultimate efficacy of these
+measures because the income of farmers would still remain far below that
+of industrial workers.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INVESTMENT AND CREDIT</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Investment</p>
+
+<p>Investment in agriculture has been rising steadily, reaching an annual
+volume of almost 13 billion lei in 1970. The share of agriculture in
+total investment, however, declined from 19.5 percent in the 1961-65
+period to 15.8 percent in the years 1966 through 1969. In relation to
+industrial investment during the same periods, investment in agriculture
+declined from 40 to 30 percent. Under the Five-Year Plan (1971-75),
+agriculture is to receive investments of at least 100 billion lei&mdash;an
+amount that is twice as large as the actual investment in the years 1966
+through 1970 and that represents a somewhat larger share of total
+investment than was allocated to agriculture in that period.</p>
+
+<p>No information is readily available on the proportion of the total
+investment used for the replacement of wornout assets and for the
+expansion of productive facilities. In the 1966-69 period replacement
+capital constituted about 30 percent of investments; in 1969 alone the
+proportion was as high as 46 percent.</p>
+
+<p>The largest part&mdash;and a rising proportion&mdash;of the agricultural
+investment has been financed by the state; collective farms supplied the
+balance out of their own income. The share of state funds in the total
+agricultural investment increased steadily from about 66 percent in 1963
+to 80 percent in 1969; this proportion is to be maintained during the
+Five-Year Plan (1971-75). Investment in collective farms has also been
+increasingly financed by the state through long-term credits; the share
+of government credits rose from 13 percent in 1965 to 35 percent in
+1969. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>Investment out of the collectives' own funds remained stable
+during this period, at from 2.2 billion lei to 2.4 billion lei per year.</p>
+
+<p>State farms have received a disproportionate amount of investment&mdash;38
+percent in the 1965-69 period, as against 34 percent for collective
+farms. The investment share of collective farms during this period
+declined from about 38 to 30 percent of the total. On the basis of
+farmland acreage, investment in collective farms in 1969 amounted to
+only 18 percent of the funds invested in state farms. If the state
+investment in agricultural mechanization enterprises is included as
+investment for the benefit of the collective farms, the ratio of
+collective to state farm investment per acre was still only 25 percent.</p>
+
+<p>Collective farm statutes require the farms to devote from 18 to 25
+percent of their annual gross income to investment. Some Romanian
+economists consider net income to be a more equitable base; under such a
+system more of the farms' income would remain for distribution to
+members. In calculating gross income, amortization of fixed assets is
+generally not included as an expense, which further raises the base used
+for the computation of the compulsory investment fund. An official of
+the Agricultural Bank reported that, in the last few years of the 1960s,
+one-fourth of all collective farms set aside for investment up to 10
+percent more than the maximum legal requirement.</p>
+
+<p>Only partial information is available on the use of investment funds.
+Roughly 40 percent of the investment in the 1962-69 period was devoted
+to construction and assembly work, and 33 percent was used to increase
+farm mechanization. It has not been made clear whether land improvement
+and irrigation are included in construction, but it seems likely that
+this is the case. Substantial funds were also invested in the expansion
+of orchards, vineyards, and livestock. Although significant advances
+were made in most of these areas, the level of farm mechanization and of
+irrigation remained low. In 1969 the equivalent of one
+fifteen-horsepower tractor was available for every 136 acres of arable
+land, and irrigated acreage constituted 6 percent of the arable area.
+The use of fertilizers lagged by comparison with other Eastern European
+countries.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Credit</p>
+
+<p>Farm credit has been provided by the government through the Agricultural
+Bank, which was reconstituted as the Bank for Agriculture and the Food
+Industry in May 1971. Available information on the credit operations of
+the bank is limited to a few summary data on credits to collective
+farms. Information on the financing of state farms is lacking.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>As expressed by the bank's president, long-term credits for investment
+and short-term credits for production needs have been used by the state
+as levers for the economic and organizational development and for the
+consolidation of collective farms. Long-term credits granted during the
+1962-69 period amounted to 6.4 billion lei, or an average of 800 million
+lei per year. During the same period the farms received about 30 billion
+lei in short-term production credits, or about 3.75 billion lei per
+year. The annual volume of investment credits increased sharply after
+1967; it was reported to have reached 1.8 billion lei in 1970 and to
+have been planned at more than 2 billion lei for 1971. A rise was also
+reported in the yearly volume of production credit.</p>
+
+<p>Investment credits generally carry an annual 3-percent interest charge,
+but the interest rate may be reduced to 2 percent for economically
+weaker farms. Comparable information on production credit is not
+available, except for an official statement that a large part of it has
+been granted free of interest.</p>
+
+<p>Postponement of scheduled long-term credit repayments may be authorized
+by the bank with the approval of the Ministry of Finance for periods of
+up to one year in the case of collective farms that are unable to meet
+the due date for reasons beyond their control, such as a crop failure.
+At the same time the bank may discontinue credits or demand repayment
+before the due date in the event that borrowed funds are improperly or
+inefficiently used. Penalties are also provided for short-term borrowers
+who fail to respect contractual obligations. As a measure of assistance
+to poor cooperatives, the repayment of loans in the amount of 1.15
+billion lei, contracted before 1968 and due in 1972, was remitted by
+decision of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party in
+December 1971.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of long-term credits to collective farms among
+different types of investment projects changed significantly during the
+1960s. In 1962 and 1963 more than half the credits were granted for the
+expansion of livestock production, and one-fourth of the credits were
+devoted to the construction of farm buildings. In the last two years of
+the decade, however, only 5 percent and 3 percent of the credits,
+respectively, were earmarked for these purposes. Emphasis shifted in the
+mid-1960s to land improvement, the extension of orchards and vineyards,
+and vegetable production. In the 1967-69 period 83 percent of the
+investment credits were used for these projects. A lack of significant
+progress in the livestock production of collective farms, despite the
+heavy investment, was the main reason for the drastic reduction in
+credits to this farm sector.</p>
+
+<p>In mid-1971 the bank was authorized to grant credits to private <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>farmers
+and to individual members of collective farms for periods of up to five
+years at an annual interest rate of 3 percent. These credits may be used
+to purchase for breeding and production purposes a limited number of
+cattle, sheep, bee colonies with hives, and fruit tree seedlings for
+orchards up to 7.4 acres in size. Credits may be granted up to 70
+percent of the purchase value of these items. To ensure repayment of the
+loans, recipients must conclude contracts with state procurement
+agencies or collective farms for the sale of their products.</p>
+
+<p>Procedures for granting credits to collective farms were tightened in
+1969 in a move to ensure a more effective use of borrowed funds and the
+timely repayment of outstanding debts. Under the new regulations,
+credits may be granted only for investment projects and production
+expenditures that guarantee the attainment of planned returns and
+unconditionally ensure loan repayment on the due date. The principal
+criteria for granting long-term credits are the need for, and the
+economic effectiveness of, the investment projects and the outlook for
+completing the projects within prescribed time limits. Economic
+effectiveness is analyzed in terms of production growth, increase in
+output per acre or per head of livestock, and rise in labor productivity
+and revenues.</p>
+
+<p>Despite increasingly close supervision by the bank of its borrowers'
+activities, the effectiveness of investment credits in many instances
+has not measured up to expectations. Inadequate project analysis,
+construction delays, cost overruns, dissipation of funds, program
+changes that made partially or fully completed projects obsolete, and
+various other shortcomings have been cited by bank officials as the
+major reasons for this situation. As a means of resolving the problems,
+the officials have stressed the need for more profound project
+evaluation, greater stringency in granting loans, and increased firmness
+in the supervision of borrowers. They have also emphasized the criterion
+of ability to repay as being one of basic importance.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">PRODUCTION</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Total Farm Output</p>
+
+<p>Official statistics on total farm output are limited to a percentage
+distribution of the output between crop and livestock production. In the
+1965-69 period, for which comparable data are available, crop production
+accounted for 62 to 63 percent of output; and livestock production, for
+the remaining 37 to 38 percent. This ratio is reported to have prevailed
+throughout the 1950-70 period, even though the government has
+consistently sought to raise the contribution of the livestock sector to
+total output. An increase in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>the proportion of livestock products to
+40.6 percent in 1970, reported by another source, was attributable
+mainly to the damage sustained by crops from the spring flood in that
+year.</p>
+
+<p>Total gross agricultural output was unofficially reported to have
+reached 72.4 billion lei in 1969 and to have fallen to 68.7 billion lei
+in 1970 as a result of disastrous spring floods. The 1969 output volume,
+equal to that of 1967, represented the highest level attained through
+1970. According to official index data, farm output in 1967 and in 1969
+was 31 percent larger than it had been in 1960; the 1970 output was only
+24 percent larger. These figures are equivalent to annual growth rates
+of 3.9 percent for the 1960-67 period and 2.2 percent for the years 1969
+through 1970.</p>
+
+<p>Net farm output increased much more slowly because the cost of material
+outlays per unit of output was steadily rising. In the 1963-68 period
+the increase in material costs amounted to 33 percent.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of farm output during the 1960s was well below the planned
+levels of 70 to 80 percent for the years 1960 through 1965 and 26 to 32
+percent for the 1966-70 period. Instead of more than doubling, output
+increased by barely one-fourth. Unfavorable weather conditions during
+some of the years were only partly responsible for the nonfulfillment of
+the agricultural output plans. Other major factors included the
+government's failure to provide the planned volume of inputs and an
+apathetic attitude on the part of farmers owing to inadequate
+incentives.</p>
+
+<p>The shortfall in fertilizer deliveries during the 1966-70 period alone
+amounted to 1.3 million tons of nutrients, or one-third of the planned
+tonnage. For the decade as a whole, the shortfall approached 2 million
+tons. Deliveries of tractors and farm machinery also lagged behind
+schedule. Although an area of almost 2 million acres was to be irrigated
+by 1965 and, under revised plans, an acreage of from 1.6 million to 1.7
+million acres by 1970, only 550,000 acres had been actually irrigated by
+1965 and 1.45 million acres by 1969. A careful and sympathetic Western
+student of Romanian economy concluded that the production targets for
+1965 could not have been achieved even if all the planned inputs had
+been provided on schedule.</p>
+
+<p>In the view of some Western observers, an attitude of indifference on
+the part of farmers, based on the inadequacy of returns from farming,
+particularly on the collective farms, was an important contributing
+cause for the failure of agriculture to realize its growth potential.
+The real income of farmers was scheduled to rise by 20 to 25 percent
+during the 1966-70 period; the official announcement of the plan
+results, however, merely noted an increase in income, without citing any
+figure&mdash;a clear indication that the target was missed by a wide margin.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>The negative effects of the disparity in incomes on the collective
+farmers' sense of responsibility and, hence, on agricultural production
+were officially recognized. This recognition led to a revision of the
+system of compensation for collective farm work and to a reduction of
+farm taxes in early 1971 but did not significantly alter the position of
+agriculture within the economy (see Organization, this ch.). The
+possibility of alleviating the situation by raising farm incomes through
+a general increase in farm prices was rejected on the grounds that such
+an increase, without a corresponding rise in productivity per worker and
+per acre, would constitute a redistribution of national income
+incompatible with the best interests of the economy.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Crop Production and Yields</p>
+
+<p>Production of major crops and of fruits was larger during the 1960s than
+it had been in the preceding decade. The greatest advances were made in
+the output of industrial and fodder crops, and the smallest were in
+potato and vegetable production (see table 10). In large measure, the
+rise in output was achieved through greater yields per acre, owing to an
+increased use of fertilizers; the introduction of improved varieties;
+and some improvement in crop production methods, particularly on state
+farms. Crop yields, nevertheless, remained among the lowest in Eastern
+Europe.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Livestock and Livestock Products</p>
+
+<p>Livestock numbers increased slowly from 1961 to 1970 but, except for
+poultry, were generally lower at the end of that period than the peak
+levels reached for the different types between 1965 and 1968. From 1961
+to 1965 the number of cows declined but increased steadily thereafter,
+without, however, fully regaining the level of 1961.</p>
+
+<p>Development of the livestock economy has been hampered by an inadequate
+feed base, poor quality of livestock and livestock breeding, and
+inefficient production methods. Significant improvements in the
+livestock sector are planned for the 1971-75 period and beyond to 1980.</p>
+
+<p>Although livestock production failed to increase as a proportion of the
+total farm output, the volume of livestock products, nevertheless, rose
+significantly during the 1960s (see table 11). Compared with the average
+annual outputs of individual products attained in the 1962-65 period,
+increases in average annual production for the years 1966 through 1969
+ranged from 18 percent for wool to 24 percent for meat.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span><i>Table 10. Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected Years,
+1960-69</i><br /> (in thousand metric tons)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 10">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="28%">Crop</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">1963</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">1966</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">1967</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">1968</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="12%">1969</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Grain¹</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Wheat</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3,450</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,799</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;5,065</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;5,820</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,848</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,349</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Corn</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5,531</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,023</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;8,022</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,858</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,105</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,676</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;845</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;614</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;812</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;834</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;817</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;799</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdc">9,826</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10,436</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13,899</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13,512</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12,770</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12,824</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oilseeds</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sunflower</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;522</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;506</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;671</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;720</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;730</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;747</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;93</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;54</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;63</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;61</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;41</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;59</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;615</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;560</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;734</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;781</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;771</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;806</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sugar beets</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3,399</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,298</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,368</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,830</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,936</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,783</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Tobacco</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;16</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;40</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;40</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;35</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;33</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;24</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Potatoes</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3,009</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,692</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,352</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,096</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,707</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,165</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Vegetables</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,831</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,702</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,177</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,000</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,296</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,963</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fodder Crops</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hay</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,105</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,872</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,182</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,223</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,472</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,268</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Green feed</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,222</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,922</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,749</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4,380</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,995</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,885</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Silage²</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4,601</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;5,296</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,538</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2,830</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,728</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,491</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Root crops</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;276</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;293</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;371</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;269</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;302</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;420</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8,204</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10,383</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11,840</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10,702</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10,497</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11,064</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fruits</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;829</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,048</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,390</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,206</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,054</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,677</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Grapes</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;874</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;937</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;954</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;910</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,167</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,189</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="7">¹ Grain production in 1971 was unofficially reported to have
+    reached about 14.5 million metric tons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="7">² Roughly 90 percent corn.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="7">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970),
+    Bucharest, 1970, pp. 312-315.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 11. Output of Livestock Products in Romania,<br /> Selected Years
+1960-69</i></p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 11">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">Meat¹</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">Milk²</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">Eggs³</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">Wool&#8308;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;969</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;856,472</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,355</td>
+  <td class="tdc">21,850</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">1965</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,116</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;859,061</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,630</td>
+  <td class="tdc">25,410</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">1966</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,265</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;987,531</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,814</td>
+  <td class="tdc">26,072</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">1967</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,356</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,089,320</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3,011</td>
+  <td class="tdc">28,626</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">1968</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,297</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,012,628</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3,113</td>
+  <td class="tdc">30,583</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcz">1969</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">1,271</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;992,762</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">3,315</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">30,752</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">¹ Thousand metric tons live weight.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">² Cow, goat, and buffalo in thousand gallons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">³ In millions.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">&#8308; In metric tons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970),
+    Bucharest, 1970, pp. 430-431.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>Data on the contribution of the different types of farms to the total
+farm output are lacking, but detailed figures are available for
+individual products. The most noteworthy aspect of these data is the
+light that they shed on the importance of the collective farmers'
+personal plots and of the private sector in the production of the higher
+valued farm products. On their small personal plots, the collective
+farmers in 1969 produced roughly one-third of the wool, vegetables, and
+potatoes; two-fifths of the meat, milk, and fruit; and three-fifths of
+the eggs (see table 12). Together with the small number of private
+farms, they accounted for 35 to 80 percent of the output of these items.
+Foreign observers have interpreted this phenomenon as clear evidence of
+the inadequacy of incentives for work on state and collective farms.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Exports</p>
+
+<p>Substantial quantities of farm products have been exported in raw and
+processed form. In the 1965-69 period exports of grain, fruits,
+vegetables, and eggs ranged from 10 to 13 percent of output. Exports of
+wool reached almost two-thirds of the total production volume. A wide
+range of other vegetable and livestock products were also exported,
+including pulses; sugar; sunflower seeds and oil; live cattle; fresh,
+frozen, and canned meat; butter; wine; and tobacco (see ch. 14).</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span><i>Table 12. Crop Production and Livestock Products in Romania, by Type of
+Farm, 1969</i><br /> (in percent)</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="90%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 12">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="25%">Product</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">State Agricultural Units</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">State<br /> Farms¹</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Collective Farms</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Personal<br /> Plots</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="15%">Private<br /> Farms</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Grains</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">23.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">63.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;9.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3.1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fiber plants</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;5.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">92.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2.1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oilseeds</td>
+  <td class="tdc">29.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">28.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">70.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ²</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;- ²</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sugar beets</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">99.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Tobacco</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">99.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Potatoes</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">39.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">36.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">17.4</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Vegetables</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">52.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">29.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;5.9</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Perennials for hay</td>
+  <td class="tdc">30.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">28.3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">64.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1.9</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Annuals for hay</td>
+  <td class="tdc">23.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">19.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">58.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3.7</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Annuals for green feed</td>
+  <td class="tdc">38.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">35.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">60.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fodder roots</td>
+  <td class="tdc">53.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">50.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">39.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;4.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1.6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Silage crops</td>
+  <td class="tdc">44.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">42.8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">55.4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.1</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fruits</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;9.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">19.3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">40.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">28.1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Meat</td>
+  <td class="tdc">27.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">21.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">39.3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12.5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Milk</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">28.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">38.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16.9</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Eggs</td>
+  <td class="tdc">17.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16.7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">60.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">19.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Wool</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">17.7</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">16.8</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">38.4</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">33.1</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">10.8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">¹ Breakdown included within state agricultural units.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">² Less than 0.1 percent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970),
+    Bucharest, 1970, pp. 329-345, 406, 430-431.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER 16</h2>
+
+<h2>INDUSTRY</h2>
+
+
+<p>Stimulated by a high rate of investment and an infusion of Western
+technology, industry has expanded at a rapid rate. A qualitatively
+inadequate labor force, poor organization, and insufficiently
+experienced management personnel, however, have not been able to attain
+levels of efficiency and quality acceptable to the Romanian Communist
+Party and the government. Lowering the cost of production and improving
+quality are considered to be essential prerequisites for expanding
+exports, which are needed to pay for imports of materials and equipment.
+Various measures introduced since 1967 have not achieved the
+government's objectives. Economic plans for the 1971-75 period call for
+raising productivity through greater specialization of production and
+better utilization of plants and materials. To this end, several new
+economic laws were passed in December 1971, the contents of which were
+not yet known in early 1972.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">NATURAL RESOURCES</p>
+
+<p>Though widely varied, the country's mineral and agricultural resources
+are generally inadequate to maintain the current and planned levels of
+industrial production and exports. Natural gas is a major exception.
+Formerly plentiful supplies of crude oil are falling off, and the
+likelihood of discovering new deposits is considered poor by oil
+industry officials. The heavy dependence on outside sources of raw
+materials led the government to provide economic and technical
+assistance to several developing countries for the exploitation of their
+mineral resources in return for shipments of mined products. This
+dependence has also been a major determinant of the country's political
+relations with other members of the Council for Mutual Economic
+Assistance (COMECON), particularly the Soviet Union, and with
+noncommunist industrial nations of the West (see ch. 10).</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Minerals and Metals</p>
+
+<p>Information on the extent of most mineral reserves is unavailable. A
+delegation of Western petroleum experts who surveyed the petroleum
+industry at the end of 1970 made a tentative estimate that oil reserves
+would be exhausted in roughly eleven years at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>the current annual
+production rate of about 13 million tons. With a view to ensuring
+long-term crude oil supplies for the planned expansion of the domestic
+petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, the government has
+entered into economic cooperation agreements with several small
+petroleum-producing countries. The government has also discussed the
+possibility for joint exploration of offshore petroleum deposits in the
+Black Sea and elsewhere in the world with oil interests of various
+countries. In the meantime the government has been importing crude oil
+from Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Libya in exchange for industrial machinery
+and equipment. Oil imports from these countries in 1970 amounted to 2.1
+million tons.</p>
+
+<p>The major natural gas deposits that were exploited in 1970 are located
+in the Transylvanian basin and outside the Carpathian arc (see ch. 3).
+According to Romanian officials, the annual addition to reserves has
+been double the volume of annual production. Gas output has expanded
+steadily from about 365 billion cubic feet in 1960 to 845 billion cubic
+feet in 1969. Natural gas has been used for electric power production in
+thermal plants, for space heating, and as a raw material for the
+chemical industry. Less than 1 percent has been exported through a
+pipeline to Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Western observers believe that imports of natural gas from the Soviet
+Union may be initiated in the early 1970s. This belief is based on
+information that a gas pipeline to be built from the Soviet Union to
+Bulgaria will pass through eastern Romania, fairly close to the major
+port of Constanta, which is far removed from domestic sources of gas.
+Negotiations to this effect are not known to have taken place.</p>
+
+<p>Deposits of coal are small and, with few exceptions, low grade. Known
+reserves in 1970 were reported to include less than 1 billion tons of
+bituminous and anthracite coal and 3.5 billion tons of lignite. Fields
+at Petrosani in the Jiu Valley of the southern Transylvania Alps contain
+98 percent of the bituminous coal reserves; 90 percent of the lignite
+reserves are located in Oltenia, in the southwestern part of the
+country. Open pit mining is possible in much of the lignite area.</p>
+
+<p>In order to conserve crude oil and natural gas, production of coal and
+lignite has been substantially increased and is scheduled to rise
+rapidly in the 1971-75 period. From 1950 to 1970 total coal output
+increased at an annual rate of 9.2 percent, including a growth of more
+than 15 percent per year in lignite output. By 1975 coal output is to
+reach from 37 million to 38.5 million tons, which corresponds to a
+planned annual increase of about 10.6 percent from the level of 22.8
+million tons mined in 1970. The production of lignite is scheduled to
+advance more rapidly than that of bituminous and anthracite coal.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>Two-thirds of the mined coal tonnage with 56 percent of its caloric
+content was used in 1970 to fuel electric power plants. Only 1.3 million
+tons were usable in the manufacture of coke, in large part as an
+admixture to imported coking coals of superior quality. The severe and
+growing shortage of domestic coke supplies poses a major obstacle to the
+expansion of the iron and steel industry. In 1969 it was necessary to
+import 2.1 million tons of metallurgical coke and 633,000 tons of coking
+coal.</p>
+
+<p>Workable deposits of iron ore are situated in the vicinity of Resita and
+Hunedoara in the southwest. Other known deposits, particularly those at
+Ruschita and Lueta, have a low metal content and harmful radioactive
+admixtures. Suitable mining and processing methods to handle these ores
+have not been developed and are not believed to be economically
+feasible. Domestic mines provided about 32 percent of requirements in
+1965 but only 17 percent in 1970; by 1975 the importance of native iron
+ores will have further declined. Imports of iron ores almost quadrupled
+in the 1960s and reached a volume of 3 million tons in 1969. Most of the
+imports came from the Soviet Union.</p>
+
+<p>Information on basic nonferrous ore reserves is tenuous and, in part,
+conflicting. The tenor of published reports points to a scarcity of
+reserves, low metal content of ores, and difficulties in ore processing.
+The great majority of existing mines are said to have only enough
+reserves left for a few years' production. Consideration has been given
+to the recovery of nonferrous metals from industrial wastes, such as
+blast furnace slag and metallurgical dross. For the time being, domestic
+reserves appear adequate to cover the needs of lead and zinc production
+and a portion of the requirements for smelting copper and aluminum. The
+bulk of bauxite and alumina and a substantial quantity of copper must be
+imported.</p>
+
+<p>Romania is reported to be extracting small amounts of gold and silver.
+It is also mining uranium ore, which has been exported to the Soviet
+Union in exchange for isotopes and enriched uranium for use in
+experimental nuclear installations.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Timber</p>
+
+<p>The country's 6 million acres of forests constitute a valuable source of
+raw material. Information on the volume of the annual tree harvests has
+not been published. Substantial quantities of lumber and, increasingly,
+of lumber products and furniture have been exported, although at the
+expense of domestic consumption.</p>
+
+<p>In a program to conserve and rebuild this important resource, which was
+severely overexploited during World War II, a strict limitation was
+placed in the early 1950s on the annual volume of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>timber cut. A further
+reduction in the amount of timber felling was decreed for the 1971-75
+period. Through a more efficient utilization of the timber and the
+expansion of wood processing, including the manufacture of plywood,
+chipboard, and furniture, the value of the output, nevertheless,
+increased substantially. Exports of lumber and wood products accounted
+for 13.4 percent of total exports in 1970, but this ratio is scheduled
+to decline to 6 percent in 1975, not because of a reduction in the
+volume of these exports but as a result of a planned expansion of other
+industrial and food product exports.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">ELECTRIC POWER</p>
+
+<p>Electrical power development has proceeded at a rapid pace. The
+installed generating capacity of 7.3 million kilowatts in 1970 was four
+times larger than the capacity available a decade earlier. Eighty-four
+percent of the installed capacity in 1970 was in thermal power plants,
+and the remaining 16 percent, in hydroelectric stations. Hydroelectric
+capacity development had been relatively more rapid, with a sixfold
+increase during the decade.</p>
+
+<p>The production of electrical energy increased even faster than installed
+capacity because newly built plants operated at greater efficiency. The
+output of 35 billion kilowatt-hours in 1970 was 4.6 times greater than
+output in 1960. Power output is scheduled to reach 58 billion to 60.8
+billion kilowatt-hours in 1975. These figures imply an average annual
+increase in power production of 10.5 to 11.7 percent, compared with an
+average increase of 16.5 percent in the 1960-70 period. Thermal power
+plants accounted for 92 percent of the output in 1970, and hydroelectric
+stations, for only 8 percent. Output per unit of thermal capacity was
+more than double that of hydroelectric generators. The total
+hydroelectric power potential that could be economically developed has
+been estimated at 24 billion kilowatt-hours per year.</p>
+
+<p>The Romanian power grid is connected to the power grids of Bulgaria,
+Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. This tie-in makes possible a more
+efficient use of available power through mutual exchanges to equalize
+the load and provides some insurance in the event of regional power
+failures.</p>
+
+<p>Almost two-thirds of the thermal energy output in 1970 was based on
+natural gas fuel, and one-third, on coal&mdash;mostly coal of very low
+quality. Less than 3 percent of the fuel used was accounted for by oil.
+The proportion of natural gas in the fuel balance was roughly the same
+as in 1960 but ten percentage points lower than in 1965. The share of
+coal, particularly of low-grade coal, has been rising, in line with the
+government's policy of conserving natural gas for use in the
+petrochemical industry.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>In 1971 construction was virtually completed of a huge hydroelectric
+station at the Iron Gate on the Danube River, built jointly with
+Yugoslavia and equipped, in part, with turbines made in the Soviet
+Union. The station's twelve turbines have a total capacity of 2.1
+million kilowatts and are planned to produce about 11 billion
+kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. The output is to be evenly
+divided between the two participating countries. Nine of the twelve
+turbines were reported to have been in operation in September, and six
+were reported to have been connected to the Romanian national power grid
+in November. Completion of the Romanian portion of the project almost
+doubled the country's hydroelectric capacity and increased its power
+output potential by about 15 percent.</p>
+
+<p>A second, much smaller, hydroelectric station with a capacity of 400,000
+kilowatts and a planned output of 1.5 billion kilowatt-hours per year is
+to be built jointly with Yugoslavia on the Danube River below the Iron
+Gate plant. Plans for this station were to be initialed by the
+negotiators before the end of 1971, but information on the dates for the
+start and completion of construction is not available. Plans for the
+construction of yet another power station on the Danube River, as a
+joint venture with Bulgaria in the Cernavoda-Silistra area, were
+announced in the fall of 1971. This station is to have a capacity of
+760,000 kilowatts and an annual output of about 3.8 billion
+kilowatt-hours. Construction is apparently scheduled to begin in 1975.</p>
+
+<p>An agreement with the Soviet Union to build a 440,000-kilowatt nuclear
+power station, using a Soviet reactor, was signed in May 1970.
+Construction of the plant is to begin in 1972, and completion is
+scheduled for 1978. The agreement culminated extensive negotiations with
+the Soviet Union and several noncommunist countries. The ultimate choice
+is believed by Western observers to have been dictated primarily by
+political considerations.</p>
+
+<p>Initial plans for nuclear power plants called for an installed capacity
+of 1 million kilowatts by 1975 and 2.4 million kilowatts by 1980.
+Construction was to begin in the 1966-70 period, but this target was not
+met. A subsequently revised plan for the 1971-80 period envisaged the
+construction of nuclear plants with a total capacity of from 1.8 million
+to 2.4 million kilowatts. Construction of the plants was to begin
+between 1971 and 1975, and their commissioning was to take place in the
+1976-80 period. No information has been made public on the contemplated
+source or sources of the equipment for these plants, other than the
+agreed-upon Soviet unit. Romania must rely on foreign technical
+assistance for its nuclear energy program.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>ORGANIZATION</p>
+
+<p>In 1969 industry, excluding construction and small private artisan
+shops, comprised 1,151 enterprises employing almost 2 million persons.
+Seventy percent of the enterprises, which included 92 percent of the
+employed persons, were owned and operated by the state, and the
+remaining were run by collectives, including collective farms. State
+industry produced 95.7 percent of the gross output; collective
+enterprises contributed 4.1 percent; and private establishments
+accounted for only 0.2 percent of total production.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy percent of the state industrial enterprises, which included 89
+percent of the persons employed by the state, were administered by
+central authorities; the remaining were subject to the jurisdiction of
+local government bodies. Collective enterprises are subject to
+governmental controls; their activities are covered by the annual and
+five-year economic plans, and many of the enterprises act as suppliers
+of tools, spare parts, and miscellaneous equipment to state enterprises
+on a contractual basis. Their main function, however, is to provide
+consumer goods and services for the population.</p>
+
+<p>Centrally administered enterprises include the largest and most
+important industrial units. A consolidation of these enterprises in 1969
+reduced their number by half and correspondingly increased their average
+size. Employment per enterprise in 1969 averaged 2,860 persons; it
+ranged from 800 persons in printing to more than 8,000 persons in the
+leather and footwear industry. Individual enterprises may be composed of
+more than one plant, which accounts, in part, for the large number of
+workers. Over 60 percent of the enterprises under central government
+administration had more than 1,000 workers each, and almost 27 percent
+employed more than 3,000 workers per enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Enterprises under local government jurisdiction were generally
+smaller&mdash;95 percent of these employed from 200 to 2,000 workers
+each&mdash;but even in this group there were some enterprises with more than
+5,000 workers. Collective enterprises were still smaller&mdash;77 percent
+employed no more than 500 workers per unit. One collective enterprise,
+nevertheless, employed between 2,000 and 3,000 workers.</p>
+
+<p>Employment in construction totaled 648,000 persons in 1969. Information
+on the number and organization of construction enterprises is not
+available.</p>
+
+<p>The internal management structure of state enterprises has undergone a
+transformation. By decision of the party's Central Committee in April
+1968, amplified by another decision in May 1970, the principle of
+collective management replaced that of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>one-man management in all
+enterprises and state economic organizations. Management committees are
+chaired by enterprise directors and consist of the following members:
+the managerial personnel, appointed by the ministry; the chairmen of the
+trade union, as legal representatives of the enterprise trade union
+committees; the secretaries of the party committees and of the communist
+youth organizations in the enterprises; and a number of employee
+representatives.</p>
+
+<p>The secretaries of the two party organizations were given full
+membership in May 1970 in a move to strengthen the control by the party.
+Before that date the secretaries of the party committees merely
+participated in the discussions, and the secretaries of the communist
+youth organizations played no role at all. County and municipal party
+organs also provide direction for the management committees' work.</p>
+
+<p>According to party decisions, the management committees are deliberative
+organs with powers to make decisions concerning the conduct of the
+technical, economic, and social activities of the enterprise. Two-thirds
+of the membership constitutes a quorum, and decisions can be adopted by
+a simple majority of those present. In cases of disagreement between the
+committee chairman (the enterprise director) and a majority of the
+management committee, the matter is submitted for resolution to the
+higher administrative body.</p>
+
+<p>A lack of legislation to legalize the institution of the management
+committees and conflict of the new party directive with earlier
+legislation that established the principle of one-man management
+hampered the introduction of the new management system. No clear-cut
+guidelines were provided for the scope of the management committees'
+competence or the numerical strength of employee representation. The
+function of the management committees was also undermined by higher
+administrative echelons through continued imposition of detailed
+directives concerning the work of the enterprises&mdash;contrary to the
+announced party policy of loosening central controls. Confusion
+prevailed about the relationships between management, management
+committees, and higher economic bodies.</p>
+
+<p>There is no evidence on the effectiveness of the supplemental party
+decision of May 1970 in resolving the problems besetting the functioning
+of the management committees. A new law on the organization and
+management of state enterprises and institutions was passed by the
+General Assembly toward the end of 1971, but information on the
+provisions of that law was not available in early 1972.</p>
+
+<p>Another new element in the management of enterprises is the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>general
+assembly of employees, introduced in 1968 along with the management
+committees in accordance with the principles of collective management
+and socialist democracy. Adequate legislation to formalize the new
+institution had not been passed by late 1971, but an appropriate
+provision may have been included in the new law on industrial
+organization.</p>
+
+<p>As described by a high government official, the general assembly of
+employees or, in the case of large enterprises, of employee
+representatives is a forum that will assure effective participation by
+workers and specialists in the organization and management of the
+economy and in decisionmaking concerning the fulfillment of enterprise
+plans. General assemblies are supposed to exercise control over the
+activities of management committees. Their authority extends beyond the
+discussion of problems and evaluation of performance to recommending and
+adopting decisions.</p>
+
+<p>General assemblies are convened twice a year. On these occasions the
+enterprise management committee must present to the assembly reports on
+the committee's activities, on the results of enterprise operations, and
+on the fulfillment by the enterprise of its economic and social
+obligations. Together with the trade union committee of the enterprise,
+the management committee must also present to the assembly for
+discussion and approval the draft of a new collective contract listing
+mutual obligations of the management committee and of the employees.
+Decisions reached by the general assembly are obligatory for the
+management committee. Decisions on measures that require action by
+higher authorities must be handled by the relevant bodies responsibly
+and expeditiously.</p>
+
+<p>Representatives of superior economic organs, including the ministries,
+and of county and local party committees participate in the work of the
+general assemblies of employees. The reason given for this participation
+is the opportunity that it provides for the management to become more
+familiar with problems of interest to the enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Available evidence indicates a wide variation among enterprises in the
+degree of influence exercised by the general assemblies of employees.
+Toward the end of 1971 some management committees were still reported to
+be disregarding or downgrading general assembly proposals, but such
+instances were said to be growing progressively fewer.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial enterprises are grouped into combines, trusts, and, since
+1969, so-called industrial centrals. The centrals were created in an
+attempt to improve the organizational structure of industry, reduce
+control by the ministries and other central government agencies, and
+provide greater flexibility, in order to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>increase industrial
+efficiency. A major task assigned to the centrals is to introduce
+specialization of production.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the organizational forms of the centrals nor their authority and
+responsibility vis-&agrave;-vis the enterprises and ministries have been
+clearly defined or legally established. The resultant uncertainty,
+experimentation, and bureaucratic disharmony have created considerable
+confusion in the administration of industry, which has been inimical to
+the attainment of the efficiency goal. At the same time, a variety of
+factors, including a shortage of investment funds, an inflexible price
+structure, and the method of evaluating enterprise performance, have
+militated against the expansion of specialization. Industry officials
+believe that it may require from three to five years to resolve the
+organizational problems posed by the creation of the centrals and that
+many other problems will have to be solved before specialization can
+become a reality.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial combines, trusts, and centrals function under the
+jurisdiction of industrial ministries, of which there were eleven at the
+end of 1971 (see ch. 8). Industrial ministries have undergone an almost
+continuous process of reorganization. New ministries have been created;
+old ones, abolished; still others, amalgamated and split. Spheres of the
+ministries' activities have been reshuffled, and their internal
+structures have been modified&mdash;all in the interest of improving
+socialist industrial organization and raising the efficiency of
+production. One foreign observer remarked that, whenever something went
+wrong in the economy, reorganization in one form or another was
+undertaken in an effort to solve the problem through administrative
+means.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LABOR</p>
+
+<p>The average number of persons employed in industry in 1969 was
+1,980,000, or about 40 percent of total employment excluding those
+employed on collective farms. Industrial employment had increased by
+725,000 persons in the 1960-69 period. Employment in construction grew
+more rapidly&mdash;from 372,000 persons in 1960 to almost 648,000 in 1969. At
+the end of 1969 women constituted 43 percent of employment in industry
+and less than 9 percent in construction. In industry, the proportion of
+women in blue-collar and white-collar jobs was about equal. In
+construction, however, women occupied one-third of the white-collar
+positions and only 5 percent of the blue-collar jobs.</p>
+
+<p>A distribution of employment by industry branches is available only for
+enterprises under the direct jurisdiction of the central government. Of
+these, machine building and metalworking absorbed 27 percent of the
+employed; fuels and metallurgy, 15 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>percent; forestry and woodworking,
+15 percent; textile production, 12 percent; and chemicals and food
+processing, 7 percent each. Several less important industry branches
+accounted for another 11 percent of industrial employment, and an
+unlisted residue of fifty enterprises employing almost 100,000 persons,
+presumably constituting the defense industry, made up the balance of 6
+percent.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of employment in the 1960-69 period varied widely among the
+different industry branches. Whereas the number of employed rose by 60
+percent for centrally administered industry as a whole, it increased by
+almost 2.4 times in the chemical branch, somewhat more than doubled in
+the production of cellulose and paper, and grew by 80 percent in
+nonferrous metallurgy and in machine building and metalworking. The
+lowest increases in employment occurred in the production of fuels, in
+ferrous metallurgy, and in the manufacture of glass and china. The
+increases in employment did not necessarily correspond to the priority
+ratings of the individual branches; high priority branches received
+relatively much larger investment.</p>
+
+<p>The labor force is numerically redundant but qualitatively inadequate
+for the needs of modern industry. Despite the existence of labor
+training programs, there is a shortage of skilled personnel at the
+intermediate level, such as technicians and foremen. Few workers have
+professional school training; most acquire their skills through short
+courses or on-the-job training. The number of skilled workers is too
+small to allow efficient two-shift operation of plants throughout most
+of industry. The lack of adequate skills and the associated inept
+handling and poor maintenance of imported sophisticated machinery have
+been responsible for frequent breakdowns. The resultant work stoppages
+and the under-utilization of available capacity have had a deleterious
+effect on productivity.</p>
+
+<p>Because of a high rate of investment and large-scale imports of advanced
+Western technology and equipment, productivity per worker nevertheless
+has been rising at a relatively rapid rate. According to official data,
+productivity in industry increased by an annual average of 7.5 percent
+in the 1960-69 period, but the increase in 1969 was less than 5 percent.
+Official plans for the 1971-75 period call for an annual growth in
+productivity of at least 7.3 percent. Western economists, however,
+estimated the rise in productivity to have been only 5.6 percent per
+year in the 1960-67 period, compared to an official figure of 8 percent.
+Despite the impressive gains, productivity in industry remains low,
+mainly because of the inadequate qualifications and work habits of the
+labor force and the shortcomings of industrial organization and
+management.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>Industrial labor discipline has been a subject of continuing concern to
+party and government. Both labor turnover and absenteeism have been
+high. During the first nine months of 1969 almost 455,000 workers left
+their jobs in centrally administered enterprises, in many instances
+without the requisite official permission. During the same period
+worktime losses from absenteeism amounted to about 12 million man-hours.
+Abuse of the provision for leave without pay and loafing on the job have
+also contributed significantly to losses of worktime. For centrally
+administered industry as a whole, the loss of worktime from all causes,
+including stoppages caused by deficiencies of the supply and
+distribution system, amounted to almost 47 million man-hours in the
+third quarter of 1969&mdash;the equivalent of about 74,400 workers.</p>
+
+<p>Poor labor discipline was officially blamed on the failure of the
+prevailing wage system to provide adequate work incentives. After some
+experimentation in the food-processing industry during 1968 and 1969 a
+new wage system was introduced throughout industry on March 1, 1970,
+still on an experimental basis. Some of the changes brought about by the
+highly complex new system included: a reduction in the spread between
+wage rates in different industry sectors and between the upper and lower
+limits within certain wage categories; the establishment of in-grade
+wage differentials depending upon the personal achievement of the
+worker; a rise in the proportion of basic wages to total pay (which also
+includes bonuses); and a tightening of the provisions concerning the
+payment of bonuses. Provision was also made for withholding a portion of
+the pay in the event that production targets are not fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>Downgrading the importance of bonuses was intended to stimulate the
+raising of skill levels by making higher earnings dependent primarily
+upon promotion to higher wage categories, based on qualification rather
+than on surpassing quantitative production norms. As a means of reducing
+labor turnover, a seniority system was introduced, with wage increases
+based on length of service in the same unit. The reform of the wage
+system was accompanied by a general rise in wages averaging 12.3
+percent.</p>
+
+<p>A further increase in wages is planned for the 1971-75 period. The
+minimum wage of 800 lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) is to be raised
+to 1,000 lei in September 1972 and to 1,100 lei in 1975. The average
+wage is scheduled to reach almost 1,500 lei in 1972 and 1,805 lei at the
+end of the five-year period. In accordance with past policy, the rise in
+wages will be kept well below the increase in productivity (see ch. 14).</p>
+
+<p>Along with the modification of the wage system, legal measures were
+enacted to tighten labor discipline. These measures provide <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>for the
+imposition of fines up to 10,000 lei for violations of economic
+contracts and fines of from 50 to 1,000 lei for negligence while on
+duty; they oblige employees to make good the full amount of any damage
+for which they are responsible; and they enable the enterprise
+management to reduce workers' wages when standards of social behavior
+are not met. Penalties may be imposed by the enterprise director or the
+management committee. The only recourse open to workers is an appeal to
+the higher administrative bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The broad concept of standards of behavior offers a wide latitude for
+the exercise of individual judgment by management. No criteria have been
+provided for determining the conditions under which wages may be cut or
+the maximum permissible amount of the wage cuts. The new rules thus
+introduced an element of discretionary exercise of punitive authority.
+They also deprived the accused of recourse to the courts, which had been
+available to them under earlier legislation.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INVESTMENT AND CONSTRUCTION</p>
+
+<p>Industry has consistently received more than half the total investment
+in the economy. In the 1966-70 period industrial investment out of the
+state budget (centralized investment) amounted to 162.1 billion lei&mdash;a
+volume almost as great as that invested during the preceding fifteen
+years. Additional investment out of enterprise resources was only about
+1 percent of the total and had been even less in earlier years. From 86
+to 90 percent of the industrial investment was channeled into branches
+producing capital goods. Centralized investment in industry during the
+1971-75 period is planned at 281.2 billion lei, or about 60 percent of
+the total planned investment.</p>
+
+<p>Industries producing fuels and energy absorbed the largest share of
+investment, but their share declined from 51 percent in the 1951-55
+period to 31 percent in the 1966-70 period. The high priority accorded
+to the development of the chemical industry was reflected in a doubling
+of that industry's investment share from less than 7 percent in the
+former period to 14 percent in the 1960s. Similarly, a drive for
+qualitative improvement in machine building and metalworking was
+accompanied by an increase in the proportion of investment devoted to
+that industry from a level of 7 to 8 percent in the 1951-65 period to 14
+percent in the second half of the 1960s. Ferrous metallurgy absorbed
+about 10 percent of the investment in the fifteen-year period that ended
+in 1970. A need to expand exports of manufactured goods and to provide
+material incentives for the working population stimulated a rise of
+investment in the light and food industries to 13 percent of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>total
+in the 1966-70 period, compared to a share ranging from 7.5 to 10
+percent in earlier five-year periods.</p>
+
+<p>About 48 percent of the industrial investment was absorbed by building
+construction and installation work, 37 percent was spent on machinery
+and equipment, and 15 percent was devoted to the increase of working
+capital. One-third of the investment in machinery and equipment from
+1966 to 1969 was used for procurement abroad, that proportion having
+increased from about one-fifth in the 1956-60 period.</p>
+
+<p>Although substantial progress has been made in the expansion of
+industrial capacity, construction of new industrial plants has been
+beset by many problems and has consistently lagged behind official
+plans. Inadequate planning, poor design, disregard of the limitations of
+the materials base and of potential markets, improper location,
+excessive size of projects, and long delays in project development and
+in construction have been among the difficulties most frequently
+discussed in the country's press. Completed plants often require years
+to attain the projected output level, and many plants have never reached
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Large losses to the economy have also been caused by long delays in
+installing new equipment, much of it imported at a heavy cost in foreign
+exchange. At the end of 1969 the Grand National Assembly was officially
+informed that the volume of unused equipment amounted to 3.5 billion
+lei; some of the equipment had been lying idle for from ten to twelve
+years. Government officials realize the urgent need to improve
+investment performance, particularly in view of the large investment
+program planned for the 1971-75 period.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">PRODUCTION</p>
+
+<p>Industrial production in 1970 was 3.8 times larger than it had been ten
+years earlier, according to official data. This increase is equivalent
+to an average annual growth rate of 12.8 percent. A rise of 11.2 percent
+in industrial output was unofficially reported for 1971. In terms of
+Western statistical concepts and methods, the annual increase in
+industrial output was estimated at 11.5 percent for the 1960-68 period,
+compared to an officially reported growth rate of 13.2 percent.
+Industrial growth in Romania has been among the highest in countries of
+Eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In line with the government's priorities, production of capital goods
+increased at an annual (official) rate of 14.2 percent, and that of
+consumer goods advanced by 10.2 percent. The proportion of capital goods
+in the total output therefore increased from 62.9 percent in 1960 to
+70.6 percent in 1970; it is scheduled to reach 72.8 percent by 1975.
+Although the output of consumer goods <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>increased 2.6 times during the
+ten-year period, the availability of goods to consumers did not rise
+proportionately because an increasing volume was exported to pay for
+imports of machinery and raw materials. Shortages of consumer goods,
+including foodstuffs, were not eliminated by 1971. The output of newly
+introduced products, such as chemicals and television sets, increased
+more rapidly in the 1960s than did the output of traditional items (see
+table 13).</p>
+
+<p>Improving the quality of manufactured products has been a major concern
+of the party and government, particularly from the point of view of
+competitiveness in foreign markets. With some exceptions, such as men's
+and women's knitwear, a lack of competitiveness was clearly demonstrated
+in mid-1971 by the results of a giant Romanian trade exhibition in
+Duesseldorf, West Germany. This exhibit was reported to have achieved
+just the reverse of what was intended and to have demonstrated the
+inferiority of Romanian goods compared to Western European and Japanese
+products. Quality considerations, however, did not inhibit an attempt to
+market a Romanian-built motor vehicle of the jeep type in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p class="cen"><i>Table 13. Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960 and
+1969</i></p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table 13">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="30%">Product</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="30%">Unit of Measure</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">1960</td>
+  <td class="tdcyz8" width="20%">1969</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Pig iron</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,014</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,477</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Steel</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1,806</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;5,540</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Coal and lignite</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;6,768</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16,976</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Crude oil</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11,500</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12,346</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Natural gas</td>
+  <td class="tdl">billion cubic feet</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;365</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;850</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Electricity</td>
+  <td class="tdl">million kilowatt-hours</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,650</td>
+  <td class="tdc">31,509</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fertilizers¹</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;71</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;720</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Artificial fibers</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;56</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Plastics</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;137</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Synthetic rubber</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;55</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Tires</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand units</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;743</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,166</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Paper</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;140</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;398</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Tractors</td>
+  <td class="tdl">units</td>
+  <td class="tdc">17,102</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24,895</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Motor vehicles</td>
+  <td class="tdl">units</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12,123</td>
+  <td class="tdc">56,998</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cement</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;3,054</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;7,515</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Timber</td>
+  <td class="tdl">million cubic feet</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;139</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;186</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Textiles</td>
+  <td class="tdl">million square yards</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;393</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;672</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Footwear</td>
+  <td class="tdl">million pairs</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;30</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;63</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Radios</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand units</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;167</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;428</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Television sets</td>
+  <td class="tdl">thousand units</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;15</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;221</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlz">Sugar</td>
+  <td class="tdlz">thousand metric tons</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;391</td>
+  <td class="tdcz">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;428</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="4">¹ In terms of plant nutrients.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Source: Adapted from <i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+    Romania, 1970</i> (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970),
+    Bucharest, 1970, pp. 186-195.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>By decrees issued in 1970 and 1971 the State Inspectorate General for
+Product Quality was established as an organ of the Council of State with
+wide powers to establish and enforce quality standards, including the
+imposition of economic and criminal sanctions. At the same time, the
+decrees provided that extra payments be made to individuals and groups
+of workers who turn out products of superior quality. In announcing the
+creation of the new agency, Romanian commentators remarked that an
+administrative approach to the solution of the quality problem was made
+necessary by the failure of other measures.</p>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+<p class="cen">Section I. SOCIAL</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Andrews, Colman Robert. "The Rumanian Film Today," <i>East Europe</i>,
+XVIII, Nos. 8-9, August-September 1969, 21-24.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Appleton, Ted. <i>Your Guide to Romania.</i> London: Alvin Redman, 1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). <i>International Population Reports.</i> (U.S.
+Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Basdevant, Denise. <i>Against Tide and Tempest: The Story of Romania.</i>
+(Trans., F. Danham and J. Carroll.) New York: Speller and Sons,
+1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Bass, Robert. "East European Communist Elites: Their Character and
+History," <i>Journal of International Affairs</i>, XX, No. 1, 1966,
+106-117.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Blumenfeld, Yorick. <i>Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe.</i> New
+York: Harcourt, Brace &amp; World, 1968.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Cloranescu, George B. "Romania After Czechoslovakia: Ceausescu Walks a
+Tightrope," <i>East Europe</i>, XVIII, No. 6, June 1969, 2-7.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Constantinescu, and Curticapeanu. "The Contribution of Culture to the
+Union of Transylvania with Romania," <i>Romania Today</i> [Bucharest],
+No. 168, December 1968, 10-13.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Cretzianu, Alexandre. (ed.). <i>Captive Romania.</i> New York: Praeger,
+1956.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Dimancescu, Dan. "Americans Afoot in Rumania," <i>National Geographic</i>,
+CXXXV, No. 6, June 1969, 810-845.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Ergang, R. <i>Europe Since Waterloo.</i> Boston: Heath, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Fejto, Francois. <i>A History of the People's Democracies.</i> New York:
+Praeger, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Fischer-Galati, Stephen. <i>Man, State, and Society in East European
+History.</i> New York: Praeger, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. <i>The New Rumania.</i> Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of
+Technology Press, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. <i>The Socialist Republic of Rumania.</i> Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
+Press, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. <i>Twentieth Century Rumania.</i> New York: Columbia University
+Press, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Fischer-Galati, Stephen, (ed.). <i>Romania.</i> New York: Praeger, 1957.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>Floyd, David. <i>Rumania, Russia's Dissident Ally.</i> New York: Praeger,
+1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Forwood, William. <i>Romanian Invitation.</i> London: Garnstone Press,
+1968.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Friendly, Alfred, Jr. "Rumanians Calm About Minipurge," <i>New York
+Times</i>, July 25, 1971, 11.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>A Handbook of Romania.</i> (Prepared by the Geographical Section of the
+Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty&mdash;Royal Navy.)
+London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1920.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Heltai, G.G. "Changes in the Social Structure of East Central European
+Countries," <i>Journal of International Affairs</i>, XX, No. 1, 1966,
+165-171.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Hielscher, Kurt. <i>Rumania: Landscape, Buildings, National Life.</i>
+Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1933.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>International Yearbook of Education</i>, XXVIII. Geneva: United Nations
+Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>International Yearbook of Education</i>, XXX. Geneva: United Nations
+Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Ionescu-Bujor, C. <i>Higher Education in Rumania.</i> Bucharest: Meridiane
+Publishing House, 1964.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Ionescu, Ghita. <i>The Break-Up of the Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe.</i>
+Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. <i>Communism in Rumania 1944-1962.</i> London: Oxford University
+Press, 1964.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Ionescu, Grigore. "The Road of Romanian Architecture," <i>Romania Today</i>
+[Bucharest], No. 151, July 1967, 12-15.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Langer, W.L. (ed.) <i>An Encyclopedia of World History.</i> Boston:
+Houghton Mifflin, 1968.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Lendvai, P. <i>Eagles in Cobwebs.</i> Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Liber, Benzion, M.D. <i>The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited
+After Sixty Years.</i> New York: Rational Living, 1958.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Lindsay, Jack. <i>Romanian Summer.</i> London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1953.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Lovinescu, Monica. "The Wave of Rumanian Writers," <i>East Europe</i>, XVI,
+No. 12, December 1967, 9-11.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Mackintosh, May. <i>Rumania.</i> London: Robert Hale, 1963.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Manolache, Anghel. <i>General Education in Rumania.</i> Bucharest:
+Meridiane Publishing House, 1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Matley, Ian M. <i>Romania: A Profile.</i> New York: Praeger, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Mellor, R.E. <i>COMECON: Challenge to the West.</i> New York: Van Nostrand,
+Reinhold, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Osborne, R.H. <i>East-Central Europe.</i> New York: Praeger, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Parkin, Frank. <i>Class Inequality and Political Order.</i> New York:
+Praeger, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>Pounds, Norman J.G. <i>Eastern Europe.</i> Chicago: Aldine, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Roberts, Henry L. <i>Eastern Europe: Politics, Revolution, and
+Diplomacy.</i> New York: Knopf, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in <i>Europa Yearbook, 1971</i>, I. London:
+Europa Publications, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), <i>Worldmark Encyclopedia of
+the Nations</i>, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Roucek, J., and Lottich, K. <i>Behind the Iron Curtain.</i> Caldwell,
+Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1964.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Rumania." Pages 726-746 in <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, XIX. Chicago:
+William Benton, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Rumania." Pages 965-975 in <i>World Survey of Education</i>, IV. New York:
+United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
+1966.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Rumanian Literature." Pages 749-750 in <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>,
+XIX. Chicago: William Benton, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Sbarces, George. "Jora at the Peak of His Creative Power," <i>Romania
+Today</i> [Bucharest], No. 151, July 1967, 25.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Sch&ouml;pflin, George (ed.). <i>The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.</i> New
+York: Praeger, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Seton-Watson, Hugh. <i>The East European Revolution.</i> New York: Praeger,
+1968.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Seton-Watson, Robert W. <i>A History of the Roumanians from Roman Times
+to the Completion of Unity.</i> New York: Archon Books, 1963.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Singleton, F.B. <i>Background to Eastern Europe.</i> New York: Pergamon
+Press, 1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970.</i>
+Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Stavrianos, L.S. <i>The Balkans, 1815-1914.</i> New York: Holt, Rinehart
+and Winston, 1963.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," <i>Manchester
+Guardian Weekly</i> [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972,
+6.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," <i>Manchester Guardian
+Weekly</i> [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Steinberg, Jacob (ed.). <i>Introduction to Rumanian Literature.</i> New
+York: Twayne Publishers, 1966.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Thompson, Juliet. <i>Old Romania.</i> New York: Scribner's, 1939.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Toland, John. <i>The Last 100 Days.</i> New York: Random House, 1966.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span><i>International Conference on Public Education: Summary Report</i> (XXXI
+Session.) Geneva: 1968, 110-112.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+Publications Research Service&mdash;JPRS (Washington). The following
+items are from the JPRS series <i>Translations on Eastern Europe:
+Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">"Adult Education Program Examined," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, August 1970. (JPRS: 51,572, Series No. 272, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Adult Education Program, Examined, Praised," <i>Munca</i>,
+Bucharest, September 3, 1970. (JPRS: 51,745, Series No. 283,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Better Coordination Between Specialized Schools and
+Production," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest, April 20, 1971. (JPRS:
+53,539, Series No. 377, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Care in Criticism of Past Culture Urged," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, December 1, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series No. 59,
+1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Center for Education Information and Documentation," <i>Buletinul
+Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, April
+15, 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No. 364, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Changes in the Social Structure, 1960-1969," <i>Viata Economica</i>,
+XVI, Bucharest, April 16, 1971. (JPRS: 53,159, Series No. 356,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Changes Urged in Policy of Admitting Students to Higher
+Education," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest, January 12, 1971. (JPRS:
+52,452, Series No. 317, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Decree Governing Assignment of Graduates," <i>Buletinul Oficial
+al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, June 8, 1970.
+(JPRS: 51,399, Series No. 261, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Delays in Providing Modern School Equipment Cited," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, January 8, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76,
+1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Development of School System Discussed," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest,
+January 12, 1969. (JPRS: 47,411, Series No. 68, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Economy Modernization Discussed in Relation to
+Socioprofessional Mobility," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>, V, Bucharest,
+May 1970. (JPRS: 50,830, Series No. 308, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Equality at Law for National Minorities," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, April 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,155, Series No. 355,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Government Revises Setup of Education," <i>Buletinul Oficial al
+Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, December 29, 1968.
+(JPRS: 47,447, Series No. 68, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Harmful Influence of Religion Stressed," <i>Romania Libera</i>,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>Bucharest, May 9, 1969. (JPRS: 48,249, Series No. 105, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Law on Education in Rumania," <i>Romania Libera</i>, Bucharest, May
+15, 1968. (JPRS: 45,795, Series No. 8, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"New Secondary School Class Program Discussed," <i>Gazeta
+Invatamintului</i>, Bucharest, August 28, 1968. (JPRS: 46,589,
+Series No. 32, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"New Stage in General Education Discussed," <i>Revista de
+Pedagogu</i>, Bucharest, September 1969. (JPRS: 49,412, Series
+No. 162, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Organization, Operation of the Department of Cults," <i>Buletinul
+Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, August
+15, 1970. (JPRS: 51,850, Series No. 289, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Political Education at Universities, Examined," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, January 29, 1969. (JPRS: 47,585, Series No. 75,
+1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Position of First Deputy Minister of Education Established,"
+<i>Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>,
+Bucharest, August 4, 1971. (JPRS: 54,004, Series No. 409,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Program for the Advanced Training of Teachers Explained,"
+<i>Scinteia Tineretului</i>, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS:
+52,487, Series No 318, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Proper Training of Teachers Stressed," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest,
+January 24, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Reorganization of Ministry of Education," <i>Buletinul Oficial al
+Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, January 14, 1969.
+(JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Role of Intelligentsia in Socialist Society," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,730, Series No. 393, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Role of Science Education in Economic Development," <i>Probleme
+Economice</i>, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No.
+364, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Role of Technical Schools in Preparing Labor Force,"
+<i>Invatamintul Professional si Technic</i>, Bucharest, June 1970.
+(JPRS: 52,243, Series No. 249, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Romania Starts 10-Year Compulsory Education," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, June 4, 1969. (JPRS: 48,448, Series No. 115, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Rumanian Education Growth, Improvement Noted," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, September 16, 1968. (JPRS: 46,737, Series No. 37,
+1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"School-Workshops Planned for General and Secondary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>Education,"
+<i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest, August 10, 1971. (JPRS: 53,970, Series
+No. 408, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Shortcomings in Workers' Universities Examined," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, September 17, 1968. (JPRS: 46,697, Series No. 36,
+1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Social Mobility, Stratification, Examined," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, October 1970. (JPRS: 52,070, Series No. 298, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Social Responsibility of Schools Stressed," <i>Scinteia
+Tineretului</i>, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS: 52,487,
+Series No. 318, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Special Secondary Schools Train for Jobs," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 50,552, Series No. 216,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"A Study of Rumanian Family Life, I, II," <i>Munca</i>, Bucharest,
+August 29, 1967. (JPRS: 42,826, Series No. 427, 1967.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"A Study of Rumanian Family Life, III, IV, V," <i>Munca</i>,
+Bucharest, September 9, 1967. (JPRS: 42,881, Series No. 473,
+1967.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Training of Labor Force, Vocational Guidance of Youth," <i>Lupta
+de Clasa</i>, Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,420, Series No.
+315, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Unity of Rumanians and Ethnic Minorities Stressed," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, November 6, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 51,
+1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Working Class Role in Modern Romania Sketched," <i>Probleme
+Economice</i>, Bucharest, December 1969. (JPRS: 49,942, Series
+No. 188, 1970.)</p></div></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Office of
+Education. <i>Education in the Rumanian People's Republic</i> by
+Randolph L. Braham. (Bulletin OE-14087, I, pp 1-229.) Washington:
+GPO, 1964.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. <i>Background Notes:
+Socialist Republic of Romania.</i> (Department of State Publication
+7890.) Washington: GPO, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Vali, F.A. "Transylvania and the Hungarian Minority," <i>Journal of
+International Affairs</i>, XX, No. 1, 1966, 32-44.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Wardle, Irving. "Rumanian Theatre Plays Vital Part in Daily Life,"
+<i>New York Times</i>, June 12, 1971, 18.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Warnstrom, Bennett. "With TV Camera Through Rumania," <i>East Europe</i>,
+XVIII, No. 10, October 1969, 11-16.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Wheeling and Dealing in Rumania," <i>Newsweek</i>, LXXVII, No. 14, April
+5, 1971, 39.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>Wolff, Robert L. <i>The Balkans in Our Time.</i> Cambridge: Harvard
+University Press, 1956.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>World Population Data Sheet, 1970.</i> Washington: Population Reference
+Bureau, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Writer's Block," <i>Newsweek</i>, March 2, 1970, 38-43.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Section II. POLITICAL</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Andrews, Colman Robert. "The Rumanian Film Today," <i>East Europe</i>,
+XVIII, Nos. 8-9, August-September 1969, 21-24.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970</i>
+(Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970).
+Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Bromke, Adam (ed.). <i>The Communist States at the Crossroads.</i> New
+York: Praeger, 1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Brown, J.F. "Rumania Today I: Towards Integration," <i>Problems of
+Communism</i>, XVIII, No. 1, January-February 1969, 8-17.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. "Rumania Today II: The Strategy of Defiance," <i>Problems of
+Communism</i>, XVIII, No. 2, March-April 1969, 32-38.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. "Communist State Relations: The Effect on
+Ideology," <i>East Europe</i>, XVI, No. 3, March 1967, 1-5.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Byrnes, Robert F. (ed.) <i>The United States and Eastern Europe.</i>
+Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Ceausescu, Nicolae. "Romania's Foreign Policy," <i>East Europe</i>, XX, No.
+1, January 1971, 28-34.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Cretzianu, Alexandre (ed.). <i>Captive Romania.</i> New York: Praeger,
+1956.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Davis, Fitzroy. "East Europe's Film Makers Look West," <i>East Europe</i>,
+XVII, No. 5, May 1968, 27-31.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Editor &amp; Publisher International Yearbook, 1970.</i> New York: Editor &amp;
+Publisher, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Farlow, Robert L. "Romanian Foreign Policy: A Case of Partial
+Alignment," <i>Problems of Communism</i>, XX, No. 6, November-December
+1971, 54-63.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Farrell, R. Barry. <i>Political Leadership in Eastern Europe and the
+Soviet Union.</i> Chicago: Aldine, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Fischer-Galati, Stephen. <i>The Socialist Republic of Rumania.</i>
+Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. <i>Twentieth Century Rumania.</i> New York: Columbia University
+Press, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Fischer-Galati, Stephen (ed.). <i>Romania.</i> New York: Praeger, 1957.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Griffith, William E. (ed.) <i>Communism in Europe</i>, I and II. Cambridge:
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>Ionescu, Ghita. <i>Communism in Rumania 1944-1962.</i> London: Oxford
+University Press, 1964.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Jowitt, Kenneth. "The Romanian Communist Party and the World Socialist
+System: A Redefinition of Unity," <i>World Politics</i>, XXIII, No. 1,
+October 1970, 38-60.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Matley, Ian M. <i>Romania: A Profile.</i> New York: Praeger, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Olson, Kenneth E. <i>The History Makers.</i> Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
+University Press, 1966.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in <i>Europa Yearbook, 1971</i>, I. London:
+Europa Publications, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), <i>Worldmark Encyclopedia of
+the Nations</i>, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Sch&ouml;pflin, George (ed.). <i>The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.</i> New
+York: Praeger, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Special Operations Research Office. The American University. Pages
+1-69 in <i>Mass Communications in Eastern Europe-Romania</i>, VII.
+Washington: GPO, 1958.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Stanley, Timothy W., and Whitt, Darnell M. <i>Detente Diplomacy: United
+States and European Security in the 1970s.</i> Cambridge: Harvard
+University Press, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>The Stateman's Year Book, 1971-1972.</i> (Ed., J. Paxton.) New York:
+Saint Martin's Press, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970.</i>
+Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Stebbins, R., and Amoia, A. <i>Political Handbook and Atlas of the
+World.</i> New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," <i>Manchester
+Guardian Weekly</i> [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972,
+6.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," <i>Manchester Guardian
+Weekly</i> [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Television in Eastern Europe," <i>East Europe</i>, XV, No. 4, April 1966,
+12-16.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Triska, Jan F. (ed.) <i>Constitutions of the Communist Party-States.</i>
+Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
+<i>World Communications.</i> New York: 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>United Nations Statistical Yearbook.</i> New York: United Nations
+Statistical Office, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Congress. 80th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign
+Relations. <i>The Warsaw Pact: Its Role in Soviet Bloc Affairs.</i>
+Washington: GPO, 1966.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session. Committee on the Judiciary. <i>World
+Communism, 1967-1969: Soviet Efforts to Re-establish Control.</i>
+Washington: GPO, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+Publications Research Service&mdash;JPRS (Washington). The following
+items are from the JPRS Series <i>Translations on Eastern Europe:
+Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">"Ceausescu on Film Industry Shortcomings," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, March 7, 1970. (JPRS: 52,712, Series No. 330,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Cultural Responsibility of Editors," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest,
+August 18, 1971. (JPRS: 54,448, Series No. 437, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Culture, Ideology and Current Events," <i>Luceafarul</i>, Bucharest,
+May 11, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Series No. 9, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Current Publishing System Described," <i>Carti Noi</i>, Bucharest,
+August 1971. (JPRS: 54,538, Series No. 443, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Democracy Equated with Worker Participation," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 391, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Draft Law on Establishing Judicial Commissions," <i>Romania
+Libera</i>, Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series
+No. 54, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Favoritism Hampers Bucharest Film Enterprise," <i>Munca</i>,
+Bucharest, March 15, 1970. (JPRS: 50,335, Series No. 206,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Fight Against Immoral Foreign Films Urged," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, July 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,927, Series No. 406, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Judicial Commissions Seen as Development," <i>Munca</i>, Bucharest,
+November 7, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 55, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Mass and Public Organizations Studied," <i>Revista Romana de
+Drept</i>, Bucharest, Vol. VI, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series
+No. 30, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Measure Related to Operative of State Committee for Culture and
+Art," <i>Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>,
+Bucharest, July 24, 1970. (JPRS: 51,561, Series No. 271,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Membership in State Committee for Culture and Art Presented,"
+<i>Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>,
+Bucharest, July 25, 1970. (JPRS: 51,507, Series No. 269,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Membership of Romanian National Radio-Television Council,"
+<i>Munca</i>, Bucharest, March 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,052, Series No.
+349, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>"National Sovereignty, Internationalism Discussed," <i>Lupta de
+Clasa</i>, Bucharest, Vol. 4, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,631, Series
+No. 221, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"New Rules Govern State Radio-TV Committee," <i>Buletinul Oficial
+al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, September 21,
+1971. (JPRS: 54,687, Series No. 453, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Organization of Planning Commissions," <i>Buletinul Oficial al
+Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, Part I, No. 87,
+July 20, 1970. (JPRS: 51,690, Series No. 280, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Party Initiative in Perfecting Socialist Law," <i>Munca</i>,
+Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499, Series No. 376,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Party-Minded Principles Govern Ideology," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,641, Series No. 450, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Popescu Speaks at Party Conference on TV Problems," <i>Presa
+Noastra</i>, Bucharest, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,854, Series No.
+231, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Problems in Publishing Sociopolitical Literature," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, November 30, 1971. (JPRS: 54,835, Series No. 461,
+1972.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Responsibilities of Editors Outlined," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest,
+May 16, 1969. (JPRS: 48,291, Series No. 107, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Socialist Unity Front National Council Members," <i>Romania
+Libera</i>, Bucharest, November 20, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series
+No. 59, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Textbook Publication Schedule Lags," <i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest,
+January 16, 1971. (JPRS: 52,347, Series No. 311, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Training of Cadres in Local Administration and Economy,"
+<i>Romania Libera</i>, Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499,
+Series No. 376, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Trofin Attacks Radio-TV Producers for Indecent Attitudes,"
+<i>Munca</i>, Bucharest, August 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,958, Series No.
+407, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Work of Association of Jurists in Developing Socialist
+Awareness," <i>Revista Romana de Drept</i>, Bucharest, May 1971.
+(JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 392, 1971.)</p></div></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Urbanek, Lida. "Romania." Pages 714-727 in Richard F. Staar (ed.),
+<i>Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1969.</i> Stanford:
+Hoover Institution Press, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">&mdash;&mdash;. "Romania." Pages 75-84 in Richard F. Staar (ed.), <i>Yearbook on
+International Communist Affairs, 1970.</i> Stanford: Hoover Institution
+Press, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Wolfe, Thomas W. <i>Soviet Power and Europe 1965-1969.</i> Santa Monica:
+Rand Corporation, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span><i>World of Learning, 1970-1971.</i> London: Europa Publications, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971.</i> (Ed., J.M. Frost.) Hvidovre, Denmark:
+World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">(Various issues of the following periodicals were also used in the
+preparation of this section: <i>Current History</i> [Philadelphia], April
+1967; <i>East Europe</i> [New York], January 1967-December 1971;
+<i>Economist-Foreign Report</i> [London], August-December 1971;
+<i>Manchester Guardian Weekly</i> [Manchester, England], January 1, 1972;
+<i>Newsweek</i> [New York], July 20, 1970, and August 9, 1971; <i>New York
+Times,</i> November 5, 1971-January 1972; <i>Washington Post</i>, October
+19-December 27, 1971.)</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Section III. NATIONAL SECURITY</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). <i>International Population Reports.</i> (U.S.
+Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO,
+1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Blumenfeld, Yorick. <i>Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe.</i> New
+York: Harcourt, Brace &amp; World, 1968.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Bromke, Adam (ed.). <i>The Communist States at the Crossroads.</i> New
+York: Praeger, 1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Dupuy, T.N. <i>Almanac of World Military Power.</i> Dun Loring, Virginia:
+T.N. Dupuy Associates, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Fischer-Galati, Stephen. <i>The New Rumania.</i> Cambridge: Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology Press, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Liber, Benzion, M.D. <i>The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited
+After Sixty Years.</i> New York: Rational Living, 1958.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Mackintosh, May. <i>Rumania.</i> London: Robert Hale, 1963.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>The Military Balance, 1970-1971.</i> London: Institute for Strategic
+Studies, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Rumania." Pages 726-746 in <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, XIX. Chicago:
+William Benton, 1969.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970.</i>
+Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+Publications Research Service&mdash;JPRS Series (Washington). The
+following items are from the JPRS Series <i>Translations on Eastern
+Europe: Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">"Border Guards Removed from Ministry of Internal Affairs,"
+<i>Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>,
+Bucharest, September 25, 1971. (JPRS: 54,397, Series No. 429,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Collaboration with Armies of All Socialist Countries
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>Stressed," <i>Scinteia</i>, May 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,397, Series No.
+370, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Decree on Border Protection System Passed," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, November 14, 1969. (JPRS: 49,241, Series No. 156,
+1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Decree Organizes Office of Prosecutor General," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, September 29, 1971. (JPRS: 54,361, Series No. 432,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Draft Law Established Judicial Commissions," <i>Romania Libera</i>,
+Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series No. 54,
+1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Law Concerning Public Prosecutor's Office Passes," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73,
+1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Law on Execution of Penalties Adopted," <i>Buletinul Oficial al
+Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, November 18, 1969.
+(JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Law on Police Organization, Functions Adopted," <i>Buletinul
+Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, November
+18, 1969. (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Law Passed on Organization of Court System," <i>Scinteia</i>,
+Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73,
+1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Mass and Public Organizations Studied," <i>Revista Romana de
+Drept</i>, No. 6, Bucharest, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series No.
+30, 1968.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"New Law on Identification Cards, Moving, Residence," <i>Romania
+Libera</i>, Bucharest, March 19, 1971. (JPRS: 53,014, Series No.
+347, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Provisions of the New Penal Code Explained." <i>Revista Romana de
+Drept</i>, Bucharest, December 1968. (JPRS: 47,525, Series No.
+72, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Rumanian Code of Criminal Procedure," <i>Buletinul Oficial al
+Republicii Socialiste Romania</i>, Bucharest, November 12, 1968.
+(JPRS: 47,556, Series No. 74, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Statute of Union of Communist Youth," <i>Scinteia Tineretului</i>,
+Bucharest, February 27, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726, Series No. 331,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Supreme Court Chairman Discusses Laws, Freedom," <i>Scinteia
+Tineretului</i>, Bucharest, February 5, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726,
+Series No. 331, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Training Youth for Military Described," <i>Viata Militara</i>,
+Bucharest, July 1969. (JPRS: 48,913, Series No. 136, 1969.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Training Youth for National Defense," <i>Sport si Technica</i>,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 52,888, Series No. 340,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Warsaw Pact Defends Against Imperialism," <i>Romania Libera</i>,
+Bucharest, May 7, 1971. (JPRS: 53,454, Series No. 374, 1971.)</p></div></div>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">Section IV. ECONOMIC</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang"><i>Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970.</i>
+(Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970).
+Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Montias, John Michael. <i>Economic Development in Communist Romania.</i>
+Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Congress. 91st, 2d Session. Joint Economic Committee. <i>Economic
+Developments in Countries of Eastern Europe.</i> Washington: GPO, 1970.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. <i>The
+Agricultural Economy and Trade of Romania.</i> (ERS-Foreign 320.)
+Washington: GPO, 1971.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+Publications Research Service&mdash;JPRS Series (Washington). The
+following items are from the JPRS Series <i>Translations on Eastern
+Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">"Activities of Romanian Foreign Trade Banks Noted," <i>Finante si
+Credit</i>, Bucharest, August 1971. (JPRS: 54,541, Series No.
+568, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Antiquated Methods Hinder Conclusion of Economic Contracts,"
+<i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest, June 13, 1971. (JPRS: 53,695, Series
+No. 506, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Better Use of Economic Potential," <i>Probleme Economice</i>,
+Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,416, Series No. 485, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Development of National Income Discussed," <i>Probleme
+Economice</i>, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,521, Series No.
+491, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Development of Trade with Socialist Countries Detailed," <i>Viata
+Economica</i>, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 53,001, Series
+No. 459, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Economic Planning Process Described," <i>Lupta de Clasa</i>,
+Bucharest, July 1971. (JPRS: 53,945, Series No. 524, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Foreign Trade, 1966-1970 Reviewed," <i>Viata Economica</i>,
+Bucharest, February 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,736, Series No. 441,
+1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>"Foreign Trade Reform Analyzed," <i>Vierteljahresshefte zur
+Wirtschaftsvorschung</i>, West Berlin, July-September 1971.
+(JPRS: 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Improvement of Wholesale Prices Discussed by Specialists,"
+<i>Viata Economica</i>, Bucharest, September 11, 1970. (JPRS:
+51,680, Series No. 368, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Improvement of Wholesale Price System," <i>Viata Economica</i>,
+Bucharest, September 18 and 25, 1970; October 2 and 16, 1970.
+(JPRS: 52,117, Series No. 398, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Interest Rates in New Credit System," <i>Viata Economica</i>,
+Bucharest, October 9, 1970. (JPRS: 52,001, Series No. 389,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Local Budgetary Problems, Proposed Measures Cited," <i>Finante si
+Credit</i>, September 1971. (JPRS: 54,748, Series No. 584, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Manpower Distribution Analyzed," <i>Revista de Statistica</i>,
+Bucharest, November 1970. (JPRS: 52,236, Series No. 407,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Measures for Increasing Foreign Trade Efficiency," <i>Gazeta
+Finantelor</i>, Bucharest, December 22, 1970. (JPRS: 52,510,
+Series No. 426, 1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Modernization of Planning Advocated," <i>Probleme Economice</i>,
+Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,614, Series No. 434,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"National Income in 1966-1970, 1971-1975," <i>Probleme Economice</i>,
+Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,755, Series No. 510, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"New Methods for Planning Agriculture Discussed," <i>Agricultura</i>,
+Bucharest, December 10, 1970. (JPRS: 52,324, Series No. 413,
+1970.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Profits Termed Essential Indicator of Economic Efficiency,"
+<i>Scinteia</i>, Bucharest, November 27, 1971. (JPRS: 54,748,
+Series No. 584, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Relationship of Domestic, Foreign Prices Influences Export
+Efficiency," <i>Finante si Credit</i>, Bucharest, June 1971. (JPRS:
+54,056, Series No. 531, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Significance of Accumulation Rate Analyzed," <i>Probleme
+Economice</i>, Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,558, Series No.
+570, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Socialist Planning in Light of World Planning," <i>Probleme
+Economice</i>, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,392, Series No.
+484, 1971.)</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Structural Changes in Manpower Distribution in 1966-1970,"
+<i>Viata Economica</i>, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,942,
+Series No. 454, 1971.)</p></div></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>GLOSSARY</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">centrals&mdash;Industrial associations that group enterprises engaged in
+the same or similar lines of production or enterprises at
+successive stages of production as, for example, iron mines and
+steel mills.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">COMECON&mdash;Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. Founded in 1949;
+headquartered in Moscow. Members are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East
+Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.
+Purpose is to further economic cooperation among members.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>judet</i> (pl., <i>judete</i>)&mdash;Local administrative division corresponding
+to county or district. There are thirty-nine such counties plus the
+municipality of Bucharest, which is administered as a judet. There
+is no intermediate level between the central government and the
+<i>judet</i> government.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">leu (pl., lei)&mdash;Standard unit of currency. Officially rated at the
+level of 1 leu to US$0.18, the actual exchange rate varies according
+to specific transactions, such as tourist exchange, foreign trade
+exchange, hard currency purchase, or black-market transaction.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">PCR&mdash;Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party). Founded in
+1921. Declared illegal in 1924; operated underground until 1944.
+Known as Romanian Workers' Party from 1948 until 1965.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">UGSR&mdash;Uniunea Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania (General Union of
+Trade Unions). Official organization incorporating all labor unions
+of blue- and white-collar workers. Estimated membership in 1972 was
+4.6 million.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">UTC&mdash;Uniunea Tineretului Comunist (Union of Communist Youth). Official
+organization that functions as the youth branch of the PCR (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Membership open to young people between ages fifteen and twenty-six.
+Membership estimated in early 1972 at 2.5 million.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Warsaw Treaty Organization&mdash;Formal name for Warsaw Pact. Military
+alliance of communist countries founded in 1955, with headquarters
+in Moscow. The Soviet minister of defense is traditionally the
+supreme commander of Warsaw Pact forces. Members are Bulgaria,
+Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the
+Soviet Union.</p></div>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+<ul><li> abortion: <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li> administrative divisions: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li> adult education: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a  href="#Page_86">86-87</a></li>
+
+<li> Africa: <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li> Agerpres. <i>See</i> Romanian Press Agency</li>
+
+<li> Agricultural Bank: <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li> Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises: <a  href="#Page_262">262-264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li> agriculture (<i>see also</i> collective farms; livestock): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li>   labor, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a  href="#Page_264">264-266</a>;</li>
+  <li>   production, <a  href="#Page_269">269-273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> aid foreign (<i>see also</i> Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>  military, <a  href="#Page_211">211-212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> air forces: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a  href="#Page_215">215-216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li> air transport: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a  href="#Page_46">46-47</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li> Albania: <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li> Alecsandri, Vasile: <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li> Alexandrescu, Grigore: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> Allied Control Commission: <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li> Allies. <i>See</i> World War I; World War II</li>
+
+<li> Aman, Theodor: <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li> Anti-Comintern Pact: <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li> anti-Semitism: <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li> anti-subversion. <i>See</i> counter-subversion</li>
+
+<li> Antonescu, Ion: <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li> Apostol, Gheorghe: <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li> Arad: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li> archaeology: <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> architecture: <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a  href="#Page_99">99-100</a></li>
+
+<li> Arghezi, Tudor: <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li> aristocracy: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li> armed forces (<i>see also</i> military): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a  href="#Page_211">211-216</a>, <a  href="#Page_221">221-227</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   command, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+  <li>   training, <a  href="#Page_220">220-221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> army (<i>see also</i> ground force): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li> arts and the artists: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a  href="#Page_92">92-94</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+  <li>   union, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Asachi, Gheorghe: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> Asia: <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li> Aslan, Ana: <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li> atheism: <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li> Aurelian, Emperor: <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li> Austria (<i>see also</i> Austro-Hungarian Empire): <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li> Austro-Hungarian Empire (<i>see also</i> Habsburgs; Hungary): <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li> automobiles (<i>see also</i> traffic): <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a  href="#Page_203">203-204</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> Avars: <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Baia-Mare: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li> Balaga, Lucian: <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li> Balcescu, Nicolae: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> Balkans: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Banat: <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Banks for Agriculture and the Food Industry: <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a  href="#Page_267">267-268</a></li>
+
+<li> banks and banking (<i>see also</i> individual banks): <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a  href="#Page_242">242-246</a></li>
+
+<li> Bessarabia: <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li> Bihor Massif: <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li> birth control: <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li> birth rate: <a  href="#Page_39">39-40</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li> Black Forest: <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li> Black Sea: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Bokassa, Jean Bebel, president of the Central African Republic: <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li> Book Central: <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li> Boris, Tsar: <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li> boundaries, national (<i>see also</i> individual neighboring countries): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a  href="#Page_37">37-38</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li> Braila: <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li> Brancusi, Constantin: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> Brasov: <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li> Brezhnev, Leonid: <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   doctrine, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Brincoveanu, Constantin, Prince: <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li> Bucharest: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   cultural, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+  <li>   government, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+  <li>   information, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+  <li>   politics, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+  <li>   security, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+  <li>   transport, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Bucharest Declaration: <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li> budget: <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a  href="#Page_240">240-241</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   local, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Bukovina: <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li> Bulgaria: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a  href="#Page_165">165-166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   border, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  </ul>
+<br />
+</li>
+
+
+<li> canals: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li> Cantemir, Dimitrie: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> capital punishment: <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li> Carol I, King: <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li> Carol II, King: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li> Carpathian Mountains: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ceausescu, Nicolae: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a  href="#Page_124">124-125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a  href="#Page_131">131-134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   foreign relations, <a  href="#Page_7">7-8</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a  href="#Page_172">172-173</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> censorship (<i>see also</i> freedom of expression): <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li> census: <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   (1930), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+  <li>   (1956), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; </li>
+  <li>   (1966), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Central European System: <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li> cereals: <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li> Cernavoda: <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li> Cernavoda-Silistra: <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li> Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. <i>See</i> Carol I</li>
+
+<li> chernozem: <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li> children (<i>see also</i> students): <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   care, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a  href="#Page_82">82-83</a>;</li>
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Christianity (<i>see also</i> Protestants; Roman Catholicism; Romanian Orthodox Church): introduction of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li> church-state relations: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a  href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li> civil rights (<i>see also</i> freedom of expression; ownership; religion; suffrage): <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a  href="#Page_111">111-112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li> clergy: <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   training, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> climate: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a  href="#Page_34">34-35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li> Cluj: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li> coal: <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a  href="#Page_276">276-277</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>cobza</i>: <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li> Codreanu, Corneliu: <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li> collective farms: <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a  href="#Page_257">257-261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   labor, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> College of Saint Sava: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> commerce (<i>see also</i> trade): <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li> Communists and communism (<i>see also</i> Romanian Communist Party): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   and culture, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a  href="#Page_92">92-94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+  <li>   and economy, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a  href="#Page_149">149-150</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+  <li>   and education, <a  href="#Page_73">73-74</a>, <a  href="#Page_76">76-77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+  <li>   government, <a  href="#Page_2">2-3</a>, <a  href="#Page_24">24-28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>   and information, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+  <li>   and religion, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+  <li>   rise to power, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a  href="#Page_22">22-24</a>;</li>
+  <li>   and social structure, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a  href="#Page_58">58-62</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Concordat (1927): <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li> Congress of Paris: <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li> conscripts and conscription (<i>see also</i> military): <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li> Constanta: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li> Constitution: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>    (1866), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+  <li>    (1923), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li>    (1938), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+  <li>    (1948), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>    (1952), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+  <li>    (1965), <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a  href="#Page_113">113-114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+  <li>    Commission, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>    development, <a  href="#Page_110">110-113</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> construction: <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   private, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+  <li>   youth, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+  <li>   consumer goods: <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a  href="#Page_287">287-288</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></li>
+  <li>   export, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>;</li>
+  <li>   production, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> cooperatives: <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   agricultural, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Council of Ministers: <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a  href="#Page_119">119-121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li> Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON):  <a href="#Page_iii">iii</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a  href="#Page_157">157-158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a  href="#Page_249">249-250</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li> Council of Romanian Radio and Television: <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li> Council on Socialist Culture and Education: <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li> Council of State: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a  href="#Page_117">117-119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li> Council of State Security: <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li> counter-subversion: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li> county. <i>See judet</i></li>
+
+<li> courts: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a  href="#Page_122">122-124</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a  href="#Page_206">206-207</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   military, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> credit policies: <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a  href="#Page_245">245-246</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a  href="#Page_267">267-269</a></li>
+
+<li> crime (<i>see also</i> penal system): <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a  href="#Page_201">201-203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li> Crimean War: <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Crisana</i>: <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li> cultural activity (<i>see also</i> architecture; arts and the artists; folk culture; literature; music; painting; sculpture): <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li> cultural influences: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a  href="#Page_14">14-15</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   nationalism, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> currency (<i>see also</i> exchange): <a  href="#Page_246">246-247</a></li>
+
+<li> Cuza, Alexander: <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li> Cyrillic alphabet: <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li> Czechoslovakia: <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   invasion of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  </ul>
+<br />
+</li>
+
+
+<li> Dacia (<i>see also</i> Dacians): <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Dacia Literata</i>: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> Dacians (<i>see also</i> Dacia; Daco-Romans): <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li> Daco-Romans: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li> Danube River: <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a  href="#Page_45">45-46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> death rate: <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li> defense (<i>see also</i> armed forces; security): <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Defence Council: <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li> Densus: <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> Department of Cults: <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Description of Moldavia</i>: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> divorce: <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li> Dobruja: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Dogmatic Period: <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li> Dragan, Mircea: <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li> Draghici, Alexandru: <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li> droughts: <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li> Dubcek, Alexander: <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Eastern Europe: <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   economic relations, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Eastern Orthodox Church (<i>see also</i> Romanian Orthodox Church): <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> Economic Council: <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li> economic development (<i>see also</i> Five Year Plan): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a  href="#Page_149">149-150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   plans, <a  href="#Page_234">234-237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> economy (<i>see also</i> agriculture; economic development; finance; industry): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a  href="#Page_226">226-227</a>, <a  href="#Page_229">229-237</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> education (<i>see also</i> adult education; indoctrination; schools; technical/vocational education; universities): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a  href="#Page_6">6-7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a  href="#Page_73">73-83</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Act (1964), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></li>
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>   curricula, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+  <li>   higher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a  href="#Page_85">85-86</a>, <a  href="#Page_107">107-108</a>;</li>
+  <li>   law (1948), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+  <li>   law (1968), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+  <li>   traffic, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Eforie Nord: <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li> elections: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a  href="#Page_126">126-127</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   (1937), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+  <li>   (1948), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+  <li>   (1969), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> electricity: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a  href="#Page_278">278-279</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   hydro, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> elite class: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li> emigration: <a  href="#Page_40">40-41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   illegal, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Jews, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Eminescu, Mihail: <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li> employment (<i>see also</i> labor; wages): <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a  href="#Page_233">233-234</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a  href="#Page_284">284-286</a></li>
+
+<li> Enescu, Georghe: <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li> English language: <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li> ethnic groups (<i>see also</i> individual groups; minority ethnic groups): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a  href="#Page_49">49-50</a>, <a  href="#Page_55">55-56</a></li>
+
+<li> European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan): <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li> Everac, Paul: <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li> exchange, foreign: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li> expenditure: <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li> export: <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a  href="#Page_248">248-249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   agricultural, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Export-Import Bank: <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> family: <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a  href="#Page_56">56-58</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li> fauna. <i>See</i> wildlife</li>
+
+<li> Federal Republic of Germany: <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a  href="#Page_168">168-170</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> Ferdinand, King: <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li> films: <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a  href="#Page_189">189-190</a></li>
+
+<li> finance (<i>see also</i> budget; foreign exchange; investment; taxation; trade): <a href="#Page_viii">viii-ix</a></li>
+
+<li> fishing and fisheries: <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li> Five-Year Plan: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   (1960-65), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+  <li>   (1971-75), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a  href="#Page_149">149-150</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> floods: <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li> folk culture: <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a  href="#Page_94">94-96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a  href="#Page_100">100-101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li> foodstuffs: <a  href="#Page_42">42-43</a>; export, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li> foreign exchange. <i>See</i> exchange</li>
+
+<li> foreign relations: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a  href="#Page_162">162-174</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>   diplomatic representation, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a  href="#Page_164">164-172</a>;</li>
+  <li>   economic. <i>See</i> trade;</li>
+  <li>   policy, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a  href="#Page_156">156-162</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> forests and forestry: <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a  href="#Page_277">277-278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> France: <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   cultural influence, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>   language, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> freedom of expression (<i>see also</i> press): <a  href="#Page_91">91-92</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li> frontier troops: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li> fruit (<i>see also</i> orchards and vineyards): <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Galati: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li> gems: <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li> General Military Academy, Bucharest: <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li> General Regulation for Religious Cults (1948): <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li> General Union of Trade Unions: <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a  href="#Page_148">148-149</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li> geology: <a  href="#Page_30">30-32</a></li>
+
+<li> Georgescu, Ion: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> German Democratic Republic: <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li> German ethnic group (<i>see also</i> German language): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a  href="#Page_53">53-54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> German language: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li> Germany (<i>see also</i> Federal Republic of Germany; German Democratic Republic; Nazis): <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li> Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   foreign relations, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Giurgiu: <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></li>
+
+<li> gold: <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li> Goths: <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li> government (<i>see also</i> Constitution; local government): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a  href="#Page_109">109-110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>  central, <a  href="#Page_114">114-124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Grand National Assembly: <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li> Great Britain: <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li> Greater Romania: <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li> Greece: <a  href="#Page_170">170-171</a></li>
+
+<li> Grigorescu, Nicolae: <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li> gross national product (GNP): <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li> ground force: <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li> Groza Petru: <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Habsburgs (<i>see also</i> Austro-Hungarian Empire): <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li> handcrafts: <a  href="#Page_94">94-96</a></li>
+
+<li> health: <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Heinemann, Gustav, president of the federal Republic of Germany: <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li> Higher Political Council: <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> Hitler, Adolf: <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li> Holy See. <i>See</i> Vatican</li>
+
+<li> housing: <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li> Hungarian Autonomous Region (Mures-Magyar): <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li> Hungarian ethnic group (Magyars) (<i>see also</i> Hungarian language): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a  href="#Page_52">52-53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Hungarian language: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li> Hungarian People's Union: <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> Hungary (<i>see also</i> Austro-Hungarian Empire): <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   border, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+  <li>   revolt, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul>
+<br />
+</li>
+
+
+<li> Iasi: <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li> ideological campaign: <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li> imports: <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   substitute, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> income: <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   church, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+  <li>   national, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+  <li>   per capita, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> independence: <a  href="#Page_15">15-17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   'declaration of', <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> indoctrination, political (<i>see also</i> propaganda): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   armed forces, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a  href="#Page_221">221-222</a>;</li>
+  <li>   youth, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a  href="#Page_78">78-79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> industrialization (<i>see also</i> industry): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li> industry (<i>see also</i> construction; electricity; industrialization; investment; nationalization): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a  href="#Page_229">229-230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a  href="#Page_275">275-283</a>, <a  href="#Page_287">287-289</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>   labor, <a href="#Page_vii">vii-viii</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a  href="#Page_283">283-286</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> information (<i>see also</i> newspapers; periodicals; press; radio; television): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a  href="#Page_175">175-177</a>, <a  href="#Page_190">190-191</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   foreign, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a  href="#Page_181">181-182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies: <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li> intelligentsia (<i>see also</i> arts and the artists; professionals): <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li> international commitments (<i>see also</i> individual pacts): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a  href="#Page_172">172-174</a>, <a  href="#Page_218">218-219</a></li>
+
+<li> Intervision: <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li> Investment Bank: <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a  href="#Page_243">243-244</a></li>
+
+<li> investment, capital: <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   in agriculture, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a  href="#Page_266">266-267</a>;</li>
+  <li>   foreign, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li>   in industry, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a  href="#Page_286">286-287</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ionescu, Eugene: <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li> iron: <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> Iron Gate: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   hydroelectricity, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Iron Guard: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li> irrigation: <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li> Islam: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li> Israel: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li> Italy: <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Jalea, Ion: <a href="#Page_98">98</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></li>
+
+<li> Japan: <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li> Jews and Judaism: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li> Jiu Valley: <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li> journalists: <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>judet</i>: <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   courts, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+  <li>   political, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+  <li>   security, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> judges: <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li> judiciary (<i>see also</i> courts; military): <a  href="#Page_122">122-124</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li> Junimea: <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li> justice (<i>see also</i> courts; judiciary; military; penal system): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a></li>
+
+<li> Justinian, patriarch: <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Khrushchev, Nikita, premier of the Soviet Union: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li> Kingdom of Romania: <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li> Kiselev, Pavel, Count: <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li> Koenig, Cardinal: <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li> Kogalniceanu, Mihail: <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> labor force (<i>see also</i> labor unions): <a href="#Page_vii">vii-viii</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a  href="#Page_264">264-266</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a  href="#Page_283">283-286</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   code, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+  <li>   conditions of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>   disputes, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> labor unions (<i>see also</i> General Union of Trade Unions): <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li> lakes: <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a  href="#Page_33">33-34</a></li>
+
+<li> land (<i>see also</i> forests and forestry; marshland; reform): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   agricultural, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a  href="#Page_254">254-257</a>;</li>
+  <li>   conservation, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+  <li>   ownership, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> languages (<i>see also</i> individual languages): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>lautari</i>: <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li> leu: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li> Liberal Party: <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> libraries: <a  href="#Page_188">188-189</a></li>
+
+<li> life expectancy: <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li> Lipatti, Dinu: <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li> literacy: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li> literature: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a  href="#Page_103">103-107</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li> livestock: <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   products, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a  href="#Page_269">269-270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> living standards: <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a  href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li> local government: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a  href="#Page_124">124-126</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Luceafarul</i>: <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li> Luchian, Stefan: <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li> Lupescu, Magda: <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Magyars. <i>See</i> Hungarian ethnic group</li>
+
+<li> Mairescu, Titu: <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li> Mamaia: <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li> Manescu, Corneliu: <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li> Manescu, Manea: <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li> Mangalia: <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li> Maniu, Iuliu: <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li> Maramures: <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li> marriage: <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li> Marshall Plan. <i>See</i> European Recovery Program</li>
+
+<li> marshland: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li> Marxism-Leninism: <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li> mass organization (<i>see also</i> labor unions; women; youth): <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a  href="#Page_146">146-149</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a  href="#Page_198">198-201</a></li>
+
+<li> Maurer, Ion Gheorghe: <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li> medical services: <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   military, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> merchant marine: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a  href="#Page_47">47-48</a></li>
+
+<li> metallurgy: <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li> Michael the Brave (1593-1601): <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li> Michael, King (son of Carol II): <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li> Middle East (<i>see also</i> Israel): <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li> migration, historical: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li> military (<i>see also</i> aid; armed forces): <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a  href="#Page_118">118-119</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   foreign, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li>   honours, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+  <li>   justice, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a  href="#Page_207">207-208</a>, <a  href="#Page_222">222-223</a>;</li>
+  <li>   personnel, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a  href="#Page_219">219-220</a>;</li>
+  <li>   service, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+  <li>   volunteers, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Military Achievement Exhibit: <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li> militia: <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a  href="#Page_195">195-197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li> minerals (<i>see also</i> coal; iron; natural gas; oil): <a  href="#Page_36">36-37</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li> ministries and ministers (<i>see also</i> Council of Ministers; individual ministries): <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   economic, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Industry and Waters: <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of the Armed Forces: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   minister, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a  href="#Page_213">213-214</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Defense: <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Education: <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a  href="#Page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Finance: <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Foreign Affairs: <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   minister, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Foreign Trade: <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Internal Affairs: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   minister, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Justice: <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   minister, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Technical Material Supply and Control of the Management of Fixed Assets: <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Transportation: <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li> Ministry of Youth Problems: <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   minister, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> minority ethnic groups (<i>see also</i> individual ethnic groups): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a  href="#Page_3">3-4</a>, <a  href="#Page_49">49-50</a>, <a  href="#Page_54">54-55</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a  href="#Page_150">150-151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a  href="#Page_88">88-89</a>;</li>
+  <li>   rights, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> missiles: <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li> Mobutu, Joseph, president of Zaire: <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li> Moldavia: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   cultural, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> monarchy, constitutional: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> mountains (<i>see also</i> individual ranges): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Munca</i>: <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li> Muntenia: <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li> music: <a  href="#Page_100">100-101</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Muslims (<i>see also</i> Islam): <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li> Mures-Magyar. <i>See</i> Hungarian Autonomous Region<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> National Bank of the Romanian Socialist Republic: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li> National Center for Cinematography: <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li> National Democratic Front: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> National Peasant Party: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> National Popular Party: <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> National Renaissance Party: <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li> National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives: <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li> nationalism: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li> nationalization: <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li> natural gas: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> navy: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li> Nazis: <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a  href="#Page_20">20-21</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li> Negruzzi, Constantine: <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li> news agencies: <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a  href="#Page_181">181-182</a></li>
+
+<li> newspapers: <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a  href="#Page_177">177-180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li> Niculescu-Mizil, Paul: <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li> Nixon, Richard M., president of the U.S.A.: <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li> North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li> nuclear free zone: <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li> nuclear power: <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of Romania: <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li> oil: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a  href="#Page_275">275-276</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> Old Catholics: <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li> Old Church Slavonic: <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li> Old Kingdom. <i>See</i> Kingdom of Romania</li>
+
+<li> Olt River: <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li> Oltenia: <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li> Oradea: <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li> orchards and vineyards: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li> Ottoman Empire and the Turks: <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li> ownership (<i>see also</i> private sector): <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a  href="#Page_113">113-114</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> PCR. <i>See</i> Romanian Communist Party</li>
+
+<li> Paciurea, Dimitrie: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> painting (<i>see also</i> arts and the artists): <a  href="#Page_95">95-98</a></li>
+
+<li> Pana, Gheorghe: <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li> Pann, Anton: <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li> party politics (<i>see also</i> individual parties): <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   single party, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> pasture: <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li> Patrascanu, Lucretiu: <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li> Pauker, Ana: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li> peasantry (<i>see also</i> folk culture, working class): <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+  <li>   revolt, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> penal system: <a  href="#Page_201">201-202</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   code, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a  href="#Page_205">205-206</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+  <li>   institutions, <a  href="#Page_207">207-209</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> people's councils: <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Commission, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> People's Democratic Front: <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li> People's Republic of China (<i>see also</i> Sino-Soviet issue): <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li> periodicals: <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a  href="#Page_180">180-181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   library, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Peter, tsar of Russia: <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li> petroleum: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li> Petrosani: <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li> Phanariots: <a  href="#Page_12">12-13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li> Pioneers Organization: <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li> pipelines: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li> Ploiesti: <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li> Plowmans Front: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> Poland: <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li> police (<i>see also</i> militia): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   secret, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> pope: <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li> Popescu-Gopo: <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li> population: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a  href="#Page_38">38-41</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li> ports (<i>see also</i> individual ports): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li> president, office and functions: <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li> Presidium: <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li> press: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   freedom, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> prices: <a  href="#Page_237">237-240</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li> prime minister, office and functions: <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li> private sector: <a  href="#Page_113">113-114</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a  href="#Page_268">268-269</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li> professionals (<i>see also</i> intelligentsia): <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   unions, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> propaganda (<i>see also</i> indoctrination): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li> Prosecutor General: <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a  href="#Page_123">123-124</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li> Protestants (<i>see also</i> religion): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a  href="#Page_71">71-72</a></li>
+
+<li> Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (VietCong): <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li> Prut River: <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li> publishing: <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a  href="#Page_185">185-187</a></li>
+
+<li> purges, political: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Radescu, Nicolae, General: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li> radio: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a  href="#Page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> Radulescu, Ehade: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> railways: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a  href="#Page_43">43-45</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li> reform: <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   economic, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a  href="#Page_77">77-79</a>;</li>
+  <li>   land, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> religion (<i>see also</i> church-state relations; clergy; Protestants; Roman Catholicism; Romanian Orthodox Church): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a  href="#Page_65">65-66</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   education, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>   freedom of, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>   persecution of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam): <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li> research: <a  href="#Page_107">107-108</a></li>
+
+<li> revenue (<i>see also</i> taxation): <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li> riparian rights: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></li>
+
+<li> rivers (<i>see also</i> individual rivers; riparian rights; waterways): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a  href="#Page_33">33-34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li> roads and highways: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li> Rodin, Auguste: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> Roman Catholicism (<i>see also</i> church-state relations; religion): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a  href="#Page_69">69-71</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Romania Libera</i>: <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian Academy of Social and Political Sciences: <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian Air Transport (TAROM): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman, PCR): <a href="#Page_vi">vi</a>, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a  href="#Page_132">132-134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a  href="#Page_136">136-146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   Central Auditing Committee, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Central Collegium, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Central Committee, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Executive Committee, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li>   membership, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a  href="#Page_142">142-144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+  <li>   organization, <a  href="#Page_137">137-142</a>;</li>
+  <li>   policies, <a  href="#Page_149">149-153</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Secretariat, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Standing Presidium, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Romanian ethnic group: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a  href="#Page_50">50-52</a>, <a  href="#Page_52">52-53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   history, <a  href="#Page_13">13-14</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Romanian Foreign Trade Bank: <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian language: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian Orthodox Church (<i>see also</i> church-state relations; clergy religion): <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a  href="#Page_67">67-69</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian People's Army. See armed forces</li>
+
+<li> Romanian People's Republic: <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa, Agerpres): <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li> Romanian Workers' Party: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li> Romans and the Roman Empire: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a  href="#Page_10">10-11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> rural society (<i>see also</i> villages): <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Russia (<i>see also</i> Soviet Union): history, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   revolution, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Russian language: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> Sadoveanu, Mihail: <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li> sanitation: <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li> Sarmizegetusa: <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> Savings and Loan Bank: <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li> schools (<i>see also</i> education; religion; students; universities): <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a  href="#Page_83">83-88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Scinteia</i>: <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li> <i>Scinteia Tineretului</i>: <a  href="#Page_178">178-180</a></li>
+
+<li> sculpture: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> security (<i>see also</i> crime; defence; police): <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   internal, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a  href="#Page_193">193-201</a>;</li>
+  <li>   national, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> security troops: <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a  href="#Page_197">197-198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li> services: <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li> Sibu: <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li> Sighisoara: <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li> Sino-Soviet issue: <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li> Siretul River: <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li> size and location (<i>see also</i> boundaries): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li> Slavs: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   language and culture, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> social benefits: <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li> Social Democratic Party: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li> social structure: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a  href="#Page_58">58-62</a></li>
+
+<li> socialism (<i>see also</i> collective farms; nationalization; Socialist Realism): <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a  href="#Page_151">151-153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li> Socialist Party: <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li> Socialist Realism: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li> Socialist Republic of Romania: <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li> Socialist Unity Front: <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li> soils: <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a  href="#Page_35">35-36</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li> Soviet Union (<i>see also</i> Czechoslovakia; Sino-Soviet issue): <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a  href="#Page_164">164-165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   border, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Communist Party, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+  <li>   Constitution (1936), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>   independence of, <a  href="#Page_1">1-2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>   influence over Romania, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li>   trade, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
+  <li>   World War II, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Stalin, Joseph (<i>see also</i> Stalinism): <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li> Stalinism: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   de-Stalinization, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a  href="#Page_134">134-136</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> State Committee for Prices: <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,120, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li> state enterprises: <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a  href="#Page_234">234-237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   farms, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a  href="#Page_261">261-262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+  <li>   industry, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> State Inspectorate General for Product Quality: <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li> State Planning Committee: <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li> State Security Council: <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li> Stephan Gheorghiu Academy of Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres: <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li> Stephen the Great (1457-1504): <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li> Stoica, Chivu: <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li> Storck, Carol: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> Storck, Karl: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> students (<i>see also</i> schools): <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   organizations, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> suffrage: <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li> sugar beet: <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li> Superior Council of Agriculture: <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li> Supreme Court: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li> Szeklers: <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li> Szekelys. <i>See</i> Szeklers<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> <i>tambal</i>: <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li> TAROM. <i>See</i> Romanian Air Transport</li>
+
+<li> Tatars: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li> Tattarescu, Gheorghe: <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li> taxation: <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li> teachers: <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   training, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a  href="#Page_87">87-88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> technical/vocational education: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li> television: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a  href="#Page_184">184-185</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> text books: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li> textiles: <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> theater: <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a  href="#Page_101">101-102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li> Thracians. <i>See</i> Dacians</li>
+
+<li> timber: <a  href="#Page_277">277-278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li> Timisoara: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li> Tirgu Mures: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li> Tisza River: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li> Tonitza, Nicolae: <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li> topography (<i>see also</i> mountains; rivers): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li> tourists and tourism: <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   exchange rate, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> trade (<i>see also</i> export; import; individual countries): <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   balance, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a  href="#Page_242">242-243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a  href="#Page_251">251-252</a>;</li>
+  <li>   domestic, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+  <li>   foreign, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a  href="#Page_247">247-252</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> traffic, vehicular: <a  href="#Page_203">203-204</a></li>
+
+<li> Trajan, Column of: <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li> Trajan, Emperor: <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li> transport (<i>see also</i> air transport; pipelines; railways; roads and highways; traffic; waterways): <a  href="#Page_43">43-48</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li> Transylvania (<i>see also</i> Transylvanian Alps): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   cultural, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a  href="#Page_13">13-14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+  <li>   transport, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Transylvanian Alps: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a  href="#Page_31">31-32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li> travel: <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li> Treaty of Berlin (1878): <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li> 'Tudor Vladimirescu': <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li> Turkey (<i>see also</i> Ottoman Empire and the Turks; Turks): <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li> Turks (<i>see also</i> Ottoman Empire and the Turks): <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li> Turnu Severin: <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> UTC. <i>See</i> Union of Communist Youth</li>
+
+<li> underemployment: <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li> Uniate Church: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li> Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist, UTC): <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a  href="#Page_147">147-148</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a  href="#Page_198">198-199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li> Union of Student Associations: <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></li>
+
+<li> Unitarians: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li> United Nations: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li> United Principalities: <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li> United States: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   trade, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a  href="#Page_250">250-251</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> universities (<i>see also</i> University of Bucharest): <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a  href="#Page_85">85-86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   foreign, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+  <li>   teachers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+  <li>   workers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> University of Bucharest: <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li> uranium: <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li> urban society: <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   government, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  </ul>
+<br />
+</li>
+
+
+<li> Vacarescu, Iancu: <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li> Valbudea, Stefan Ionescu: <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li> values and traditions: political, <a  href="#Page_153">153-154</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   social, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a  href="#Page_62">62-63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Vatican (<i>see also</i> pope): <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li> vegetables: <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li> vegetation (<i>see also</i> forests and forestry): <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li> Vietnam (<i>see also</i> Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam; Republic of Vietnam): <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li> villages: <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   justice, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Vlachs: <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li> Vyshinsky, Andrei: <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> wages (<i>see also</i> income): <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a  href="#Page_260">260-261</a>, <a  href="#Page_263">263-264</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   prisoners, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Walachia: <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   cultural, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+  <li>   history, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+  <li>   population, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Warsaw Pact. <i>See</i> Warsaw Treaty Organization</li>
+
+<li> Warsaw Treaty Organization (<i>see also</i> Czechoslovakia): <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li> waterways: <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a  href="#Page_45">45-46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li> West Germany. <i>See</i> Federal Republic of Germany</li>
+
+<li> Western nations (<i>see also</i> individual nations): <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   cultural influence (<i>see also</i> France), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>   economic relations, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> wildlife: <a  href="#Page_32">32-33</a></li>
+
+<li> women: <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   labor, <a  href="#Page_56">56-57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+  <li>   organizations, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> working class (<i>see also</i> peasantry): <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a  href="#Page_59">59-60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li> World Council of Churches: <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li> World War I: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a  href="#Page_17">17-18</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li> World War II: <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a  href="#Page_20">20-21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li> youth (<i>see also</i> students; Union of Communist Youth): <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a  href="#Page_199">199-201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   organizations, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li> Yugoslavia: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>   border, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  </ul>
+<br />
+</li>
+
+<li> Zhivkov, Todor: <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>PUBLISHED AREA HANDBOOKS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Handbooks">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="12%">550-65</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="38%">Afghanistan</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="12%">550-41</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="38%">Korea, Republic of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-98</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Albania</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-58</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Laos</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-44</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Algeria</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-24</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Lebanon</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-59</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Angola</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-38</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Liberia</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-73</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Argentina</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-85</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Libya</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-20</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Brazil</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-45</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Malaysia</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-61</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Burma</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Mauritania</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-83</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Burundi</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-76</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Mongolia</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-50</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Cambodia (Khmer Rep.)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-49</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Morocco</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-96</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ceylon</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-64</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Mozambique</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-159</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Chad</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-35</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-60</td>
+  <td class="tdl">China, People's Republic of</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-88</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nicaragua</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-63</td>
+  <td class="tdl">China, Republic of</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-167</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nigeria</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-26</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Colombia</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-94</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Oceania</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-91</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Congo (Brazzaville)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-48</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Pakistan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-67</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Congo (Kinshasa) (Zaire)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-46</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Panama</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-90</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Costa Rica</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-156</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Paraguay</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-152</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Cuba</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-92</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Peripheral States of the</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-22</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Cyprus</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabian Peninsula</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-158</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Czechoslovakia</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-42</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Peru</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-54</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dominican Republic</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-72</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Philippines, Republic of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-155</td>
+  <td class="tdl">East Germany</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-160</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Romania</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-52</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ecuador</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-84</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Rwanda</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-150</td>
+  <td class="tdl">El Salvador</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-51</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Saudi Arabia</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-28</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ethiopia</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-70</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Senegal</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-29</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Germany</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-86</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Somalia</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-153</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ghana</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-93</td>
+  <td class="tdl">South Africa, Republic of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-87</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Greece</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-95</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Soviet Union</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-78</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Guatemala</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-27</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sudan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-82</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Guyana</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-47</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Syria</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-151</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Honduras</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-62</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Tanzania</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-21</td>
+  <td class="tdl">India</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-53</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Thailand</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-154</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Indian Ocean Territories</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-89</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Tunisia</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-39</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Indonesia</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-80</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Turkey</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-68</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Iran</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-74</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Uganda</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-31</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Iraq</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-43</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United Arab Republic</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-25</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Israel</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-97</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Uruguay</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-30</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Japan</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-71</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Venezuela</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-34</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Jordan</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-57</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Vietnam, North</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-56</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Kenya</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-55</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Vietnam, South</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">550-81</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Korea, North</td>
+  <td class="tdl">550-75</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Zambia</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Note</p>
+<br />
+
+Some inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in
+the original document has been preserved.<br />
+<br />
+
+Typographical errors corrected in the text:<br />
+<br />
+
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;   6&nbsp;  apprent changed to apparent<br />
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  12&nbsp;  fuedal changed to feudal<br />
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  17&nbsp;  entrepreneuers changed to entrepreneurs<br />
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  42&nbsp;  quantitites changed to quantities<br />
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  45&nbsp;  neglible changed to negligible<br />
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  54&nbsp;  inincluding changed to including<br />
+Page&nbsp; 100&nbsp;  intruments changed to instruments<br />
+Page&nbsp; 142&nbsp;  it changed to its<br />
+Page&nbsp; 142&nbsp;  propanda changed to propaganda<br />
+Page&nbsp; 150&nbsp;  comisssions changed to commissions<br />
+Page&nbsp; 150&nbsp;  leaderwhip changed to leadership<br />
+Page&nbsp; 159&nbsp;  indepedence changed to independence<br />
+Page&nbsp; 160&nbsp;  spokemen changed to spokesmen<br />
+Page&nbsp; 161&nbsp;  vaild changed to valid<br />
+Page&nbsp; 164&nbsp;  Doctine changed to Doctrine<br />
+Page&nbsp; 165&nbsp;  Relatons changed to Relations<br />
+Page&nbsp; 166&nbsp;  Romaian changed to Romanian<br />
+Page&nbsp; 171&nbsp;  agressive changed to aggressive<br />
+Page&nbsp; 171&nbsp;  statement changed to statements<br />
+Page&nbsp; 172&nbsp;  vistied changed to visited<br />
+Page&nbsp; 177&nbsp;  to changed to a<br />
+Page&nbsp; 185&nbsp;  snd changed to and<br />
+Page&nbsp; 186&nbsp;  them changed to then<br />
+Page&nbsp; 187&nbsp;  hisotrical changed to historical<br />
+Page&nbsp; 188&nbsp;  principlally changed to principally<br />
+Page&nbsp; 190&nbsp;  documenaries changed to documentaries<br />
+Page&nbsp; 193&nbsp;  investigaton changed to investigation<br />
+Page&nbsp; 193&nbsp;  trails changed to trials<br />
+Page&nbsp; 200&nbsp;  informaton changed to information<br />
+Page&nbsp; 201&nbsp;  trail changed to trial<br />
+Page&nbsp; 207&nbsp;  miltary changed to military<br />
+Page&nbsp; 208&nbsp;  rehabilitiate changed to rehabilitate<br />
+Page&nbsp; 229&nbsp;  indequate changed to inadequate<br />
+Page&nbsp; 238&nbsp;  pecentage changed to percentage<br />
+Page&nbsp; 238&nbsp;  indistry changed to industry<br />
+Page&nbsp; 253&nbsp;  urgenly changed to urgently<br />
+Page&nbsp; 255&nbsp;  peroid changed to period<br />
+Page&nbsp; 270&nbsp;  yars changed to  years<br />
+Page&nbsp; 280&nbsp;  som changed to some<br />
+Page&nbsp; 186&nbsp;  earier changed to earlier<br />
+Page&nbsp; 291&nbsp;  Prager changed to Praeger<br />
+Page&nbsp; 291&nbsp;  Fisher changed to Fischer<br />
+Page&nbsp; 301&nbsp;  Bulentinul changed to Buletinul<br />
+Page&nbsp; 302&nbsp;  Spetember changed to September<br />
+Page&nbsp; 307&nbsp;  archaelogy changed to archaeology<br />
+Page&nbsp; 308&nbsp;  chernozen changed to chernozem<br />
+Page&nbsp; 316&nbsp;  TARCM changed to TAROM<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 32700-h.txt or 32700-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/7/0/32700">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/7/0/32700</a></p>
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+
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+
+<pre>
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@@ -0,0 +1,15739 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Area Handbook for Romania, by Eugene K.
+Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M.
+Moore, and Neda A. Walpole
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Area Handbook for Romania
+
+
+Author: Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William
+Giloane, James M. Moore, and Neda A. Walpole
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 8, 2010  [eBook #32700]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Barbara Kosker, Juliet Sutherland, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original maps and charts.
+      See 32700-h.htm or 32700-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32700/32700-h/32700-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32700/32700-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA
+
+_Co-Authors_
+
+Eugene K. Keefe
+Donald W. Bernier
+Lyle E. Brenneman
+William Giloane
+James M. Moore, Jr.
+Neda A. Walpole
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Research and writing were completed February 1972
+Published 1972
+DA Pam 550-160
+
+Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-600095
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D.C. 20402--Price $2.75
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This volume is one of a series of handbooks prepared by Foreign Area
+Studies (FAS) of The American University, designed to be useful to
+military and other personnel who need a convenient compilation of basic
+facts about the social, economic, political, and military institutions
+and practices of various countries. The emphasis is on objective
+description of the nation's present society and the kinds of possible or
+probable changes that might be expected in the future. The handbook
+seeks to present as full and as balanced an integrated exposition as
+limitations on space and research time permit. It was compiled from
+information available in openly published material. An extensive
+bibliography is provided to permit recourse to other published sources
+for more detailed information. There has been no attempt to express any
+specific point of view or to make policy recommendations. The contents
+of the handbook represent the work of the authors and FAS and do not
+represent the official view of the United States government.
+
+An effort has been made to make the handbook as comprehensive as
+possible. It can be expected, however, that the material,
+interpretations, and conclusions are subject to modification in the
+light of new information and developments. Such corrections, additions,
+and suggestions for factual, interpretive, or other change as readers
+may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. Comments may be
+addressed to:
+
+ The Director
+ Foreign Area Studies
+ The American University
+ 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.
+ Washington, D.C. 20016
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The former Kingdom of Romania emerged from the post-World War II chaos
+as the Romanian People's Republic, a communist satellite so closely
+aligned to the policies of the Soviet Union that it often appeared to be
+ruled from Moscow. During the 1950s, however, Romania cautiously began
+seeking to loosen its ties to Moscow and to assert some measure of
+autonomy. The widening Sino-Soviet rift of the early 1960s provided an
+atmosphere of tension among communist states that the Romanians used to
+their own advantage by remaining neutral in the communist struggle and
+by seeking greater contacts with noncommunist states. In internal
+affairs, the Romanian regime maintained a rigid hold on all elements of
+the society. In 1965 the regime changed the name of the country to the
+Socialist Republic of Romania and proclaimed that it was well on the way
+toward communism. In the early 1970s Romania remains a member of the
+Soviet-led military and economic alliances but has become known as the
+most independent member.
+
+The changes wrought by the Communists during a quarter century in power
+are numerous and far reaching. Despite the desires of the Soviet leaders
+that Romania remain predominantly agricultural, the new Romanian
+leadership was determined to industrialize. Enforced socialization and
+concurrent industrialization brought a host of problems in the
+political, social, and economic life of the country. Reorientation of
+the society and the political structure was brought about by force when
+necessary, but the restructuring of the economy within the framework of
+the avowed Marxist-Leninist ideology proved to be more difficult and led
+to problems that had still not been overcome by early 1972.
+
+This handbook attempts to describe the social, political, and economic
+bases of Romanian society and, more particularly, how these bases have
+been affected by Romania's independent stance within the alliances of
+Eastern European communist countries. The authors of the handbook have
+tried to be objective in order to provide a comprehensive exposition of
+the dominant aspects of Romanian life in the early 1970s. Often hampered
+by a lack of credible statistical information as well as an
+overabundance of biased propaganda, the authors have attempted to piece
+together sufficient factual material to present an accurate appraisal
+and an indication of observable trends.
+
+English usage follows _Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary_.
+Place names used in the text are those approved by the United States
+Board on Geographic Names. Tonnages are given in the metric system, but
+for other measurements standard United States terminology has been used.
+The use of Romanian words has been held to a minimum and, where used,
+they have been explained in the text and in the Glossary, which is
+appended for the reader's convenience. The acronym PCR, derived from
+Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party), is used throughout
+the book and is fully explained in the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTRY SUMMARY
+
+
+1. COUNTRY: Officially redesignated the Socialist Republic of Romania
+under Constitution of 1965. Established originally as the Kingdom of
+Romania in 1881, was converted into the Romanian People's Republic in
+1948 by communist party with Soviet backing.
+
+2. GOVERNMENT: Constitution of 1965 provides for a unicameral
+legislature and a collegial executive known as the Council of State.
+Romanian Communist Party controls elections and runs the government at
+all levels. Top party officials concurrently occupy top governmental
+offices. Ultimate political power rests in the party hierarchy,
+particularly in the person of the party general secretary who, since
+1967, has also been head of state.
+
+3. SIZE AND LOCATION: Area of over 91,700 square miles. In southeastern
+Europe, shares 1,975 miles of demarcated and undisputed land borders
+with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Soviet Union. With 150 miles
+of shoreline, shares riparian rights on Black Sea with Turkey, Bulgaria,
+and the Soviet Union.
+
+4. TOPOGRAPHY: Terrain is generally irregular. The Transylvania basin in
+the northwest occupies about one-third of the country and is separated
+from the plains and lowlands of Walachia, Dobruja, and Moldavia to the
+south and east by the curving course of the Carpathian Mountains and the
+Transylvanian Alps, which cut across the central portion of the country.
+
+5. CLIMATE: Generally Eastern European Continental, dominated by high
+pressure systems from European Soviet Union and north-central Asia.
+Little variation or moderation experienced in the prevailing long cold
+winters and short hot summers.
+
+6. POPULATION: Almost 20.6 million in 1971; annual growth rate of 1.3
+percent, among the highest in Eastern Europe. Density more than 224
+persons per square mile. Largest minority is Hungarian, comprising 8
+percent of population, followed by German, with 2 percent.
+
+7. LANGUAGE: Romanian, the official language, spoken by virtually all
+elements of the population. Hungarian and German also recognized and
+utilized in areas of large minority concentrations.
+
+8. LABOR: Working population employed by the state in 1969 numbered
+about 5 million. About 40 percent were employed in industry; about 51
+percent, in agriculture. Women constituted about 43 percent of the
+industrial and 57.5 percent of the collective farm labor forces.
+
+9. RELIGION: Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Constitution, but state
+controls all church activities. About two-thirds of population belong to
+Romanian Orthodox Church. Importance of Roman Catholic and Protestant
+minorities enhanced because of their identity with Hungarian and German
+ethnic groups.
+
+10. EDUCATION: Restructured in 1948 into a highly centralized system
+with a broad base, standardized curricula, mandatory attendance through
+tenth grade, and heavy emphasis on vocational and technical subjects
+above the elementary level. Political indoctrination permeates entire
+system.
+
+11. JUSTICE: Theoretically independent, the three-level court system
+(local, district, and Supreme Court) functions as part of executive
+branch. Military tribunals operate as part of system under Supreme
+Court.
+
+12. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS: Thirty-nine counties, each subdivided into
+varying numbers of communes, villages, and municipalities. Bucharest
+administered as an independent political entity. Governmental
+functioning ostensibly decentralized, but policy and control exercised
+by higher state and party organs.
+
+13. ECONOMY: Government controlled, with basic five-year plans patterned
+on Soviet model. Development hampered by scarcity of raw materials and
+manufacturing equipment and by insufficient number of experienced
+workers and managers.
+
+14. AGRICULTURE: About 63 percent of land is agricultural; of this, 65
+percent under cultivation. Food production adequate for domestic needs,
+but exports limited because of insufficient investment and lack of labor
+incentives.
+
+15. INDUSTRY: Rapid growth since 1950 stimulated by massive inputs of
+capital, labor, and imports of modern machinery and technology. Labor
+productivity and quality of manufactured products have improved but
+remain low.
+
+16. FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: Foreign trade is state monopoly and is
+conducted primarily with Soviet Union and East European communist
+countries. Balance of trade generally negative, reflecting imports of
+high-quality machinery from West necessary for industrial advancement.
+Exports limited to light machinery, foodstuffs, and some consumer goods.
+
+17. FINANCE: Monetary unit is the nonconvertible leu. The to tourist
+rates of about 16 lei per US$1. Currency and foreign exchange are state
+controlled, administered through the National Bank.
+
+18. COMMUNICATIONS: All information media party or state owned and
+controlled. Press and radio more extensively developed than television,
+but all function as parts of ideological and political indoctrination
+system.
+
+19. RAILROADS: Important freight and passenger carrier. About 6,900
+miles of trunkline in operation, almost all standard gauge. About 100
+miles electrified, and rest of system converting to use of diesel
+locomotives.
+
+20. HIGHWAYS: Of 47,800 total road mileage, about 6,600 miles nationally
+maintained as principal operating network. System supplanting railroads
+as major short-haul carrier of freight and passengers.
+
+21. INLAND WATERWAYS: About 1,500 miles of principal rivers and canals
+are navigable. Water transport has minor role as a cargo carrier.
+
+22. AIRWAYS: Romanian Air Transport, the state-owned airline, operates
+domestic service to twelve principal cities and to about twenty national
+capitals in Europe and the Middle East.
+
+23. PIPELINES: Largest network serves oilfields and moves most liquid
+petroleum and refined products to refineries and ports. Natural gas
+lines exist, but mountainous terrain limits general distribution.
+
+24. MERCHANT MARINE: Small in number but operates modern ships and
+equipment. Transport limited principally to truck cargo and freight.
+
+25. ARMED FORCES: In 1972 consisted of about 200,000 men organized into
+ground, naval, air, air defense, and frontier forces, all administered
+by a single ministry. All elements operate as part of army, which is
+largest single component.
+
+26. SECURITY: Security forces, nationally organized and centrally
+controlled by Ministry of Internal Affairs, consist of ordinary police
+(militia) and security troops, which perform counter-espionage and
+counter-subversive functions.
+
+27. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the United Nations and a
+number of its specialized agencies. Member of the Warsaw Treaty
+Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic
+Assistance (COMECON).
+
+
+
+
+ROMANIA
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                                     Page
+
+ FOREWORD                                                             iii
+
+ PREFACE                                                                v
+
+ COUNTRY SUMMARY                                                      vii
+
+ SECTION I. SOCIAL
+
+ Chapter  1. General Character of the Society                           1
+
+
+          2. Historical Setting                                         9
+
+             Early Origin--Formation of the Principalities--
+             Western Influences--National Independence--World
+             War I--Interwar Years, 1918-40--World War II--
+             Communist Seizure of Power--The Communist State
+
+
+          3. Physical Environment and Population                       29
+
+             Natural Features and Resources--Boundaries and
+             Political Subdivisions--Population--Living
+             Conditions--Transportation
+
+
+          4. Social System and Values                                  49
+
+             Ethnic Composition--Social Structure--Social Values
+
+
+          5. Religion                                                  65
+
+             Church-State Relations--The Romanian Orthodox
+             Church--The Roman Catholic Church--Protestant
+             Churches--Other Religions and Churches
+
+
+          6. Education                                                 73
+
+             Background--Educational Reforms Since 1948--
+             Literacy--The Educational System--Education of
+             Minorities
+
+
+          7. Artistic and Intellectual Expression                      91
+
+             The Role of the Arts Under Communism--Art,
+             Sculpture, and Architecture--Music--Theater--Films
+             --Literature--Scholarship and Research
+
+
+ SECTION II. POLITICAL
+
+
+          8. Governmental System                                      109
+
+             The Constitutional System--The Structure and
+             Functioning of the Government--The Electoral
+             System
+
+
+          9. Political Dynamics and Values                            129
+
+             Major Political Developments, 1965 to 1970--
+             Political Organizations--Party Policies and
+             Programs--Political Values and Attitudes
+
+
+         10. Foreign Relations                                        155
+
+             Determinants of Foreign Policy--Conduct of Foreign
+             Affairs--International Relations
+
+         11. Public Information                                       175
+
+             Government and Freedom of Information--The Press
+             --Radio and Television--Book Publishing--Libraries
+             --Films--Informal Information Media
+
+
+ SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY
+
+
+         12. Public Order and Internal Security                       193
+
+             Internal Security--Public Order--Crime and the
+             Penal System
+
+
+         13. Armed Forces                                             211
+
+             Historical Background--Governmental and Party
+             Control Over the Armed Forces--Organization and
+             Mission--Foreign Military Relations--Manpower,
+             Training, and Support--The Military Establishment
+             and the National Economy
+
+
+ SECTION IV. ECONOMIC
+
+
+         14. Character and Structure of the Economy                   229
+
+             Organization--Structure and Growth--Planning--
+             Price System--Budget--Banking--Currency--Foreign
+             Trade
+
+
+         15. Agriculture                                              253
+
+             Agricultural Regions--Land Use--Organization--Farm
+             Labor--Investment and Credit--Production
+
+
+         16. Industry                                                 275
+
+             Natural Resources--Electric Power--Organization--
+             Labor--Investment and Construction--Production
+
+
+ BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                         291
+
+ GLOSSARY                                                             305
+
+ INDEX                                                                307
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ Figure                                                              Page
+
+   1  Romania                                                         xiv
+
+   2  Romania, Historic Provinces                                      10
+
+   3  Topography of Romania                                            31
+
+   4  Romanian Transportation System                                   44
+
+   5  Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966                     51
+
+   6  Romania, Structure of Education, 1972                            81
+
+   7  Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971                    115
+
+   8  Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971         120
+
+   9  Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972              138
+
+  10  Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972                 214
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF TABLES
+
+ Table                                                               Page
+
+   1  Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971
+      Estimate                                                         40
+
+   2  Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960,
+      and 1969                                                         45
+
+   3  Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971                       179
+
+   4  National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania, by
+      Economic Sector, 1960, 1967, and 1970                           232
+
+   5  Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin,
+      1960 and 1967                                                   233
+
+   6  Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960
+      and 1969                                                        250
+
+   7  Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70                    255
+
+   8  Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and
+      1969                                                            256
+
+   9  Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969        258
+
+  10  Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected Years,
+      1960-69                                                         272
+
+  11  Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected Years,
+      1960-69                                                         272
+
+  12  Crop Production and Livestock Products in Romania, by
+      Type of Farm, 1969                                              274
+
+  13  Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960
+      and 1969                                                        288
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 1. Romania_.]
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I. SOCIAL
+
+CHAPTER 1
+
+GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SOCIETY
+
+
+The Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman--PCR) is the
+leading force in the political, economic, and social life of Romania.
+The party general secretary, Nicolae Ceausescu, in early 1972 celebrated
+his seventh anniversary in power, displaying complete confidence in the
+stability of his regime. Ceausescu serves concurrently as the president
+of his country, which is known officially as the Socialist Republic of
+Romania. Although tied militarily and economically to the Soviet Union
+through membership in the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and
+the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), Romania since the
+mid-1950s has pursued an independent course in both its internal
+development and its foreign relations.
+
+In April 1964, in furtherance of its independent stance, the PCR Central
+Committee issued a statement concerning the rights of all communist
+parties and socialist states to choose their own methods of development
+according to "the concrete historic conditions prevailing in their own
+countries." This statement, which has been referred to as Romania's
+declaration of independence, was directed primarily to the leaders of
+the Soviet Union and, in effect, was a warning to them to cease their
+interference in the domestic and foreign affairs of Romania. It was a
+declaration of sovereign rights and self-determination by which the
+Romanian Communists asserted that they were the masters of their
+country's destiny rather than a puppet state to be manipulated by and
+for outside interests.
+
+The reasons that the Soviet Union did not crack down on its former
+subservient satellite are both obscure and complex. One factor operating
+in favor of the Romanians was the rift that had developed between the
+two communist giants--the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of
+China. The rift had become very deep, and the Soviets were striving to
+gain adherents to their position in the struggle and probably were
+reluctant to use force against Romania because of the danger of
+alienating other communist parties. It is probable that dissension
+within the Moscow leadership, which shortly ended the career of Premier
+Nikita Khrushchev, also inhibited action against Romania.
+
+In their drive to establish rights of autonomy and free choice for their
+country, Romania's leaders have not tried to withdraw from the Soviet
+alliances, nor have they changed the basic nature of their communist
+government. Their actions have demonstrated that their goals have been
+to lessen the influence of the Soviet Union in Romania's domestic and
+foreign affairs, at the same time they themselves maintained an
+absolute, single-party monopoly of power.
+
+After issuing their declaration of independence, the Romanians in
+subsequent years earned a reputation for opposition to the Soviet Union
+within the Warsaw Pact and COMECON as well as in the conduct of their
+relations with noncommunist states. Pursuit of these goals has sometimes
+led the Romanians into situations that have been considered dangerous by
+outside observers, and the leadership has often expressed fears of
+Soviet retaliation against Romania's independent line.
+
+One obvious result of the independent status has been the resurgence of
+Romanian nationalism. Ceausescu, when he talks about "Romania for the
+Romanians," even though he may be speaking in the context of building a
+communist society, receives wide popular support and, at times, appears
+to have genuine appeal among the people he rules. In contrast to the new
+nationalism, during the early years of the Romanian communist era it was
+generally accepted (at least by party members) that the Soviet Union
+deserved to be emulated in every aspect of national life. Not only were
+the party and government patterned on Soviet models, but the entire
+social and economic life of the country was altered to the point of
+almost losing its Romanian uniqueness.
+
+Russian became a required language in the schools, and the history books
+were rewritten to play down the traditional orientation toward Western
+Europe and to highlight Russian influence in the country, which had been
+considerable since the time of Tsar Peter the Great but which had not
+always been beneficial from the Romanian point of view. Pseudoscholars
+intent on the Russification of their country were publishing papers in
+the late 1940s "proving" that the ancient Dacians, to whom modern
+Romanians trace their ancestry, were actually Slavic tribes--a thesis
+that had never before been suggested. Other spurious scholarship
+attempted to show that the Romanian language was Slavic-based rather
+than Latin-based as linguists had clearly shown.
+
+While Josef Stalin, Soviet dictator and generally acknowledged leader of
+world communism, was still alive, Romania was an obedient satellite, and
+Stalinism was the hallmark of communist rule. Even before Stalin's
+death in March 1953, however, there was dissension in the Romanian
+communist ranks as a Moscow-oriented group vied for power with
+indigenous Communists. The latter group was eventually victorious and,
+after a series of purges, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej emerged as a party
+strong man; the first glimmerings of a distinctive brand of Romanian
+communism can be traced to this period in the early 1950s.
+
+The blending of nationalism and communism did not, however, ameliorate
+the conditions that existed in the country. Gheorghiu-Dej was a
+totalitarian ruler, the party brooked no opposition, few basic freedoms
+for the people existed except in the constitution, and the secret police
+was an effective instrument of control over the people. Gheorghiu-Dej
+did, however, establish a foundation, albeit a very shaky one, for a
+structure of national communism. He and his successor, Ceausescu,
+strengthened this structure through the years to the point that Romania
+became known as the most independent of the former Soviet satellites
+with the exception of Yugoslavia, which has been traveling its own path
+since 1948.
+
+The Socialist Republic of Romania, ruled in early 1972 by Ceausescu and
+the PCR, comprised over 91,700 square miles and contained a population
+of more than 20.6 million. The size and shape of modern Romania is
+remarkably similar to the ancient country of Dacia, which was conquered
+by the Romans in the early second century A.D. and became a province of
+the Roman Empire. Although Roman occupation lasted only about 165 years,
+it is to the mixture of Roman legionnaires and colonists with indigenous
+Dacians that modern Romanians trace their origin. These Daco-Romans are
+almost absent from history's pages for several centuries, but Romanian
+historians state that they existed in the mountains, tending their
+flocks and fending off the vast migrations and avoiding absorption by
+invaders who used the territory as a crossroads into the Balkans or into
+Europe. After they did achieve some semblance of autonomy during the
+Middle Ages, primarily in the historic provinces of Moldavia and
+Walachia, they were always pressured by powerful empires that existed
+during various historic epochs, and a great portion of former Dacia, the
+province of Transylvania, was occupied by Magyars (Hungarians) and was
+not joined to Romania until after World War I.
+
+The great majority of the people are ethnic Romanians, although two
+sizable minority groups, Hungarian and German, still resided within
+Romania's borders in 1972. Other, much smaller, minority groups include
+Jews, Ukrainians, Serbs, Russians, Bulgarians, Czechs and Slovaks,
+Tatars, Turks, and Gypsies. Most of the lesser minorities have been
+assimilated to some degree, particularly in the use of the Romanian
+language in the conduct of their daily affairs. The Hungarians and the
+Germans, however, have resisted assimilation, and their education,
+business, and social lives are carried on in their native tongues. Their
+cultural traditions also reflect their Hungarian or German background
+rather than that of the country in which they live.
+
+The religious affiliations of the people follow very closely their
+ethnic differentiations. The vast majority of ethnic Romanians are
+members of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which is one of the
+autocephalous branches of the Eastern Orthodox church. The Romanian
+Orthodox Church was traditionally considered the state or national
+church, which, with its great size, gave it a favored position. Although
+its near-monopoly position was contested by Roman Catholics, Uniates,
+and several Protestant denominations, particularly after the post-World
+War I inclusion of Transylvania within Romania's borders, it still
+remained the predominant religion and was able to retain this position
+even after the communist takeover.
+
+The Hungarians of Romania are Roman Catholics, Calvinists, and
+Unitarians; similarly, the Germans are divided between Roman Catholicism
+and Lutheranism. These religions suffered a period of repression under
+the Communists, some of their clergy being imprisoned and some of their
+churches falling into disrepair because of lack of funds. Nevertheless,
+their adherents still numbered in the hundreds of thousands in the early
+1970s, and the former vigorous effort by the government to discourage
+the practice of religion seems to have softened as the regime
+concentrates on dissuading young people from the acceptance of religious
+beliefs rather than trying to eliminate such beliefs in older
+generations.
+
+The post-World War II Romanian Jewish community has shrunk considerably
+through emigration to Israel, which has been allowed by the government
+and encouraged by Jewish leaders. There continue to be many Jewish
+enclaves, particularly in urban areas, but because Jews have not been
+listed separately in official statistics since the mid-1950s, it is
+difficult to estimate how many remain in the country. There are several
+operating synagogues, but most Jewish services are led by laymen because
+emigration has drained away almost all rabbis and none are being trained
+in the country; the last rabbinical school was closed during the late
+1950s because of lack of faculty and students.
+
+Most of the small Slavic minorities belong to the Orthodox faith, and
+the few remaining Muslims--Turks and Tatars--retain their adherence to
+Islam and have their principal mosque in the port city of Constanta.
+Relatively small numbers of Romanians are Baptists, Seventh-Day
+Adventists, and Unitarians. Officially, the communist-ruled country
+advocates atheism, but the Constitution allows for freedom of religion
+or freedom to profess no religion. Atheism does not seem to have made
+any great inroads into the established religions during the first
+quarter century of communist rule.
+
+The activities of all religions are supervised by the government through
+its Department of Cults. The separation of church and state is
+constitutionally guaranteed, but in practice this guarantee serves to
+impose limitations on the churches and clergy but does not in any manner
+restrict government interference in religious activities.
+
+Though the Communists were unsuccessful in eradicating religion in the
+country, they have been successful in transforming the politics,
+society, and economy. With the promulgation of the 1948 Constitution,
+based on the Soviet Constitution of 1936, and the establishment of the
+Romanian People's Republic, the new rulers were ready to construct a
+socialist state. Out of this transformation, the leaders were confident
+that a "new socialist man" would ultimately evolve, just as Marx and
+Lenin had prophesied.
+
+In more pragmatic areas the Communists altered the form of government,
+the social structure, and the economy. The 1948 Constitution established
+a form of government much like that of the Soviet Union and other
+communist-ruled states in that the government is structured to be the
+instrument through which the party runs the country. There is an
+interlocking of party and government positions that ensures party
+control over every facet of Romanian life. There are no competing
+political parties, but there are several mass organizations, thoroughly
+PCR dominated, in which the people are urged to participate. These
+include labor unions, youth leagues, women's organizations, and sports
+societies, which serve to involve the people in national and local
+affairs while the party hierarchy retains absolute authority in all
+areas.
+
+The 1948 Constitution was superseded by another in 1952 that brought no
+significant changes and did not greatly alter the structure that had
+been established earlier. The Constitution of 1965, however, changed the
+name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, and, in
+communist jargon, this change was of particular importance because it
+signified that the transition from bourgeois capitalism to socialism had
+been achieved and that Romania could now proceed on its path toward
+communism. Significant also in the 1965 Constitution was the absence of
+any mention of the Soviet Union, which had been featured prominently in
+the previous documents as a model to be copied and as the liberator of
+Romania.
+
+The most prominent feature of the Romanian political system is its
+extreme centralization in both the party structure and the government
+organization. The people vote for their representatives at all levels of
+government from a single list of party-approved candidates. Local
+governments always look for direction from a higher level or from the
+center. The PCR has a similar pyramidal structure, the topmost organs
+being self-selecting and self-perpetuating. The concentration of power
+in the hands of the party hierarchy has prevented the rise of any overt
+opposition groups, and there has been no observable coalition of
+dissenters within the party ranks.
+
+In the transformation of the social structure, the Communists brought
+down the former aristocracy and anyone else who they considered might be
+opposed to the new order. They then attempted to elevate the status of
+the former lower classes--that is, the workers and peasants--but because
+of the elitist structure of the party the great leveling process
+faltered, and new classes were created despite the prescribed ideology
+of a classless society. The party elite became the new upper class, and
+immediately below them was a growing group of lesser party
+functionaries, technocrats, managers, scientists, teachers, and other
+professionals. The privileges, life-styles, and aspirations of these
+groups ran far ahead of those of the workers and peasants who once again
+found themselves at the bottom of the social pyramid.
+
+Upward mobility is possible, and the key to it is education; the key to
+educational opportunity, however, is most often political influence,
+which also plays a large role in the accessibility to jobs that lead to
+higher social status. A stabilizing of the social structure that became
+apparent toward the end of the 1960s, although it did not block upward
+mobility, would seem to indicate that such social movement will be more
+difficult in the future. Children of workers and peasants will not be
+denied opportunity for higher education, but it would appear that the
+path to opportunity will be easier for children of the party elite and
+the professional classes.
+
+To the people, education is important as a means of social advancement;
+to the regime, however, the educational system is the prime means
+through which it inculcates socialist ideals and trains the
+professionals, technicians, and skilled workers needed to run the
+country. The first great goal under the Communists was the eradication
+of illiteracy, which, according to the government, had been achieved by
+1958. A concurrent and continuing goal was the training of skilled
+technicians, foremen, and middle-level managers. The country's rapid
+industrialization and economic growth caused severe shortages in these
+categories and, in the early 1970s, the educational and training
+programs still had not met the demands for the upgrading of unskilled
+workers.
+
+Modifications of the educational system have been concentrated on the
+extension of basic primary education from the four-year program that
+existed after World War II to a compulsory ten-year program that is
+expected to be fully operative by 1973. Along with the expansion of
+curricula and the extension of the time spent in primary grades, the
+regime has also reemphasized the importance of ideological and political
+indoctrination for the nation's youth. Adult education has also been
+stressed by the government in its efforts to raise the overall
+educational and skill levels of the entire population.
+
+In the cultural area there has been a shifting of attitudes by the party
+overseers that has seemingly left artists and intellectuals confused and
+wary about the limits of creativity. In the early communist period
+there was slavish imitation of the Soviet doctrine known as Socialist
+Realism, which required that all expression reflect the struggle for
+social justice and the positive aspects of communist achievements.
+After the death of Stalin and particularly after the initiation of
+de-Stalinization in the Soviet Union, there was a relaxation of the
+dogmatic controls forced upon Romanian artists and intellectuals,
+and more emphasis was placed on historical themes and nationalism.
+Restrictions continued, however, and "art for art's sake" was not
+tolerated; even the mild liberalization permitted during the 1960s was
+curtailed to some degree in 1971 as the regime tightened controls on
+artistic and intellectual expression. The new hard-line approach of 1971
+did not signal a return to the extreme dogmatism of the early 1950s but
+was a stern reminder to artists, writers, and journalists of their
+duties to the socialist society.
+
+Militarily, Romania in 1972 maintained about 200,000 men in its armed
+forces, the great majority serving in the army and much smaller numbers
+serving in the navy, air force, and frontier troops. All armed services
+are administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but policymaking
+is a top-level function of the PCR. Manpower needs are filled through
+universal conscription, and serving a term in the military seems to be
+accepted as a normal way of life by young Romanian males.
+
+Romania is a signatory to the Warsaw Pact, but Ceausescu's refusal to
+participate in the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and his
+subsequent condemnation of that action placed the country in the
+position of being a rather reluctant ally within the pact. Ceausescu has
+also refused to allow Warsaw Pact maneuvers to be held in his country,
+and during the Czechoslovak invasion he refused to allow Bulgarian
+troops to cross Romanian territory. These actions, plus Ceausescu's
+repeated reference in public speeches to the desirability of the
+dissolution of both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
+the Warsaw Pact, caused publication of anti-Romanian propaganda in the
+Soviet Union and the omission of an invitation to Ceausescu to attend a
+meeting of Eastern European leaders in the summer of 1971. The Romanian
+people were reportedly concerned about possible Soviet intervention in
+their internal affairs, as they had been often since 1968, but the
+situation seemed to stabilize in late 1971, at least in outward
+appearance.
+
+Despite the military and political uncertainties brought about by
+Romania's independent stance in the Warsaw Pact and COMECON, the country
+has enjoyed a rapid economic growth rate. Direction of the country's
+economy is highly centralized and rigidly controlled by the PCR. A
+variety of economic ministries within the governmental structure are
+responsible for the administering of specific sectors of the economy,
+but policymaking is a function of the Standing Presidium of the party.
+The economy operates in accordance with five-year and annual plans that
+are all-encompassing and binding on all economic enterprises. Some
+attempts at decentralization have been made since 1968 in an effort to
+increase initiative on the part of lower level managers, but
+intransigence on the part of the hierarchy in releasing its hold has all
+but nullified the lukewarm reform efforts.
+
+In 1972 Romania was into the second year of its Five-Year Plan (1971-75)
+and was beset by a host of economic problems. The planners had set high
+goals for growth during the period, but past overemphasis on heavy
+industrialization had left a residue of problems in all other areas.
+Agriculture had been neglected, production of consumer goods had never
+reached planned goals, and balance of payment deficits with Western
+nations threatened the foreign trade base. In seeking political and
+economic independence from the Soviet Union, the regime had placed
+itself in a precarious position, which forced it to find ways of
+becoming more competitive in world markets and fulfilling the basic
+needs of its people at the same time it sought to mollify the
+resentments of its COMECON partners and retain its ideological
+commitments to socialism and ultimate communism. Despite its maverick
+approach and its growing relations with the West, Romania was still tied
+by treaty, ideology, and geography to the Soviet Union and to its
+Eastern European communist neighbors.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 2
+
+HISTORICAL SETTING
+
+
+Romania's history as an independent state dates from about the middle of
+the nineteenth century; as a communist state, from about the end of
+World War II. The history of the Romanian people, however, is long,
+complex, and important when considered in the context of the overall
+history of the Balkan region. The origin and development of the
+Romanians remain controversial subjects among Romanian and Hungarian
+historians, whose arguments serve to support or deny claims to rightful
+ownership of large areas within Romania's borders (see fig. 1).
+
+Until the end of World War II Romania's history as a state was one of
+gains and losses of territory and shifting borders. As the Ottoman
+Empire in Europe receded, the Romanians found themselves pressured by
+the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. Borders arranged by the
+victorious powers after World War I increased Romania's territory but
+also increased its minority population, particularly the Hungarian.
+Between the two world wars the country experienced a period of fascist
+dictatorship and aligned itself with Nazi Germany early in World War II,
+but it eventually overthrew the fascists and finished the war on the
+side of the Allies.
+
+The borders arranged after World War II formalized the loss of territory
+to the Soviet Union but have remained stable since the end of the war.
+In the postwar chaos of the late 1940s, with Soviet troops occupying the
+country, Romania deposed its king and emerged as a communist state under
+the close scrutiny and supervision of its powerful northern neighbor,
+the Soviet Union. After the death of Josef Stalin the Romanian
+leadership began a slow pursuit of nationalist goals, which continued in
+the early 1970s. Although the Moscow-Bucharest ties have often been
+strained, the Romanians have carefully avoided a break that would
+provoke a reaction such as the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in
+1968.
+
+The Romanian people see themselves as a Latin island surrounded by Slavs
+and Magyars (Hungarians). They are proud of their long, distinctly
+different historical development and consider that their history is
+important to them as proof of their ethnic uniqueness in the area and as
+proof that Romania belongs to the Romanians.
+
+
+EARLY ORIGIN
+
+The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area included in present-day
+Romania were Thracian tribes, known as Dacians, who settled in the area
+well before the Christian Era and established a major center in
+Transylvania (see fig. 2). These people practiced a primitive form of
+agriculture and engaged in limited trade with Greek settlements along
+the western coast of the Black Sea. By the middle of the first century
+A.D. the Dacians had grouped themselves into a loosely formed state
+ruled by a series of kings who attempted to expand their power to the
+north and west and, most aggressively, to the south into the area below
+the lower Danube River.
+
+  [Illustration: _Note._ Internal boundaries have not been shown
+  because of the long history of expansion, contraction, and
+  shifting borders and because the provinces are no longer
+  political entities.
+
+  _Figure 2. Romania, Historic Provinces._]
+
+In their advance southward the Dacians came into conflict with the
+Romans who, during the same period, were attempting to extend their
+control over the Balkan region and to push the northern border of their
+empire up to the natural barrier formed by the Danube River. In a
+series of campaigns between A.D. 101 and 106, the Roman emperor Trajan
+succeeded in conquering the areas known as Banat, Oltenia, and Walachia
+and in finally reducing the Dacian stronghold in Transylvania. After
+consolidating and unifying his control over the people, Trajan fortified
+the area, stationed Roman legions in garrisons at strategic points, and
+organized the region to serve as a province of the Roman Empire.
+
+As a border province, Dacia developed rapidly and became one of the most
+prosperous in the empire. Colonists were brought in from other parts of
+the empire, cities were built, agriculture and mineral resources were
+developed, and profitable commercial relations were established with
+other regions under Roman control. The province proved vulnerable to
+periodic barbarian incursions, however, and toward the end of the third
+century the Roman emperor Aurelian was forced to abandon Dacia and
+withdraw the Roman troops to defend similarly threatened areas farther
+to the south.
+
+Aside from the romanization of the native population, little evidence of
+the occupation survived the Roman evacuation of Dacia. Among the traces
+of the Roman presence remaining were the vestiges of Christianity
+introduced in the second century and the legacy of the name of the
+future state of Romania as well as the Latin basis for its language.
+
+Lacking natural geographical barriers to invasion from the east and
+south, the greater part of the Dacian territory was overrun by
+successive waves of barbarian invaders for ten centuries after the
+withdrawal of the Romans. Little is known of the fate of the Daco-Roman
+population during this long, turbulent period until new settlements
+inhabited by a Latin-speaking people known as Vlachs emerged on the
+Romanian plains in the eleventh century. Although historic records are
+lacking, these Vlachs were believed to be descendants of the earlier
+Daco-Roman colonists, many of whom either sought refuge in the
+Carpathian Mountains of Transylvania or migrated south of the Danube
+River to escape the invaders. Having survived, they returned to
+reestablish themselves in their historic homeland.
+
+The succession of barbaric invasions exploited and devastated the
+country. The Germanic Goths were followed by Slavs and Avars, and not
+until the Bulgars overran the area in the seventh century was a
+semblance of civic order established. The region developed a rudimentary
+form of cultural life, and Christianity in the Eastern Orthodox form was
+introduced after the conversion of the Bulgar Tsar Boris in 864. The
+Bulgars were eventually displaced by Hungarians who, in turn, gave way
+to Asiatic Tatars, all of whom left limited, but lasting, influences on
+the land and its inhabitants.
+
+
+FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPALITIES
+
+Walachia and Moldavia
+
+As the threats of invasion diminished, the Vlachs gradually moved
+farther into the foothills and plains of the Danube basin and fused with
+a population that, while retaining a small Vlach element, had by then
+acquired a heavy mixture of Slavs and Tatars. Two distinct groups
+eventually emerged, one settling in the area now known as Walachia and
+the other settling farther to the east and north in Moldavia. The
+earliest events surrounding the development of these areas are not
+known, but after a period of colonization the two regions emerged, in
+the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, respectively, as the
+semi-independent principalities of Walachia and Moldavia.
+
+When the Ottoman Empire overran southeastern Europe in the fifteenth
+century, these Danubian principalities were forced to accept Turkish
+suzerainty and remained Turkish dependencies until the middle of the
+nineteenth century. Unlike other areas under Turkish rule, the Romanian
+principalities were controlled by native princes, who maintained their
+position through concessions to the nobles, from among whom they had
+gained preeminence, and through the concurrence of the Turks, to whom a
+substantial annual tribute was paid. This system of political control
+led to intrigues and a long succession of rulers who, assisted by the
+nobles, systematically exploited the peasantry, from whom the heavy
+annual tribute was collected.
+
+Continued misrule and long-term economic exploitation of the regions
+seriously affected the social structure within the principalities. The
+lesser nobility, including the landed gentry, was reduced to the level
+of free peasants; the peasantry itself was placed in virtually complete
+serfdom; and cultural activity became almost nonexistent. Even the
+appearance of outstanding political and military leaders, such as
+Michael the Brave of Walachia (1593-1601) and Stephen the Great, prince
+of Moldavia (1457-1504), could not reverse the general trend of
+deterioration, although the harshness of the feudal system was somewhat
+lessened during their tenure in office.
+
+At the beginning of the eighteenth century the Ottoman Empire began to
+decline, and the Turks instituted a system of direct control over
+Walachia and Moldavia, in order to ensure the continued receipt of
+maximum revenue from the countries. Greek merchants known as Phanariots,
+named for the Phanar district of Constantinople, which was their
+center, were invested as rulers in the principalities upon direct
+payment of large sums of money. Since their period in office was
+indefinite and generally lasted only until outbid by a successor, an
+even more intensive system of exploitation within the countries was
+introduced to extract greater tribute in shorter periods of time. This
+period of oppressive rule lasted until 1821 and proved to be the most
+disastrous experienced by the inhabitants. Conditions under this corrupt
+system became almost intolerable and led to massive resistance and
+eventually to the heavy migration of the peasantry into neighboring
+areas, particularly Transylvania.
+
+
+Transylvania
+
+The historic development of Transylvania was substantially different and
+more complex than that experienced by the principalities of Walachia and
+Moldavia. Overrun by Asiatic Magyars as early as the ninth century, the
+region was organized originally as a province in the eleventh century.
+In order to strengthen this eastern outpost, the Hungarians encouraged
+two groups of people--Szeklers, or Szekelys, an ethnic group of people
+akin to the Hungarians, and Germans--to emigrate from the west into the
+area. Although these colonists eventually reached substantial numbers,
+the native Romanian speakers remained in the majority (see ch. 4).
+
+With the expansion of Turkish power, Transylvania became the
+battleground for opposing Turkish and Hungarian forces. Under Turkish
+pressure Hungarian control declined in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries, and by 1526 the region had become a semiautonomous
+principality ruled by Hungarian princes but still subject to Turkish
+authority. At the end of the sixteenth century Michael the Brave, the
+ruler of Walachia and Moldavia, succeeded in revolting against Turkish
+rule and united Transylvania with the other Romanian territories. This
+union, however, was short lived, and all three principalities
+subsequently reverted to Turkish control. Toward the end of the
+seventeenth century Austria conquered Hungary, and Transylvania as part
+of Hungary then was included in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
+
+From the earliest times the position of the Romanians in Transylvania
+was inferior to that of the other nationalities, and accounts of the
+long-term measures practiced against them have been perpetuated among
+their descendants. The Romanians were mostly serfs, and their social and
+economic status was the lowest in the province. Their Orthodox
+Christianity was not recognized, in contrast to the Lutheran, Calvinist,
+Unitarian, and Roman Catholic faiths practiced by the various other
+nationalities (see ch. 5). To gain religious equality and to win a
+larger measure of economic and social recognition, many of the Romanians
+gradually abandoned their Eastern Orthodox creed and became Uniates by
+accepting papal authority in 1698.
+
+Although the Romanians were slow to benefit from the relatively high
+cultural and political level reached in Transylvania under the
+Austro-Hungarians, an appreciable number of concessions had been made to
+them by the middle of the nineteenth century. They began to share in the
+political life after political parties were established, schools were
+opened for Romanian children, and education became more widespread among
+the general population. Progress in these and associated fields
+stimulated the Romanian desire for full equality and the hope for
+eventual unification of all Romanians in their own national state.
+
+
+WESTERN INFLUENCES
+
+Although Romania was late in achieving national recognition, many of the
+factors that were to influence its Western orientation after
+independence began to evolve as early as the seventeenth century. In
+Transylvania the Uniate church became an important medium by which
+Romanian national identity was fostered in the struggle against foreign
+assimilation. The Habsburg rulers favored the expansion of the church
+and permitted the opening of seminaries for the training of young
+Romanian clergy. Many of these young clerics were sent to Rome to
+complete their studies and, while there, became aware of their Roman
+ancestry. They saw the famous column of Trajan, which recorded, in
+stone, the early conquest of their Dacian ancestors by the Romans, and
+they also discovered that Romanian was an essentially Latin language
+(see ch. 4).
+
+The contacts established with Rome encouraged the scholarly development
+of a "Latinist" movement in the homeland in the late eighteenth century,
+which produced many adherents among the Transylvanian Romanians. It was
+the efforts of this group that led to the replacement of the Cyrillic
+alphabet, then in common use, with the Latin, the writing of the first
+latinized Romanian grammar and, later, the introduction of the first
+dictionary that traced the full historical development of the Romanian
+language. These reforms helped to create a uniform literary language as
+an essential basis for the broad development of Romanian culture (see
+ch. 7).
+
+During their long experience under the Habsburgs and Hungarians, the
+Transylvanian Romanians also became intimately associated with the
+events of central and western Europe. Opportunities for travel and
+cultural contacts that later developed were also predominantly within
+Western areas and intensified the political consciousness of the
+Romanians along Western lines.
+
+Meanwhile, in Walachia and Moldavia interest in Western ideas and
+affairs was provided by French influences introduced initially by the
+Greek Phanariot princes, who were in power during most of the eighteenth
+century. These rulers established French as the court language, and many
+of the Greek merchants, clergymen, and teachers who followed them into
+the areas helped spread the use of French among the urban population in
+Bucharest and Iasi, the respective capital cities. Gradually, French was
+introduced into Romanian schools, and eventually Romanian students from
+the principalities were sent abroad in considerable numbers to study at
+French universities.
+
+In addition to Romanian students, many of the young sons of Romanian
+nobles traveled in France. These two groups gradually formed the nucleus
+of an intellectual class, which favored French philosophy and thought
+and which became receptive to the liberal ideas of the French Revolution
+and later periods.
+
+
+NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE
+
+A phase of major significance and a turning point in Romanian history
+began in 1821 with a revolt led by Tudor Vladimirescu, a Romanian and
+former officer in the Russian army. This uprising against the harsh
+Phanariot rule was the first with a national character, and it attempted
+to give expression to the revolutionary ideas of emancipation and
+independence. Although the outbreak was suppressed by the Turks, it did
+achieve the objective of bringing about the early abolition of the
+Phanariot regime and the restoration of Romanian princes as rulers in
+the Danubian principalities.
+
+After the Russo-Turkish war from 1826 to 1828 Russian forces occupied
+both Walachia and Moldavia to ensure the payment of a large war
+indemnity by the Turks. Under the ensuing six-year enlightened and
+competent rule of the Russian governor Count Pavel Kiselev, the
+foundations were laid for a new Romanian state. The first constitutional
+assemblies were organized along identical lines in each province; a
+rudimentary governmental administration was established and modeled on
+that of the French; an educational system was begun; commerce and a
+modest industry were encouraged; and provisions were made for the
+creation of a national militia. The intentional similarity in the
+fundamental laws that were also enacted in each area further encouraged
+the two principalities to develop side by side.
+
+During the two decades after the departure of Russian occupying forces,
+the national movement within the two principalities continued to grow
+under the rule of native princes who had been restored to power.
+Considerable stimulation was provided by the 1848 revolutionary events
+in France, the basic ideas of which were imported by the French-educated
+Romanians. Dissension arose, and street demonstrations took place during
+which demands were made for freedom of speech, assembly, and the press,
+as well as for the unification of all Romanians in one independent
+state. Similar emancipation efforts were also organized in Transylvania,
+but they, too, were forcibly repressed, as were those in Walachia and
+Moldavia.
+
+Despite the setbacks suffered by the intellectuals and other leaders of
+the revolutionary movement, the modern ideas of liberal government took
+firm root and continued to flourish. The dispute between Russia and
+Turkey that culminated in the Crimean War, however, provided the actual
+opportunity for the first step toward ultimate independence. French and
+Russian collaboration at the Congress of Paris, which concluded the war
+in 1858, succeeded in producing agreements that finally led to the
+establishment of the autonomous United Principalities of Walachia and
+Moldavia in 1859.
+
+Although still subject to Ottoman authority, the United Principalities
+moved rapidly under their newly elected leader, Alexander Cuza, to
+further unify and modernize themselves. Cuza fused the administration of
+the two principalities into a single government, established a single
+capital at Bucharest, and changed the name from United Principalities to
+Romania. Domestic reforms were also undertaken, among which were the
+emancipation of the serfs in 1864, the institution of a broad land
+distribution program, the introduction of free and compulsory education,
+and the adoption of the French civil and penal codes as the basis for a
+revised legal system. Political parties on the Western pattern began to
+take form as well, the conservatives representing the large landowners
+and the liberals representing the new urban class.
+
+The reforms instituted by Cuza were bold and progressive, but his
+methods proved to be harsh and unpopular. Forced to abdicate in 1866, he
+was succeeded by a German prince, Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
+Charles, who reigned from 1866 to 1914, extended the reforms initiated
+by Cuza. He gave the country its first formal constitution modeled after
+that of the Belgians, built the country's first railroad, and modernized
+and enlarged the small army. In 1878 the country's full independence was
+recognized by the Treaty of Berlin, which ended the two-year
+Russo-Turkish war in which Romania participated as an ally of Russia.
+The Kingdom of Romania was proclaimed formally in 1881 with the crowning
+of Prince Charles in Bucharest as Carol I.
+
+The period from 1878 to 1918 brought significant advances in Romania,
+largely in the economic and political fields. Under the initiative of
+King Carol I and with considerable backing from German capital, new
+industries were started, and others were expanded; railroad and port
+construction was emphasized; and the considerable petroleum resources of
+the country were developed and exploited. The goals of political parties
+and leaders became more clearly defined, and modern government
+institutions, including a bicameral parliament, were organized.
+
+Economic and formal political progress, however, was not matched by
+similar advancement of democratic processes in the social field. The
+liberal provisions of the 1866 Constitution were circumvented under the
+authoritarian governmental system, leaving much actual power in the
+hands of the landed aristocracy. The slowly rising middle class and
+small number of industrial entrepreneurs were granted some rights, but
+the increasing number of industrial workers and the great peasant
+majority shared very little in the political life of the country.
+
+A major peasant revolt in 1907 attempted unsuccessfully to rectify the
+serious social imbalance. The uprising was forcefully suppressed with
+extensive loss of life and, although some corrective measures were later
+instituted that improved working conditions and resulted in the division
+of more large landholdings, the general political strength and living
+standards of the peasants and workers were not materially improved.
+Related also to this social unrest was another problem that grew more
+intense during the latter half of the nineteenth century--that of the
+increasing size and economic importance of a large Jewish minority.
+
+Forbidden to own land and subject to many other restrictions, the Jews
+had settled in urban areas, engaged successfully in commercial
+activities and, as a class, gained economic influence and position
+generally out of proportion to their overall numerical strength in the
+population. To an unusual degree, they formed the prosperous urban
+middle class, overshadowing the far smaller number of native Romanians
+in that category. In rural centers, as moneylenders, they also became
+the middlemen between landlords and peasants; as such, the Jew became a
+symbol of oppression, which over the years was transferred into intense
+anti-Semitism. Consequently, the Jews were included as a target in the
+1907 uprising, and the animosity shown then remained a feature of later
+Romanian society.
+
+
+WORLD WAR I
+
+At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 Romania's leaders were indecisive
+and proclaimed an armed neutrality, which lasted for nearly two years.
+Much of the pro-Russian and pro-French political orientation of the
+1840s and 1850s still existed in the country, but this was offset in
+large measure by the strong ties of King Carol I with Bismarck's Germany
+and by the rapprochement with Germany that had resulted from the large
+investment of German capital in the country. In addition, territorial
+inducements, which were attractive to Romania, were made by each side to
+influence its entry into the conflict. The Central Powers offered
+Bessarabia to be taken from Russia, and the Allies promised the cession
+of Transylvania from Austro-Hungary.
+
+After the death of King Carol I and the accession of his nephew, King
+Ferdinand, to the throne, Romania entered the war on the Allied side in
+1916. By December 1917, however, Romania was forced to conclude an
+armistice when the Russian forces disintegrated on the Balkan front
+after the Bolshevik revolution of that year. Before the armistice was
+ratified, however, and as the defeat of the Central Powers was becoming
+apparent, the Romanian army, which had not been demobilized, reentered
+the war, liberated Bucharest from the Germans, and occupied much of
+Bessarabia and Transylvania. After the war, in response to the expressed
+will of the popular assemblies in Transylvania, Bessarabia, and
+Bukovina, those provinces were united with the Kingdom of Romania--often
+called the Old Kingdom. Formal treaties in 1919 and 1920 confirmed these
+decisions, and virtually all Romanians were finally reunited within the
+historic homeland.
+
+
+INTERWAR YEARS, 1918-40
+
+With the annexation of Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina, postwar
+Romania, sometimes referred to as Greater Romania, doubled in size, as
+well as in population. Included among the newly acquired population were
+large ethnic minorities--principally Hungarians, Germans, and
+Jews--whose diverse backgrounds and development presented complex
+social, political, economic, and administrative problems for the
+Romanian government. The various traditions of the people within the
+acquired lands could not easily be transformed into new patterns,
+largely because of the government's reluctance to share power with any
+political leaders except those representing the Transylvanian Romanians.
+As a result, minority elements were largely excluded from national
+affairs, and discriminatory policies developed that bred resentment and
+increased political instability (see ch. 4).
+
+The immediate postwar years were dominated by the Liberal Party of the
+Old Kingdom. The party instituted a series of land reforms, fostered
+increased industrialization, and sponsored a broadly democratic
+constitution in 1923, which made the new state a centralized
+constitutional monarchy. The Transylvanian Romanians, long accustomed to
+considerable autonomy and self-government under Hungarian rule, resented
+the imposition of central control, especially under the administration
+of officials from Bucharest. In protest, a new party, the National
+Peasant Party, was formed in 1926 by a fusion of the Transylvanian
+National Party with the Peasant Party in the Old Kingdom.
+
+Other parties were active during this early period, but all were
+overshadowed by the Liberal Party and the National Peasant Party. The
+Social Democratic Party had been organized at the beginning of the
+twentieth century but, lacking any sizable number of industrial workers,
+the socialist movement remained weak. After the Russian revolution,
+however, the radical left-wing elements of the Social Democratic Party
+seceded and formed the Romanian Communist Party in 1921. The Communists
+went underground after being banned in 1924 and were largely ineffective
+until after World War II.
+
+The death of King Ferdinand in 1927 and the elections of the following
+year brought significant changes in the Romanian government. Ferdinand's
+son, Carol II, was excluded from the succession because of his earlier
+renunciation of all claims to the throne to accept exile with his
+mistress, Magda Lupescu. A regency was therefore appointed to rule in
+the name of Carol's young son, Michael, and a new government led by
+Iuliu Maniu and the National Peasant Party was elected, thus ending the
+six-year tenure of the Liberals.
+
+Although Maniu's government instituted a series of reforms intended to
+improve general economic and social conditions, its efforts were largely
+offset by the adverse effects of the worldwide depression of the early
+1930s. Also, early dissatisfaction with the regency resulted in the
+return of Carol II from exile and his assumption of the crown in late
+1930. His agreement to sever relations with Magda Lupescu was not kept,
+however, and in protest Maniu resigned the premiership. In the unstable
+conditions that followed, King Carol II emerged as the chief political
+figure in the country, and his rule evolved into a royal dictatorship.
+
+King Carol's assumption of power was aided initially by the rise of a
+fanatical fascist and anti-Semitic group known as the Iron Guard. This
+group was strongly pro-German and employed tactics similar to those of
+the Nazi party, which was then emerging as the dominant political force
+in Germany. The fascist movement, with financial and indirect support
+from Germany, increased the influence of the Iron Guard, which was
+reflected in the 1937 elections. The coalition government that resulted
+supported King Carol but was later overthrown, bringing to power a new
+coalition of right-wing extremists.
+
+In order to halt the increasing threat to his power, Carol proclaimed a
+personal dictatorship in 1938 and promulgated a new constitution that
+abolished all political parties and instituted censorship and other
+control measures. This action was followed by the suppression of the
+Iron Guard, whose leader, Corneliu Codreanu, was shot. Absolute
+authority was maintained by the king, who was supported by the army and
+by the National Renaissance Front, a monopoly party that he founded
+later in the same year.
+
+Internal instability and uncertainty were aggravated by rapidly
+developing international events that threatened the security of the
+state. The swift rise of Germany under Adolf Hitler resulted in the
+annexation of Austria in 1938 and the subsequent dismemberment and
+absorption of Czechoslovakia. These actions, unopposed by the Western
+powers, were early warnings of weakness in the Western-oriented
+collective security system on which Romania had depended since World War
+I. The lessening of confidence in the West led Romania in 1939 to
+conclude a treaty of economic collaboration with Germany. This agreement
+greatly increased German influence in the country and placed the
+extensive Romanian oil and other resources at Germany's disposal for
+later wartime use.
+
+Although Romania's territorial integrity had been guaranteed by both
+Great Britain and France after the fall of Czechoslovakia, these
+assurances were nullified by the early German military successes
+achieved following the outbreak of World War II. After the conclusion of
+a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Germany
+invaded and occupied Poland and, by mid-1940, had defeated France and
+forced the evacuation of the European mainland by British forces. Faced
+with the loss of its two strongest partners in the alliance system and
+with the aggressive ambitions of the two strongest totalitarian powers
+on the European continent--Germany and the Soviet Union--Romania had
+little chance of continued independent survival.
+
+
+WORLD WAR II
+
+The first claims against Romania were made by the Soviet Union, which in
+June 1940 demanded the immediate cession of Bessarabia and northern
+Bukovina. Under German pressure Romania acceded to these demands, as
+well as to the later loss of northern Transylvania, which Germany and
+Italy transferred to Hungary at a joint conference held in Vienna on
+August 30, 1940. A third loss of territory, also under German pressure,
+followed one week later with the return of southern Dobruja to Bulgaria,
+which had already entered the war on the side of Germany.
+
+The crisis caused by these territorial losses had a serious impact
+within the country. King Carol was forced to appoint a pro-German
+cabinet, and the government was heavily infiltrated with members of the
+Iron Guard, most of whom were released from custody under German
+pressure. A national protest against the king in early September
+culminated in his abdication in favor of his son, Michael. A new
+government under General Ion Antonescu was formed, composed almost
+entirely of members of the Iron Guard, whose leader was made vice
+premier. German troops entered the country under the pretext of
+protecting the oilfields, and on November 23, 1940, Romania joined
+Germany, Italy, and Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact.
+
+In January 1941 members of the Iron Guard, attempting to seize full
+control of the government, initiated a terroristic campaign that was
+suppressed with much bloodshed by the Romanian army, which had remained
+loyal to the government. With the continued support of the Germans,
+Antonescu dissolved the Iron Guard and formed an almost exclusively
+military dictatorship. After stabilization of the government, Romania
+entered the war against the Soviet Union and incurred heavy losses in
+the prolonged fighting on the eastern front.
+
+After the defeat of the German and Romanian forces at Stalingrad in
+early 1943, the Soviets mounted a counteroffensive, which by mid-1944
+had liberated the southwestern portions of the Soviet Union and had
+advanced deep into Romania and threatened Bucharest. On August 23, 1944,
+King Michael, with the support of the major political and military
+leaders, overthrew the regime of Antonescu, halted all fighting, and
+installed a new, moderate, coalition government. Under the terms of the
+armistice that followed, Romania reentered the war on the side of the
+Allies, agreed to reparation payments, and accepted the military
+occupation of the country until the conclusion of a final peace
+settlement.
+
+Romanian forces that continued the war were committed in support of the
+Soviet army in Transylvania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. Those engaged
+on the Moldavian front were disarmed, and control over the greater part
+of the country was maintained by the Soviets. Among the occupation
+troops stationed in Romania was the communist-indoctrinated "Tudor
+Vladimirescu" division, a force composed of captured Romanian prisoners
+that had been organized after the German-Romanian defeat at Stalingrad.
+In addition, the Soviets were given the chairmanship of the Allied
+Control Commission, the joint body that was established to administer
+the occupied country.
+
+
+COMMUNIST SEIZURE OF POWER
+
+The several conferences held by the Allied powers concerning postwar
+arrangements and the understandings that resulted from bilateral
+discussion among individual leaders indicated that the Soviet Union was
+to become the dominant military and political power in the Balkans. As a
+result, the Soviets, from the outset of their period of occupation,
+acted determinedly to consolidate their position within Romania and to
+influence the development of a permanent postwar governmental system
+designed along communist lines.
+
+Although Romania had surrendered in August 1944, it took several months
+to create a government stable enough to carry out essential programs.
+The first postwar coalition regimes included relatively few Communists
+who ostensibly cooperated with the revived traditional political
+parties. Despite their small numbers, however, they vigorously engaged
+in disruptive antigovernment tactics to prevent the stabilization of
+political authority along democratic lines. This course of action was
+dictated by the general weakness of the Communists who had surfaced
+after the war and was handicapped by the absence of partisan or
+resistance organizations, which could have been used as a basis for
+expanding political control.
+
+Lacking popular support, the Communist Party set about creating mass
+organizations, labor unions, and front organizations through which they
+could increase their power. Among the leaders in these activities were
+Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, an early Communist who had been imprisoned
+during the war, and Ana Pauker, who had spent the war years in Moscow
+before returning to Romania after the entry of Soviet forces. By the
+fall of 1944 the Communists had been successful in grouping a
+leftist-oriented agrarian party called the Plowman's Front, splinter
+elements of the Social Democratic Party, various labor unions, and
+several social welfare organizations into the National Democratic Front.
+The front became the principal instrument through which the party worked
+to achieve political dominance.
+
+The National Democratic Front received recognition in the December 1944
+government of General Nicolae Radescu and, although given a number of
+important posts, was generally held to a role subordinate to that of the
+National Peasant, the Liberal, and the Social Democratic parties. In
+late January 1945 after a visit to Moscow by Pauker and Gheorghiu-Dej,
+the leftist leadership within the government initiated a virulent
+campaign of disorder, agitation, and denunciation against Radescu and
+called for the replacement of his regime with one to be formed by the
+National Democratic Front.
+
+The anti-Radescu campaign was prolonged and intensified by the
+Communists who, through their control of the printer's union, were able
+to silence the opposition press and thus enhance their own propaganda.
+In February 1945, during a staged demonstration, the Communists provoked
+an incident in which several participants were killed. Demands were made
+for Radescu's arrest, and he was forced to seek asylum within a foreign
+mission. Using this latest incident as a pretext, Soviet Deputy
+Commissar for Foreign Affairs Andrei Vyshinsky, who arrived from Moscow
+within two days of the event, forced King Michael to accept a National
+Democratic Front government to be headed by Petru Groza, the leader of
+the Plowman's Front and longtime communist sympathizer.
+
+The government installed by Groza on March 6, 1945, was dominated by
+Communists and fellow travelers and represented an effective seizure of
+power by relatively peaceful means. Although a few dissident former
+members of the Liberal and National Peasant parties were given posts to
+maintain the facade of representative government, no leaders or
+representative members of the historic political parties were included.
+
+After recognition by the Soviet Union in August 1945 and by the United
+States and Great Britain in February 1946, the Groza government held
+rigged elections for the Grand National Assembly and emerged with 379 of
+the 414 seats. Having thus achieved legislative as well as executive
+control, the Communists proceeded methodically during the following year
+to eliminate all political opposition. National Peasant and Liberal
+leaders were arrested and tried, and these two major parties were
+outlawed in June 1947. This action was followed in the spring of 1948 by
+the fusion of the Social Democrats with the Communists into a new party
+called the Romanian Workers' Party, which the Communists controlled. As
+a final step the National Democratic Front was reorganized into the
+People's Democratic Front, which then included the Romanian Workers'
+Party, the Plowman's Front, and two new puppet organizations--the
+National Popular Party and the Hungarian People's Union.
+
+By the end of 1947 the only remaining link with the prewar system was
+the monarchy. King Michael, in addition to being a popular ruler,
+represented a national symbol around whom anticommunist opposition could
+rally and, as such, was an unacceptable threat to the embryonic
+communist dictatorship. Accordingly, in a meeting in December requested
+by Groza and Gheorghiu-Dej, King Michael was forced to abdicate under
+the threat of civil war. On the same day the government announced the
+creation of the Romanian People's Republic. This action represented the
+last step in the seizure of power and placed Romania under complete
+communist control.
+
+
+THE COMMUNIST STATE
+
+Having seized effective control of the government, the Communists
+embarked on a program of organizing the state along totalitarian lines.
+As the first step toward consolidating their position, the Communists
+initiated extensive purges and liquidation of anticommunist elements in
+preparation for the holding of new parliamentary elections. The
+carefully controlled elections held in March 1948 overwhelmingly favored
+the single list of candidates put forward by the People's Democratic
+Front, which received 405 of the 414 seats. The new National Assembly
+met the following month, adopted a constitution modeled after that of
+the Soviet Union, and formalized the establishment of the Romanian
+People's Republic.
+
+Over the next five years the country rapidly assumed the characteristics
+of a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Allied Control Commission
+was withdrawn by mutual consent, and the Soviets were given the right to
+retain occupation troops in the country beyond the 1947 peace treaty
+date on the basis of an alleged need to protect the lines of
+communication with other Soviet forces being maintained in Austria.
+Under these favorable conditions and with close party supervision,
+locally appointed people's councils had little difficulty in
+administratively organizing the local governments in accordance with the
+Soviet system.
+
+Soviet-style instruments of control also appeared in a broad pattern in
+all major fields and included the collectivization of agriculture, the
+nationalization of industry, the centralization of control of the
+national economy on a planned basis, and the creation of militia and
+police forces whose function was to maintain the authority of the
+communist regime and to eliminate all actual or potential opposition to
+its policies.
+
+The 1951-53 show trials and political purges within the communist ranks,
+which were spearheaded from Moscow, served more to strengthen than to
+weaken Romanian leadership in the party. Although Gheorghiu-Dej, a
+native leader, had headed the party as its general secretary since 1945,
+his influence and that of other Romanian Communists in government
+affairs was limited. The Moscow-trained element led by Pauker, which
+followed the Soviet forces into Romania, had become dominant in the
+party organization, largely because it enjoyed both the support and
+confidence of the Soviets. This group, considered essentially foreign
+within the Romanian communist movement, firmly controlled the party
+apparatus, including the secret police, the key posts that dealt with
+foreign affairs, and the domestic economy.
+
+This maldistribution of power within the ruling group led to factional
+disputes and internal bickerings, which were brought to the surface and
+finally solved by the purging of Pauker and the remainder of the
+Muscovite group in 1952. After the purges Gheorghiu-Dej and his close
+collaborators assumed full and undivided authority within the party. The
+party was successful in maintaining a high degree of homogeneity in its
+leadership, and the resultant stability within its ranks enabled it to
+adopt, and later carry out, policies that favored Romanian over
+international interests in communist affairs.
+
+After the purges Gheorghiu-Dej assumed the premiership and, as the
+government and party machinery were now in Romanian hands, the
+nationalistic character of the communist government began to appear. In
+the early stages emphasis was placed on disengaging the country from
+many of the tight Soviet controls that still existed. As an initial move
+the Romanians in 1954 successfully negotiated the dissolution of the
+onerous joint Soviet-Romanian industrial concerns that had been used by
+the Soviets to drain the Romanian economy during the postwar years. This
+was followed in 1958 by obtaining Soviet agreement to the withdrawal of
+all occupation forces from Romanian territory. At the same time efforts
+to stimulate and improve the economy led to the establishment of limited
+economic relations with several Western and noncommunist bloc countries
+(see ch. 14).
+
+Despite the nationalistic shift in Romanian external policy during this
+period, the Romanians were careful to indicate to Moscow that, although
+they wished to conduct their affairs with a minimum of Soviet
+interference, they had no intention either of abandoning their adherence
+to the Soviet bloc or of diminishing their efforts toward the
+achievement of all basic communist aims in the country. The manner and
+form of internal control in Romania remained repressive and essentially
+Stalinist; only minor liberalizing changes took place over the next
+several years.
+
+After the death of Stalin in 1953 Gheorghiu-Dej supported the new form
+of collective leadership, which separated government and party
+functions. Following the Soviet pattern he gave up his party post but
+reclaimed it two years later, coincidentally with the emergence of
+Nikita Khrushchev as the leading figure in the Soviet hierarchy. Also,
+Romania further demonstrated its allegiance to the communist cause by
+formally endorsing the drastic action taken by the Soviets in
+suppressing the Hungarian revolt against the communist regime in 1956.
+
+The next step in the pursuit of national goals was taken in the economic
+field and consisted of measures that sought to lessen Romania's economic
+dependence on the Soviet Union and the more developed East European
+countries. These goals were embodied in the country's Five-Year Plan
+(1960-65), which called for the accelerated creation of an expanded
+industrial base supported by its own natural resources and technical
+assistance from the more advanced noncommunist countries. This ambitious
+program was vigorously pursued beginning in 1960 and, by 1962, had come
+into sharp conflict with Premier Khrushchev's announced plans of
+revitalizing the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
+transforming it into a unified system that would integrate the economies
+of all Eastern European member nations (see ch. 14).
+
+COMECON, set up by the Soviets in 1949 as a counterpoise to the European
+Recovery Program (Marshall Plan), was basically an economic commission
+designed to assist the economic development of the communist Eastern
+European nations during the post-World War II period. Within this
+organization Romania had acted largely as a supplier of agricultural
+products, petroleum, and other raw materials and depended on the more
+industrialized member states for most manufactured goods. Under the
+Khrushchev plan, Romania's role in this organization would remain
+unchanged, and all domestic plans that had been developed to produce a
+balanced economy through increased industrialization would be
+effectively nullified.
+
+Khrushchev, in pushing his revised plans for COMECON, publicly called
+for the creation of a supranational planning agency within the
+organization that would be empowered to select investment projects,
+allocate regional resources, and prescribe economic tasks to be
+undertaken by the individual member states on the basis of a majority
+vote. Romanian leaders reacted firmly and resolutely to this suggestion
+by publishing a statement of the party Central Committee that definitely
+rejected the policy of supranational economic integration and the
+utilization of majority decisions as a means of forcing economic
+cooperation. The committee's resolution further pointed out that
+economic collaboration should be based on respect for national
+independence, sovereignty, and the equality inherent in the rights of
+nations.
+
+Pressure was exerted to bring the Romanian leadership into line. To
+counter this, the Romanians took steps to demonstrate their
+determination to hold to their independent views. A program of
+desovietization was begun throughout the country, during which Soviet
+bookshops were closed, the compulsory study of the Russian language in
+schools was ended, and those street names that had been changed to honor
+Soviet persons or events reverted to their original Romanian
+designations. Also, in the field of foreign policy Romania adopted an
+attitude of nonalignment in the Sino-Soviet dispute, resumed relations
+with Albania (which had been severed after that country left the Soviet
+bloc in 1961), and conducted negotiations for increased trade with the
+People's Republic of China as well as with several Western nations.
+
+By the end of 1963 it was apparent that Soviet plans for revising
+COMECON could not be implemented and, with Romania retaining its
+membership, it remained an organization of national economies
+cooperating with one another along both bilateral and multilateral
+lines. The Soviets, however, retained leadership of the organization and
+continued to be a major benefactor from its operation.
+
+The surfacing of the policy conflict with Moscow and the subsequent
+activities of the Romanians in defiance of general Soviet interests and
+leadership were followed in April 1964 by a formal statement published
+by the party Central Committee that proclaimed Romania's inalienable
+right to national autonomy and full equality in the communist world.
+This so-called declaration of independence made it abundantly clear that
+the national and independent character of Romanian policy had been
+extended to all fields and would be applied in both domestic and foreign
+relations.
+
+The policy of greater national autonomy and political independence from
+the Soviet Union was continued by Nicolae Ceausescu, who succeeded
+Gheorghiu-Dej as party chief after the latter's sudden death in March
+1965. A militant nationalist in the Gheorghiu-Dej pattern, Ceausescu
+acted quickly after assuming power not only to maintain the political
+momentum generated by the new national line but also to more closely
+identify the communist leadership and policies with this expression of
+traditional national aspiration (see ch. 9).
+
+In April the name of the Romanian Workers' Party was changed to the
+Romanian Communist Party, and new organizational measures were adopted
+that were intended to broaden the party's popular base. This action was
+followed by the adoption of a new constitution, which changed the name
+of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, a step that
+elevated the country to an advanced status in the communist system by
+self-proclamation.
+
+In 1967 Ceausescu's position was further strengthened when he assumed
+the presidency of the Council of State to become the head of the country
+in title as well as in fact. Since that time Romania has maintained a
+firm, orthodox communist control pattern in its domestic affairs but has
+continued to pursue an independent foreign policy, which has diverged
+remarkably, from time to time, from those of the Soviet Union and its
+Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) allies.
+
+Differences have included opposition to the full integration of the
+Warsaw Pact military alliance, refusal to joint the Soviet bloc in
+condemning Israel after the 1967 Six-Day Arab-Israeli War, and
+unilateral establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal
+Republic of Germany (West Germany). Perhaps the strongest position
+vis-a-vis the Soviet Union was taken in 1968, when Ceausescu denounced
+the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty among socialist
+nations, which was used by the Soviets to justify the invasion of
+Czechoslovakia (see ch. 10).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 3
+
+PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION
+
+
+Romania, located in southeastern Europe and usually referred to as one
+of the Balkan states, shares land borders with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+Hungary, and the Soviet Union and has a shoreline on the Black Sea (see
+fig. 1). The interior of the country is a broad plateau almost
+surrounded by mountains, which, in turn, are surrounded, except in the
+north, by plains. The mountains are not unduly rugged, and their gentle
+slopes plus the rolling interior plateau and the arc of lowlands on the
+country's periphery provide an unusually large percentage of arable
+land.
+
+Romanian historians have remarked that their country's history might
+have been different had its mountains been located on its borders rather
+than in the interior. Romania's mountains provided a refuge for
+indigenous populations but did not constitute barriers against invaders
+who sought to dominate the area or use it as a crossroad for deeper
+invasions of the Balkan region (see ch. 2).
+
+The prevailing weather is eastern European continental, with hot, clear
+summers and cold winters. Rainfall is adequate in all sections, and in
+normal seasons the greater share falls during the summer months when it
+is of most benefit to vegetation and crops. Soils on the average are
+fertile. Forests occupy about 27 percent of the land surface.
+
+All of the major streams drain eventually into the Danube River and to
+the Black Sea. The entire length of the Danube in or bordering the
+country is navigable. There are few canals, and the Prut River is the
+only other waterway that is navigable for any considerable distance.
+Several of the rivers originating in the Carpathians have a good
+potential for hydroelectric power but, because oil and natural gas are
+abundant, their development has not had high priority.
+
+In 1971 railroads carried by far the greatest volume of long-distance
+freight and passenger traffic, but highway transport was supplanting
+them in short-haul traffic of both types. Commercial aviation had
+multiplied its capacities since 1950 but still carried only a minute
+percentage of total traffic. Pipelines were the principal carriers of
+liquid petroleum and natural gas. The merchant marine had developed
+relatively rapidly after 1960 and, although still small, consisted
+almost entirely of modern ships and equipment.
+
+The population, estimated at more than 20.6 million in 1971, was growing
+at the second highest rate in Europe. The country's officials, however,
+did not expect the 1971 rate to be maintained throughout the remainder
+of the century.
+
+The standard of living was among the lowest in Europe. Living conditions
+improved markedly after 1950, but emphasis on heavy capital investment
+held down production of consumer goods. The land has been more than
+self-sufficient in the agricultural sector, but food products have been
+exported in quantities that have made some of them scarce locally.
+
+
+NATURAL FEATURES AND RESOURCES
+
+Topographical and Regional Description
+
+All of the mountains and uplands of the country are part of the
+Carpathian system. The Carpathian Mountains originate in Czechoslovakia,
+enter Romania in the north from the Soviet Union, and proceed to curl
+around the country in a semicircle (see fig. 3). The ranges in the east
+are referred to as the Moldavian Carpathians; the slightly higher
+southern ranges are called the Transylvanian Alps; and the more
+scattered but generally lower ranges in the west are known as the Bihor
+Massif. A few peaks in the Moldavian Carpathians rise to nearly 7,500
+feet, and several in the Transylvanian Alps reach 8,000 feet, but only a
+few points in the Bihor Massif approach 6,000 feet.
+
+Lowland areas are generally on the periphery of the country--east,
+south, and west of the mountains. A plateau, higher than the other
+lowlands but having elevations averaging only about 1,200 feet, occupies
+an area enclosed by the Carpathian ranges.
+
+Moldavia, in the northeast, constitutes about one-fourth of the
+country's area. It contains the easternmost ranges of the Carpathians
+and, between the Siretul and Prut rivers, an area of lower hills and
+plains. The Moldavian Carpathians have maximum elevations of about 7,500
+feet and are the most extensively forested part of the country. The
+western portion of the mountains contains a range of volcanic
+origin--the longest of its type in Europe--that is famous for its some
+2,000 mineral water springs. Small sections of the hilly country to the
+northeast also have forests, but most of the lower lands are rolling
+country, which becomes increasingly flatter in the south. Almost all of
+the nonforested portions are cultivated.
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 3. Topography of Romania._]
+
+Walachia, in the south, contains the southern part of the Transylvanian
+Alps--called the Southern Carpathians by Romanian geographers--and the
+lowlands that extend between them and the Danube River. West to east it
+extends from the Iron Gate to Dobruja, which is east of the Danube in
+the area where the river flows northward for about 100 miles before it
+again turns to the east for its final passage to the sea. Walachia is
+divided by the Olt River into Oltenia (Lesser Walachia) in the west and
+Muntenia (Greater Walachia), of which Bucharest is the approximate
+center, in the east. Nearly all of the Walachian lowlands, except for
+the marshes along the Danube River, and the seriously eroded foothills
+of the mountains are cultivated. Grain, sugar beets, and potatoes are
+grown in all parts of the flatland; the area around Bucharest produces
+much of the country's garden vegetables; and southern exposures along
+the mountains are ideally suited for orchards and vineyards.
+
+The Transylvanian Alps have the highest peaks and the steepest slopes in
+the country; the highest point, with an elevation of about 8,340 feet
+above sea level, is 100 miles northwest of Bucharest. Among the alpine
+features of the range are glacial lakes, upland meadows and pastures,
+and bare rock along the higher ridges. Portions of the mountains are
+predominantly limestone with characteristic phenomena, such as caves,
+waterfalls, and underground streams.
+
+Transylvania, the northwestern one-third of the country, includes the
+historic Transylvanian province and the portions of Maramures, Crisana,
+and Banat that became part of Romania after World War I. The last three
+borderland areas are occasionally identified individually.
+
+Nearly all of the lowlands in the west and northwest and the plateau in
+the central part of the province are cultivated. The western mountain
+regions are not as rugged as those to the south and east, and average
+elevations run considerably lower. Many of the intermediate slopes are
+put to use as pasture or meadowland but, because the climate is colder,
+there are fewer orchards and vineyards in Transylvania than on the
+southern sides of the ranges in Walachia. Forests usually have more of
+the broadleaf deciduous tree varieties than is typical of the higher
+mountains, but much of the original forest cover has been removed from
+the gentler Transylvanian slopes.
+
+Dobruja provides Romania's access to the Black Sea. The Danube River
+forms the region's western border, and its northern side is determined
+by the northernmost of the three main channels in the Danube delta. The
+line in the south at which the region has been divided between Romania
+and Bulgaria is artificial and has been changed several times.
+
+For nearly 500 years preceding 1878, Dobruja was under Turkish rule.
+When the Turks were forced to relinquish their control, the largest
+elements of its population were Romanian and Bulgarian, and it was
+divided between the two countries. Romania received the larger, but more
+sparsely populated, northern portion. Between the two world wars Romania
+held the entire area, but in 1940 Bulgaria regained the southern
+portion. The 1940 boundaries were reconfirmed after World War II, and
+since then the Romanian portion has had an area of approximately 6,000
+square miles; Bulgaria's has been approximately one-half as large.
+
+Dobruja contains most of the Danube River delta marshland, much of which
+is not easily exploited for agricultural purposes, although some of the
+reeds and natural vegetation have limited commercial value. The delta is
+a natural wildlife preserve, particularly for waterfowl and is large
+enough so that many species can be protected.
+
+Fishing contributes to the local economy, and 90 percent of the
+country's catch is taken from the lower Danube and its delta, from
+Dobruja's lakes, or off the coast. Willows flourish in parts of the
+delta, and there are a few deciduous forests in the north-central
+section. To the west and south, the elevations are higher. The land
+drains satisfactorily and, although the rainfall average is the lowest
+in the country, it is adequate for dependable grain crops and vineyards.
+
+Along the southern one-half of the coastline there are pleasant beaches.
+In summer the dry sunny weather and low humidity make them attractive
+tourist resorts.
+
+Bukovina, more isolated than other parts of the country, has a
+part-Romanian and part-Ukrainian population. Romanian Bukovina is small,
+totaling only about 3,400 square miles. It was part of Moldavia from the
+fourteenth century until annexed by Austria in 1775. Romania acquired it
+from Austria-Hungary in 1918, but after World War II the Soviet Union
+annexed the 2,100-square-mile northern portion with its largely
+Ukrainian population.
+
+The approximately 1,300 square miles of the former province remaining in
+Romania is picturesque and mountainous. Less than one-third is arable,
+but domestic animals are kept on hillside pastures and meadows. Steeper
+slopes are forested.
+
+
+Drainage
+
+All of Romania's rivers and streams drain to the Black Sea. Except for
+the minor streams that rise on the eastern slopes of the hills near the
+sea and flow directly into it, all join the Danube River. Those flowing
+southward and southeastward from the Transylvanian Alps drain to the
+Danube directly. Those flowing northward and eastward from Moldavia and
+Bukovina reach the Danube by way of the Prut River. Most of the
+Transylvanian streams draining to the north and west flow to the Tisza
+River, which joins the Danube in Yugoslavia, north of Belgrade.
+
+Romanian tourist literature states that the country has 2,500 lakes, but
+most are small, and lakes occupy only about 1 percent of the surface
+area. The largest lakes are along the Danube River and the Black Sea
+coast. Some of those along the coast are open to the sea and contain
+salt sea water. These and a few of the fresh water lakes are
+commercially important for their fish. The many smaller ones scattered
+throughout the mountains are usually glacial in origin and add much to
+the beauty of the resort areas.
+
+The Danube drains a basin of 315,000 square miles that extends eastward
+from the Black Forest in the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
+and includes a portion of the southwestern Soviet Union. It is about
+1,775 miles long, including the 900 miles in or adjacent to Romania, and
+is fed by more than 300 tributaries, from which it collects an average
+of about 285,000 cubic feet per minute to discharge into the Black Sea.
+Much of the Danube delta and a band of up to twenty miles wide along
+most of the length of the river from the delta to the so-called Iron
+Gate--where it has cut a deep gorge through the mountains along the
+Yugoslav border--is marshland.
+
+For descriptive purposes the river is customarily divided into three
+sections; most of the portion in Romania--from the Iron Gate to the
+Black Sea--is its lower course. The northern bank of this course, on the
+Romanian side, is low, flat marshland and, as it approaches its delta,
+it divides into a number of channels. It also forms several lakes, some
+of them quite large. At its delta it divides into three major and
+several minor branches. The delta has an area of about 1,000 square
+miles and grows steadily as the river deposits some 2 billion cubic feet
+of sediment into the sea annually.
+
+
+Climate
+
+The climate is continental and is characterized by hot summers and cold
+winters. Typical weather and precipitation result from the high pressure
+systems that predominate over European Soviet Union and north-central
+Asia. Southern Europe's Mediterranean weather and western European
+maritime systems occasionally extend into the area but not frequently,
+and they prevail only for short periods. Winters are long, and the
+months from November through March tend to be cold and cloudy, with
+frequent fog and snow. Although summers may be hot, they are sunny, and
+the humidity is usually at comfortable levels.
+
+Precipitation ranges from fifteen to fifty inches; the countrywide
+average is about twenty-eight inches. Dobruja, along the lower Danube
+River and adjacent to the Black Sea coast, averages the least, followed
+by the lowlands of Moldavia and southernmost Walachia, which usually
+receive less than twenty inches. The remaining lowlands of the country
+and the Transylvanian plateau average between about twenty and
+thirty-two inches. Bucharest receives about twenty-three inches. In all
+of the agricultural regions the heaviest precipitation, most of it from
+thunderstorms and showers, occurs during the summer growing season when
+it is of maximum benefit to crops and vegetation.
+
+Scattered areas in the Transylvanian Alps and in the other mountains of
+the northern and western parts of the country receive more than fifty
+inches annually. Foothills on all exposures also get more than the
+country average. Western exposures benefit from the generally eastward
+movement of weather systems; southern and eastern slopes benefit from
+the clockwise circulation around the high-pressure systems that are
+characteristic of the continental climate.
+
+January is the coldest month; July, the warmest. Bucharest, located
+inland on the southern lowland, is one of the warmest points in summer
+and has one of the widest variations between average temperatures of the
+extreme hot and cold months. Its average January temperature is about
+27 deg. F, and in July it is 73 deg. F. Summer averages are about the
+same at other places in the eastern lowlands and along the Black Sea,
+but the moderating effect of winds off the sea makes for slightly warmer
+winters in those areas. Hilly and mountainous sections of the country
+are cooler but have less variation between winter and summer extremes.
+
+Nowhere in the country is the climate the deciding factor on the
+distribution of population. There are no points where summer
+temperatures are oppressively high or winter temperatures are
+intolerably low. Rainfall is adequate in all regions and, in the lower
+Danube River area where it might be considered the most nearly marginal,
+marshes and poorly drained terrain are more of a problem than is lack of
+rainfall.
+
+
+Soils
+
+The most fertile soils of the country occur generally on the plains of
+Moldavia and parts of Walachia. This is the black earth known as
+chernozem, which is rich in humus. Most of the black earth and some of
+the brown forest soils also have a high loess content, which tends to
+make them light, fine, and workable. These rich varieties also occur on
+the lowlands of the west and northwest and on the Transylvanian plateau.
+Lighter brown soils are more prevalent in rolling lands and in foothills
+throughout the country.
+
+Soils become progressively poorer at higher elevations and as the slopes
+become steeper. Layered soils, which take over as elevations increase,
+vary widely and tend to become thinner and poorer at higher elevations
+until bare rock is exposed. In some lower areas, where there are areas
+of brown forest soils, erosion is a serious problem. Although the sandy
+and alluvial soils along the Danube River are of excellent quality and
+are valuable where drainage is good, those in a fairly wide belt along
+the river are too moist for cultivation of most crops.
+
+
+Vegetation
+
+Before the land was cleared, lowland Romania was a wooded steppe area,
+but the natural vegetation has largely been removed and replaced by
+cultivated crops. Forests still predominate on the highlands. Of the
+country's total area, about 63 percent is agricultural land; 27 percent
+is forest; and 10 percent is bare mountain or water surface or is used
+in some way that makes it unsuitable for forest or cultivation. Of the
+agricultural land, 65 percent is under cultivation, 30 percent is
+pasture and meadow, and 5 percent is orchard and vineyard (see ch. 15).
+
+Forests remain on most of the slopes that are too steep for easy
+cultivation. Most of the larger forests are in Transylvania and western
+Moldavia in a roughly doughnut-shaped area that surrounds the
+Transylvanian plateau. Broadleaf deciduous and mixed forests occur at
+lower elevations; forests at higher levels are coniferous with
+needle-leaf evergreens. There are alpine sheep pastures at 5,000- and
+6,000-foot elevations, and tundra vegetation occurs at some of the
+highest locations.
+
+Orchards are found in all sections of the country. Peaches can be grown
+in Walachia, but only those fruits that can tolerate colder winters are
+raised in Moldavia and Transylvania. Vineyards, especially on the
+Walachian mountain slopes, have become more important since World War
+II, and wine, although it is not of a quality that receives
+international acclaim, is exported.
+
+
+Natural Resources
+
+The most important natural resources are the expanses of rich arable
+land, the rivers, and the forests. The land is agriculturally
+self-sufficient and, when fertilizers become more readily available,
+crop yields will be appreciably larger. The rivers have a high potential
+for the generation of hydroelectric power. Most of them rise in the
+mountains and fall to the plains quite rapidly and could be profitably
+harnessed. Rainfall distribution is good throughout the year and would
+provide more than an ordinarily dependable source of waterpower. The
+potential was only beginning to be tapped in 1971 (see ch. 15).
+
+Large fields of oil and natural gas are the most important sub-surface
+assets. Both are of the best quality in Europe, with the possible
+exception of those near Baku in the Soviet Union. Liquid petroleum is
+pumped from large fields in the Ploiesti area and also from an area in
+central Moldavia. Natural gas is available under a large part of the
+Transylvanian plateau.
+
+A few minerals, such as lead, zinc, sulfur, and salt, are available in
+quantities needed domestically, but iron and coal are not plentiful.
+Deposits of lignite, gold, and several other minerals occur in
+concentrations having sufficient value to be mined.
+
+
+BOUNDARIES AND POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS
+
+Boundaries
+
+When it gained full independence in 1878, Romania contained the historic
+provinces of Moldavia and Walachia, some of Bessarabia, and a portion of
+Dobruja. Substantial numbers of Romanians remained outside the original
+state's boundaries in Transylvania and in the Russian portion of
+Bessarabia. The first boundaries remained little changed until after
+World War I, although the strip of Dobruja was enlarged somewhat in
+1913, after the Second Balkan War (see ch. 2).
+
+In the 1918 settlement after World War I about 38,500 square miles were
+ceded to Romania from the dismantled Austro-Hungarian Empire. In
+addition to historic Transylvania, with its area of about 21,300 square
+miles, a strip along its western side, with a substantially Magyar
+population, and Bukovina, part of which is now the most north-central
+section of the country, were included. Also in the aftermath of World
+War I and the Russian revolution, Romania acquired Bessarabia from the
+new Bolshevik regime and enlarged its holdings in Dobruja at Bulgaria's
+expense.
+
+During the brief period of accord between the Soviet Union and Nazi
+Germany immediately before World War II, portions of Romania were sliced
+away and divided among Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. The
+post-World War II settlement, arrived at in 1947, again transferred
+Transylvania from Hungary to Romania, and Dobruja--with a somewhat
+modified southern border--was transferred from Bulgaria. The Soviet
+Union retained all of Bessarabia and the northern portion of Bukovina.
+In 1971 none of Romania's borders were disputed, and all of them were
+satisfactorily demarcated.
+
+The total circumference of the country is about 1,975 miles. The
+northern and eastern border with the Soviet Union extends for about 830
+miles; the southern border with Bulgaria, for 375 miles; the
+southwestern border with Yugoslavia, for 345 miles; and the
+northwestern border with Hungary, for 275 miles. The Black Sea coast is
+about 150 miles long. The eastern boundary generally follows the Prut
+River, and most of the southern boundary is formed by the Danube; in the
+west and north the border follows no distinctive terrain features, often
+having been drawn according to ethnic, rather than geographic,
+considerations.
+
+
+Political Subdivisions
+
+Until 1968 the communist regime had divided the country into seventeen
+regions--including one consisting of the Bucharest metropolitan area
+only--and 152 districts. In an extensive reorganization of local
+governments at that time, the regions were done away with and replaced
+by the prewar system of counties (_judete_). In 1971 there were
+thirty-nine counties, plus Bucharest and its suburban areas, which were
+still administered separately. Bucharest was one of forty-six
+municipalities, but it was the only one not subordinate to the district
+in which it was located. Each county is named for the town that is its
+administrative center. The newer organization has served to increase
+public participation in local government but has also increased the
+authority of the central government.
+
+Bucharest, with a population of nearly 1.5 million in 1969, was about
+six times larger than Brasov, the next largest city. The Bucharest
+district was smallest in area and greatest in population. Other
+districts had roughly similar areas and populations. They averaged about
+2,350 square miles in area and, although their populations varied
+between fewer than 200,000 and about 750,000, two-thirds of them had
+between 350,000 and 650,000 persons.
+
+The 1968 reorganization also made extensive changes in the lower portion
+of the local administrative structure, reducing the number of communes
+by about 40 percent and villages by nearly 15 percent. Typical counties
+had about fifty communes of about 4,000 to 5,000 persons each. The
+smaller local units were created, dissolved, or combined as population
+and local requirements changed but, as of January 1970, there were 236
+towns, 2,706 communes, and 13,149 villages. Of the towns, the
+forty-seven most important were classified as municipalities, and the
+communes included 145 that were suburban areas of the larger towns (see
+ch. 8).
+
+
+POPULATION
+
+The area approximating that defined by the 1971 boundaries of the
+country had a population estimated at about 8.2 million in 1860. Thirty
+years later it had increased to about 10 million. Growth began to
+accelerate slightly after 1890, with periods of greatest increases
+between 1930 and 1941 and between 1948 and 1956, until it reached an
+estimated 20.6 million in 1971.
+
+The 1971 estimate was derived from the 1966 census and projected from
+vital statistics compiled locally through 1970. On this basis the
+estimated annual rate of growth was 1.3 percent, exceeded in Europe only
+by that of Albania. Density of the population was 224 persons per square
+mile. Projected at the 1971 growth rate, the population in 1985 would be
+23.3 million, and it would take fifty-four years for the population of
+the country to double.
+
+The 1971 growth rate, however, may not be maintained. Legislation
+enacted in 1966 stringently restricted abortions and discouraged birth
+control practices, resulting in an increased birth rate for the next few
+years, but by 1971 there were indications that the rate was again
+declining. Unofficially, it is expected that the population will reach
+only 25.75 million by the year 2000, or about 27 percent more than in
+1970. The projection is based on a growth rate of less than that of the
+1970-71 period. It is expected to average about 1.1 percent for the
+1971-75 five-year period and to decrease thereafter, resulting in an
+average of between 0.7 and 0.8 percent over the entire period. Moreover,
+the increase is expected to be far greater in the over-sixty age group
+and to provide only about 14 percent more workers in the productive age
+brackets between fifteen and fifty-nine.
+
+In 1970 the birth rate, at 23.3 births per 1,000 of the population, was
+also exceeded only by Albania's in all of Europe. The rate of infant
+mortality, at 54.9 deaths during the first year of life for each 1,000
+live births, was slightly lower than those of Yugoslavia and Portugal
+and was exceeded significantly only by that of Albania. The death rate,
+at 10.1 per 1,000 was very close to the overall European rate of ten per
+1,000.
+
+According to the 1971 official estimate there were 10.1 million males
+and 10.4 million females, or 102.8 females for every 100 males in the
+population. Males outnumber females slightly in the childhood years and
+are the majority sex in each five-year segment of the population to
+about the age of thirty. Females outnumber males in the thirty to
+thirty-four age group, after which there is near numerical equality
+between ages thirty-five and forty-four. Females attain a clear majority
+beyond age forty-five. Female life expectancy, at 70.5 years, is
+approximately four years greater than that of males.
+
+The population group with ages from fifty to fifty-four had both a low
+overall figure and an abnormally low percentage of males (see table 1).
+The low total reflected a low birth rate during World War I years; the
+abnormal sex distribution reflected World War II combat losses. The low
+total in the twenty-five to twenty-nine group resulted from the low
+birth rate during World War II, and the low figure for the five-to-nine
+age group reflected the fewer number of parents in the group twenty
+years its senior and their disinclination to have children because of
+low incomes and inadequate housing.
+
+The size of the five-to-nine age group was of concern to the country's
+economists because it will provide a smaller than desirable augmentation
+to the labor force at the end of the 1970 decade and for the early
+1980s. The seemingly much larger group that was under five years of age
+in 1971, on the other hand, would appear on the surface to more than
+compensate for the smaller one preceding it. The country's economists,
+however, did not believe that an alleviation of the chronic shortage of
+people in the most productive working ages would occur during the
+twentieth century.
+
+Aside from natural growth and additions and subtractions of territories
+and their occupants, the country's population has been comparatively
+stable. It has been affected to a lesser degree than others in eastern
+Europe by migrations during and after World War II, probably losing
+between 300,000 and 400,000 persons in various resettlement and
+population exchange movements. The largest emigration involved Jews to
+Israel. Israeli data show an average of about 30,000 immigrants from
+Romania during the three immediate postwar years, and Jewish people
+accounted for a major share of all emigration between then and the late
+1960s.
+
+_Table 1. Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971 Estimate_
+(in thousands)
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                                            Number of
+                          Percentage                        Females
+ Age Group       Total     of Total      Male     Female    for Each
+                          Population                        100 Males
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Under 5         2,255       11.0        1,149     1,106       96.4
+  5-9            1,392        6.7          713       679       95.3
+ 10-14           1,743        8.5          892       851       95.3
+ 15-19           1,787        8.7          911       876       95.6
+ 20-24           1,588        7.7          806       782       97.2
+ 25-29           1,316        6.5          666       650       97.6
+ 30-34           1,533        7.4          757       776      102.4
+ 35-39           1,542        7.5          773       769       99.2
+ 40-44           1,502        7.3          752       750       99.6
+ 45-49           1,303        6.3          623       680      109.2
+ 50-54             806        3.9          363       443      121.7
+ 55-59           1,020        5.0          468       552      117.8
+ 60-64             950        4.6          452       498      110.0
+ 65-69             737        3.6          351       386      109.6
+ 70-74             540        2.6          235       305      129.8
+ 75 and over       551        2.7          227       324      142.1
+                 -----       ----         ----      ----      -----
+ Total
+ population     20,565      100.0       10,138    10,427      102.8
+ ------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Source: Adapted from Godfrey Baldwin (ed.), _International Population
+ Reports_ (U.S. Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18), Washington,
+ 1969, pp. 32-33.
+
+Within the country the greatest shift of people has been from rural to
+urban areas. The rural population grew by about 0.5 million, from 11.9
+million to 12.4 million, between 1945 and 1971. During the same period
+urban population increased by about 3.5 million, from 4.7 million to
+about 8.24 million, and has become about 40 percent of the total.
+Officials anticipate that the rural population will stabilize and that
+most future increases will be to the towns and cities.
+
+Of the 60 percent of the people who still live in small villages and
+settlements, most depend upon agriculture for their livelihood. Isolated
+farms and dwellings prevail in the more remote hills and mountains, and
+life in those areas has been little affected by industrialization of the
+country or by the collectivization of agricultural land, which has been
+accomplished in most of the better farming areas.
+
+Older villages most typically have individual family houses, with farm
+buildings adjacent and with considerable separation between houses. In
+areas that have been collectivized there has been some effort to remove
+buildings from productive land and to nucleate the villages.
+
+Population is most dense in the central portion of Walachia, centering
+on, and west of, Bucharest and Ploiesti and along the Siretul River in
+Moldavia. Southwestern Walachia and central and northwestern
+Transylvania are also more densely settled than the average for the
+country. The area around Dobruja, lands of high elevation, and
+marshlands along the lower Danube River are the most sparsely settled
+areas.
+
+
+LIVING CONDITIONS
+
+According to semiofficial Romanian sources, the national income
+increased by six times during the twenty-year period between 1950 and
+1970, and real wages, by 2.7 times. Between 1966 and 1970 improved
+economic conditions and a broader based industry had created about
+800,000 new jobs, most of them in the industrial sector.
+
+Increases in national income have been accompanied by increased outlays
+for social and cultural programs. The 1970 allocations for such programs
+were ten times greater than in 1950 and amounted to 27.5 percent of the
+total national budget.
+
+Housing, production of consumer items, and changes in food consumption
+had also improved. Between 1966 and 1970 about 345,000 state-funded
+apartments and about 315,000 privately built dwellings became available.
+New facilities for production of automobiles, furniture, wearing
+apparel, television sets, and other domestic electrical appliances
+increased output in these areas by about seven times that of 1950. Foods
+with high nutritive value were consumed in larger quantities.
+Consumption of milk, garden vegetables, fruit, eggs, and fish nearly
+doubled between 1966 and 1970. More meat and cheese were also eaten, but
+the increase in their consumption was less spectacular.
+
+Efforts on behalf of public health were reflected in increasing the life
+expectancy from forty-two years in 1932 to a figure that was more than
+60 percent greater in 1970. Additional and better equipped hospitals and
+other medical facilities contributed to this, as did more emphasis on
+public sanitation and increased numbers of doctors and medical
+assistants. In 1970 there was a ratio of one physician for every 700
+inhabitants, which was near the overall European average.
+
+Despite an impressive record of achievements in the production of
+industrial goods, the standard of living--with the exception of
+Albania's and Portugal's--was probably the lowest in Europe in 1971.
+During the preceding twenty years production of consumer goods was held
+down, while heavy capital investment was encouraged. This was deliberate
+economic practice calculated to be of maximum benefit to the country in
+time but not intended to produce the greatest immediate results.
+
+The rent for an ordinary three-room apartment in 1971 was about
+one-third of the average worker's monthly wages; the cost of a new
+automobile was about forty times his monthly income. Housing area was
+small, the countrywide average being about eighty-two square feet of
+living space per person. Although about 140,000 urban apartment units
+became available in 1969 and similar numbers were programmed for
+succeeding years, the housing situation was worse in cities than in
+small towns and rural areas.
+
+Commentary on the lot of the consumer varies widely, frequently to the
+point of direct contradiction. Visitors that have had a less than
+totally favorable impression of the country report that food items--even
+the common staples, such as eggs, cheese, and sausage--are not always
+available and that, when they are, purchasers wait in long lines.
+Because food items are often available only in small shops individually
+specializing in milk, cheese and sausage, or vegetables and eggs, for
+example, the mere task of buying food is a time-consuming undertaking.
+Persons disenchanted with the situation also complain that, although
+poor harvests in 1968 and 1969 and floods in 1970 contributed further to
+food shortages, much was still exported during those years. In 1971 the
+government reiterated its plans to devote primary attention to the
+development of its heavy industrial base. Plans at that time, they
+alleged, would discourage increased production of consumer goods through
+1975 at the least.
+
+
+TRANSPORTATION
+
+Railroads
+
+Romania's early rail lines were developed largely in relation to
+external points rather than to serve local needs. Until World War I the
+one major trunk line ran south and east of the Carpathians from western
+Walachia to northern Moldavia. Feeder lines and branches connected to
+it, but there was little early construction in the marshy areas near the
+Danube River, and only one bridge, at Cernavoda, crossed it.
+Transylvania, not yet part of the country, was linked to the old
+provinces by only one line across the Carpathians. Total route mileage
+was about 2,200 miles.
+
+Hungary had developed lines connecting Budapest with Transylvania and
+branch lines within that province. When the area was annexed in 1918,
+Romania inherited the existing railroads and set about linking them more
+advantageously with the rest of the country. Most of the modern system
+was completed by 1938, but route mileage was increased by about another
+10 percent after World War II. Late construction included another bridge
+over the Danube River, this time at Giurgiu, south of Bucharest (see
+fig. 4).
+
+The system probably attained its maximum mileage in 1967, when it
+totaled almost 6,900 route-miles, all but about 400 of them standard
+gauge. About ten miles of line were retired during 1968 and 1969, and
+other little-used feeder lines will probably be abandoned as it becomes
+more practical to carry small loads over short distances by truck.
+
+Railroads transported nearly ten times as much freight in 1969, measured
+in ton-miles, as did the highways. Their average load was carried a
+greater distance, however, and motor transport actually handled a larger
+volume of cargo (see table 2). During 1969 the railroads also carried
+over 300 million passengers, for an average trip distance of thirty-two
+miles.
+
+The Romanian State Railroads, directed by the Ministry of
+Transportation, operates all but a few minor lines and, in 1969, had
+about 147,000 employees. As steam locomotives are retired, they are
+being replaced by diesels. Only a little more than 100 route-miles have
+been electrified. Officials expect that roads and motor vehicles will
+take increasing percentages of short-haul cargo and short-trip
+passenger traffic. Airlines may cut somewhat into the long-distance
+passenger traffic, but the railroads are expected to remain important
+for both their freight and passenger services.
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 4. Romanian Transportation System._]
+
+_Table 2. Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960, and
+1969_
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                          Total Freight               Ton-Miles
+                       (in million tons)            (in millions)
+ Cargo Traffic      -------------------------------------------------
+                     1950     1960     1969      1950    1960   1969
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Railroads          35.1     77.5    155.4      4,740  12,380  27,500
+ Motor transport     1.0     56.7    215.6         26     583   2,830
+ Inland waterways    1.1      1.9      3.1        418     540     728
+ Sea                 0.2      0.2      5.0        382     663  24,400
+ Air                 0.003    0.003    0.02         1       1      21
+ Pipeline            1.0      5.6      9.2        118     637     790
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                       Total Passengers            Passenger-Miles
+                        (in millions)               (in millions)
+
+ Passenger Traffic --------------------------------------------------
+                    1950     1960     1969       1950    1960   1969
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Railroads         116.6    214.8    305.9      5,080   6,710  10,450
+ Motor transport    11.3     71.8    306.9        242     887   4,220
+ Inland waterways    0.6      1.2      1.4         10      25      43
+ Sea                0.05      0.08     0.02        59      17      14
+ Air                0.04      0.2      0.8          9      54     550
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+Roads
+
+Of the 47,800 miles of road, in 1969 about 6,000 miles--or 14
+percent--were considered modernized. A little more than one-third had
+gravel or crushed stone to harden them, and almost exactly one-half had
+unimproved dirt surfaces.
+
+About 7,600 miles were nationally maintained and included the greater
+portion--5,200 miles--of those in the modernized, improved category.
+Only about 1,400 miles of the local roads were modernized, and less than
+one-half of them had hardened surfaces. According to government planning
+reports, the road network is considered adequate in size, and all that
+can be allocated to it will be applied to its modernization. Motor
+transport was nearly negligible until after World War II, but between
+1950 and 1969 it assumed importance that rivaled the railroads in both
+cargo and passenger traffic.
+
+
+Waterways
+
+Nearly 1,500 miles of the rivers are considered navigable. All of the
+Danube--over 900 miles--that is within or along the southern border of
+the country is navigable and, in fact, connects the Black Sea and
+Romania with all points upstream--through Yugoslavia, Hungary,
+Czechoslovakia, and Austria to Ulm in West Germany. The Prut, flowing
+along much of the eastern border with the Soviet Union, accounts for
+most of the remaining navigable mileage. Other streams are useful in
+some degree for timber rafting and for floating agricultural products
+downstream. Rapid currents in hilly sections, silting and meandering
+streambeds in the lowlands, and fog and ice in winter months, however,
+limit the commercial usefulness of the rivers. Ice stops traffic on the
+Danube River for an average of more than one month per year and on the
+other streams from two to three months.
+
+The country's topography does not lend itself to the development of an
+extensive system of canals. There are short canals in the western
+lowlands. Two of them connect to the Tisza River in Yugoslavia but, as
+with this pair, further development of the waterways in this portion of
+the country would be economically advantageous only when they connected
+to points in Hungary or Yugoslavia. Most of the northern and central
+regions are hilly or mountainous.
+
+Cargo shipped on rivers and canals in 1969 was less than 1 percent of
+that carried by the other transport systems, but most of it was
+transported for relatively long distances along the Danube River.
+Passengers carried constituted an even more minute percentage of the
+total and, because the largest numbers of them rode river ferries, the
+relative passenger mileage percentage was even lower.
+
+
+Airlines
+
+Commercial aviation is altogether state owned and is operated by an
+office in the Department of Automotive, Maritime, and Air Transportation
+that, with the Department of Railroads, is part of the Ministry of
+Transportation. Romanian Air Transport--always referred to in common and
+in most official usage as TAROM, derived from Transporturi Aeriene
+Romane--serves a dozen or more cities in the country and contacts about
+twenty national capitals outside the country. These include Moscow, all
+of the capitals of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) member
+nations, and about a dozen capitals in Western Europe and the Middle
+East. Service to nearly all of the external points consists of no more
+than one round trip flight weekly to each. Domestic service has expanded
+steadily since 1950 but varies throughout the year to provide more
+frequent trips during the holiday and tourist seasons.
+
+The line carries some cargo but an insignificant amount when compared
+with other modes of transportation. It has, however, begun to carry a
+more significant number of passengers. This traffic increased from less
+than 40,000 in 1950 to about 780,000 in 1969. Each year since 1965 it
+has carried approximately 100,000 more passengers than in the year
+preceding.
+
+
+Pipelines
+
+Most liquid petroleum products and natural gas are moved via pipeline.
+The largest network of liquid lines serves the large oilfield in the
+Ploiesti area and the smaller one in west-central Walachia. They connect
+the fields with refineries and transport the refined products to Danube
+River ports and to Constanta on the Black Sea coast. Lines also transfer
+crude oil from the Moldavian oilfield to its refineries, but there were
+no lines in 1970 to transport finished products from those refineries.
+
+Natural gas is piped to all parts of Transylvania from sources in the
+center of the province, but the Carpathians are an obstacle to its
+distribution to other parts of the country. One major line crosses the
+Transylvanian Alps to serve the Bucharest area, and another crosses the
+Moldavian Carpathians through Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. It serves areas to
+the southeast as far as Galati, on the Danube River.
+
+
+Merchant Marine
+
+The country has a small, but growing, merchant marine. Although most of
+its ships are new, the more than 100 percent increase--to nearly 0.5
+million deadweight tons--claimed to have been achieved between 1967 and
+1969 was accounted for by less than a dozen ships, consisting of two
+tankers and some bulk cargo carriers that were built in Japan. The
+government releases no official statistics on its merchant fleet, but
+fragmentary information indicates that before 1967 it consisted of about
+thirty-five ships. One of them was a 2,000-deadweight-ton
+passenger-cargo vessel, and there were a few tankers totaling something
+over 100,000 deadweight tons. The remainder were freighters, averaging
+about 5,000 deadweight tons each.
+
+Statistics on goods transported by sea substantiate the size and growth
+of the merchant marine fleet. Until about 1960 it had relatively little
+importance, but by 1966 cargo carried was almost ten times that of 1960,
+and by 1969 it had again tripled. The impressive growth statistics
+notwithstanding, sea transport in 1969 accounted for only about 1.5
+percent of the total cargo transported.
+
+Constanta is the major port on the Black Sea, but some smaller seagoing
+vessels go up the Danube River to Galati and Braila. All of the larger
+river towns, and all of those on rail lines that cross it or terminate
+at the river, are considered river ports. Mangalia, on the Black Sea
+coast south of Constanta and about five miles from the Bulgarian border,
+is a secondary seaport but has the country's largest naval installation
+(see ch. 13).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 4
+
+SOCIAL SYSTEM AND VALUES
+
+
+Since the end of World War II Romanian society and its values have been
+in a state of flux. The aim of communist social and economic policies
+has been to destroy the old order and replace it with a new one that
+will reflect communist ideology. The resulting changes have been
+fundamental and far reaching, particularly in the structure of the
+society and the place occupied in it by particular individuals. The
+effect on values has been less easy to determine.
+
+The extent and the pace of change have been slowing down since the early
+1960s, and some aspects of the old social order were beginning to
+reemerge, although in different forms. The changes that were continuing
+to affect the society in the 1970s were more the result of economic
+growth than of conscious efforts to bring them about. This was
+particularly true of the changing role of the family, which has come
+about as a consequence of increased industrialization and urbanization
+as much as by government design.
+
+Least affected by the social upheaval since 1945 have been the ethnic
+composition of the country and the relations between the various ethnic
+groups. Although the population has always been predominantly Romanian,
+Hungarians and Germans constitute a majority in some areas of the
+country and remain a source of potential political and social problems.
+The Hungarian minority in particular, making up more than 8 percent of
+the population in 1966, has always been very sensitive to what it
+considers Romanian domination and has at times harbored irredentist
+feelings.
+
+
+ETHNIC COMPOSITION
+
+The population of Romania is basically homogeneous, although it includes
+elements of almost every ethnic group in Central and Eastern Europe. At
+the time of the 1966 census, Romanians constituted 88 percent of the
+population. The largest single minority group were the Magyars, or
+Hungarians, constituting 8.4 percent of the population. They were
+followed by the Germans with 2 percent of the population. All other
+ethnic groups--Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Ukrainians, Russians, Czechs,
+Slovaks, Turks, Tatars, Bulgarians, Jews and Gypsies--were simply
+listed as "other" and together made up only 1.6 percent of the
+population.
+
+The Constitution of 1965 guarantees equal rights to all citizens
+regardless of nationality or race and stipulates legal sanctions against
+both discrimination and instigation of national or racial animosities.
+National minorities are guaranteed the free use of their mother tongue
+in education, the communications media, and their dealings with
+government authorities and unrestricted perpetuation of their cultural
+traditions.
+
+
+Romanians
+
+The origins of the Romanians and their language have been the subject of
+differing interpretations and controversy. Romanians are related to the
+Vlachs, a pastoral people speaking a Latin-derived language who are
+found in the mountainous regions of northern Greece and southern
+Yugoslavia.
+
+According to Romanian tradition, Romanians are the direct descendants of
+the Dacians, who inhabited the territory of modern Romania before the
+Christian Era. The Dacians were conquered by Roman legions under Emperor
+Trajan in A.D. 106 and became romanized during 165 years of Roman
+control. When Emperor Aurelian abandoned control of Dacia in 271, in the
+face of Gothic invasions, the romanized Dacians sought refuge in the
+rugged Carpathian Mountains, where they preserved their Latin language
+and culture until more settled conditions allowed them to return to the
+plains in the tenth century (see ch. 2).
+
+The period of Roman rule of Dacia is well documented, but the absence of
+any firm indication of the presence of a Latin-speaking population in
+the territory of contemporary Romania until the tenth century has given
+rise to another theory of the origin of Romanians, developed mostly by
+Hungarian historians. This theory maintains that the Dacians withdrew
+with the Roman legions south of the Danube. There they absorbed elements
+of Thracian and Slavic culture, in addition to that of their Roman
+rulers. Starting in the tenth century, a people speaking a Romance
+language moved northward across the Danube as far as Slovakia and
+settled in the area that later became Romania.
+
+The Romanian theory of their origin stresses that a people speaking a
+Romance language continuously occupied the territory claimed by the
+Romanian state, thus rendering legitimacy to the claim. The other theory
+stresses the absence of a Romance-language-speaking people in
+Transylvania at the time of the Magyar immigrations into that region,
+thus giving legitimacy to the Hungarian claim to Transylvania.
+
+Whatever their origin, Romanians have occupied the territory of their
+present state since the Middle Ages. In 1966 they numbered 16.8 million
+and formed the majority population in most of the country (see fig. 5).
+
+Romanian, a Romance language, differs sharply from the languages of
+neighboring countries which, with the exception of Hungarian, are all
+Slavic tongues. The basis for Romanian seems to be the Vulgar Latin of
+ancient Rome. Long contact with Slavic-speaking peoples has left its
+mark on the vocabulary but has not affected grammar or syntax, which
+remain similar to those of other Romance languages. The vocabulary of
+literary Romanian is more purely of Latin origin than that of the spoken
+dialects. Frequently, parallel words of Latin and Slavic derivation
+exist for an object or concept and are used interchangeably. Turkish,
+Albanian, Hungarian, and German have also influenced the vocabulary of
+the spoken language in various parts of the country.
+
+  [Illustration: Source: Adapted from Ian M. Matley, Romania: A
+  Profile, New York, 1970, p. 276.
+
+  _Figure 5. Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966._]
+
+
+Hungarians
+
+In the 1966 census Hungarians numbered 1.6 million, constituting 8.4
+percent of the total population. Since 1947, when Romania acquired its
+present borders, the number of Hungarians within its borders has
+remained relatively stable, although their percentage in the total
+population has been declining.
+
+Hungarians form the majority population in parts of Transylvania and in
+pockets along the Hungarian border. They form a significant minority of
+the population in the rest of Transylvania and in the Banat region. In
+1952 the area of greatest Hungarian concentration in eastern
+Transylvania was designated the Hungarian Autonomous Region
+(Mures-Magyar) and was given considerable degree of self-government to
+deal with complaints of political and cultural oppression by Romanians.
+The region was eliminated in the administrative reorganization of 1968
+(see ch. 9).
+
+In 1971 it was estimated that slightly more than half of Romania's
+Hungarian minority still lived in rural areas. Several Transylvanian
+cities--including Cluj, Oradea, Baia-Mare, and Tirgu Mures--also have a
+high percentage of Hungarian inhabitants.
+
+Hungarians first moved into the territory occupied by modern Romania in
+the ninth century as part of the Magyar invasion of the central European
+plain. Their number grew through colonization during the period of
+Hungarian rule of Transylvania, which began with the conquest of the
+area in the eleventh century and ended in 1918. One group of
+colonists--the Szeklers, or Szekelys--were settled in the eastern
+borderlands of Transylvania in the first part of the twelfth century to
+protect the plains from invaders. The ethnic origin of the Szeklers is
+in dispute. Some authorities claim they are Magyars; others claim they
+are non-Magyars who absorbed Magyar culture over long years of contact.
+During the Middle Ages, Szeklers were distinct from Magyars in political
+and social organization. Although the distinction between them and the
+Hungarians has disappeared in modern times and Romanian official
+statistics do not differentiate, Szekler culture is still considered
+more purely Magyar than that of other Hungarians who have absorbed
+influences from the West.
+
+With the exception of some Szekler characteristics, the culture and
+language of the Hungarian minority in Romania are indistinguishable from
+those of their kinsmen in Hungary. They are, however, quite
+distinguishable from the Romanians. This distinction is accentuated by
+religious differences. Romanians are predominantly Orthodox, whereas
+more than half of the Hungarians in the country are Roman Catholic, most
+of the remainder are Calvinists, and some are Unitarians.
+
+The culture and language of the Hungarian minority are being preserved
+and promoted through schools, newspapers, periodicals, books, theater,
+and other cultural activities. Members of the Hungarian minority,
+however, frequently complain that the number of schools, books, and
+other cultural material available to them in their own language is far
+short of the demand and not nearly proportionate to their numbers.
+
+
+Germans
+
+Approximately 380,000 Germans lived in Romania in 1966. The size of the
+German minority was greatly reduced through voluntary repatriation since
+the 1930s, when it numbered over 600,000. It has continued to decrease
+since 1966 through emigration to the Federal Republic of Germany (West
+Germany) supported by the West German government and permitted in
+varying volume by the Romanian authorities.
+
+The German population is divided into two groups--the Saxons and the
+Swabians. Although more or less equal in size, the groups differ in
+origin and, partly, in culture. The origin of the group usually
+identified as Saxons is not quite clear, but it was settled by the
+Hungarian rulers in the Transylvanian borderlands in the twelfth century
+for the same purpose as the Szeklers. The Saxons live mainly in the
+cities, such as Sibiu, Brasov, and Sighisoara, which they themselves
+founded and which have distinctly German characteristics. Some live in
+rural areas surrounding these cities.
+
+Forming the majority population in a small area, the Saxons have lived
+in relative isolation until modern times. Their dialect and culture have
+retained medieval characteristics long abandoned by Germans elsewhere.
+All Saxons have been Lutheran since that denomination was introduced
+into Transylvania in the sixteenth century.
+
+The Swabians are Roman Catholics and live in the Banat region. As with
+the Saxons, their designation as Swabians does not truly reflect their
+origin. They were settled in the Banat during the eighteenth century to
+work the land recently vacated by the Turks. Before their arrival there,
+the language and culture of the Swabians had undergone various
+modifications to which the Saxons had not been exposed. Most Swabians
+are peasants farming the rich plain around Timisoara.
+
+Like the Hungarians, the German minority in Romania has resisted
+assimilation and maintains its cultural identity through German-language
+schools, books and newspapers, radio and television programs, and
+theatrical performances and through the perpetuation of their
+characteristic dress, dances, and folk art.
+
+
+Jews
+
+In those censuses in which they are identified (but not including that
+of 1966), Jews are listed as an ethnic group or nationality rather than
+as members of a religious denomination. In the 1956 census they
+represented the third largest minority in the country with a membership
+of 146,000. In early 1972 Western observers roughly estimated the number
+of Jews still residing in Romania at slightly under 100,000.
+
+The influx of Jews into Romania took place during the first half of the
+nineteenth century when large numbers left the unsettled conditions of
+Poland and Russia to seek new opportunities in prospering Moldavia and,
+later, Walachia. A small number of Jews from various parts of
+Austria-Hungary settled in Transylvania at the same time and earlier. By
+1900 Jews constituted more than one-half of the urban population of
+Romania, most of them engaged in commerce, banking, or industry. Not
+allowed to assimilate by various restrictions on their movement and
+activities, the Jews remained apart from the rest of the population.
+This apartness and their role in the economy engendered distrust and
+resentment, which periodically erupted into persecution by some elements
+of the population (see ch. 2).
+
+The loss of Bessarabia to the Soviet Union and the deportations and
+exterminations during World War II by the Nazis reduced the Jewish
+population in Romania to its 1956 size. It has been further reduced
+since then through emigration to Israel.
+
+Despite their historic separateness from the rest of the society, most
+Jews in the mid-twentieth century tend to think of themselves as
+Romanians of the Jewish faith rather than an ethnic minority. All speak
+Romanian, and only one-fourth claimed Yiddish as their mother tongue in
+the 1950s. They continue to be urban oriented, and one-fourth of them
+lived in Bucharest in 1956.
+
+
+Other Minorities
+
+Eight other ethnic groups were counted in the 1956 census. The largest
+was Ukrainian, numbering 60,000. Ukrainians formed the majority
+population in the southern part of the Danube delta and in pockets
+along the Soviet border. Some 45,000 Yugoslavs, mostly Serbs, lived in
+the southern Banat around the Iron Gate. Other Slav minorities included
+39,000 Russians in northern Dobruja, near the Bessarabian border; 12,000
+Bulgarians, mostly in southern Dobruja; and between 18,000 and 35,000
+Czechs and Slovaks in the Banat.
+
+Other ethnic groups of significance were 20,000 Tatars and 12,000 to
+14,000 Turks in Dobruja, remnants of the period of Turkish rule.
+Gypsies, variously estimated between 50,000 to 100,000, are not
+recognized officially as an ethnic minority and not counted separately
+in censuses. This, combined with their still largely nomadic life, makes
+any reasonably accurate enumeration difficult.
+
+
+Interethnic Relations
+
+Relations between Romanians and Hungarians, the two largest ethnic
+groups, have been less than smooth. During the eight centuries of
+Hungarian rule of Transylvania, Romanians, who constituted the poorest
+rural elements of the population, occupied a subservient position to the
+wealthier, more urbanized, and better educated Hungarians and Germans.
+With the joining of Transylvania to Romania in 1918, the Hungarian and
+German populations of the region lost much of their favored position
+and, through land reform and nationalization since World War II, they
+lost their source of wealth. These factors have engendered ill feeling
+between the groups and have made Transylvania a continuing source of
+potential problems (see ch. 2; ch. 10). Other factors dividing Romanians
+and Hungarians have been religious and cultural differences.
+
+Sensitive to the respective nationalist feelings of the Romanians and
+Hungarians and to the historical dissensions between them, government
+policy since 1947 has been one of promoting unity and cooperation among
+all groups for the good of the country as a whole. The theme of equality
+of all members of different ethnic groups and their close cooperation
+permeates all official documents, reports, and statements. The Romanian
+Communist Party, which before World War II had a high percentage from
+ethnic minorities, represents itself as the historic protector of
+minority populations and their rights. In the late 1960s the party
+claimed that over 11 percent of its membership were non-Romanians, in
+line with the proportional strength of minorities in the population.
+
+During the first decade of communist rule, the government and the people
+were so preoccupied with efforts to restructure society and foster
+communist internationalism that ethnic chauvinism and problems of
+interethnic relations receded into the background. The 1960s, however,
+saw the development of Romanian independence vis-a-vis Soviet domination
+and a resurgence of Romanian nationalism, which again raised the
+potential for minority problems. As the government and party stressed
+Romanian national independence and gave new emphasis to the historic and
+cultural heritage of the Romanians, they also emphasized the unity,
+equality, and fraternal cooperation between Romanians and minority
+groups. National unity became a vital factor in August 1968, and
+people's councils were established in the Hungarian, German, and other
+minority communities to act as spokesmen for the ethnic minorities in
+the Socialist Unity Front (see ch. 9).
+
+The German minority, while anxious to preserve its cultural identity and
+rights, seems to have good relations with the Romanians and with other
+ethnic groups. Although their historic experience and their religion
+give them a cultural affinity with the Hungarians, they have remained
+aloof from the Hungarian-Romanian issue in Transylvania. As a whole,
+Germans have remained to themselves in their own communities and have
+made little effort to integrate into the national society. This has
+engendered some resentment on the part of Romanians but no real
+hostility.
+
+Historically, the relations between Jews and other Romanians have been
+fraught with suspicion and resentment, which found expression in
+occasional outbursts of anti-Semitism (see ch. 2). Although the same
+emotions undoubtedly still color the attitudes and reactions of some of
+the people, they have been less evident since World War II, possibly
+because those Jews who survived and remained in the country have
+integrated themselves into society and identify with the Romanian
+majority.
+
+
+SOCIAL STRUCTURE
+
+Family
+
+Traditionally, the family had been the basic social unit that gave
+identity and security to the individual and furthered the values of
+society. Family cohesion was great, and close relations were maintained
+with parents, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, and first cousins.
+Increased mobility and changing life-styles have somewhat loosened this
+cohesion, particularly among urban families. A growing number of women
+work outside the home; many men combine work and study, or they work at
+more than one job in order to improve the family standard of living; and
+children spend most of their time in school or youth organization
+activities. Thus, members of the family spend less time together, and
+the emphasis in daily life is to some degree shifting from the family to
+the outside world.
+
+In official writing the family is hailed as the cornerstone of socialist
+society; and family cohesion, loyalty, and responsibility, as socialist
+virtues. Exemplary family life, particularly exemplary motherhood, is
+honored with citations and prizes. At the same time, however, all the
+factors that tend to undermine traditional family life, such as the
+employment of a greater number of women, are encouraged and promoted.
+
+Since World War II families have tended to be small, having one or two
+children. Among the German and Hungarian minorities, families have
+always tended to be small, but Romanian families in the past were
+larger, particularly in rural areas where children were an important
+source of labor. The government became so alarmed by the dropping birth
+rate that it passed strict new laws in the 1966-67 period to limit
+divorce, abortions, and the sale of contraceptives. The following years
+showed a sharp upsurge in the birth rate and a dramatic drop in the
+divorce rate, but in 1970 the birth rate again began to decline.
+
+The main reasons for the drop in the birth rate and reduction in family
+size have been low wages and a shortage of housing. Many wives must work
+to help support the family, but published interviews with working wives
+indicate that they want few, if any, children because they lack the time
+and energy to care for them as they would like. In addition, the
+continuing housing shortage in urban areas forces families to live in
+crowded and inadequate quarters, which mitigates against having
+children.
+
+In the eyes of the state, marriage is a secular matter. Religious
+ceremonies are permitted but must be preceded by a civil marriage. The
+minimum age for marriage without parental consent is eighteen for men
+and sixteen for women. People generally marry young--43 percent of the
+men married in 1968 were aged twenty to twenty-four, and another 30
+percent were twenty-five to twenty-nine; 46 percent of the women married
+that year were aged fifteen to nineteen, and another 32 percent were
+twenty to twenty-four. The urban marriage rate was dropping considerably
+in the late 1960s, probably owing to the housing shortage, but the rural
+marriage rate remained fairly stable during the decade.
+
+The law assigns equal rights and obligations to both marriage partners.
+In case of divorce the father is obliged to provide financial support
+for his children. After the passage of a stringent new divorce law in
+1967, the divorce rate dropped from 1.94 per 1,000 population in 1965 to
+0.35 per 1,000 population in 1969, making it the lowest rate in Eastern
+Europe.
+
+In most families the husband and wife are partners whose relationship is
+based on cooperation and mutual respect. The husband is the titular head
+of the family who represents it to the outside world, but within the
+family he customarily consults with his wife on almost all matters.
+Patriarchal families where the father is the undisputed head are
+encountered among some peasants. Ideally, the husband provides for the
+family and protects it from the outside world, and the wife concerns
+herself with keeping house and raising children.
+
+The diminution of the family's significance in rearing children has,
+however, fundamentally affected the role of the family in the second
+half of the twentieth century. As a result of the growing number of
+working women the roles of the husband and wife are no longer as clearly
+differentiated. Almost two-thirds of women aged over fifteen in 1966
+were employed. Approximately three-fourths of these were married women
+who had assumed some of the husband's role of provider for the family.
+At the same time they had relinquished some of their former functions in
+the household and with respect to children, some of which have been
+taken over by husbands or by outside institutions.
+
+
+Social Stratification
+
+Patterns of social stratification have undergone a complete change since
+World War II. First, land reform immediately after the war eliminated
+the agricultural aristocracy and increased the number of small peasants
+who owned their own land. Then nationalization of industry and commerce
+in the late 1940s eliminated the urban propertied class. Finally,
+collectivization of agriculture eliminated most of the newly enlarged
+small peasant class. By the early 1950s the old system had been
+destroyed, and a new one was in the process of formation.
+
+The period of so-called socialist reconstruction of the 1950s resulted
+in a general leveling of social strata through the demotion of formerly
+privileged groups and the promotion of formerly underprivileged groups.
+Persons of peasant or worker origin received preferential treatment in
+the allocation of housing and other necessities of life that were in
+short supply, in the appointment to jobs, and in access to higher
+education. At the same time persons of middle or upper class background
+were deprived of their housing, removed from key jobs, and denied
+educational opportunities for their children through a discriminatory
+quota system at secondary and higher schools. A policy of equalizing
+incomes made little distinction between differing levels of education or
+skill, thus eliminating material rewards as a basis for social
+stratification. At the same time, however, a small group of party
+stalwarts, most of them of lower or middle class background, rose
+rapidly into the top positions of administrative and political power and
+became the new ruling elite.
+
+As viewed by its own ideologists and sociologists, Romania in 1971 was
+in the socialist stage of development heading toward a classless
+communist society. This meant that there were distinctions in income,
+standard of living, and prestige among different groups in the society;
+the distinctions, however, were based on occupation rather than
+ownership of property. Members of all groups were employees; the only
+employer was society as a whole through its organ, the state. The main
+basis for the distinction of classes was the difference between manual
+labor and intellectual work. This difference was gradually being
+eliminated through the continuous upgrading of the prestige of manual
+labor.
+
+Most Romanian writing on social strata or differentiation based on
+occupation separates society into three classes: workers,
+intelligentsia, and peasants. By most definitions, workers are all those
+engaged in productive occupations, including both the unskilled laborer
+and the highly skilled technician. Intelligentsia are all those engaged
+in nonproductive occupations, such as office work or service jobs,
+including both the unqualified clerk and the enterprise manager or
+university professor. Sometimes, however, the intelligentsia is defined
+as all those with a secondary or higher education without regard to
+their occupations. Members of agricultural cooperatives are classified
+as peasants, whereas employees of state farms are considered workers.
+The small number of peasants still working private agricultural holdings
+are considered to be a disappearing remnant of the past and, therefore,
+are not included in any segment of the socialist society.
+
+In 1969 workers were reported as constituting 40 percent of the
+population; intelligentsia, 12.3 percent; and peasants, 47.7 percent.
+Comparable statistics for 1960 divided the population into 28.6 percent
+worker, 9.5 percent intellectual, and 61.9 percent peasant. Thus, the
+peasant class was growing smaller while the worker and intellectual
+classes were expanding. A continuation of this trend was forecast for
+the 1970s.
+
+Cutting across this division was one based on skill and education. Thus
+the unskilled worker, the unskilled peasant, and the unqualified clerk
+were all members of the same stratum but of different classes. It was
+not clear whether or not a division into strata would continue after
+class distinctions were eliminated.
+
+This view of the social structure seems to be more a statement of
+ideology than an analysis of the actual structure. On the basis of
+material rewards, social prestige, and political power, the highest
+stratum is the ruling communist elite, followed in turn by the
+intelligentsia--professional, managerial, and administrative personnel
+with a higher education--skilled manual workers, lower level
+white-collar personnel, and unskilled workers and peasants.
+
+The ruling elite is composed of the top communist leadership in the
+party, government, mass organizations, and various branches of the
+economy. The main criterion for membership in that elite is power
+derived from approved ideological orientation and political activism.
+Most members of the ruling elite in 1971 were of lower class background
+and were veterans of the communist movement in the interwar period. The
+life-style and privileges enjoyed by the ruling elite do not differ much
+from those of the intelligentsia, the next level in the social scale,
+but the elite holds a monopoly of power.
+
+The intelligentsia consists of those professionals, managers,
+technicians, and middle-level party functionaries whose skill and talent
+are needed to run the society. Education and competence are usual
+criteria for membership in the group as is ideological orthodoxy. In
+1970 the intelligentsia numbered somewhat over 1 million persons,
+approximately 22 percent of the working population. The size of the
+group has been growing rapidly in line with the manpower demands of the
+expanding economy. Most members were relatively young, had advanced
+educations, and were loyal to communist principles. Their social origins
+represented the entire spectrum of precommunist society, but a high
+percentage were of peasant or worker background reflecting the
+educational advantages afforded to the former lower classes.
+
+The life-style and aspirations of the intelligentsia are those of an
+industrial middle class. Because of their key position in the economy,
+they command incomes and special benefits that afford them a standard of
+living considerably higher than that of the lower levels of the social
+scale. Among the benefits that individual members of the intelligentsia
+may enjoy are high-quality housing; the use of official cars; access to
+special facilities, such as clubs, restaurants, shops, and vacation
+resorts; and travel opportunities at home and abroad. The growing
+identification of the intelligentsia with the Romanian Communist Party
+has also enhanced its privileged status as a group. On an individual
+basis, party membership provides access to a network of informal
+contacts within the power and control structure, which can open many
+doors and win many favors.
+
+Skilled manual workers constitute the top level of the lower social
+strata. A considerable gap exists in the income, prestige, and
+commensurate standard of living between the skilled worker and the
+intelligentsia. The gap can be breached only by acquiring higher
+education. The skilled worker, however, enjoys considerable material
+advantages over the lowest levels of society by virtue of his important
+position in the economy. His prestige, although higher than that of
+unskilled workers, differs little from that of the lower level
+white-collar personnel because of the low esteem in which manual work
+continues to be held.
+
+The level of gradation in material rewards of peasants, unskilled
+workers, and lower level white-collar personnel is very slight. The
+difference among these groups is mainly one of prestige and opportunity
+for advancement. The first step up the social ladder is to leave
+agriculture and join the industrial labor force. Then, through education
+and training, one can advance to the various levels of skill and their
+respective income levels and benefits. Despite their lack of skill,
+lower level white-collar personnel hold a higher position on the social
+scale than other unskilled persons, principally because of the prestige
+attached to nonmanual work.
+
+The main avenue for upward mobility is education. Political
+considerations, however, influence both accessibility to education and
+accessibility to jobs that confer higher social status. Admission to
+educational facilities beyond the required minimum is strictly
+controlled and manipulated to achieve desired political, social, and
+economic goals (see ch. 6). The emphasis on educational credentials for
+upper level jobs limits the possibility of upward mobility through skill
+or competence alone. On-the-job training, however, does provide a means
+for mobility within the industrial labor force.
+
+Partly as a result of conscious government effort and partly as a
+natural consequence of rapid economic expansion, upward mobility has
+been considerable since the end of World War II. In the early years of
+communist rule, this upward mobility was accompanied by a significant
+downward mobility of members of the former middle and upper classes who
+lost their property and their jobs and were forced to take up
+occupations at the lower end of the social scale. By the end of the
+1960s the social structure seemed to be stabilizing. The restructuring
+desired by the communist rulers had been accomplished, and the
+intelligentsia had grown to the point where it could satisfy from its
+own ranks most of the demand for professional and managerial personnel.
+This reduction of openings in the upper strata of society for recruits
+from the lower levels was beginning to solidify the social structure
+into self-perpetuating groups whose status and privileges, or their
+lack, are passed down from one generation to the next. The avenues of
+education and skill, however, remained open and, together with political
+loyalty, provided the means for social advancement.
+
+
+SOCIAL VALUES
+
+The differing life-styles of the rural and urban populations are
+reflected in somewhat differing values. Rural values are rooted in the
+land and in deep religious faith. Individualism, self-reliance, strength
+of character, and love of land and God are admired attributes of the
+rural population. For the mountain shepherd and the small farmer,
+self-reliance and resourcefulness are essential for survival. These
+qualities are praised in song and legend and are widely held responsible
+for the survival of the Romanian people and their culture during
+centuries of foreign domination. Loyalty is also a highly admired
+peasant quality--loyalty to the land, to the family, to God, to country,
+and even to one's animals.
+
+The strong religious convictions that pervade the life of most peasants
+in the form of carefully observed rules of conduct and rituals are
+viewed by some sophisticated urbanites and peasant youths as
+superstition and as a sign of backwardness (see ch. 5).
+
+The values of urban Romanians are more complex than those of peasants.
+They have been influenced by ideas and values from abroad, particularly
+by those emanating from France. Educated Romanians have long felt a
+kinship with the French emotionally and intellectually and have looked
+to French culture as a model to emulate. As a result, Bucharest was
+often referred to as the "Paris of the Balkans."
+
+Among the values shared by both urban and rural Romanians are
+self-reliance, resourcefulness, and patriotism or loyalty to country.
+Having been ruled by Turks and Hungarians for centuries and being almost
+surrounded by Slavic peoples, the Romanians are very proud of their
+Latin heritage and their connection with ancient Rome. It is the shared
+Latin heritage that probably makes Romanians look to France as their
+cultural contact in the West.
+
+The emphasis on self-reliance, resourcefulness, and making the best of a
+situation has given Romanians the reputation of being shrewd businessmen
+and hard bargainers.
+
+The extent to which communist efforts to change the traditional values
+of the people have been successful is difficult to determine. Such
+values as independence, resourcefulness, and patriotism continue to be
+reflected in the international relations of the country, particularly in
+its relations with the Soviet Union.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 5
+
+RELIGION
+
+
+Romanians have traditionally been a very devout people. The vast
+majority belong to the Romanian Orthodox Church, and regular church
+attendance and participation in church functions have been a normal part
+of daily life. In rural areas the clergy are heavily depended upon as
+counselors and confidants. As in most peasant societies, the religious
+beliefs and practices fostered and approved by the churches are often
+intermingled with folklore. Belief in the evil eye, werewolves, and
+vampires is common among peasants, although younger ones are less likely
+to take such beliefs seriously.
+
+Aware of the deep-seated religious beliefs of the people, the communist
+government has done little to restrict their free expression, and
+officially religion is viewed as a private and personal matter.
+Religious persecution has been limited to clergymen who have openly
+opposed the government and its policies. Government efforts, however,
+have been aimed at controlling the churches and using their influence
+with the people to further official policies and programs. At the same
+time, public information media and schools have been attempting to
+undermine the hold of religion on younger people by equating religious
+faith with superstition and backwardness and stressing scientific and
+empirical knowledge as the basis for a modern world view. Many religious
+values are attacked as lacking a basis in true knowledge and reality.
+Those values that the government wants to preserve and promote are given
+a scientific-intellectual justification and are stripped of any
+religious meaning.
+
+In line with its view of religion as a private and personal matter, the
+government has not published any statistical or other information
+pertaining to the various religious communities since 1950. Research on
+the role of religion in the daily life of the people has been
+discouraged; therefore, up-to-date information is restricted to
+observations by foreign visitors to the country. According to reports
+from such observers, more than twenty years of communist effort to
+undermine religion as a force in the life of people has been
+unsuccessful. Some of the clergy have lost their former influence by
+openly working on behalf of the government, and some young people
+question the relevance of some beliefs and practices. The fundamental
+faith of the people, however, has been little changed. Even longstanding
+members of the party have been publicly criticized for subscribing to
+religious views and practices.
+
+
+CHURCH-STATE RELATIONS
+
+The Constitution of 1965 guarantees freedom of conscience and freedom of
+religion to all citizens. It also specifically guarantees the right not
+to profess any religion. The organization and activities of any church
+are regulated by state law, and religious organizations are prohibited
+from operating any educational institutions other than those for the
+training of clergy and members of religious orders.
+
+Within these broad guarantees and prohibitions, the state exercises
+strict control over the organization and activities of religious
+denominations through its Department of Cults, which functions in
+accordance with the General Regulations for Religious Cults passed by
+the Grand National Assembly in 1948. Under these regulations the state
+must approve the statute of organization and administration and the
+statement of beliefs of any church before it can be recognized as a
+legal body. Clerical appointments are subject to state approval, and all
+clergy must take an oath of allegiance to the Socialist Republic of
+Romania.
+
+All legally recognized churches receive state subsidies for salaries of
+clergy and other operating expenses; churches are not allowed to receive
+any income or financial assistance directly. Budgets are subject to
+approval by the Department of Cults, which may withhold funds for
+individual parishes or for salaries of individual clergymen if their
+activities are found to be in violation of the policies or laws of the
+state. The Department of Cults may also suspend any policy decision,
+regulation, or other measure passed by the governing body of a church if
+it is deemed contrary to the provisions of law either directly or
+indirectly.
+
+State supervision and control of administrative and financial affairs of
+religious denominations had existed in Romania before the communists
+took power. The terms of the General Regulations for Religious Cults
+followed in many ways the Law on Cults of 1928; however, several
+differences in the degree of control point out the fundamental
+difference in church-state relations in these two periods. Before 1948,
+for instance, the churches could receive income from property and
+donations in addition to the state subsidy. More important, however, the
+earlier law gave the state no right to interfere in matters of belief
+except in the case of minor sects whose specific beliefs were subject to
+approval. The 1948 law makes the state the ultimate authority on matters
+of faith as well as administration. Thus the intent of the earlier law
+appeared to be the regulation of the activities of essentially
+independent bodies, but the intent of the present law is to give
+complete authority and control to the state.
+
+In practice, state control of religious bodies has been carried out
+through its control over finances and through its confirmation of
+clerical appointments. No changes have been made in the traditional
+methods of selecting and appointing clergy and laymen for the various
+positions in the church. By using its power to confirm these selections,
+however, the state has managed to fill all the important positions and
+decisionmaking bodies with persons willing to cooperate and carry out
+state policy. The state has refused to grant recognition to the Roman
+Catholic Church because of the church's belief in the supremacy of the
+pope in all matters of faith and morals and in church administration;
+however, the church does function with the tacit agreement of the
+regime.
+
+
+THE ROMANIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH
+
+The Romanian Orthodox Church is the most important church in the country
+and the one into which the vast majority of Romanians are born. It is an
+independent Eastern Orthodox church headed by a patriarch in Bucharest.
+Its membership in the 1950s, after the incorporation of the Uniate
+church, was estimated at more than 15 million.
+
+Romanians were introduced to Christianity during the period of Roman
+rule of Dacia. By the tenth century they were known to be following the
+Slavonic liturgy of the Eastern Christian Church. Old Church Slavonic
+remained the liturgical language until the late sixteenth century, when
+it began to be replaced by Romanian.
+
+During the period of Turkish rule in Walachia and Moldavia and of
+Hungarian rule in Transylvania, the Romanian Orthodox Church helped to
+maintain the national consciousness of the Romanian people and was
+active in their struggle to achieve national unity and independence (see
+ch. 2). The Turkish policy of religious tolerance enabled the church to
+thrive in Walachia and Moldavia; in Transylvania, however, a
+post-Reformation settlement between the Hungarian rulers and the various
+churches did not recognize the Romanian Orthodox Church as a legal
+denomination.
+
+In order to gain legal status and its accompanying freedoms and
+benefits, a major portion of Romanian Orthodox clergy and laymen in
+Transylvania agreed, in 1698, to accept the jurisdiction of the pope
+while retaining Orthodox liturgy and ritual. The resulting Uniate church
+was an important religious and political force in Transylvania until
+the communist government forced it to reunite with the Romanian Orthodox
+Church in 1948. As the church of the Romanian people in Transylvania,
+the Uniate church played a major role in their emancipation and eventual
+integration into a greater Romania.
+
+With over 1.6 million adherents in 1948, the Uniate church in Romania
+was the second largest and second most influential church in the
+country. Fearing and resenting the influence of the Roman Catholic pope
+with such a large number of its people, the communist regime decreed
+that the Uniates be merged with the Romanian Orthodox Church and disavow
+allegiance to the pope. Some Uniate clergy and laymen resisted and were
+persecuted and imprisoned. The pattern for the dissolution of the Uniate
+church was the same everywhere in Eastern Europe, and from 1946 to 1950
+the Uniate congregations were absorbed into the various national
+Orthodox churches.
+
+Until the Romanian state was enlarged in 1918, the Orthodox faith was,
+with minor exceptions, the exclusive religion of the country. The
+Romanian Orthodox Church was legally accepted as the national church and
+was supported by the state. Its hierarchy generally supported the
+policies of the government both as individuals and as officials of the
+church. The close relationship between church and state was of
+particular significance in rural areas, where the church was often
+called on to carry out local government functions. As the only literate
+person in the area, the parish priest was often not only the spiritual
+mentor of the population but also the teacher, judge, and government
+official. The power of the church in relation to the population,
+therefore, was based on both spiritual and governmental authority. In
+the eyes of the devout peasant, the local priest was an important
+authority on a variety of matters as well as a confidant and adviser.
+
+The role of the Romanian Orthodox Church in the life of the country
+changed considerably after World War I with the addition of substantial
+populations of other faiths. Efforts to secure a favored position in its
+legal relationship to the state and to other denominations were defeated
+when pressure from the Roman Catholic and Uniate churches forced the
+government to guarantee religious freedom and the complete equality of
+all churches. At the same time, the Orthodox church's former role in the
+administration of governmental affairs at the local level was being lost
+to a growing secular civil service and educational system. The position
+of the church in the life of the average communicant, however, continued
+to be one of considerable power and influence. As the largest Orthodox
+church outside of the Soviet Union, the Romanian Orthodox Church also
+exercised a degree of leadership among other Orthodox churches.
+
+The revised statutes of the Romanian Orthodox Church issued in 1949
+differ little from those in effect before that date. Authority was
+somewhat more centralized, and the prerogatives of the patriarch were
+more clearly defined, but the structure of the church remained
+essentially the same. The patriarchate is divided into five
+metropolitanates, which in turn are divided into twelve dioceses. Each
+diocese is composed of parishes encompassing 1,500 to 2,500 communicants
+each. The clerical head at each level is assisted in his religious and
+administrative duties by a council composed of one-third clergymen and
+two-thirds laymen. The administration of monasteries falls under the
+jurisdiction of the head of the diocese. Since a 1952 reorganization of
+institutions for religious training, the Romanian Orthodox Church has
+had two theological institutes for the training of clergy and six
+schools for chanters and for monastic priests.
+
+
+THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
+
+The Roman Catholic Church is second in size of membership to the
+Romanian Orthodox Church and, since the absorption of the Uniates by the
+Orthodox church, the most important minority religion. Its estimated
+membership of between 1.2 million and 1.5 million in the 1960s was
+composed mostly of Hungarians and German Swabians (see ch. 4).
+
+As the principal denomination of the Hungarian minority, the Roman
+Catholic Church has played a cultural and political role in the life of
+the country as well as a religious one. The well-organized body of the
+church and its related institutions have been a natural vehicle for the
+promotion of Hungarian group interests and the preservation of Hungarian
+cultural traditions. Catholic schools, which were independent of
+government control until 1948, most often used Hungarian or German as
+the language of instruction.
+
+The Concordat of 1927 between the Holy See and the Romanian state
+defined the legal position of the Roman Catholic Church in Romania until
+the communist takeover. It gave the church full equality with the
+dominant Romanian Orthodox Church and other denominations and granted it
+sole control over its educational institutions, hospitals, and
+charitable organizations. In contrast to all other denominations, the
+Roman Catholic Church was free from state administrative control and did
+not receive any financial support from the state. The concordat was
+abrogated by the Romanian government in 1948, and since that time the
+position of the Roman Catholic Church has been unclear.
+
+The Catholic bishops have refused to recognize the supremacy of the
+state over church affairs as expressed in the General Regulations for
+Religious Cults of 1948, and consequently the state has not granted the
+church legal recognition as a religious denomination. Between 1948 and
+1967 the government tried to force the church into submission by
+systematically weakening its position. Uncooperative clergy were either
+imprisoned or otherwise prevented from exercising their clerical and
+administrative duties; all church schools, hospitals, and charitable
+institutions were taken over by the government, and all other church
+assets were confiscated. All but two monasteries and three convents were
+disbanded, and even these were not permitted to accept new novices. In
+addition, the organization of the church was reduced from six to two
+dioceses, Alba-Iulia and Bucharest. Since the church has not been
+receiving a state subsidy and has been forbidden to seek contributions,
+most clergy have been supporting themselves by working at lay jobs.
+Church buildings have been deteriorating because of lack of maintenance,
+and many travelers have commented on the marked difference in appearance
+between the decaying Catholic churches and the well-maintained Orthodox
+churches.
+
+As part of a general political liberalization in 1967 the arch-bishop of
+Alba-Iulia, head of the Roman Catholic Church in Romania, and other
+clergy were released from imprisonment. The action marked the reopening
+of contacts between the Roman Catholic Church and the Romanian
+government in an effort to reach a satisfactory agreement that would
+normalize the position of the church in the country. Additional
+government effort to reach an accommodation with the church has been
+demonstrated by the appropriation of funds for the restoration of the
+historic cathedral of Alba-Iulia. Other denominations had been receiving
+regular funds for the maintenance and restoration of religious buildings
+of historic or artistic significance, but the Roman Catholic Church had
+been denied such funds until 1967. In 1972 contacts between Romania and
+the Holy See, which had begun in 1967, were continuing. Several meetings
+had taken place between the Romanian Orthodox patriarch, Justinian, and
+Cardinal Koenig, who heads the Vatican secretariat for nonbelievers. No
+agreement legalizing the position of the Roman Catholic Church in
+Romania has been reached, however.
+
+The government promoted the creation of the Catholic Church of Romania,
+which was formed in 1951. It is administratively independent of the pope
+and recognizes the supremacy of the state over church affairs. Legal
+justification for the move was found in a statute passed in Transylvania
+in the seventeenth century that placed the conduct of Catholic church
+affairs in the hands of clergy and laymen directly subordinate to the
+pope in order to preserve the church from engulfment by the
+Reformation. In early 1972 the Catholic Church of Romania was headed by
+a council composed of both lay and clerical members. It recognized the
+pope as supreme authority on matters of faith, morals, and dogma but
+rejected any organizational connection with the Holy See.
+
+
+PROTESTANT CHURCHES
+
+Protestantism is closely identified with the Hungarian and German
+minorities of Transylvania. Although the churches themselves have
+refrained from any political activity on behalf of the minorities, their
+ethnic composition has made them politically significant at times. The
+Protestant population, estimated at about 1.2 million in 1950, was
+divided into Calvinist, Lutheran, Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist,
+Evangelical, and Pentecostal churches.
+
+The largest Protestant denomination is the Reformed (Calvinist) Church,
+with a membership estimated at 780,000 in 1950. The membership of this
+church is almost entirely Hungarian, and its center is at Cluj, a
+Calvinist stronghold since the Reformation. Most of the Hungarian
+aristocracy in Transylvania adopted Calvinism during the Reformation, a
+period when the Roman Catholic Church was weak in that region. This
+weakness of the Roman Catholic Church and the political and economic
+independence of the Transylvanian nobles prevented an effective
+counterreformation and allowed Protestantism to remain strong in
+Transylvania while the rest of Hungary was Roman Catholic.
+
+Next in size are the Lutherans, with an estimated membership of 250,000
+in 1950. Lutheranism is represented by the Evangelical Church of the
+Augsburg Confession, headed by a bishop at Sibiu, and the Evangelical
+Synodal Presbyteral Church of the Augsburg Confession, headed by a
+bishop in Cluj. Membership of both churches is predominantly German.
+Lutheranism was adopted by the Transylvanian Saxons at the same time
+that Calvinism was adopted by the Hungarians. In 1938 there were 400,000
+Lutherans in Romania; their number was reduced through the loss of
+northern Bukovina and through the emigration of Saxons to Germany during
+the 1940s. Continued emigration is further reducing the Lutheran
+population.
+
+The Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, and Pentecostal churches were united
+by government decree in 1950 into the Federation of Protestant Cults.
+The estimates of the membership at the time of the merger vary greatly,
+but it probably included between 50,000 and 100,000 Baptists, 15,000 to
+70,000 Adventists, and about 5,000 Pentecostals. Before their merger
+none of these churches had a central organization in Romania, as their
+congregations were directed from abroad.
+
+In the reorganization of theological education in 1948, the Department
+of Cults assigned one school for church singers and one theological
+institute for the training of clergy to each Protestant denomination.
+There was some indication that all denominations had difficulty
+recruiting young men for the ministry after World War II. After more
+than a decade of complete isolation from their fellows in other
+countries, all the Protestant churches resumed an active association
+with the World Council of Churches in 1961.
+
+
+OTHER RELIGIONS AND CHURCHES
+
+Government statistics on the ethnic composition of the population in
+1956 listed 146,000 Jews. Jewish sources outside the country estimated
+the size of the community in 1968 at between 80,000 and 110,000. Once an
+important ethnic and religious minority, the Jewish community has shrunk
+as a result of territorial losses, extermination during World War II,
+and emigration. Between 1958 and 1969 large numbers of Jews emigrated to
+Israel with the encouragement of the chief rabbi and the Romanian
+government. Many of the rabbis have emigrated with their congregations,
+leaving only nine rabbis to care for some seventy congregations. Most of
+the congregations were directed by laymen but received regular visits
+from one of the rabbis. The only rabbinical school in the country was
+closed in the 1950s. The congregations are supervised by the Federation
+of Jewish Communities, which is the legally recognized representative
+body of the Jews in Romania and is headed by the chief rabbi.
+
+Islam is the religion of the Tatars and Turks in Dobruja. Moslems were
+estimated to number between 30,000 and 35,000 in the mid-1950s. Mosques,
+most of them built during the Turkish occupation of the area, are found
+throughout the region. The seat of the grand mufti, religious head of
+the Moslems in Romania, is at the Central Mosque in Constanta.
+
+Unitarianism was introduced into Transylvania in the mid-sixteenth
+century, when a group of former Calvinists founded a Unitarian church in
+Cluj. The church has always been closely connected with the Hungarian
+minority, from which it draws most of its members. The number of
+adherents in the mid-1950s was estimated at 70,000. The seat of the
+Unitarian Church is in Cluj, which is also the location of its seminary.
+
+Two other legally recognized churches are the Armenian-Gregorian Church
+and the Christians of the Old Rite. The Armenian-Gregorian Church is
+headed by a bishop in Bucharest, and the Christians of the Old Rite,
+also known as Old Catholics, by a bishop in Bukovina. Each had an
+estimated membership of 25,000 in the 1950s.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 6
+
+EDUCATION
+
+
+The Romanian educational system has been transformed to fit the
+communist pattern of total subordination to the needs of the state.
+Since 1948 the educational system has developed as a major force for
+increasing the general educational level of the population, for
+inculcating members of society with socialist ideals in support of the
+regime and its policies, and for providing technical specialists and
+skilled workers for the nation's labor force. Modifications and
+adjustments in the system have taken place periodically, but such
+changes have largely reflected a shift in emphasis among these major
+objectives rather than any change in basic educational principles.
+
+Considerable progress has been made in the educational field since the
+end of World War II. An intensive campaign to eradicate illiteracy was
+undertaken and, according to the government, was successfully concluded
+by 1958. The number of schools was significantly increased, as were
+student enrollments throughout the system, although in 1972 the number
+of students continuing their education beyond the primary level was
+still proportionately low. The growth of the school structure was
+further indicated by the successive extension of the period of
+compulsory education from four years in 1948 to ten in 1968. Full
+enrollment under the ten-year program, however, was not expected to be
+achieved before 1973.
+
+To meet the demands for skilled and semiskilled industrial and
+agricultural workers, the educational system was gradually transformed,
+heavy emphasis being placed on scientific and technical programs and on
+vocational training. The most recent reforms, promulgated in 1968, not
+only reinforced education to meet national economic requirements but
+also placed renewed stress on the need for increased ideological and
+political training of the country's youth as a prime element in the
+successful development of the Romanian socialist state.
+
+Despite the progress achieved in producing a disciplined work force,
+which benefits the country's economic development, the educational
+system continued to show basic limitations and shortcomings.
+Overspecialization and excessive student workloads served to limit the
+effectiveness and efficiency of secondary and higher schools.
+Furthermore, the constant effort to expand the mass base of the system,
+although achieving uniform and satisfactory results by communist
+standards, lowered the quality of education and sacrificed individual
+creativity.
+
+
+BACKGROUND
+
+The educational history of Romania has followed closely the political
+development of the country. The earliest educational institutions were
+established in the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia during the
+sixteenth century and served as the basis of the first system of public
+education, which became operative in 1832. The unification of the
+principalities in 1859 led to the adoption of the Educational Act of
+1864, which established the principle of free and compulsory education,
+"where schools were available," under state supervision. Despite the
+legal provisions for an adequate school system, however, administrative
+and financial limitations kept the number of schools small and pupil
+enrollment low.
+
+Little progress was made in improving the scope and substance of public
+education until the latter half of the nineteenth century and the early
+part of the twentieth. Beginning in 1893, the country's educational
+process underwent extensive reorganization: the structure and functions
+of elementary and normal schools were revised, the curricula of
+secondary schools and institutions of higher education were revamped,
+and the position of vocational training in the system was strengthened.
+Although these advances served to improve the quality of education then
+available, the number of state-supported schools continued to be low.
+
+Romania's territorial acquisitions after World War I almost tripled its
+population and added greatly to the problems of public education.
+Educators considered the system deficient in many respects through the
+1930s and the mid-1940s, but they succeeded in achieving considerable
+uniformity among the school programs at the various educational levels
+and, in the main, imparted a basic general education to the majority of
+pupils who completed courses through the secondary school level.
+
+
+Precommunist Education
+
+The educational system that had evolved in precommunist Romania was
+operated largely, but not exclusively, by the state and reflected the
+traditional European order of the times, in which the socially and
+economically privileged classes were the chief recipients of the
+benefits of education. Only a limited number of children of the
+peasantry received more than the four years of elementary education
+required by the state, and both they and the children of the urban lower
+classes were discouraged from going on to secondary schools either by
+the lack of sufficient institutions or by the inability of their parents
+to pay tuition fees beyond the compulsory level. The public,
+state-supported system administered by the Ministry of Education
+consisted of kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools,
+vocational schools, and institutions of higher learning. Academic
+standards were generally high, and advancement was based primarily on
+scholastic merit.
+
+Kindergartens were open to children between the ages of five and seven
+in both state and private schools. No specific subjects were taught and,
+although theoretically compulsory, attendance was seldom enforced.
+Attendance records for the 1929-38 period indicated that only
+approximately 13 percent of all eligible children attended public
+kindergartens and that fewer than 1.5 percent were enrolled in private
+ones.
+
+The seven-year elementary school system, four years of which were
+theoretically compulsory, comprised two types of institutions for
+children between the ages of seven and fourteen: four-year schools for
+pupils preparing for secondary schools and seven-year schools for
+students terminating their education at the elementary level. Elementary
+education was free except in private schools and, although attendance
+was supposedly mandatory, enrollments before 1940 averaged less than 75
+percent of all children of elementary school age.
+
+Curricular requirements were demanding at this level, particularly in
+the four-year primary schools. All students studied the Romanian
+language, literature, history, geography, and natural sciences, in
+addition to participating in physical education classes and handicraft
+programs. In the seven-year schools the curriculum during the last three
+years also included a variety of vocational subjects.
+
+Four types of educational institutions made up the secondary school
+system: lyceums, primarily preparatory schools for universities; teacher
+training schools; theological schools; and trade schools. Most of these
+institutions were public, and each type offered an eight-year course
+with varying degrees of specialization. Attendance was generally limited
+to children of the landed aristocracy and the urban upper class. All
+subjects, even those of a vocational nature, were taught on a
+theoretical basis. The general curricula in the lyceums included the
+Romanian language, history, literature, the physical sciences,
+mathematics, and music. Before being accepted in a university, all
+graduates of lyceums were required to have passed the baccalaureate, a
+special comprehensive examination given after all graduation
+requirements had been met.
+
+The theological schools, also state supported, trained priests in the
+different faiths; the teacher training schools trained kindergarten and
+elementary school teachers; and the trade schools prepared students for
+work in business and commercial concerns. No qualifying examinations
+were given to graduates of theological, teacher training, or trade
+schools, since none were eligible for admission to higher level schools.
+Enrollment throughout the secondary schools was also low; statistics
+show that over the 1928-39 period less than 6 percent of the total
+number of students enrolled in elementary schools entered a secondary
+school after completing four years of compulsory elementary education.
+
+Higher education in precommunist Romania was centered in four
+universities; two polytechnical institutes; and a limited number of
+academies specializing in architecture, the arts, physical education,
+agronomy, and higher commercial and industrial studies. All academic
+disciplines could be pursued at one or another of these various
+institutions, and three to seven years were required to obtain the basic
+university degree. An additional two to four years of study and research
+were required for the awarding of an advanced degree. The number of
+students attending higher institutions was proportionately small, and
+the number receiving the basic degree was even smaller.
+
+
+Communist Educational Policies
+
+After communist seizure of the government in 1948, the educational
+system was reoriented away from basic French educational concepts toward
+those based on the communist philosophy as developed in the Soviet
+Union. The ultimate objective of the reformed system was to make
+education available to as large a segment of the population as possible,
+with a view to transforming the citizenry into a cohesive and effective
+element for the building of a socialist society along Marxist-Leninist
+lines. The new system was specifically designed to be tightly
+controlled, uniform in operation and administration, exclusively secular
+and public, and fully coordinated with the labor needs of the planned
+economy.
+
+The August 1948 decree revamping education spelled out in detail the
+specific policies and methods that would be employed in meeting the new
+educational goals. Foremost among the basic aims were the eradication of
+illiteracy and the broadening of the educational base to include all
+children of school age. Other specific goals of the educational process
+included: inculcating all youth with the ideological spirit of so-called
+popular democracy; guiding the use of leisure time by organizing
+outside activities for students; educating, on a "scientific" basis, the
+higher and lower cadres of specialists needed for the construction of
+all aspects of a socialist society; and training the teachers necessary
+for the proper functioning of the educational system.
+
+Although these policies have been adjusted and modified and certain
+aspects have received additional emphasis at particular times, they have
+been retained as the basic guidelines for Romanian public education. The
+implementation of these policies since 1948 has resulted in the
+restructuring of the school system, the expansion of educational
+facilities, the recasting of the content of curricula and courses, and a
+major reorganization of the teaching profession, heavy stress being
+placed on teachers as indoctrinators as well as educators.
+
+
+EDUCATIONAL REFORMS SINCE 1948
+
+Although the educational reform law of August 1948 has been amended many
+times, most of the changes that have taken place have not materially
+altered the basic pattern of communist education that the law
+established but rather have reflected the vicissitudes of Romanian
+political life and the country's economic needs. Almost all changes in
+the educational process have served to implement the original concept
+that the role of public education is primarily to serve as a vital
+instrument in the creation of an industrialized society subservient to
+the interests of the state.
+
+The initial changes introduced by the Communists immediately after
+coming to power in 1948 affected the content more than the form of
+education. The public school structure was left virtually unchanged
+except for the addition of those religious and private educational
+facilities that had been expropriated by the government. An extensive
+purge of all categories of teachers was undertaken, and a number of
+special schools were set up for the political indoctrination of those
+retained in the system. In addition, the student bodies, particularly in
+the schools of higher learning, were carefully sifted, and adjustments
+were made in the availability of courses and in the size of classes in
+order to redirect students into selected fields of study.
+
+As a further means of control the regime organized students into
+associations comparable to communist labor unions. The groups included
+the Union of Student Associations, the Union of Communist Youth, and the
+Pioneers Organization. The activities of these organizations affected
+students at all levels and consisted of planned and supervised
+extracurricular programs. Among the activities scheduled were special
+exhibitions, sports events, meetings, lectures, and competitions based
+on ideological themes.
+
+By the late 1950s the reorganization of the educational process along
+communist lines was virtually completed, and some expansion of
+facilities had taken place. Curricular requirements had been codified;
+new textbooks had been written, printed, and introduced throughout the
+system; new teaching methods were in general use; and the revised
+teacher training program had produced adequate numbers of "reliable"
+teachers at all school levels. Additional schools for minority groups
+had been built, and overall progress throughout the system was
+sufficient to permit the extension of the compulsory system of education
+from four to seven years beginning with the 1958/59 school year.
+
+In the early 1960s demands for skilled and semiskilled agricultural and
+industrial workers brought further changes in the educational system. A
+renewed general emphasis was placed on polytechnical education, and a
+period of practical on-the-job training before entering permanent
+employment was instituted for all secondary technical school graduates.
+The achievement of this new objective required a further extension of
+the compulsory education period to eight years and a relative deemphasis
+of the amount of class time allocated to the humanities and other purely
+academic subjects.
+
+In 1968 a new educational law was enacted that had far-reaching
+consequences, but by late 1971 it had not yet been fully implemented.
+Changes provided for under this law were intended to improve the general
+quality of education at all levels and to relate education more closely
+to expanding technological and industrial needs. In addition, the law
+instituted new measures that gave stronger impetus to the political
+indoctrination of youth in order to counteract student unrest and
+dissatisfaction as well as the spread of Western liberalism (see ch. 9).
+
+Specific modifications to be made in the system under the 1968 law
+included the extension of compulsory education to ten years, the
+establishment of additional specialized secondary schools, the
+introduction of more practical classroom work on vocational and
+technical subjects, closer coordination and supervision of
+extracurricular projects by the Union of Communist Youth, and the
+requirement that teachers include a greater number of political and
+ideological themes in all social science courses. The importance
+attached to the political aspects of the new program by the regime was
+indicated by the creation, in July 1971, of the new post of first
+deputy minister of education with the specific function of expanding and
+supervising all ideological indoctrination throughout the school system.
+
+
+LITERACY
+
+Before World War II the literacy rate in Romania ranked among the lowest
+in Europe. In 1930, at the time of the first official census, more than
+38 percent of the population over seven years of age were considered
+illiterate--50 percent of the women and over 25 percent of the men in
+the entire population of about 18 million were unable to read or write.
+In rural areas, where most of the population lived, it was generally
+considered that the illiteracy rate was even higher. Much of the lack of
+literacy could be attributed to the fact that children of school age
+either were not enrolled in school or, if they were enrolled, did not
+attend classes regularly. There was also a fairly large percentage of
+children who left school without completing their studies or, having
+completed only the mandatory first four grades, relapsed into illiteracy
+in adult life.
+
+Although the proportion of literacy had been increased somewhat by the
+time the Communists came to power, it was still low. The emphasis given
+to expanded educational opportunities by the party and government
+between 1948 and 1956 brought a substantial decline in the number of
+illiterates. Classes were organized throughout the country by the
+various people's councils, and a determined campaign was undertaken to
+increase enrollment. Most of these courses lasted two years and were
+conducted on a weekly basis by both regular teachers and literate
+volunteers; successful completion was officially considered equivalent
+to graduation from a four-year elementary school.
+
+As a result of these increased efforts, the 1956 census showed an
+overall increase in the literacy rate to about 90 percent. According to
+this census the greatest proportion of illiterates was still to be found
+in the rural areas and among women. Literacy courses were continued
+until late 1958, when the government officially declared that illiteracy
+had been eliminated. Despite this authoritative statement, Western
+demographers consider that, although illiteracy has been significantly
+reduced, it probably still exists among older segments of the
+population, particularly in remote areas of the country.
+
+
+THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
+
+In early 1972 the public education system included all levels of
+instruction from preschool or kindergarten through elementary,
+secondary, and higher polytechnical schools and universities (see fig.
+6). At the beginning of the 1971/72 academic year approximately 4.5
+million students were enrolled in the more than 16,000 schools operated
+throughout the system. Kindergartens and nurseries were organized on a
+voluntary basis, but attendance at elementary school and through the
+first two years of secondary school was compulsory for students between
+the ages of six and sixteen. Attendance at higher level institutions was
+voluntary, but admission was subject to selective procedures that
+included heavy emphasis on political reliability as well as scholastic
+achievement.
+
+All schools were state owned, and tuition, textbooks, and other
+classroom materials were free at all levels. An extensive system of
+scholarships existed, sponsored by government agencies, labor unions,
+state enterprises, and mass organizations. These scholarships were
+awarded on a selective basis to students in both secondary and higher
+schools to help defray transportation costs, living costs, and
+recreational expenses. The state also operated hostels, low-cost
+boardinghouses, child care centers, dining halls, and canteens for
+students above the elementary level. A planned increase in the number of
+these facilities, however, had not been achieved, and the authorities
+were under pressure to both improve and expand them.
+
+The educational system, in general, stressed technical, political, and
+economic subjects; and the classroom work in the elementary and
+secondary schools was underscored by the Pioneers Organization, whose
+extracurricular activities were considered an integral part of the
+educational program. The Union of Communist Youth and the Union of
+Student Associations performed similar functions in the higher schools.
+The academic year ran from October to September, and elementary and
+secondary classes ended at the end of May. At the university level all
+instruction was divided into two semesters, running respectively from
+October 1 to January 14 and from February 15 to June 30. The grading
+system at all levels utilized numbers from a high of ten to a low of
+one, five being the minimal passing grade.
+
+
+Administration and Finance
+
+The Ministry of Education exercised overall control and direction of the
+educational system and implemented all party policies and directives
+concerning its management. In carrying out this broad mission, the
+ministry cooperated with other central organs of state administration
+and principally with the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
+Sciences. Under the country's highly centralized control system, the
+ministry's specific functions included: the determination of the number
+and kinds of institutions to be organized in the school network and the
+types of trades and specialties to be taught; the drawing up of plans,
+curricula, syllabi, and textbooks and teaching materials; the
+supervision over the training, appointment, promotion, and dismissal of
+all educational personnel; the general supervision of research plans at
+higher institutions of learning; and the coordination of the assignment
+of graduates to meet the planned requirements of the economy.
+
+ [Illustration:
+ UNIVERSITIES AND                         HIGHER
+ POSTGRADUATE STUDY                     POLYTECHNICAL
+                                         INSTITUTES
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ AGE---------------------------------------------------------------GRADE
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 18  SCHOOLS FOR       SCHOOLS       VOCATIONAL    TECHNICAL AND     XII
+     UNIVERSITY      FOR THE ARTS    SCHOOLS     TEACHER TRAINING
+ 17  PREPARATION                                    SCHOOLS           XI
+ 16                                                                    X
+ 15                                                                   IX
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 14                                                                 VIII
+ 13                                                                  VII
+ 12                                                                   VI
+ 11         8-YEAR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS                                  V
+ 10                                                                   IV
+ 9                                                                   III
+ 8                                                                    II
+ 7                                                                     I
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 6       NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS
+ 5
+ 4
+ 3
+ ----------------------------------------------------------
+
+Note--Attendance is compulsory through grade X.
+
+_Figure 6. Romania, Structure of Education, 1972._]
+
+The Ministry of Education also defined general policy for, and
+supervised the work of, the educational sections of the various regional
+and district people's councils, which were assigned certain
+responsibilities for organizing and administering local primary and
+secondary schools. The operation of these schools was subject to
+periodic detailed checks by a body of inspectors general to ensure the
+uniform application of government regulations and policies. All
+institutions of higher learning were controlled directly by the Ministry
+of Education, which appointed and dismissed all rectors and their
+assistants. The ministry also employed an intertwined system of advisory
+councils and commissions to ensure compliance with party and government
+directives and guidelines.
+
+The overall budgeting for the educational system was also coordinated by
+the Ministry of Education and consisted of the budgets submitted by the
+various people's councils for primary and secondary schools as well as
+the ministry's own estimated budget needs for vocational and higher
+schools and for operating the entire system. In 1969, the latest year
+for which official statistics were available, approximately 6 percent of
+the state budget was allocated to education.
+
+
+Preschool Education
+
+Preschool education, consisting principally of kindergartens, was
+available on an optional basis for all children between the ages of
+three and six. Attendance was free, and enrollment was encouraged by the
+government as an essential step in the communist educational system of
+developing "correct" socialist values and attitudes in youth.
+Kindergartens were organized by districts and were located at the
+facilities of local enterprises, state organizations, and cooperative
+agencies. In certain areas, day nurseries attached to kindergartens
+provided care for the children of working mothers, for which a fee,
+generally in proportion to the parents' wages, was charged.
+
+If the school was large enough, classes were generally organized on an
+age-group basis, each with a teacher or supervisor. The number of
+children attending kindergartens has steadily increased since 1960.
+During the 1969/70 school year more than 428,000 children, approximately
+40 percent of all those eligible, were enrolled in about 10,000
+kindergartens and nurseries. Official estimates anticipated that this
+attendance figure would increase appreciably in future years as more
+working mothers were added to the labor force.
+
+
+Primary Education
+
+Primary education was provided, in early 1972, to all children between
+the ages of six and sixteen in eight-year elementary schools as part of
+the compulsory education program. During the 1969/70 school year
+enrollment was about 3.3 million students in about 15,000 schools
+throughout the country. Instruction was conducted principally in the
+Romanian language, but in those areas with large minority populations
+Hungarian- or German-speaking teachers were employed, and special texts
+were also available in those languages.
+
+Courses taught throughout the first four years, in addition to stressing
+the Romanian language, included history, geography, arithmetic,
+elementary biology, art, music, and physical education. Classes usually
+met six days a week for periods ranging from four to five hours,
+depending on the type of subject matter to be covered. Grades five
+through eight emphasized the development of the pupils' ability to
+express themselves orally and in writing through the intensified
+teaching of many of the subjects presented in the first four grades. In
+addition, foreign-language instruction was introduced in the fifth
+grade, offering a choice of French, German, Russian, or English. In all
+grades the foundation of political education was laid within the scope
+of Marxist-Leninist tenets concerning the materialistic development of
+society, usually presented as part of other general subjects.
+
+Examinations were held in each area of study at the end of the school
+year. Promotion to the next higher class required a passing grade of
+five (on the one-to-ten scale) in the substantive work covered, as well
+as a minimum grade of six for general conduct. A student was permitted
+to repeat an examination before being failed in a course but, if he
+failed that too, the entire course had to be repeated.
+
+At the end of the eight-year program all graduates were required to
+pass written examinations in history, geography, and literature as well
+as oral tests in other selected subjects. Those successfully completing
+both examinations were awarded diplomas and became eligible to take the
+competitive entrance examinations for secondary school. It was at this
+point that students were grouped into general categories according to
+their aptitudes for advanced education: ultimate university-level study,
+teaching and technical training, the professional arts, and vocational
+training.
+
+
+Secondary Education
+
+In late 1971 the necessary adjustments in the secondary school structure
+to accommodate the changeover from eight to ten years of compulsory
+education, as provided in the 1968 educational law, had not yet been
+completed. Although the extension of the program through the tenth grade
+began with the 1969/70 school year, shortages in funds, educational
+personnel, and facilities needed for higher student enrollment still
+existed and were not expected to be overcome until 1973. Secondary
+schools of all types numbered about 800 in 1970 and had an enrollment of
+about 370,000 students, roughly one-quarter of those of secondary school
+age.
+
+General education secondary schools were of the college preparatory
+type, offered a four-year program, and had the most rigid entrance
+requirements. Students could select a course either in the humanities or
+in the natural sciences. The humanities course included such subjects as
+the Romanian language, a modern language, Latin, history, psychology and
+logic, and the history of literature. The science course covered
+mathematics through advanced algebra and probability theory, astronomy,
+physics, chemistry, biology, and economic and political geography.
+Physical education and art were included in both courses, as was a
+subject called sociopolitical science, which covered elements of
+political economy, "scientific" socialism, and the history of the
+Communist Party and the labor movement in Romania.
+
+After satisfactory completion of either course of study, all students
+were required to take the state baccalaureate examination, which
+qualified them for admission to higher schools or for district
+employment in middle-level positions in government or in industry. The
+number of entrants to schools of higher education was determined by the
+Ministry of Education each year in the light of the needs of the various
+sectors of the economy and of cultural life. Since the number of
+applicants usually exceeded the number of spaces allocated to each
+higher institution, competitive examinations were held, and candidates
+were selected on the basis of marks received and their general political
+attitude. Those who either failed the entrance examination--that is, did
+not receive marks sufficiently high to qualify for a university or
+polytechnical institute--or were considered politically apathetic were
+usually placed in short-term vocational courses to qualify them for
+employment as technicians.
+
+Specialized secondary education was conducted in schools for the
+professional arts and in technical and teacher training schools. Studies
+in art schools lasted one or two years and consisted of combined courses
+of general subjects and specialized training in cultural activities,
+including various forms of art and drama. Technical schools specialized
+in industrial fields, agriculture and its associated subfields,
+forestry, socialist economics, and public health. Courses offered
+covered four or five years, the time depending on the area of
+specialization, and included basic courses in general education.
+Graduates in these technical fields were designated for employment in
+intermediate-level positions. Teacher training schools, also of four or
+five years' duration, trained students exclusively for teaching
+positions at the preschool and elementary levels.
+
+Vocational secondary education encompassed the largest number of schools
+and was reported to enroll almost 50 percent of all secondary school
+students. These schools provided a one- or two-year program of combined
+general education and vocational training in all the trades necessary
+for the national economy. Vocational schools were usually organized at
+the locations of industrial enterprises and socialist cooperatives, and
+students were trained as skilled workers. Additional vocational training
+was also provided in the form of apprentice or on-the-job training to
+workers already employed in industrial installations. The bulk of these
+trainees had either completed the compulsory level of education and then
+dropped out of school or had failed to be selected in the competitive
+examination for entrance into secondary school. Vocational training had
+not kept pace with increasing industrialization, and in 1972 the demand
+for trained workers continued to surpass the supply (see ch. 16).
+
+
+Higher Education
+
+The system of higher education was comprised primarily of universities
+and polytechnical and specialized institutes, which in 1971 had a total
+enrollment of approximately 150,000 students. All institutions were
+under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Education and were
+geared to produce specialists in the humanities, in the social, natural,
+physical, and engineering sciences, and in education as needed to fill
+positions in government and all sectors of the economy. The schools of
+higher learning were generally headed by a rector (university) or a
+director (technical institute), who was appointed by the Ministry of
+Education for a period of four years.
+
+Schools were divided into faculties, headed by deans; faculties, in
+turn, were divided into departments, each headed by a chairman.
+Collectively the rector, deans, chairmen, and certain other selected
+faculty members were grouped into an advisory council, which had broad
+authority in carrying out the government's educational policies,
+approving the faculty work programs, supervising the instruction carried
+out by the departments, and granting degrees at the graduate level.
+
+Students were admitted to all higher schools on the basis of competitive
+examination and assigned to particular faculties according to
+government-directed areas of study. Most degree courses at universities
+required three to six years to complete, and those at polytechnical
+institutes, from two to three years. Medical and dental degrees were
+granted at institutes attached to universities and required six years of
+study.
+
+After completing all course requirements and passing a comprehensive
+state examination, graduates of the various institutions were assigned
+to positions in the government or industry as dictated by their
+specialized work. Students who graduated with distinction were given
+preference in assignment to positions and in the selection of candidates
+for postgraduate study. Two higher degrees were available: the Candidate
+of Science, which required an additional three years of study, the
+passing of several examinations, and the successful defense of a thesis
+that made an original contribution to the student's field of
+specialization; and the Doctor of Science, which also required extensive
+study, the passing of oral and written examinations, and the successful
+defense of a thesis based on original and extensive research work in the
+student's selected field.
+
+
+Adult Education
+
+Adult education as a supplementary form of instruction was considered an
+integral part of the educational process. Initiated in the early 1950s,
+the program was intended to give the workers and peasants the
+opportunity to improve their level of education and skill and, at the
+same time, to provide the government with the means of intensifying the
+ideological and political indoctrination of the general population.
+
+A variety of schools was established throughout the country that offered
+evening and correspondence courses to volunteer enrollees, mostly
+between the ages of forty and sixty. The courses consisted of lectures
+given by volunteer instructors in the social, natural, and political
+sciences; although no degree or diploma was offered, those who
+successfully completed courses were eligible, after passing a state
+examination, for certificates as elementary or higher school graduates.
+
+In 1958 the program was revised and expanded. In that year people's and
+workers' "universities" were established under the guidance of labor
+unions, local committees on art and culture, and committees of the Union
+of Communist Youth. These universities were established at cultural
+centers, in libraries, in museums, and at collective farms and
+industrial enterprises. The enrollment age was lowered to twenty to
+attract youthful school dropouts, and a greater variety of basic general
+educational and technical courses was introduced. Despite these changes,
+in 1967 the press reported a general lack of public support for the
+program. Deficiencies in the system included a lack of adequate
+classrooms and equipment, the low quality of instruction, and the
+absence of a vigorous recruitment program.
+
+After the enactment of the new law on education in 1968, the system was
+again revised; extensive modifications were made in the curricula, and
+closer supervision of the program was undertaken. In rural areas the
+school year was shortened to four or six months during the winter, and
+additional general cultural courses were offered, as well as special
+courses in foreign languages and modern agricultural techniques. In
+urban schools the program was reduced to eight or nine months, and
+modern courses in stenography, television repair, and automatic data
+processing were made available. As a result of these efforts, official
+reports in 1970 claimed that the number of schools providing adult
+education had increased to 171 and that student enrollment totaled
+almost 100,000.
+
+
+Teacher Training
+
+Teachers and educators were considered important elements in the
+ideological and political conditioning process directed toward the
+country's youth. In addition to their primary task of teaching, they
+were relied upon to supplement the educational program by acting as
+disseminators and interpreters of the communist line and by encouraging
+and influencing young students to participate in state-sponsored
+activities. In 1971 there were approximately 200,000 teachers assigned
+to the 16,000 schools throughout the country, and this number was
+expected to increase with the continued emphasis on mass education.
+
+Teacher training was accomplished at three main levels: pedagogical
+schools for training preschool and elementary teachers; pedagogical
+faculties or departments at universities and teachers' institutes for
+training secondary teachers; and a postgraduate studies program to
+prepare lecturers and professors for higher educational institutions.
+There were also refresher training courses conducted at various centers,
+which all teachers were required to attend once every five years until
+they had accumulated twenty-five years of experience in the profession.
+These courses varied in length and generally stressed advances in
+pedagogical science, counseling techniques, and utilization of modern
+teaching aids.
+
+As evidence of the importance it placed on the teaching profession, the
+government, since 1967, has instituted many practices intended to
+improve the social position of teachers in the community as well as to
+increase their personal benefits. Among these innovations was the
+creation of the titles of professor emeritus, educator emeritus,
+outstanding professor, and outstanding educator in order to honor
+individuals for exceptional work. The government also authorized several
+orders and medals to be awarded to teachers for outstanding service and
+accomplishments.
+
+Teachers were also nominated for places on local people's councils, and
+increasing numbers were declared eligible for election to the Grand
+National Assembly. To raise the standard of living for the teaching
+corps, a new wage system was introduced in 1969, which granted pay
+increases at all teaching levels, improved promotions, and raised
+retirement benefits. Government assistance was made available to all
+teachers for the construction of individual homes in either urban or
+rural areas in which they were assigned.
+
+
+EDUCATION OF MINORITIES
+
+Although the government has recognized in principle the right of the
+national minorities to use their native languages in education, the
+implementation of official educational policies has reflected a strong
+preference for the incorporation or integration of all minority groups
+into the general population. The dissatisfaction of the large Hungarian
+and German minorities with the inadequacies of minority education
+eventually surfaced in early 1969 at the national congress of
+educational workers, and since that time the regime has taken steps to
+reduce inequalities in the system by providing additional facilities,
+trained personnel, and teaching materials for the improvement of
+minority instruction.
+
+As a result of this increased government support, groups as small as six
+were made eligible to be instructed by a full-time teacher in any
+non-Romanian native language. High schools with instruction in Hungarian
+or German were set up in a number of the larger cities and towns that
+had sizable populations in those nationalities. In addition, sections or
+classes were organized in certain vocational and industrial schools for
+the teaching of selected subjects in minority languages, and candidates
+for admission to higher schools were permitted to take competitive
+examinations in either Romanian or their native language. By the opening
+of the 1971/72 school year the government reported that more than
+280,000 minority students in 3,162 schools and sections were receiving
+instruction in their native languages from approximately 14,000
+teachers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 7
+
+ARTISTIC AND INTELLECTUAL EXPRESSION
+
+
+The arts and intellectual activity reflect Romania's position as a
+crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures. Elements of ancient Roman
+culture from the second and third centuries mingle with Byzantine
+elements (dating from the Middle Ages) and with Islamic elements
+(brought by the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century) (see ch. 2).
+In more recent times, these were joined by elements of Western European
+culture. Underlying all these influences from abroad are elements of a
+native peasant culture that can be traced back to the Neolithic
+settlement found on the territory of the Romanian state. The mixing of
+all the elements has produced a cultural mosaic that, although it has
+much in common with the cultures of neighboring countries, is purely
+Romanian.
+
+The Romanian people are very proud of their cultural heritage and of the
+artistic and intellectual expression that it has inspired. Artists and
+intellectuals have always occupied a favored position in society as
+transmitters of the aspirations of the people. They continue to feel an
+identity as the social class that is responsible for the spiritual
+well-being of the nation.
+
+The communist government has promoted this pride in the cultural
+heritage by devoting considerable funds and effort to the restoration
+and preservation of antiquities. It has also fostered the preservation
+of folk art and folk traditions through the establishment of the Village
+Museums in Bucharest and Cluj and through the continued urging of
+contemporary artists to produce a national art based on folk traditions.
+
+The various ethnic minorities have preserved their own cultural
+traditions and forms of expression. Although these forms reflect the
+same modern influences of foreign origins that have affected Romanian
+forms, they show relatively little direct borrowing from each other or
+from the Romanian majority.
+
+Because artistic and intellectual activity is a very effective means of
+protest and social criticism and, therefore, opposition to the
+established order, the communist leadership has tried to keep such
+expression under control and to use it for its own purposes. The degree
+of cultural freedom and the content of cultural output have been
+indicators of the political situation in the country.
+
+Despite controls, artists and intellectuals continue to create. Not all
+of their effort becomes public, and that which does is not necessarily
+sincere or direct. Symbolism and allusion have been developed to a high
+degree and are well understood by both the creator and his audience.
+
+
+THE ROLE OF THE ARTS UNDER COMMUNISM
+
+Since the communists took control of the government in 1947, artistic
+and intellectual expression has been dominated by the cultural policy of
+the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist Roman--PCR), which
+follows the model developed by the Soviet Union. The policy is based on
+the concept known as Socialist Realism, whereby an artist must strive to
+grasp the essence of human and social relations and depict them
+truthfully in the light of socialist ideals. Art must be directed toward
+the working man; therefore its style must be simple and straightforward.
+
+Adherence to this concept in the formulation and execution of cultural
+policy has varied, however, and generally reflects the political climate
+of the time and the particular outlook of the men in power. During the
+1950s, which has come to be known as the Dogmatic Period of cultural
+life in post-World War II Romania, the content of the arts and of
+intellectual expression was strictly controlled and restricted.
+Socialist Realism was interpreted to mean the presentation of the
+glories of communist ideals through the various forms of art and the use
+of such forms to further these ideals. All cultural effort, therefore,
+had to be directed to these goals, and no deviation was tolerated. The
+merits of a book, painting, or play were judged only by how well they
+fulfilled the propaganda function. Most individuals entrusted with
+passing judgment on what was or was not acceptable had no professional
+qualifications. As a result of all these factors, artistic production
+that was made public during this period was, with few exceptions, dull
+and mediocre.
+
+With the discrediting of Stalin and his policies in the mid-1950s,
+dogmatism in artistic expression gave way to a more liberal
+interpretation of what was considered appropriate. Emphasis on Socialist
+Realism was replaced with emphasis on nationalistic and historical
+themes, as Romania strove to gain greater political and economic
+independence from the Soviet Union. In order to be acceptable to the
+administrators of cultural policy, artistic expression no longer had to
+confine itself to the presentation of communist ideals in traditional
+styles, but it could address itself to a variety of themes and could
+experiment in innovative styles. Although artists were criticized for
+submitting to so-called decadent bourgeois culture if they moved too far
+away from the standards of Socialist Realism, they were not punished or
+enjoined from further creative activity unless their work could be
+interpreted as an attack on the regime or its policies.
+
+At the same time, expanding relations between Romania and the
+noncommunist world brought artists and intellectuals into contact with
+cultural developments elsewhere and stimulated Romanian creative
+expression. Cultural exchanges with Western countries were often used by
+the government to allow artists more freedom of expression than could be
+politically justified at home. Artists were allowed to exhibit or
+perform abroad works that had been highly criticized at home. The
+critical praise received abroad was proudly publicized at home as an
+example of Romanian genius, at the same time that these very works were
+being criticized for not meeting the desired standards of artistic
+expression.
+
+The apparent inconsistency in the application of cultural policy in the
+late 1960s was indicative of a widespread effort to determine what the
+role of art and literature should be in a socialist society. By 1971
+this had become a much debated topic. Party ideologists, communist and
+noncommunist artists and critics, and other members of the intellectual
+elite, including students, aired their views through roundtable
+discussions, through polemics in the press, and through other means. The
+debates appeared to be unrestricted and lively, and the views expressed
+ranged from strict adherence to the concept of Socialist Realism to a
+plea for "art for art's sake." The opinion of the majority, however,
+seemed to be that art and literature in a socialist society, as in any
+other society, have both an aesthetic and a social role. Neither of
+these functions should overshadow the other; social and political
+elements in a work of art or literature should be implicit and
+artistically presented rather than the sole justification for the
+existence of the work.
+
+In July 1971 President Nicolae Ceausescu announced a tightening of
+cultural reins in order to bring cultural and educational activity back
+toward its socialist purpose. The statement was followed by the removal
+of some books from publication schedules, the cancellation of some
+theatrical productions, and the resignation or removal of several
+editors of literary and cultural periodicals. Most observers, however,
+agreed that, despite some tightening of controls, artistic and
+intellectual expression in Romania at the end of 1971 was far from
+returning to the restrictions of the Dogmatic Period of the 1950s.
+
+Cultural policy was administered in 1971 by the Council on Socialist
+Culture and Education, which had replaced the State Committee for
+Culture and Art. The council had the status of a ministry in the
+government, as had the committee that preceded it (see ch. 8). The main
+overseers of cultural policy and the principal organs of control on
+artistic and intellectual expression, however, have been the various
+professional unions. The role of the unions is to supervise and enforce
+established standards of creative expression and to act as
+representatives for the members of their professions. A close
+relationship exists between the union leadership and the communist
+party, whose control of the unions and, thereby, of the members is
+exercised through the party leadership (see ch. 9).
+
+Membership in the appropriate union is a prerequisite for effective
+artistic and intellectual activity. Only members can be employed in
+their professions and have their works published, performed, or
+exhibited. Deviation from established cultural policy results in
+expulsion from the union and consequent professional oblivion.
+Therefore, most artists and intellectuals exercise self-censorship
+rather than risk punishment, even if such censorship involves
+compromising principles and artistic standards.
+
+
+ART, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE
+
+Folk Art
+
+A long heritage of decorative folk art, expressed in wood carving,
+embroidery, weaving, pottery, and other forms, has been important as
+artistic expression for the peasants and has served as inspiration for
+the more sophisticated painters, sculptors, and architects. Regional
+differences in styles and materials reflect the way of life of the
+people as well as their needs and the resources available to them.
+
+Some of the typical forms and motifs used through the ages have been
+found to date back to articles unearthed by archaeologists at Neolithic
+settlements. In common with the folk art of other countries of Eastern
+Europe, Romanian folk art uses mostly abstract and geometric designs.
+When floral or animal forms are used, they are usually stylized.
+
+The carving of wood is a natural form of folk expression in the heavily
+forested areas of the Carpathians and Transylvania. Pillars and frames
+of houses and other buildings, farmyard gates, and furniture are
+decorated with carved geometric designs. Wooden household utensils are
+also decorated with carved designs, as are farm tools and other objects
+used in daily life.
+
+Elaborate embroidery decorates the traditional costumes of both men and
+women. Those used on festive occasions are particularly richly
+embellished. Designs and colors vary with the regions and make it
+possible to identify specific costumes with specific parts of the
+country. Similar embroidery is also used to decorate household linens.
+
+Particularly well known outside the country are the woven rugs,
+tablecloths, and tapestries that decorate all rural homes and many urban
+ones. Designs are mostly geometric, and particular designs and color
+combinations are associated with particular regions. Well known for
+their unusual design and warm colors are Oltenian textiles in which a
+central animal, human, or floral design is surrounded by several frames
+of different colors. Muntenian textiles, on the other hand, have small
+geometric designs spread over the whole surface. Moldavian and
+Transylvanian textiles vary a great deal from one location to another
+and include both geometric and figurative designs. At one time, wool was
+used exclusively for weaving rugs and tapestries, but since the
+mid-nineteenth century cotton or hemp warp has been used in combination
+with wool. All-cotton and all-hemp rugs and wall hangings are also
+produced.
+
+Pottery of various kinds is made both as decorative objects and as
+household utensils. Plates, pots, and jugs are used to serve and store
+food, but they are also displayed on shelves along the walls of peasant
+houses, making the interiors colorful and cheerful. The shapes, colors,
+and designs of the pottery show the many cultural influences from
+Neolithic to modern West European. Two distinct types of pottery are
+produced: a black pottery made by incomplete firing of clay with much
+smoke, and the more common red pottery. Black pottery, the origins of
+which date back to the Bronze Age or earlier, is made mostly in Moldavia
+and eastern Transylvania. It has a highly polished finish, which is
+achieved by the use of a special stone. The widely produced red pottery
+may be glazed or unglazed and is usually decorated in some fashion--by
+painting, scratching a design into the wet clay, or applying a design in
+relief.
+
+Among the more unusual forms of folk art that continue to be practiced
+are the decoration of Easter eggs and painting on glass. Easter is a
+special time not only because of its religious significance but also
+because it heralds the beginning of the growing season, and Easter eggs
+as a symbol of fertility are an important element of the festivities.
+Eggs are decorated with highly ornamental patterns in various ways and
+often become respected works of art.
+
+Painting on glass was introduced into Transylvania in the seventeenth
+century from Bohemia and was used for the production of religious
+icons. Icon painting formed an important bridge between folk art and the
+fine arts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no longer
+widely practiced.
+
+A number of contemporary artists utilize the various forms of folk art
+as their medium of artistic expression. Their designs include not only
+the traditional but also elements of modern art styles, such as cubism
+and abstraction.
+
+
+Fine Arts
+
+The beginnings of fine art in Romania date back to the fourteenth
+century when frescoes and other paintings were created to decorate the
+churches of the period. All of the early art was created in connection
+with churches, although not all of it was religious in content.
+Portraits of those responsible for the building of churches or
+monasteries, and of their families, were often included among the
+pictures of saints and biblical scenes that decorate the interior and
+exterior walls of medieval religious buildings.
+
+Romanian church art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
+recognized as some of the finest and most unusual of the later period of
+Byzantine art. It differs somewhat in style from other examples of
+Byzantine art of that period by reflecting the influence of folk art.
+Some of the finest examples are found at the Moldavian monasteries of
+Putna, Sucevita, and Voronet. They are unusual in that they were painted
+on the outside walls in order to educate the peasants in church history
+and in elements of their faith. The quality and imaginativeness of these
+frescoes has been termed one of the great contributions to European
+religious art. Their freshness after more than 400 years of exposure to
+the elements is remarkable.
+
+In addition to paintings, religious art of the medieval period also
+included various objects, such as vestments, furniture, and vessels
+worked in wood, gold, or silver and richly decorated. Collections of
+these objects are preserved at the monasteries, the largest exhibits
+being at Sucevita and Putna.
+
+During the seventeenth century a change in style took place in painting
+and other decorative arts, although the subject matter remained
+religious. Russian artists who had come to Moldavia and Walachia
+introduced the small, detailed painting of Russian iconography, which
+became evident in the murals and other painting of Romanian artists. At
+the same time, the simple, folk art decorative forms were replaced by a
+more elaborate style showing both Baroque and Oriental influences. A
+distinct Walachian style developed, and schools emerged in Bucharest and
+other cities. The most notable achievements of the Walachian school are
+the interior frescoes of the Hurez Monastery.
+
+A secular trend was introduced into art in the eighteenth century with a
+greater involvement of merchants, craftsmen, and landowners as patrons.
+Not until the nineteenth century, however, did a completely secular art
+come into being, mostly through foreign influences. The earliest secular
+artists reflect in their styles the training they had received as
+religious artists.
+
+In the early nineteenth century several foreign painters lived and
+worked in Romania and exerted a strong influence on young Romanian
+artists who, in turn, helped to train other artists of the nineteenth
+century. The spirit of nationalism and revolution that was sweeping
+Europe during that century involved Romanian artists as it did those in
+other countries under foreign rule. Art was a medium for expressing
+nationalist sentiments and the fight for self-determination. Most of the
+art of the period, therefore, represents historic and heroic subjects.
+Foremost among the revolutionary artists were Gheorghe Tattarescu and
+Theodor Aman, both extremely popular in their lifetime. Together, they
+exerted a great influence on the development of fine arts in Romania by
+founding the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest and by training young
+artists. Aman, in particular, is considered the country's first great
+modern painter.
+
+By far the most outstanding artist of the nineteenth century was Nicolae
+Grigorescu. His work remains extremely popular among Romanians, and his
+lyrical landscapes and scenes of Romanian life are well known abroad.
+
+The work of Stefan Luchian at the beginning of the twentieth century
+introduced to Romania some of the avant-garde styles that were appearing
+in European art elsewhere. Although he followed his predecessors in
+painting landscapes and rural subjects, he opposed their conservative
+style and introduced into his paintings a greater use of color than had
+been common. He also introduced social themes into his paintings by
+depicting the misery and poverty that were characteristic of the lives
+of most people. His best paintings, however, are flower studies, which
+bring out his love of color and of nature.
+
+Luchian's break with tradition and his use of color were followed by a
+number of artists, the most celebrated of whom was Nicolae Tonitza.
+These and other artists of the interwar period were greatly influenced
+by the impressionist and postimpressionist painters in Paris and Munich,
+where they studied. Their landscapes, flower studies, and portraits show
+the effective use of bright colors, which is considered characteristic
+of Romanian art.
+
+Because landscapes, floral studies, and other neutral subjects have
+traditionally been the main concern of Romanian painters, this form of
+artistic expression was the least affected by the strict controls of the
+first decade of communist rule. A number of interwar artists and several
+younger ones continued to produce their canvases in the precommunist
+tradition, but during the 1960s some young artists experimented with
+various avant-garde techniques and styles that were then current in
+Western Europe. Although the government disapproved of these works, it
+allowed the artists to exhibit them abroad and win considerable acclaim
+for Romanian art. In the late 1960s the PCR was disturbed by the extent
+to which abstract art had blossomed despite party disapproval. Artists
+had been introducing cubism and primitivism into their work under the
+guise of folk art, which is supposed to serve as their main inspiration.
+
+
+Sculpture
+
+Romanian sculpture has its origins in the tombstones and other grave
+markers dating back to the Middle Ages. As a fine art, sculpture began
+to develop in the mid-nineteenth century when the German sculptor Karl
+Storck arrived in Bucharest to teach at the School of Fine Arts. Among
+the earliest sculptors he trained were Ion Georgescu and his own son,
+Carol Storck, both known for their statuary and busts. Stefan Ionescu
+Valbudea, also in that group, was best known for his romantic statues
+and classical male figures in movement.
+
+In the period between the two world wars, several sculptors produced
+large monumental works visible in public places. Dimitrie Paciurea was
+the first in this group. He was followed by his students Corneal Madrea,
+Ion Jalea, and Oscar Han. In addition to his monumental sculptures,
+Jalea is also known for his busts and bas-reliefs. Han is particularly
+known for his busts and statutes of famous Romanians.
+
+Best known of all Romanian sculptors is Constantin Brancusi, who is
+considered one of the great sculptors of the world. Brancusi studied in
+Bucharest and in Paris. His earliest work, mostly busts, shows a strong
+influence of Auguste Rodin. Gradually he broke with tradition and
+developed a highly stylized and abstract style utilizing the simplest
+forms. His best known works are found in important collections
+throughout the world.
+
+The work of contemporary sculptors included a wide range of styles and
+mediums. Modernistic works in stone, wood, and various metals, some of
+them completely abstract, can be seen in parks and other public places
+throughout the country. A number of contemporary sculptors have taken
+inspiration from folk art for their often massive works in wood.
+
+
+Architecture
+
+Architecture, more than any other form of artistic expression, reflects
+the many cultural influences that have been exerted on the people of
+Romania over the ages. The abundance of architectural styles found in
+the country has been a source of great pride for Romanians who have
+devoted much time and money to preserve them.
+
+The simplest architectural forms are those of the peasant houses made of
+wood and clay. The style and building technique of many of these houses
+have been traced back to those used in Neolithic settlements.
+
+Vestiges of Roman architecture can be found in Dobruja, Walachia, and
+Transylvania. The most important of these are the remains of the bridge
+built by Emperor Trajan across the Danube at Turnu Severin. A large
+amphitheater has been unearthed at the site of the Dacian-Roman capital
+of Sarmizegetusa at the southwestern tip of the Transylvanian plain.
+Other Roman remains include several monuments as well as sections of
+roads and aqueducts.
+
+The period of greatest architectural creativity is usually referred to
+as the feudal period, dating from the tenth century to the beginning of
+the nineteenth century. The oldest structures of that period are the
+fully preserved Byzantine church at Densus, Transylvania, and the ruins
+of the Prince's Court at Curtea de Arges. Beginning in the fourteenth
+century, distinctive architectural styles developed in Walachia,
+Moldavia, and Transylvania.
+
+The architecture of Walachia and Moldavia shows strong Byzantine
+influences and includes all the special forms and decorative styles of
+the several periods of Byzantine art. Specifically Romanian variations
+are the exterior frescoes and the massive protecting walls of some of
+the churches and monasteries.
+
+Transylvanian architecture of the feudal period reflects Western
+European influences, including Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and
+Baroque styles. The fortified churches and castles built by German and
+Hungarian settlers are reminiscent of similar structures in central
+Europe but distinguished by their massiveness and fortifications. The
+older architecture of several cities in central Transylvania is
+completely Germanic or Hungarian in character, contrasting sharply with
+that of Walachian and Moldavian cities. The typical Romanian
+architecture found throughout the Transylvanian countryside is
+particularly prominent in many rural wooden churches, which invariably
+feature fine pointed spires.
+
+During the seventeenth century the Brancovan style of architecture was
+developed in Walachia, the name being derived from that of the ruling
+Prince Constantin Brincoveanu. It is characterized by the use of open
+porches supported by large pillars. The pillars and door and window
+frames are usually elaborately carved with floral designs. The exterior
+of the building is usually ringed by a wide, carved wooden band.
+Outstanding examples of the Brancovan style are the Hurez Monastery and
+the Mogosoaia Palace in Bucharest. More recent adaptations of the style
+are seen in several public buildings and private villas built in
+Bucharest before World War I.
+
+Starting in the nineteenth century, Byzantine influences began to
+disappear from architecture. Most building after that period followed
+contemporary European styles, although elements of Romanian folk art
+were often incorporated in the decorative details. Modern architecture
+began to develop in the period between the world wars and reached a high
+level of accomplishment in the 1950s and 1960s with the construction of
+the seaside resorts of Mangalia, Eforie Nord, and Mamaia. Most
+contemporary architecture, however, is oversized and utilitarian. The
+needs for rapid and cheap construction forced architects to disregard
+aesthetics and produce monotonous, dreary structures.
+
+
+MUSIC
+
+Romanians have the reputation of being a musical people. Song and dance
+play an important role in their daily lives, particularly among the
+peasants. A rich heritage of folk music, both vocal and instrumental,
+has been passed down from generation to generation and has formed the
+background for serious Romanian music that began to develop in the
+mid-nineteenth century.
+
+Folk music can be broadly classified as dance music, ballads and
+laments, and pastoral music. Dance music is most frequently performed
+and is a major component of any festivity. Dance tunes are generally
+lively to accompany the fast and intricate steps of the dancers.
+Sometimes they are sung by the dancers, but more often they are played
+by one or more of the traditional instruments.
+
+The basic instrument in folk music is the violin. It is often
+accompanied by the _cobza_, a large stringed instrument resembling the
+lute, or by a _tambal_, a zither-like instrument played with small
+hammers. A variety of flutes are also used both as solo instruments and
+in orchestras. The accordion is popular as a solo accompaniment for
+singing or dancing.
+
+Folk musicians are known as _lautari_ (lute players) and are often
+Gypsies. Small orchestras are found at weddings and other celebrations
+in every village and in the cities. Larger, specially formed folk
+ensembles perform on radio and television and give concerts.
+
+Ballads and laments vary in style and subject matter from region to
+region. Over the years, ballads have lost most of their importance as a
+contemporary musical form, although they retain value as poetry.
+Laments, however, continue to play an important role in the musical life
+of the people. They reflect in song the hardships and problems of daily
+life and the trials and tribulations of love. Some laments have a
+distinctly Oriental quality.
+
+Pastoral music was developed by the shepherds of the Carpathians as a
+diversion for their long, lonely days in the mountains and as a means of
+communication. The melodies are very simple, usually played on any of
+several types of alphorns or on flutes. With the changing way of life in
+the mountains, pastoral music has been disappearing as a musical form.
+
+In the early nineteenth century folklorist Anton Pann began to collect
+Romanian folk music, to publish it, and to popularize it among educated
+Romanians, who were more familiar with the classical music of Germany,
+Italy, and France than with their own musical heritage. This resulted in
+the emergence of a group of Romanian composers who utilized folk
+melodies in the composition of operas, symphonies, and chamber music.
+
+The period between the two world wars saw several composers adding to
+the repertoire of Romanian music. One who achieved international fame
+was Georghe Enescu. Dinu Lipatti became well known as a pianist,
+although he was also a composer.
+
+The music of the interwar composers showed the influence of German
+romanticism and postromanticism and of modern French music. All of it,
+however, had a strongly Romanian character attained through the use of
+intonations and rhythms borrowed from folk music.
+
+Several of the interwar composers were still active in 1970, together
+with new younger composers. Their music is regularly performed in
+Romania and in some of the other communist countries, but it is not well
+known elsewhere. Some of the young composers have experimented with
+avant-garde styles that have not been well received by the guardians of
+cultural policy. Composers are urged to use folklore as their source of
+inspiration and to write compositions reflecting the cultural policies
+of the PCR.
+
+
+THEATER
+
+Theater has always played a vital role in the life of the educated
+Romanian, and regular attendance at plays, operas, and ballets is
+considered an essential part of his cultural and intellectual life. The
+performing arts, therefore, have had a faithful and critical audience in
+all urban centers, which has stimulated playwrights and directors. In
+cities such as Cluj and Brasov, which have sizable minority populations,
+Hungarian and German theaters thrive beside the Romanian.
+
+Since the end of the rigid restrictions of the 1950s, the performing
+arts have been flourishing with talented performers, directors, and
+writers. The government has been promoting the presentation of Romanian
+plays, and Romanian playwrights have striven to compete for audience
+favor with the best of contemporary and classical foreign plays, which
+are regularly presented.
+
+Among contemporary playwrights who have achieved critical acclaim at
+home and abroad are Paul Everac, D. R. Popescu, Horia Lovinescu, Iosif
+Naghiu, and Paul Anghel. Eugene Ionesco, although Romanian by birth, is
+generally considered a French playwright since he writes in French.
+Romanians, however, proudly claim him as one of their own, even though
+his plays do not follow the desired standards of form and content.
+
+Most contemporary plays have been categorized by critics as tribunal
+drama in that they pass judgment on ideas or actions and follow a format
+where one or more characters take the role of the accused and others act
+as prosecutors. Some plays are in the form of confessions of wrongdoings
+or wrongthinking. Both forms lend themselves well to imparting a
+message. Pure entertainment plays are usually boulevard comedies.
+Historic themes seem to be popular and safe topics, particularly if they
+promote Romanian nationalism. For the most part, plays are of local
+rather than universal interest, for they deal with matters limited in
+time and space. They usually arouse interest outside Romania for what
+they reveal of the Romanian character and society rather than for
+artistic merit.
+
+The tightening of cultural reins in July 1971 seems to have had a
+greater effect on the theater than on any other form of artistic
+expression. The management of several major theaters was changed in late
+1971 following admission by the replaced managers of having favored
+artistic merit over ideological value in the selection of plays for
+their repertory. The new managers pledged themselves to presenting plays
+that contain a clear-cut message conforming to high political,
+ideological, and educational standards. They also pledged themselves to
+encourage young playwrights to write such plays. In the meantime, the
+plays selected for the 1971-72 season were almost all true and tried
+classics, devoid of any political implications. Romanian directors,
+nevertheless, have shown themselves in the past to be able to impart to
+the audience a great deal of political meaning through their
+interpretation of such seemingly innocuous plays.
+
+
+FILMS
+
+The film industry has a long and venerable history dating back to 1912,
+when the first full-length feature was produced. The silent comedies of
+the 1920s compare favorably with those produced by the best film makers
+of the time. In the 1930s and 1940s, until the communist takeover,
+Romanian musicals and tales of suspense and of the supernatural were
+popular at home and abroad. Most of these films were produced with
+technical and financial assistance from France and other countries (see
+ch. 11).
+
+Cultural restrictions in the 1950s and early 1960s prevented the
+Romanian film industry from taking part in the technical and artistic
+developments that were changing the film industry in France and other
+Western countries. As a result, films produced in Romania as late as
+1970 were technically and artistically old-fashioned compared to those
+produced in noncommunist countries and even in Czechoslovakia. Most
+critics outside the country compare them to the good films produced by
+Hollywood in the 1940s. Nevertheless, several Romanian films in the
+1960s have won prizes at lesser known international film festivals.
+
+Two of the important directors in the late 1960s were Mircea Dragan and
+Ion Popescu-Gopo. Dragan specializes in historic adventure films of epic
+proportions, whereas Popescu-Gopo concentrates on fantasies, including
+science fiction. Popescu-Gopo is also well known for his animated films.
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+Literature in the form of folk tales and poetry is of ancient origin. A
+vast collection of legends, tales, ballads, proverbs, and riddles has
+been preserved and is known to both rural and urban Romanians. Legends
+and tales deal with the daring exploits of a national hero, sometimes
+real and sometimes imaginary. In the oldest tales, the adversaries are
+monsters and inhabitants of the underworld; in later ones, they are the
+foreign conquerors and occupiers.
+
+Ballads were originally intended to be sung but are now more often
+recited as poems. They deal with the same subjects as legends and tales,
+and many are of epic proportions. In the mountains of Transylvania and
+Moldavia separate groups of ballads developed dealing with the pastoral
+life of the people.
+
+The earliest known texts written in Romania are chronicles in Old Church
+Slavonic. In the sixteenth century a number of religious texts were
+translated into Romanian, and the introductions to them are the first
+known original writings in the Romanian language.
+
+Of significance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were the
+chronicles written by a number of writers in Moldavia and in Walachia.
+Dimitrie Cantemir, ruler of Moldavia, wrote the _Description of
+Moldavia_ and _History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire_
+during the same period. A Transylvanian school of writing stressed the
+Latin origin of the Romanian people and their language and utilized a
+latinized Romanian in its writing. It was influential in awakening the
+national consciousness of Transylvanian Romanians.
+
+Four members of the Vacarescu family wrote lyrical poetry in the
+eighteenth century. The best of them, Iancu Vacarescu, is regarded as
+the father of Romanian poetry. The lyric tradition was carried on in the
+early nineteenth century, and much of the poetry dealt with historic
+subjects and expressed the growing patriotism and nationalist sentiment
+of the time.
+
+In the early nineteenth century the Latinist movement of Transylvania
+spread into Moldavia and Walachia and began to Romanianize the hitherto
+Hellenic culture of the Romanian upper class. The founding of the
+College of Saint Sava in Bucharest, using Romanian as the language of
+instruction, laid the foundation for the development of a reading public
+for Romanian literature. At the same time, the founding of a
+Romanian-language newspaper with a literary supplement gave writers a
+publication outlet. The newspaper was founded by Eliade Radulescu, who
+also founded the Philharmonic Society and the Romanian Academy, thus
+giving major impetus to the development of Romanian literature and
+culture.
+
+In Moldavia, Gheorghe Asachi originated the historical short story,
+wrote verse, and also founded a newspaper. The literary supplement of
+Asachi's newspaper provided an outlet for Moldavian writers.
+
+The nineteenth century was the romantic age of Romanian literature.
+Writers and poets wrote under the influence of Russian, French, and
+English romanticists whose works were widely translated. Outstanding
+among the poets was Grigore Alexandrescu, who also wrote fables and
+satires along the lines of Alphonse de Lamartine and Jean de LaFontaine.
+Many historical works were written by Nicolae Balcescu and Mihail
+Kogalniceanu, both of whom were political figures in the nationalist
+movement of their time as well as important writers. The founding in
+1840 of the literary magazine _Dacia Literata_ by Kogalniceanu marked
+the beginning of the traditionalist school, which was characterized by
+the use of specifically Romanian themes. An outstanding exponent of this
+school was the short story writer, Constantine Negruzzi.
+
+The second half of the nineteenth century saw the development of modern
+literature through the impetus of serious criticism based on German and
+French philosophical thought and cultural trends. The period was
+dominated by Vasile Alecsandri and Mihail Eminescu. During Alecsandri's
+long career, he produced outstanding works in every form of literary
+expression--prose, poetry, drama, and nonfiction. Together with Negruzzi
+and Kogalniceanu, he was one of the early directors of the National
+Theatre in Iasi.
+
+Eminescu is Romania's outstanding poet and holds his place among the
+important poets of the world. His lyrical poetry is influenced by
+Romanian folklore, Hindu thought, and German philosophy. His ballad
+_Luceafarul_ (Evening Star) is a well-known classic. In addition to
+poetry, Eminescu wrote short stories and political and philosophical
+essays. He was one of the leaders of the Junimea, a literary circle for
+youth in Iasi, which was founded by the important critic Titu Mairescu.
+Other important members of the circle were Ion Luca Caragiale, a
+playwright who first introduced social comedy to Romania, and Ion
+Creanga, who wrote about the peasant life from which he stemmed.
+
+Around the beginning of the twentieth century the growing popularity of
+peasant themes and descriptions of peasant life in the writing of such
+authors as Ion Slavici and Gheorghe Cosbuc led to the publication of a
+new literary periodical, _Samanatorul_, and the development of a
+literary school that took its name. The school stressed the national
+heritage of Romania, its folklore, and its rustic life as subjects for
+literary creation, in contrast to the cosmopolitan outlook of the
+Junimea circle.
+
+Parallel to the Samanatorul school developed _poporanism_ (of the
+people), which was similar to the then-current Russian populism in its
+social and political motivation. Its organ was _Viata Romaneasca_, which
+featured populist causes.
+
+Several writers remained apart from any of the schools. Among them was
+Barbu Delavrancea, well-known for his trilogy about Stephen the Great
+and for stories of Walachian peasant life, and the poet Alexandru
+Macedonski, who introduced French symbolism to Romanian literature.
+
+The period between the two world wars gave rise to the novel, which
+quickly took its place beside lyrical poetry as an important form of
+literary expression. An important contributor to the development of the
+novel was Liviu Rebreanu, whose _Forest of the Hanged_ is a powerful
+description of the horrors of war. His other important novels are
+_Ion_, dealing with peasant life, and _Ciuleandra_, a psychological
+novel.
+
+Mihail Sadoveanu, whose most important works were published in the 1920s
+and 1930s, is considered the foremost realist of the twentieth century.
+His writings deal mostly with history and with peasant life. In 1924 he
+won the national prize for literature, and in 1949, the Gold Peace
+Medal.
+
+Outstanding interwar poets were Lucian Blaga, Ion Barbu, and Tudor
+Arghezi. Blaga's poetry was an exposition of his philosophy based on the
+traditional way of life interpreted as a cosmic mystery. Barbu's poems
+are of an abstract and esoteric nature. Arghezi is considered the
+greatest poet since Eminescu on the basis of his use of language and
+symbolism.
+
+Immediately after World War II poetry again took the lead in literary
+expression. Although much prose was published, none of it was considered
+of particular importance. The poetry can be divided into three main
+schools: surrealist poetry, poetry of spiritual revolt, and a
+return-to-tradition balladry.
+
+Several of the prewar writers and poets continued to produce after the
+communist takeover and subjected themselves to the constraints of
+Socialist Realism. Among them were Sadoveanu, Calinescu, Camil Petrescu,
+and Arghezi. Others were denounced for their previous writings and
+became silent. The literary output of the 1950s is generally regarded as
+second rate. Several notable novels, however, were published in the
+early 1960s. Among them were George Calinescu's _Bietul Ioanide_ (Poor
+Ioanide), Ion Sadoveanu's _Ion Sintu_ (Saint John), and Petru Dimitriu's
+_Cronica de Familie_ (Family Chronicle). Of particularly outstanding
+merit and lasting quality are Marin Preda's peasant epic _Morometii_
+(The Moroments) and Eugen Barbu's naturalist novel _Groapa_ (The
+Trench).
+
+With the relaxing of cultural controls in the mid-1960s, many of those
+who had been silent resumed their writing, together with a new group of
+younger writers. The mid-and late-1960s saw an outpouring of literary
+creativity that had been pent up during the preceding decade. The
+variety of genres and styles was impressive; some continued the
+traditions of the past, others repudiated their literary traditions and
+ventured into new areas of expression. Lyricism dominated the poetry of
+Ion Alexandru, Adrian Paunescu, Marin Sorescu, and others. Their
+greatest appeal was among young people whose doubts, hopes, and
+restlessness they expressed.
+
+Prose showed two trends: realism, which was now free to examine all
+aspects of human existence; and antirealism, which showed influences of
+some contemporary French writers.
+
+Literary criticism, which had played an important role in the
+development of Romanian literature, was revived as a literary art and
+was removed from politics. Both old and new works were examined and
+evaluated, and Romanian literary traditions were studied and analyzed.
+The literary output of the 1950s was attacked for its lack of
+imagination and creativity.
+
+The retightening of controls in 1971 reduced the volume of new works
+being published, and many writers retreated into a self-censorship,
+which restricted their creativity. Literary periodicals and other
+publication media were more selective in deciding what to publish,
+whereas some critics attacked the volume and quality of the recent
+literary output.
+
+
+SCHOLARSHIP AND RESEARCH
+
+A tradition of scholarship and research has in the past been limited to
+a small intellectual elite centered in Bucharest and Iasi. The group was
+oriented toward France and, to a lesser extent, Germany in terms of
+professional contacts and sources of inspiration. During the 1930s a
+number of sociologists at the University of Bucharest established a
+reputation for outstanding and original work in their field.
+
+The great expansion of the educational system since the 1940s has
+provided a much broader base for scholarly activity but, in keeping with
+ideological dictates, scholarly activity must be socially useful, that
+is, directly applicable to the needs of the society. Therefore, great
+emphasis has been placed on applied research in the sciences and
+technology designed to improve the economy. All research is sponsored by
+the state and is directed and supervised by the National Council for
+Scientific Research.
+
+The interest in sociology has continued, but work in this field, as in
+the other social sciences, has suffered from the restrictions imposed by
+communist ideology. The only accepted philosophy is that of
+Marxism-Leninism, and all scholarly work must be based on its precepts,
+which frequently leads to sterile research or preconceived results.
+
+Two developments by Romanians in the field of medicine have caused
+considerable controversy among specialists in other parts of the world.
+One is a regeneration therapy for the aged based on the administration
+of procaine, which was developed by Anna Aslan of the Institute of
+Gerontology. The therapy, strongly backed by the government, is intended
+to free the elderly from the various chronic discomforts of advanced age
+and thereby make them more active. Many prominent gerontologists have
+questioned the efficacy of the treatments and the results claimed by
+the Institute of Gerontology, but others have reported it to be fully
+effective. A Romanian-developed drug used in the treatment is
+extensively sold in Europe. The other medical development acclaimed by
+Romania but questioned by many specialists in the field is the use of an
+extract obtained from cattle eyes for the treatment of many human eye
+diseases. The extract was developed by Professor Petre Vancea.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II. POLITICAL
+
+CHAPTER 8
+
+GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM
+
+
+As of early 1972 the structure of the government remained essentially
+the same as that established by the 1965 Constitution. Power is declared
+to belong to the working people united under the leadership of the
+Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman--PCR). That power is
+said to be expressed through their representatives to the Grand National
+Assembly, the nation's sole legislative body, and through the people's
+councils, the organs of government on county and local levels.
+Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly, as the highest voice of
+the people, is asserted to be the supreme organ of state power, and all
+other government bodies are theoretically subordinate to it.
+
+Actual political power, however, is monopolized by the PCR and
+particularly by the highest organs of the party under the leadership of
+Nicolae Ceausescu, who is simultaneously head of state. Although the
+system of government is, in theory, designed to emphasize participatory
+democracy, the government functions largely as the administrative
+structure through which the party exerts its will in all aspects of
+Romanian society (see ch. 9).
+
+There is no separation of powers between the branches of the government,
+and it is difficult to draw distinctions between the executive and the
+legislative functions. The Council of State is closely tied to the
+structure and membership of the Grand National Assembly and functions as
+a permanent assembly presidium. The nation's highest administrative
+body, the Council of Ministers, is elected by the assembly and
+responsible to both the assembly and the Council of State. Although it
+is theoretically independent in its judicial decisions, the Supreme
+Court is also constitutionally responsible to the assembly.
+
+The entire structure of the government, from national down to local
+levels, is organized on a principle of centralized control by which all
+lower bodies are subject to the authority and control of the next higher
+unit, the ultimate power resting in the central government. The
+governmental system consists of nominally representative bodies at
+community, town, and county levels, which are hierarchically
+subordinated to the authority of the central government. Throughout the
+entire system the predominant influence of the party is evident, the key
+positions at each level being held by party members.
+
+
+THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM
+
+Constitutional Development
+
+Since coming under full communist control in December 1947, Romania has
+had three constitutions. The first, designating the country a "People's
+Republic," was adopted by the Grand National Assembly in April 1948,
+just four weeks after the assembly had been reorganized under new
+communist leadership. The second, officially adopted in September 1952,
+had first been made public the preceding July after Gheorghe
+Gheorghiu-Dej had assumed the post of prime minister in addition to his
+position as head of the party. A third constitution, incorporating the
+elements of Romania's changed social and ideological position, entered
+into force on August 20, 1965.
+
+In many ways similar to the initial constitutions of the other
+Soviet-dominated states of Eastern Europe, the 1948 Constitution was
+designed to mark Romania's entry into the first stage of the transition
+from capitalism to socialism. As a people's democracy, state power was
+said to derive from the people as expressed through the Grand National
+Assembly, nominally, the supreme organ of state power. A nineteen-member
+Presidium was elected by and from the membership of the assembly to
+provide continuity of legislative authority when the assembly itself was
+not in session. The highest executive and administrative organ was the
+Council of Ministers, which functioned under the direction of the prime
+minister. Although it was not mentioned in the constitution, the
+Communist Party functioned as the supreme decisionmaking authority over
+and above that of the government.
+
+The right of ownership of private property was guaranteed, although the
+constitution provided that privately held means of production, banks,
+and insurance companies could be nationalized when the "general
+interest" so required. Less than two months after the adoption of the
+constitution, the Grand National Assembly applied this "general
+interest" principle and nationalized all banking, industrial, insurance,
+mining, and transportation enterprises.
+
+Described in the constitution in anticipation of their actual
+establishment, the organs of state power in the regions, counties,
+districts, and communes were designated "people's councils." Formally
+established by law in 1949, these bodies were organized into a
+centralized system in which the lower level councils were fully
+subordinated to the next higher council and all functioned under the
+direct control of the central organs of government.
+
+Changes that were effected in the political, social, and economic
+structure of the country after 1948 were incorporated into a new
+constitution in 1952. Patterned largely after the 1936 Constitution of
+the Soviet Union, the 1952 document specifically designated the Romanian
+Workers' Party (title of the Communist Party between 1948 and 1965) as
+the representative of the working class and the country's leading
+political force. The nation's close ties with the Soviet Union were
+strongly emphasized. Several references to the Soviet Union glorified
+its role in the liberation of the country from fascism during World War
+II and described the Soviets as great friends of the Romanian people.
+Whereas the 1948 Constitution declared that "the Romanian People's
+Republic was born amid the struggle conducted by the people, under the
+leadership of the working class, against fascism, reaction, and
+imperialism," that of 1952 asserted the republic "was born and
+consolidated following the liberation of the country by the armed forces
+of the Soviet Union."
+
+As did the 1948 Constitution, that of 1952 guaranteed full equality to
+the country's national minority groups, but the 1952 Constitution also
+established an autonomous administrative unit, the Hungarian Autonomous
+Region (Mures-Magyar), for the large Hungarian population. The region
+was given its own people's council and local authorities, although these
+were clearly subordinated to the organs of the central government.
+Including the Hungarian Autonomous Region, the country was administered
+through twenty regional units that, in turn, were subdivided into
+districts, towns, and rural localities.
+
+Citizens were guaranteed the right to work for remuneration; the right
+to rest, assured by the establishment of the eight-hour workday and paid
+annual vacations for workers and office employees; the right to material
+security when old, ill, or disabled; and the right to education. Full
+equality in all aspects of economic, political, and cultural life was
+guaranteed to all working people regardless of nationality, race, or
+sex.
+
+Freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and public demonstration were
+likewise assured, as was freedom of religion. Churches, however, were
+forbidden to operate schools except for the training of religious
+personnel. Other rights guaranteed the protection of the person from
+arbitrary arrest, the inviolability of the home, and the secrecy of the
+mail. The right of citizens to form public and private organizations was
+also assured, although associations having a "fascist or anti-democratic
+character" were prohibited.
+
+Citizen duties to the state included the observance of the constitution
+and the laws of the republic and the obligation to preserve and develop
+socialist property, to practice discipline in regard to work, and to
+work in general for the strengthening of the "regime of people's
+democracy." Military service and the defense of the nation were
+described as duties of honor for all citizens.
+
+In March 1961 the Grand National Assembly established a commission to
+prepare a new draft constitution. At the same time the 1952 Constitution
+was revised to transform the Presidium of the assembly into the Council
+of State. The new council, vested with supreme executive authority,
+consisted of a president, three vice presidents, and thirteen members.
+As was the case with the Presidium, the Council of State was elected by
+and from the assembly membership and was, in theory at least,
+responsible to it.
+
+The authority of the council was threefold, consisting of permanent
+powers, powers to be exercised between assembly sessions, and special
+powers that could be exercised in exceptional circumstances. The
+permanent powers were exercised by the president, who was by virtue of
+his position the head of state, and focused primarily on the
+representation of the republic in international relations. Between
+sessions of the assembly the Council of State was empowered to oversee
+the activity of the Council of Ministers, appoint and recall members of
+the Supreme Court and the commander in chief of the armed forces,
+supervise the functioning of the Office of the Prosecutor General, and
+convene standing commissions of the assembly.
+
+The council could also issue decrees having the force of law although,
+at least technically, these had to be submitted to the next assembly
+session for ratification. In the event of circumstances that might
+prevent the assembly from convening, the council was authorized to
+appoint the Council of Ministers, declare war, order mobilization,
+proclaim a state of emergency, approve the budget, and prepare economic
+plans. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, first secretary of the Romanian Workers'
+Party, was elected as president of the Council of State. Ion Gheorghe
+Maurer--who had been chairman of the assembly Presidium, and thus
+titular head of state, since 1958--became prime minister.
+
+Although the draft constitution prepared by the commission appointed in
+1961 was never adopted, it was used as the basis for the work of a
+second commission named in June 1965. Under the chairmanship of
+Ceausescu, the commission prepared a new draft and submitted it to the
+party congress and the Council of State. After being approved by these
+bodies the Constitution was adopted by the Grand National Assembly on
+August 20, 1965.
+
+
+The Constitution of 1965
+
+After the adoption of the first communist constitution in 1948 the
+country had officially borne the title of a people's republic. With the
+promulgation of the new Constitution in 1965 the name of the country was
+changed to the Socialist Republic of Romania (Republica Socialista
+Romania). In adopting this title, the Romanian leadership was asserting
+that the country had completed the transition from capitalism and had
+become a full-fledged socialist state.
+
+Observers of Eastern European politics considered the emphasis placed on
+national sovereignty and independence in the new Constitution to be
+significant. Whereas the 1952 Constitution repeatedly stressed the
+country's close ties to the Soviet Union and the role of the Soviet army
+in the liberation of Romania during World War II, the 1965 Constitution
+omits all reference to the Soviet Union. Instead, it refers only to the
+policy of maintaining friendly and fraternal relations with all
+socialist states and, in addition, expresses the intention of promoting
+friendly relations with nonsocialist states.
+
+There is also increased provision for civil liberties in the 1965
+Constitution, including the right of petition, the right of individual
+recourse to the courts in the event of illegal acts of state agencies,
+and rights equivalent to habeas corpus. The extent of individual freedom
+is qualified, however, by the declaration that the "freedom of speech,
+of the press, reunion, meeting and demonstration cannot be used for aims
+hostile to the socialist system and to the interests of the working
+people." While proclaiming freedom of association and organization, the
+1965 Constitution, as did that of 1952, prohibits associations of a
+"fascist or anti-democratic character."
+
+Perhaps owing to the declared advancement to the stage of socialism, the
+1965 Constitution contains no reference to the "private capitalist
+sector" of the economy, as had the 1952 document. Whereas the 1952
+Constitution had recognized the private sector as one of three elements
+of the economic system, along with the socialist sector and the sector
+described as "small-scale commodity production," that of 1965 declares
+the basis of the economy to rest solely on the socialist ownership of
+the means of production. Cooperative farmers, however, are permitted the
+personal ownership of some livestock and tools, certain craftsmen are
+guaranteed ownership of their workshops, and peasants who are not in
+cooperatives are able to own small parcels of land and some farm
+implements.
+
+Changes that had been made in the organizational structure of the
+government after 1952 were incorporated into the 1965 Constitution. The
+Council of State is described as the "supreme body of state power with a
+permanent activity," although it remains theoretically subordinate to
+the Grand National Assembly, which is designated as "the supreme body of
+state power." In contrast to the 1952 Constitution, which provided for
+representation to the Grand National Assembly on the basis of one deputy
+for every 40,000 persons, the 1965 document fixes the number of assembly
+deputies at 465 and requires the establishment of that number of
+constituencies of equal population.
+
+Although the Hungarian Autonomous Region continued to exist, the 1952
+provision guaranteeing "administrative and territorial autonomy" to the
+Hungarian population was omitted from the 1965 Constitution. All of the
+sixteen regional units were subsequently eliminated by a territorial
+reorganization of 1968, at which time a system of _judete_ (counties)
+was established.
+
+All power is ascribed to the people and exercised by their
+representatives in the people's councils and the Grand National
+Assembly. The Communist Party is described as the country's leading
+political force under whose leadership the working people have the
+expressed goal of building the socialist system to create "the
+conditions for transition to communism."
+
+
+THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF THE GOVERNMENT
+
+The Central Government
+
+According to the 1965 Constitution the major institutions of the central
+government are the Grand National Assembly, the Council of State, and
+the Council of Ministers (see fig. 1). Although the Constitution
+declares the Grand National Assembly and the Council of State to be the
+supreme organs of state power, in practice the authority of both of
+these organs ranks after that of the PCR. The Constitution itself states
+unequivocally that "the leading political force of the whole society is
+the Romanian Communist Party." The basic national policy decisions are
+made in the ruling bodies of the party and subsequently communicated to
+the government for adoption and implementation.
+
+ [Illustration: _Figure 7. Structure of the Government of Romania,
+ 1971._]
+
+
+The Grand National Assembly
+
+The Grand National Assembly, which supervises and controls the functions
+of all other state organs, consists of 465 deputies elected from an
+equal number of electoral districts for a four-year term of office. In
+the event of exceptional circumstances that prevent the holding of
+elections, however, the assembly is empowered to prolong its term of
+office for the duration of these circumstances. Regular assembly
+sessions are held twice yearly, and special sessions may be convened on
+the initiative of the Council of State or on demand of one-third of the
+total number of deputies.
+
+Constitutionally, the Grand National Assembly is empowered to elect,
+supervise, and recall the members of the Council of State, the Council
+of Ministers, and the Supreme Court. It is also empowered to name the
+prosecutor general and control the activity of his office. It is given
+ultimate authority in the regulation of the electoral system, the
+national economic plan, the state budget, and the organization and
+functioning of the people's councils.
+
+The assembly is empowered to establish the general line of the country's
+foreign policy and has ultimate responsibility for the maintenance of
+public order and national defense. As a part of this responsibility the
+assembly appoints and recalls the supreme commander of the armed forces.
+Declarations of war, however, are constitutionally limited to the
+protection of Romanian national sovereignty in the event of aggression
+or in the event of aggression against another state with which Romania
+has mutual defense obligations.
+
+Other powers attributed to the assembly include adopting and amending
+the Constitution and the general control over its application. Assembly
+authority extends as well to the interpretation of the Constitution and
+decisions on the constitutionality of laws, making it in effect its own
+constitutional court. In exercising that power the assembly elects the
+Constitutional Commission, which functions for the duration of the
+legislative term. The Constitution specifies that up to one-third of the
+commission members may be persons who are not deputies, but members of
+the Supreme Court, college and university teachers, and scientific
+researchers are specifically excluded from commission membership. Duties
+of the commission focus primarily on providing the assembly with reports
+and opinions on constitutional questions.
+
+The Grand National Assembly functions under an elected chairman who
+presides over assembly sessions and is responsible for directing its
+activities. The chairman and four elected vice chairmen form the Bureau
+of the Grand National Assembly and are assisted in their duties by a
+panel of six executive secretaries. In addition to the Constitutional
+Commission, other standing commissions of the assembly include the
+Agriculture and Forestry Commission; Credentials Commission; Defense
+Commission; Economic and Financial Commission; Education, Science, and
+Culture Commission; Foreign Policy Commission; Health, Labor, and Social
+Welfare Commission; Industry, Construction, and Transportation
+Commission; Legal Commission; and the People's Councils and State
+Administration Commission. Any deputy may be elected to the standing
+commissions of the assembly or to temporary commissions created to
+perform specific functions. Reports, bills, or other legislative matters
+are submitted to the standing commissions by the assembly chairman for
+study and for recommendations on further action.
+
+The assembly may function if one-half of the deputies plus one
+additional deputy are present. Laws and decisions are adopted by simple
+majority vote with the exception of an amendment to the Constitution,
+which requires a two-thirds majority of the total number of assembly
+deputies. Laws and decisions are signed by the presiding officer present
+at the time the decision is voted. Within ten days after adoption, laws
+are required to be signed by the president of the Council of State and
+published in the _Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of
+Romania_.
+
+
+The Council of State
+
+Described as the supreme body of state power with a permanent activity,
+the Council of State exercises certain permanent powers as well as
+special powers that fall to it when the Grand National Assembly is not
+in session. Formed of nineteen members, the Council of State is elected
+by the assembly, from its own membership, at the first assembly session
+as it begins a new term of office. The council's authority continues
+until the election of a new Council of State by the succeeding
+legislature. Although the president of the council is the head of state,
+the Constitution asserts that the functioning of the council is to be
+based on the principle of collective leadership. Almost all the members
+of the Council of State also hold leading party posts.
+
+Among the most important permanent powers of the Council of State are
+the establishment of election dates; the appointment and recall of the
+heads of central government agencies, except for the Council of
+Ministers; and the ratification or denunciation of international
+treaties. The president of the council represents the republic in
+international relations. Other permanent powers include the granting of
+senior military ranks; the conferral of honors; the granting of
+citizenship, pardon, and refuge; and the appointment and recall of
+diplomatic representatives.
+
+Grand National Assembly powers that devolve to the Council of State
+between assembly sessions, or in the event of exceptional circumstances
+that prevent the assembly from acting, include the authority to appoint
+and recall members of the Council of Ministers, members of the Supreme
+Court, and the prosecutor general. Also included in this category are
+powers to establish norms having the power of law, control over the
+application of laws and decisions passed by the assembly, and
+supervision of the Council of Ministers and other central administrative
+bodies as well as the activities of the people's councils.
+
+Although the legal decisions passed by the council must be submitted for
+approval to the next session of the Grand National Assembly, they take
+effect as law immediately on passage by the council or on a date
+specified in the ruling itself. In the event of a national emergency the
+Council of State can also exercise the assembly's power to declare a
+state of war, subject to the same qualifications imposed upon the
+assembly--that is, in the event that Romania or one of its allies is the
+victim of external armed aggression.
+
+In December 1967 PCR General Secretary Ceausescu was elected president
+of the Council of State by the Grand National Assembly and, by virtue of
+this position, became the head of state. The reason given for the
+concentration of the principal party and government positions in
+Ceausescu's hands was the desire to provide unitary leadership both as a
+means of efficiency and of ensuring full party control at the highest
+level of the government. The decision to unite the two posts, as well as
+to combine a number of party and government positions on lower
+administrative levels, had been taken at a national party conference a
+few days earlier and followed action taken by the PCR Central Committee
+in October. Outside observers saw the move as one of a series of steps
+designed to ensure the continued subordination of the state apparatus to
+the party.
+
+In March 1970 the Grand National Assembly voted to establish the Defense
+Council, to be headed by Ceausescu and responsible to the Council of
+State. The formation of the Defense Council, which was given
+decisionmaking powers for high-level military affairs, served to
+strengthen Council of State control over the armed forces and further
+enhance Ceausescu's personal authority. The same legislation that
+established the Defense Council also decreed that foreign troops could
+not enter Romania under any circumstances without the prior approval of
+the assembly. Coming in the aftermath of the Soviet-led invasion of
+Czechoslovakia, observers of Eastern European affairs interpreted this
+ruling as a means of preventing any dissident group from inviting
+foreign intervention on the pretext of preserving orthodox communist
+rule.
+
+The membership of the Defense Council reflected the importance given it.
+Besides the head of state, other members of the council include the
+prime minister, the minister of the armed forces, the chairman of the
+Council of State Security, the minister of internal affairs, the
+minister of foreign affairs, the chairman of the State Planning
+Committee, and eight other members who also held leading government and
+party positions. The secretary of the council in 1971 was the chief of
+the general staff and a member of the PCR Central Committee.
+
+Also connected to the Council of State and subordinate to it is the
+Economic Council. This body functions to advise on economic matters,
+coordinate planning, and make recommendations to the Council of State
+for the development of the national economy and the improvement of state
+enterprises. In late 1971 the chairman of the Economic Council was also
+a member of the PCR Secretariat.
+
+
+The Council of Ministers
+
+Defined in the Constitution as the supreme body of state administration,
+the Council of Ministers exercises control over the activities of all
+state agencies on both the national and local levels. The council is
+composed of a chairman (who is the prime minister), a first deputy
+chairman, an unspecified number of deputy chairmen, the ministers, and
+the heads of certain other important government agencies (see fig. 8).
+Unlike the 1952 Constitution, in which twenty-six specific ministries
+were listed, that of 1965 fixes neither the number of ministries nor
+their particular areas of competence, this being left to other laws.
+
+In 1971 the Council of Ministers was composed of forty-four members,
+including the prime minister, first deputy, seven deputies, twenty-three
+ministers, and ten committee chiefs with ministerial rank. All but two
+of the members of the council were also members, or alternate members,
+of the PCR Central Committee, and the prime minister and his first
+deputy were members of the Standing Presidium of the party. These two,
+along with two other deputies, were also full members of the PCR
+Executive Committee.
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 8. Romania, Organization of the Council of
+  Ministers, 1971._]
+
+The Constitution charges the Council of Ministers with responsibility
+for the general implementation of the nation's domestic and foreign
+policies, the application of laws, and the maintenance of public order.
+As the supreme administrative body of the government, the council
+coordinates and controls the activity of the ministries and other state
+organs at all levels. In economic matters the council administers the
+drafting of the overall state plan and the national budget and provides
+for their implementation. In addition, it directs the establishment of
+the economic enterprises and other industrial and commercial
+organizations (see ch. 14). The council's responsibilities also include
+the general administration of relations with other states, the
+conclusion of international agreements, and the general organization of
+the armed forces.
+
+Formally elected by the Grand National Assembly at the beginning of each
+new assembly session, the council's term of office continues until the
+election of a new council by the succeeding assembly. Both collectively
+and individually, the council members are responsible to the Grand
+National Assembly; and in the interval between assembly sessions, to the
+Council of State. The Constitution asserts that the Council of Ministers
+is to operate on the principle of collective leadership to ensure the
+unity of its political and administrative actions.
+
+In late 1969 the Grand National Assembly enacted legislation aimed at
+strengthening the concept of collective leadership in the ministries and
+extending the principle to other national administrative agencies. In
+the case of the Council of Ministers, the measure provided for the
+establishment of a collegium in each ministry consisting of the
+minister, department heads, certain specialists, and representatives of
+labor unions or other organizations. Purposes of the collegium included
+collective decisionmaking, review of ministry activities, and
+recommendations on ministry programs and policies. The meetings of the
+collegium, at which decisions are made by majority vote, are also
+attended by representatives of the PCR appointed by the party Central
+Committee. In the event of serious disagreements within the collegium,
+the law provides for the matter to be referred to the Council of
+Ministers. No such disagreements have been reported, however.
+
+Since the promulgation of the 1965 Constitution, the Council of
+Ministers has been reorganized several times. In late 1971 the
+importance of a number of the ministries and state commissions was
+emphasized by the prominence of the party position held by their
+ministers or chairmen: almost all of the members of the Council of
+Ministers were either full or alternate members of the PCR Central
+Committee; the chairmen of the General Union of Trade Unions, the
+National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives, and the State
+Planning Committee were full members of the party Executive Committee;
+the chairmen of the Council of State Security and the State Committee
+for Local Economy and Administration were alternate members of the
+Executive Committee, as was the head of the Ministry of the Armed
+Forces. The chairmen of the State Planning Committee and the Council of
+State Security and the ministers of internal affairs and the armed
+forces also were members of the Defense Council.
+
+
+The Judicial System
+
+The general organization and functioning of the judiciary is established
+by the Constitution and by the 1968 Law on the Organization of the Court
+System. Overall responsibility for the functioning of the courts is
+vested in the Ministry of Justice, whereas the prosecutor general
+(attorney general) is charged with the general application of the law
+and the executing of criminal proceedings.
+
+To fulfill its responsibility for the functioning of the courts and the
+supervision of state marshals, state notaries, and the national bar
+organization, the Ministry of Justice is divided into six directorates:
+civil courts, military courts, studies and legislation, personnel,
+administration, and planning and accounting. In addition, the ministry
+includes a corps of inspectors, an office of legal affairs, the State
+Notary Office, and a lawyer and legal expert service.
+
+The court system includes the Supreme Court, _judet_ courts, lower
+courts, military courts, and local judicial commissions. The
+Constitution places the judiciary under the authority of the Grand
+National Assembly; and between assembly sessions, under the authority of
+the Council of State. The Supreme Court, seated in Bucharest, exercises
+general control over the judiciary activities of all lower courts.
+
+Members of the Supreme Court are professional judges appointed by the
+Grand National Assembly to four-year terms of office. The Supreme Court
+functions as an appeals court for sentences pronounced in lower
+tribunals and, in certain matters specified by law, may act as a court
+of first instance. It may also issue guidance, in the form of
+directives, on legal and constitutional questions for the judicial
+actions of lower courts and the administrative functions of government
+agencies. To fulfill its responsibilities, the Supreme Court is divided
+into three sections: civil, criminal, and military. Each of these
+sections is presided over by a panel of three judges, and plenary
+sessions of the entire court are held at least once every three months
+in the presence of the minister of justice for the purpose of issuing
+guidance directives.
+
+With the territorial-administrative reorganization of February 1968, the
+jurisdictions of the former regional and district courts were
+restructured to correspond to the new administrative units. Accordingly,
+there are thirty-nine _judet_ courts and the municipal court of
+Bucharest, which has _judet_ court status. Each court on this level is
+presided over by a panel of two judges and three lay jurors, known as
+people's assessors, and decisions are made by majority vote. People's
+assessors were first introduced in December 1947 and given additional
+legal status in 1952 by the Grand National Assembly's Law on the
+Organization of Justice. The law required these lay assessors to be
+Romanian citizens and at least twenty-three years of age. Most of the
+people's assessors are appointed by the PCR or by one of the district
+bodies of the mass organizations (see ch. 9).
+
+Below the _judet_ courts, and subordinate to them, are the lower courts.
+In the city of Bucharest these consist of eight sectional courts, which
+function under the supervision of the municipal court. For the remainder
+of the country the number of these lower courts and the extent of their
+territorial jurisdiction are established by the Ministry of Justice.
+Courts on this level are presided over by a panel composed of one judge
+and two people's assessors; decisions are based on a majority vote.
+
+Military courts are established on a territorial basis, subdivisions
+being determined by the Council of Ministers. The lower military
+tribunals have original jurisdiction over contraventions of the law
+committed by members of the armed forces; the territorial military
+tribunals exercise appellate jurisdiction for decisions of the lower
+units. In certain situations specified by law, cases involving civilians
+may be assigned to military courts. At each level, the military courts,
+when acting in the first instance, consist of two judges and three
+people's assessors. In appeals cases on the territorial level, the
+courts consist of three judges only. As in the civil courts, decisions
+are reached by majority vote.
+
+In 1968 the Grand National Assembly enacted a law establishing a system
+of judicial commissions to function as courts of special jurisdiction in
+the state economic enterprises and in localities. These commissions were
+designed as "an expression of socialist democracy" to provide for the
+increased participation of working people in the settlement of problems
+involving minor local disputes and local economic issues. Functioning
+under the direction of enterprise management or municipal executive
+committees, the judicial commissions are assigned such matters as labor
+disputes, misdemeanors, property disputes, and violations of proper
+social conduct, a category that appears to provide broad latitude for
+prosecution. As a rule, the commissions consist of five members elected
+for a term of two years; however, in labor disputes two additional
+members are added to the commission, one representing the enterprise
+management and one representing the labor union committee.
+
+General supervision over the application of the law and the initiation
+of criminal proceedings is exercised by the Office of the Prosecutor
+General. Headed by the prosecutor general, the office exercises
+supervisory powers that extend to all levels of the society, from the
+government ministries down to the ordinary citizen. Subunits of the
+Office of the Prosecutor General are hierarchically organized and
+include offices in each judicial district plus the prosecutor's military
+bureau. The prosecutor general is elected by the Grand National Assembly
+for a four-year term and is responsible to the assembly or, between
+assembly sessions, to the Council of State for the activities of his
+office. Three deputy prosecutors assist the prosecutor general in
+carrying out his official duties.
+
+An important part of the prosecutor general's responsibilities consists
+of supervising the activities of the courts to ensure the uniform
+application of the law. Prosecutors on the _judet_ level have a
+consultative vote in the meetings of local government agencies when
+important legal questions are being decided. The prosecutor general
+participates in those plenary sessions of the Supreme Court at which
+guidance decisions are made. In the event the prosecutor does not agree
+with a decision, he may appeal to the county people's council or to its
+executive committee for a review of the decision. On the national level,
+the Office of the Prosecutor General may appeal alleged violations of
+the law to the Council of Ministers.
+
+
+Local Government
+
+Local government bodies, known as people's councils, exist on the
+_judet_, town, and commune levels. The 1965 Constitution had also
+provided for subunits of state administration on regional and district
+levels, but a territorial-administrative reorganization voted by the
+Grand National Assembly in 1968 replaced the existing sixteen regions
+and 150 intermediate districts with a system of thirty-nine counties and
+forty-four independent municipal administrations. The expressed purpose
+of the change was the provision of more efficient administration.
+
+In addition to the establishment of county and municipal people's
+councils, local councils were also set up in 142 smaller towns, and
+communal councils were formed in rural areas. A number of the smaller
+communes were combined in order to give them a larger population base.
+Boundaries of each of the new _judete_ were drawn to include about fifty
+communes consisting of some 4,000 to 5,000 persons.
+
+Along with the territorial reorganization, the decision was also made to
+combine party and government functions of the _judet_ level so that the
+same person acted both as party committee first secretary and people's
+council chairman. In explaining this fusion of party and state
+authority, Ceausescu stated that there were many instances in which
+offices in both the party and the government dealt with the same areas
+of interest, a practice that resulted in inefficiency and the
+unnecessary duplication of party and state machinery. He asserted that
+the consolidation of these administrative positions would serve to
+eliminate this overlapping. At the same time, Ceausescu declared that,
+inasmuch as the government was responsible for the implementation of the
+PCR's economic decisions, there was no justification for the continued
+existence of the numerous economic sections of the party Central
+Committee and that future economic policy would be implemented within
+the structure of the government (see ch. 9).
+
+According to the Constitution and the 1968 Grand National Assembly's Law
+on the Organization and Operation of People's Councils, the people's
+councils are responsible for the implementation of central government
+decisions and the economic, social, and cultural administration of their
+particular jurisdictions. Deputies to the people's councils are elected
+to four-year terms--except for the communes where the term is two
+years--from single-member constituencies of equal population. Based on
+population, the _judet_ people's councils may have a maximum of 231, or
+a minimum of 141, deputies. The membership of the Bucharest People's
+Council is fixed at 369, and there are 151 deputies on the councils of
+each of its subdistricts. City people's councils range from eighty-one
+to 221 deputies, and those of the towns consist of from thirty-five to
+ninety-one deputies. Commune council memberships range from twenty-five
+to seventy-one persons.
+
+Organized on the basis of highly centralized control, the people's
+councils function under the general supervision of the Grand National
+Assembly; and between assembly sessions the councils function under the
+direction of the Council of State. The Law on the Organization and
+Operation of People's Councils specifically places the people's councils
+under the overall leadership of the PCR as the leading political force
+of the society.
+
+To expedite its work, each people's council established an executive
+committee as its chief administrative organ and a number of permanent
+committees to which it assigns specific responsibilities. The executive
+committee, consisting of a chairman, two or more deputy chairmen, and an
+unspecified number of other members, functions for the duration of the
+council's term of office. Each of the people's council executive
+committees also has a secretary, who is appointed with the approval of
+the next higher ranking council and is considered an employee of the
+central government rather than of the local executive committee itself.
+The chairman of executive committees in the cities, towns, and communes
+are officially considered the mayors of these units. The executive
+committees are responsible to the people's council that elected them as
+well as to the executive committee of the next higher council.
+
+The executive committee meets whenever necessary and is required to
+convene at least once a month; full council sessions are held every two
+months on the city, town, and commune level and every three months on
+the county level. Responsibilities of the executive committees include
+the implementation of laws, decrees, and decisions of the central
+government, the carrying out of the decisions made by the people's
+councils, the working out of the local budget, and the drafting of the
+local economic plan. The executive committee is also charged with the
+direction and control of the economic enterprises within its area of
+jurisdiction and with the exercising of supervision over the executive
+committees of the councils inferior to it. The executive committees are
+also responsible for the organization and functioning of public
+services, educational institutions, medical programs, and the militia.
+
+
+THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
+
+According to the 1965 Constitution, all power belongs to the working
+people joined in a worker-peasant alliance; power is exercised through
+the people's representative bodies--the Grand National Assembly and the
+several levels of people's councils. Theoretically, these bodies are
+elected by, controlled by, and responsible to the working people.
+Emphasis is placed on the direct participation of the citizens through
+their local people's councils, party units, and chapters of the mass
+organizations (see ch. 9).
+
+Although the Constitution asserts the right of all citizens eighteen
+years of age and older to participate in the election of all
+representative bodies on the basis of a universal, direct, equal, and
+secret vote, it does not determine how elections are to be organized or
+specify who is responsible for conducting them. The Constitution does
+declare, however, that the right to nominate candidates belongs to the
+PCR, as well as to all labor unions, cooperatives, youth and women's
+leagues, cultural associations, and other mass organizations. Citizens
+who have reached the age of twenty-three are eligible to be candidates
+for elective office.
+
+Separate legislation provides for general elections to be held every
+four years and local communal elections to be conducted every two years.
+Elections are organized under the direction of the Socialist Unity
+Front, the national entity that incorporates the country's numerous mass
+organizations under the leadership of the PCR (see ch. 9). All
+candidates for elective office must have the approval of the front in
+order to be placed on the ballot, a requirement that ensures that no
+candidate unacceptable to the front's leadership will be placed in
+nomination.
+
+The Socialist Unity Front was officially established in November 1968 as
+a replacement for the People's Democratic Front, which had existed since
+the Communists began to organize effectively in the country during World
+War II. The Socialist Unity Front lists among its member organizations,
+in addition to the PCR, the labor unions; cooperative farm
+organizations; consumer cooperatives; professional, scientific, and
+cultural associations; student, youth, women's, and veterans'
+organizations; religious bodies; and representatives of the Hungarian,
+German, Serbian, and Ukrainian minorities. At the time of its formation,
+Ceausescu was elected as the front's chairman, and Ion Gheorghe Maurer,
+the prime minister, was named as first vice chairman. Both continued in
+these positions in early 1972.
+
+General elections were conducted by the Socialist Unity Front in March
+1969. Official results indicated that ballots were cast by 99.96 percent
+of the country's 13,582,249 eligible voters. Of the votes cast, a
+reported 99.75 percent were marked in favor of the single list of
+Socialist Unity Front candidates. Although the great majority of the
+candidates for the Grand National Assembly who were placed on the ballot
+belonged to the PCR, some non-members gained front approval and were
+elected. Nearly half of the candidates elected were newcomers to the
+assembly and included forty-one Hungarian, twelve German, and nine other
+minority representatives. The front has scheduled the next general
+elections for 1973.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 9
+
+POLITICAL DYNAMICS AND VALUES
+
+
+At the beginning of 1972 the country's political system continued to be
+based on the leading position of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul
+Communist Roman--PCR). Within the party, political power was centralized
+in a small group of men who occupied the leading party and government
+offices. Political authority was particularly concentrated in the hands
+of the general secretary of the PCR, Nicolae Ceausescu, who was also the
+head of state.
+
+Regarding itself as the leading force of the society, the PCR has made
+the government apparatus an instrument of party policy and, through a
+broad network of subordinate mass organizations, has mobilized all
+elements of the society in support of its programs and goals. Individual
+and group participation in the political process was limited to the
+forms and means permitted by the PCR.
+
+The concentration of all political authority in the central bodies of
+the party has effectively precluded the emergence of any open opposition
+to the PCR leadership as well as the assertion of any particular group
+interests. Under Ceausescu's leadership the party has sought to
+strengthen its role in all spheres of social, economic, and political
+life and, at the same time, to broaden its base of support by taking
+steps to increase its membership. Although the party leaders have
+periodically demonstrated a cautious relaxation of the highly
+centralized system of control, the PCR has continued to be extremely
+sensitive to any potential threats or challenges to its position.
+
+In attempting to build a broad base of popular support the party has
+drawn upon the symbols of nationalism and has made extensive use of
+Romanian history and tradition. Its independent stance in relation to
+Soviet domination has served to enhance its image among the general
+population; at the same time, the fact that membership in the party has
+been made relatively easy has helped the PCR become one of the largest
+communist parties of Eastern Europe.
+
+In mid-1971 Ceausescu initiated a campaign to strengthen ideological and
+cultural orthodoxy and, for the first time in the six years since he had
+come to power, some political observers believed they were able to
+detect opposition to his proposals both within and outside the party.
+There was no indication, however, that the resistance was organized or
+was strong enough to affect Ceausescu's position. Throughout the period
+of Ceausescu's control there have never been any recognizable factions
+in the party in opposition to his leadership.
+
+
+MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1965 TO 1970
+
+The leadership of the PCR changed hands in March 1965 when Nicolae
+Ceausescu became first secretary after the death of Gheorghe
+Gheorghiu-Dej, who had headed the party almost continually since 1944
+(see ch. 2). Ceausescu's emergence as head of the party came in the
+midst of a period of growing Romanian nationalism that had begun in the
+early 1960s. Initiated by Gheorghiu-Dej, the policy of greater national
+autonomy was given additional form and substance by Ceausescu, who
+sought to cast himself in the role of the restorer of Romanian history
+and the country's national traditions.
+
+As Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Ceausescu was confronted with the
+necessity of consolidating his power. No member of the party Secretariat
+owed his position to Ceausescu, and he found particular challenges to
+his authority from three men who had been among Gheorghiu-Dej's closest
+associates: Chivu Stoica, a veteran party leader; Gheorghe Apostol,
+first deputy premier and a former PCR secretary; and Alexandru Draghici,
+minister of internal affairs and, as such, head of the powerful state
+security apparatus.
+
+A temporary solution to the problem was found in a system of collective
+leadership by which Ceausescu became head of the party and Stoica took
+over Gheorghiu-Dej's other leading position as president of the Council
+of State and, as such, head of state. Apostol continued as first deputy
+prime minister, and Draghici remained as minister of internal affairs.
+Ion Gheorghe Maurer, who had served as prime minister under
+Gheorghiu-Dej, continued in that position. At the same time, changes
+were made in the party statutes to prevent one man from holding dual
+party and government offices as Gheorghiu-Dej had done.
+
+In April, just one month after taking over as head of the PCR, Ceausescu
+announced that a party congress would be convened in July. During the
+month of June, while preparations were being made for the congress, he
+revealed plans to redefine the character and structure of the party and
+announced that its name would no longer be the Romanian Workers' Party,
+as it had been known since 1948, but would again be the Romanian
+Communist Party. Observers of East European political affairs saw the
+change of name as an assertion of the equality of Romanian communism
+with the communist parties of the Soviet Union and other communist
+states. During the same month the new PCR leaders also proclaimed that
+the official designation of the state would be the Socialist Republic of
+Romania rather than the Romanian People's Republic as it had previously
+been known (see ch. 8).
+
+At the July party congress Ceausescu was successful in adding a number
+of his supporters to an enlarged PCR Central Committee and in having his
+own title changed to general secretary. At the same time the party
+structure was changed to add a new body, the Executive Committee,
+between the Standing Presidium (Politburo) and the Central Committee.
+Although he was not able to gain full control of the Executive Committee
+immediately, in time this new body provided Ceausescu with the means for
+including his supporters in the leading organs of the PCR and for
+implementing his own policies.
+
+During the party congress Ceausescu was able to turn the PCR
+proscription against an individual's holding dual party and government
+positions to his own advantage by engineering the election of Draghici
+to the party Secretariat, a move that resulted in Draghici losing his
+power base as minister of internal affairs as well as his direct control
+over the state security forces. Later in the year the appointment of two
+additional "first deputy prime ministers" undermined the power of
+Apostol who had been, until that time, the only first deputy.
+Simultaneously, Ceausescu was making preparations for even more
+definitive actions against his rivals, preparations that took the form
+of an unpublicized decision of the PCR Central Committee, in November
+1965, to establish a commission of inquiry to reexamine the political
+trials conducted by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime during the 1950s. The
+commission was particularly directed to investigate the 1954 trial and
+execution of Lucretiu Patrascanu, who had been the Romanian minister of
+justice from 1944 to 1948 and an important member of the party
+hierarchy. The formation of the commission of inquiry and its findings
+were not announced publicly until April 1968.
+
+Political observers identified three principal factions within the PCR
+during the 1965-67 period: Ceausescu and his supporters; the veteran
+party men led by Stoica, Apostol, and Draghici; and the intellectuals,
+of whom Maurer was perhaps the nominal representative. Those allied with
+Ceausescu, who was forty-seven years old when he came to power, tended
+to be men of his own generation and outlook, and whenever possible he
+engineered their appointment or promotion into important party,
+government, and military positions.
+
+One of Ceausescu's foremost concerns was what he termed the
+revitalization of the PCR. To achieve this end, he not only brought his
+own younger men into the top party organs but also sought to broaden the
+professional skills represented in these bodies through the recruitment
+of technically trained men and academicians. At the same time, increased
+technical and scientific contacts were permitted with Western nations,
+and previously banned works of foreign writers and artists were allowed
+to be reintroduced--moves that helped Ceausescu gain additional support
+among the PCR's intellectuals.
+
+Although the party encouraged a revival of nationalism and introduced
+several limited domestic reforms, it did not relax its tight political
+control and continued to direct the country's economy through a highly
+centralized system. The maintenance of strict party control was
+evidenced in the congresses of the youth and labor union organizations
+in mid-1966, when the delegates were informed that the PCR would begin
+to enforce the "patriotic education" of their members.
+
+
+The 1967 National Party Conference
+
+At a specially convened National Conference of the PCR in December
+1967--the first such conference in twenty-two years--Ceausescu continued
+to strengthen his own position. The conference was attended by the
+members of the Central Committee as well as by 1,150 delegates from
+local party organizations. Ceausescu elected to employ the technique of
+the party conference rather than a special party congress in order to
+have his proposals approved by a larger body than the Central Committee.
+At the same time, he wanted to avoid the requirement of having to elect
+a new Central Committee, which would have been the case had a congress
+been held.
+
+In his address to the conference, Ceausescu declared that in order to
+modernize Romania as a socialist state it was imperative to adopt new
+organizational and ideological forms. To achieve this end, he proposed a
+number of reforms in the structure and functioning of both the party and
+the government and defended the country's policy of independent
+development. Speaking of the relationship between party and government
+responsibilities, Ceausescu asserted the need to eliminate overlapping
+and duplication in party and government functions. As a remedy, he
+proposed that only one individual, whether in the party or in the
+government, should deal with a particular sector of activity. In
+addition, he called for a clearer delineation of the responsibilities of
+the government and the party. It was not necessary, he declared, for the
+Central Committee to decide all questions of economic affairs and
+continue to maintain a number of economic departments that duplicated
+the functions of the Council of Ministers and the economic ministries.
+He proposed that the Central Committee limit itself to basic decisions
+of economic policy and that the specific matters of implementation be
+left to the government ministries.
+
+Political and ideological activity, Ceausescu proposed, would remain
+under the control of the Central Committee and would be given greater
+emphasis and direction through the creation of an ideological commission
+that would work to develop an intensified program of political
+education. A defense council, composed of the party's Standing Presidium
+and other members, would be established to deal with most military
+questions, but the basic questions of guidance for both the armed forces
+and the state security apparatus would continue to be the responsibility
+of the Central Committee. Major foreign policy questions would be
+decided by the Standing Presidium (see ch. 8).
+
+Ceausescu also proposed reforms in the organization and responsibilities
+of governmental organs. In addition to proposing a reorganization of the
+state's territorial subdivisions, he asserted the need to broaden the
+activities of the Grand National Assembly and to increase the
+responsibilities of the assembly commissions in order to give that body
+a greater role in the government. Ministers and other high government
+officials were to be more aware of their responsibilities to keep the
+assembly informed of the activities of their departments. Ceausescu also
+declared the need to strengthen the role and organization of the Council
+of Ministers to enable it to provide for long-term economic planning. In
+addition, he suggested that the heads of three of the more important
+mass organizations--the General Union of Trade Unions, the Union of
+Communist Youth, and the National Union of Agricultural Production
+Cooperatives--be included in the government and be given ministerial
+ranking.
+
+The party conference represented a major success for Ceausescu in his
+drive to gain undisputed political control. All of his proposals were
+unanimously adopted, and the party statutes were changed to enable him
+to become the head of state, as president of the Council of State, as
+well as head of the party, a reversal of the 1965 proscription against
+one individual simultaneously holding prominent posts in both the party
+and state. The nomination of Ceausescu was made by Stoica, the incumbent
+president of the Council of State, on the grounds that uniting the
+highest offices of the party and the state would eliminate the
+duplication of functions and increase efficiency. Stoica was given a
+position in the party Secretariat and later, in 1969, was named chairman
+of the Central Auditing Commission, a post he continued to hold in early
+1972.
+
+As a result of the approval of Ceausescu's recommendations, a number of
+changes were effected in local government and party organizations.
+Certain positions in the party and state organizations were fused, the
+county or city party first secretary also becoming chairman of the local
+people's council (see ch. 8). The secretaries of local party units and
+labor union representatives were included on the councils of the
+industrial enterprises.
+
+Following the recommendations of the party conference, the day after the
+conference adjourned the Grand National Assembly convened to elect
+Ceausescu as president of the Council of State, and it approved
+legislation to implement most of the other conference decisions. At the
+same time, the assembly elected a new Council of State consisting of (in
+addition to Ceausescu) three vice presidents and fifteen other members.
+A new Council of Ministers was also elected, with Maurer again named as
+prime minister. Apostol was demoted from his position as a first deputy
+prime minister to his previously held post as chairman of the General
+Union of Trade Unions. Draghici was removed from the party Secretariat
+and given a position as a deputy prime minister under Maurer. With the
+successful demotion of his chief rivals, Ceausescu emerged at the close
+of 1967 as the undisputed leader of both the party and the state.
+
+
+Rehabilitation and De-Stalinization
+
+With his power base firmly established, Ceausescu acted to fully
+disassociate his regime from the Gheorghiu-Dej era. In April 1968, at a
+plenary session of the Central Committee, the report of the commission
+of inquiry, which had been secretly established in late 1965, was made
+public. The Gheorghiu-Dej regime was severely indicated for fraudulently
+conspiring to arrange the trial and execution of Patrascanu in 1954 and
+for violations of justice in the other political show trials of the
+1950s. Patrascanu was exonerated of all charges, and several other of
+the trial victims were officially rehabilitated.
+
+Because of this close association with Gheorghiu-Dej and his position as
+head of the internal affairs ministry during the period of the trials,
+the Central Committee dismissed Draghici from all his positions. Apostol
+and Stoica were censured but were allowed to remain in their posts,
+although their standing in the party was considerably weakened.
+
+Throughout the 1968-70 period the Ceausescu regime continued a gradual
+and cautious policy of de-Stalinization in domestic affairs and
+continued, as well, to assert the country's independent stance in
+international relations. The domestic relaxation was limited, however,
+and, in an address to an association of artists in April 1968, Ceausescu
+cautioned both intellectuals and artists not to overstep the bounds
+established by the party.
+
+The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Treaty
+Organization (Warsaw Pact) in August 1968 posed a crisis to the
+Ceausescu regime and raised the possibility of Soviet intervention in
+Romania. Ceausescu's firm denunciation of the invasion, however, served
+to unify the population behind him. His call for national mobilization
+and the creation of a home guard for national defense elicited broad
+popular support and gained him stature as the defender of Romanian
+independence.
+
+In late 1968 the PCR leadership acted to establish a new national
+political organization, the Socialist Unity Front, in order to bring
+representatives of the major mass organizations and other associations
+into a party-dominated framework for the political mobilization of the
+population (see ch. 8). As a replacement for the older and largely
+ineffective People's Democratic Front, the new front organization was
+structured around a national council and, theoretically, was given
+advisory powers on important policy matters.
+
+In addition to the PCR, the Socialist Unity Front's National Council
+included representatives of: labor unions; cooperative farmers'
+organizations; consumers' cooperatives; professional, cultural, and
+scientific associations; women's youth, and veterans' organizations;
+religious bodies; and the councils of the Hungarian, German, Serbian,
+and Ukrainian minorities. Ceausescu was elected president of the front,
+and Maurer, the vice president.
+
+The first major activity of the Socialist Unity Front was the conducting
+of national elections on March 2, 1969. As only the front was allowed to
+nominate candidates, just one candidate was named for each Grand
+National Assembly seat. The official results indicated that over 99
+percent of the eligible voters cast their ballots and, of these, 99.75
+percent endorsed the Socialist Unity Front slate. Elections to the newly
+organized bodies of local government took place at the same time (see
+ch. 8).
+
+Convening ten days after the election, the new Grand National Assembly
+reelected Ceausescu as president of the Council of State and renamed
+Maurer as prime minister. At the same time, the assembly enacted
+legislation establishing the Defense Council that Ceausescu had earlier
+proposed. Observers of East European political affairs considered the
+timing of this enactment, coming just three days before an important
+meeting of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, as a further assertion of
+Romania's independent course in international affairs (see ch. 10).
+
+
+The Tenth Party Congress
+
+Almost 2,000 delegates attended the Tenth Party Congress of the PCR held
+in Bucharest from August 6 to 12, 1969. In addition, delegations were
+present from sixty-six foreign communist parties (see ch. 10). The main
+features of the congress included Ceausescu's unanimous reelection as
+general secretary of the party for a five-year term, the enlargement of
+the Central Committee from 121 to 165 members, and the approval of
+revisions of the party statutes.
+
+Among other things, the statute revisions provided for the election of
+the Central Committee by secret ballot and transferred the
+responsibility for electing the general secretary from the Central
+Committee to the party congress. It was also decided that party
+congresses would be convened every five years rather than every four so
+that each congress could discuss and adopt a five-year economic plan for
+the country. A unique feature of the congress was the division of the
+delegates into five working commissions, with their sessions open to
+foreign journalists.
+
+When it came time for the congress to elect the Central Committee,
+nearly half of the remaining older members were replaced by younger men
+who were supporters of Ceausescu. Apostol and Stoica were conspicuously
+not reelected and, immediately after the congress, Apostol was
+discharged from his position as chairman of the General Union of Trade
+Unions after being charged with "serious breaches of Communist
+morality."
+
+Although the modifications in the party statutes were designed to allow
+for more democratic procedures in party affairs, the principle of
+centralized control continued to be strongly maintained. Whereas all
+party members were encouraged to voice their opinions on any given
+issue, once a decision was adopted the minority was expected to yield to
+the majority and aid in implementation of policies. The congress
+resolved that party control and ideological guidance must reach into all
+aspects of the life of the people.
+
+
+POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
+
+The Romanian Communist Party
+
+Originally founded in 1921, the Romanian Communist Party was declared
+illegal in 1924 and forced into a clandestine existence until the
+closing years of World War II. After the war, fully supported by the
+Soviet Union, the party gradually consolidated power and sought to
+extend its base of popular support through intensified propaganda
+activity. In early 1948 the PCR merged with one wing of the Social
+Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers' Party. By the end of
+1952, however, almost all of the former Social Democrats had been
+expelled from the leading party bodies and replaced by active Communists
+(see ch. 2).
+
+
+Organization
+
+Basic decisions concerning the organization, operation, and membership
+of the PCR are contained in the party statutes, the fundamental document
+of the party. Originally adopted in May 1948, the statutes have
+undergone several modifications, with more significant revisions being
+made in 1955, 1965, 1967, and 1969.
+
+All organs of the party are closely interrelated and operate on the
+principle of democratic centralism. Derived from the Communist Party of
+the Soviet Union, the concept of democratic centralism provides for the
+election of party bodies at all levels but requires a firm hierarchical
+subordination of each party organ to the next higher unit. In practice,
+this means that party programs and policies are directed from a single
+center and that decisions of higher organs are unconditionally binding
+on all lower organs as well as on individual members. The statutes call
+for the free and open discussion of policy questions at congresses,
+conferences, local membership meetings, and in the party press; however,
+discipline requires that once a decision is made the minority fully
+submits to decisions of the majority.
+
+According to the party statutes, the supreme organ of the PCR is the
+party congress consisting of delegates elected by the county (_judet_)
+conferences on the basis of one delegate for every 1,000 party members.
+As revised in 1969, the statutes call for the convening of a party
+congress every five years. Duties of the congress include the election
+of the PCR general secretary, election of the Central Committee and the
+Central Auditing Commission, and the discussion and adoption of programs
+and policies proposed by the central organs of the party.
+
+Between congresses the leading party organ is the Central Committee.
+Consisting of 165 full members and 120 alternate members, the Central
+Committee is responsible for the overall direction of all party
+activities and the implementation of policies established by the party
+congress. In addition, the Central Committee screens nominations for the
+more important party and state positions. Party statutes require a
+plenary session of the Central Committee at least four times a year (see
+fig. 9).
+
+  [Illustration: _Figure 9. Organization of the Romanian Communist
+  Party, 1972._]
+
+After its election by the party congress, the Central Committee in turn
+elects, from among its own number, the members of the leading party
+bodies: the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the
+Secretariat. The election is largely a formality, however, for in
+practice the Standing Presidium is the primary center of political power
+and is a self-perpetuating body. Any change in its membership or in that
+of the Secretariat is generated from within rather than through a
+democratic decision of the Central Committee. As general secretary of
+the party, Ceausescu heads both the Standing Presidium and the
+Secretariat and chairs the Executive Committee.
+
+To accomplish its administrative tasks the Central Committee is provided
+with an extensive bureaucratic structure that in many instances
+parallels the organization of the government ministries. A chancellery
+office, headed by a chief and three deputies, coordinates the
+committee's overall administrative activities. Party work is organized
+under three directorates, each headed by a supervisory secretary, and a
+number of administrative sections and functional commissions. The
+directorates, designated as international affairs and propaganda, party
+organization, and press and cultural affairs, supervise and direct the
+work of the administrative sections. Not all of these sections are
+listed in the party statutes or by the party press. A partial listing
+includes sections for the economy, local administration, propaganda,
+press, international affairs, party organs and personnel, national
+minorities, and state security.
+
+In addition to the directorates and administrative sections there were,
+in 1970, eight formally established commissions directly tied to the
+Central Committee. These were listed as the commissions for agriculture
+and forestry; economic problems; ideological and cultural-educational
+problems; international relations; organizational problems and internal
+party activity; training of cadres, education, and science; development
+of the social and state system; and social questions, public health, and
+living standards.
+
+Two party training institutions, the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy of
+Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres and the
+Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies, operate under the
+direct supervision of the Central Committee. Located in Bucharest, both
+of these institutions are designed to train and indoctrinate key
+bureaucratic personnel. The Central Committee also maintains a museum of
+party history in Bucharest.
+
+In charge of all of the political machinery of the PCR, the Standing
+Presidium of the Central Committee is the party's center for
+decisionmaking and policy control and, as such, is the most powerful
+body in the country. There were, at the beginning of 1972, four party
+leaders who held positions concurrently on the Standing Presidium, the
+Executive Committee, and the Secretariat: Ceausescu, Manea Manescu,
+Paul Niculescu-Mizil, and Gheorghe Pana. Political observers considered
+these men to be the most powerful in the party and, hence, the nation.
+All of the nine members of the Standing Presidium are also members of
+the Executive Committee.
+
+Little information is available on the responsibilities given the
+Executive Committee, although some observers have described it as
+providing an administrative link between the Standing Presidium and the
+Central Committee. In practice it has functioned as a rump Central
+Committee when the latter is not in session. The Secretariat serves as
+the continuing administrative unit of the party. It supervises the
+execution of policies decided upon by the Standing Presidium. Three
+members of the Secretariat serve as the supervising secretaries of the
+major directorates of the Central Committee.
+
+Two other important party organs function under the supervision of the
+Standing Presidium and the Secretariat: the Central Auditing Commission
+and the Central Collegium, formerly known as the Party Control
+Commission. Consisting of forty-five members (none of whom may belong to
+the Central Committee), the Central Auditing Commission is empowered to
+exercise general control over party financial affairs and examine the
+management of finances by the various party organs. The nine-member
+Central Collegium deals with matters of party discipline and serves as a
+type of appeals court for penalties imposed on members by county or
+local party committees.
+
+An interlocking of authority and functions at the highest level of the
+party and state is evidenced in the frequency with which the senior
+party officials also hold important government posts. All of the members
+of the Standing Presidium, the Executive Committee, and the Secretariat
+are also deputies to the Grand National Assembly, and most of them hold
+other prominent government positions in the Council of State, the
+Defense Council, or the Council of Ministers.
+
+The party statutes describe the local cell, the basic party unit, as the
+foundation of the party. Cells exist in factories, offices,
+cooperatives, military and police units, social and cultural
+organizations, and residential areas. Some of these cell groups consist
+of as few as three members, whereas those in the larger enterprises may
+have as many as 300 members. In 1969 there were an estimated 69,000 of
+these local party units.
+
+Functions of the local and occupational cell units include the
+implementation of party directives and programs, the recruitment and
+indoctrination of new members, and the dissemination of propaganda
+directed at those outside the party. Members have the duty to
+participate in social, economic, and cultural activities, particularly
+in the direction of the economic enterprises, and to critically examine
+production and community life in the light of party ideology and goals.
+In all of its activities the local cell is required to uphold the
+discipline of the party and to adhere to the policies established by the
+ruling bodies of the PCR.
+
+Between the local cell unit and the higher organs of the PCR stands a
+hierarchy of party committees organized on the county, town, and
+communal levels. Each of these units is directly subordinate to the next
+higher level of the party organization. In Bucharest a city party
+committee supervises the activities of the communal and enterprise
+cells. Each party committee sets up its own bureau and elects a
+secretariat. In most cases the secretariat consists of a first
+secretary, a first vice chairman, and three or more vice chairmen or
+secretaries.
+
+The activity of the bureaus is conducted through several functional
+departments, which generally consist of sections on personnel,
+administration, agitation and propaganda, economic enterprises, youth,
+and women's affairs. The county and city committees also have their own
+control commissions and training programs. The first secretary of the
+county committee also serves as chairman of the county people's council,
+interlocking the party and government offices (see ch. 8).
+
+The party leadership decided in late 1967 to require the active
+participation of the party secretaries in the administrative organs of
+the enterprises and other institutions in their respective areas. County
+committees are aided in their administrative duties by economic
+commissions that oversee the general economic development of the county
+and fix both current and long-range goals. In addition, the economic
+commissions are charged with the coordination of all economic activity,
+the conducting of studies and making of proposals for setting production
+goals, and the allocation of material and human resources in the county.
+
+At each of these levels--county, city, town, and commune--the highest
+authoritative organ is the party conference, which fills a role on these
+lower levels similar to that of the party congress on the national
+level. The party statutes as revised in 1969 call for the convening of
+conferences every fourth year in the counties, in the city of Bucharest,
+and in the larger towns. In the communes and smaller towns the
+conference is required to be held once every two years. Although the
+conferences are held ostensibly to discuss problems and formulate
+policies, they serve in practice as transmission belts for the official
+party line set down by the central PCR authorities. County conferences
+and the Bucharest city conference elect delegates to the national party
+congress.
+
+
+Membership
+
+The PCR emerged at the close of World War II with only about 1,000
+members. Four years later, just before its merger with the Social
+Democratic Party and after an intensive propaganda campaign and a strong
+membership drive, the party reported over 700,000 members. When the PCR
+merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers'
+Party in 1948, some 200,000 Social Democrats were added to the
+membership roll. A purge of so-called hostile and nominal members during
+1950 resulted in the expulsion of 190,000 persons from the party,
+reducing the total membership to about 720,000 at the beginning of 1951.
+
+During the early years of full communist control of Romania, the party
+considered itself the vanguard of the working class and made a sustained
+effort to recruit workers into party membership. By the end of 1950 the
+PCR reported that 64 percent of the leading party positions and 40
+percent of the higher government posts were filled by members of the
+working class. The efforts to recruit workers into the party have
+consistently fallen short of the set goals, however, and from time to
+time throughout the period since 1950 party leaders have decried the
+fact that the social composition of the membership has not included an
+adequate proportion of workers.
+
+By 1964 the party membership was reported at 1.2 million. This total was
+increased to 1.5 million by 1966, a figure that represented about 8
+percent of the country's population. Membership composition, in 1966,
+was reported as 40 percent workers, 32 percent peasants, and 22 percent
+intelligentsia, with the remaining 6 percent not classified.
+
+After Ceausescu's accession to power in 1965, he sought to increase the
+party's influence, broaden the base of popular support, and bring in new
+members. At a first step, he eliminated the probationary period, which
+had varied from one year for industrial workers to two years for
+peasants, white-collar workers, and intellectuals. Additional members
+were also sought by enticing those who had belonged to the old Social
+Democratic Party and the former Socialist Party by dating their
+membership from the time of their entry into those parties.
+
+The result of the membership drive, announced at the 1967 party
+conference, was the addition of 230,000 new PCR members, bringing the
+total to 1,730,000. At the 1969 party congress it was announced that the
+PCR had 1,924,500 members, representing about one-seventh of the total
+adult population. In February 1971 the Central Committee reported that
+the membership had grown to 2.1 million, making the PCR one of the
+largest communist parties in Eastern Europe.
+
+Statistics reported by the party press indicated the nationality
+composition of the PCR as consisting of 88.8 percent Romanians, 8.4
+percent Hungarians, and slightly over 1 percent Germans, with the
+remainder encompassing other nationalities. As the 1966 census had shown
+that Hungarians represented 8.4 percent of the total population, the
+Germans 2 percent, and other nationalities about 2 percent, the
+nationality composition of the party compares favorably with that of the
+country as a whole.
+
+Workers reportedly made up 44 percent of the party membership; peasants,
+26 percent; and intellectuals and white-collar workers, 23 percent.
+Seven percent were unclassified as to status. Statistics indicating the
+age composition of the party were also published, revealing that 24
+percent of the membership was under thirty years of age; persons between
+the ages of thirty and forty made up 36 percent of the membership, and
+40 percent of the members were over forty years old.
+
+The PCR membership campaign had been given particular emphasis in the
+major industries, such as the metal, machine-building, coal, petroleum,
+and chemical industries, where 27 to 36 percent of the workers were
+reported to belong to the party. Female membership was reported as 23
+percent, up from 17 percent in 1960 and 21 percent in 1965. The report
+contained a recommendation that a larger number of women be assigned to
+responsible positions. Statistics for the army revealed that 90 percent
+of the officers and 55 percent of the noncommissioned officers were
+party members. The fact that over 926,000 members lived in rural areas
+was asserted by the PCR leaders to be proof of peasant support and a
+demonstration of the effectiveness of the party in organizing at the
+village level.
+
+In 1970 the party press reported that an analysis of the leading
+national and local PCR bodies revealed that the greater proportion of
+their memberships consists of those drawn from the ranks of the working
+class. Of the 285 members and alternate members of the Central
+Committee, 197, or nearly 70 percent, were workers or persons who had
+come from the workers' ranks. Of the 4,698 members of county party
+committees, 2,144 or 45.6 percent were said to be workers or from the
+working class. Together, workers and peasants were reported to make up
+over 64 percent of the membership of county committees. As many as 81
+percent of the activists of the county, municipal, and communal party
+committees were--according to their basic professions--workers, foremen,
+or technicians.
+
+
+Party Training
+
+In early 1970 the PCR carried out a major reorganization of its primary
+institution for the training of leading party workers, the Stefan
+Gheorghiu Party Academy. With the reorganization, the full name of the
+institution became the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy for Social-Political
+Education and the Training of Leading Cadres. Its tasks were defined as
+the training of party activists and the development of party leaders
+capable of resolving problems and "applying the science of political
+leadership to the party and society."
+
+Ceausescu explained that the reorganization was necessary for upgrading
+the training of activists for the party as well as for various sectors
+of economic and state life. He also stated that the combination of party
+training with state and economic activity is based on the principle that
+the PCR is the leading force of the society and, as such, must ensure
+the proper training of the personnel needed to guide all sectors of
+activity.
+
+As reorganized, the academy is divided into two departments, one for the
+training of cadres in the party and in mass organizations and a second
+for the training of personnel who work in the economy and state
+administration. Each department is subdivided into a number of
+institutes, sections, and training centers. Within the first department
+is the Institute for Training Cadres in Social-Political Management,
+which in turn is subdivided into sections for political-organizational
+activity, political-ideological activity, and political-economic
+activity. Also within the same department are the Journalism Faculty,
+the Center for the Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization
+Cadres, the Center for Improving the Political-Ideological Training of
+Teachers of Social-Political Sciences in State Schools, and the Center
+for Activist Training Courses. The Center for Activist Training Courses
+provided programs of study for activists in the party, the youth
+organization, labor unions, and workers in offices of foreign affairs.
+The last two centers are divided into several sections that specialize
+in the training of particular classes of activists.
+
+The second department, that which provided training for state employees
+and for those working in economic activities, consists of the Central
+Institute for the Education of Leading Cadres in the Economy and State
+Administration, a section for short-term courses, and a section for
+training in specialized management and organizational problems. The
+institute includes sections on the organization and management of
+industrial activity, of construction, of transport and telecommunications,
+of agriculture, of circulation of goods and services, of planning, and
+of state administration. In addition, the department organizes courses
+for chairmen of agricultural production cooperatives.
+
+Admission to the academy programs is carefully controlled by the party.
+Courses in the first department last for four years, and candidates are
+selected from among the activists in the county and city party
+committees and the central PCR bodies and from loyal party workers in
+the mass organizations. Political activists in the Ministry of the Armed
+Forces, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the State Security Council
+are also eligible for training in the first department.
+
+PCR regulations stipulate that candidates for training in the first
+department must have worked for at least three years in production and
+have had at least three years' experience in mass organizations. In
+addition, the candidate must have completed at least a five-month course
+in one of the lower level party schools, have a high school diploma or
+its equivalent, and be thirty-five years of age or younger.
+
+Courses in the second department last for two years. Requirements for
+admission into this department include extensive experience in
+organization and management related to industry and labor, at least
+eight years of service, membership in the PCR, graduation from a higher
+education institute, and an age of forty years or younger.
+
+In addition to the broad program of the academy, the PCR also maintains
+other ideological training institutions. These include the Institute of
+Historical and Social-Political Studies in Bucharest, which functions
+under the direct supervision of the Central Committee, and lower level
+training programs that operate under the county party committees.
+
+During 1971 the PCR placed increased emphasis on both the political and
+general education of all party workers, and the Central Committee
+decreed that only those who can keep up to date in their fields of
+activity would be promoted. As a followup to the decree, the Central
+Committee initiated a series of twenty- to thirty-day training programs
+and required some 15,000 persons from party, state, and mass
+organizations to attend the sessions. The order included a warning that
+those who did not successfully complete the courses would lose their
+jobs.
+
+Observers of Romanian politics stated that the decision to require this
+additional training of state and party workers stemmed from the fact
+that the majority of personnel on both the central and local levels had
+been named to their positions on the basis of faithful party activity
+rather than their professional qualifications. The stipulation that
+those who do not successfully complete the courses would lose their jobs
+enables the party to replace those who are not qualified to fill their
+positions.
+
+The study programs, designed to include practical work, discussion of
+specific problems, and field trips, cover a number of subjects including
+"the basic Marxist-Leninist sciences of management and organization,"
+automatic data processing, the utilization of electronic calculators,
+methods of socioeconomic analysis, and the projection of plans, as well
+as a number of special subjects related to the various fields of
+activity of the participants. To facilitate the training of larger
+numbers, branches of the Stefan Gheorghiu Party Academy's Center for the
+Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization Cadres were set up
+in Bucharest and in seven counties.
+
+
+Mass Organizations
+
+The PCR has fostered the development of a large number of mass
+organizations that function as its auxiliaries. Comprised of members of
+an interest group or a profession whose welfare they purport to serve,
+the mass organizations provide channels for the transmission of policy
+and doctrine from the party to the general population. PCR leaders have
+described the duties of mass organizations as the mobilization of the
+working people for the fulfillment of party policies and the provision
+for their participation in the economic, political, and cultural life of
+the country. Leaders of the mass organizations are always reliable PCR
+members.
+
+Citizens are constitutionally guaranteed the right to join together in
+organizations. At the same time, the Constitution defines the leading
+role of the party in relation to the mass organizations, asserting that
+through such organizations the PCR "achieves an organized link with the
+working class, the peasantry, the intelligentsia, and the other
+categories of working people" and mobilizes them in "the struggle for
+the completion of the building of socialism."
+
+Two broad classes of organizations are included under the rubric of mass
+organizations: those based on common interests or common categories or
+persons, such as youth and women's associations, and those based on
+professions, such as the General Union of Trade Unions. Several of the
+organizations belong to international organizations and associations,
+such as the World Federation of Trade Unions and the World Federation of
+Democratic Youth.
+
+Among the more important of the mass organizations are the Union of
+Communist Youth, the General Union of Trade Unions, and the National
+Council of Women. The chairmen of the Union of Communist Youth and the
+General Union of Trade Unions sit on the Council of Ministers and have
+ministerial rank; the chairman of the youth union serves simultaneously
+as head of the Ministry of Youth Problems.
+
+
+The Union of Communist Youth
+
+At the time of its founding in early 1949 the Union of Communist Youth
+(Uniunea Tineretului Comunist--UTC) was looked upon as the youth branch
+of the PCR. It was set up with much the same organizational structure as
+the party and, in practice, functioned both as a youth political party
+and mass organization. Resulting from the party-decreed merger of all
+existing youth organizations, the UTC was given the task of educating
+the young in the spirit of Marxism-Leninism and mobilizing them, under
+the guidance of the party, for the building of socialism.
+
+In early 1972 the UTC continued to be one of the most powerful of the
+mass organizations in the country, with an estimated membership of 2.5
+million. Membership was open to young people between the ages of fifteen
+and twenty-six; those who have reached the age of eighteen could also
+become members of the PCR. The Tenth Party Congress, meeting in 1969,
+introduced the requirement that young people up to the age of twenty-six
+would be accepted into the party only if they were UTC members.
+Decisions on persons to fill the most important leadership positions in
+the UTC were made by the PCR Central Committee.
+
+The structure of the UTC has undergone a number of changes since it was
+originally established. In early 1972 the organization functioned on the
+national level with an eight-member Secretariat, including the first
+secretary who is also the UTC chairman, and a bureau of twenty-one full
+and seven alternate members. In each of the thirty-nine countries and
+the city of Bucharest there exist UTC committees that are similarly
+organized with secretariats and bureaus. The UTC has its own publishing
+facilities and publishes its own propaganda organ, _The Spark of Youth_
+(Scinteia Tineretului).
+
+Statistics on the composition of the youth organization, reported at the
+Ninth UTC Congress held in February 1971, indicated that the membership
+consisted of 30 percent workers, 39 percent students, and 17 percent
+peasants. The remainder consisted of those who were classified as
+intellectuals, clerks, and office workers.
+
+Periodically throughout the 1960s PCR leaders demonstrated growing
+concern for what they termed as shortcomings in the political education
+of the nation's youth. In 1968 this concern led to the establishment of
+the Research Center for Youth Problems and an increased effort to
+instill in the young people a sense of "socialist patriotism." Ceausescu
+asserted the need for all levels of education to be permeated with
+Marxist-Leninist ideology and placed particular emphasis on ideological
+training in the universities.
+
+Political education of young people, both members and non-members, and
+their mobilization in support of PCR policies is considered the primary
+duty of the UTC. It is charged with the organization of political and
+patriotic courses in schools, among peasant groups, and among workers
+and members of the armed forces. The UTC also guides and supervises the
+activities of the Union of Student Associations.
+
+A second youth movement, the Pioneers Organization, was created for
+young people between the ages of nine and fourteen. In late 1971 the
+Pioneers Organization reported a total membership of 1.6 million. The
+organization's responsibilities toward those of its age group parallel
+those of the UTC and involve political and patriotic training. Until
+1966 the Pioneers Organization functioned as an integral part of the
+UTC, but since that time it has been under the direct control of the
+party Central Committee.
+
+
+The General Union of Trade Unions
+
+As the official organization incorporating all blue-collar and
+white-collar workers, the General Union of Trade Unions (Uniunea
+Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania--UGSR) is the largest of the
+country's mass organizations, with a reported membership in early 1972
+of 4.6 million. Headed by a general council, the UGSR consists of twelve
+component labor union federations and forty area councils, one for each
+county and the city of Bucharest. The Central Council is structured with
+a chairman, appointed by the PCR Central Committee, seven secretaries,
+and an executive committee of twenty-seven full and nine alternate
+members. There are an estimated 12,000 local union units.
+
+The primary function of the labor unions is the transmission of party
+policies to the rank and file. The UGSR statutes specify that the
+organization will carry out all of its activities under the political
+leadership of the PCR, and a similar provision is also included in the
+statutes of the county UGSR committees. In addition, the statutes of
+the central body require the organization to work to mobilize labor
+union members to ensure the implementation of party policy. A 1969
+resolution of the Central Council of the UGSR declared that all labor
+union activities would focus on the mobilization of the working people
+to fulfill the state economic plan.
+
+In early 1971, after a period of increased labor discipline problems and
+following a time of severe labor unrest in Poland, the PCR took steps to
+reform the labor union organization. Announcing what he termed as the
+democratization of the UGSR and its component unions, Ceausescu promised
+the workers genuine protection of their interests and a voice in the
+appointment of industrial management. The goal of the PCR program was to
+improve the unions without losing party control, and Ceausescu defined
+democratization as meaning that the labor unions would serve the party
+as a framework for the organization of consultations with the masses and
+as a forum where workers can debate the country's economic and social
+development.
+
+New UGSR statutes were introduced in mid-1971. Observers of Romanian
+political affairs asserted, however, that there were no major changes in
+the system and pointed out that the new statutes still did not give
+labor unions the right to take the initiative in matters concerning
+wages or the living standard. In this regard the unions could fill only
+a watchdog role to assure that the regulations approved by the
+appropriate party and management bodies were being correctly carried
+out.
+
+
+PARTY POLICIES AND PROGRAMS
+
+The major domestic programs that the party sought to promote centered on
+the country's economic development, the integration of national
+minorities, the extension of so-called socialist democracy, and the
+PCR's cultural-ideological campaign. As a means of strengthening its
+leading role, the party leaders acted to improve communication between
+the central PCR organs and the county, city, and commune organizations
+and, at the same time, took additional steps to win mass support.
+
+
+The Economy
+
+In the area of economics the PCR continued its primary emphasis on
+industrial development and was only secondarily concerned with
+agriculture and consumer goods. This emphasis was evidenced in the
+economic plan adopted for the 1971-75 period, approved by the 1969 party
+congress, which concentrates on heavy industry at the expense of
+consumer goods. Although Romania was primarily an agricultural country,
+the PCR leadership in the early 1960s, rejected the plan of the Council
+for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for a division of labor between
+the participating communist states that would have had Romania place the
+greatest emphasis on the development of agriculture. Instead, the PCR
+launched a drive to modernize the country through industrialization (see
+ch. 14; ch. 10).
+
+The policies pursued by the PCR are designed to maintain firm party
+control of the economy. In the formulation of Romania's economic
+development plans, the will of the party is predominant, and the degree
+of party control was augmented by the territorial and administrative
+reorganization of 1968 when economic commissions were established in
+each of the new counties to function under the direct supervision of the
+county PCR committees. These commissions made it possible for the party
+to have a direct hand in the local economic programs.
+
+During 1970 and 1971 party leaders noted that, whereas the annual
+production increase envisaged by the Five-Year Plan (1971-75) had been
+fulfilled for industry, that for agriculture fell far short. Ceausescu
+called for a renewal of intensive efforts in both industry and
+agriculture to meet the requirements of the people and to enable the
+country to achieve the true socialist state of development.
+
+
+National Minorities
+
+The integration of the major non-Romanian national groups into the life
+of the country has posed periodic problems for the PCR throughout the
+post-World War II era. Each of the communist constitutions guaranteed
+equal rights to the national minorities, rights that included the
+opportunity to use their own language and to have representation on
+local bodies of government. The Hungarian Autonomous Region had been
+created by the 1952 Constitution but was not continued under the 1968
+territorial reorganization (see ch. 8; ch. 4).
+
+Party leaders explained the decision to abandon the concept of an
+autonomous region for the Hungarian population in terms of the need to
+integrate all of the minority groups fully into the Romanian political
+community. Spokesmen asserted that it is the policy of the PCR to
+respect the heritage of the various nationality groups and extend to
+them full political rights but at the same time to work to create
+conditions that will serve to unite all of the country under the
+leadership of the party.
+
+PCR leaders have feared the possibility of attempts by foreign elements
+to foster unrest among the country's larger minority groups. This was
+particularly true at the time of the Soviet-led invasion of
+Czechoslovakia, when Romanian leaders were apprehensive about the
+possibility of a similar intervention in their country. At that time PCR
+officials visited the areas where there were concentrations of Hungarian
+and German minorities, stressing national unity and equal rights for all
+national groups.
+
+These efforts were followed in November 1968 by the establishment of
+nationality councils: the Council of Working People of Hungarian
+Nationality and the Council of Working People of German Nationality.
+Units of the Hungarian council were established in fifteen counties, and
+units of the German council were established in nine counties. In
+counties where there existed substantial Serbian or Ukrainian
+populations, similar local councils were established for these groups,
+although only the Hungarian and German minorities maintained councils on
+the national level. The nationality councils were affiliated with the
+Socialist Unity Front. A month after the establishment of the councils
+the Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of the party, passed
+legislation granting the minorities increased representation on local
+government bodies.
+
+In explaining the purposes of the nationality councils, Ceausescu
+declared that they would "cultivate socialist patriotism, socialist
+internationalism, and devotion for our new order and for the common
+fatherland ... against any backward nationalistic concepts and
+manifestations." Observers of Romanian political affairs pointed out,
+however, that the councils are closely tied to the party and, although
+they can serve as means of communication between the PCR and the
+minority groups, they function primarily as transmission belts for party
+policies and as instruments for PCR political and educational
+activities.
+
+
+Social Democracy and Party Ideology
+
+At the same time that the PCR has sought to present itself as a
+progressive force seeking the participation of the people in political
+affairs, it has also carried on a campaign to strengthen what it calls
+the Marxist character of all ideological, cultural, and educational
+activities. Within limits, Ceausescu has encouraged what he has termed
+as "socialist democracy"--open communication between the masses and the
+party leadership--and he has publicly called for the people to express
+their views on political issues.
+
+Socialist democracy is defined by Ceausescu as a spirit of social
+responsibility by which the citizens are inspired to perform their
+duties in accordance with the needs and imperatives of the society as a
+whole. The goal of socialist democracy is to stimulate the masses to
+support the cause of socialism by involving them in the programs of the
+PCR to such an extent that the individual identifies his personal goals
+and values with those of the party.
+
+In mid-1971 Ceausescu announced a new ideological program and the
+tightening of party controls over government, science, and cultural
+life. Observers gave various interpretations to the campaign. Some saw
+it as a move to respond to Soviet criticism of Romanian foreign policy
+by reminding Moscow that socialism was not endangered in Romania and
+that this pretext could not be used to justify Soviet interference;
+others considered it as an assertion of authority by Ceausescu at a time
+when he judged it necessary to combat ideological laxity at home. The
+action may also have been prompted by a concern that party authority and
+discipline were being undermined by Western cultural influences.
+
+Partially directed at the youth of the nation, the campaign included
+curbs against alcohol in youth clubs and the screening of foreign
+television programs and music. Another objective of the campaign was
+increased party control over literature and cultural life; new
+ideological guidelines were issued for writers, publishers, and
+theaters. In speaking of the role of the arts, Ceausescu declared that
+they must serve the single purpose of socialist-communist education. At
+the same time, he called for increased guidance of the arts by all
+levels of the PCR and requested that works of art and literature be
+judged for their conformity with party standards and their service to
+the working class. Ceausescu ruled out repressive measures, however, and
+asserted that the party would rely on persuasion to implement the new
+ideological program (see ch. 7).
+
+The campaign encountered some resistance, although more passive than
+overt. A number of writers boycotted the literary magazines in protest
+against the restrictions imposed on publishing and, despite the fact
+that the official writers' union circulated a statement in support of
+the party's stand, many of the more prominent writers refused to endorse
+it. In August 1971 the editor of a leading literary journal, who was
+also a member of the PCR Central Committee, resigned both positions as a
+protest against the stricter party controls.
+
+Resistance was also evident in the party and state bureaucracy, where
+the ideological campaign was welcomed in principle but frequently
+ignored in practice. Many of the nation's youth also manifested
+disagreement with the restrictive content campaign. Assessing the
+progress of the program in late 1971, Ceausescu admitted that the new
+approach had not been generally adopted among the youth and asserted
+that the party organizations had not been diligent enough in the
+enforcement of the code. Particular criticism was directed at the
+Executive Committee and Secretariat for having failed to implement the
+decisions taken for the improvement of ideological activity.
+
+Although it is difficult for outside political observers to detect
+differences within the top bodies of the party, in regard to the
+ideological campaign tensions have been more evident. For the first time
+since Ceausescu came to power in 1965, the Central Committee plenum,
+meeting in November 1971, did not report unanimous agreement on all
+issues. Some observers indicated that the effect of the campaign has
+stimulated opposition to some of Ceausescu's policies. There was no
+evidence, however, that such opposition is organized or that it provides
+any serious threat to Ceausescu's position, and no leading figure in
+either the government or the party has openly expressed views that
+differ from those of the general secretary.
+
+
+POLITICAL VALUES AND ATTITUDES
+
+The Regime and the People
+
+Inasmuch as the PCR has proclaimed itself to be the only legitimate
+source of political power and, as well, the leading force in all aspects
+of economic and cultural life, the development of independent political
+and cultural values has been thoroughly circumscribed. Party control
+extends to all aspects of the society and embraces educational and
+professional opportunities. Although PCR leaders have promised changes
+in the manner of selection for advancement, promotions have been based
+more frequently on party activity and doctrinal reliability than on
+professional competence.
+
+Because of the breadth of party control, accurate information on the
+attitudes of the people toward the regime and toward specific political
+issues is difficult to obtain. The Romanian press functions under the
+direct supervision of the PCR, and tight restrictions are placed on
+foreign correspondents reporting on events inside the country. Observers
+have indicated, however, that not all of the regime's domestic policies
+have been welcomed by all segments of the population and that some party
+policies have left a wake of latent resentments.
+
+Some observers have pointed to the decrease in the number of peasants in
+the party (down 3 percent in the 1969-71 period) as an indication of
+peasant dissatisfaction with the poor living conditions in the rural
+areas and the low income of most of the agricultural cooperatives (see
+ch. 2). Frequently the party responds to signs of discontent by any
+segment of the population by increasing the ideological propaganda
+directed toward it, but the regime has also attempted various reforms to
+counter obvious inadequacies.
+
+Among the more overt examples of discontent with party policy is the
+resistance to accepting job assignments in rural areas shown by
+technical school graduates. Other graduates have also refused to leave
+their home areas to work on collectives; all of these were criticized in
+the party press for giving priority to personal interests instead of
+considering the interests of the society as a whole. PCR officials
+declared that the graduates had been trained at state expense and that
+their refusal to fulfill their obligations as assigned by the party
+could not be tolerated. This resistance to party-decreed transfers was
+also evident among other groups during 1969 and 1970, including
+teachers, builders, and administrative workers.
+
+Observers consider such situations as evidence that the party is having
+difficulty reconciling an essentially authoritarian system with a policy
+of socialist democracy that encourages public initiative and
+participation. The persistence with which Ceausescu pursued the new
+ideological campaign during 1971 gave some observers the impression that
+he had opted to put his weight down on the side of continued
+authoritarianism.
+
+
+Romanian Nationalism
+
+The regime scored a marked success in basing its appeal for popular
+support on nationalistic sentiments and in giving emphasis to Romanian
+history and cultural traditions. Ceausescu has attempted to broaden the
+communist movement to include the aspirations of the people as a whole.
+Whereas in the past the PCR leaders made reference only to communist
+achievements and attributed everything positive to the work of the
+party, Ceausescu has praised Romanian national heroes and has given
+positive emphasis to specifically Romanian contributions to socialist
+development.
+
+To a significant degree the revival of nationalism has gone hand in hand
+with anti-Soviet attitudes. The image of the party was bolstered by the
+PCR leader's refusal to follow the Soviet line on a number of
+significant national and international issues (see ch. 10). At the time
+of the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, Ceausescu's
+denunciation of the action and his call for national mobilization in the
+face of the crisis served to unite the population and strengthen his
+position. Observers have pointed out, however, that this unity has
+appeared to wane with the ebbing of the crisis and with the return to
+the realities of everyday life in Romania.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 10
+
+FOREIGN RELATIONS
+
+
+Throughout the 1960s Romanian foreign policy increasingly diverged from
+that of the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe as the
+Romanian leaders asserted the country's national interests. In early
+1972 the government continued to declare that its foreign policy was
+based on national independence, sovereignty, and the principle of
+noninterference in internal affairs. Government and party leaders
+asserted that Romania would continue to seek development of friendly and
+cooperative relations with all states without regard to differences in
+sociopolitical systems.
+
+Foreign policy was formulated under the direct control of the Standing
+Presidium of the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist
+Roman--PCR) and administered through the government ministries. Although
+the regime of PCR General Secretary Nicolae Ceausescu has steadfastly
+sought to maintain an independent stance in foreign affairs and to
+develop political and economic relations with both communist and
+noncommunist states, it has continued to assert the Marxist-Leninist
+character of both its domestic and foreign policies. PCR leaders have
+repeatedly affirmed the party's commitment to the international
+communist movement and to the solidarity of all socialist states.
+
+In the development of an independent foreign policy position the PCR has
+sought to shift away from economic and political domination by the
+Soviet Union and to develop a form of communism geared to the country's
+national interests and in keeping with the regime's perspective on world
+affairs. Although such a course brought the Romanian party and
+government into frequent conflict with the Soviet Union, the Romanian
+leadership continued to insist on its own interpretation and adaptation
+of communism.
+
+In early 1972 Romania maintained full diplomatic relations with more
+than ninety governments, over forty of which maintained embassies in
+Bucharest. In addition, trade and cultural relations were conducted with
+a number of other states with which formal relations had not been
+established. Romania is a member of the United Nations (UN) and a number
+of several UN specialized agencies. It is also a member of the communist
+military alliance known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact)
+and the communist economic alliance called the Council for Mutual
+Economic Assistance (COMECON).
+
+During 1970 and 1971 the regime made increased efforts to cultivate and
+strengthen the country's relations with the developing states of Asia
+and Africa and to extend its relations with the nations of Latin
+America. Personal diplomacy by Ceausescu and other ranking party and
+government leaders served as an important means for maintaining the
+country's international relations.
+
+
+DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY
+
+Historical Factors
+
+After coming under full communist control in the early post-World War II
+period, the country was closely aligned with the international policies
+and goals of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Romania's
+international and domestic policies generally supported the political
+and economic goals of the Soviet Union. Beneath the surface, however, an
+internal party struggle was being waged in Romania between certain
+communist leaders who were fully oriented toward the Soviet Union and
+others who sought an orientation that was less Soviet dominated (see ch.
+2).
+
+Although the internal struggle involved personal ambitions as much as
+political and ideological goals, the group surrounding party First
+Secretary Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej urged the attainment of national goals
+through cooperation with the Soviet Union rather than a position of
+complete integration and exclusive dependence on the Soviets. By
+mid-1952 Gheorghiu-Dej was able to gain full control of the party, purge
+his leading opponents, and assume the dual role of party chief and head
+of the government. Shortly after assuming the premiership, Gheorghiu-Dej
+began a slow and cautious disengagement from Soviet domination, being
+careful, however, not to advocate goals that were at variance with the
+policies of Soviet Premier Josef Stalin. Domestic politics, in fact,
+remained strongly Stalinist in orientation, and it was not until after
+Stalin's death in March 1953 that the first significant steps were taken
+to diminish Soviet control.
+
+To a significant degree the country's foreign policy during the
+Gheorghiu-Dej era reflected the Romanian leader's struggle for his own
+political survival, particularly in the face of Soviet Premier Nikita
+Khrushchev's campaign to weaken the power of Stalinist-oriented Eastern
+European communist leaders. Important also was the growing Romanian
+determination to limit the influence of the Soviet Union in the
+country's internal affairs, especially in the realm of economic
+development. Political events within the communist world during the
+remainder of the 1950s and the early 1960s provided Gheorghiu-Dej the
+opportunity to assert an increasingly independent stance and to gain
+concessions from the Soviets.
+
+Faced with Khrushchev's emphasis on de-Stalinization and his demands for
+communist unity under Soviet leadership, the Gheorghiu-Dej regime
+responded by giving lip service to Soviet policies while, at the same
+time, supporting moves aimed at weakening Soviet hegemony in the
+communist world. In early 1954 Gheorghiu-Dej sensed the political
+significance of Khrushchev's "peaceful coexistence" theme for Romania
+and began to exploit the situation to gain leverage for the extracting
+of concessions from the Soviet Union. The first significant achievement
+came later that same year when negotiations led to the dissolution of
+the joint Soviet-Romanian industrial enterprises that had been the
+primary instrument of Soviet economic exploitation during the postwar
+period.
+
+The regime also sought to gain increased domestic support by emphasizing
+the country's historical traditions, by calling for "Romanian solutions
+to Romanian problems," and by cautiously exploiting the population's
+latent anti-Soviet sentiments. In August 1954, on the occasion of the
+tenth anniversary of the country's liberation from Nazi forces,
+Gheorghiu-Dej asserted that the primary credit for driving out the
+occupiers belonged to Romanian Communists rather than to the Soviet
+army, a view that was subsequently condemned by the Soviets and
+supported by the Communist Chinese.
+
+Although the Gheorghiu-Dej regime formally supported the Soviet action
+in suppressing the 1956 Hungarian revolt, the Romanian leaders attempted
+to exploit the situation in order to obtain additional concessions from
+the Soviets and to gain recognition of the legitimacy of the so-called
+Romanian road to socialism. At that time, one of their primary aims was
+the removal of Soviet occupation forces that had remained in the country
+throughout the post-World War II period. Although the regime was not
+successful in obtaining formal Soviet recognition of a Romanian variant
+of communism, an agreement was reached placing a time limit on the
+presence of the Soviet troops, the forces finally being withdrawn in
+1958.
+
+Important problems were posed to the Gheorghiu-Dej regime by the
+reactivation of COMECON and the Soviet intentions to integrate the
+economies of the member states. Initially established in 1949 as the
+Soviet counterpart to the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan),
+COMECON was largely dormant until 1955, when Khrushchev decided to
+revitalize the organization as an instrument of Soviet economic policy
+in Eastern Europe. COMECON plans called for the subordination of
+national economic plans to an overall planning body that would determine
+economic development for the member states as a whole. Romania was to be
+assigned the role of a supplier of raw materials and agricultural
+produce for the more industrially developed members (see ch. 2).
+
+Gheorghiu-Dej rejected such a subservient role for Romania and proceeded
+with his own plans for the country's industrial development, asserting
+the right of each COMECON member state to develop its own economy in
+accord with national needs and interests, a position that was, in turn,
+rejected by the Soviets. As a reaction to Soviet pressures and the need
+to lessen Romanian dependence on COMECON, the regime initiated a gradual
+and cautious expansion of economic relations with noncommunist states.
+
+In 1957 Ion Gheorghe Maurer became minister of foreign affairs and,
+under the direction of Gheorghiu-Dej, initiated programs that emphasized
+the national character of Romanian foreign policy. Included in these
+programs were plans for the attainment of self-sufficiency in the
+machine-tool industry and in the production of iron and steel. At the
+same time, additional steps were taken to increase trade with Western
+Europe and the United States.
+
+The conflict with the Soviet Union became more acute in 1962 when
+Gheorghiu-Dej again rejected the COMECON plan for Romania and, later in
+the year, announced that a contract for the construction of a large
+steel mill at Galati had been concluded with a British-French
+consortium. Romanian statements in support of Albania further
+antagonized the Soviet leaders. During 1963 and 1964 Romanian-Soviet
+relations continued to deteriorate as the Gheorghiu-Dej regime sought to
+exploit the Sino-Soviet dispute and moved closer to the Communist
+Chinese position on the equality of communist states and the rejection
+of the leading role of the Soviet party. In November 1963 Maurer
+declared the readiness of Romania to mediate the Sino-Soviet dispute, a
+suggestion that Moscow considered arrogant and anti-Soviet.
+
+A statement issued by the party Central Committee in April 1964 declared
+the right of Romania and all other nations to develop national policies
+in the light of their own interests and domestic requirements. During
+the remainder of that year the volume of economic and cultural contacts
+with Western nations increased significantly. The increased role of the
+United States in the Vietnam hostilities, however, served to curb the
+Gheorghiu-Dej regime's efforts to improve relations with the United
+States, and the sudden death of Gheorghiu-Dej in March 1965 raised
+questions as to the future direction of Romanian foreign policy.
+
+Under Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Nicolae Ceausescu, Romania's foreign
+policy continued to diverge from that of the Soviet Union and the other
+members of COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. Increasingly assertive of
+national interests, the Ceausescu regime antagonized the Soviet Union by
+its establishment of diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of
+Germany (West Germany) in 1967 and by its refusal to follow the Soviet
+lead in breaking relations with Israel in the wake of the 1967
+Arab-Israeli War.
+
+The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet-led forces of the Warsaw Pact
+in August 1968 posed a particular threat to Romania. Observers of
+Eastern European political affairs saw the invasion as a severe blow to
+the basic assumptions of Romanian foreign policy, which included the
+belief that the Soviet Union would not intervene militarily against
+another member of the Warsaw Pact as long as the system of communist
+party rule was firmly maintained and membership in the pact was
+continued.
+
+From the outset of the Czechoslovak crisis the Ceausescu regime asserted
+that the only basis for relations between states was respect for
+national independence and sovereignty and a policy of noninterference in
+another state's internal affairs. The actual invasion, however, marked a
+reversal for Romanian foreign policy and, although the initial response
+was one of condemnation and defiance, Romania was put on the defensive.
+
+The invasion of Czechoslovakia marked something of a turning point in
+Romania's relations with COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet
+enunciation of the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine--the concept that the
+protection of socialism in any communist state is the legitimate concern
+of all communist states--was intended as a clear warning to the
+Ceausescu regime.
+
+Pressures mounted on Romania to cooperate more fully in the Warsaw Pact
+and to agree to a supranational planning body within the framework of
+COMECON. Economic conditions as well as the political and military
+pressures pushed the Ceausescu regime toward closer cooperation with
+COMECON, although the Romanians continued to resist the Soviet efforts
+toward economic integration.
+
+As a result of these pressures, the 1968-70 period was one of relative
+passivity for the Romanians in foreign affairs, although the period was
+marked by several important events, including the visit of President
+Richard M. Nixon to Romania in August 1969 and the long-delayed signing
+of the friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in July 1970. By early
+1971 the Ceausescu regime again became more assertive of its independent
+line in foreign policy.
+
+
+Principles of Foreign Policy
+
+According to the 1965 Constitution, the foreign policy of the country is
+based on strict respect for the principles of national independence and
+sovereignty, equality of rights, noninterference in internal affairs,
+and interstate relations based on mutual advantage. The Constitution
+declares the nation's desire to maintain friendly and fraternal
+relations with all socialist states as well as to promote friendship and
+cooperation with states of other sociopolitical systems. Participation
+in international organizations is directed toward the furthering of
+peace and international understanding.
+
+Spokesmen for the regime have repeatedly asserted these principles as
+the only acceptable basis for relations between states both within and
+outside the world communist movement. In contrast to the Soviet position
+that socialism can only be fully realized by transcending national
+forms, Romanian policy gives primary emphasis to the distinct
+requirements of the nation. At the same time, however, Romania
+recognizes the duties of each socialist state toward cooperative and
+mutually advantageous relations with all socialist nations and fraternal
+communist parties.
+
+In keeping with these principles the PCR has rejected the so-called
+Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty of socialist states. Instead,
+regime spokesmen have asserted that within the socialist system all
+Marxist-Leninist parties are equal and have the exclusive right to
+determine appropriate solutions for their own problems and manage their
+own affairs. Romanian policy maintains that relations between socialist
+states must be based on equal rights, complete trust, mutual respect,
+and fraternal cooperation. In defending the country's policies, PCR
+leaders have repeatedly argued that, because the construction of
+communism is being carried out under a great variety of conditions,
+there will inevitably be different opinions regarding the forms and
+procedures employed as well as different points of view regarding
+international problems. Such differences, however, should not affect
+relations between socialist states or the unity of the socialist
+movement.
+
+In response to Soviet calls for socialist solidarity, a ranking member
+of the PCR Standing Presidium declared, "it would be unrealistic to
+think that fourteen socialist countries spread over three continents,
+each with its specific characteristics, should show themselves strictly
+identical in the building of a new society." Additional party statements
+insisted that each country must be allowed to apply the principles of
+Marxism-Leninism to its own particular conditions and that no general
+line for all parties could be established. In adjusting Marxism-Leninism
+to national needs each party must be able to make its own unique
+contribution to the enrichment of the entire communist movement.
+
+During the negotiations for the renewal of the friendship treaties with
+the other Warsaw Pact countries, the Ceausescu government repeatedly
+stressed that its own formula for developing international relations
+with noncommunist nations was based on the same principles as those
+applied to socialist states and that Romania was open to the
+establishment of such relations "without regard for difference in the
+social order." A party spokesman asserted that the country's foreign
+relations are not determined by short-term circumstances that are valid
+at one moment and superseded the next but by policies directed at
+long-term cooperation in all fields of common interests.
+
+PCR policy has sought to support the country's independent political
+stance by increasing its economic independence. This has led to the
+rejection of COMECON attempts to integrate the economies of its member
+states and to establish a division of labor among them. Instead, the PCR
+has followed a policy aimed at the industrialization of the country,
+based on the proposition that an expanded industrial base is what is
+most needed for Romania's overall economic development.
+
+In the same manner that the PCR has resisted complete integration into
+COMECON, the regime has also opposed Soviet plans for the fuller
+integration of military forces under the Warsaw Pact. Romanian
+objections to such integration stem from a concern for the preservation
+of the country's national sovereignty and a desire to limit Soviet
+hegemony in Eastern Europe. PCR leaders have described military blocs
+and the existence of foreign troops and military bases on the territory
+of other states as being incompatible with national independence and as
+the primary obstacles to cooperation among nations. On the other hand,
+party spokesmen have frequently stated that, as long as the North
+Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is continued, the socialist
+countries will be forced to maintain the Warsaw Pact.
+
+
+CONDUCT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
+
+Policy Formation
+
+The Constitution assigns to the Grand National Assembly the
+responsibility for establishing the general line of foreign policy and
+assigns its implementation to the Council of Ministers. It is the
+Council of State, however, that is given the overall executive functions
+of ratifying international treaties and establishing diplomatic
+relations with other states. As the head of state, the president of the
+Council of State is charged with representing the country in its
+international relations.
+
+In practice, however, the basic foreign policy decisions are made by the
+Standing Presidium of the PCR rather than the Grand National Assembly.
+Owing to the fact that the same men occupy leading positions in both
+party and government, decisions reached in the Standing Presidium are
+promulgated as decisions of the Council of State. Party spokesmen have
+described the country's foreign policy as being the result of the
+"unitary thinking and action of the leading party bodies based on the
+principle of collective leadership" (see ch. 8; ch. 9).
+
+Within the PCR, foreign policy decisions are channeled through the
+Central Committee's directorate for international affairs, which in turn
+transmits them in the form of directives to the appropriate government
+agencies and oversees their implementation. A commission on foreign
+policy in the Grand National Assembly functions largely to channel party
+decisions to the assembly for its official approval.
+
+As head of the PCR and president of the Council of State, Ceausescu
+personally exercised the primary decisionmaking powers in matters of
+foreign policy just as he did in domestic affairs. Observers of Eastern
+European politics also ascribe influential roles in the determination of
+foreign policy to Prime Minister Maurer and Foreign Minister Corneliu
+Manescu.
+
+Since coming to power in 1965 Ceausescu has been the dominant figure in
+the political life of the country and its principal spokesman in
+international affairs. Believing in the importance of personal
+diplomacy, Ceausescu has made frequent visits to other nations and
+cultivated personal relationships with other heads of state. The prime
+minister and the minister of foreign affairs have also made frequent
+visits to other states to foster international support for the country's
+foreign policy. Manescu had developed broad international contacts
+during his term as president of the twenty-second session of the UN
+General Assembly in 1967.
+
+
+Administration of Foreign Affairs
+
+The Council of Ministers is charged with the coordination and
+implementation of foreign policy and exercises these responsibilities
+through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign
+Trade. Since decisionmaking powers rest in the top echelons of the
+party, the ministries function almost exclusively as administrative
+agencies. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for the
+implementation of party directives in the country's foreign diplomatic
+relations and in the areas of educational, cultural, and scientific
+relations with other states and with international organizations. The
+Ministry of Foreign Trade functions as the central organ for the
+country's international trade and economic activities.
+
+In early 1972 the organizational structure of the Ministry of Foreign
+Affairs remained essentially the same as it had been established after
+the adoption of the new Constitution of 1965. The ministry is organized
+into six geographical departments, twelve functional directorates, and
+three administrative offices. The geographical directorates are
+designated as: the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary;
+the Balkans and the Near East; Western and Central Europe; North America
+and South America; Africa and the Middle East; and the Far East and
+Southeast and South Asia.
+
+The functional directorates are: international organization; cultural
+relations; political synthesis; economic relations; legal and treaties;
+consular; press; protocol; personnel; finance, accounting, and work
+organization; technical and administrative; and secretariat. The three
+administrative offices are designated the Chancellery, the Office of
+Services to the Diplomatic Corps, and the Legal Office. The entire
+organization functioned under the direction of the minister of foreign
+affairs and five deputy ministers.
+
+The Ministry of Foreign Trade is organized into nine bureaus, a legal
+office, and an office for protocol. Bureaus listed under the ministry in
+1970, the latest year for which information was available in early 1972,
+included: economic relations with socialist countries; economic
+relations with developed capitalist countries; economic relations with
+emerging nations; currency and plan coordination; imports and exports;
+personnel and training; administration; budgets; and accounting. The
+ministry functions under the direction of the minister of foreign trade,
+four deputy ministers, and a secretary general.
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
+
+In early 1972 diplomatic relations were maintained with ninety-six
+countries and the so-called Provisional Revolutionary Government of the
+Republic of South Vietnam (Viet Cong). Of these, forty-two governments
+maintained embassies in Bucharest. Nine other governments conducted
+relations through their embassies in Moscow; seven, through their
+embassies in Belgrade; two through their embassies in Prague; and one,
+through its embassy in Athens. The total includes Brazil, with which
+relations were maintained at the legation level, and Spain and San
+Marino, where Romania maintained consulates. Thirty-two of the states
+with which Romania maintained diplomatic relations had not established
+permanent embassies or legations in the country as of early 1972. Trade
+relations were conducted with several other states with which the
+government had not established formal diplomatic ties (see ch. 14).
+
+
+Relations with Communist States and Communist Parties
+
+The Soviet Union
+
+Romania's pursuit of an independent foreign policy has resulted in
+frequent conflicts with the Soviet Union and tense relations between the
+two states. In general, the policy disagreements have centered on
+Romania's unwillingness to participate more fully in the Warsaw Pact,
+rejection of the concept of economic integration under COMECON, refusal
+to take sides in the Sino-Soviet dispute, and development of a foreign
+policy toward the West that runs contrary to Soviet desires. Soviet
+leaders have interpreted the Romanian policies as a direct challenge to
+the leading role of the Soviet party in the world communist movement and
+a rejection of the PCR's obligations to promote "socialist solidarity."
+
+The general policy differences between the two countries were repeatedly
+demonstrated during the 1967-71 period in such instances as the Romanian
+establishment of diplomatic relations with West Germany, the refusal to
+follow the Soviet lead in regard to the Arab-Israeli conflict, the
+refusal to participate in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and
+Ceausescu's strong denunciation of the action, and the rejection of the
+Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty.
+
+Perhaps the most important element complicating relations with the
+Soviet Union has been Romania's refusal to take the Soviet side in the
+Sino-Soviet dispute. In keeping with its policy of maintaining friendly
+and fraternal relations with all socialist states, the Ceausescu regime
+has cultivated relations with the People's Republic of China and is
+thought by some observers to have played a role in the establishment of
+contacts between the Communist Chinese and the United States. In
+mid-1971 Romanian leaders also mediated the restoration of relations
+between the People's Republic of China and Yugoslavia. These actions led
+to charges in the Soviet press that Romania was organizing an
+anti-Soviet bloc in the Balkans under the patronage of the People's
+Republic of China.
+
+Despite the ups and downs of Soviet-Romanian relations throughout the
+period of the Ceausescu regime, the two states signed a twenty-year
+treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance in July 1970.
+This treaty replaced a similar 1948 accord that had been set to expire
+in 1968 but continued in force under an automatic five-year renewal
+clause. Negotiated before the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia,
+the actual signing of the treaty was delayed because of strained
+relations between the two states and Soviet attempts to insert a clause
+containing the essence of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The Ceausescu
+government refused to renegotiate the original agreement, however, and
+the treaty was finally signed at ceremonies in Bucharest.
+
+Brezhnev did not attend the ceremonies and, in contrast to similar
+Soviet treaties with other Eastern European communist states, which were
+signed by both the party leaders and the prime ministers of each
+country, the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed only by the prime
+ministers. Coming in the midst of serious disagreements between the two
+countries, the signing of the treaty was considered by some observers as
+a formality and something of a smokescreen intended to cover a widening
+split.
+
+
+Other Communist States
+
+In general, relations with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German
+Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, and Poland mirrored
+Romania's relations with the Soviet Union. The communist leaders of
+these countries followed the Soviet lead in the policy differences with
+the Ceausescu regime and, although each state had friendship treaties
+that expired in 1968 and 1969, only the treaty with Czechoslovakia was
+renewed before the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed. The Czechoslovakia
+treaty was concluded during the period of the government of Alexander
+Dubcek before the 1968 invasion.
+
+In its relations with the Eastern European communist regimes Romania had
+adhered to the principle of cultivating fraternal relations with all
+socialist countries despite policy differences. Long-term bilateral
+trade agreements were concluded with Hungary and Bulgaria in late 1969,
+and the major portion of the country's foreign trade continued to be
+with COMECON states throughout 1970 and 1971. Visits on the ministerial
+level were regularly exchanged. Relations with the East German regime
+proved more difficult, however, the major obstacle being Romania's
+establishment of diplomatic ties with West Germany in early 1967.
+Despite the recognition of the West German government, however, the
+Ceausescu regime has continued to insist on the reality of two German
+states and has pressed for international recognition of East Germany.
+
+Relations with Bulgaria had been generally cool throughout the latter
+period of the Gheorghiu-Dej regime but improved significantly after
+Ceausescu came to power in Romania in 1965. By the beginning of 1968,
+however, the policies pursued by the Ceausescu regime led to serious
+differences, although formal amenities continued to be observed.
+Relations remained correct but not cordial until after the signing of
+the Soviet-Romanian treaty of friendship and alliance in July 1970. This
+action paved the way for improved relations with Bulgaria, and in
+September Ceausescu met with Bulgarian prime minister Todor Zhivkov,
+marking the first top-level bilateral contact between the two
+governments in three years. This meeting was followed by the exchange of
+a series of high-level delegations with the announced purpose of
+improving relations and increasing cooperation.
+
+Friction with Hungary arose in mid-1971 over the Romanian region of
+Transylvania and the sizable Hungarian minority residing there. In the
+period of strained--Soviet-Romanian relations, the Budapest regime
+revived the Transylvanian minority question in order to put pressure on
+the Ceausescu government. Frequent visits of Soviet embassy personnel to
+Transylvania added to the concern of Romanian leaders, who initiated
+increased efforts to meet the needs and expectations of the country's
+minority groups (see ch. 4; ch. 9). By February 1972, tension between
+Hungary and Romania had eased and a friendship treaty was renewed.
+
+Relations with Albania and Yugoslavia differed from those with the other
+Eastern European communist regimes, as neither participated in the
+Warsaw Pact and both had also pursued policies independent of the Soviet
+Union. In 1960 Albania sided with the Communist Chinese in the
+Sino-Soviet dispute and withdrew its ambassadors from all the Eastern
+European countries after Khrushchev denounced the Albanian regime at the
+Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in
+1961. The Romanian position of neutrality in regard to the Sino-Soviet
+dispute opened the way for improved relations with Albania, and the
+Ceausescu government returned its ambassador to Tirana in 1964.
+
+The Ceausescu regime has maintained that the policies of the Albanian
+Communists (the Albanian Workers' Party) are legitimate manifestations
+of socialism developed according to national needs. Common fears of
+Soviet designs against their countries after the Warsaw Pact invasion of
+Czechoslovakia brought about increased cooperation between the two
+governments.
+
+Relations with Yugoslavia had progressed along lines of mutual interest
+throughout the period of the Ceausescu regime, and close cooperation had
+developed between the Romanian and Yugoslav heads of state as they
+sought each other's support for their independent foreign policies. The
+PCR was the only Eastern European party to send a delegation to the
+Ninth Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1969.
+
+Although the two governments indicated almost identical views on all
+important international issues, they manifested widely divergent
+approaches to domestic affairs and, owing to the fact that their
+economies are not complementary, economic relations between the two
+countries have not kept pace with political relations. Efforts to
+increase economic relations resulted in a new five-year trade agreement
+in 1971 designed to increase the exchange of goods by 128 percent in the
+period covered. Cooperation between the two states was also demonstrated
+in the joint construction of the Iron Gate hydroelectric station on the
+Danube (see ch. 3).
+
+During 1971 the PCR renewed efforts to promote cooperative relations
+among the Balkan states. The regime emphasized that the geographical
+isolation and the socialist systems of Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+and Romania make for common interest in increased economic, political,
+and cultural cooperation. Observers of Eastern European politics pointed
+out that Romania shares lengthy borders with Bulgaria, Hungary, and the
+Soviet Union and that improving relations with the other Balkan states
+would serve to overcome the country's relative physical isolation.
+
+PCR leaders have also called for all of the Balkan area, including both
+the communist and the noncommunist states, to be designated a nuclear
+free zone and for the removal of United States military bases from the
+area. Observers pointed out that the Ceausescu regime believed that such
+actions would serve to reduce the strategic significance of Romania in
+the eyes of the Soviet leaders and possibly result in greater tolerance
+for Romanian deviation from the Soviet line. Political observers also
+attributed the growing willingness of Albania and Yugoslavia to increase
+cooperation and give support to Romania's initiatives for the Balkan
+area to the growth of Soviet naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
+
+The Ceausescu regime successfully cultivated relations with the People's
+Republic of China and persisted in the development of these relations
+despite tremendous pressures from the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact
+states. An important byproduct of these relations has been increased
+economic exchanges between the two countries; in late 1970 the Communist
+Chinese extended Romania a long-term, interest-free credit amounting to
+the equivalent of US$244 million.
+
+In June 1971 Ceausescu made a twenty-five day visit to Asia that
+included nine days in mainland China, the first such visit by a party
+leader of a Warsaw Pact state since the Sino-Soviet dispute became
+public. In a joint communique the Communist Chinese and Romanian leaders
+emphasized the necessity of sovereign and equal relations among all
+communist states and parties. Ceausescu reiterated his government's
+support for the admission of the People's Republic of China to the
+United Nations and asserted that the rightful sovereignty over Taiwan
+belonged to the Peking regime. In August 1971 a Communist Chinese
+military delegation attended the twenty-seventh anniversary celebrations
+of the liberation of Romania from Nazi occupation.
+
+Maintenance of friendly relations with the People's Republic of China
+has also gained the Ceausescu regime support from other communist
+parties that have been critical of the Soviet Union in its conflict with
+the Communist Chinese, most notably the French and Italian parties. The
+PCR has taken special pains to cultivate relations with nonruling
+communist and workers' parties, efforts that were reflected in visits of
+top leaders from at least thirty of these parties to Romania during
+1970. All of these visitors were received personally by Ceausescu.
+Observers pointed out that the cultivation of relations with the
+nonruling parties was an important means of gaining support for
+Romania's independent policies.
+
+
+Relations With Noncommunist States
+
+Romania has continued to improve relations with Western nations and has
+sought to cultivate ties with the developing countries of Africa and
+Asia. The expansion of relations beyond the Soviet alignment system was
+cautiously initiated in the mid-1950s by the Gheorghiu-Dej regime when
+pressures were building for Romania's full economic integration into
+COMECON. In addition to the desire to develop trade relations with
+Western nations, the government was interested in utilizing Western
+technology and in seeking an increased measure of detente in the cold
+war.
+
+
+West Germany
+
+In the period that followed the initiation of limited relations with
+noncommunist states, Romania's resistance to the Soviet Union
+contributed to a receptive attitude on the part of several Western
+states. Aside from the gradual development of trade relations, however,
+significant political relations with Western Europe did not materialize
+until January 1967, when the Ceausescu regime agreed to establish formal
+diplomatic relations with West Germany, becoming the first of the Warsaw
+Pact states, other than the Soviet Union, to do so.
+
+Romanian leaders based the establishment of relations with West Germany
+on the so-called Bucharest Declaration issued by the leaders of the
+Warsaw Pact countries in 1966. The declaration affirmed that there were
+in West Germany "circles that oppose revanchism and militarism" and that
+seek the development of normal relations with countries of both the East
+and the West as well as a normalization of relations "between the two
+German states." Also included in the declaration was a statement
+affirming that a basic condition for European security was the
+establishment of normal relations between states "regardless of their
+social systems." The Ceausescu regime interpreted this as implying that
+bilateral relations could be developed between Eastern European states
+and West Germany.
+
+Although the West German government made overtures to other Eastern
+European communist states, Romania was the only one to agree to the
+establishment of formal diplomatic ties at that time. Political
+observers saw the move as a means for Romania to dramatically
+demonstrate independence from the Soviet Union and, as well, a means of
+avoiding COMECON integration pressures by increasing trade and the
+possibility of obtaining economic aid from the West.
+
+The establishment of diplomatic ties with West Germany did not alter the
+PCR position on the existence of two German states. Each country, at the
+time the diplomatic exchange was made public, simply reasserted its own
+positions: the West German government reiterated its right and
+obligation to speak for the entire German people, and the Bucharest
+government asserted that one of the fundamental realities of the
+post-World War II era "is the existence of two German states." Although
+Romania reaffirmed the existence of East Germany as a separate state, it
+did not make recognition of the East German regime by West Germany a
+precondition for the establishment of diplomatic relations with the West
+German government.
+
+The East German regime was highly critical of the Romanian establishment
+of relations with West Germany, and there followed a serious decline in
+Romanian-East German relations. PCR leaders responded to East German
+criticisms by declaring that "the foreign policy of a socialist state is
+laid down by the party and the government of the country in question and
+they need render account only to their people."
+
+In the period since 1967 relations with West Germany have continued
+without major difficulties. Although the Ceausescu regime has not
+hesitated to criticize elements of German policy with which it does not
+agree, the two governments have sought to minimize differences in
+ideology and in foreign and domestic policies in the interest of
+maintaining good relations. In economic exchanges between the two
+countries Romania has had a continuous balance of trade deficit, a
+situation that both countries were attempting to correct. In mid-1970
+Prime Minister Maurer paid an official visit to Bonn, becoming the first
+Eastern European head of government to do so. In May 1971 the West
+German government reciprocated, President Gustav Heinemann making a
+state visit to Romania.
+
+
+The United States
+
+Relations with the United States were initiated on a limited scale in
+the early 1960s, and ambassadors were exchanged in 1964, but relations
+declined with the increasing United States role in the Republic of
+Vietnam (South Vietnam). After the opening of the Paris peace talks and
+particularly after the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia that same
+year, relations between the two states improved significantly. Trade
+relations remained minimal, however, partly because of United States
+legal restrictions on trade with Eastern European countries.
+
+The improved relations between the two nations were demonstrated by the
+visit of President Nixon to Romania in August 1969, marking the first
+visit of a United States head of state to a communist country since the
+1945 Yalta Conference. Press reports indicated that the president
+received an enthusiastic welcome from the Romanian people and that in
+meetings with Ceausescu a wide range of international problems were
+discussed.
+
+At the close of the visit President Nixon reaffirmed that the United
+States "respects the sovereignty and equal rights of all countries,
+large and small, as well as their right to preserve their own national
+character." The two heads of state agreed upon the reciprocal
+establishment of libraries, the opening of negotiations for the
+conclusion of a consular convention, and the development and
+diversification of economic ties.
+
+The presidential visit was reciprocated by Ceausescu in October 1970
+when the Romanian leader traveled to New York to attend the twenty-fifth
+anniversary session of the UN General Assembly. Ceausescu followed the
+UN visit with a two-week coast-to-coast tour of the United States and
+talks at the White House with President Nixon. The Nixon administration
+moved to increase economic relations with Romania, and in early 1972
+legislation was pending in the United States Congress to grant that
+country most-favored-nation status (see ch. 14).
+
+
+Other States
+
+As part of its campaign to improve relations among the Balkan states and
+in keeping with its policy of establishing relations with all states
+regardless of their political systems, the Ceausescu regime initiated
+efforts to ameliorate its relations with Greece and Turkey. The
+development of ties with Turkey has progressed without serious setback
+throughout the period of Ceausescu's rule, but Greco-Romanian relations
+have fluctuated. Although the regime has followed a policy of
+noninterference in the internal affairs of another state, it left the
+Romanian embassy in Athens without an ambassador for a year after the
+1967 Greek military coup. In July 1968 the Romanian government returned
+an ambassador to Greece as a first step in improving relations between
+the two states. Increased trade and cultural exchanges followed,
+although the differing ideologies of the two regimes have kept official
+relations at a correct but cool level.
+
+Although Turkey did not respond positively to the Romanian call for a
+nuclear free zone in the Balkans and the removal of foreign military
+bases from the area, asserting that such an agreement would have to be
+included in a wider accord between NATO and Warsaw Pact nations,
+relations between the two states have continued to improve. Ceausescu
+paid a state visit to Turkey in 1969, and the Turkish president visited
+Romania in April 1970. The satisfactory political ties have resulted in
+a number of cultural and economic agreements, Romania obtaining Turkish
+raw materials, particularly iron, chrome, and manganese, and exporting
+machinery to Turkey.
+
+Political, economic, and cultural ties were expanded with a number of
+other Western countries during the 1965-70 period, particularly with
+Austria, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The Ceausescu regime
+placed primary emphasis on the cultivation of economic relations with
+these states, and several substantial trade agreements were concluded
+and high-level visits were exchanged during 1970 and 1971.
+
+PCR policy statements have proclaimed that one of the principal
+guidelines of Romanian foreign policy is the steady cultivation and
+broadening of political and economic relations with the young
+independent states of Asia and Africa as well as with the countries of
+Latin America. The regime has also repeatedly affirmed its support for
+"the struggle of the peoples of Africa, Asia and other regions of the
+world for liberation and national independence against neocolonialism
+and the aggressive actions of imperialism."
+
+Policy statements have also consistently voiced support for the
+communist effort in South Vietnam. The communist Provisional
+Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (Viet Cong) is
+recognized as the legitimate government of South Vietnam and maintains
+an embassy in Bucharest.
+
+The Middle East situation has posed a dilemma for the Ceausescu
+government, which has sought to maintain relations with both sides in
+the conflict. When, in August 1969, Romania and Israel announced an
+agreement to elevate their relations to the ambassadorial level, Syria
+and Sudan retaliated by breaking relations with Romania, and Iraq and
+the United Arab Republic reduced the level of their representation in
+Bucharest. Despite these actions by the Arab states, PCR leaders
+continued to voice support for "the struggle of the Arab people to
+defend their national independence and sovereignty" but called for a
+negotiated settlement of the conflict.
+
+The Ceausescu regime systematically cultivated relations with the
+developing countries, and particular efforts were directed toward
+increasing relations with African nations during 1970 and 1971.
+Ceausescu made a state visit to Morocco, and other high Romanian
+officials visited Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa)--in late 1971
+became the Republic of Zaire--Burundi, Kenya, the Malagasy Republic,
+Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zambia. Several prominent African leaders, among
+them President Jean Bedel Bokassa of the Central African Republic and
+President Joseph Mobutu of Zaire visited Romania. Trade agreements were
+signed with a number of African nations, but little had been done to
+implement these agreements as of early 1972. As another means of
+increasing its influence in Africa and broadening relations there, the
+Ceausescu government established more than 400 scholarships for African
+students to study in Romania.
+
+
+Relations With International Organizations
+
+Romania became a member of the UN in 1955 and as of early 1972 also held
+membership in the following UN specialized agencies: the United Nations
+Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United
+Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations
+Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), and the International
+Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). It also participates in the work of the
+United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
+
+The two most important communist organizations to which the country
+belongs are the Warsaw Pact and COMECON. The Warsaw Pact was established
+in 1955 as a twenty-year mutual defense pact between the Soviet Union,
+Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and
+Romania. (Albania ceased its participation in the organization in 1961
+and officially withdrew in 1968 as a symbol of protest against the
+invasion of Czechoslovakia). As an instrument of Soviet foreign policy,
+the Warsaw Pact has served to maintain Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe
+and to provide the legal basis for the presence of Soviet troops on the
+territory of some of the participating states.
+
+Romania has consistently refused to acquiesce in Soviet proposals for
+greater integration of the military forces of the Warsaw Pact states and
+did not participate in the invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the
+Czechoslovak invasion the Ceausescu government established a defense
+council and proclaimed that foreign troops were not to enter Romania for
+any purpose without prior approval of the Grand National Assembly.
+During the 1968-71 period the Romanians limited their participation in
+pact activities as much as possible. Rather than Romanian troops taking
+part in joint maneuvers of pact forces, participation has generally been
+limited to a small group of staff officers who attend the exercises as
+observers.
+
+Official Romanian views on the integration of Eastern European communist
+forces under the pact were forcefully reiterated in early 1970 after the
+Soviet chief of staff spoke of "combined" or "unified" pact forces.
+Ceausescu responded by declaring that Romania's armed forces are not
+subordinated to any authority other than "the Romanian party,
+government, and Supreme National Command." Although he pledged continued
+cooperation with the pact and a fulfillment of his country's
+responsibilities, he asserted that no part of the party's and
+government's right to command and lead the armed forces would be ceded
+to any other body. In addition, Ceausescu gave emphasis to the defensive
+nature of the Warsaw Pact and reiterated the Romania position on
+noninterference in the internal affairs of another country.
+
+Romanian policy toward COMECON has been cooperative in regard to
+mutually advantageous trade relations with the other member states but
+has consistently opposed pressures for the integration of their
+economies. The Soviet Union and the more industrialized of the Eastern
+European communist states have pressed for economic integration that
+would include a division of labor among COMECON members and a
+specialization of production. Romanian leaders, preferring to develop a
+diversified national economy, have refused the role of supplier of
+agricultural goods and raw materials that COMECON would have assigned to
+their country.
+
+During the mid-1960s Romania successfully reoriented a substantial share
+of its trade toward the West and reduced its participation in COMECON.
+Trade with the West, however, produced sizable deficits and, along with
+other economic problems, including the disastrous floods of early 1970,
+forced the Ceausescu regime to again rely on its economic ties with the
+COMECON states. Despite these difficulties, the country has continued to
+develop its trade relations with noncommunist nations and has continued
+to resist COMECON integration pressures.
+
+In 1970 a prominent Romanian economist proposed that COMECON become an
+open-ended organization in which all countries, socialist and
+nonsocialist, could participate on a voluntary basis. In mid-1971 an
+official PCR party spokesman declared that economic cooperation with
+COMECON must "in no way affect the national economic plans or the
+independence of the economic units in each country."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 11
+
+PUBLIC INFORMATION
+
+
+In the early 1970s the media of public information, under complete party
+and government control and supervision, were utilized primarily to
+propagandize and indoctrinate the population in support of the regime's
+domestic and foreign policy objectives. The system of control was highly
+centralized and involved an interlocking group of party and state
+organizations, supervising bodies, and operating agencies whose
+authority extended to all radio and television facilities, film studios,
+printing establishments, newspapers, book publishers, and the single
+news agency. In addition, this control apparatus also regulated the
+access of the public to foreign publications, films, newscasts, books,
+and radio and television programs.
+
+Freedom of information, although never fully recognized in precommunist
+Romania, completely disappeared under the Communists after 1948. In late
+1971, as a result of an ideological campaign launched by the regime, the
+communications media experienced measures that served further to
+reemphasize their assigned role as political tools in the indoctrination
+of the people. The effects of this campaign had not become fully evident
+in early 1972, but changes and modifications had begun to appear that
+tended to inhibit liberalizing trends, which had been incorporated
+gradually into the system during the 1960s.
+
+
+GOVERNMENT AND FREEDOM OF INFORMATION
+
+Although freedom of information was theoretically guaranteed by the
+early constitutions of precommunist Romania, censorship of the press was
+not unusual and commonly took the form of banning or confiscating
+newspapers and periodicals considered hostile to the ruling group.
+Newspapers had traditionally been published by political parties and
+special interest groups, only a few being uncontrolled and truly
+independent. In consequence, the public has long regarded the press as
+generally biased, tainted with propaganda, and not reliable as a source
+of objective news.
+
+Under the dictatorship imposed by King Carol II in 1938 and during the
+wartime regime of Marshal Ion Antonescu, censorship was officially
+proclaimed and rigidly enforced. Since that time the communications
+media have enjoyed only one period of relative freedom, lasting only a
+few weeks following the coup d'etat of King Michael in August 1944.
+After Michael's deposition and during the struggle for power that
+followed, the Communists effectively controlled the press and radio
+through the unions serving these facilities, which they had heavily
+infiltrated. After their seizure of power in 1948, the Communists
+instituted a system of censorship and control that has continued without
+interruption.
+
+The 1965 Constitution, the third promulgated by the Communists since
+their takeover of the government, is less moderate in tone than its
+predecessors in preserving the fiction of the right of citizens to
+individual freedoms. The document states that freedom of speech, of the
+press, and of assembly "cannot be used for aims hostile to the socialist
+system and to the interests of the working people." This same article
+also prohibits associations of a "fascist" or "anti-democratic" nature,
+as well as the participation of citizens in such associations. The
+Constitution names the Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist
+Roman--PCR) as the leading political force in the country; by virtue of
+its position, the party has become the ultimate authority in determining
+actions that are "fascist," "anti-democratic," or "hostile to the
+socialist system."
+
+In 1972 the regime continued to utilize the conventional information
+media--newspapers, magazines, books, radio, television, and motion
+pictures--as an integrated, governmental system for the indoctrination
+of the population and the molding of public opinion in support of the
+state and its policies. In keeping with this overall objective, a
+campaign for the increased ideological and political indoctrination of
+the public was undertaken in July 1971 that brought about a
+reenforcement of party authority over the highest information control
+and policymaking bodies in the government (see ch. 7). The former State
+Committee for Culture and Art, established with ministerial rank under
+the Council of Ministers, was reconstituted as the Council on Socialist
+Culture and Education and was made directly subordinate to the Central
+Committee of the PCR. Similar changes were made in the Committee of
+Radio and Television, which became the Council of Romanian Radio and
+Television.
+
+Under the direct guidance of the press and propaganda sections of the
+Central Committee, these two councils formulate policy guidelines and
+supervise all publication and dissemination procedures throughout the
+communications media. The policies and directives, in turn, are
+implemented by other government-controlled operating agencies, such as
+the General Directorate for the Press and Printing, the Romanian press
+agency, and the individual publishing houses, printing establishments,
+book distribution centers, motion picture studios, and radio and
+television stations. To further assure a uniform collective effort
+consistent with the party line, and two national councils are also
+empowered to organize wherever necessary permanent commissions,
+temporary working groups, and local committees to assist the councils in
+"analyzing" the way decisions are applied and in "improving" local
+activities.
+
+
+THE PRESS
+
+Newspapers
+
+According to the latest official statistics, there were a total of
+seventy-six "general information" newspapers published throughout the
+country in 1969. Of these, fifty-one were dailies, twenty-three were
+weeklies, and two appeared at infrequent intervals, from two to three
+times per week. Daily circulation estimates were available for very few
+newspapers. Together, these newspapers had a total annual circulation of
+more than 1.1 billion copies, a substantial increase over the 1950 level
+of 870 million copies that was achieved by the seventy-five newspapers
+then being published. The acceptance of high circulation figures as an
+indicator of reader appeal is of doubtful value, however, since many
+readers were required to subscribe to newspapers because of their party
+or work affiliation. Also, certain functionaries throughout the
+governmental apparatus and many supervisory workers had subscription
+costs automatically deducted from their salaries.
+
+Newspapers traditionally have been published in the national minority
+languages, but since the mid-1960s the government has published no
+official statistics on them, apparently in keeping with its
+integrationist policy (see ch. 7). In 1964 it was estimated by Western
+observers that the ethnic minorities were served by approximately twenty
+newspapers, including eight dailies, with an annual circulation of
+slightly more than 103 million copies.
+
+All newspapers are licensed by the General Directorate for the Press and
+Printing, the state agency that also controls the allocation of
+newsprint, the manufacture of ink and other printing supplies, and the
+distribution of all publications. Thus the government is in a position
+to prohibit the appearance of any newspaper or other publication either
+directly by revoking the license or indirectly by withholding essential
+supplies or services. Each newspaper is organized into a collective
+enterprise made up of the entire personnel of all departments. Chief
+responsibility for the content of the paper is vested in an "editorial
+collegium" headed by the chief editor. Meetings are held periodically
+between all chief editors and party representatives, which serve as an
+effective means of followup control in lieu of prepublication
+censorship.
+
+Major mass organizations, government-sponsored groups, local government
+organs, and the PCR and its subsidiaries publish the most important and
+influential papers, both in Bucharest and in the larger cities of the
+various counties (see table 3). Little latitude is allowed in the
+presentation of news, and almost all papers follow a serious, monotonous
+format that has little popular appeal. Shortly after renewed emphasis
+was placed on the ideological and political education of the population
+in mid-1971, a Western journalist likened the nation to a huge classroom
+in which unpopular and trite subjects were being presented to an
+unreceptive class by an exhortative mass media.
+
+The most authoritative and widely read newspaper is _Scinteia_, founded
+in 1931 as the official organ of the Central Committee of the party. It
+has, by far, the largest daily circulation and enjoys considerable
+prestige as the outlet for party policy pronouncements as well as for
+semiofficial government attitudes on both national and international
+issues. The eight-page newspaper appears seven days a week and is
+national in scope. Its editorials, feature sections, and chief articles
+are frequently reprinted, in whole or in part, by smaller newspapers in
+outlying areas. Quotations and summaries are also repeated regularly in
+shop bulletins and in information letters put on by many enterprises,
+plants, and factories.
+
+The next most important dailies are _Romania Libera_, established by the
+Socialist Unity Front in 1942; _Munca_, founded in 1943 as the voice of
+the Central Council of the General Union of Trade Unions and _Scinteia
+Tineretului_, the organ of the Union of Communist Youth, which has been
+published since 1944. Each of these newspapers is much smaller than
+_Scinteia_ and is directed at a particular group of readers of level of
+society. Although _Romania Libera_ contains items of both national and
+international interest, it deals primarily with the problems associated
+with the "building of socialism" at the local level. Similarly, _Munca_
+directs its major effort at the labor force and stresses the cooperative
+relationship between workers and industry. _Scinteia Tineretului_, in
+like manner, concentrates on the younger element of the population and
+stresses the ideological and political training of youth as the basis
+for a "sound socialist society."
+
+_Table 3. Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971_
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                Daily
+ Publication                 Circulation   Place         Publisher
+                            (in thousands)
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ _Crisana_                   ___    Oradea      Romanian Communist Party
+ _Dobrogea Noua_             ___    Constanta         Do.
+ _Drapelul Rosu_              54    Timisoara         Do.
+ _Drum Nou_                  ___    Brasov            Do.
+ _Drumul Socialismului_      ___    Deva              Do.
+ _Elore_[1]                  ___    Bucharest   Hungarian People's Council
+ _Faclia_                    ___    Cluj        Romanian Communist Party
+ _Faklya_[1]                 ___    Oradea      Hungarian People's Council
+ _Flacara Iasului_           ___    Iasi        Romanian Communist Party
+ _Flacara Rosie_             ___    Arad              Do.
+ _Flamura Prahovei_          ___    Ploiesti          Do.
+ _Igazsag_                   ___    Cluj              Do.
+ _Inainte_                   ___    Craiova           Do.
+ _Inainte_                   ___    Braila            Do.
+ _Informatia Bucurestiului_  ___    Bucharest         Do.
+ _Munca_                     ___        do     General Union of Trade Unions
+ _Neuer Weg_[2]              100        do     German People's Council
+ _Romania Libera_            200        do     Socialist Unity  Front
+ _Satul Socialist_           ___        do     Union of Agricultural
+                                                 Production Cooperatives
+ _Scinteia_                1,000        do     Romanian Communist Front
+ _Scinteia Tineretului_      300        do     Union of Communist Youth
+ _Sportul Popular_           ___        do     Union of Culture and Sports
+ _Steagul Rosu_              ___        do     Romanian Communist  Front
+ _Steau Rosie_               ___   Tirgu Mures         Do.
+ _Szabad Szo_[1]             ___   Timisoara   Hungarian People's Council
+ _Viata Noua_                ___   Galati      Romanian Communist Party
+ _Voros Zaszlo_[1]           ___   Tirgu Mures Hungarian People's Council
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ ___  circulation unknown
+ 1.   Published in Hungarian.
+ 2.   Published in German.
+
+
+The principal and most widely known minority-language newspapers are the
+Hungarian daily _Elore_ and the German _Neuer Weg_, also a daily. Both
+of these newspapers contain generally the same news as Romanian
+newspapers with additional local items of minority interest, such as
+cultural developments and problems associated with minority language use
+in education and other fields.
+
+
+Periodicals
+
+The number of periodicals published throughout the country increased
+from a total of 387 in 1960 to 581 in 1969, according to the latest
+government statistics. The total annual circulation of periodicals
+almost doubled during this time, increasing from about 105 million
+copies to approximately 209 million. More than 340 of these magazines
+and journals were published either quarterly or annually, the remainder
+appearing either weekly, monthly, or at some other intervals. No
+indication was given within this general classification of the number of
+publications that were issued in the minority languages or were directed
+at special minority interest groups.
+
+All periodicals are considered official publications of the various
+sponsoring organizations and are subject to the same licensing and
+supervising controls as newspapers. Virtually all magazines and journals
+are published by mass organizations and party or government-controlled
+activities, such as institutes, labor unions, cultural committees, and
+special interest groups. They cover a broad range of subjects and
+include technical and professional journals, among them magazines on
+literature, art, health, sports, medicine, statistics, politics,
+science, and economics. The technical and scientific journals are
+intended for scholars, engineers, and industrial technicians; cultural
+and political periodicals are aimed at writers, editors, journalists,
+artists, party workers, and enterprise managers; and general
+publications are intended to appeal to various segments of the
+population, such as youth, women, and both industrial and agricultural
+workers.
+
+Two of the best known and most widely circulated magazines are _Lupta de
+Clasa_ and _Contemporanul_. _Lupta de Clasa_, a monthly published by the
+Central Committee of the PCR, had an estimated circulation of about
+70,000 in 1969 and was considered to be the foremost political review.
+It deals with the theory of socialism and is extensively quoted in the
+daily press as a semiofficial voice in domestic affairs.
+_Contemporanul_, the weekly organ of the Council on Socialist Culture
+and Education, had a circulation of approximately 65,000 and was a
+leading authority on political, cultural, and social affairs. Through
+its wide range of articles it serves as a primary vehicle for conveying
+party policy to writers, journalists, editors, and publishers in all
+fields.
+
+Other periodicals cover a broad spectrum and included _Femeia_, the
+monthly magazine of the National Council of Women; _Probleme Economice_,
+the monthly review of the Society of Economic Sciences; _Tinarul
+Leninist_, a monthly magazine for members of the Union of Communist
+Youth; _Luceafarul_, a semimonthly review of foreign policy matters
+published by the Union of Writers; _Romania Literara_, a literary,
+artistic, and sociopolitical weekly also published by the Union of
+Writers; _Urzica_, a humorous and satirical semimonthly review published
+by the PCR; _Volk und Kultur_, a monthly review published in German by
+the Council on Socialist Culture and Education; and _Korunk_, the
+monthly sociocultural review in Hungarian, published by the Hungarian
+Peoples' Council.
+
+One of the magazines best known outside the country is _Romania Azi_, a
+richly illustrated social, economic, and cultural monthly magazine
+published by the Foreign Language Press. In addition to Romanian, it is
+also published in English, Chinese, French, German, Russian, and
+Spanish. The government also sponsors a series of scholarly reviews
+dealing with studies on southeastern Europe, the history of art,
+Romanian historical and artistic development, and linguistics. These
+reviews appear at infrequent intervals and, in addition to the Romanian
+edition, are offered on subscription in English, French, German,
+Russian, and Spanish.
+
+
+News Agencies
+
+The Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa--Agerpres) was
+established in 1949, with the exclusive right to the collection and
+distribution of all news, pictures, and other press items, both domestic
+and foreign. In recent years, however, it has concerned itself almost
+exclusively with news from foreign countries, leaving much of the
+domestic news coverage to the correspondents of the larger daily
+newspapers. Agerpres, in 1972, operated as an office of the central
+government under the direct supervision and control of the Central
+Committee of the party.
+
+The headquarters for Agerpres is maintained in Bucharest, with some
+sixteen branch offices located in other major towns and cities
+throughout the country. In addition, it staffs on a full-time basis
+twenty-one bureaus abroad, principally in the larger capital cities of
+Europe, Africa, South America, and the Far East. Until 1960 its most
+important source of foreign news was the Soviet central news agency,
+through which it received the bulk of its foreign news releases and
+international news summaries. This arrangement was replaced by news
+exchange agreements with selected agencies of both the Western countries
+and the countries of Eastern Europe.
+
+In addition to the Soviet agency, foreign news bureaus are maintained in
+Bucharest by the press agencies of Poland, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
+Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic (East
+Germany). To service these bureaus and its own correspondents abroad
+Agerpres issues the daily Agerpres News of the Day and the weekly
+Agerpres Information Bulletin. For domestic consumption Agerpres
+distributes about 45,000 words of foreign news coverage daily to
+official government and party offices, to various newspapers and
+periodicals, and to radio and television broadcasting stations.
+
+
+RADIO AND TELEVISION
+
+Radio Broadcasting
+
+In 1971 domestic radio broadcast service was provided by twenty AM
+(amplitude modulation) stations located in sixteen cities and by six FM
+(frequency modulation) stations located in Bucharest, Cluj, and
+Constanta. These stations are government owned and operate under the
+direct supervision of the Council of Romanian Radio and Television, an
+agency of the party's Central Committee. All broadcast stations are
+grouped into three major networks, known as Program I, Program II, and
+Program III. In addition, broadcast facilities are augmented by an
+extensive wired-broadcast network, which extended coverage into outlying
+areas where direct transmissions are subject to either geographic or
+atmospheric interference.
+
+The most powerful stations are located in Brasov, Iasi, Boldur,
+Bucharest, and Timisoara. They range in power from 135 to 1200 kilowatts
+and transmit in the low- and medium-frequency bands. The FM stations
+operate exclusively in the very high frequency range and are all
+moderately powered at four kilowatts. The majority of the programs
+originate at studios in Bucharest and are rebroadcast by the network
+stations, which add short local news broadcasts and, from time to time,
+originate coverage of special events of local interest. In addition to
+government-provided subsidies, the industry also benefits from the
+license fees collected from the almost 3.1 million owners of radio
+receivers.
+
+In 1971 scheduled regional programming was revised to include additional
+broadcast time for programs in the minority languages. These broadcasts
+were carried by four major stations including Radio Bucharest, with
+programs in Hungarian and German; Radio Cluj and Radio Tirgu Mures, with
+programs in Hungarian; and Radio Timisoara with programs in German and
+Serbo-Croatian. Most of these offerings are short and stress news,
+features, and talks by local personalities. These programs are also
+relayed over wire lines to local centers for distribution to public
+establishments, factories, and schools.
+
+The programs offered on Programs I and II are generally of good quality
+but have a high ideological content and are lacking in diversity. In
+addition to news and weather reports, programs include special
+broadcasts for children and rural listeners, scientific, theatrical,
+cultural, and literary presentations, and a great variety of musical
+programs. Program III, which is limited principally to the Sunday
+evening hours, carries many of the regular concerts given by the various
+national orchestras and choirs. Despite its limited broadcast schedule,
+Program III also carries indoctrination programs in the form of
+interviews and panel discussions.
+
+Foreign broadcasts in thirteen languages were beamed to Europe and
+overseas by Radio Bucharest on one mediumwave and six shortwave
+transmitters in early 1972. These programs were on the air for a
+combined total of approximately 200 hours per week, averaged one-half
+hour in length, and generally carried domestic news and comments on
+international developments. In addition to Romanian, the broadcasts to
+European listeners were presented in English, German, French, Greek,
+Italian, Portuguese, Serbo-Croatian, and Spanish. Overseas programs were
+beamed to North Africa and the Near East in Arabic, English, French, and
+Turkish; to Asia, in English and Persian; to the Pacific area, in
+English; to North America, in English, Romanian, and Yiddish; and to
+Latin America, in Portuguese and Spanish.
+
+
+Radio Audience
+
+The communist regime has long recognized the importance of radio
+broadcasting as a medium for both informing the people and for molding a
+favorable public attitude toward the government. As a result, the
+construction of broadcast facilities and the production of receiving
+sets have been steadily increased since 1960. Also, during this same
+period the number of radio receivers increased more than 50 percent,
+from 2 million in 1960 to almost 3.1 million in 1970. The number of
+licensed receiving sets included approximately 870,000 wired receivers
+and amplifiers that usually reached group audiences in public areas.
+
+By early 1972 the government had given no indication as to the results
+achieved by the radio in the intensified ideological campaign launched
+in mid-1971. Press reports revealed that, whereas radio programs
+continued to be criticized as to content and purpose, changes more
+favorable to the socialist concept of culture and political thought have
+not yet been extensive. Western programs, though fewer, were still being
+offered, and certain musical programs were being revised to favor the
+light and popular music of native composers over the modern Western
+style. Listener resistance to changes intended to improve the "communist
+education of the masses" was revealed by official statements that called
+for the need of radio editors and program coordinators "to improve their
+skill" in arousing and focusing the interest of the radio audience on
+"up-to-date" programs.
+
+
+Television Broadcasting
+
+Since its inception in 1956, television broadcasting has been closely
+linked with radio, by the regime, as an increasingly important
+instrument of "propaganda and socialist education of the masses." Like
+radio, television operated under supervision of the Council of Romanian
+Radio and Television, whose policy guidelines were received directly
+from the party apparatus. Also, as in the case of radio, television came
+under close scrutiny and criticism in mid-1971 in the intensified
+ideological campaign initiated by President Nicolae Ceausescu. By early
+1972 changes in television network programming resulting from this
+campaign had not been revealed, but the press indicated that most of
+them were intended to limit foreign influence in literary, theatrical,
+film, and artistic broadcasts and to stress the Marxist-Leninist
+interpretation in presenting current events.
+
+Although only recently developed as a new medium in mass communications,
+television has expanded more rapidly than radio. From the six stations
+that were operational in 1960, the industry had increased to a total of
+eighty-five in 1971. Of these, sixteen were principal transmitting
+stations located in various parts of the country, and sixty-nine were
+repeater stations. The number of television sets also increased
+significantly during this period, from 55,000 to almost 1.3 million. It
+was estimated by government authorities that programs aired over the 1.3
+million licensed sets covered more than 80 percent of the country and
+could be seen by between 5 million and 6 million viewers.
+
+The television network operates the Central European System of 625-line
+definition and broadcasts over two systems, Program I and Program II.
+Program I was on the air daily during the evening hours for a total of
+thirty-eight hours per week. Program II broadcast weekday mornings and
+evenings for a total of eighteen hours. Most presentations originate on
+Program I and include, in addition to political, literary, and cultural
+programs, sports, news, documentaries, and special programs for children
+and workers. Program II usually repeats most of the programs shown on
+Program I or summarizes certain telecasts for combined showings with
+other short features.
+
+Foreign programs, chiefly from neighboring communist countries, are also
+available to Romanian televiewers. Most of this material is procured on
+a mutual exchange basis through Intervision (Eastern European
+Television), an organization to which Romania belongs. A substantial
+number of foreign telecasts, however, are also available to residents in
+border areas, by direct transmission.
+
+
+BOOK PUBLISHING
+
+Before World War II Romania was one of the leading Balkan nations in the
+publishing field. Annually, some 2,500 titles were commonly published in
+editions of 2,000 to 5,000 copies, with a high percentage representing
+original works of Romanian authors. After the communist takeover in 1948
+all publishing facilities were nationalized, and the entire industry was
+converted to serve as a major propaganda and indoctrination instrument
+in support of the new regime. Between 1949 and 1953 the revamped
+publishing concerns turned out more than 13,500 separate titles, with a
+total of almost 250 million copies. This record amount of officially
+approved and censored material represented a whole new series of
+communist-oriented material needed to operate the highly centralized
+government, to reeducate the people, and to regulate their activities.
+
+By 1955 the number of titles issued annually had decreased to a little
+more than 5,000, but total circulation remained relatively high at more
+than 48 million copies. From 1955 to 1966 the number of titles gradually
+increased and reached a plateau of about 9,000, where it remained
+through 1969. Annual circulation figures over the same periods of time
+fluctuated in a fairly regular pattern showing a controlled average
+number of copies issued per title each year also to be about 9,000.
+Thus, the planned publishing requirements as set by the government
+apparently were achieved in 1966 and have varied very little since then.
+
+
+Publication
+
+Government and party control of all printing and publishing activities
+is centered in the Council on Socialist Culture and Education. This
+party-state organization formulates policy guidelines for the publishing
+industry and utilizes other government-controlled or government-owned
+agencies, such as the General Directorate for the Press and Printing,
+the various publishing houses, and book distribution centers to
+supervise and coordinate day-to-day operations. Within this control
+machinery all short- and long-range publication plans are approved, and
+the distribution of all printed material is specified. This central
+authority also allocates paper quotas, determines the number of books to
+be printed, and sets the prices at which all publications are to be
+sold.
+
+In 1972 about twenty-five publishing houses were in operation; of these,
+twenty-three were located in Bucharest, and one each was in Cluj and
+Iasi. Each of these enterprises produced books, pamphlets, periodicals,
+and other printed material within its own specialized field and was
+responsible, through its director, for the political acceptability and
+quality of its work. In 1969 some decentralization in publishing took
+place with the opening of branch offices of the larger houses in a few
+of the more heavily populated districts. Although this program was
+ostensibly initiated for the purpose of securing "a broader scope of
+reader preference" in the number and type of books to be published,
+press reports published in late 1971 indicated very little popular
+support for this experiment.
+
+Of the 9,399 titles published in 1969, the greatest numbers were in the
+fields of technology, industry, agriculture, and medicine. Also included
+in this group were books, treatises, studies, and reports in the general
+economic field as well as translations from foreign sources. This
+category of titles, although representing about 33 percent of those
+published, had an average circulation of only about 3,500 copies per
+title--well below the overall average of approximately 9,000.
+
+The second largest group of published titles was in the field of social
+sciences and represented approximately 22 percent of the total. This
+classification included all books dealing with political science and
+socioeconomic theory as well as all textbooks and materials used in the
+educational system. A particularly large segment of books in this area
+were documents and manuals used for party training, Marxist-Leninist
+classics, and party-directed studies and monographs dealing with the
+historical, philosophical, or sociological development of the communist
+movement.
+
+The material published in the fields of art, games, sports, and music
+dominated the third largest group and ranged from children's
+entertainment to musical scores. The fourth largest group, representing
+about 15 percent of the national publishing effort, related to general
+literature. This field covered novels, essays, short stories, and poetry
+written by recognized authors as well as by less well established modern
+writers, both domestic and foreign. The books selected from foreign
+sources were carefully scrutinized, and very few were published that
+dealt with contemporary Western subjects. Also banned, as a matter of
+general principle, was all material that (in the judgment of chief
+editors) "did not contribute actively to the socialist education of the
+new man" within the communist society.
+
+
+Distribution and Foreign Exchange
+
+The distribution and sale of books, both domestic and foreign, are
+vested in the Book Central, a state-owned organization that is also
+responsible for the coordination of all book production. The Book
+Central, with headquarters in Bucharest, operates directly under the
+Council on Socialist Culture and Education and maintains a network of
+bookshops throughout the country in district centers and other major
+towns. In addition to supplying major outlets such as libraries and
+schools with publications, the local bookshops also set up and operate
+bookstalls and book departments in rural areas, usually at industrial
+enterprises and farm collectives. Traveling bookmobiles are also used to
+serve factories, mines, or other isolated activities in outlying areas.
+Discount book clubs were reportedly established as early as 1952, but
+recent information was lacking as to their continued existence, size,
+and method of operation.
+
+After receiving approval of their individual publishing plans, the
+publishing houses distribute catalogs, bulletins, and other
+informational material to the Book Central for distribution to major
+purchasing outlets. In addition, the local bookshops issue periodic
+lists of all books in stock as well as those scheduled to be printed
+during specific periods. Official statistics concerning the wholesale
+and retail sale of books are not habitually published, but recurrent
+articles in the press criticize the lack of enthusiasm and general
+ineptness of booksellers as major factors in lagging book sales to
+individual buyers.
+
+The Book Central in Bucharest conducts all transactions involving the
+foreign exchange of publications. This agency issues annual lists of
+available Romanian publications, together with short bibliographic
+annotations or summaries as well as subscription details. Also, the sale
+of books is fostered at the various international book fairs in which
+Romania participates.
+
+
+LIBRARIES
+
+The Romanian library network consists of two broad categories--general
+libraries, administered by the central government and its territorial
+organs, and the various libraries administered by mass organizations,
+institutes, and enterprises. Those in the latter category are generally
+referred to as documentary libraries since most of them specialize in
+scientific and technical holdings. The number of general libraries
+declined appreciably from a total of almost 35,000 in 1960 to slightly
+more than 18,000 in 1971, due principally to the consolidation of
+facilities. Over the same period the number of documentary libraries
+remained fairly constant, averaging slightly more than 4,000, the total
+number existing in 1971.
+
+The greatest proportion of general libraries, by far, are those
+associated with primary and secondary schools and those that serve the
+general public. In addition, the state operates two national libraries,
+and forty-three others function as part of university and other higher
+level institutions. The total holdings of all these facilities exceeded
+95 million volumes, and the number of registered readers in the public
+libraries was reported to have reached almost 5 million in 1971. No
+information was available as to the total annual circulation of books on
+personal and interlibrary loan in the general library system, but the
+two national libraries were reported to have circulated 55,000 volumes
+in 1968, and the combined circulation of the forty-three
+university-level libraries approximated 178,000 volumes in the same
+year.
+
+The two national libraries, the Library of the Academy of the Socialist
+Republic of Romania and the Central State Library, together maintain
+stocks in excess of 10 million volumes, and both function as central
+book depositories. The Library of the Academy of the Socialist Republic
+of Romania, a precommunist institution founded in 1867, holds special
+collections of Romanian, Greek, Slavonic, Oriental, and Latin
+manuscripts, maps, and engravings as well as rare collections of
+documents, medals, and coins. The Central State Library, founded in
+1955, also has important collections of books, periodicals, musical
+works, maps, and photographs and, in addition, acts as the Central
+Stationery Office and the National Exchange for books. It also issues
+the National Bibliography and annual catalogs, which list all books
+printed in Romania and the holdings of all foreign books in the state
+library system.
+
+The largest libraries among the universities, each of which holds more
+than 1.5 million volumes, are those at Bucharest, Iasi, and Cluj. These
+holdings include the book stocks maintained in the libraries of the
+various faculties, hostels, and institutes associated with the
+universities as well as the central university library itself. The
+largest documentary library, the Library of the Medical-Pharmaceutical
+Institute, operates ninety-nine branch facilities, and its annual book
+inventory has been in excess of 1.2 million volumes.
+
+
+FILMS
+
+As in the case of other elements of the mass media, the small motion
+picture industry has also been affected by the intensified ideological
+campaign of mid-1971. In general, the regime has attempted to further
+limit the importation of foreign films, particularly those from the
+West, which are considered violent and decadent. There has also been a
+move to stimulate the production of more native films with a truly
+"profound ideological content which will express our Marxist-Leninist
+world outlook, convey the message of our own society in highly artistic
+terms, and reflect the life of the new man." Until more Romanian films
+of the appropriate type can be offered, the industry has been advised to
+utilize additional films from the National Film Library and to emphasize
+foreign presentations that are based on socialist concepts.
+
+
+Production
+
+Film production, distribution, and exhibition were controlled by the
+National Center of Cinematography, a state agency that operates under
+the supervision of the Council on Socialist Culture and Education. The
+national center operates two production studios: the Alexandru Sahia
+Film Studio in Bucharest, which produces documentaries, newsreels,
+cartoons, and puppet films, and the Bucharest Film Studio, which
+produces feature films at Buftea, a suburb about fifteen miles northwest
+of the capital.
+
+In 1970 cinema production consisted of thirty-nine feature and short
+pictures, about 1960 documentary films (including animated cartoons),
+and seventy-six newsreels. This output reflected a two-fold increase
+since 1960 in both feature and documentary films but a decrease of about
+15 percent in the number of newsreels. The largest growth in the motion
+picture industry occurred between 1923 and 1930, when production rose
+from about seven motion pictures per year to about twenty-five. This
+increased output was a combination of native films and features
+coproduced with France, Germany, and Hungary. After the communist
+takeover of the government in 1948, film production fell drastically and
+did not again reach its pre-World War II level until 1955.
+
+Romanian films, until 1968, continued to reflect much of the earlier
+French influence. Both the native and coproduced pictures of this period
+were of high quality, and several won awards at film festivals in
+Cannes, Trieste, and Chicago. Subjects treated were well diversified and
+included historical adventure, strong dramas, and both satirical and
+classical comedies. Beginning in 1968, the regime launched widespread
+criticism of the industry, and the quality of production decreased
+appreciably. The 1971 ideological campaign forced film making into a
+further regression. Western observers characterized post-1968 films as
+being totally lacking in originality.
+
+Because of the relatively low number of Romanian films produced, the
+industry has generally depended on the importation of sizable numbers of
+foreign films to meet its needs. The government no longer publishes
+official statistics dealing with film imports, but in 1960 the regime
+reported that 188 feature films and 150 documentaries from foreign
+countries were shown. Approximately 40 percent of these films came from
+the Soviet Union; the remainder came from France, East Germany, England,
+Italy, Czechoslovakia, and the United States.
+
+
+Distribution
+
+Despite the emphasis placed by the government on motion pictures as both
+a propaganda and an entertainment medium, the number of theaters and
+attendance at film showings has decreased steadily since 1965. This
+trend was due principally to the competition offered by the expanding
+television industry, but the falling off in the quality of films was
+also a contributing factor.
+
+Film theaters are of two types, those which show pictures regularly in
+designated movie houses or, periodically, in multipurpose recreation
+centers, and mobile film units, which exhibit documentary and
+educational films in schools or other local facilities in outlying
+areas. Motion picture houses of both types decreased in number from
+6,499 in 1965 to 6,275 in 1970, and in the same period annual attendance
+dropped more than 6 million from the 1965 high of almost 205 million.
+
+
+INFORMAL INFORMATION MEDIA
+
+Lectures, public and organizational meetings, exhibits, and
+demonstrations also serve as means of communication between the
+government and the population at large. Although less significant than
+the formal mass media, these events are fostered by officials of the
+regime as highly effective elements in the indoctrination process
+because they offer direct personal confrontations at the lower levels.
+Word-of-mouth communication is also an important and effective medium,
+particularly as a means of spreading news heard from Western radio
+transmissions, which were no longer subject to government jamming as a
+matter of policy.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY
+
+CHAPTER 12
+
+PUBLIC ORDER AND INTERNAL SECURITY
+
+
+By 1972 the internal security situation in Romania had changed a great
+deal from that of the post-World War II period and the first few years
+of the communist regime. In those days the regime had feared for its
+existence and for that of the system it was attempting to establish. It
+had feared interference from outside the country and active opposition
+from a large segment of the local population and had also doubted the
+reliability of a considerable number of those within its own ranks.
+
+In the police state atmosphere of that time a good portion of the people
+had also, and frequently with good reason, feared the regime. People
+whose greatest crime might have been lack of enthusiasm feared that they
+might be suspected of deviant political beliefs. Because of the brief
+time then being spent on investigation of a crime and seeking out an
+individual's possible innocence, such persons could easily emerge from
+hasty trials as political prisoners.
+
+By 1972 the security troops--successors to the secret police that had
+held the population in dread and terror twenty years before--still
+existed in considerable force. They had receded into the background,
+however, and only infrequently had any contact with the average citizen
+as he went about his daily routine.
+
+The population was undoubtedly not altogether content in 1972 and often
+chafed at bureaucratic red tape, at lackluster performance on the part
+of minor officials, and at other irritations. The youth, in particular,
+was showing reluctance to be molded into the uncompromising pattern of
+socialist society, and some of its resistance took on characteristics
+considered intolerable by the regime. On the other hand, there was
+little, if any, sign of organized opposition to the system or the
+leadership. The dominant attitude throughout the country was cooperative
+to the degree that, if the system was seen to be in need of change, it
+was preferable to attempt reform from within the system itself and along
+accepted guidelines.
+
+Reflecting the easing of internal tensions, the formal framework of the
+judicial system--the penal code, the code of criminal procedure, and the
+courts--was extensively changed in 1968. Although the new code
+emphasized protection of the state and society more than individual
+rights, the code it replaced had been one of the most severe and
+inflexible in Europe. The new codes clearly specified that there was no
+crime unless it was so defined in law and that there was to be no
+punishment unless it had been authorized by law.
+
+Procedures for criminal prosecution were set down in readily
+understandable language that, if adhered to, guaranteed equitable
+treatment during investigation, trial, and sentencing to a degree
+hitherto unknown in the court system. There were also provisions for
+appeal of lower and intermediate court sentences.
+
+Petty cases were disposed of by judicial commissions that did not have
+court status. Such commissions were set up in villages, institutions,
+collectives, or enterprises comprising as few as 200 people. Although
+authorized to administer only small fines or penalties, they were
+established in a fashion designed to involve large numbers of people in
+the judicial process and to exert local pressures on those appearing
+before them.
+
+
+INTERNAL SECURITY
+
+During the mid-1950s the militia (civil police force) and security
+troops were busily engaged in apprehending alleged spies, traitors,
+saboteurs, and those who persisted in voicing beliefs considered
+dangerous to the regime and the socialist system. In the early 1970s
+directives for security agencies still identified the 1950 threats to
+the regime and exhorted the agencies to continue to combat the same old
+enemies of the people. The emphasis has been altered, however, and
+national authorities appeared generally satisfied with the improved
+internal security situation in 1972.
+
+The regime had by then become seriously concerned much less over mass
+violence or organized subversion than over levels of unrest or passive
+resistance that are evidenced by widespread laxity, carelessness,
+indolence, or an obvious lack of popular support. The militia blamed a
+rash of railroad accidents in 1970 on laxity when investigation
+determined that the equipment had, in nearly all cases, operated
+properly and the people had received sufficient training to make the
+system work safely. It also blamed an excessive number of fires on
+carelessness and negligence. Classified political and economic data were
+found on several occasions during routine checks of unoccupied and
+unsecured automobiles. New laws were published in 1970 to deal with
+vagrancy, begging, prostitution, and persons not seeking employment or
+living what the authorities termed "useless lives."
+
+Although they have been relaxed, controls over the population remain
+strict by Western standards. A 1971 decree on the establishment of
+private residence placed rigid limitations on movement to the cities,
+allowing only those who get employment and are allocated housing to
+move. For example, military personnel must have had previous residence
+in a city in order to establish residence there after retiring from the
+service.
+
+All persons over fourteen years of age must carry identification cards.
+The cards are issued by the militia and are usually valid for ten-year
+periods to age forty-four, after which they have no expiration date.
+They are reissued, however, if the photograph no longer matches the
+appearance of the bearer or when a name change--such as that following
+marriage--affects the identity. In addition to the photograph and other
+data for identification, the card contains blood type and residence
+information. Identification cards of prisoners or persons held in
+preventive detention are withheld from them.
+
+
+Ministry of Internal Affairs
+
+The minister of internal affairs is one of the three members of the
+Council of Ministers who head governmental agencies charged with defense
+of the country and security of the regime and the social system. His
+ministry is responsible for the various police and related organizations
+that, although controlled from national headquarters, perform most of
+their functions at the local level in the defense of law, order, and
+property. It cooperates with the Ministry of the Armed Forces and with
+the State Security Council, a watchdog committee that oversees police
+activities, but neither of those agencies does a large share of its work
+with local government or party agencies (see ch. 8).
+
+Two-thirds of the ministry's major directorates deal with the militia.
+They include the militia's general inspectorate; its political council;
+and directorates relating to firefighting, special guard units, the
+Bucharest militia, and Bucharest traffic control. Other directorates of
+the ministry deal with prisons and labor settlements, reeducation of
+minors, and state archives.
+
+
+Militia
+
+The militia is organized at the national level under the Ministry of
+Internal Affairs and is probably also responsible to the State Security
+Council. The chain of command between the ministry and local police
+units appears to work from inspectorate general offices in the ministry
+through the thirty-nine _judet_ (county) inspectorates and one for the
+city of Bucharest. Local police units and local inspectorates, in
+addition to being subordinate to their counterparts at the next higher
+level, are also responsible to the locally elected people's councils.
+This dual subordination probably works because of the overriding
+influence of the Romanian Communist Party at all levels.
+
+Most of the police work is done, and by far the greatest part of the
+organization is situated, in the many local police offices. These are
+located any place in which there are sufficient numbers of people or
+enough valuable property to justify them--in towns, communes,
+enterprises, or cities, where there may be several. The ministry may
+also establish other individual police jurisdictions at railroad
+stations, ports, airfields, and large construction sites and in other
+special situations on a temporary or permanent basis.
+
+The militia is charged with defense of the regime and the society, with
+maintenance of public order, and with enforcement of laws. To accomplish
+the more general tasks, it is directed to detect criminal activities and
+to apprehend criminals. The militia is also given responsibility for
+preventing crime and for guiding, assisting, or directing other
+organizations involved in protection of the regime, the citizens, and
+state or private property. An increasing portion of routine police work
+is required in the control of highway traffic. The militia may also be
+called upon to assist in emergencies or in disaster situations.
+
+Militia regulations require the police to respect individual rights and
+the inviolability of homes and personal property in normal
+circumstances. Restrictions are removed, however, if circumstances
+warrant. Police may commandeer any vehicle or means of communication,
+private or otherwise, if the situation demands. During chase or during
+investigation of flagrant crimes, they may enter private homes without
+permission or search them without warrant.
+
+Citizens are directed to assist the militia when called upon or to act
+as police--to apprehend and hold violators--if no police are at the
+scene when a crime is committed. Provisions authorizing the formation of
+auxiliary police groups are established in law. Such auxiliaries would
+ordinarily be organized by the militia but, whatever their sponsorship,
+they would be expected to cooperate with local police authorities.
+
+According to the law defining the militia's organization, its personnel
+consist of military and civilian employees on the staff of the Ministry
+of Internal Affairs. Officers, military experts, and noncommissioned
+officers are recruited from the graduates of schools operated within the
+regular military establishment. Policemen may be drawn from those
+selected annually for compulsory military service. The armed forces'
+personnel regulations apply to militiamen acquired from the draft
+process or from military schools. Graduates of civilian schools are
+employed in the police force to meet its requirements for specialists
+who are not trained in the armed forces. These individuals and others
+who have had no association with the armed forces retain civilian status
+and are subject to the provisions of the labor code and other
+regulations applicable to civilian employees.
+
+The militia's personnel strength of 500,000 in 1972 means that about one
+person in every forty of the country's population is in, or employed by,
+the force. The reason for this high ratio is that the militia
+organization has branches at all government levels, from the national
+ministry down to the village. Also, its working groups include nearly
+all of the country's guard, regulatory, investigative, and paramilitary
+organizations, as well as those performing police and firefighting
+functions.
+
+
+Security Troops
+
+Security forces organized at the national level to protect the regime
+from subversive activities, whether locally or externally generated,
+were created in the late 1940s and are still maintained. The force in
+1972 numbered roughly 20,000 men. It is organized along military lines,
+and most, if not all, of its men have military rank. It receives its
+administrative and logistic support from the Ministry of Internal
+Affairs but is supervised by the State Security Council.
+
+According to pronouncements made during anniversary ceremonies held in
+August of 1968, during their twenty years of service the security troops
+had been a consistently reliable force. Their mission was described as
+identifying and apprehending foreign espionage agents and combating
+local spies, saboteurs, agitators, and terrorists. It was declared that
+the forces operated under the leadership and direct guidance of the
+party and governmental leadership and that local security forces were
+controlled by the party authorities in districts and cities.
+
+Pronouncements by the leadership about their local subordination
+notwithstanding, the security troops, which are the direct descendants
+of the old secret police, are still controlled at the national level.
+Because of their declining mission in counter-espionage and
+counter-subversion, they undoubtedly cooperate wherever possible in
+usual militia functions, but they appear to have only nominal
+responsibilities to local government agencies.
+
+The diminishing role of the security troops is evident in several areas.
+Their personnel strength in 1971 was a fraction of that of the militia.
+The country's efforts against external threat have been increasingly
+relegated to the regular armed forces. Also, although the chairman of
+the State Security Council--which was newly established in 1968--is a
+member of the Council of Ministers, in 1970 he was the only man on the
+security council who was a ranking party member, and he was no more than
+an alternate member of the Executive Committee of the Central Committee
+of the Romanian Communist Party. His vice chairmen were military
+officers, and only one of them was prominent enough in the party to have
+been a member of the Central Committee. It is evident that the State
+Security Council in Romania does not have the status of the high-level
+groups that in some countries have the responsibility for coordinating
+party and governmental activities relating to national security and for
+providing basic guidance to all of the various military, paramilitary,
+and police agencies.
+
+
+PUBLIC ORDER
+
+As is the case in the other communist countries that pattern their
+systems after that of the Soviet Union, Romania's leadership relies on
+the party and several mass organizations to foster a climate in which
+the people will actively support and cooperate with the regime. These
+organizations involve as large a segment of the population as possible
+in a broad spectrum of programs and functions. The efforts they elicit
+from their members may consist of activities within the organizations
+themselves or in local governments, judicial systems, and security
+groups. Mass popular involvement provides an influence that is generally
+subtle but that may become direct pressure.
+
+
+Mass Organizations
+
+The party attempts to attract the most competent and elite element of
+the people, to ensure that its members adhere to basic socialist
+ideology, and to maintain the power to direct and control all other
+groups involved in major social and governmental activities. The mass
+organizations support the party and carry its programs to special
+interest groups. They keep the party informed of the concerns of their
+members and may also, within certain limitations, have an influence upon
+the party's actions (see ch. 9).
+
+There are about a dozen mass organizations. The Socialist Unity Front is
+not typical of the group, as in theory it encompasses all of the others
+as well as the party--although it supports and serves the party. It
+functions as a coordinating agency in such things as running the
+national elections.
+
+The largest typical groups are the General Union of Trade Unions and the
+youth groups. There are three of the latter: the Union of Communist
+Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist--UTC), the Pioneers Organization,
+and the Union of Student Associations. The UTC is a general group whose
+members are between fifteen and twenty-six years of age, although
+members in leadership positions may retain their affiliation beyond the
+upper age limit. The pioneers are the younger children, seven through
+fourteen years old; their program is designed so that they move
+naturally into the UTC when they become fifteen. The student groups are
+organized in universities or in schools beyond the secondary level. They
+have experienced difficulties in attracting members and in persuading
+those they have attracted to accept all of the principles set down for
+them (see ch. 9).
+
+The other organizations are a miscellaneous aggregation, including a
+women's organization, the Red Cross, a sports and physical education
+group, one that involves the various ethnic nationalities, another that
+is a Jewish federation only, one that is designed to foster ties of
+friendship with the Soviet Union, and one designed for the defense of
+peace. Although they are highly dissimilar and vary widely in
+importance, all are designed to attract groups with special fields of
+interest and to guide such groups into activities that promote harmony
+and order.
+
+The labor and youth groups, in addition to being the largest, are also
+those most actively charged with supporting the regime. Labor union
+members are active in auxiliaries of the militia and in the military
+reserves. The UTC membership spans most of the age group that is drafted
+into the regular armed services and the security forces. Within the
+services it forms units throughout the organizational structures that
+either direct or actively assist in political indoctrination programs
+and manage sports and recreational activities. Where a party cell
+exists, the UTC is guided by it; where the military unit is too small to
+have a party cell, the UTC functions in its place.
+
+
+Youth Programs
+
+Although the economy has improved and the internal security situation
+has stabilized, youth problems have increased, and much effort is being
+expended on their solution. Officials point out that the percentage of
+young people that have become criminals or whose antisocial conduct gets
+most of the publicity is very small. They complain, however, that the
+number of those who will not associate with the UTC and who display
+other negative behavior is far too great. Negative behavior on the part
+of young people reportedly involves their manner of speech and dress,
+which "offends common decency," their creation of public disturbances,
+their apathy toward work, and the fact that many of them have become
+cynical and infatuated with "wrong beliefs."
+
+Authorities understand the youthful tendency to be nonconformist and
+accept the fact that a certain amount of the behavior they deplore is
+an attempt to affirm new and differing youth attitudes. Attitudes and
+conduct considered to have exceeded permissible bounds, however, are
+dealt with firmly. Leaders blame the inadequacies of some educational
+facilities; the ignorance, injustice, or excessive indulgence on the
+part of some parents and educators; and the overlenient courts.
+
+Solutions that have been proposed since the late 1960s have run the
+gamut from advice to parents to the creation of powerful governmental
+agencies. Parents are admonished to take a firm attitude toward their
+children. The first secretary of the Central Committee of the UTC was
+made a member of the Council of Ministers, as minister for youth
+problems. University student associations have been given much new
+attention, as have the other youth organizations and their programs. The
+militia, armed forces, and security troops have been required to
+undertake programs to cooperate with youth organizations.
+
+During 1969 the minister for youth problems was provided a research
+center by the Council of Ministers. Its purpose was to investigate the
+problems experienced by schools, universities, youth mass organizations,
+the militia, and the courts. As case studies are documented, the center
+is directed to evaluate the problems and the solutions found for them
+locally at the time they occurred and to disseminate the information,
+with additional comments and recommendations, as widely as possible.
+
+In early 1971 a considerably invigorated program was unveiled for the
+UTC. Wherever possible, all programs were to become more mature and more
+stimulating. Military exercises would involve field trips and more
+realistic maneuvers. Aerial sports would include parachuting, gliding,
+and powered flight. Hobbies, such as model ship building, amateur radio,
+and the study of topography, were to be given more adequate supervision.
+Better equipment and facilities would be supplied for touring,
+motorcycling, mountaineering, skiing, and hiking. More youths were to be
+scheduled for summer camps. No information concerning the effectiveness
+of the new programs had been made available by early 1972.
+
+Many university students held their party-sponsored associations in low
+regard during the middle and late 1960s, and eventually the
+then-existing student unions were dissolved or consolidated into the new
+Union of Student Associations. The incentives and pressures that were
+applied, in addition to revamping the union's programs, had succeeded by
+1970 in re-animating the association to the point that it was active in
+all of the country's universities and institutes of higher learning. It
+was authorized to make recommendations applicable to extracurricular
+sports and tourist programs, political education, and the entire
+academic area of the educational establishment.
+
+Programs for the young pioneer groups have probably not been the object
+of the same degree of reform effort that has been applied to the UTC and
+the student associations. A party spokesman stated in late 1971,
+however, that the 1.6 million pioneers were not too young to develop a
+socialist consciousness and to be given a communist education. He stated
+that their major programs should feature direct involvement in work of
+educational and civic value.
+
+To give young people a sense of accomplishment, as well as to keep them
+occupied in meaningful and productive work, large numbers of them are
+organized into youth construction groups. In typical situations
+temporary housing or camps are built near the project, and all necessary
+facilities are provided at the site. During the spring of 1970, for
+example, five such groups were scattered throughout the country,
+operating concurrently. A majority of the projects have involved land
+reclamation, irrigation, or drainage. Many of them are major
+undertakings, and thousands of young people take part in the program.
+
+
+CRIME AND THE PENAL SYSTEM
+
+During a 1971 discussion on the judiciary's philosophy with regard to
+the general subjects of law and freedom, the chairman of the Supreme
+Court stated that the penal code and criminal procedures adopted in 1968
+assign to the law the role of regulator of social behavior. The law has
+become, he said, not simply an instrument stipulating the rights and
+obligations of the citizen; its important social role provides a firm
+foundation for society's behavior. Other spokesmen have amplified this
+theme. They emphasize that, once an individual understands the law and
+its objectives, he appreciates the fact that individual freedom is
+related to the freedom of others and that a free individual is bound to
+respect accepted ideological concepts and accepted moral and judicial
+standards.
+
+Public prosecutors have a broad range of responsibility in the judicial
+and penal systems. Their duties are not confined to handling the
+prosecution of indicted individuals who have been brought to trial. As
+the appointed protectors of the civil liberties of the people, their
+duties extend from crime prevention to rehabilitation of criminals
+serving prison sentences. They are responsible for seeing that crimes
+are detected and investigated and that penal action is taken against the
+criminal. They also see to it that the criminal is held in preventive
+detention, if necessary, before trial. After sentencing, the prosecutors
+have access to any place in which the criminal might be detained and
+pass on the legalities of the detention and the conditions within the
+penal institution. If a sentence either does not involve imprisonment
+(but is, for example, in the form of a fine, restriction, or extra work)
+or is suspended, the prosecutors ensure that the terms of the sentence
+are carried out.
+
+Public prosecutors are monitored by the Office of the Prosecutor General
+at the national level. The prosecutor general (attorney general) assures
+that the work of local public prosecutors is consistent throughout the
+country, both in the choice of cases to pursue and in the diligence with
+which the prosecution is undertaken (see ch. 8).
+
+
+Crime
+
+Statistics released to the public do not include crime rates. Reliable
+data that would include petty crime would, in any event, be difficult to
+obtain because many minor infractions of law and all but the more
+serious of personal disputes are not termed crimes and are tried before
+the hundreds of local judicial commissions.
+
+A rough assessment of the overall crime situation can, however, be made
+from the concern expressed in the many speeches and articles published
+by government and party spokesmen. It is apparent that certain types of
+crime are considered to be adequately under control and occur
+infrequently enough to be statistically tolerable. There are, for
+example, few trials in the political category, such as those where
+dissidents are accused of attempting to undermine the authority of the
+regime or to subvert the population from the approved ideology. In an
+exceptional case (apparently at least his second serious offense) an
+engineer found guilty of passing economic information to a foreigner
+received a twenty-five-year sentence in March 1971 for espionage.
+Similar trials were a frequent occurrence during the early 1950s, but
+much of the publicity they have received since the mid-1960s has
+occurred because they have become so infrequent as to be noteworthy.
+
+Furthermore, to emphasize the more moderate and strictly legal
+procedures adhered to by police forces and the judiciary, some of the
+1950 political trials are being reexamined. Most of those sentenced to
+imprisonment from such trials have been amnestied, the largest group in
+1964. A few of those who were executed are still being posthumously
+rehabilitated.
+
+On the other hand, there is a greater percentage of crimes in the
+categories that are sometimes attributed to an improvement in the
+standard of living but that reflect dissatisfaction with the rate of the
+improvement. These include economic crimes--theft and embezzlement--misuse
+or abuse of property, and antisocial crimes and crimes of violence, which
+are committed most frequently by younger people. Party officials also
+deplore the prevalence of laxity in the use of state property and in the
+safeguarding of official information and documents.
+
+Measures taken to combat crime have had varying degrees of success.
+Speculation is illegal, but efforts to prevent private sales of new and
+used cars at excessive profit have been ineffective. Cars two to five
+years old sell for more than their original cost. Crimes such as
+vagrancy, begging, and prostitution were, as of late 1970, defying the
+best efforts of the militia and the courts. This type of crime had been
+prevalent during the early post-World War II period but declined after
+about 1950. During the late 1960s it again began to increase. The
+militia has also encountered a problem in the amount of popular
+cooperation it is able to count upon. Individuals who have identified
+persons as having committed criminal acts have been subjected to
+reprisals. The militia has, however, been able to show good results
+against vandalism, pilfering, and petty theft. By mid-1971 crimes of
+that category had been reduced to pre-1969 levels.
+
+The 1968 Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) invasion of
+Czechoslovakia generated a certain amount of disillusion that probably
+contributed to the increase, during the late 1960s, in attempts to
+emigrate illegally. An emigre reported that about 40 percent of the
+prison populations at Arad and Timisoara, or some 500 inmates, had
+failed in attempts to cross the border into Hungary. Most of them were
+reportedly twenty to thirty years old and were serving sentences of from
+one to five years.
+
+Modern crime-fighting facilities have been introduced more slowly than
+has been the case in the more prosperous European countries. During 1970
+the Ministry of Justice established the Central Crime Laboratory and two
+branch, or interdistrict, laboratories. All of them serve the militia,
+the security and armed forces, the courts, and the public prosecutors.
+They are equipped to assist in the investigation of all aspects of
+crimes except those where medical and legal services are required. They
+include facilities for handwriting, fingerprint, and ballistic analyses
+and analysis of documents (for counterfeiting or alteration) and for
+performing a number of other physical and chemical tests.
+
+
+Traffic Control
+
+Traffic control demands a sizable portion of police energies, although
+by 1972 highway use remained low in comparison to the rest of the
+continent. There had been few motor vehicles before World War II, and
+numbers for personal use or for motor transport increased slowly during
+the immediate postwar years. Since about 1955, however, both categories
+have become available at an accelerated rate.
+
+In 1963 traffic was up over 200 percent (and in 1965 approximately 300
+percent) from 1955 levels. Total numbers of vehicles increased at about
+10 percent a year during the late 1960s, and the number of those that
+were privately licensed doubled during the two-year period 1968 and
+1969. Encouraged by the government during approximately the same period,
+tourist traffic tripled.
+
+Irresponsible driving, lack of traffic controls, and lack of concern for
+their danger on the part of pedestrians, bicyclists, and wagon drivers
+contributed to an acceleration in the number of accidents and casualties
+that paralleled the increase in traffic. In 1969 there were 2,070 deaths
+resulting from about 5,300 reported accidents. Only about 40 percent of
+the victims were occupants of the vehicles involved and, of them, a
+considerably larger number of passengers than drivers were killed.
+Nearly 50 percent of the total fatalities were pedestrians; the
+remainder were on bicycles or wagons.
+
+Considering accident statistics higher than warranted by the rising
+volume of traffic, the regime had enacted a series of stricter control
+measures, the bulk of them in 1968. Officials analyzing the problem
+attributed most of the poor record to disregard for driving regulations
+and inadequate traffic controls. Excessive speed had accounted for about
+40 percent of the accidents. Driving under the influence of alcohol,
+failure to pay attention, and failure to yield the right of way
+accounted, in that order, for most of the others. Drivers were blamed
+for about 65 percent of accidents, pedestrians for 31 percent, and
+malfunction of vehicles for 4 percent. Accidents in which alcohol was a
+factor tended to be the most serious. One in every 2.3 alcohol-related
+accidents resulted in a fatality.
+
+After 1968 the more stringent regulations and measures to enforce them
+began to yield results. By 1970, although both the numbers of local
+automobiles and tourist traffic had continued to increase steadily,
+accidents had decreased by 8 percent; and deaths and injuries from them
+were down by 7 and 8 percent, respectively. Officials gave credit to an
+educational program in secondary schools, the beginnings of a vehicle
+inspection program, and positive actions taken to reduce driving after
+drinking, as well as to the new regulations and enforcement efforts.
+During 1970 the militia suspended about 20,000 operators' licenses,
+canceling a number of them.
+
+
+Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure
+
+The penal code in effect before 1968 was one of the most severe in
+Europe. The penal code and the code of criminal procedure that have
+replaced it attempt to ensure that criminals are not able to evade the
+penalties provided for in the law but, at the same time, there is a
+stated guarantee against the arrest, trial, or conviction of innocent
+persons. Protective measures for accused persons are to be respected by
+all law enforcement and judicial agencies.
+
+It is emphasized that an individual is found guilty according to the
+relevant evidence in his case. Courts are instructed to base sentences
+on the crime, rather than on an individual's reputation or extenuating
+circumstances. A Romanian assumes legal responsibility and is subject to
+the codes at age fourteen; he is considered an adult before the courts
+at age sixteen.
+
+If the possible sentence for an alleged crime is five years or more, the
+accused is guaranteed counsel during any part of the investigation that
+involves his presence after he has been taken into custody, in the
+preparation of his defense, and throughout his trial. Minors and
+enlisted military personnel are authorized counsel without regard to the
+possible sentence. The defense counsel has access to all findings that
+are uncovered by the prosecutor or other investigators during the
+investigation of the case. Except in special cases specified in the law,
+trials are public. Decisions as to guilt or innocence and the sentence
+handed down are concurred in by a majority vote of the judges and
+people's assessors on the court.
+
+The maximum prison sentence for a first offense is twenty years; for a
+repeated serious offense, it may be twenty-five years. The death
+sentence is also authorized, but it may be commuted to life
+imprisonment. The most severe sentences are still authorized for crimes
+in the political category--those endangering the state, the regime, or
+the society. Serious crimes against property and crimes of violence
+against a person are also considered grave but, unless they are
+exceptional, are not punishable by death. A person receiving the death
+penalty has five days in which to request a pardon. If the sentence is
+carried out, execution is by a firing squad.
+
+The new codes attempt to reduce court time spent on minor offenses.
+Those that constitute no significant danger to society and should be
+prevented from recurring by social pressures have been removed from the
+list of crimes and have been relegated to the judicial commissions. In
+other cases, where an act is still classified as a crime, an offender
+may elect to plead guilty without a trial. If he does, he is charged
+one-half the minimum fine for the offense, and the case is closed.
+
+Pretrial preventive detention is authorized to protect the individual,
+to assure that he will not elude trial, or to prevent his committing
+further criminal acts. Detention is ordinarily limited to five days for
+investigation of a crime or to thirty days if the person has been
+arrested and is awaiting trial. Extensions up to ninety days are
+authorized if requested by the prosecutor in the case. Longer extensions
+may be granted by the court.
+
+According to the Romanian press, which has commented on the way that the
+new codes have served the people, examples of poor performance are
+usually attributable to the inertia of the bureaucracy. When citizens'
+rights are withheld, red tape or over-worked personnel are most
+frequently to blame. Occasionally, however, officials are unresponsive
+to individuals' requests and provide services grudgingly without an
+adequate justification for delay.
+
+
+Courts
+
+The Constitution charges the judiciary with the defense of socialist
+order and the rights of citizens in the spirit of respect for the law.
+It also gives the courts responsibility for correcting and educating
+citizens who appear before them, to prevent further violations of the
+law. Party leader Nicolae Ceausescu, in a 1970 pronouncement, indicated
+that the party leadership may feel that the law should stress to an even
+greater extent the defense of the state and society rather than the
+rights of the individual. According to his statement, the first
+obligation of the courts is to collaborate with the militia and security
+forces and apply lawful punishment to those who disregard order and the
+laws of the country. He went on to say that he considered that the
+concepts of "solicitude for man" and "extenuating circumstances" were
+poorly understood and were abused by overlenient courts. In his view the
+courts had not shown sufficient firmness in cases involving trivial
+infractions, such as rowdiness or minor infractions of the norms of
+social relationships, or in cases dealing with persons who wish to live
+without working (see ch. 8).
+
+Nonetheless, the court organization, as it was redesigned in 1968, is
+required to operate within a framework that is compatible with the penal
+codes and is thoroughly described and established in the law. Of greater
+significance, there has been an effort to make sure that the system is
+run by adequately qualified personnel. People's assessors, who need have
+no legal education, may outnumber the judges on the lower courts.
+Decisions of these courts may, however, be appealed and, if higher court
+panels are not made up exclusively of professional judges, the judges
+always outnumber the people's assessors. Judges must be lawyers and are
+preferably doctors of law.
+
+The court system under the Ministry of Justice consists of the Supreme
+Court, _judet_ courts, and lower courts. The lower courts, which might
+be considered lower municipal courts, are usually referred to only as
+"the courts." Bucharest has a court that is an equivalent of a _judet_
+court, and it has several of the lower courts (see ch. 8).
+
+The lower courts are courts of first instance in all cases they hear.
+This could include cases that had previously been heard by judicial
+commissions. Such cases would not be considered to have been legally
+tried and would require reinvestigation and altogether new prosecutions,
+making sure that rights of the accused and all legal procedures were
+properly observed.
+
+Appeals from the lower courts are heard by _judet_ courts, which are
+also courts of first instance in more serious cases. Final appeal is to
+the Supreme Court. There is no appeal from its decisions, but it is not
+totally free and independent. It is within one of the government's
+ministries and is also responsive to the party leadership.
+
+Judicial commissions function at a level below the formal court system.
+Each such commission is composed of several members (usually five),
+handles a wide variety of cases, and attempts to hear as many of them as
+possible in public. Because the judicial commissions are not a part of
+the court system, their cases are not included among criminal
+statistics. Unless appealed, however, their sentences are binding.
+Official documents describe the commissions as public organs for
+exerting influence and legal control, organized so as to bring about
+broad participation of the masses, providing them with a socialist
+education in legality and promoting a correct attitude toward work and
+good social behavior. The educational benefits are intended both for
+those serving on the commissions and for those who are judged by them.
+
+The commissions handle small damage or personal disagreement suits
+between individuals--small first offense cases involving public
+property, petty thefts, misuse of property when no willful abuse is
+involved, negligence cases, and traffic violations. Judicial commissions
+set up in enterprises or collectives handle minor labor disputes and
+work-grievance cases. In all situations the commissions attempt to exert
+the influence of public opinion and, in personal disputes, to achieve
+reconciliations.
+
+
+Penal Institutions
+
+Depending upon the seriousness of a crime, its category, and the age and
+occupation of the individual, until the mid-1960s a convicted person was
+confined in a correction camp, a labor colony, a prison or, if subject
+to military law, a military disciplinary unit. Prisons included
+penitentiaries, prison factories, town jails, and detention facilities
+of the security troops.
+
+A majority of labor colony inmates were political prisoners and, if
+there were a few of them that had not completed their sentences or were
+not released in amnesties by the mid-1960s, they were probably
+transferred to penitentiaries. Increased use of judicial commissions for
+petty crimes and an accompanying change minimizing confinement in lesser
+cases have further reduced prison populations and eliminated the need
+for separate categories of correction institutions. As a result, the
+1970 law on the execution of court sentences treats all places of
+confinement as prisons or penitentiaries (under the authority of the
+Ministry of Internal Affairs) or as military disciplinary units (under
+the Ministry of the Armed Forces).
+
+Place of detention vary, nonetheless. Maximum security prisons are
+provided for those convicted of crimes against the state's security,
+serious economic crimes, homicides or other violent crimes, and
+recidivists. All convicted persons are obliged to perform useful work,
+and an effort must be made to educate and rehabilitate the inmates.
+Consequently, all but town jails and those facilities designed to hold
+persons for short stays have labor and educational facilities.
+
+A convict is paid according to the country's standard wage scales. He
+receives 10 percent of his wages; the remainder goes to the penitentiary
+administration as state income. The maximum working day is twelve hours.
+If work norms are regularly exceeded, sentences are shortened
+accordingly.
+
+Inmates are segregated for various reasons. Women are separated from
+men; minors, from adults; and recidivists and those convicted of serious
+crimes, from those serving short terms. Drug addicts and alcoholics are
+isolated whenever possible. Persons held in preventive arrest, not yet
+convicted of a crime, are separated when possible from convicted
+persons. Unless their conduct is considered intolerably uncooperative,
+they are not denied the ordinary prison privileges.
+
+Usual convict privileges include some visits, packages, and
+correspondence. Privileges allowed vary with the severity of the
+original sentence and may be increased, reduced, or done away with
+altogether, depending upon the inmate's attitude and behavior.
+Consistently good conduct may also earn parole. An inmate who performs
+an exceptional service may be pardoned altogether; many were freed for
+their work in combating the great floods during the spring of 1970.
+
+Other disciplinary measures include reprimand, simple isolation, severe
+isolation, or transfer to an institution with a more severe regimen.
+All convict mail is censored, and correspondence whose content is
+considered unsuitable is withheld. Conversation during visits is limited
+to Romanian or to a language familiar to someone available to monitor
+what is said.
+
+Amnesties are granted periodically. Some, such as those that freed
+political prisoners in 1964 and the one in late 1970, reduce prison
+populations considerably. They may, as in 1964, free a particular
+category of prisoner or, as in the December 30, 1970, amnesty, serve to
+reduce sentences of all types but on a basis of the amount of the term
+unserved. At that time full pardon was granted all who had less than a
+year of their sentences to serve, even if an individual had been
+sentenced but had not yet begun to serve the term. Full pardon was also
+granted to pregnant women, women with children under five years of age
+who had up to three years of their sentences remaining, and to all women
+over the age of sixty. The amnesty even applied to cases in court.
+Trials were to continue, but the amnesty would take effect if it were
+applicable to the sentence. If, however, an amnestied person committed
+another crime within three years, he would be confined for the unserved
+portion of his commuted sentence in addition to the new one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 13
+
+ARMED FORCES
+
+
+In 1971 Romania was a member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw
+Pact), but it was not fully cooperating in its activities nor in total
+agreement with the Soviet Union's interpretation of the organization's
+mission. Romania saw little threat to its territorial boundaries or to
+its ideology from the West. On the other hand, since the invasion of
+Czechoslovakia in 1968 by other pact members, various Romanian leaders
+have expressed concern about the danger to individual sovereignty from
+within the pact itself.
+
+Much of the nation's military history has been that of an alliance
+partner. It has not fought a major battle in any other capacity. How
+well it has fared at peace tables has depended in large part on the fate
+of its allies or how the peacemakers believed that the Balkan area of
+the continent should be divided. In this tradition Romania aligns itself
+without significant reservation with the Warsaw Pact.
+
+The military establishment consists of ground, naval, air and air
+defense, and frontier forces. They are administered by a defense
+ministry, which in turn is responsible to the chief of state. At topmost
+policy levels, party leaders are interwoven into the controlling group.
+Political education throughout the forces is supervised by a directorate
+of the ministry, but the directorate is responsible to the Romanian
+Communist Party.
+
+Military service has become a national tradition, although the tradition
+is based largely on the continuing existence of sizable armed forces.
+The people accept the military establishment willingly enough even
+though conscription removes a great part of the young male population
+from the labor force for periods of from sixteen to twenty-four months.
+The military services are not an overwhelming financial burden and, in
+local terms, the forces undoubtedly have value to the regime. They
+support it and give it an appearance of power. Also, the discipline and
+political indoctrination given the conscripts during their military
+service is considered beneficial to them and to the country.
+
+
+HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
+
+The armed forces have been dependent on some major power for arms supply
+during most of the country's independent history. Equipment and
+assistance were furnished by Germany between 1870 and 1916. During that
+time, although the country's population was hardly more than 10 million,
+with German help it was able to support a large army. It fielded about
+500,000 men against Bulgaria in 1913 during the Second Balkan War, for
+example. In 1916 Romania joined the World War I Allies, but its forces
+were defeated within a few months and were idled until a few days before
+the armistice in November 1918. From then until just before World War II
+they were assisted by France and, to a lesser degree by Great Britain
+(see ch. 2).
+
+Because of the political situation at the time, Romania was unable to
+offer resistance when the Soviet Union, by terms of its agreement with
+Germany in 1939, annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. In June 1941,
+however when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Romania joined the
+Germans. Its forces fought the Soviets until 1944 but, after the battle
+for Stalingrad in 1943, they became too war weary to perform at their
+best. In 1944, as the Germans were being pushed westward, Romania was
+overrun by Soviet armies and joined them against Germany.
+
+Nearly all of the military tradition cited by communist regimes since
+World War II starts at this point. On occasions honoring the forces they
+are reminded that they mobilized more than 500,000 men for this
+campaign, suffered 170,000 casualties, and liberated 3,800 localities
+while helping to push the German armies about 600 miles from central
+Romania.
+
+A postwar buildup of Romania's forces began in 1947. Since then all
+major weapons and heavy equipment have been of Soviet design, and
+organization and training largely followed the Soviet model.
+
+When the Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 its members were given alliance
+responsibilities, and new procedures were introduced to enable them to
+perform as an integrated force. More modern equipment was furnished,
+basic units were brought closer to authorized combat strengths, and
+training was undertaken on a larger and more exacting scale. Romania's
+forces were expanded to nearly the maximum that could be readily
+sustained by universal conscription. Strengths were greatest before
+1964, especially during the Berlin and Cuban crises of the early 1960s.
+Reduction of the tour of duty in 1964 to sixteen months for most
+conscripts necessitated a slight reduction in the overall size of the
+forces.
+
+
+GOVERNMENTAL AND PARTY CONTROL OVER THE ARMED FORCES
+
+The Ministry of the Armed Forces is the governmental agency that
+administers the military forces, but policymaking is a prerogative of
+the party hierarchy. Top ministry officials are always party members and
+often concurrently hold important party posts. In 1971 Nicolae
+Ceausescu--as president and chief of state, supreme commander of the
+armed forces, and chairman of the Defense Council--was, in each case,
+the immediate superior of the minister of the armed forces. At the same
+time, the minister of the armed forces was an alternate member of the
+executive committee of the party and, as such, not only was an important
+party leader but was again responsible to Ceausescu, this time in the
+latter's capacity as the party's general secretary.
+
+One of the deputy ministers of the armed forces is secretary of the
+Higher Political Council. Although administered within the ministry,
+this council is responsible to the party's Central Committee. It is in
+charge of political education in the military establishment and has an
+organization paralleling, and collocated with, that of the regular
+services. It penetrates into the lower service units to monitor the
+content and effectiveness of political training in troop units.
+
+The Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist--UTC), the
+junior affiliate of the Romanian Communist Party, has responsibility for
+premilitary training and for active political work among the troops in
+their duty organizations. The UTC's premilitary programs prepare youth
+for military duty by introducing them to basic training and technical
+skills in addition to political indoctrination. Within the military
+organization, UTC work includes political educational programs conducted
+on duty and sports, cultural, and recreational activities conducted off
+duty (see ch. 12).
+
+
+ORGANIZATION AND MISSION
+
+The regular forces, which include the frontier troops, are under
+administrative and tactical control of the Ministry of the Armed Forces.
+The minister has a number of deputies, including the chiefs of the main
+directorates for training, political affairs, and rear services
+(logistics) and the chief of the general staff. The heads of operational
+or major tactical commands are also immediately subordinate to the
+minister. The highest level of the tactical organization includes the
+headquarters of the naval and air forces, the frontier troops, and the
+military regions (see fig. 10).
+
+Area organization includes two military regions, with headquarters at
+Cluj and Iasi, and the Bucharest garrison. Regional headquarters, which
+are simultaneously corps headquarters of the ground forces, control
+support facilities for all services.
+
+ [Illustration:
+                              President
+                                  |
+                              Defense Council
+                                  |
+                              Council of
+                              Ministers
+                                  |
+                              Ministry of the
+                              Armed Forces
+                                  |
+       ---------------------------+---------------------------
+       |               |          |          |               |
+ General Staff   Directorate for  |    Directorate for  Directorate of
+                Political Affairs |     Rear Services      Training
+                                  |     (Logistics)
+                                  |
+       ---------------------------+---------------------------
+       |               |          |          |               |
+       |               |                 Air and             |
+ Ground Forces    Naval Forces    |    Air Defense    Frontier Troops
+                                  |       Forces
+                                  |
+          ------------------------+---------------------
+          |                       |                    |
+    Bucharest Garrison  Cluj Military Region    Iasi Military Region
+
+ _Figure 10. Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972._]
+
+All commanders and force personnel subordinate to the minister are part
+of the regular military establishment, although appointments to the
+higher commands may be determined in varying degrees by political
+considerations. The minister is a political appointee but, whether or
+not he has had a military background, he assumes a senior military rank.
+The Romanian practice deviates from the usual in such situations,
+however, where the minister is expected to have an actual or honorary
+rank superior to any officer in his forces. The minister of the armed
+forces in 1971, for example, was appointed in 1966. He was promoted from
+colonel general to army general after about four years in his position
+and, during the early period, was technically subordinate in rank to an
+army general who commanded the General Military Academy in Bucharest.
+
+In 1972 there were about 200,000 men in the regular forces. About 75
+percent were in ground force or in support units common to all services.
+About 5 percent were naval; 10 percent, air force; and the remainder,
+frontier troops. The air force percentage included air defense forces.
+
+When the mission of the armed forces is being described in relation to
+the Warsaw Pact, it is pointed out that the forces are structured and
+trained for major operations in concert with their allies against a
+common enemy. Because organized Romanian forces have not been involved
+in a major conflict except as junior partners in an alliance force, this
+experience makes the concept of participation in the Warsaw Pact mission
+easy to accept. Since about 1960, however, leaders have expressed
+ambitions to act somewhat independently of the Warsaw Pact. In this
+context the pact mission is occasionally downgraded or passed over in
+nonspecific terms. The forces' mission is then described as defense of
+the country only, and their use is said to be allowable only to resist
+aggression against Romania.
+
+
+Ground Forces
+
+The ground forces are commonly referred to as the army, although the
+Romanian People's Army comprises all of the regular armed forces
+administered by the Ministry of the Armed Forces. The ground forces
+proper have two tank and seven motorized-rifle divisions and a few other
+smaller combat units, including mountain, airborne, and artillery
+outfits of varying sizes. Combat units are thought to be kept at about
+90 percent of their full authorized strengths. Most of the support
+agencies that provide services needed by all service organizations are
+manned by ground force personnel. Strength of the ground forces in 1972
+was estimated at between 130,000 and 170,000.
+
+Divisions are organized on the same pattern as those in the other Warsaw
+Pact countries. Tank divisions have one artillery, one motorized-rifle,
+and three tank regiments. Motorized-rifle divisions have one tank, one
+artillery, and three motorized-rifle regiments.
+
+The division is the basic combat unit, and all of them have their own
+essential service and support outfits. They are, however, subordinate to
+corps headquarters of the military regions rather than directly to the
+Ministry of the Armed Forces.
+
+
+Air and Air Defense Forces
+
+The commander of the air and air defense forces occupies a position
+parallel to that of the commanders of the military districts and the
+naval and frontier forces. His immediate superior is the minister of the
+armed forces. His tactical units include about twenty fighter-bomber and
+fighter-interceptor squadrons and a squadron each of transports,
+reconnaissance aircraft, and helicopters. These units have a total of
+about 250 aircraft; there are about the same number of trainers and
+light utility planes.
+
+Of the combat aircraft, MiG-17s would be used in the ground support
+role; MiG-19s and MiG-21s are interceptors that would be used in
+air-to-air combat. The reconnaissance squadron has Il-28 twin jet-engine
+light bombers. These airplanes are obsolescent, if not obsolete, and
+their crews are trained for reconnaissance only. A limited transport
+capability is provided by about a dozen twin-engine, piston-type
+transports. They are old and slow but are adequate for the
+short-distance work required of them. The helicopter squadron is
+equipped for air evacuation, for delivery of supplies to inaccessible
+areas, and for short-range reconnaissance.
+
+Interceptor squadrons are presumably integrated into the Warsaw Pact air
+defense network, which is designed to function as a unit over all of
+Eastern Europe. The small numbers of fighter-bombers are probably
+capable of providing no more than marginal support for Romania's own
+ground forces.
+
+Air defenses include surface-to-air missiles, antiaircraft artillery,
+and early warning and aircraft control sites. Surface-to-air missiles
+and their launching equipment, larger antiaircraft guns, radars, and
+most of the complex communication equipment are furnished by the Soviet
+Union.
+
+Air defenses in all of the Warsaw Pact countries are integrated into a
+common network. Romania's are important because the southwestern border
+with Yugoslavia is the point at which an attack from the western
+Mediterranean Sea could be first detected. Within the country, Bucharest
+and Ploiesti have point missile defenses.
+
+
+Naval Forces
+
+The naval organization includes headquarters, schools, a major base at
+Mangalia, a minor base at Constanta, and stations on the Danube River.
+Mangalia is a Black Sea port about twenty-five miles south of Constanta
+and just north of the Bulgarian border. Naval personnel in 1972 numbered
+somewhat fewer than 10,000. The force has almost 200 vessels, but they
+are an assortment of old and miscellaneous ships that have little
+capability outside their local environment. None of them is designed to
+operate more than a few miles from the coast line and definitely not
+beyond the Black Sea.
+
+Ships include minesweepers, escort vessels, patrol and torpedo boats,
+and a large assortment of small miscellaneous craft. Five of the patrol
+boats are of the modern Soviet Osa class and carry a short-range
+surface-to-surface missile. A few of the torpedo boats are fast,
+although they are not the latest models. Minesweepers have limited
+offshore capability but, if protected, could clear the Danube River and
+essential parts of its delta.
+
+
+Frontier Troops
+
+Borders with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia have defenses and are guarded, and
+there is some effort to patrol the Black Sea coastline. Borders with the
+Soviet Union and Hungary are not controlled except at highway and rail
+crossing points. Because the Danube River forms the greater share of the
+controlled borders, much of the patrolling is done by boat.
+
+During the 1950s and early 1960s frontier or border troops were
+subordinate to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and were difficult to
+distinguish, except in their deployment, from that ministry's security
+troops. During the latter part of the 1960s authority over the border
+forces passed to the Ministry of the Armed Forces, but the move was
+apparently accomplished over a period of time, and the decree
+formalizing the transfer was not published until September 1971. The
+commander of the frontier troops is one of the major operational
+commanders under the minister of the armed forces and is on a level with
+the chiefs of the military regions, the air and air defense force, and
+naval forces.
+
+Regulations defining border areas to be controlled and describing the
+authority of the forces were amended in late 1969. The border strip is a
+prohibited area, which is fenced in some places and often patrolled. On
+level, dry ground, it is sixty-five-feet wide but, where the borderline
+crosses marshy or rugged terrain, it may be widened enough to afford the
+troops easier access and control.
+
+A border zone varies in width but extends into the country from the
+strip and includes towns and communes. Frontier troops have overall
+control within the zone. They are instructed not to interfere more than
+necessary with usual human activities in it and to cooperate with the
+local police, whom they do not supplant. Although they are paramount in
+the zone, they are not restricted to it and may work fifteen or twenty
+miles into the interior if necessary.
+
+Troops are charged with controlling people, goods, and communications at
+the border and preventing unauthorized passage and smuggling. The major
+port city of Constanta, on the Black Sea coast, is listed as an
+exception to most of the border control regulations. Its city territory
+does not have a border strip, nor is it within a border zone. The
+regulation is presumably intended to facilitate port and shipping
+operations and to keep the more stringent controls inland from the port
+so that they do not interfere with international trade or tourist
+traffic.
+
+
+FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS
+
+Romania is a member of the Warsaw Pact, having joined when the pact was
+created in 1955. It also has bilateral treaties of friendship,
+cooperation, and mutual assistance with each of the other pact nations.
+Since each pact member has signed one of these treaties with all other
+members, all are bound to come to the assistance of any other that is
+attacked. In practical terms all are bound to the defense of any pact
+member in any conflict in which it might become involved since, no
+matter how it started, the other country would be branded the aggressor.
+
+Pact members commit a substantial portion, or all, of their fully
+trained and equipped units to the pact's use. Committed units are
+considered to be part of an integral force. Romanian forces have a role
+in pact plans but, because they have failed to participate in several
+recent pact maneuvers, Western observers have expressed doubt that the
+organization would depend upon effective Romanian cooperation during the
+first phase of a major conflict or for any participation in an action
+such as the Czechoslovak invasion of 1968.
+
+At the time of the pact's inception, leaders of the various member
+states were preoccupied with the security of their countries and their
+regimes. A threat from the new North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
+was real to them, as was danger from dissident elements within their own
+borders. It is doubtful whether in 1955 any one of the leadership groups
+seriously considered that its regime might--by itself or in deference to
+the wishes of its people--undertake economic or social practices or
+deviate from the ideology in ways that could be considered dangerous to
+the solidarity of the alliance. By 1965, however, Romania had embarked
+upon an independent course, to the extent that it, like Czechoslovakia,
+had reason to fear that it could be the object of retaliatory pact
+action.
+
+In his Bucharest Declaration of July 1966, Nicolae Ceausescu--who at
+that time was head of the party but had not yet taken over as chief of
+state--announced that he considered the Warsaw Pact a temporary alliance
+and that it would lose its validity if NATO were to cease functioning.
+Then, in 1968, Romania openly supported the Czechoslovak government,
+denounced the pact's invasion of that country, and did not participate
+in it. Since that time Romania has not permitted other Warsaw Pact
+forces either to hold exercises on its soil or to cross it for maneuvers
+in another country. As a result, Bulgaria can send forces to other
+Eastern European countries only by air or by way of the Black Sea and
+the Soviet Union. Pact exercises held in Bulgaria during the summer of
+1971 were performed by Bulgarian troops; other countries, including
+Romania, sent observers.
+
+In addition to holding its military relations with the Warsaw Pact to a
+minimum, Romania's armed forces have attempted to make contacts with the
+military establishments in other countries. A military delegation
+visited Yugoslavia in 1971, and feelers have been put out to arrange
+other such conferences. A ranking military spokesman has stated that the
+army was developing friendly relations with its counterparts in all the
+countries of the socialist system in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. He
+added that Romania is increasing its relations of cooperation and
+collaboration with the nonsocialist states, as a contribution to the
+development of mutual trust.
+
+
+MANPOWER, TRAINING, AND SUPPORT
+
+Manpower
+
+There are approximately 4.86 million men in the military age group, that
+is, the male population between the ages of eighteen and forty-nine.
+About 3.4 million--70 percent--are considered physically and otherwise
+fit for military service (see ch. 3).
+
+A somewhat larger percentage, however, of the 180,000 young men who
+reach the draft age annually are physically able to serve. The
+preponderance of armed forces and most security troop personnel are
+acquired during the annual draft calls. Because of the short duty tours
+required of conscripts, it was necessary in 1971 to call up most of the
+eligible group in order to maintain the forces' strengths.
+
+Men released from active duty, whether they served voluntarily or
+involuntarily, remain subject to recall until the age of fifty. Although
+nearly 100,000 men have been released from the services each year since
+about 1950, only a small portion of them are considered trained
+reserves. Only those recently discharged could be mobilized quickly and
+go into action without extensive retraining. There is insufficient
+emphasis on periodic reserve training to keep many of the older men in
+satisfactory physical condition or up to date on new weapons and
+tactics.
+
+Young men of draft age are potentially good soldier material. There is
+almost no illiteracy within the adult population under fifty-five years
+of age. A large percentage of conscripts have rural, village, or small
+city backgrounds and are in better physical condition than the average
+urban youth. On the minus side, because the country has a low standard
+of living, conscripts have little familiarity with mechanical and
+electronic equipment.
+
+Based on the numbers of males in lower age groups, the size of the
+annual military manpower pool will remain at about 1971 levels
+throughout the 1970s. It will then drop by nearly 25 percent during the
+first half of the 1980s but will rise sharply--and again temporarily--in
+the latter half of that decade. With the exception of the high and low
+periods during the 1980s, governmental population experts expect little
+overall change in available manpower during the remainder of the
+century.
+
+
+Training
+
+Since about the mid-1960s little public attention has been focused on
+the armed forces. Their capabilities, reliability, and preparedness have
+been taken for granted or have not been the subject of undue concern.
+Unit training and small exercises have been given little coverage in
+local media. Training programs, however, are dictated in large degree by
+organization and equipment and have changed little since 1960.
+
+With the standardization of units, weapons, and tactics accompanying the
+formation of the Warsaw Pact, training was accomplished in Romania as
+directed in translated Soviet manuals. In the Warsaw Pact system the
+training cycle starts when a conscript arrives at his duty organization
+for individual training. This includes strenuous physical conditioning,
+basic instruction in drill, care and use of personal weapons, and
+schooling in a variety of subjects ranging from basic military skills
+and tactics to political indoctrination.
+
+Individual training develops into small group instruction, usually
+around the weapon or equipment the individual will be using. As groups
+became more proficient with their equipment, they use it in exercises
+with larger tactical units under increasingly realistic conditions.
+Romanian forces have not participated since the late 1960s in the Warsaw
+Pact exercises that are usually held at the conclusion of the training
+cycle.
+
+During early individual training, men are selected for a variety of
+special schools. Short courses, in cooking and baking or shoe repairing,
+from which a man emerges ready to work, do not require volunteers and do
+not extend the mandatory duty tour. Longer courses may involve schooling
+for most of the conscript tour or require time on the job after the
+school is completed to develop a fully useful capability, leaving no
+time for the newly acquired skill to be of value to the service. In such
+cases, selections to a school are made from volunteers who are willing
+to extend their period of active duty.
+
+The most capable and cooperative conscripts are offered the opportunity
+to attend noncommissioned officer schools. They must accept voluntarily
+and agree to a longer period of service.
+
+Frontier troops receive much the same individual training as ground
+force conscripts. Their later instruction involves less large-unit
+tactics and more police training and special subjects dealing with order
+documents and regulations. Larger percentages of naval and air forces
+personnel are required in mechanical or electronic work. Most of those
+who attend technical schools are required to serve for two years.
+
+Reserve training receives little publicity and probably has low
+priority. A few reserves are sometimes called to active outfits for
+short refresher training, but there is little, if any, formal reserve
+training in local all-reserve types of units. The militia (a
+paramilitary organization subordinate to the Ministry of Internal
+Affairs) would probably be drawn upon to augment the services in an
+emergency. It could be expected to provide better trained personnel, in
+better physical condition, than would be acquired calling up untrained
+reserves (see ch. 12).
+
+The General Military Academy in Bucharest--usually called the Military
+Academy--is a four-year university-level school whose graduates receive
+regular officer commissions and who are expected to serve as career
+officers. It also offers mid-career command and staff types of courses.
+An advanced academy, the Military Technical Academy, requires that its
+applicants have a university degree; they may be military officers, but
+they are not required to have had military service or military education
+of any sort. The academy offers advanced degrees in military and
+aeronautical engineering and in a variety of other technical areas.
+
+
+Morale and Conditions of Service
+
+The mandatory tour of duty for basic ground and air force personnel was
+set at sixteen months in 1964. Naval conscripts and some air force
+personnel are required to serve two years. The length of extra service
+required of those who apply and are accepted for special training or who
+wish to become noncommissioned officers varies with the amount of
+training required, with the rank attained, or with the added
+responsibility of the new duty assignment; but it is accepted or
+rejected on a voluntary basis.
+
+Officers and noncommissioned officers serve voluntarily, and morale is
+usually satisfactory within those groups. The service experience of the
+noncommissioned-officer applicants and the long training period required
+of officer candidates assure that both leadership groups understand and
+freely accept the conditions of service before they assume their duty
+responsibilities.
+
+Conditions are reasonably good, and morale in the armed forces is not a
+source of unusual concern to the national leadership. There are few
+exhortations to put extra effort into political indoctrination; a
+large, heavily armed security force to counter a possibly unreliable
+army has not been created; and there are less elaborate ceremonial
+affairs involving the forces than is typical of the Eastern European
+countries.
+
+Romania has had compulsory military service at all times within the
+memory of the draft age group, and it is accepted as a routine fact of
+life. Exemptions from the draft are few, and a large proportion of them
+reflect upon the man because he cannot meet the qualifications for
+service. The tour of duty is brief. The standard of living in the
+country is low, and service life may offer some of the back-country
+young men the best opportunities for travel and excitement that they
+have yet experienced.
+
+
+Medicine
+
+Physicians required in the armed forces are ordinarily recruited from
+medical schools but may be called from their practices or from hospital
+residence assignments. They then attend a military medical institute in
+Bucharest for specialized instruction in procedures and practices that
+are peculiar to military medical work.
+
+Emergency treatment is given military personnel in the most convenient
+facility, whether or not it is a military clinic. The same is true for
+the civilian population. Inasmuch as military facilities are equipped to
+cope with wartime casualties, they are often better able to deal with
+emergencies or disasters than nonmilitary hospitals, although they are
+seldom kept at wartime strengths during peacetime. They were especially
+commended for their assistance during the great floods that occurred in
+the spring of 1970.
+
+
+Military Justice
+
+The national penal code enacted in 1968 applies both to military
+personnel and to the public at large. A special section of the code,
+however, deals with military crimes. These are crimes committed by
+military personnel or by nonmilitary personnel on military installations
+or infractions of military regulations. In theory, any court may pass
+judgment on a military crime, but the military court system employs
+specialists in military law who are better able to understand the
+seriousness of crimes committed in relation to the military
+establishment. Military courts seldom surrender cases over which they
+have jurisdiction to civil courts.
+
+There are two types of military courts: military tribunals and
+territorial military tribunals. The former are the lesser of the two and
+are established at major installations or are attached to large tactical
+units. They are the courts of first instance in all cases that come
+before them. The chairman, or judge, must be a major or higher ranking
+officer and have a degree in law. The judge is assisted by two people's
+assessors who, on military courts, are active duty officers. People's
+assessors need have no legal training but, as is the case for civil
+courts, they must be twenty-three years of age, have been graduated from
+secondary school, have a good reputation, and have no criminal record.
+In all military trials the judge and people's assessors must hold the
+same rank as, or higher than, the accused.
+
+The higher territorial military tribunals are the courts of first
+instance for very serious crimes or the courts to which sentences of
+lower courts are appealed. In cases in which they are the courts of
+first instance, the court panel consists of at least two judges and
+three people's assessors. When they are hearing an appealed case, the
+panel has a minimum of three judges.
+
+The Supreme Court of the land has final appeal jurisdiction over any
+case it may decide to hear, and it may review any case it chooses or
+that is sent to it by higher governmental agencies. It has a special
+military section that is headed by an officer of major general or higher
+rank. It may be the court of first instance for cases involving the most
+serious crimes or in lesser situations when an important legal precedent
+may be established.
+
+
+Logistics
+
+Military leaders state that their forces have adequate quantities of
+excellent and modern equipment. As is the situation with all other
+Warsaw Pact countries, Romania has received its heavy weapons and more
+complex equipment from the Soviet Union. Initially the Soviets
+distributed surplus World War II stocks. As these wore out or became
+obsolete, nearly all items were eventually replaced by postwar models.
+More complex and expensive weapons sometimes were used by Soviet forces
+first and appeared in Eastern Europe only after they had been replaced
+in the Soviet Union. In most circumstances, whether they were newly
+manufactured or secondhand, items have been supplied to other forces
+considerably after they were first issued to Soviet troops.
+
+Equipment that is in short supply has not been distributed to each of
+the pact allies on an equal priority basis. Distribution has depended
+upon the strategic importance of the recipient, capability for
+maintaining and using the equipment effectively, and probable
+reliability as an alliance partner. Romania is located where it would
+not be involved in first contacts with any potential enemy of the pact;
+its conscripts' tour, and the resulting time to train individual
+soldiers, is short; it is an underdeveloped country; and it has been
+probing for ways to assert its independence from Moscow. It has not
+therefore been the first to receive newer equipment. The distribution
+of tanks is illustrative. Romania has received adequate numbers to equip
+its combat units and has received all models that have been distributed
+among the pact allies. Romania, however, has been authorized a smaller
+ratio of armored, as compared with motorized-rifle, divisions than is
+average for pact members. Poland and Czechoslovakia have many more
+tanks, and larger percentages of them are modern.
+
+Ground forces have Soviet-made artillery, antitank guns and antitank
+wire-guided missiles, and some short-range surface-to-surface missiles.
+Weapons manufactured locally for the ground forces include all types of
+hand-carried weapons, antitank and antipersonnel grenade launchers, and
+mortars. Ammunition and explosives for most weapons, whether or not the
+weapon is locally produced, are manufactured in the country, as are
+common varieties of communication equipment and spare parts.
+
+All of the air forces' combat aircraft and nearly all of its training
+and miscellaneous types are received from the Soviet Union. Romania
+produces some small utility models. A new one, designed for spraying
+forests and crops, was introduced in 1970 and can be used for military
+liaison.
+
+Approximately the same situation exists with regard to naval vessels.
+The larger vessels and more complex smaller craft are built in the
+Soviet Union or by other members of the pact. Romania produces river
+craft and some smaller types, probably including the inshore
+minesweepers that operate in the Black Sea.
+
+Romania is attempting to reduce its dependence upon the Warsaw Pact by
+producing more military materiel within the country. The armed forces
+maintain the Military Achievements Exhibit, designed to show progress in
+local production capability. The exhibit is visited periodically by
+important party and government personalities. Much is made of these
+visits, attempting to show all possible encouragement to the various
+projects.
+
+
+Ranks, Uniforms, and Decorations
+
+Ranks conform to those in armies worldwide with a few minor exceptions.
+There are the usual four general officer ranks. Field grades are
+conventional and have the three most frequently used titles--major,
+lieutenant colonel, and colonel. Company grade ranks include captain and
+three lieutenant ranks. There are no warrant officers.
+
+Enlisted ranks also have familiar titles when translated. Basic soldiers
+hold the ranks of private and private first class. Conscripts serve their
+entire tours as privates unless they acquire a speciality or are put in
+charge of a small group. Corporal is the lowest noncommissioned officer
+rank. Senior noncommissioned-officer grades include the ordinarily used
+sergeant ranks, including one (and possibly more) that is seldom seen
+but is equivalent to sergeant major or senior master sergeant.
+
+Rank insignia tends to be ornate. All uniforms except the work and
+combat types display it on shoulderboards. Those of general officers
+have intricate gold designs with large gold stars. Other officer ranks
+have smaller stars clustered at the outer ends and stripes running the
+length of the boards. Stripes and borders on any one board are the same
+color, but the various service branches have different colors to
+identify them. For example, armored troops have black; frontier troops
+have light green.
+
+Enlisted men's shoulderboards have no borders, and the background color,
+like the stripes and borders of the officers', indicates the service
+branch. Rank is shown by stripes that run across the outer end of the
+board. Privates have no stripes, corporals and privates first class have
+yellow stripes, and sergeants have brass. Other devices that also
+identify the service branch appear on the inward end of the
+shoulderboard on all ranks except those of the general officers and
+privates.
+
+Cap insignia is more easily distinguished than that on the
+shoulderboard. Enlisted men wear a large brass star. General officers
+wear a star with a round blue center and red points mounted on an ornate
+round background. Other officers wear the red and blue star but without
+background.
+
+There is less variety in uniforms than is common in Western and most of
+the other Warsaw Pact forces. Other than for extreme weather and rough
+work, enlisted men have one type of uniform for winter and one for
+summer. Material for winter wear is olive-green wool; for summer it is
+cotton and may be olive green or khaki.
+
+Officers have a field or service uniform, which is similar to the
+enlisted men's, and a blue uniform for dress. The dress blouse has no
+belt, and shoes are low cut. The service uniform blouse is sometimes
+worn with a Sam Browne belt. Overcoats, except for buttons and insignia,
+are plain and conventional.
+
+Service and dress uniforms are generally well tailored and made from
+durable materials. Cloth in the officers' uniforms is more closely woven
+and of finer texture; that in enlisted men's uniforms is warmer and more
+durable, but it is bulkier and does not hold its shape as well. Combat
+and extreme-weather clothing is heavy and loose fitting, reminiscent of
+the Soviet World War II winter wear.
+
+A variety of decorations may be awarded to service personnel; a number
+of them may be given in three classes, and at least one of them is given
+in five. About a dozen have been authorized by the communist regime
+since 1948. Romanians may wear on their uniforms medals awarded by
+other Warsaw Pact countries but not those of any other foreign country.
+
+The highest decoration is the Hero of Socialist Labor--Golden Medal,
+Hammer and Sickle. This is considered a dual award, although the parts
+are always awarded together, and the medal itself is a single one. Other
+awards that may be given to both military personnel and civilians
+include the Order of the Star, Order of Labor, and a medal commemorating
+"Forty Years Since the Founding of the Communist Party of Romania." The
+third one of the group is given those who were active in the Communist
+Party between 1921 and 1961 or those who did party work between the two
+world wars or during the early days of the country's communist regime.
+
+Decorations designed exclusively for the armed forces include the Order
+of Defense of the Fatherland, the Medal of Military Valor, and the Order
+of Military Merit. Others recognize service during specific events, such
+as the Liberation from the Fascist Yoke medal and the Order of 23
+August, both of which commemorate World War II service against Germany.
+
+Despite the number of decorations authorized and the many classes
+provided for in several of them, medals are awarded less profusely in
+Romania's forces than in many armies, especially those that are made up
+largely of conscripts or that serve in a largely internal security role.
+Ceremonies that occur most often involve awards from foreign delegations
+at the conclusion of their visits to the country or the retirement of
+older, senior-ranking officers.
+
+
+THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
+
+Although the labor force is smaller than the national leadership
+considers adequate, almost all physically fit young men are conscripted.
+Only a few, those who are essential to the support of a family or who
+have other exceptional circumstances, are deferred or exempted. On the
+other hand, the approximately 4 percent of men in the military age group
+that serve in Romania's armed forces is about the European average and
+is lower than average for the Warsaw Pact nations.
+
+Some Romanian officials have suggested that the burden on the economy
+may be greater than that indicated by a comparison of national
+statistics arguing that, because labor productivity is low, the loss of
+4 percent of the labor force may diminish total production. On the other
+hand, some Western analysts have argued that, because most of the
+conscripts are unskilled and underemployed, the military's drain on the
+manpower pool entails no great loss to productive enterprise (see ch.
+14).
+
+In monetary terms the armed forces have been somewhat less of a burden.
+Between 1967 and 1970 their costs averaged approximately 3.1 percent of
+the gross national product (GNP), which is low when compared either with
+the average for Europe or with the average of the other Warsaw Pact
+members. Beginning in 1970, however, in an effort to reduce dependence
+upon the Soviet Union, Romania began to stimulate local production of
+military materiel and to purchase some items from other countries. This
+resulted in a sharp increase in defense spending in 1970. Unless the
+size of the armed forces is reduced, some continuing increase in
+expenses over pre-1970 levels will be necessary if Romania chooses to
+continue its policy of nondependence upon the Soviet Union.
+
+The armed forces engage in construction projects on a scale that local
+leaders say is an important contribution to the economy. They are
+employed in industrial construction, roadbuilding, railroad maintenance,
+and important agricultural and irrigation projects. Large numbers of
+troops participated in the disaster relief efforts made necessary by the
+great floods during the spring of 1970.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION IV. ECONOMIC
+
+CHAPTER 14
+
+CHARACTER AND STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY
+
+
+In 1972 Romania entered the second year of a five-year economic plan
+that is intended by the leadership to advance the country on the road to
+industrialization and to increase its economic potential sufficiently to
+make the economy one of the most dynamic in the world. This goal is to
+be attained mainly through a continued high rate of investment, a
+significant improvement in productivity, and an expanded and more
+efficient foreign trade. Although significant strides in industrial
+development had been made in the past, this achievement entailed a
+neglect of agriculture, an inadequate provision for consumer needs, and
+a balance of payments deficit with Western industrial nations that
+threatened to undermine the leadership's policy of political and
+economic independence from the Soviet Union (see ch. 10).
+
+Rigidly controlled by the PCR (see Glossary), the economy suffers from
+the basic weakness common to all centrally controlled economies, that
+is, a lack of adequate incentives for managers and workers. Rapid
+industrialization since 1950, made possible by massive inputs of capital
+and labor and aided by heavy imports of advanced Western industrial
+plants and technology, has involved a waste of resources on a scale that
+may hamper economic progress at the present stage of development. In
+trying to evolve a system of incentives that would lead to a more
+economic use of resources, the PCR is facing a dilemma. Greater
+efficiency requires more flexibility, which, in turn, implies a greater
+freedom of initiative at lower economic levels than the PCR has been
+prepared to grant thus far. In the search for a solution numerous
+administrative changes have been made since 1968 without basically
+altering the nature of the system.
+
+A major problem facing the economy is its heavy dependence on imports of
+raw materials and equipment and the failure, thus far, to develop a
+sufficient volume of exports salable in world markets. At the present
+stage of development, Romanian industrial products compete poorly with
+the output of advanced Western nations. Expansion of agricultural
+exports, which have a ready market in many areas, has been hampered by
+the slow development of the country's agricultural potential and by a
+growing domestic demand. Although greater attention is to be devoted to
+agriculture under the current Five-Year Plan (1971-75), the additional
+resources to be allocated to this sector are not commensurate with the
+magnitude of its needs. Instead, major emphasis is placed in the
+five-year period on the development of the chemical, electronic, and
+precision tool industries for domestic needs and export.
+
+The state of the economy in the early 1970s was revealed by two Romanian
+economists in articles evaluating their country's economic progress.
+According to their calculations, the per capita national income in
+Romania in 1975, provided that the economic targets for that year are
+reached, will approach the level attained by Italy and Austria in 1968
+and will be somewhat larger than half that in France and the Federal
+Republic of Germany (West Germany) in the same year. At the same time
+they estimated that, even with continued acceleration of the rates of
+industrial modernization and growth of labor productivity, it will
+require several more five-year periods to reach the 1971 economic level
+of the more developed nations.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION
+
+The economy is highly socialized. The state owns virtually all industry
+and shares with collective farms ownership of more than nine-tenths of
+the farmland. Private artisan shops contribute only a fraction of 1
+percent to the industrial output, and private farmers' limited holdings
+are confined mainly to marginal lands. The state owns all natural
+resources other than the collective and private farmlands; maintains
+complete control over the country's physical resources, finances, and
+labor; and has a monopoly of foreign trade and foreign exchange. The
+functioning of the economy is directed by comprehensive long-term and
+annual state plans, which are binding for all economic entities.
+
+Control over the economy is strongly centralized, despite half-hearted
+attempts since 1968 to grant more freedom of initiative to lower
+management levels in the interest of greater flexibility and efficiency.
+Supreme decisionmaking power rests with the Standing Presidium of the
+PCR and the Council of State, the memberships of which are almost
+identical (see ch. 9). Compliance with PCR decisions is enforced through
+an administrative hierarchy that consists of three distinct levels: the
+Council of Ministers, all of whose members hold high positions in the
+PCR; economic ministries, which are responsible for specific sectors of
+the economy; and trusts and combines, which group enterprises along
+functional or territorial lines. Specialized committees with ministerial
+rank administer certain aspects of economic activity; chief among these
+are the State Planning Committee and the Committee for Prices (see ch.
+8).
+
+The organizational structure of the economy has undergone frequent
+changes in efforts to resolve economic problems by administrative means.
+Officially, the reorganizations have been declared necessary to keep
+economic management abreast of the requirements of socialist economic
+development. The frequency of the changes, however, and a lack of
+clarity in many of the directives have brought about a blurring of
+jurisdictional lines with consequent overlapping of functions and
+conflicts of authority. The organizational problem has been compounded
+by the contradictory nature of the motives that have prompted the
+reforms--to grant more discretionary power to enterprise managers and,
+at the same time, to strengthen central controls by enhancing the
+directing role of the compulsory economic plans. In 1971 economic
+officials considered important aspects of the economic organization to
+be still in an experimental stage.
+
+
+STRUCTURE AND GROWTH
+
+Data on gross output and national income in absolute terms have not been
+published. Official statistics on these social accounts have been
+limited to a few index series for overall, productive sector, and per
+capita values and a percentage breakdown of gross output and national
+income by productive sector. The arbitrary nature of the pricing system
+and differences in statistical treatment compared to Western practice
+preclude a direct comparison of the published growth rates of the
+economy and its components with similar rates in Western countries. The
+same holds true for comparisons of economic structure. Independent
+studies of the economy by Western scholars in Western statistical terms
+yielded significantly lower rates of growth and a different structure of
+economic activities from those officially announced.
+
+According to official data, national income (net material product, which
+excludes private and government services not directly related to
+production) more than doubled between 1960 and 1970, and industrial
+output more than tripled. Agricultural production, by contrast,
+increased by less than one-third. The rates of economic and industrial
+growth, even when translated into Western terms, have been relatively
+high and among the highest in countries of Eastern Europe. Such high
+growth rates have usually been associated with early stages of
+industrial development. The high growth rates were made possible by an
+official policy that allocated more than 30 percent of national income
+to investment. Growth rates in the 1966-70 period were somewhat lower
+than in the preceding five years, with the exception of agriculture, the
+performance of which was slightly better.
+
+The predominant growth of industry has been a direct consequence of the
+leadership's policy. This policy was reflected in a disproportionately
+large allocation of investment to industry at the expense of other
+economic sectors. In the 1966-70 period, for instance, industry received
+55 percent of total investment--60 percent if the construction industry
+is included--compared to less than 13 percent granted to agriculture.
+
+Within industry preponderant emphasis has been placed on the development
+of the capital goods sector at the expense of consumer goods. Whereas
+total industrial output increased at an average annual rate of 11.8
+percent from 1966 to 1970, production of capital goods rose at a rate of
+12.7 percent, and production of consumer goods grew by only 9.5 percent
+annually.
+
+As a consequence of the uneven sectoral growth, the structure of the
+economy changed significantly between 1960 and 1970. According to
+official data the contribution of industry to the net material product
+rose from 44 to 61 percent, whereas that of agriculture declined from 33
+to 20 percent (see table 4). The relative importance of construction and
+transport rose slightly, but that of trade declined by half. A
+strikingly different structure of the economy emerges in terms of the
+Western concept of gross national product (GNP), which includes housing
+and services and treats both taxes and subsidies in a different manner.
+The contribution of industry was less than that of agriculture in 1960,
+but by 1967 it had increased more rapidly than is indicated by the
+official data (see table 5). The role of agriculture, on the other hand,
+declined more rapidly.
+
+_Table 4._ _National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania, by
+Economic Sector, 1960, 1967, and 1970_ (in percent)
+
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+  Economic Sector                   1960      1967      1970
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+  Industry and handicrafts          44.1      51.7      60.8
+  Construction                       9.0       8.4       9.6
+  Agriculture                       33.1      28.6      20.0
+  Transport and communications       3.8       4.2       4.2
+  Trade                              6.5       4.6       3.2
+  Other sectors                      3.5       2.5       2.2
+                                   -----     -----     -----
+  Total                            100.0     100.0     100.0
+  ----------------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970; and U.S. Department of
+  Commerce, Office of Technical Services, Joint Publications
+  Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington), _Translations on
+  Eastern Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs_, "Development
+  of National Income Discussed," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest,
+  April 1971, (JPRS 53,521, Series No. 491, 1971).
+
+Published labor statistics leave many serious gaps, and unofficially
+reported data do not always agree with official figures in the annual
+statistical yearbooks. Information released on the size of the
+economically active population is limited to percentage changes over the
+years.
+
+The economically active population increased by only 3.5 percent from
+1960 to 1967 and remained stationary thereafter to 1969. During the
+ten-year period the number of persons active in industry increased by
+half, whereas the number of those engaged in agriculture declined by 19
+percent. Nevertheless, in 1970 about half the population was still
+engaged in agriculture, and only 22 percent were active in industry.
+
+Although there is no officially recognized unemployment, a substantial
+amount of underemployment is reported to exist in industry and, even
+more so, in agriculture. The reasons advanced by Romanian economists for
+this situation are the duty and the right of every citizen to work and
+the inability to achieve quickly full and efficient employment in a
+country that inherited a backward and predominantly agrarian economy
+with a large peasant population. Efforts toward obtaining full and
+efficient employment have been handicapped by the rapidly rising volume
+of investment needed to create new nonagricultural jobs. The average
+investment per nonagricultural job increased almost fivefold to 324,000
+lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) from the 1951-55 period to the
+1966-70 period, and a further 40 percent rise in cost was projected for
+the 1971-75 period.
+
+_Table 5. Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin, 1960
+and 1967_ (in percent)
+
+ -------------------------------------------------
+       Economic Sector              1960      1967
+ -------------------------------------------------
+ Industry and handicrafts           24.4      32.9
+ Agriculture and forestry           31.8      22.0
+ Construction                        7.6      11.1
+ Transport and communications        7.6       8.8
+ Trade                               6.5       5.4
+ Housing                             9.2       7.0
+ Government and other services      12.9      12.8
+                                   -----     -----
+ Total                             100.0     100.0
+ -------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session, Joint
+  Economic Committee, _Economic Developments in Countries of
+  Eastern Europe_, Washington, GPO, 1970.
+
+
+PLANNING
+
+As in all communist states, comprehensive economic planning has been a
+basic element of the PCR's dogma. Planning is conceived of as an
+indispensable tool for economic development. Traditionally, five-year
+and annual plans for all segments and aspects of the economy have been
+formulated by a central planning agency with the participation of
+economic ministries, trusts, and enterprises. Planning has proceeded
+from broadly defined goals set by the PCR to minute instructions for all
+economic enterprises. In line with the established priorities, the main
+planning effort has been devoted to industry.
+
+The major problem in planning has been posed by the need to balance
+supply and demand, not only with regard to the final consumers but also
+at all stages of the production process and for each individual
+enterprise. This task entails detailed decisions on the allocation of
+thousands of different materials, machinery and equipment items,
+specialized labor skills, energy, and investment funds. With the
+expansion and growing complexity of the economy and, more particularly,
+of industry, the balancing task has assumed dimensions that defy
+solution by traditional means.
+
+At the same time, the imposition of detailed operational prescriptions
+deprived enterprises of the freedom to exercise constructive initiative
+and of the flexibility needed to meet unforeseen contingencies. A
+failure by an enterprise to fulfill its planned assignment necessarily
+produces a chain reaction involving the production programs of
+enterprises dependent upon the missing output. Failures of this nature
+have been frequent.
+
+The breakdown of the planning mechanism brought about a disorganization
+of the material and technical supply for enterprises, with adverse
+effects on productivity and output. It has been responsible for a
+general lag in the economy's performance in relation to official plans.
+
+The deficiency of the traditional system of central planning was
+officially recognized in 1967, when a decision was made by the National
+Party Conference to raise the quality of planning to the level demanded
+by the needs of a modern industrial state. This aim was to be achieved
+by granting a larger degree of autonomy to individual enterprises
+while, at the same time, maintaining and even strengthening the
+directing role of the central plan. The prolonged and intensive
+discussion engendered by the PCR decision has brought to light many
+flaws and proposals for change but has not provided a clear insight into
+the current planning process.
+
+Modifications of the traditional pattern have taken place as a result of
+organizational and administrative changes introduced after 1967. The
+intended adoption of a new system, however, that would take into account
+market relationships and give greater weight to the needs of consumers
+has been delayed by differences of views among economists and officials
+on essential elements of the system, by disagreement on the nature of
+such basic concepts as productivity, economic efficiency, and profit,
+and by the need for a prior reform of the price system. A draft of a new
+planning law was reported to be in preparation toward the end of 1971.
+
+As a means of decentralizing planning and mastering the intractable
+supply problem, the task of coordinating requirements with supplies was
+delegated to the centrals (see Glossary), trusts, and other enterprise
+associations and, ultimately, to the enterprises themselves by a law on
+economic contracts enacted in December 1969. Under the law, industrial
+and trade enterprises must enter into contracts with suppliers for all
+products and services needed to fulfill the tasks of the next year's
+economic plan. In theory, the demands of final consumers for consumption
+and capital goods would determine the nature of the contracts through
+all stages of production down to the producers of raw materials. This
+has not been the case in practice.
+
+Most contracts must be concluded at least six months before the
+beginning of the plan year because they are supposed to serve as the
+basis for developing the final version of the annual plan; they must
+take into account the economic tasks set for that year by the five-year
+plan. The central planning authorities formulate the ultimate annual
+plan by modifying individual contracts, where deemed necessary, in the
+light of official policies and anticipated availabilities of materials
+and other inputs. Correction of original contracts was reported to be
+essential because enterprises tended to exaggerate their true
+requirements as determined by official norms and standards. In 1970
+initial orders exceeded available resources of materials by from 20 to
+200 percent.
+
+In 1970 and 1971 a large number of inter-enterprise contracts were not
+concluded on time and, despite legal provisions for financial and other
+sanctions, thousands of contracts were not adhered to. This entailed a
+disruption of supplies and production, nonfulfillment of export
+obligations, and insufficient deliveries to the domestic market. In an
+attempt to cope with the supply problem, the Ministry of
+Technical-Material Supply and Control of the Management of Fixed Assets
+was created in September 1971--yet another example of trying to solve
+economic problems by administrative means.
+
+The final stage in the planning process, as in the past, continues to be
+the assignment to each enterprise of specific tasks bearing on all
+aspects of its operations. These tasks, generally known as plan
+indicators, spell out in minute detail such items as the production and
+investment program, the size of the labor force and the wage bill, costs
+of production, and profits. They also specify norms for the use of all
+materials, equipment, and labor and set goals for raising productivity.
+In the case of large enterprises the number of indicators runs into the
+thousands. The indicators are also used to evaluate the performance of
+enterprises in relation to the plan. The entire process has been said to
+represent the application of democratic centralism to planning.
+
+The number and type of indicators to be assigned to enterprises and
+their associations and the nature of the system of indicators best
+suited to stimulate greater efficiency and technological innovation have
+been subjects of wide-ranging and intensive debates. No clarification of
+the underlying issues, however, much less a consensus on appropriate
+measures to be undertaken, had emerged by early 1972. Officials have
+ascribed the lack of any significant progress in the planning reform to
+general inertia, organizational confusion, bureaucratic interests, and a
+reluctance on the part of many enterprise directors to assume the added
+measure of responsibility that is inherent in a greater freedom to
+exercise initiative. Most of the officials are aware, nevertheless, that
+the basic problem lies in the absence of adequate incentives. The
+reconciliation of an obligatory central plan with enterprise autonomy
+has thus far proved elusive.
+
+Planning in the field of collective agriculture has also been highly
+centralized, at least through 1971, despite measures introduced at the
+end of 1970 to reduce the number of plan indicators for individual
+farms. Detailed instructions on crop and livestock production and on the
+volume of farm products to be delivered to the state have been handed
+down to farms by higher authorities insufficiently familiar with their
+natural and economic conditions. This method of planning has entailed
+significant losses through improper use of land and other resources.
+The relatively minor relaxation of central controls beginning in 1971
+was intended to eliminate this waste. The extent to which central
+controls over farming operations were retained even after the announced
+decentralization of agricultural planning was illustrated by the Grand
+National Assembly's enactment of a law toward the end of 1971 concerning
+correct methods of producing and using livestock fodder. Information on
+the method of planning for state farms was not available.
+
+
+PRICE SYSTEM
+
+As in all centrally directed economies, prices are set by the
+government. In 1967 the National Party Conference called for a reform of
+the price system on the grounds that the prevailing prices failed to
+ensure the desired balance in economic development or to promote greater
+efficiency in production and foreign trade. After four years of
+intensive debate, a new price law was enacted in December 1971.
+Preliminary information on the provisions of the law indicated that
+prices would continue to be fixed by the government, although the method
+of calculating them had been modified. In contrast to the announced
+policy of decentralizing economic management, the law provided for
+strengthening central controls over prices.
+
+Until March 1970 there was no unified control over prices. The State
+Planning Committee and the Ministry of Finance administered industrial
+wholesale prices, and the State Committee for Prices had jurisdiction
+over prices of consumer goods and government procurement prices for farm
+products. In 1970 the reorganized State Committee for Prices was given
+authority to control all prices. Representation on the committee has
+been provided for the State Planning Committee; the ministries of
+finance, domestic trade, and foreign trade; the Central Statistical
+Bureau; and the Central Council of the General Union of Trade Unions.
+Participation by delegates from economic ministries and other organs is
+to be ensured at all sessions in which problems of interest to them are
+brought up for discussion.
+
+The basic criticism leveled against the price system concerned its
+tendency to undermine the government's drive for economic efficiency
+through the failure of prices to reflect production costs, improper
+relationships among prices, and price inflexibility. A comprehensive,
+unified approach to price reform was considered beyond the capability of
+the authorities; a piecemeal approach of dealing separately with
+different types of prices was therefore decided upon. Priority in this
+program was given to the improvement of industrial wholesale prices.
+
+Wholesale prices for industrial products have been based on average
+costs for each product in the relevant industrial branch. Prices have
+therefore been profitable for enterprises having below-average costs,
+whereas enterprises with costs above the average have had to rely upon
+state subsidies for continued operation. Wholesale prices were last
+fixed in 1963, and subsequent changes in technology and other aspects of
+production magnified the dissociation of prices and costs. For political
+reasons and because of general shortages the closing of uneconomic
+enterprises was not considered feasible. Maintenance of fixed prices
+over long periods of time has been deemed essential for purposes of
+planning.
+
+Under the prevailing price system, which assured high profits to many
+enterprises and provided subsidies for unprofitable ones, there was no
+incentive for enterprises to reduce costs. This tendency was reinforced
+by the methods used to calculate costs and prices. The fact that cost
+calculations did not include any charges for rent or capital induced
+waste in the use of land and equipment. Prices included an element of
+planned profit determined as a percentage of cost. In the price-setting
+procedure it was therefore advantageous for enterprises to overstate
+actual costs. This practice has been widely prevalent in fixing prices
+for new products.
+
+Prices for raw materials, including products of the extractive
+industries and agriculture, were generally set below the cost of
+production. This policy has been responsible for a wasteful use of many
+materials in manufacturing. A price discrepancy also served to negate
+the official fuel policy. Efforts to increase the use of coal in
+electric power production were frustrated by the relatively much lower
+price for natural gas. This led some economists to advocate that prices
+for fuels be based on their caloric content. The price system has also
+been reported to have produced various other inimical results, such as
+inhibiting innovation and rewarding the continued production of obsolete
+goods.
+
+Procurement prices for farm products have been deliberately kept low in
+relation to industrial prices; prices for farm requisites and consumer
+goods, on the other hand, have been fixed far above cost through the
+medium of a turnover tax channeled into the budget. In this manner the
+price system has served to transfer resources from agriculture to
+industry and to keep consumption low for the benefit of investment.
+
+Pending the completion of price reform legislation, a provisional
+measure was adopted in 1970 to lower wholesale prices for export goods
+and to reduce excess profits through a so-called regularization tax on
+domestic sales of the main products manufactured by state industry. The
+measure involved a recalculation of wholesale prices, based on the
+average cost of products within an industrial branch and a profit
+allowance of only 10 percent of cost. The difference between the
+recalculated prices and those in effect at the time was to be channeled
+into the budget by the tax. In the case of high-cost producers who would
+suffer losses under this procedure, the profit margin included in the
+price could be raised to a maximum of 15 percent. The new price measure
+put pressure on enterprises to lower the cost of production.
+
+The comprehensive new law on prices for goods and services that will
+come into effect in March 1972 will have no immediate impact on prices.
+On the basis of criteria outlined in the law and upon approval by the
+State Committee for Prices, economic ministries, central government
+agencies, collectives, and other public organizations are supposed first
+to issue norms for establishing and correlating prices within the areas
+of their respective jurisdictions, in accordance with the specific
+conditions of each producing branch, subbranch, or group of enterprises
+and the specific features of each product and service.
+
+The law makes provision for fixed and ceiling prices. Both types of
+prices may be either uniform or differentiated. Uniform prices will
+apply throughout the entire country and will be applicable to the main
+products and to services of major importance to the economy and the
+standard of living. Differentiated prices for a product may be set at
+various levels depending upon territorial or seasonal factors and the
+nature of the producers or buyers. These provisions will also apply to
+agricultural procurement prices.
+
+As in the past, uniform wholesale prices will be based on pre-calculated
+average costs for each product at branch level. For the first time,
+however, cost will also include taxes on capital and land (interest and
+rent) and expenditures for the introduction of new technology. An
+important change will also be made in determining the profit element of
+the wholesale price. In the future the planned profit level for
+enterprises, differentiated by branch and subbranch, will be calculated
+in relation to the fixed and circulating capital employed rather than in
+relation to cost.
+
+The new law also contains provisions for pricing imports and exports and
+for establishing retail prices of consumer goods. Retail prices will
+include a profit for the trade organization and a variable turnover tax
+applied to the wholesale price. The tax is to be relatively low on goods
+produced for children and high on those manufactured in small quantities
+and on luxury products. Changes in retail prices may be made only in
+the light of planned provisions for the real income of the population.
+
+Authority to set prices and control over the implementation of price
+policy will be shifted from the Council of Ministers to the Council of
+State and the Grand National Assembly. The Council of State will make
+decisions not only concerning general price levels and price changes but
+also about specific prices for products and services of particular
+importance to the economy and the standard of living and on prices of
+products earmarked exclusively for the defense sector. In an effort to
+ensure a uniform price policy under a decentralized process of price
+fixing, the law spells out the responsibilities of all entities
+concerned with pricing, from the Council of State down to the individual
+enterprise. Jurisdiction over prices for products and services is to be
+allocated among the various sectors and levels of the economy, and the
+State Committee for Prices will be responsible for the correct
+application of the law.
+
+In order to prevent further abuses in the formulation and changing of
+prices, a state price control inspectorate is to be created within the
+State Committee for Prices with power to supervise price control
+agencies in each county. Penalties for infractions of trade regulations
+have been increased to 2,000 lei, and persons guilty of price
+irregularities will be subject to prosecution under sections of the
+penal code on profiteering and fraud, which provide for imprisonment of
+from six months to seven years.
+
+The intricacy of price formulation, the complexity of the price law
+(which contains 157 paragraphs), and disagreement among officials about
+the efficacy of some of the law's provisions suggest that the new
+measure may not be the final answer to the country's price problems. The
+determination of the authorities to retain firm control over prices and
+not to allow market forces to play any significant role in price
+determination, however, was made clear in a statement by the chairman of
+the State Committee for Prices to the effect that the building of
+socialism cannot be directed by transferring the leadership and
+decisionmaking to some self-regulating mechanism or to instruments that
+cannot be controlled.
+
+
+BUDGET
+
+The annual state budgets are more comprehensive than budgets in Western
+countries because they also cover economic activities that are the
+province of private enterprise in the West. Information on the manner in
+which budgets are formulated is not available, except that they are
+closely related to the annual economic plans and are prepared under the
+direction of the Ministry of Finance. Budgets must be approved by the
+Council of Ministers, the PCR, and the Grand National Assembly. The
+consolidated budget is divided into a central and a local budget; the
+local budget is roughly one-fifth the size of the central budget.
+
+Official statistics on the budget are deficient in that only summary
+data are published on the major elements of revenue and expenditures and
+the source of one-third or more of the revenue is not disclosed. The
+published data show a small budgetary surplus each year, regardless of
+the vicissitudes of the economy and unforeseen emergency outlays.
+Information is not available on budgetary performance in 1970, when the
+country suffered a disastrous flood. In the planned budgets for 1971 and
+1972 revenues and expenditures were perfectly balanced.
+
+Budgetary revenues increased steadily from about 58 billion lei in 1960
+to 147 billion lei in 1969, and expenditures rose correspondingly from
+about 55 billion lei to 143 billion lei. The budgets for 1971 and 1972
+were planned to balance at a little more than 138 billion lei and 152
+billion lei, respectively. Reasons for the decline in the size of the
+1971 budget, the only decline reported in at least a decade, are not
+known.
+
+A turnover tax levied on consumer goods, farm products, and farm
+supplies and a profit on the income of economic enterprises and
+organizations constitute the main sources of budgetary revenue. The
+relative importance of the two levies changed after 1966; the yield from
+the profit tax approached that from the turnover tax in 1967 and grew
+relatively larger in 1968 and 1969. Together, these two levies accounted
+for from 50 to 56 percent of the annual revenues. Direct taxes on the
+population yielded close to 6 percent from 1960 to 1969, except that in
+the first and last years of that period their proportion approached 7
+percent. The magnitude of direct taxes does not reflect the real tax
+burden borne by the population, because the population ultimately pays
+both the turnover and the profit tax through higher prices of consumer
+goods.
+
+Financing the national economy absorbed an average of 64.6 percent of
+annual expenditure in the first half of the 1960s and 68.3 percent in
+the second half of the decade. At the same time the proportion of
+outlays for social and cultural purposes declined from an average of
+24.9 percent to 23.2 percent, although the absolute amount of these
+outlays more than doubled. Expenditures for defense declined from 6.1
+percent of total outlays in 1960 to 4.4 percent in 1969.
+
+
+BANKING
+
+The banking system operative in early 1972 was the end product of
+several institutional reorganizations, the last of which was completed
+in May 1971. The main purpose of the reorganizations was to make bank
+credit a more effective tool for promoting economic development and for
+controlling the operations of economic enterprises and organizations.
+Control through credit extension has been officially considered an
+important means for inducing enterprises and trusts to attain the
+targets of the economic plans. Little information is available on the
+banks' operations beyond the formal statement of their functions. Data
+relating to the money supply and foreign exchange reserves have also
+been kept secret.
+
+
+Banking Institutions
+
+The banking system consists of the National Bank of the Romanian
+Socialist Republic (referred to as the National Bank), the Investment
+Bank, the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank, the Bank for Agriculture and the
+Food Industry, and the Savings and Loan Bank. The functions of the
+Romanian Foreign Trade Bank and of the Bank for Agriculture and the Food
+Industry had been exercised to a more limited extent by the National
+Bank until 1968. The Economy and Consignment Fund, a department of the
+Savings and Loan Bank, makes credit available for the construction of
+privately owned housing--a function exercised by the Investment Bank
+until the end of 1969. Information on the interrelations between the
+specialized banks and the National Bank or between the banks and the
+Ministry of Finance was not available in early 1972.
+
+The National Bank, as reconstituted in December 1970 with a
+capitalization of 1 billion lei, is the country's central bank of issue,
+but it also acts as a banker for the government, a bankers' banker for
+the specialized financial institutions, and a short-term credit and
+discount agency for economic organizations. The main functions of the
+National Bank in the field of domestic finance include: the issue of
+currency and control over its circulation; management of the budgetary
+cash resources; coordination of all short-term credit and discount
+activities; and participation in the formulation of annual and five-year
+credit and cash plans, jointly with the State Planning Committee and the
+Ministry of Finance.
+
+The National Bank establishes official foreign exchange rates, engages
+in foreign exchange operations directly or through the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank and other authorized organizations, and participates in
+working out the balance of foreign payments and in following up on its
+execution. The National Bank also controls the production, processing,
+and use of precious metals and gems and, together with the State
+Planning Committee and the Ministry of Finance, develops plans for their
+acquisition and allocation at home and abroad. The bank has exclusive
+authority to purchase from individuals items made of precious metals or
+stones and items of artistic, historic, or documentary value.
+
+The National Bank is managed by an administrative council, the members
+of which must be approved by the Council of Ministers upon the
+recommendation of the bank's governor, who is also chairman of the
+administrative council. In addition to the chairman, the administrative
+council includes several vice presidents of the bank; the directors of
+the bank's fourteen divisions; superintendents of some of the
+subordinated units; delegates of the management of the Investment Bank,
+the Bank for Agriculture and the Food Industry, and the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank; experienced specialists from the bank's professional staff
+and from the outside; and a delegate of the labor unions, designated by
+the General Union of Trade Unions. The council as a whole and each
+individual member are responsible to the Council of Ministers for the
+entire activity of the bank.
+
+The Investment Bank, created in 1948 and last reorganized in September
+1971 with a capitalization of 700 million lei, serves to finance, and
+exercise control over, investment projects of all state, collective,
+consumer-cooperative, and other public organizations, with the exception
+of collective farms and organizations subordinate to the Ministry of
+Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters. The control powers of the bank
+extend not only to projects financed with its own resources but also to
+projects financed through budgetary allocations and out of enterprise
+profits. The bank's management is organized along the lines of the
+administrative council of the National Bank.
+
+The Investment Bank must participate in the preparation of draft plans
+for the financing of all investment projects undertaken by central and
+local state organizations from the ministerial down to the enterprise
+level. During the formulation and implementation of these plans the bank
+must ensure the most economical use of available resources. The bank is
+also called upon to determine appropriate rates of depreciation for
+fixed assets and to ensure that the required amortization payments to
+the budget are made on time.
+
+Two of the bank's main functions are the review of technical and
+economic investment criteria submitted to it for approval by ministries
+and other state agencies and the evaluation of the feasibility of
+proposed investment projects on the basis of accepted standards; the
+more important of these standards also require approval by the Council
+of Ministers. Approval may be granted by the bank only for investment
+projects that satisfy all legal requirements regarding need,
+suitability, and adherence to prescribed norms; have an adequate raw
+materials base and assured sales outlets; and serve to improve the
+economic performance of the organization that undertakes the investment.
+In the event of disagreement between the bank and the organization
+seeking investment approval, appeal may be made to higher authorities.
+
+The Romanian Foreign Trade Bank was established in July 1968. Its
+principal functions are to facilitate exports and, through strict
+controls over exchange allocations, to encourage import substitution by
+domestic producers. In 1970 about 73 percent of the bank's credits were
+devoted to exports, and only 21 percent were granted for imports. The
+remaining 6 percent of the credits were used to finance internal
+transport.
+
+In July 1971 the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank and a group of eight French
+financial institutions opened the Romanian-French Bank in Paris. This
+bank was organized as a private limited-liability company with a capital
+of 20 million French francs underwritten in equal parts by the Romanian
+Foreign Trade Bank and the French bankers. In the second half of 1971
+the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank acquired affiliates in London and Rome.
+
+The Bank for Agriculture and the Food Industry was created in May 1971
+by expanding the functions and changing the name of the Agricultural
+Bank established three years earlier. This reorganization followed the
+consolidation of previously independent ministries into the Ministry of
+Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters (referred to as the Ministry of
+Agriculture). The bank was capitalized at 500 million lei and was
+required to create a reserve out of profits equal to the amount of its
+capitalization. The bank's function is to provide investment and
+operating credits for enterprises under the jurisdiction of the Ministry
+of Agriculture, including collective farms, and to finance the
+distribution of their products within the country.
+
+A few summary data on credits extended by the Bank for Agriculture and
+the Food Industry to collective farms have been released to the
+country's press in an obvious effort to publicize official concern for
+this important but neglected farm sector (see ch. 15). Information on
+other aspects of this bank's operations have not been disclosed.
+
+The Savings and Loan Bank, an institution nationalized at an early stage
+of communist rule, had 1,560 branches and agencies in 1971, most of
+which were located in rural areas. The main function of the bank has
+been to mobilize the cash resources of the population for investment,
+through obligatory periodic transfers of deposited funds to the National
+Bank. In the 1966-70 period subsidiary functions of the bank gained in
+importance, including small-scale commercial bank transactions, personal
+loans, and tax collections. Receipts from personal savings deposits
+accounted for 70 percent of total cash receipts in 1970. Since the
+beginning of 1970 the bank has also made loans for private housing
+construction.
+
+The schedule of payments to the National Bank has been sufficiently
+stringent to induce the Savings and Loan Bank to mount special
+educational programs for attracting savings, particularly in rural
+areas, and to seek ways of stimulating cash collections from its other
+activities. To this end the bank is giving special attention to finding
+more effective means for identifying cash reserves held by the
+population. One avenue the bank has been exploring is to gain greater
+knowledge of the timing of income receipts and of the uses to which
+incomes are put.
+
+The volume of savings has been steadily mounting; it rose at an average
+annual rate of more than 20 percent in the 1966-70 period and was 2.5
+times larger at the period's end than at its beginning. In 1970, 13.6
+percent of the population's cash income was deposited in savings
+accounts, compared to 5.8 percent in 1960. More than 65 percent of the
+population's cash assets in 1970 were on deposit in savings accounts, as
+against 56.6 percent five years earlier. Under the economic plan for the
+1971-75 period, savings deposits of the Savings and Loan Bank are
+scheduled to increase by 87 percent--the equivalent of an annual 13.4
+percent growth rate. An important reason for the growth of savings has
+been a general shortage of consumer goods.
+
+Loans granted by the Savings and Loan Bank for private housing
+construction in 1970 amounted to 2.1 billion lei. In 1971 the bank
+planned to provide construction loans totaling 2.9 billion lei.
+Information on other bank transactions has not been published.
+
+
+Credit Policy
+
+Interest rates do not reflect the scarcity of money or the element of
+risk. They are used by the government as one of the economic levers
+intended to motivate enterprises toward greater efficiency. In 1969 the
+average rate for short-term operating credits was 2.9 percent; actual
+rates ranged from less than 1 percent to a level far above the average.
+New regulations issued about mid-1970 raised the interest rates,
+established greater uniformity among them, and introduced a
+differentiation among penalty rates based on the length of time that
+repayments remain in arrears or credits in excess of those planned are
+used. As a result of these measures, National Bank officials expected
+the average rate of interest to rise to 3.8 percent.
+
+A uniform interest rate of 5 percent was established on all operating
+credits for inventory and production purposes in economic sectors other
+than agriculture. Preferential rates for artisans' collectives were
+abolished on the grounds that the collectives had received enough state
+support in the past to place them on an equal footing with state
+enterprises with regard to credit. A rate of 3 percent was continued on
+credits used in the distribution of goods. Interest rates of 4 percent
+and 2 percent, respectively, were established for state and collective
+farms.
+
+The government attaches great importance to the penalty feature of the
+credit system, which allows it to discriminate between efficient
+enterprises that find themselves in temporary difficulties and
+enterprises that are poorly managed. Enterprises that require operating
+funds in excess of those prescribed by officially determined norms or
+are unable to repay credits on time must pay progressively higher
+interest rates. Excess and overdue credits carry an interest rate of up
+to 10 percent for the first three months and up to 12 percent for the
+next three months. Enterprises in the second stage are subject to a
+searching examination by a committee of experts and may be denied
+further credits. Information is lacking on the procedures followed in
+the case of enterprises that would be declared bankrupt in a Western
+economy.
+
+According to a National Bank official, the new credit regulations were
+to be rigorously applied in order to combat a rising trend in the volume
+of overdue credits that became apparent in the first half of 1970. The
+credit and interest policies were to be applied in a manner that would
+protect the economy from the bad effects of mismanagement and that would
+place the onus only on poorly run enterprises. This task was said to
+demand a high level of competence from those called upon to resolve the
+difficult problems of the enterprises.
+
+
+CURRENCY
+
+The currency unit of the country is the leu (plural, lei), divided into
+100 bani. It is nonconvertible and usable only within the country. The
+leu is officially defined to contain 148.112 milligrams of fine gold, so
+that 5.53 lei are equivalent to US$1. This basic rate of exchange became
+effective on December 23, 1971, in the wake of the agreement reached by
+the United States with other major Western trading nations to devalue
+the American dollar; before that date the rate was 6 lei per US$1. The
+basic rate is used in foreign trade accounting and is also applicable to
+nonresident accounts created by a transfer of foreign currencies into
+Romania.
+
+A wide range of official noncommercial or tourist exchange rates is in
+effect for residents of other communist countries. These rates vary from
+about one-third to more than double the basic rate. Tourist rates for
+noncommunist country currencies embody a bonus of 189 percent over the
+basic rate, making 16 lei equivalent to US$1. In addition to the
+official exchange rates there are at least thirty-seven semiofficial
+rates resulting from seven multilateral trade and payments agreements
+with members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
+thirty bilateral agreements with other communist and noncommunist
+states.
+
+The state has a monopoly of foreign exchange. Control over currency and
+foreign exchange is vested in the National Bank and administered by the
+bank jointly with the Ministry of Finance and the Romanian Foreign Trade
+Bank. All foreign exchange realized by state agencies from exports and
+other foreign operations must be surrendered to the Romanian Foreign
+Trade Bank, which also controls all exchange expenditures abroad.
+
+Transferability of funds by private individuals is strictly limited.
+Only 15 to 30 percent of inheritances, royalties, pensions, and support
+payments derived from abroad may be used or retransferred; from 70 to 85
+percent of the sums received must be surrendered at the tourist rate of
+exchange. Residents may send small amounts and get travel allocations to
+COMECON and some Western countries. Most currency transactions by
+individuals with residents in Western states are prohibited. Residents
+may not own foreign currencies or securities or have bank balances
+abroad without official permission, nor may they import or export
+Romanian banknotes. They are forbidden to own or trade in gold, to
+export jewelry and diamonds, and to engage in foreign merchandise trade.
+
+Controls over financial transactions by state agencies in domestic
+currency and foreign exchange were tightened by a decree issued in
+September 1971. A companion decree also provided for much stricter
+border controls over foreign exchange, precious metals, and jewelry
+carried by individuals entering or leaving the country. Violations were
+more precisely defined, and penalties were substantially increased to
+discourage illegal traffic.
+
+
+FOREIGN TRADE
+
+Foreign trade is of crucial importance to the country's industrial
+development because imports must be relied upon for a large part of the
+requirements for materials and equipment. Trade has been expanding at a
+rapid rate, and imports have been growing faster than exports. In a bid
+for economic and political independence from the Soviet Union, the
+country's leadership succeeded in reorienting a substantial portion of
+its trade toward the industrial nations of Western Europe during the
+mid-1960s (see ch. 10). After 1967, however, the inability to generate
+enough exports salable in Western markets to balance imports forced the
+country to turn increasingly to the Soviet Union and other Eastern
+European countries for its import needs.
+
+Foreign trade is a state monopoly. Trade policy is established by the
+PCR and the government, and its implementation is the responsibility of
+the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Authority to engage in foreign trade
+operations has been partially decentralized by a law enacted in March
+1971, although initial steps in this direction were taken under
+administrative regulations in the beginning of 1970. The main purpose of
+the law has been to raise the efficiency of foreign trade and to help
+expand exports. These ends are to be attained through greater exposure
+of domestic producers to international competition and by providing
+incentives for them to meet it. The law was also intended to create
+favorable conditions in the country for the establishment of industrial
+enterprises with foreign participation.
+
+Before the adoption of the trade reform law, only specialized foreign
+trade enterprises directly subordinated to the Ministry of Foreign Trade
+were empowered to carry on trade activities. Producing enterprises were
+completely divorced from foreign buyers. They delivered their export
+goods to the foreign trade enterprises at domestic prices, without
+knowing to whom or at what price the goods were sold abroad. Imports
+were also obtainable only through foreign trade enterprises at domestic
+prices, regardless of their acquisition cost. Foreign trade losses were
+covered out of the state budget, and enterprises assumed no risk
+whatever in foreign trade transactions. Producing enterprises had no
+interest in marketing their output abroad or in making their products
+competitive in world markets; neither were they interested in using
+domestic substitutes to avoid the need for imports.
+
+Under the new law authority to engage in foreign trade has been granted
+to some of the industrial ministries, trusts, and enterprises. Others
+must continue to trade through foreign trade enterprises. The delegation
+of authority has not involved a transfer of basic decisionmaking powers,
+and the continuance of central control is therefore assured. All trade
+must be conducted in accordance with binding state plans and guidelines
+issued by the minister of foreign trade. Every transaction requires
+approval by the Ministry of Foreign Trade in the form of an import or
+export license. Central controls have also been retained over foreign
+exchange and over export and import prices. The main advantage of the
+new regulation lies in the opportunity it provides for producers to
+develop direct customer relations, thus enabling them to learn at first
+hand the preferences of buyers and the nature of the competition they
+must face. It also encourages them to exercise initiative in seeking out
+potential customers.
+
+Under the law production for export must be given priority. Failure by
+economic units to discharge their export obligations adversely affects
+their profits, even if they meet their total output target, because in
+these circumstances the production plan is considered underfulfilled by
+the value of the undelivered exports. This provision applies equally to
+suppliers and subcontractors of export manufacturers. A positive
+incentive to exceed export quotas has been provided in the form of
+export bonuses. Export manufacturers, however, have a greater interest
+than their suppliers in exceeding the export plan because they are
+entitled to keep for their own use a portion of the above-plan foreign
+exchange earnings, whereas their suppliers have no opportunity to do so.
+This difference of interests has been interpreted by foreign observers
+as a weakness in the law, in that it may hamper manufacturers' efforts
+to maximize export production because the requisite supplies and
+components may not be forthcoming.
+
+The decentralization of foreign trade activities necessarily entails an
+increased need for well-qualified specialists in foreign trade and
+international finance, both at home and abroad. The shortage of experts
+in these fields is to be alleviated through an intensive personnel
+training program.
+
+Western economists believe the new law to be a step in the right
+direction in that it promotes an orientation of the economy toward
+exports. They hold the view, however, also shared by some Romanian
+economists, that, as long as the country's currency remains
+nonconvertible and prices fail to reflect the relative scarcity of
+goods, it will not be possible properly to calculate the profitability
+of foreign trade nor to improve the structure of the trade on the basis
+of such a calculation.
+
+In the 1960-70 period the annual trade turnover increased by 2.8 times
+to a volume of 22,8 billion lei. Exports rose at an average annual rate
+of 10 percent to 11.1 billion lei, and imports grew by 11.7 percent per
+year to 11.7 billion lei. From 1965 to 1970 the rise in trade was more
+rapid; the rates of growth were 11 percent for exports and 12.7 percent
+for imports.
+
+Although trade relations were officially reported to have expanded from
+twenty-nine countries in 1960 to 110 countries in 1970, the bulk of the
+trade was carried on with members of COMECON and the industrial
+countries of Western Europe (see table 6). Only 15 percent of the trade
+in 1970 involved countries outside these areas. Between 1960 and 1967
+trade with COMECON members increased by little more than half, whereas
+trade with Western so-called capitalist countries rose almost fourfold.
+The difference was even more marked in the case of imports from the
+West, which increased ninefold, so that imports from this area in 1967
+were larger than imports from COMECON. The trend was reversed after
+1967, mainly because of increasing balance of payments difficulties with
+Western trade partners.
+
+With a turnover of 5.5 billion lei in 1969, the Soviet Union has been by
+far the most important of Romania's trading partners. Czechoslovakia and
+the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) were next in importance
+within COMECON, with a trade volume of 1.5 billion and 1.2 billion lei,
+respectively, in 1969. Among trading partners in Western Europe, West
+Germany occupied first place, with a trade volume of almost 1.8 billion
+lei, followed by Italy with a volume of 1.2 billion lei and France with
+0.9 billion lei. The People's Republic of China has been the main
+communist trading partner outside Europe, with an annual volume of about
+0.5 billion lei in 1968 and 1969.
+
+_Table 6._ _Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960 and
+1969_ (in millions of lei)[1]
+
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                    1960[2]                    1969[2]
+                          -------------------------  ------------------------
+ Country Group             Exports  Imports  Total    Exports  Imports  Total
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Western industrial states    918      913   1,831     2,980    4,432   7,412
+ COMECON[3]                 2,821    2,636   5,458     5,042    4,819   9,862
+ Other communist states       318      206     524       781      506   1,286
+ Developing countries         245      131     376       996      686   1,682
+                            -----    -----   ------    -----   ------  ------
+ Total                      4,302    3,887   8,189     9,799   10,443  20,242
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1: For value of leu, see Glossary.
+  2: Totals may not add because of rounding.
+  3: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.
+  Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of
+  Technical Services, Joint Publications Research Service--JPRS
+  Series (Washington), _Translations on Eastern Europe: Economic
+  and Scientific Affairs_, "Foreign Trade Reform Analyzed,"
+  _Vierteljahresshefte zur Wirtschaftsvorschung_, West Berlin,
+  July-September 1971, (JPRS 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971).
+
+Trade between Romania and the United States has been small because of
+legal restrictions in the United States against trade with communist
+countries. The trade volume doubled from about US$40 million in 1969 to
+US$80 million in 1970 but declined to about US$65 million in 1971.
+About 80 percent of the trade in 1969 and 1970 was accounted for by
+Romanian imports; in 1971 the trade was more nearly balanced. Comparable
+Romanian statistics are available only for 1969. They show a lower
+volume of trade and a smaller trade deficit. No explanation of this
+discrepancy is available.
+
+Measures to exempt Romania from the restrictions directed against trade
+with communist countries have been taken in the United States. In
+November 1971 exports to Romania were made eligible for Export-Import
+Bank financing. With support from the administration, legislation has
+been introduced in both houses of the Congress of the United States to
+accord Romania most-favored-nation treatment. Sources in the United
+States, however, believe that Romania will not be able to balance its
+trade with that country even in the event that the proposed legislation
+is enacted into law.
+
+Imports have been overwhelmingly weighted in favor of capital goods.
+Machinery and equipment, fuels, and raw and processed materials
+constituted about 90 percent of all imports in the 1960s. Manufactured
+consumer goods accounted for from 5 to 7 percent of imports. Raw and
+processed food products made up the small balance. Machinery and
+equipment, including plant installations, were the major single import
+category; the share of machinery and equipment in total imports rose
+from about 33 percent in 1960 to 49 percent in 1967 but declined to 44
+percent in 1969 because of payments difficulties. Imported machinery and
+equipment covered about 30 percent of requirements in 1970.
+
+Exports in the 1960s consisted mainly of raw and processed materials and
+foodstuffs, about equally divided between products of agricultural and
+industrial origin. As a result of progressive industrialization, the
+proportion of these products in total exports declined from about 78
+percent in 1960 to 63 percent in 1969. During the same period the share
+of machinery and equipment rose from about 17 to 22 percent, and that of
+manufactured consumer goods increased from about 6 to 16 percent.
+Official foreign trade policy is directed toward increasing the
+proportion of processed goods in total exports.
+
+In the 1960-70 period the annual balance of trade was negative, with the
+exception of the years 1960 and 1965. The cumulative trade deficit at
+the end of 1970 amounted to about 5.1 billion lei--the equivalent of
+about US$850 million. The overall deficit, however, obscured the
+severity of the foreign exchange problem facing the country. Trade with
+the communist and developing countries during the period produced an
+export surplus that offset, in part, the deficit with Western trading
+partners. This surplus, however, could not be used to reduce foreign
+indebtedness because it did not generate hard currency earnings. The
+cumulative hard currency trade deficit with the West reached US$1.2
+billion in 1969 and an estimated US$1.5 billion in 1970.
+
+Information on the country's balance of payments has been kept secret,
+so that it is impossible to know how the trade deficit has been
+financed. Hard currency receipts from tourism, which could be applied
+toward repayment of the debt, equaled only a fraction of the annual
+trade deficit. Western sources estimated Romania's indebtedness to her
+Western industrial trading partners to have risen from about US$300
+million in 1966 to US$800 million in 1968 and to have increased further
+by 1970.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 15
+
+AGRICULTURE
+
+
+As a result of the government's industrialization policy, the relative
+importance of agriculture in the economy has declined. During the decade
+of the 1960s the contribution of agriculture to national income, in
+terms of arbitrarily established official prices, dropped from about 30
+to 20 percent, even though half the working population continued to be
+employed on farms and farm output was gradually rising. The growth in
+output, however, did not keep pace with official plans, mainly because
+of a lack of income incentives for farmers under the government's low
+farm-price policy and because of inadequate investment and fertilizer
+inputs. The farm problem has been exacerbated by the generally low
+qualifications of the farm labor force and by the prevalence of
+widespread underemployment.
+
+Various revisions in agricultural organization and methods of
+compensation made from 1968 to 1971 did not produce any marked
+improvement by the end of that period. The failure of agricultural
+output, including livestock products, to advance according to plans
+created economic difficulties by depriving the country of potential
+exports urgently needed to pay for industrial imports. It has also
+hampered the improvement of the population's protein-deficient diet.
+Substantial advances in all phases of agriculture are planned for the
+1971-75 period. In the light of past experience, attainment of the
+established goals is uncertain. The full production potential of
+agriculture remains largely unexploited.
+
+
+AGRICULTURAL REGIONS
+
+Natural conditions are generally favorable for agricultural development.
+A varied topography has produced diversified regional weather and soil
+conditions. The climate is basically continental, with warm summers and
+cold winters, but the growing season is relatively long--from 180 to 210
+days.
+
+The amount of precipitation fluctuates from year to year, which results
+in recurrent droughts. Rainfall averages about twenty-five inches,
+ranging from only fifteen inches on the Dobruja plateau to forty inches
+in the mountainous regions. In the principal farming regions, annual
+precipitation averages about twenty-three inches in the fertile
+southern plain but dips below twenty inches in the hilly regions of
+Moldavia in the northeastern part of the country. Moisture is generally
+sufficient during the spring growing period (see ch. 3).
+
+Soils vary from mountain-type soils to heavy, relatively infertile
+podzolic soils in the plateaus and rich chernozem (black earth) soils in
+the plains. About 20 percent of the agricultural land is of the
+chernozem type. Alluvial soils cover the flood plains of the Danube
+River.
+
+Topography and climate divide the country into five agricultural zones,
+the most important of which is Walachia. Walachia includes the rich
+southern plains, where half the country's grain is grown. Almost half
+the vineyards and orchards are located in the foothills surrounding the
+plains. Vegetable production is also important in this area, especially
+near the city of Bucharest. Despite the fertility of this region's
+soils, production in Walachia fluctuates because of recurrent summer
+droughts.
+
+Transylvania, the largely mountainous region in the central and
+northwestern parts of the country, receives substantial rainfall but has
+relatively infertile soils. Livestock production predominates on the
+mountain pastures and meadows. Grain and potatoes are the major crops in
+the central basin.
+
+Moldavia in northeastern Romania has generally poor soils and receives
+scant rainfall. Corn is the main crop in this zone, followed by wheat
+and potatoes.
+
+The Banat region on the country's western border has the most favorable
+natural conditions for agriculture. Chernozem soils predominate, and the
+seasonal distribution of rainfall is more propitious than in Walachia.
+Grain, primarily wheat, is the principal crop; fruits and vegetables are
+also important.
+
+The Dobruja plateau in southwestern Romania is the country's least
+important farming area. Although soils are generally fertile,
+cultivation is limited by inadequate rainfall. Grain, sunflowers, and
+legumes are grown in this area.
+
+To combat the destructive effects of recurrent droughts, a large-scale
+program of irrigation was undertaken by the government. Execution of the
+program, however, has consistently lagged behind the plans.
+
+
+LAND USE
+
+In 1970 agricultural land comprised almost 37 million acres (63 percent
+of the country), about two-thirds of which was arable. The balance was
+devoted to pastures, meadows, vineyards, and orchards. During the decade
+of the 1960s substantial additions to the agricultural area were made
+through various land improvement measures. At the same time, however,
+large acreages were diverted to industrial and residential uses,
+particularly of the more valuable arable land. The net result was an
+increase in the total farmland area, mainly in orchards and pastures,
+and a decline in the arable acreage (see table 7).
+
+
+_Table 7._ _Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70[1]_ (in
+thousands of acres)
+
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                 1960      1962      1969      1970
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Agricultural Land
+   Arable                       24,268    24,515    24,146    24,050
+   Pasture                       6,953     6,924     7,426     7,420
+   Meadow                        3,427     3,447     3,506     3,499
+   Vineyard                        768       744       857       857
+   Orchard                         529       662     1,053     1,067
+     Total Agricultural Land    35,945    36,292    36,988    36,893
+                                ------    ------    ------    ------
+ Forest Land                    15,822    15,807    15,607    15,604
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1. Agricultural land by type of use and forest area.
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania_, 1970 (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 246-247.
+
+Forests occupied an area of 15,604,000 acres in 1970, the equivalent of
+about 27 percent of the country's land surface. The forest acreage
+declined slowly but steadily after 1961, for a total loss of almost
+247,000 acres.
+
+Slightly more than two-thirds of the more than 24 million acres of crop
+area in 1969 was under grains. Technical crops for industrial uses,
+consisting mainly of oilseeds and sugar beets, and fodder crops occupied
+almost one-fourth of the sown area. The remainder of less than 10
+percent was devoted to legumes, potatoes, vegetables, and melons and to
+seed-producing and experimental plots. Half the grain acreage was
+devoted to corn, which is used for food and feed by the farmers; and
+more than two-fifths was under wheat, which is the staple food of the
+urban population.
+
+The grain acreage declined in absolute and in relative terms after 1960,
+when it accounted for almost three-fourths of the sown area. All other
+major crop acreages, excluding that under sugar beets, increased during
+the 1960-69 period (see table 8). Romanian economists attributed the
+shift in the crop pattern to the government's emphasis on adapting crop
+production to the economic needs of the country and to the natural
+conditions of individual farms. A severe flood in the spring of 1970,
+the worst in the country's history, reduced the crop area by nearly 1.25
+million acres below the level of 1969.
+
+
+_Table 8._ _Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and
+1969_ (in thousands of acres)
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------
+             Crop                              1960        1969
+ --------------------------------------------------------------
+ Grain
+   Wheat                                      7,008       6,817
+   Corn                                       8,826       8,137
+   Other                                      1,626       1,263
+                                             ------      ------
+     Total                                   17,460      16,217
+   Legumes                                      381         474
+ Technical crops (for industrial uses)
+   Oleaginous                                 1,396       1,576
+   Sugar beets                                  494         445
+   Other                                        252         341
+                                             ------      ------
+     Total                                    2,142       2,362
+   Potatoes                                     722         754
+   Vegetables and melons                        516         591
+   Fodder crops                               2,711       3,356
+   Seed-producing and experimental plots        119         235
+                                             ------      ------
+        Total Cultivated Acreage             24,051      23,989
+ --------------------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania 1970_, (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 306-307.
+
+Encroachment by builders upon agricultural and, more particularly,
+arable land was facilitated by the government's policy, pursued until
+the spring of 1968, of treating land as a free good and assigning no
+value to it in calculating the cost of industrial and housing investment
+projects. Arable land was especially attractive to builders because it
+required no expenditure for leveling.
+
+In an attempt to prevent further waste of valuable farmland, a law for
+the protection and conservation of agricultural land was passed in May
+1968. The law prohibited the diversion of farm acreages to
+nonagricultural uses, with the exception of special cases which,
+depending upon the nature and location of the land involved, required
+the approval of either the Council of State, the Council of Ministers,
+or the Superior Council of Agriculture (a government agency that
+functioned in lieu of a ministry for several years). Nonagricultural
+state organizations that held land that they could not cultivate were
+obligated to surrender it without payment to neighboring state or
+collective farms.
+
+The conservation law enjoined socialized (collective and state) farms
+and private farmers to put all land to optimum use; called for a review
+of the building code to reduce the land areas allowed to individual
+construction projects; provided for the inclusion of the value of land
+in construction costs; and spelled out various other measures to
+safeguard and improve agricultural land. The law also directed the
+establishment of a land register, excluding lands of the socialized
+farms, to facilitate stricter controls over the remaining private
+farmers, who held 9.2 percent of the agricultural land and 4.6 percent
+of the arable acreage.
+
+Heavy fines and criminal penalties, including imprisonment up to one
+year, were provided for infringements of the conservation law by
+enterprises and individuals. During the first year of the law's
+operation, fines were also to be imposed upon holders of uncultivated
+arable land, of improperly maintained orchards and vineyards, and of
+meadows and pastures on which maintenance work did not comply with
+agrotechnical rules. Like the establishment of the land register, this
+provision was also aimed at private farmers. A further provision stated
+that lands on which the described conditions continued after the first
+year were to be assigned to socialized farms for cultivation. The
+transferred land could be subsequently restored to the original owners
+under conditions prescribed by the Superior Council of Agriculture. The
+effect of the punitive regulations on private farm property was not
+apparent from the official statistics for 1968 and 1969.
+
+Shortly after the adoption of the conservation law, the deputy chairman
+of the State Committee for Construction, Architecture, and
+Systematization published an article in which he stated that mere
+administrative regulations by the committee and the Superior Council of
+Agriculture could not ensure the proper use of land, particularly on the
+collective farms. He called for the development of appropriate economic
+levers based on an adaptation of "the systems that limit land waste in
+some capitalistic markets." This official's concern about the efficacy
+of the new legislation was well based. By 1970 the arable acreage had
+declined by 158,000 acres, at an average annual rate more than half
+again as large as the annual losses during the 1962-68 period.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION
+
+Collective and state farms are the principal types of farm organization
+(see table 9). Substantial areas of state agricultural land are also
+operated as subsidiary farms by various industrial and other economic
+organizations. Small private farms survive mainly in the mountainous
+regions where collectivization is impractical. In 1970 the state owned
+30 percent of the farmland, about half of which was cultivated by state
+farms. Almost 61 percent of the land belonged to collective farms,
+including 6.6 percent in plots for the personal use of their members.
+The collective farm population consisted of almost 3.5 million families,
+including more than 10 million collective members. About 9 percent of
+the farmland was in the possession of private farmers.
+
+_Table 9. Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969_ (in
+thousands of acres)
+
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                      Arable   Pasture   Meadow   Vineyard   Orchard   Total
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ State agricultural
+   units               4,959    5,545      264      148        173    11,089
+     (State farms)    (4,129)    (688)    (170)    (133)      (148)   (5,218)
+ Collective farms     18,075    1,315    1,712      682        692    22,476
+     (Private plots)  (1,969)     (20)     (54)    (262)      (121)   (2,426)
+ Private farms         1,112      566    1,530       27        188     3,423
+                      ------    -----    -----      ---      -----    ------
+     Total            24,146    7,426    3,506      857      1,053    36,988
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuaral Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, p. 253.
+
+In order to raise agricultural productivity and output, the state and
+collective farm sectors underwent frequent organizational changes, the
+latest of which went into effect in February 1971. There was not
+sufficient evidence in early 1972 on the extent to which they had been
+put into practice and even less information on their economic effects.
+
+
+Collective Farms
+
+At the beginning of 1971 there were 4,626 collective farms, officially
+called agricultural production cooperatives, comprising more than 22
+million acres of farmland, about 18 million acres of which were arable.
+Their number had declined by 1,800 through consolidation during the
+preceding decade. The farms had an average of about 750 families and
+1,000 able-bodied members each.
+
+The average acreage of collective farmland per family in 1970 amounted
+to 6.4 acres, including a private family plot of about 0.7 acres.
+Although the family plots constituted only 6.6 percent of the country's
+farmland and 8.2 percent of the arable acreage, they accounted for a
+substantially larger share in the output of various crops and livestock
+products.
+
+Information on the organization of individual collective farms and of
+the collective farm sector as a whole is inadequate, particularly with
+regard to the range of responsibilities and authority of the various
+administrative entities. The organizational framework has been
+complicated by the proliferation of new measures and regulations since
+1967. Farm operations are carried out in common, under the direction of
+an administrative and management body theoretically accountable to the
+general assembly, composed of all the members of a collective farm.
+Groups of workers are organized into so-called brigades for the
+performance of specialized tasks. The farm management includes a
+chairman, a director, a management council, brigade leaders, and trained
+technicians specialized in various aspects of farm operation.
+
+Intercooperative councils are charged with responsibility for improving
+collective farm management by initiating and coordinating cooperation on
+various levels among neighboring farms for better use of their physical
+and human resources. Collective farms are subordinated to the National
+Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives and are also subject to
+the direction of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Industry, and Waters
+(referred to as the Ministry of Agriculture) and of county authorities.
+Collective farm associations are organized for various types of
+specialized production.
+
+In theory and according to law, but not in actual practice, collective
+farms are jointly owned by their members. The ownership supposedly
+extends to the land, other productive resources, and the annual farm
+output. About 11 percent of the collective farm land, however, is
+allocated for the personal use of members, and almost half the livestock
+other than horses is individually owned. No information is available on
+the existence of any provision for the compensation of members who are
+authorized to leave the farms for employment in other sectors of the
+economy.
+
+Regulations concerning the allocation of their income by collective
+farms among investment funds and various social and other obligatory
+funds and distribution to members were modified in late 1970 or early
+1971 with a view to stimulating the members' interest in raising the
+efficiency of production. Under the old system, distribution to members
+was made from residual funds remaining after all statutory public and
+social obligations were met. The revised farm statutes authorize the
+farms' general assemblies to allocate net income in ratios ranging from
+18 to 25 percent for investment and from 75 to 82 percent for
+consumption. In actual practice, however, income distribution is
+reported to follow a somewhat different pattern, which tends to reduce
+the share available for distribution to members. The new regulations
+have not altered the generally acknowledged fact that farm incomes
+remain very low, particularly on the poorer farms.
+
+The system of remuneration for collective farmers was also modified in
+1970 with a view to strengthening work incentives. The new method
+provides for monthly payments on account, in cash and in kind, based on
+the farms' planned annual receipts and for a share of profits in excess
+of those planned. Payment to individual members is to be based on
+centrally established work norms and rates of pay for various categories
+of operations, similar to the practice in industry and construction. The
+system is intended to relate individual remuneration more closely to the
+quantity and quality of the work performed and thereby to eliminate
+inequities of the earlier method. It is also meant to provide a steady
+and assured income to all members who contribute a specified minimum of
+workdays per month. If, for reasons beyond its control, a farm's
+receipts turn out to be lower than the amount legally distributed to its
+members during the year, the shortage may be covered by a long-term bank
+credit. As a further inducement for farmers to remain on the land, their
+social security benefits, generally much lower than those of industrial
+workers, were substantially liberalized.
+
+The extent to which the new pay system has been put into practice is not
+known. Effective January 1, 1971, a minimum wage of 300 lei (for value
+of leu, see Glossary) per month was to be paid to all male farmers who
+worked regularly at least twenty days and to all women who worked
+fifteen days. A survey published by a collective farm organ in March of
+that year found that within a single county twenty-one out of twenty-two
+farms had not taken the trouble to forward the necessary documents to
+the Agricultural Bank and apply for the funds with which to pay their
+members. Various excuses were offered by the farm chairmen for their
+lack of action. The chairmen, farm directors, and brigade leaders,
+however, were reported to have taken appropriate steps to secure their
+own minimum pay.
+
+The marketing of farm products by collective farms is based on
+officially fixed prices and monopoly-buying powers of state procurement
+agencies and the food-processing industry. Products move into government
+stocks through contracts between the farms and state agencies for
+quantities specified by the government; through payments in kind for
+services rendered by agricultural mechanization stations, flour mills,
+and other specialized government agencies; and, in the case of meat and
+wool, in the form of compulsory deliveries. Any products remaining after
+the obligations to the state have been met may be sold in open markets.
+
+
+State Farms
+
+Through consolidation of 370 previously existing state agricultural
+enterprises, the farm reorganization of February 1971 created 145 larger
+enterprises subordinated to the Department of State Agriculture in the
+Ministry of Agriculture. In addition, seventy-four state agricultural
+enterprises for fattening hogs, raising poultry, and producing feeds and
+hothouse vegetables were subordinated to four specialized trusts. The
+consolidation increased the average size of the state enterprises from
+16,000 acres to 34,600 acres of farmland. The enterprises comprised
+about 3,000 state farms on an area of over 5 million acres. Romanian
+sources reported that the reorganization was intended to bring
+management closer to production, to ensure improvement in all aspects of
+farm operation, to intensify concentration and specialization of
+production, and gradually to attain agro-industrial integration.
+
+In official terminology, state agricultural enterprises will operate on
+the principle of economic self-administration. The enterprises will be
+responsible for their subordinate farms and will supervise operations
+according to the principle of internal economic administration. Briefly,
+this means that the agricultural enterprises and the farms must be
+financially self-sustaining, that directors of enterprises and farms are
+accorded a certain measure of discretion in planning and organizing
+production and in the use of resources, and that financial rewards
+beyond the normal pay accrue to each farm's managerial personnel and
+workers in accordance with the farm's own performance, regardless of the
+results obtained by other farms within the enterprise or by the parent
+enterprise itself.
+
+Individual state farms, nevertheless, have no juridical status or bank
+accounts, nor may they enter into direct relation with other economic
+entities outside the state agricultural enterprise of which they are a
+part. In large measure, they remain subject to the direction of the
+enterprise management. Information on the division of authority between
+the agricultural enterprises and the Department of State Agriculture in
+the ministry is not available. Complaints have been voiced in the
+Romanian press about unwarranted interference by higher authorities in
+the management of both the farms and the agricultural enterprises.
+
+Workers on state farms and other state agricultural units are salaried
+employees of the state, entitled to paid annual vacations, social
+security and medical assistance, allocations for children, age or
+disability pensions, and various other benefits provided by law for
+employees of state enterprises. During slack periods, workers may be
+allowed up to 120 days of unpaid vacation per year, without losing
+seniority or other rights.
+
+State farms are the best endowed agricultural units in the country.
+Although they included only about 17 percent of the arable land in 1969,
+they possessed almost 28 percent of the tractors, 24 percent of the
+grain combines, and similar proportions of other major types of farm
+machinery. Moreover, they received more than 37 percent of the chemical
+fertilizers delivered to agriculture and farmed almost 33 percent of the
+irrigated land. As a consequence, per-acre yields on state farms have
+been generally higher than yields on collective farms.
+
+
+Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises
+
+The bulk of the mechanized operations on collective farms has been
+performed for payment in cash and in kind by specialized state
+enterprises for the mechanization of agriculture, which control a large
+share of the country's farm machinery and tractors. This policy has
+provided the state with an added lever of control over the farms; it was
+used in the past to extract a substantial volume of farm produce for the
+state through payments in kind for services rendered. For political
+reasons, and also because of the weak financial position of many
+collective farms, the government has not followed the example of other
+Eastern European states that disbanded their machine-tractor stations
+and sold the equipment to the farms.
+
+In 1969 the agricultural mechanization enterprises controlled 70 percent
+of the available farm tractor power and an even larger share of the
+tractor-drawn and self-propelled farm machinery. State farms owned
+virtually all the balance. Collective farms, which cultivated 75 percent
+of the arable land, possessed only 1.6 percent of the tractor power and
+a still smaller proportion of major farm machinery items.
+
+As of January 1, 1971, the system of agricultural mechanization
+enterprises was reorganized with a view to improving the quality of
+their operations. Forty enterprises were established throughout the
+country--one in each of the thirty-nine counties and one in the
+Bucharest area--with 772 subordinate stations to service an equal number
+of farm associations and about 4,500 sections to work with individual
+collective farms. The main stated task of the mechanization sections is
+to introduce and expand the mechanization of plant and animal production
+on the farms.
+
+To accomplish the task, each mechanization section is to coordinate the
+use of its own equipment with that belonging to the collective. Within
+the framework of this cooperation, the state mechanization enterprises
+were made increasingly responsible for the agricultural production
+process. The planning of mechanized farm operations, the allocation of
+equipment for specific purposes, and the timing and supervision of all
+operations are joint responsibilities of the section chief and the
+farm's chief engineer. Close cooperation and a smooth working
+relationship between them is therefore needed for effective performance.
+
+Mechanized work on farms is carried on by permanent teams composed of
+agricultural mechanics and collective farm members. They take over
+assigned areas in all sectors of the farm and are in charge of all
+relevant operations until the crops have been stored. In slack period
+the mechanization sections work outside the cooperative farms in order
+to utilize more fully their manpower and equipment.
+
+The reorganization of the agricultural mechanization enterprises was
+accompanied by a change in the system of pay for mechanics and
+maintenance men to provide for greater incentives. For work done on the
+farms, these workers receive 80 percent of their annual salary, and the
+remainder is paid at the end of the year, in whole or in part, depending
+upon the degree to which the production plans of the farm on which they
+work are fulfilled. Provision was also made for bonus payments in the
+event of over-fulfillment of production plans. The shift in wage policy
+was accompanied by a raise in the rates of pay for mechanics,
+maintenance men, and personnel operating the equipment in the field on
+a piecework basis. This measure increases the burden on the already
+strained budgets of many collective farms.
+
+
+FARM LABOR
+
+The agricultural labor force presents a paradox of substantial
+underemployment associated with widespread labor shortages, particularly
+of more productive, skilled personnel; the shortages are especially
+prevalent during the planting and harvesting seasons. This phenomenon is
+an outgrowth primarily of a progressive qualitative deterioration of the
+agricultural manpower pool, owing to a continuing transfer of
+predominantly young male workers into nonagricultural occupations.
+Maldistribution of the labor force and poor management of the available
+manpower resources have been important contributing factors. The
+outmigration from agriculture has been spurred by a wide disparity in
+urban and rural incomes and by the relatively inferior living conditions
+on the farms. At the beginning of the 1970s the average income of
+farmworkers was only half as high as that of industrial workers.
+
+Only fragmentary information relating to the farm labor force has been
+published in official statistics. Agricultural employment in 1969
+constituted 51 percent of total employment, compared with 65.4 percent
+in 1960 and 74.1 percent in 1950. Published absolute figures bear only
+on employment by the state; in 1969 the state employed 431,200 persons,
+including 290,000 on state farms and 93,500 in agricultural
+mechanization enterprises. Data published in connection with a
+conference held by the Romanian Academy of Social and Political
+Sciences, however, implied that total agricultural employment in 1968
+amounted to 5.2 million persons, including 4.3 million able-bodied
+collective farm members. The proportion of women in the collective farm
+labor force was reported to be 57.5 percent in 1966; the proportion was
+much larger in highly developed industrial zones. More than 70 percent
+of the collective farm workers, but only about 10 to 15 percent of the
+workers on state farms, were engaged in crop production.
+
+Not all the collective farm members participate in the work of the
+collective. Some are permanently employed in nonagricultural branches of
+the economy. Others--as many as 25 percent of all farmers in 1969--work
+as day laborers in industry and construction, on state farms, and in
+other occupations. Housewives with small children and wives of salaried
+farm employees also take no part in the collective work. Members who do
+participate generally work only a portion of the year because there is
+not sufficient work for them to be fully occupied. In the years 1967 to
+1969, these members, on the average, contributed only from 139 to 142
+man-days per year. In 1968, for example, 22 percent of all collective
+farmers put in not more than forty man-days, and 55 percent of the
+farmers worked fewer than 120 days. Many farmers work only the minimum
+number of days required to keep their personal plots. There are wide
+variations in the degree of labor participation between geographic
+regions, between individual farms, and among production sectors of a
+single farm. At the beginning of the decade of the 1970s about 40
+percent of the income of collective farm families was derived from
+nonagricultural pursuits.
+
+Underemployment in agriculture is expected to continue at least
+throughout the 1970s. Industry, though growing very rapidly, will not be
+able to absorb any significant numbers of farmworkers because of the
+government's emphasis on mechanization and automation of production. In
+the 1971-75 period industrial manpower requirements will be met almost
+entirely through natural population increase. Relieving agricultural
+underemployment through an expansion of the services sector is not being
+given serious consideration on the grounds that "no further expansion of
+this sector can be undertaken at the expense of achieving a high level
+of productivity in the branches of material production and hence in
+agriculture, too."
+
+Raising the low productivity level of collective farm labor through
+greater capital inputs, and thereby increasing the incomes of members,
+presents a difficult problem not only because of a shortage of
+investment funds but also because the magnitude of the collective farm
+labor cannot be adjusted to the needs of production, as in the case of
+state farms; it is determined by the number of families living on the
+farm. The collective farm cannot limit the number of members who may
+participate in the work. Each member has the right and, at the same
+time, the duty to participate in the work performed for the collective,
+and the collective has the duty to provide equal opportunities for all
+its members to work and to earn adequate incomes; yet modernization of
+production necessarily brings with it an ever smaller need for manpower.
+
+A solution of the farm manpower problem was not in sight by late 1971.
+There was general agreement among Romanian economists concerned with the
+matter about a need to improve the utilization of the available labor
+resources, to increase farm incomes and, above all, to stop the
+migration of young people from villages to towns. No concrete program
+for attaining these ends, however, emerged from a national conference on
+farm labor held in mid-1970. Proposals advanced by a number of
+economists to expand industrial activities in the villages,
+particularly cottage industries and the processing of farm products,
+were questioned by others who feared that these activities would tend to
+drain some of the remaining productive elements from the collective farm
+labor force.
+
+As expressed by one of the conferees, the search was on for a hybrid
+solution that would ensure full employment of the redundant labor force
+despite the process of farm modernization--a policy that inevitably
+leads to the maintenance of low earnings on many farms because the
+available work must be spread among an excessive number of members. In
+this context, foreign observers adopted a wait-and-see attitude toward
+the changes in collective farm organization and in the method of payment
+to farmers introduced in January 1971 (see Organization, this ch.). They
+nevertheless expressed doubt about the ultimate efficacy of these
+measures because the income of farmers would still remain far below that
+of industrial workers.
+
+
+INVESTMENT AND CREDIT
+
+Investment
+
+Investment in agriculture has been rising steadily, reaching an annual
+volume of almost 13 billion lei in 1970. The share of agriculture in
+total investment, however, declined from 19.5 percent in the 1961-65
+period to 15.8 percent in the years 1966 through 1969. In relation to
+industrial investment during the same periods, investment in agriculture
+declined from 40 to 30 percent. Under the Five-Year Plan (1971-75),
+agriculture is to receive investments of at least 100 billion lei--an
+amount that is twice as large as the actual investment in the years 1966
+through 1970 and that represents a somewhat larger share of total
+investment than was allocated to agriculture in that period.
+
+No information is readily available on the proportion of the total
+investment used for the replacement of wornout assets and for the
+expansion of productive facilities. In the 1966-69 period replacement
+capital constituted about 30 percent of investments; in 1969 alone the
+proportion was as high as 46 percent.
+
+The largest part--and a rising proportion--of the agricultural
+investment has been financed by the state; collective farms supplied the
+balance out of their own income. The share of state funds in the total
+agricultural investment increased steadily from about 66 percent in 1963
+to 80 percent in 1969; this proportion is to be maintained during the
+Five-Year Plan (1971-75). Investment in collective farms has also been
+increasingly financed by the state through long-term credits; the share
+of government credits rose from 13 percent in 1965 to 35 percent in
+1969. Investment out of the collectives' own funds remained stable
+during this period, at from 2.2 billion lei to 2.4 billion lei per year.
+
+State farms have received a disproportionate amount of investment--38
+percent in the 1965-69 period, as against 34 percent for collective
+farms. The investment share of collective farms during this period
+declined from about 38 to 30 percent of the total. On the basis of
+farmland acreage, investment in collective farms in 1969 amounted to
+only 18 percent of the funds invested in state farms. If the state
+investment in agricultural mechanization enterprises is included as
+investment for the benefit of the collective farms, the ratio of
+collective to state farm investment per acre was still only 25 percent.
+
+Collective farm statutes require the farms to devote from 18 to 25
+percent of their annual gross income to investment. Some Romanian
+economists consider net income to be a more equitable base; under such a
+system more of the farms' income would remain for distribution to
+members. In calculating gross income, amortization of fixed assets is
+generally not included as an expense, which further raises the base used
+for the computation of the compulsory investment fund. An official of
+the Agricultural Bank reported that, in the last few years of the 1960s,
+one-fourth of all collective farms set aside for investment up to 10
+percent more than the maximum legal requirement.
+
+Only partial information is available on the use of investment funds.
+Roughly 40 percent of the investment in the 1962-69 period was devoted
+to construction and assembly work, and 33 percent was used to increase
+farm mechanization. It has not been made clear whether land improvement
+and irrigation are included in construction, but it seems likely that
+this is the case. Substantial funds were also invested in the expansion
+of orchards, vineyards, and livestock. Although significant advances
+were made in most of these areas, the level of farm mechanization and of
+irrigation remained low. In 1969 the equivalent of one fifteen-horsepower
+tractor was available for every 136 acres of arable land, and irrigated
+acreage constituted 6 percent of the arable area. The use of fertilizers
+lagged by comparison with other Eastern European countries.
+
+
+Credit
+
+Farm credit has been provided by the government through the Agricultural
+Bank, which was reconstituted as the Bank for Agriculture and the Food
+Industry in May 1971. Available information on the credit operations of
+the bank is limited to a few summary data on credits to collective
+farms. Information on the financing of state farms is lacking.
+
+As expressed by the bank's president, long-term credits for investment
+and short-term credits for production needs have been used by the state
+as levers for the economic and organizational development and for the
+consolidation of collective farms. Long-term credits granted during the
+1962-69 period amounted to 6.4 billion lei, or an average of 800 million
+lei per year. During the same period the farms received about 30 billion
+lei in short-term production credits, or about 3.75 billion lei per
+year. The annual volume of investment credits increased sharply after
+1967; it was reported to have reached 1.8 billion lei in 1970 and to
+have been planned at more than 2 billion lei for 1971. A rise was also
+reported in the yearly volume of production credit.
+
+Investment credits generally carry an annual 3-percent interest charge,
+but the interest rate may be reduced to 2 percent for economically
+weaker farms. Comparable information on production credit is not
+available, except for an official statement that a large part of it has
+been granted free of interest.
+
+Postponement of scheduled long-term credit repayments may be authorized
+by the bank with the approval of the Ministry of Finance for periods of
+up to one year in the case of collective farms that are unable to meet
+the due date for reasons beyond their control, such as a crop failure.
+At the same time the bank may discontinue credits or demand repayment
+before the due date in the event that borrowed funds are improperly or
+inefficiently used. Penalties are also provided for short-term borrowers
+who fail to respect contractual obligations. As a measure of assistance
+to poor cooperatives, the repayment of loans in the amount of 1.15
+billion lei, contracted before 1968 and due in 1972, was remitted by
+decision of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party in
+December 1971.
+
+The distribution of long-term credits to collective farms among
+different types of investment projects changed significantly during the
+1960s. In 1962 and 1963 more than half the credits were granted for the
+expansion of livestock production, and one-fourth of the credits were
+devoted to the construction of farm buildings. In the last two years of
+the decade, however, only 5 percent and 3 percent of the credits,
+respectively, were earmarked for these purposes. Emphasis shifted in the
+mid-1960s to land improvement, the extension of orchards and vineyards,
+and vegetable production. In the 1967-69 period 83 percent of the
+investment credits were used for these projects. A lack of significant
+progress in the livestock production of collective farms, despite the
+heavy investment, was the main reason for the drastic reduction in
+credits to this farm sector.
+
+In mid-1971 the bank was authorized to grant credits to private farmers
+and to individual members of collective farms for periods of up to five
+years at an annual interest rate of 3 percent. These credits may be used
+to purchase for breeding and production purposes a limited number of
+cattle, sheep, bee colonies with hives, and fruit tree seedlings for
+orchards up to 7.4 acres in size. Credits may be granted up to 70
+percent of the purchase value of these items. To ensure repayment of the
+loans, recipients must conclude contracts with state procurement
+agencies or collective farms for the sale of their products.
+
+Procedures for granting credits to collective farms were tightened in
+1969 in a move to ensure a more effective use of borrowed funds and the
+timely repayment of outstanding debts. Under the new regulations,
+credits may be granted only for investment projects and production
+expenditures that guarantee the attainment of planned returns and
+unconditionally ensure loan repayment on the due date. The principal
+criteria for granting long-term credits are the need for, and the
+economic effectiveness of, the investment projects and the outlook for
+completing the projects within prescribed time limits. Economic
+effectiveness is analyzed in terms of production growth, increase in
+output per acre or per head of livestock, and rise in labor productivity
+and revenues.
+
+Despite increasingly close supervision by the bank of its borrowers'
+activities, the effectiveness of investment credits in many instances
+has not measured up to expectations. Inadequate project analysis,
+construction delays, cost overruns, dissipation of funds, program
+changes that made partially or fully completed projects obsolete, and
+various other shortcomings have been cited by bank officials as the
+major reasons for this situation. As a means of resolving the problems,
+the officials have stressed the need for more profound project
+evaluation, greater stringency in granting loans, and increased firmness
+in the supervision of borrowers. They have also emphasized the criterion
+of ability to repay as being one of basic importance.
+
+
+PRODUCTION
+
+Total Farm Output
+
+Official statistics on total farm output are limited to a percentage
+distribution of the output between crop and livestock production. In the
+1965-69 period, for which comparable data are available, crop production
+accounted for 62 to 63 percent of output; and livestock production, for
+the remaining 37 to 38 percent. This ratio is reported to have prevailed
+throughout the 1950-70 period, even though the government has
+consistently sought to raise the contribution of the livestock sector to
+total output. An increase in the proportion of livestock products to
+40.6 percent in 1970, reported by another source, was attributable
+mainly to the damage sustained by crops from the spring flood in that
+year.
+
+Total gross agricultural output was unofficially reported to have
+reached 72.4 billion lei in 1969 and to have fallen to 68.7 billion lei
+in 1970 as a result of disastrous spring floods. The 1969 output volume,
+equal to that of 1967, represented the highest level attained through
+1970. According to official index data, farm output in 1967 and in 1969
+was 31 percent larger than it had been in 1960; the 1970 output was only
+24 percent larger. These figures are equivalent to annual growth rates
+of 3.9 percent for the 1960-67 period and 2.2 percent for the years 1969
+through 1970.
+
+Net farm output increased much more slowly because the cost of material
+outlays per unit of output was steadily rising. In the 1963-68 period
+the increase in material costs amounted to 33 percent.
+
+The growth of farm output during the 1960s was well below the planned
+levels of 70 to 80 percent for the years 1960 through 1965 and 26 to 32
+percent for the 1966-70 period. Instead of more than doubling, output
+increased by barely one-fourth. Unfavorable weather conditions during
+some of the years were only partly responsible for the nonfulfillment of
+the agricultural output plans. Other major factors included the
+government's failure to provide the planned volume of inputs and an
+apathetic attitude on the part of farmers owing to inadequate
+incentives.
+
+The shortfall in fertilizer deliveries during the 1966-70 period alone
+amounted to 1.3 million tons of nutrients, or one-third of the planned
+tonnage. For the decade as a whole, the shortfall approached 2 million
+tons. Deliveries of tractors and farm machinery also lagged behind
+schedule. Although an area of almost 2 million acres was to be irrigated
+by 1965 and, under revised plans, an acreage of from 1.6 million to 1.7
+million acres by 1970, only 550,000 acres had been actually irrigated by
+1965 and 1.45 million acres by 1969. A careful and sympathetic Western
+student of Romanian economy concluded that the production targets for
+1965 could not have been achieved even if all the planned inputs had
+been provided on schedule.
+
+In the view of some Western observers, an attitude of indifference on
+the part of farmers, based on the inadequacy of returns from farming,
+particularly on the collective farms, was an important contributing
+cause for the failure of agriculture to realize its growth potential.
+The real income of farmers was scheduled to rise by 20 to 25 percent
+during the 1966-70 period; the official announcement of the plan
+results, however, merely noted an increase in income, without citing any
+figure--a clear indication that the target was missed by a wide margin.
+
+The negative effects of the disparity in incomes on the collective
+farmers' sense of responsibility and, hence, on agricultural production
+were officially recognized. This recognition led to a revision of the
+system of compensation for collective farm work and to a reduction of
+farm taxes in early 1971 but did not significantly alter the position of
+agriculture within the economy (see Organization, this ch.). The
+possibility of alleviating the situation by raising farm incomes through
+a general increase in farm prices was rejected on the grounds that such
+an increase, without a corresponding rise in productivity per worker and
+per acre, would constitute a redistribution of national income
+incompatible with the best interests of the economy.
+
+
+Crop Production and Yields
+
+Production of major crops and of fruits was larger during the 1960s than
+it had been in the preceding decade. The greatest advances were made in
+the output of industrial and fodder crops, and the smallest were in
+potato and vegetable production (see table 10). In large measure, the
+rise in output was achieved through greater yields per acre, owing to an
+increased use of fertilizers; the introduction of improved varieties;
+and some improvement in crop production methods, particularly on state
+farms. Crop yields, nevertheless, remained among the lowest in Eastern
+Europe.
+
+
+Livestock and Livestock Products
+
+Livestock numbers increased slowly from 1961 to 1970 but, except for
+poultry, were generally lower at the end of that period than the peak
+levels reached for the different types between 1965 and 1968. From 1961
+to 1965 the number of cows declined but increased steadily thereafter,
+without, however, fully regaining the level of 1961.
+
+Development of the livestock economy has been hampered by an inadequate
+feed base, poor quality of livestock and livestock breeding, and
+inefficient production methods. Significant improvements in the
+livestock sector are planned for the 1971-75 period and beyond to 1980.
+
+Although livestock production failed to increase as a proportion of the
+total farm output, the volume of livestock products, nevertheless, rose
+significantly during the 1960s (see table 11). Compared with the average
+annual outputs of individual products attained in the 1962-65 period,
+increases in average annual production for the years 1966 through 1969
+ranged from 18 percent for wool to 24 percent for meat.
+
+_Table 10. Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected Years,
+1960-69_ (in thousand metric tons)
+
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Crop             1960    1963     1966     1967     1968     1969
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Grain[1]
+   Wheat         3,450    3,799    5,065    5,820    4,848    4,349
+   Corn          5,531    6,023    8,022    6,858    7,105    7,676
+   Other           845      614      812      834      817      799
+                 -----   ------   ------   ------   ------   ------
+     Total       9,826   10,436   13,899   13,512   12,770   12,824
+ Oilseeds
+   Sunflower       522      506      671      720      730      747
+   Other            93       54       63       61       41       59
+                 -----    -----    -----    -----    -----    -----
+     Total         615      560      734      781      771      806
+ Sugar beets     3,399    2,298    4,368    3,830    3,936    3,783
+ Tobacco            16       40       40       35       33       24
+ Potatoes        3,009    2,692    3,352    3,096    3,707    2,165
+ Vegetables      1,831    1,702    2,177    2,000    2,296    1,963
+ Fodder Crops
+   Hay           2,105    1,872    3,182    3,223    2,472    3,268
+   Green feed    1,222    2,922    4,749    4,380    3,995    3,885
+   Silage[2]     4,601    5,296    3,538    2,830    3,728    3,491
+   Root crops      276      293      371      269      302      420
+                 -----   ------   ------   ------   ------   ------
+     Total       8,204   10,383   11,840   10,702   10,497   11,064
+ Fruits            829    1,048    1,390    1,206    1,054    1,677
+ Grapes            874      937      954      910    1,167    1,189
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1. Grain production in 1971 was unofficially reported to have reached
+ about 14.5 million metric tons.
+ 2. Roughly 90 percent corn.
+ Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+ Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of
+ Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 312 315.
+
+_Table 11. Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected Years
+1960-69_
+
+ ------------------------------------------------------
+           Meat[1]     Milk[2]     Eggs[3]     Wool[4]
+ ------------------------------------------------------
+ 1960        969       856,472     2,355       21,850
+ 1965      1,116       859,061     2,630       25,410
+ 1966      1,265       987,531     2,814       26,072
+ 1967      1,356     1,089,320     3,011       28,626
+ 1968      1,297     1,012,628     3,113       30,583
+ 1969      1,271       992,762     3,315       30,752
+ -----------------------------------------------------
+  1: Thousand metric tons live weight.
+  2: Cow, goat, and buffalo in thousand gallons.
+  3: In millions.
+  4: In metric tons.
+ Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+ Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of
+ Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 430 431.
+
+Data on the contribution of the different types of farms to the total
+farm output are lacking, but detailed figures are available for
+individual products. The most noteworthy aspect of these data is the
+light that they shed on the importance of the collective farmers'
+personal plots and of the private sector in the production of the higher
+valued farm products. On their small personal plots, the collective
+farmers in 1969 produced roughly one-third of the wool, vegetables, and
+potatoes; two-fifths of the meat, milk, and fruit; and three-fifths of
+the eggs (see table 12). Together with the small number of private
+farms, they accounted for 35 to 80 percent of the output of these items.
+Foreign observers have interpreted this phenomenon as clear evidence of
+the inadequacy of incentives for work on state and collective farms.
+
+
+Exports
+
+Substantial quantities of farm products have been exported in raw and
+processed form. In the 1965-69 period exports of grain, fruits,
+vegetables, and eggs ranged from 10 to 13 percent of output. Exports of
+wool reached almost two-thirds of the total production volume. A wide
+range of other vegetable and livestock products were also exported,
+including pulses; sugar; sunflower seeds and oil; live cattle; fresh,
+frozen, and canned meat; butter; wine; and tobacco (see ch. 14).
+
+_Table 12. Crop Production and Livestock Products in Romania, by Type of
+Farm, 1969_ (in percent)
+
+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                        State
+ Product            Agricultural    State    Collective  Personal    Private
+                        Units      Farms[1]    Farms      Plots       Farms
+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Grains                 24.5         23.6       63.4       9.0         3.1
+ Fiber plants            5.2          4.7       92.1       0.6         2.1
+ Oilseeds               29.2         28.9       70.8      ---[2]      ---[2]
+ Sugar beets             0.4          0.3       99.6       0           0
+ Tobacco                 0.2          0         99.8       0           0
+ Potatoes                7.1          6.5       39.1      36.4        17.4
+ Vegetables             11.6         10.6       52.9      29.6         5.9
+ Perennials for hay     30.2         28.3       64.7      3.2         1.9
+ Annuals for hay        23.5         19.4       58.9      13.9         3.7
+ Annuals for green
+   feed                 38.0         35.6       60.1       1.6         0.3
+ Fodder roots           53.8         50.9       39.8       4.8         1.6
+ Silage crops           44.5         42.8       55.4       0.1         0
+ Fruits                 11.7          9.9       19.3      40.9        28.1
+ Meat                   27.0         24.2       21.2      39.3        12.5
+ Milk                   16.7         16.0       28.2      38.2        16.9
+ Eggs                   17.0         16.7        3.2      60.0        19.8
+ Wool                   17.7         16.8       38.4      33.1        10.8
+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1. Breakdown included within state agricultural units.
+ 2. Less than 0.1 percent.
+ Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+ Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of
+ Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 329-345, 406, 430-431.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 16
+
+INDUSTRY
+
+
+Stimulated by a high rate of investment and an infusion of Western
+technology, industry has expanded at a rapid rate. A qualitatively
+inadequate labor force, poor organization, and insufficiently
+experienced management personnel, however, have not been able to attain
+levels of efficiency and quality acceptable to the Romanian Communist
+Party and the government. Lowering the cost of production and improving
+quality are considered to be essential prerequisites for expanding
+exports, which are needed to pay for imports of materials and equipment.
+Various measures introduced since 1967 have not achieved the
+government's objectives. Economic plans for the 1971-75 period call for
+raising productivity through greater specialization of production and
+better utilization of plants and materials. To this end, several new
+economic laws were passed in December 1971, the contents of which were
+not yet known in early 1972.
+
+
+NATURAL RESOURCES
+
+Though widely varied, the country's mineral and agricultural resources
+are generally inadequate to maintain the current and planned levels of
+industrial production and exports. Natural gas is a major exception.
+Formerly plentiful supplies of crude oil are falling off, and the
+likelihood of discovering new deposits is considered poor by oil
+industry officials. The heavy dependence on outside sources of raw
+materials led the government to provide economic and technical
+assistance to several developing countries for the exploitation of their
+mineral resources in return for shipments of mined products. This
+dependence has also been a major determinant of the country's political
+relations with other members of the Council for Mutual Economic
+Assistance (COMECON), particularly the Soviet Union, and with
+noncommunist industrial nations of the West (see ch. 10).
+
+
+Minerals and Metals
+
+Information on the extent of most mineral reserves is unavailable. A
+delegation of Western petroleum experts who surveyed the petroleum
+industry at the end of 1970 made a tentative estimate that oil reserves
+would be exhausted in roughly eleven years at the current annual
+production rate of about 13 million tons. With a view to ensuring
+long-term crude oil supplies for the planned expansion of the domestic
+petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, the government has
+entered into economic cooperation agreements with several small
+petroleum-producing countries. The government has also discussed the
+possibility for joint exploration of offshore petroleum deposits in the
+Black Sea and elsewhere in the world with oil interests of various
+countries. In the meantime the government has been importing crude oil
+from Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Libya in exchange for industrial machinery
+and equipment. Oil imports from these countries in 1970 amounted to 2.1
+million tons.
+
+The major natural gas deposits that were exploited in 1970 are located
+in the Transylvanian basin and outside the Carpathian arc (see ch. 3).
+According to Romanian officials, the annual addition to reserves has
+been double the volume of annual production. Gas output has expanded
+steadily from about 365 billion cubic feet in 1960 to 845 billion cubic
+feet in 1969. Natural gas has been used for electric power production in
+thermal plants, for space heating, and as a raw material for the
+chemical industry. Less than 1 percent has been exported through a
+pipeline to Hungary.
+
+Western observers believe that imports of natural gas from the Soviet
+Union may be initiated in the early 1970s. This belief is based on
+information that a gas pipeline to be built from the Soviet Union to
+Bulgaria will pass through eastern Romania, fairly close to the major
+port of Constanta, which is far removed from domestic sources of gas.
+Negotiations to this effect are not known to have taken place.
+
+Deposits of coal are small and, with few exceptions, low grade. Known
+reserves in 1970 were reported to include less than 1 billion tons of
+bituminous and anthracite coal and 3.5 billion tons of lignite. Fields
+at Petrosani in the Jiu Valley of the southern Transylvania Alps contain
+98 percent of the bituminous coal reserves; 90 percent of the lignite
+reserves are located in Oltenia, in the southwestern part of the
+country. Open pit mining is possible in much of the lignite area.
+
+In order to conserve crude oil and natural gas, production of coal and
+lignite has been substantially increased and is scheduled to rise
+rapidly in the 1971-75 period. From 1950 to 1970 total coal output
+increased at an annual rate of 9.2 percent, including a growth of more
+than 15 percent per year in lignite output. By 1975 coal output is to
+reach from 37 million to 38.5 million tons, which corresponds to a
+planned annual increase of about 10.6 percent from the level of 22.8
+million tons mined in 1970. The production of lignite is scheduled to
+advance more rapidly than that of bituminous and anthracite coal.
+
+Two-thirds of the mined coal tonnage with 56 percent of its caloric
+content was used in 1970 to fuel electric power plants. Only 1.3 million
+tons were usable in the manufacture of coke, in large part as an
+admixture to imported coking coals of superior quality. The severe and
+growing shortage of domestic coke supplies poses a major obstacle to the
+expansion of the iron and steel industry. In 1969 it was necessary to
+import 2.1 million tons of metallurgical coke and 633,000 tons of coking
+coal.
+
+Workable deposits of iron ore are situated in the vicinity of Resita and
+Hunedoara in the southwest. Other known deposits, particularly those at
+Ruschita and Lueta, have a low metal content and harmful radioactive
+admixtures. Suitable mining and processing methods to handle these ores
+have not been developed and are not believed to be economically
+feasible. Domestic mines provided about 32 percent of requirements in
+1965 but only 17 percent in 1970; by 1975 the importance of native iron
+ores will have further declined. Imports of iron ores almost quadrupled
+in the 1960s and reached a volume of 3 million tons in 1969. Most of the
+imports came from the Soviet Union.
+
+Information on basic nonferrous ore reserves is tenuous and, in part,
+conflicting. The tenor of published reports points to a scarcity of
+reserves, low metal content of ores, and difficulties in ore processing.
+The great majority of existing mines are said to have only enough
+reserves left for a few years' production. Consideration has been given
+to the recovery of nonferrous metals from industrial wastes, such as
+blast furnace slag and metallurgical dross. For the time being, domestic
+reserves appear adequate to cover the needs of lead and zinc production
+and a portion of the requirements for smelting copper and aluminum. The
+bulk of bauxite and alumina and a substantial quantity of copper must be
+imported.
+
+Romania is reported to be extracting small amounts of gold and silver.
+It is also mining uranium ore, which has been exported to the Soviet
+Union in exchange for isotopes and enriched uranium for use in
+experimental nuclear installations.
+
+
+Timber
+
+The country's 6 million acres of forests constitute a valuable source of
+raw material. Information on the volume of the annual tree harvests has
+not been published. Substantial quantities of lumber and, increasingly,
+of lumber products and furniture have been exported, although at the
+expense of domestic consumption.
+
+In a program to conserve and rebuild this important resource, which was
+severely overexploited during World War II, a strict limitation was
+placed in the early 1950s on the annual volume of timber cut. A further
+reduction in the amount of timber felling was decreed for the 1971-75
+period. Through a more efficient utilization of the timber and the
+expansion of wood processing, including the manufacture of plywood,
+chipboard, and furniture, the value of the output, nevertheless,
+increased substantially. Exports of lumber and wood products accounted
+for 13.4 percent of total exports in 1970, but this ratio is scheduled
+to decline to 6 percent in 1975, not because of a reduction in the
+volume of these exports but as a result of a planned expansion of other
+industrial and food product exports.
+
+
+ELECTRIC POWER
+
+Electrical power development has proceeded at a rapid pace. The
+installed generating capacity of 7.3 million kilowatts in 1970 was four
+times larger than the capacity available a decade earlier. Eighty-four
+percent of the installed capacity in 1970 was in thermal power plants,
+and the remaining 16 percent, in hydroelectric stations. Hydroelectric
+capacity development had been relatively more rapid, with a sixfold
+increase during the decade.
+
+The production of electrical energy increased even faster than installed
+capacity because newly built plants operated at greater efficiency. The
+output of 35 billion kilowatt-hours in 1970 was 4.6 times greater than
+output in 1960. Power output is scheduled to reach 58 billion to 60.8
+billion kilowatt-hours in 1975. These figures imply an average annual
+increase in power production of 10.5 to 11.7 percent, compared with an
+average increase of 16.5 percent in the 1960-70 period. Thermal power
+plants accounted for 92 percent of the output in 1970, and hydroelectric
+stations, for only 8 percent. Output per unit of thermal capacity was
+more than double that of hydroelectric generators. The total
+hydroelectric power potential that could be economically developed has
+been estimated at 24 billion kilowatt-hours per year.
+
+The Romanian power grid is connected to the power grids of Bulgaria,
+Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. This tie-in makes possible a more
+efficient use of available power through mutual exchanges to equalize
+the load and provides some insurance in the event of regional power
+failures.
+
+Almost two-thirds of the thermal energy output in 1970 was based on
+natural gas fuel, and one-third, on coal--mostly coal of very low
+quality. Less than 3 percent of the fuel used was accounted for by oil.
+The proportion of natural gas in the fuel balance was roughly the same
+as in 1960 but ten percentage points lower than in 1965. The share of
+coal, particularly of low-grade coal, has been rising, in line with the
+government's policy of conserving natural gas for use in the
+petrochemical industry.
+
+In 1971 construction was virtually completed of a huge hydroelectric
+station at the Iron Gate on the Danube River, built jointly with
+Yugoslavia and equipped, in part, with turbines made in the Soviet
+Union. The station's twelve turbines have a total capacity of 2.1
+million kilowatts and are planned to produce about 11 billion
+kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. The output is to be evenly
+divided between the two participating countries. Nine of the twelve
+turbines were reported to have been in operation in September, and six
+were reported to have been connected to the Romanian national power grid
+in November. Completion of the Romanian portion of the project almost
+doubled the country's hydroelectric capacity and increased its power
+output potential by about 15 percent.
+
+A second, much smaller, hydroelectric station with a capacity of 400,000
+kilowatts and a planned output of 1.5 billion kilowatt-hours per year is
+to be built jointly with Yugoslavia on the Danube River below the Iron
+Gate plant. Plans for this station were to be initialed by the
+negotiators before the end of 1971, but information on the dates for the
+start and completion of construction is not available. Plans for the
+construction of yet another power station on the Danube River, as a
+joint venture with Bulgaria in the Cernavoda-Silistra area, were
+announced in the fall of 1971. This station is to have a capacity of
+760,000 kilowatts and an annual output of about 3.8 billion
+kilowatt-hours. Construction is apparently scheduled to begin in 1975.
+
+An agreement with the Soviet Union to build a 440,000-kilowatt nuclear
+power station, using a Soviet reactor, was signed in May 1970.
+Construction of the plant is to begin in 1972, and completion is
+scheduled for 1978. The agreement culminated extensive negotiations with
+the Soviet Union and several noncommunist countries. The ultimate choice
+is believed by Western observers to have been dictated primarily by
+political considerations.
+
+Initial plans for nuclear power plants called for an installed capacity
+of 1 million kilowatts by 1975 and 2.4 million kilowatts by 1980.
+Construction was to begin in the 1966-70 period, but this target was not
+met. A subsequently revised plan for the 1971-80 period envisaged the
+construction of nuclear plants with a total capacity of from 1.8 million
+to 2.4 million kilowatts. Construction of the plants was to begin
+between 1971 and 1975, and their commissioning was to take place in the
+1976-80 period. No information has been made public on the contemplated
+source or sources of the equipment for these plants, other than the
+agreed-upon Soviet unit. Romania must rely on foreign technical
+assistance for its nuclear energy program.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION
+
+In 1969 industry, excluding construction and small private artisan
+shops, comprised 1,151 enterprises employing almost 2 million persons.
+Seventy percent of the enterprises, which included 92 percent of the
+employed persons, were owned and operated by the state, and the
+remaining were run by collectives, including collective farms. State
+industry produced 95.7 percent of the gross output; collective
+enterprises contributed 4.1 percent; and private establishments
+accounted for only 0.2 percent of total production.
+
+Seventy percent of the state industrial enterprises, which included 89
+percent of the persons employed by the state, were administered by
+central authorities; the remaining were subject to the jurisdiction of
+local government bodies. Collective enterprises are subject to
+governmental controls; their activities are covered by the annual and
+five-year economic plans, and many of the enterprises act as suppliers
+of tools, spare parts, and miscellaneous equipment to state enterprises
+on a contractual basis. Their main function, however, is to provide
+consumer goods and services for the population.
+
+Centrally administered enterprises include the largest and most
+important industrial units. A consolidation of these enterprises in 1969
+reduced their number by half and correspondingly increased their average
+size. Employment per enterprise in 1969 averaged 2,860 persons; it
+ranged from 800 persons in printing to more than 8,000 persons in the
+leather and footwear industry. Individual enterprises may be composed of
+more than one plant, which accounts, in part, for the large number of
+workers. Over 60 percent of the enterprises under central government
+administration had more than 1,000 workers each, and almost 27 percent
+employed more than 3,000 workers per enterprise.
+
+Enterprises under local government jurisdiction were generally
+smaller--95 percent of these employed from 200 to 2,000 workers
+each--but even in this group there were some enterprises with more than
+5,000 workers. Collective enterprises were still smaller--77 percent
+employed no more than 500 workers per unit. One collective enterprise,
+nevertheless, employed between 2,000 and 3,000 workers.
+
+Employment in construction totaled 648,000 persons in 1969. Information
+on the number and organization of construction enterprises is not
+available.
+
+The internal management structure of state enterprises has undergone a
+transformation. By decision of the party's Central Committee in April
+1968, amplified by another decision in May 1970, the principle of
+collective management replaced that of one-man management in all
+enterprises and state economic organizations. Management committees are
+chaired by enterprise directors and consist of the following members:
+the managerial personnel, appointed by the ministry; the chairmen of the
+trade union, as legal representatives of the enterprise trade union
+committees; the secretaries of the party committees and of the communist
+youth organizations in the enterprises; and a number of employee
+representatives.
+
+The secretaries of the two party organizations were given full
+membership in May 1970 in a move to strengthen the control by the party.
+Before that date the secretaries of the party committees merely
+participated in the discussions, and the secretaries of the communist
+youth organizations played no role at all. County and municipal party
+organs also provide direction for the management committees' work.
+
+According to party decisions, the management committees are deliberative
+organs with powers to make decisions concerning the conduct of the
+technical, economic, and social activities of the enterprise. Two-thirds
+of the membership constitutes a quorum, and decisions can be adopted by
+a simple majority of those present. In cases of disagreement between the
+committee chairman (the enterprise director) and a majority of the
+management committee, the matter is submitted for resolution to the
+higher administrative body.
+
+A lack of legislation to legalize the institution of the management
+committees and conflict of the new party directive with earlier
+legislation that established the principle of one-man management
+hampered the introduction of the new management system. No clear-cut
+guidelines were provided for the scope of the management committees'
+competence or the numerical strength of employee representation. The
+function of the management committees was also undermined by higher
+administrative echelons through continued imposition of detailed
+directives concerning the work of the enterprises--contrary to the
+announced party policy of loosening central controls. Confusion
+prevailed about the relationships between management, management
+committees, and higher economic bodies.
+
+There is no evidence on the effectiveness of the supplemental party
+decision of May 1970 in resolving the problems besetting the functioning
+of the management committees. A new law on the organization and
+management of state enterprises and institutions was passed by the
+General Assembly toward the end of 1971, but information on the
+provisions of that law was not available in early 1972.
+
+Another new element in the management of enterprises is the general
+assembly of employees, introduced in 1968 along with the management
+committees in accordance with the principles of collective management
+and socialist democracy. Adequate legislation to formalize the new
+institution had not been passed by late 1971, but an appropriate
+provision may have been included in the new law on industrial
+organization.
+
+As described by a high government official, the general assembly of
+employees or, in the case of large enterprises, of employee
+representatives is a forum that will assure effective participation by
+workers and specialists in the organization and management of the
+economy and in decisionmaking concerning the fulfillment of enterprise
+plans. General assemblies are supposed to exercise control over the
+activities of management committees. Their authority extends beyond the
+discussion of problems and evaluation of performance to recommending and
+adopting decisions.
+
+General assemblies are convened twice a year. On these occasions the
+enterprise management committee must present to the assembly reports on
+the committee's activities, on the results of enterprise operations, and
+on the fulfillment by the enterprise of its economic and social
+obligations. Together with the trade union committee of the enterprise,
+the management committee must also present to the assembly for
+discussion and approval the draft of a new collective contract listing
+mutual obligations of the management committee and of the employees.
+Decisions reached by the general assembly are obligatory for the
+management committee. Decisions on measures that require action by
+higher authorities must be handled by the relevant bodies responsibly
+and expeditiously.
+
+Representatives of superior economic organs, including the ministries,
+and of county and local party committees participate in the work of the
+general assemblies of employees. The reason given for this participation
+is the opportunity that it provides for the management to become more
+familiar with problems of interest to the enterprise.
+
+Available evidence indicates a wide variation among enterprises in the
+degree of influence exercised by the general assemblies of employees.
+Toward the end of 1971 some management committees were still reported to
+be disregarding or downgrading general assembly proposals, but such
+instances were said to be growing progressively fewer.
+
+Industrial enterprises are grouped into combines, trusts, and, since
+1969, so-called industrial centrals. The centrals were created in an
+attempt to improve the organizational structure of industry, reduce
+control by the ministries and other central government agencies, and
+provide greater flexibility, in order to increase industrial
+efficiency. A major task assigned to the centrals is to introduce
+specialization of production.
+
+Neither the organizational forms of the centrals nor their authority and
+responsibility vis-a-vis the enterprises and ministries have been
+clearly defined or legally established. The resultant uncertainty,
+experimentation, and bureaucratic disharmony have created considerable
+confusion in the administration of industry, which has been inimical to
+the attainment of the efficiency goal. At the same time, a variety of
+factors, including a shortage of investment funds, an inflexible price
+structure, and the method of evaluating enterprise performance, have
+militated against the expansion of specialization. Industry officials
+believe that it may require from three to five years to resolve the
+organizational problems posed by the creation of the centrals and that
+many other problems will have to be solved before specialization can
+become a reality.
+
+Industrial combines, trusts, and centrals function under the
+jurisdiction of industrial ministries, of which there were eleven at the
+end of 1971 (see ch. 8). Industrial ministries have undergone an almost
+continuous process of reorganization. New ministries have been created;
+old ones, abolished; still others, amalgamated and split. Spheres of the
+ministries' activities have been reshuffled, and their internal
+structures have been modified--all in the interest of improving
+socialist industrial organization and raising the efficiency of
+production. One foreign observer remarked that, whenever something went
+wrong in the economy, reorganization in one form or another was
+undertaken in an effort to solve the problem through administrative
+means.
+
+
+LABOR
+
+The average number of persons employed in industry in 1969 was
+1,980,000, or about 40 percent of total employment excluding those
+employed on collective farms. Industrial employment had increased by
+725,000 persons in the 1960-69 period. Employment in construction grew
+more rapidly--from 372,000 persons in 1960 to almost 648,000 in 1969. At
+the end of 1969 women constituted 43 percent of employment in industry
+and less than 9 percent in construction. In industry, the proportion of
+women in blue-collar and white-collar jobs was about equal. In
+construction, however, women occupied one-third of the white-collar
+positions and only 5 percent of the blue-collar jobs.
+
+A distribution of employment by industry branches is available only for
+enterprises under the direct jurisdiction of the central government. Of
+these, machine building and metalworking absorbed 27 percent of the
+employed; fuels and metallurgy, 15 percent; forestry and woodworking,
+15 percent; textile production, 12 percent; and chemicals and food
+processing, 7 percent each. Several less important industry branches
+accounted for another 11 percent of industrial employment, and an
+unlisted residue of fifty enterprises employing almost 100,000 persons,
+presumably constituting the defense industry, made up the balance of 6
+percent.
+
+The growth of employment in the 1960-69 period varied widely among the
+different industry branches. Whereas the number of employed rose by 60
+percent for centrally administered industry as a whole, it increased by
+almost 2.4 times in the chemical branch, somewhat more than doubled in
+the production of cellulose and paper, and grew by 80 percent in
+nonferrous metallurgy and in machine building and metalworking. The
+lowest increases in employment occurred in the production of fuels, in
+ferrous metallurgy, and in the manufacture of glass and china. The
+increases in employment did not necessarily correspond to the priority
+ratings of the individual branches; high priority branches received
+relatively much larger investment.
+
+The labor force is numerically redundant but qualitatively inadequate
+for the needs of modern industry. Despite the existence of labor
+training programs, there is a shortage of skilled personnel at the
+intermediate level, such as technicians and foremen. Few workers have
+professional school training; most acquire their skills through short
+courses or on-the-job training. The number of skilled workers is too
+small to allow efficient two-shift operation of plants throughout most
+of industry. The lack of adequate skills and the associated inept
+handling and poor maintenance of imported sophisticated machinery have
+been responsible for frequent breakdowns. The resultant work stoppages
+and the under-utilization of available capacity have had a deleterious
+effect on productivity.
+
+Because of a high rate of investment and large-scale imports of advanced
+Western technology and equipment, productivity per worker nevertheless
+has been rising at a relatively rapid rate. According to official data,
+productivity in industry increased by an annual average of 7.5 percent
+in the 1960-69 period, but the increase in 1969 was less than 5 percent.
+Official plans for the 1971-75 period call for an annual growth in
+productivity of at least 7.3 percent. Western economists, however,
+estimated the rise in productivity to have been only 5.6 percent per
+year in the 1960-67 period, compared to an official figure of 8 percent.
+Despite the impressive gains, productivity in industry remains low,
+mainly because of the inadequate qualifications and work habits of the
+labor force and the shortcomings of industrial organization and
+management.
+
+Industrial labor discipline has been a subject of continuing concern to
+party and government. Both labor turnover and absenteeism have been
+high. During the first nine months of 1969 almost 455,000 workers left
+their jobs in centrally administered enterprises, in many instances
+without the requisite official permission. During the same period
+worktime losses from absenteeism amounted to about 12 million man-hours.
+Abuse of the provision for leave without pay and loafing on the job have
+also contributed significantly to losses of worktime. For centrally
+administered industry as a whole, the loss of worktime from all causes,
+including stoppages caused by deficiencies of the supply and
+distribution system, amounted to almost 47 million man-hours in the
+third quarter of 1969--the equivalent of about 74,400 workers.
+
+Poor labor discipline was officially blamed on the failure of the
+prevailing wage system to provide adequate work incentives. After some
+experimentation in the food-processing industry during 1968 and 1969 a
+new wage system was introduced throughout industry on March 1, 1970,
+still on an experimental basis. Some of the changes brought about by the
+highly complex new system included: a reduction in the spread between
+wage rates in different industry sectors and between the upper and lower
+limits within certain wage categories; the establishment of in-grade
+wage differentials depending upon the personal achievement of the
+worker; a rise in the proportion of basic wages to total pay (which also
+includes bonuses); and a tightening of the provisions concerning the
+payment of bonuses. Provision was also made for withholding a portion of
+the pay in the event that production targets are not fulfilled.
+
+Downgrading the importance of bonuses was intended to stimulate the
+raising of skill levels by making higher earnings dependent primarily
+upon promotion to higher wage categories, based on qualification rather
+than on surpassing quantitative production norms. As a means of reducing
+labor turnover, a seniority system was introduced, with wage increases
+based on length of service in the same unit. The reform of the wage
+system was accompanied by a general rise in wages averaging 12.3
+percent.
+
+A further increase in wages is planned for the 1971-75 period. The
+minimum wage of 800 lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) is to be raised
+to 1,000 lei in September 1972 and to 1,100 lei in 1975. The average
+wage is scheduled to reach almost 1,500 lei in 1972 and 1,805 lei at the
+end of the five-year period. In accordance with past policy, the rise in
+wages will be kept well below the increase in productivity (see ch. 14).
+
+Along with the modification of the wage system, legal measures were
+enacted to tighten labor discipline. These measures provide for the
+imposition of fines up to 10,000 lei for violations of economic
+contracts and fines of from 50 to 1,000 lei for negligence while on
+duty; they oblige employees to make good the full amount of any damage
+for which they are responsible; and they enable the enterprise
+management to reduce workers' wages when standards of social behavior
+are not met. Penalties may be imposed by the enterprise director or the
+management committee. The only recourse open to workers is an appeal to
+the higher administrative bodies.
+
+The broad concept of standards of behavior offers a wide latitude for
+the exercise of individual judgment by management. No criteria have been
+provided for determining the conditions under which wages may be cut or
+the maximum permissible amount of the wage cuts. The new rules thus
+introduced an element of discretionary exercise of punitive authority.
+They also deprived the accused of recourse to the courts, which had been
+available to them under earlier legislation.
+
+
+INVESTMENT AND CONSTRUCTION
+
+Industry has consistently received more than half the total investment
+in the economy. In the 1966-70 period industrial investment out of the
+state budget (centralized investment) amounted to 162.1 billion lei--a
+volume almost as great as that invested during the preceding fifteen
+years. Additional investment out of enterprise resources was only about
+1 percent of the total and had been even less in earlier years. From 86
+to 90 percent of the industrial investment was channeled into branches
+producing capital goods. Centralized investment in industry during the
+1971-75 period is planned at 281.2 billion lei, or about 60 percent of
+the total planned investment.
+
+Industries producing fuels and energy absorbed the largest share of
+investment, but their share declined from 51 percent in the 1951-55
+period to 31 percent in the 1966-70 period. The high priority accorded
+to the development of the chemical industry was reflected in a doubling
+of that industry's investment share from less than 7 percent in the
+former period to 14 percent in the 1960s. Similarly, a drive for
+qualitative improvement in machine building and metalworking was
+accompanied by an increase in the proportion of investment devoted to
+that industry from a level of 7 to 8 percent in the 1951-65 period to 14
+percent in the second half of the 1960s. Ferrous metallurgy absorbed
+about 10 percent of the investment in the fifteen-year period that ended
+in 1970. A need to expand exports of manufactured goods and to provide
+material incentives for the working population stimulated a rise of
+investment in the light and food industries to 13 percent of the total
+in the 1966-70 period, compared to a share ranging from 7.5 to 10
+percent in earlier five-year periods.
+
+About 48 percent of the industrial investment was absorbed by building
+construction and installation work, 37 percent was spent on machinery
+and equipment, and 15 percent was devoted to the increase of working
+capital. One-third of the investment in machinery and equipment from
+1966 to 1969 was used for procurement abroad, that proportion having
+increased from about one-fifth in the 1956-60 period.
+
+Although substantial progress has been made in the expansion of
+industrial capacity, construction of new industrial plants has been
+beset by many problems and has consistently lagged behind official
+plans. Inadequate planning, poor design, disregard of the limitations of
+the materials base and of potential markets, improper location,
+excessive size of projects, and long delays in project development and
+in construction have been among the difficulties most frequently
+discussed in the country's press. Completed plants often require years
+to attain the projected output level, and many plants have never reached
+it.
+
+Large losses to the economy have also been caused by long delays in
+installing new equipment, much of it imported at a heavy cost in foreign
+exchange. At the end of 1969 the Grand National Assembly was officially
+informed that the volume of unused equipment amounted to 3.5 billion
+lei; some of the equipment had been lying idle for from ten to twelve
+years. Government officials realize the urgent need to improve
+investment performance, particularly in view of the large investment
+program planned for the 1971-75 period.
+
+
+PRODUCTION
+
+Industrial production in 1970 was 3.8 times larger than it had been ten
+years earlier, according to official data. This increase is equivalent
+to an average annual growth rate of 12.8 percent. A rise of 11.2 percent
+in industrial output was unofficially reported for 1971. In terms of
+Western statistical concepts and methods, the annual increase in
+industrial output was estimated at 11.5 percent for the 1960-68 period,
+compared to an officially reported growth rate of 13.2 percent.
+Industrial growth in Romania has been among the highest in countries of
+Eastern Europe.
+
+In line with the government's priorities, production of capital goods
+increased at an annual (official) rate of 14.2 percent, and that of
+consumer goods advanced by 10.2 percent. The proportion of capital goods
+in the total output therefore increased from 62.9 percent in 1960 to
+70.6 percent in 1970; it is scheduled to reach 72.8 percent by 1975.
+Although the output of consumer goods increased 2.6 times during the
+ten-year period, the availability of goods to consumers did not rise
+proportionately because an increasing volume was exported to pay for
+imports of machinery and raw materials. Shortages of consumer goods,
+including foodstuffs, were not eliminated by 1971. The output of newly
+introduced products, such as chemicals and television sets, increased
+more rapidly in the 1960s than did the output of traditional items (see
+table 13).
+
+Improving the quality of manufactured products has been a major concern
+of the party and government, particularly from the point of view of
+competitiveness in foreign markets. With some exceptions, such as men's
+and women's knitwear, a lack of competitiveness was clearly demonstrated
+in mid-1971 by the results of a giant Romanian trade exhibition in
+Duesseldorf, West Germany. This exhibit was reported to have achieved
+just the reverse of what was intended and to have demonstrated the
+inferiority of Romanian goods compared to Western European and Japanese
+products. Quality considerations, however, did not inhibit an attempt to
+market a Romanian-built motor vehicle of the jeep type in the United
+States.
+
+_Table 13. Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960 and
+1969_
+
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+   Product                Unit of Measure            1960         1969
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Pig iron              thousand metric tons          1,014        3,477
+ Steel                          do                   1,806        5,540
+ Coal and lignite               do                   6,768       16,976
+ Crude oil                      do                  11,500       12,346
+ Natural gas           billion cubic feet              365          850
+ Electricity           million kilowatt-hours        7,650       31,509
+ Fertilizers[1]        thousand metric tons             71          720
+ Artificial fibers              do                       4           56
+ Plastics                       do                      12          137
+ Synthetic rubber               do                       0           55
+ Tires                 thousand units                  743        3,166
+ Paper                 thousand metric tons            140          398
+ Tractors              units                        17,102       24,895
+ Motor vehicles                 do                  12,123       56,998
+ Cement                thousand metric tons          3,054        7,515
+ Timber                million cubic feet              139          186
+ Textiles              million square yards            393          672
+ Footwear              million pairs                    30           63
+ Radios                thousand units                  167          428
+ Television sets                do                      15          221
+ Sugar                 thousand metric tons            391          428
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 1. In terms of plant nutrients.
+  Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste
+  Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic
+  of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 186-195.
+
+By decrees issued in 1970 and 1971 the State Inspectorate General for
+Product Quality was established as an organ of the Council of State with
+wide powers to establish and enforce quality standards, including the
+imposition of economic and criminal sanctions. At the same time, the
+decrees provided that extra payments be made to individuals and groups
+of workers who turn out products of superior quality. In announcing the
+creation of the new agency, Romanian commentators remarked that an
+administrative approach to the solution of the quality problem was made
+necessary by the failure of other measures.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Section I. SOCIAL
+
+  Andrews, Colman Robert. "The Rumanian Film Today," _East Europe_,
+    XVIII, Nos. 8-9, August-September 1969, 21-24.
+
+  Appleton, Ted. _Your Guide to Romania._ London: Alvin Redman, 1965.
+
+  Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). _International Population Reports._ (U.S.
+    Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO, 1969.
+
+  Basdevant, Denise. _Against Tide and Tempest: The Story of Romania._
+    (Trans., F. Danham and J. Carroll.) New York: Speller and Sons,
+    1965.
+
+  Bass, Robert. "East European Communist Elites: Their Character and
+    History," _Journal of International Affairs_, XX, No. 1, 1966,
+    106-117.
+
+  Blumenfeld, Yorick. _Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968.
+
+  Cloranescu, George B. "Romania After Czechoslovakia: Ceausescu Walks a
+    Tightrope," _East Europe_, XVIII, No. 6, June 1969, 2-7.
+
+  Constantinescu, and Curticapeanu. "The Contribution of Culture to the
+    Union of Transylvania with Romania," _Romania Today_ [Bucharest],
+    No. 168, December 1968, 10-13.
+
+  Cretzianu, Alexandre. (ed.). _Captive Romania._ New York: Praeger,
+    1956.
+
+  Dimancescu, Dan. "Americans Afoot in Rumania," _National Geographic_,
+    CXXXV, No. 6, June 1969, 810-845.
+
+  Ergang, R. _Europe Since Waterloo._ Boston: Heath, 1967.
+
+  Fejto, Francois. _A History of the People's Democracies._ New York:
+    Praeger, 1971.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _Man, State, and Society in East European
+    History._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  ----. _The New Rumania._ Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of
+    Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  ----. _The Socialist Republic of Rumania._ Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
+    Press, 1969.
+
+  ----. _Twentieth Century Rumania._ New York: Columbia University
+    Press, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen, (ed.). _Romania._ New York: Praeger, 1957.
+
+  Floyd, David. _Rumania, Russia's Dissident Ally._ New York: Praeger,
+    1965.
+
+  Forwood, William. _Romanian Invitation._ London: Garnstone Press,
+    1968.
+
+  Friendly, Alfred, Jr. "Rumanians Calm About Minipurge," _New York
+    Times_, July 25, 1971, 11.
+
+  _A Handbook of Romania._ (Prepared by the Geographical Section of the
+    Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty--Royal Navy.)
+    London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1920.
+
+  Heltai, G.G. "Changes in the Social Structure of East Central European
+    Countries," _Journal of International Affairs_, XX, No. 1, 1966,
+    165-171.
+
+  Hielscher, Kurt. _Rumania: Landscape, Buildings, National Life._
+    Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1933.
+
+  _International Yearbook of Education_, XXVIII. Geneva: United Nations
+    Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1967.
+
+  _International Yearbook of Education_, XXX. Geneva: United Nations
+    Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1969.
+
+  Ionescu-Bujor, C. _Higher Education in Rumania._ Bucharest: Meridiane
+    Publishing House, 1964.
+
+  Ionescu, Ghita. _The Break-Up of the Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe._
+    Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969.
+
+  ----. _Communism in Rumania 1944-1962._ London: Oxford University
+    Press, 1964.
+
+  Ionescu, Grigore. "The Road of Romanian Architecture," _Romania Today_
+    [Bucharest], No. 151, July 1967, 12-15.
+
+  Langer, W.L. (ed.) _An Encyclopedia of World History._ Boston:
+    Houghton Mifflin, 1968.
+
+  Lendvai, P. _Eagles in Cobwebs._ Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.
+
+  Liber, Benzion, M.D. _The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited
+    After Sixty Years._ New York: Rational Living, 1958.
+
+  Lindsay, Jack. _Romanian Summer._ London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1953.
+
+  Lovinescu, Monica. "The Wave of Rumanian Writers," _East Europe_, XVI,
+    No. 12, December 1967, 9-11.
+
+  Mackintosh, May. _Rumania._ London: Robert Hale, 1963.
+
+  Manolache, Anghel. _General Education in Rumania._ Bucharest:
+    Meridiane Publishing House, 1965.
+
+  Matley, Ian M. _Romania: A Profile._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Mellor, R.E. _COMECON: Challenge to the West._ New York: Van Nostrand,
+    Reinhold, 1971.
+
+  Osborne, R.H. _East-Central Europe._ New York: Praeger, 1967.
+
+  Parkin, Frank. _Class Inequality and Political Order._ New York:
+    Praeger, 1971.
+
+  Pounds, Norman J.G. _Eastern Europe._ Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
+
+  Roberts, Henry L. _Eastern Europe: Politics, Revolution, and
+    Diplomacy._ New York: Knopf, 1970.
+
+  "Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in _Europa Yearbook, 1971_, I. London:
+    Europa Publications, 1971.
+
+  "Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), _Worldmark Encyclopedia of
+    the Nations_, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
+
+  Roucek, J., and Lottich, K. _Behind the Iron Curtain._ Caldwell,
+    Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1964.
+
+  "Rumania." Pages 726-746 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago:
+    William Benton, 1969.
+
+  "Rumania." Pages 965-975 in _World Survey of Education_, IV. New York:
+    United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
+    1966.
+
+  "Rumanian Literature." Pages 749-750 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_,
+    XIX. Chicago: William Benton, 1969.
+
+  Sbarces, George. "Jora at the Peak of His Creative Power," _Romania
+    Today_ [Bucharest], No. 151, July 1967, 25.
+
+  Schoepflin, George (ed.). _The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Seton-Watson, Hugh. _The East European Revolution._ New York: Praeger,
+    1968.
+
+  Seton-Watson, Robert W. _A History of the Roumanians from Roman Times
+    to the Completion of Unity._ New York: Archon Books, 1963.
+
+  Singleton, F.B. _Background to Eastern Europe._ New York: Pergamon
+    Press, 1965.
+
+  _Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._
+    Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
+
+  Stavrianos, L.S. _The Balkans, 1815-1914._ New York: Holt, Rinehart
+    and Winston, 1963.
+
+  Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," _Manchester
+    Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972,
+    6.
+
+  ----. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," _Manchester Guardian
+    Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
+
+  Steinberg, Jacob (ed.). _Introduction to Rumanian Literature._ New
+    York: Twayne Publishers, 1966.
+
+  Thompson, Juliet. _Old Romania._ New York: Scribner's, 1939.
+
+  Toland, John. _The Last 100 Days._ New York: Random House, 1966.
+
+  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
+    _International Conference on Public Education: Summary Report_ (XXXI
+    Session.) Geneva: 1968, 110-112.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS (Washington). The following
+    items are from the JPRS series _Translations on Eastern Europe:
+    Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
+
+    "Adult Education Program Examined," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, August 1970. (JPRS: 51,572, Series No. 272, 1970.)
+
+    "Adult Education Program, Examined, Praised," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, September 3, 1970. (JPRS: 51,745, Series No. 283,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Better Coordination Between Specialized Schools and
+      Production," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, April 20, 1971. (JPRS:
+      53,539, Series No. 377, 1971.)
+
+    "Care in Criticism of Past Culture Urged," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, December 1, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series No. 59,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Center for Education Information and Documentation," _Buletinul
+      Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, April
+      15, 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No. 364, 1971.)
+
+    "Changes in the Social Structure, 1960-1969," _Viata Economica_,
+      XVI, Bucharest, April 16, 1971. (JPRS: 53,159, Series No. 356,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Changes Urged in Policy of Admitting Students to Higher
+      Education," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 12, 1971. (JPRS:
+      52,452, Series No. 317, 1971.)
+
+    "Decree Governing Assignment of Graduates," _Buletinul Oficial
+      al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, June 8, 1970.
+      (JPRS: 51,399, Series No. 261, 1970.)
+
+    "Delays in Providing Modern School Equipment Cited," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, January 8, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Development of School System Discussed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      January 12, 1969. (JPRS: 47,411, Series No. 68, 1969.)
+
+    "Economy Modernization Discussed in Relation to
+      Socioprofessional Mobility," _Lupta de Clasa_, V, Bucharest,
+      May 1970. (JPRS: 50,830, Series No. 308, 1970.)
+
+    "Equality at Law for National Minorities," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, April 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,155, Series No. 355,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Government Revises Setup of Education," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, December 29, 1968.
+      (JPRS: 47,447, Series No. 68, 1969.)
+
+    "Harmful Influence of Religion Stressed," _Romania Libera_,
+      Bucharest, May 9, 1969. (JPRS: 48,249, Series No. 105, 1969.)
+
+    "Law on Education in Rumania," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, May
+      15, 1968. (JPRS: 45,795, Series No. 8, 1968.)
+
+    "New Secondary School Class Program Discussed," _Gazeta
+      Invatamintului_, Bucharest, August 28, 1968. (JPRS: 46,589,
+      Series No. 32, 1968.)
+
+    "New Stage in General Education Discussed," _Revista de
+      Pedagogu_, Bucharest, September 1969. (JPRS: 49,412, Series
+      No. 162, 1969.)
+
+    "Organization, Operation of the Department of Cults," _Buletinul
+      Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, August
+      15, 1970. (JPRS: 51,850, Series No. 289, 1970.)
+
+    "Political Education at Universities, Examined," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, January 29, 1969. (JPRS: 47,585, Series No. 75,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Position of First Deputy Minister of Education Established,"
+      _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, August 4, 1971. (JPRS: 54,004, Series No. 409,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Program for the Advanced Training of Teachers Explained,"
+      _Scinteia Tineretului_, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS:
+      52,487, Series No 318, 1971.)
+
+    "Proper Training of Teachers Stressed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      January 24, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
+
+    "Reorganization of Ministry of Education," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, January 14, 1969.
+      (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
+
+    "Role of Intelligentsia in Socialist Society," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,730, Series No. 393, 1971.)
+
+    "Role of Science Education in Economic Development," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No.
+      364, 1971.)
+
+    "Role of Technical Schools in Preparing Labor Force,"
+      _Invatamintul Professional si Technic_, Bucharest, June 1970.
+      (JPRS: 52,243, Series No. 249, 1970.)
+
+    "Romania Starts 10-Year Compulsory Education," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, June 4, 1969. (JPRS: 48,448, Series No. 115, 1969.)
+
+    "Rumanian Education Growth, Improvement Noted," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, September 16, 1968. (JPRS: 46,737, Series No. 37,
+      1968.)
+
+    "School-Workshops Planned for General and Secondary Education,"
+      _Scinteia_, Bucharest, August 10, 1971. (JPRS: 53,970, Series
+      No. 408, 1971.)
+
+    "Shortcomings in Workers' Universities Examined," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, September 17, 1968. (JPRS: 46,697, Series No. 36,
+      1968.)
+
+    "Social Mobility, Stratification, Examined," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, October 1970. (JPRS: 52,070, Series No. 298, 1970.)
+
+    "Social Responsibility of Schools Stressed," _Scinteia
+      Tineretului_, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS: 52,487,
+      Series No. 318, 1971.)
+
+    "Special Secondary Schools Train for Jobs," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 50,552, Series No. 216,
+      1970.)
+
+    "A Study of Rumanian Family Life, I, II," _Munca_, Bucharest,
+      August 29, 1967. (JPRS: 42,826, Series No. 427, 1967.)
+
+    "A Study of Rumanian Family Life, III, IV, V," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, September 9, 1967. (JPRS: 42,881, Series No. 473,
+      1967.)
+
+    "Training of Labor Force, Vocational Guidance of Youth," _Lupta
+      de Clasa_, Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,420, Series No.
+      315, 1971.)
+
+    "Unity of Rumanians and Ethnic Minorities Stressed," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, November 6, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 51,
+      1968.)
+
+    "Working Class Role in Modern Romania Sketched," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, December 1969. (JPRS: 49,942, Series
+      No. 188, 1970.)
+
+  U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Office of
+    Education. _Education in the Rumanian People's Republic_ by
+    Randolph L. Braham. (Bulletin OE-14087, I, pp 1-229.) Washington:
+    GPO, 1964.
+
+  U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. _Background Notes:
+    Socialist Republic of Romania._ (Department of State Publication
+    7890.) Washington: GPO, 1970.
+
+  Vali, F.A. "Transylvania and the Hungarian Minority," _Journal of
+    International Affairs_, XX, No. 1, 1966, 32-44.
+
+  Wardle, Irving. "Rumanian Theatre Plays Vital Part in Daily Life,"
+    _New York Times_, June 12, 1971, 18.
+
+  Warnstrom, Bennett. "With TV Camera Through Rumania," _East Europe_,
+    XVIII, No. 10, October 1969, 11-16.
+
+  "Wheeling and Dealing in Rumania," _Newsweek_, LXXVII, No. 14, April
+    5, 1971, 39.
+
+  Wolff, Robert L. _The Balkans in Our Time._ Cambridge: Harvard
+    University Press, 1956.
+
+  _World Population Data Sheet, 1970._ Washington: Population Reference
+    Bureau, 1970.
+
+  "Writer's Block," _Newsweek_, March 2, 1970, 38-43.
+
+
+Section II. POLITICAL
+
+  Andrews, Colman Robert. "The Rumanian Film Today," _East Europe_,
+    XVIII, Nos. 8-9, August-September 1969, 21-24.
+
+  _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970_
+    (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970).
+    Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.
+
+  Bromke, Adam (ed.). _The Communist States at the Crossroads._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1965.
+
+  Brown, J.F. "Rumania Today I: Towards Integration," _Problems of
+    Communism_, XVIII, No. 1, January-February 1969, 8-17.
+
+  ----. "Rumania Today II: The Strategy of Defiance," _Problems of
+    Communism_, XVIII, No. 2, March-April 1969, 32-38.
+
+  Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. "Communist State Relations: The Effect on
+    Ideology," _East Europe_, XVI, No. 3, March 1967, 1-5.
+
+  Byrnes, Robert F. (ed.) _The United States and Eastern Europe._
+    Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
+
+  Ceausescu, Nicolae. "Romania's Foreign Policy," _East Europe_, XX, No.
+    1, January 1971, 28-34.
+
+  Cretzianu, Alexandre (ed.). _Captive Romania._ New York: Praeger,
+    1956.
+
+  Davis, Fitzroy. "East Europe's Film Makers Look West," _East Europe_,
+    XVII, No. 5, May 1968, 27-31.
+
+  _Editor & Publisher International Yearbook, 1970._ New York: Editor &
+    Publisher, 1970.
+
+  Farlow, Robert L. "Romanian Foreign Policy: A Case of Partial
+    Alignment," _Problems of Communism_, XX, No. 6, November-December
+    1971, 54-63.
+
+  Farrell, R. Barry. _Political Leadership in Eastern Europe and the
+    Soviet Union._ Chicago: Aldine, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _The Socialist Republic of Rumania._
+    Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.
+
+  ----. _Twentieth Century Rumania._ New York: Columbia University
+    Press, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen (ed.). _Romania._ New York: Praeger, 1957.
+
+  Griffith, William E. (ed.) _Communism in Europe_, I and II. Cambridge:
+    Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  Ionescu, Ghita. _Communism in Rumania 1944-1962._ London: Oxford
+    University Press, 1964.
+
+  Jowitt, Kenneth. "The Romanian Communist Party and the World Socialist
+    System: A Redefinition of Unity," _World Politics_, XXIII, No. 1,
+    October 1970, 38-60.
+
+  Matley, Ian M. _Romania: A Profile._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Olson, Kenneth E. _The History Makers._ Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
+    University Press, 1966.
+
+  "Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in _Europa Yearbook, 1971_, I. London:
+    Europa Publications, 1971.
+
+  "Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), _Worldmark Encyclopedia of
+    the Nations_, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
+
+  Schoepflin, George (ed.). _The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1970.
+
+  Special Operations Research Office. The American University. Pages
+    1-69 in _Mass Communications in Eastern Europe-Romania_, VII.
+    Washington: GPO, 1958.
+
+  Stanley, Timothy W., and Whitt, Darnell M. _Detente Diplomacy: United
+    States and European Security in the 1970s._ Cambridge: Harvard
+    University Press, 1970.
+
+  _The Stateman's Year Book, 1971-1972._ (Ed., J. Paxton.) New York:
+    Saint Martin's Press, 1971.
+
+  _Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._
+    Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
+
+  Stebbins, R., and Amoia, A. _Political Handbook and Atlas of the
+    World._ New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970.
+
+  Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," _Manchester
+    Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972,
+    6.
+
+  ----. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," _Manchester Guardian
+    Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
+
+  "Television in Eastern Europe," _East Europe_, XV, No. 4, April 1966,
+    12-16.
+
+  Triska, Jan F. (ed.) _Constitutions of the Communist Party-States._
+    Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968.
+
+  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
+    _World Communications._ New York: 1970.
+
+  _United Nations Statistical Yearbook._ New York: United Nations
+    Statistical Office, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Congress. 80th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign
+    Relations. _The Warsaw Pact: Its Role in Soviet Bloc Affairs._
+    Washington: GPO, 1966.
+
+  U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session. Committee on the Judiciary. _World
+    Communism, 1967-1969: Soviet Efforts to Re-establish Control._
+    Washington: GPO, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS (Washington). The following
+    items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern Europe:
+    Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
+
+    "Ceausescu on Film Industry Shortcomings," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, March 7, 1970. (JPRS: 52,712, Series No. 330,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Cultural Responsibility of Editors," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      August 18, 1971. (JPRS: 54,448, Series No. 437, 1971.)
+
+    "Culture, Ideology and Current Events," _Luceafarul_, Bucharest,
+      May 11, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Series No. 9, 1968.)
+
+    "Current Publishing System Described," _Carti Noi_, Bucharest,
+      August 1971. (JPRS: 54,538, Series No. 443, 1971.)
+
+    "Democracy Equated with Worker Participation," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 391, 1971.)
+
+    "Draft Law on Establishing Judicial Commissions," _Romania
+      Libera_, Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series
+      No. 54, 1968.)
+
+    "Favoritism Hampers Bucharest Film Enterprise," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, March 15, 1970. (JPRS: 50,335, Series No. 206,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Fight Against Immoral Foreign Films Urged," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, July 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,927, Series No. 406, 1971.)
+
+    "Judicial Commissions Seen as Development," _Munca_, Bucharest,
+      November 7, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 55, 1968.)
+
+    "Mass and Public Organizations Studied," _Revista Romana de
+      Drept_, Bucharest, Vol. VI, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series
+      No. 30, 1968.)
+
+    "Measure Related to Operative of State Committee for Culture and
+      Art," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, July 24, 1970. (JPRS: 51,561, Series No. 271,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Membership in State Committee for Culture and Art Presented,"
+      _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, July 25, 1970. (JPRS: 51,507, Series No. 269,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Membership of Romanian National Radio-Television Council,"
+      _Munca_, Bucharest, March 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,052, Series No.
+      349, 1971.)
+
+    "National Sovereignty, Internationalism Discussed," _Lupta de
+      Clasa_, Bucharest, Vol. 4, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,631, Series
+      No. 221, 1970.)
+
+    "New Rules Govern State Radio-TV Committee," _Buletinul Oficial
+      al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, September 21,
+      1971. (JPRS: 54,687, Series No. 453, 1971.)
+
+    "Organization of Planning Commissions," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, Part I, No. 87,
+      July 20, 1970. (JPRS: 51,690, Series No. 280, 1970.)
+
+    "Party Initiative in Perfecting Socialist Law," _Munca_,
+      Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499, Series No. 376,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Party-Minded Principles Govern Ideology," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,641, Series No. 450, 1971.)
+
+    "Popescu Speaks at Party Conference on TV Problems," _Presa
+      Noastra_, Bucharest, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,854, Series No.
+      231, 1971.)
+
+    "Problems in Publishing Sociopolitical Literature," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, November 30, 1971. (JPRS: 54,835, Series No. 461,
+      1972.)
+
+    "Responsibilities of Editors Outlined," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      May 16, 1969. (JPRS: 48,291, Series No. 107, 1969.)
+
+    "Socialist Unity Front National Council Members," _Romania
+      Libera_, Bucharest, November 20, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series
+      No. 59, 1969.)
+
+    "Textbook Publication Schedule Lags," _Scinteia_, Bucharest,
+      January 16, 1971. (JPRS: 52,347, Series No. 311, 1971.)
+
+    "Training of Cadres in Local Administration and Economy,"
+      _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499,
+      Series No. 376, 1971.)
+
+    "Trofin Attacks Radio-TV Producers for Indecent Attitudes,"
+      _Munca_, Bucharest, August 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,958, Series No.
+      407, 1971.)
+
+    "Work of Association of Jurists in Developing Socialist
+      Awareness," _Revista Romana de Drept_, Bucharest, May 1971.
+      (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 392, 1971.)
+
+  Urbanek, Lida. "Romania." Pages 714-727 in Richard F. Staar (ed.),
+    _Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1969._ Stanford:
+    Hoover Institution Press, 1970.
+
+  ----. "Romania." Pages 75-84 in Richard F. Staar (ed.), _Yearbook on
+    International Communist Affairs, 1970._ Stanford: Hoover Institution
+    Press, 1971.
+
+  Wolfe, Thomas W. _Soviet Power and Europe 1965-1969._ Santa Monica:
+    Rand Corporation, 1969.
+
+  _World of Learning, 1970-1971._ London: Europa Publications, 1970.
+
+  _World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971._ (Ed., J.M. Frost.) Hvidovre, Denmark:
+    World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971.
+
+  (Various issues of the following periodicals were also used in the
+    preparation of this section: _Current History_ [Philadelphia], April
+    1967; _East Europe_ [New York], January 1967-December 1971;
+    _Economist-Foreign Report_ [London], August-December 1971;
+    _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], January 1, 1972;
+    _Newsweek_ [New York], July 20, 1970, and August 9, 1971; _New York
+    Times,_ November 5, 1971-January 1972; _Washington Post_, October
+    19-December 27, 1971.)
+
+
+Section III. NATIONAL SECURITY
+
+  Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). _International Population Reports._ (U.S.
+    Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO,
+    1969.
+
+  Blumenfeld, Yorick. _Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe._ New
+    York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968.
+
+  Bromke, Adam (ed.). _The Communist States at the Crossroads._ New
+    York: Praeger, 1965.
+
+  Dupuy, T.N. _Almanac of World Military Power._ Dun Loring, Virginia:
+    T.N. Dupuy Associates, 1970.
+
+  Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _The New Rumania._ Cambridge: Massachusetts
+    Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  Liber, Benzion, M.D. _The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited
+    After Sixty Years._ New York: Rational Living, 1958.
+
+  Mackintosh, May. _Rumania._ London: Robert Hale, 1963.
+
+  _The Military Balance, 1970-1971._ London: Institute for Strategic
+    Studies, 1970.
+
+  "Rumania." Pages 726-746 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago:
+    William Benton, 1969.
+
+  _Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._
+    Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington). The
+    following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern
+    Europe: Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
+
+    "Border Guards Removed from Ministry of Internal Affairs,"
+      _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_,
+      Bucharest, September 25, 1971. (JPRS: 54,397, Series No. 429,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Collaboration with Armies of All Socialist Countries
+      Stressed," _Scinteia_, May 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,397, Series No.
+      370, 1971.)
+
+    "Decree on Border Protection System Passed," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, November 14, 1969. (JPRS: 49,241, Series No. 156,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Decree Organizes Office of Prosecutor General," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, September 29, 1971. (JPRS: 54,361, Series No. 432,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Draft Law Established Judicial Commissions," _Romania Libera_,
+      Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series No. 54,
+      1968.)
+
+    "Law Concerning Public Prosecutor's Office Passes," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Law on Execution of Penalties Adopted," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 18, 1969.
+      (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)
+
+    "Law on Police Organization, Functions Adopted," _Buletinul
+      Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November
+      18, 1969. (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)
+
+    "Law Passed on Organization of Court System," _Scinteia_,
+      Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73,
+      1969.)
+
+    "Mass and Public Organizations Studied," _Revista Romana de
+      Drept_, No. 6, Bucharest, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series No.
+      30, 1968.)
+
+    "New Law on Identification Cards, Moving, Residence," _Romania
+      Libera_, Bucharest, March 19, 1971. (JPRS: 53,014, Series No.
+      347, 1971.)
+
+    "Provisions of the New Penal Code Explained." _Revista Romana de
+      Drept_, Bucharest, December 1968. (JPRS: 47,525, Series No.
+      72, 1969.)
+
+    "Rumanian Code of Criminal Procedure," _Buletinul Oficial al
+      Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 12, 1968.
+      (JPRS: 47,556, Series No. 74, 1969.)
+
+    "Statute of Union of Communist Youth," _Scinteia Tineretului_,
+      Bucharest, February 27, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726, Series No. 331,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Supreme Court Chairman Discusses Laws, Freedom," _Scinteia
+      Tineretului_, Bucharest, February 5, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726,
+      Series No. 331, 1971.)
+
+    "Training Youth for Military Described," _Viata Militara_,
+      Bucharest, July 1969. (JPRS: 48,913, Series No. 136, 1969.)
+
+    "Training Youth for National Defense," _Sport si Technica_,
+      Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 52,888, Series No. 340,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Warsaw Pact Defends Against Imperialism," _Romania Libera_,
+      Bucharest, May 7, 1971. (JPRS: 53,454, Series No. 374, 1971.)
+
+Section IV. ECONOMIC
+
+  _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970._
+    (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970).
+    Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.
+
+  Montias, John Michael. _Economic Development in Communist Romania._
+    Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
+
+  U.S. Congress. 91st, 2d Session. Joint Economic Committee. _Economic
+    Developments in Countries of Eastern Europe._ Washington: GPO, 1970.
+
+  U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. _The
+    Agricultural Economy and Trade of Romania._ (ERS-Foreign 320.)
+    Washington: GPO, 1971.
+
+  U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint
+    Publications Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington). The
+    following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern
+    Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs_.
+
+    "Activities of Romanian Foreign Trade Banks Noted," _Finante si
+      Credit_, Bucharest, August 1971. (JPRS: 54,541, Series No.
+      568, 1971.)
+
+    "Antiquated Methods Hinder Conclusion of Economic Contracts,"
+      _Scinteia_, Bucharest, June 13, 1971. (JPRS: 53,695, Series
+      No. 506, 1971.)
+
+    "Better Use of Economic Potential," _Probleme Economice_,
+      Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,416, Series No. 485, 1971.)
+
+    "Development of National Income Discussed," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,521, Series No.
+      491, 1971.)
+
+    "Development of Trade with Socialist Countries Detailed," _Viata
+      Economica_, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 53,001, Series
+      No. 459, 1971.)
+
+    "Economic Planning Process Described," _Lupta de Clasa_,
+      Bucharest, July 1971. (JPRS: 53,945, Series No. 524, 1971.)
+
+    "Foreign Trade, 1966-1970 Reviewed," _Viata Economica_,
+      Bucharest, February 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,736, Series No. 441,
+      1971.)
+
+    "Foreign Trade Reform Analyzed," _Vierteljahresshefte zur
+      Wirtschaftsvorschung_, West Berlin, July-September 1971.
+      (JPRS: 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971.)
+
+    "Improvement of Wholesale Prices Discussed by Specialists,"
+      _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, September 11, 1970. (JPRS:
+      51,680, Series No. 368, 1970.)
+
+    "Improvement of Wholesale Price System," _Viata Economica_,
+      Bucharest, September 18 and 25, 1970; October 2 and 16, 1970.
+      (JPRS: 52,117, Series No. 398, 1970.)
+
+    "Interest Rates in New Credit System," _Viata Economica_,
+      Bucharest, October 9, 1970. (JPRS: 52,001, Series No. 389,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Local Budgetary Problems, Proposed Measures Cited," _Finante si
+      Credit_, September 1971. (JPRS: 54,748, Series No. 584, 1971.)
+
+    "Manpower Distribution Analyzed," _Revista de Statistica_,
+      Bucharest, November 1970. (JPRS: 52,236, Series No. 407,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Measures for Increasing Foreign Trade Efficiency," _Gazeta
+      Finantelor_, Bucharest, December 22, 1970. (JPRS: 52,510,
+      Series No. 426, 1970.)
+
+    "Modernization of Planning Advocated," _Probleme Economice_,
+      Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,614, Series No. 434,
+      1970.)
+
+    "National Income in 1966-1970, 1971-1975," _Probleme Economice_,
+      Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,755, Series No. 510, 1971.)
+
+    "New Methods for Planning Agriculture Discussed," _Agricultura_,
+      Bucharest, December 10, 1970. (JPRS: 52,324, Series No. 413,
+      1970.)
+
+    "Profits Termed Essential Indicator of Economic Efficiency,"
+      _Scinteia_, Bucharest, November 27, 1971. (JPRS: 54,748,
+      Series No. 584, 1971.)
+
+    "Relationship of Domestic, Foreign Prices Influences Export
+      Efficiency," _Finante si Credit_, Bucharest, June 1971. (JPRS:
+      54,056, Series No. 531, 1971.)
+
+    "Significance of Accumulation Rate Analyzed," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,558, Series No.
+      570, 1971.)
+
+    "Socialist Planning in Light of World Planning," _Probleme
+      Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,392, Series No.
+      484, 1971.)
+
+    "Structural Changes in Manpower Distribution in 1966-1970,"
+      _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,942,
+      Series No. 454, 1971.)
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+  centrals--Industrial associations that group enterprises engaged in
+    the same or similar lines of production or enterprises at
+    successive stages of production as, for example, iron mines and
+    steel mills.
+
+  COMECON--Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. Founded in 1949;
+    headquartered in Moscow. Members are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East
+    Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.
+    Purpose is to further economic cooperation among members.
+
+  _judet_ (pl., _judete_)--Local administrative division corresponding
+    to county or district. There are thirty-nine such counties plus the
+    municipality of Bucharest, which is administered as a judet. There
+    is no intermediate level between the central government and the
+    _judet_ government.
+
+  leu (pl., lei)--Standard unit of currency. Officially rated at the
+    level of 1 leu to US$0.18, the actual exchange rate varies according
+    to specific transactions, such as tourist exchange, foreign trade
+    exchange, hard currency purchase, or black-market transaction.
+
+  PCR--Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party). Founded in
+    1921. Declared illegal in 1924; operated underground until 1944.
+    Known as Romanian Workers' Party from 1948 until 1965.
+
+  UGSR--Uniunea Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania (General Union of
+    Trade Unions). Official organization incorporating all labor unions
+    of blue- and white-collar workers. Estimated membership in 1972 was
+    4.6 million.
+
+  UTC--Uniunea Tineretului Comunist (Union of Communist Youth). Official
+    organization that functions as the youth branch of the PCR (_q.v._).
+    Membership open to young people between ages fifteen and twenty-six.
+    Membership estimated in early 1972 at 2.5 million.
+
+  Warsaw Treaty Organization--Formal name for Warsaw Pact. Military
+    alliance of communist countries founded in 1955, with headquarters
+    in Moscow. The Soviet minister of defense is traditionally the
+    supreme commander of Warsaw Pact forces. Members are Bulgaria,
+    Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the
+    Soviet Union.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ abortion: 39, 57
+
+ administrative divisions: viii, 38
+
+ adult education: 7, 86-87
+
+ Africa: 156, 163, 168, 171, 172, 182, 183
+
+ Agerpres. _See_ Romanian Press Agency
+
+ Agricultural Bank: 261, 267
+
+ Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises: 262-264, 267
+
+ agriculture (_see also_ collective farms; livestock): v, viii, 8, 30, 31,
+     36, 41, 227, 229, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 241;
+   Commission, 117;
+   education, 76, 85, 87, 145;
+   labor, viii, 61, 233, 253, 262, 264-266;
+   production, 269-273, 274
+
+ aid foreign (_see also_ Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): 26, 103,
+     167, 169, 279;
+  military, 211-212, 216, 223
+
+ air forces: ix, 7, 211, 213, 214, 215-216, 219, 221, 224
+
+ air transport: ix, 45, 46-47, 196, 216
+
+ Albania: 27, 39, 42, 158, 166, 167, 172
+
+ Alecsandri, Vasile: 105
+
+ Alexandrescu, Grigore: 104
+
+ Allied Control Commission: 21, 24
+
+ Allies. _See_ World War I; World War II
+
+ Aman, Theodor: 97
+
+ Anti-Comintern Pact: 21
+
+ anti-Semitism: 17, 19, 56
+
+ anti-subversion. _See_ counter-subversion
+
+ Antonescu, Ion: 21, 175
+
+ Apostol, Gheorghe: 130, 131, 134, 136
+
+ Arad: 44, 193
+
+ archaeology: 94, 95, 99
+
+ architecture: 76, 99-100
+
+ Arghezi, Tudor: 106
+
+ aristocracy: 6, 12, 56, 75
+
+ armed forces (_see also_ military): ix, 7, 15, 16, 119, 120, 121, 133,
+     161, 200, 203, 211-216, 221-227;
+   command, 112, 116, 173, 213;
+   training, 220-221, 223
+
+ army (_see also_ ground force): ix, 7
+
+ arts and the artists: 7, 91, 92-94, 135, 152, 180;
+   education, 76, 81, 84, 85, 97;
+   union, 135
+
+ Asachi, Gheorghe: 104
+
+ Asia: 156, 163, 168, 171, 182, 183, 219
+
+ Aslan, Ana: 107
+
+ atheism: 5
+
+ Aurelian, Emperor: 11, 50
+
+ Austria (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 20, 24, 33, 46, 54
+
+ Austro-Hungarian Empire (_see also_ Habsburgs; Hungary): 9, 13, 14, 18,
+    33, 37
+
+ automobiles (_see also_ traffic): 42, 203-204, 288
+
+ Avars: 11
+
+
+ Baia-Mare: 44, 52
+
+ Balaga, Lucian: 106
+
+ Balcescu, Nicolae: 104
+
+ Balkans: 22, 29, 163, 167, 170, 171, 185, 211;
+   history, 3, 9, 10
+
+ Banat: 10, 11, 32, 254;
+   population, 52, 53, 55
+
+ Banks for Agriculture and the Food Industry: 242, 243, 244, 267-268
+
+ banks and banking (_see also_ individual banks): 110, 242-246
+
+ Bessarabia: 18, 20, 37, 54, 55, 212
+
+ Bihor Massif: 30, 31
+
+ birth control: 39
+
+ birth rate: 39-40, 57
+
+ Black Forest: 34
+
+ Black Sea: vii, xiv, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 46, 47, 48, 216, 217, 218,
+     224, 276;
+   history, 10
+
+ Bokassa, Jean Bebel, president of the Central African Republic: 172
+
+ Book Central: 187, 188
+
+ Boris, Tsar: 11
+
+ boundaries, national (_see also_ individual neighboring countries):
+     vii, xiv, 9, 29, 32, 37-38, 211
+
+ Braila: 48
+
+ Brancusi, Constantin: 98
+
+ Brasov: 38, 44, 53, 102, 182
+
+ Brezhnev, Leonid: 165;
+   doctrine, 28, 159, 160, 164, 165
+
+ Brincoveanu, Constantin, Prince: 100
+
+ Bucharest: viii, xiv, 10, 15, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 67, 70, 147, 148, 155,
+     163, 207, 214, 221, 254, 263;
+   cultural, 67, 91, 96, 97, 98, 104, 107;
+   government, 122, 123, 125;
+   history, 16, 18, 19, 21;
+   information, 177, 181, 182, 186, 188, 189;
+   politics, 139, 141, 142, 147;
+   population, 38, 41, 54;
+   security, 195, 213, 216;
+   transport, 43, 44, 47
+
+ Bucharest Declaration: 168, 218
+
+ budget: 41, 112, 116, 120, 240-241, 248, 286;
+   local, 126
+
+ Bukovina: 10, 18, 20, 33, 37, 71, 72, 212
+
+ Bulgaria: 7, 37, 165-166, 167, 172, 182, 218, 219, 276, 278, 279;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 32, 48, 216, 217;
+   history, 11, 20, 212
+
+
+ canals: ix, 29, 31, 46
+
+ Cantemir, Dimitrie: 104
+
+ capital punishment: 205
+
+ Carol I, King: 16, 17, 18
+
+ Carol II, King: 19, 20, 21, 175
+
+ Carpathian Mountains: vii, 29, 30, 31, 47, 94;
+   history, 11, 50
+
+ Ceausescu, Nicolae: 1, 2, 3, 27, 28, 93, 109, 113, 118, 119, 124-125,
+     127, 129, 130, 131-134, 136, 139, 140, 142, 144, 148, 149, 150, 151,
+     152, 153, 154, 184, 206, 213;
+   foreign relations, 7-8, 28, 132, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165,
+     166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172-173
+
+ censorship (_see also_ freedom of expression): 176
+
+ census: 54, 55;
+   (1930), 79;
+   (1956), 54, 79;
+   (1966), 39, 49, 52, 143
+
+ Central European System: 185
+
+ cereals: 254, 255, 256, 272, 273, 274
+
+ Cernavoda: 43, 44
+
+ Cernavoda-Silistra: 279
+
+ Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. _See_ Carol I
+
+ chernozem: 35, 254
+
+ children (_see also_ students): 6, 14, 40, 57, 58, 183, 187, 199, 200;
+   care, 80, 82-83;
+   education, 74, 75, 76, 79, 82
+
+ Christianity (_see also_ Protestants; Roman Catholicism; Romanian
+     Orthodox Church): introduction of, 11, 67
+
+ church-state relations: viii, 4, 5, 66-67, 68, 69, 70
+
+ civil rights (_see also_ freedom of expression; ownership; religion;
+     suffrage): 3, 16, 66, 111-112, 113, 146, 150, 151, 176, 194, 201, 206
+
+ clergy: 5, 14, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70;
+   training, 66, 69, 72, 112
+
+ climate: vii, 29, 33, 34-35, 36, 253, 254
+
+ Cluj: 44, 52, 71, 72, 91, 102, 182, 186, 189, 213
+
+ coal: 238, 276-277, 288
+
+ _cobza_: 100
+
+ Codreanu, Corneliu: 20
+
+ collective farms: 24, 41, 58, 87, 194, 230, 236, 244, 257-261, 262, 263,
+     266, 267, 273, 280;
+   labor, vii, 264
+
+ College of Saint Sava: 104
+
+ commerce (_see also_ trade): 15
+
+ Communists and communism (_see also_ Romanian Communist Party): v, 3,
+     56, 127, 157;
+   and culture, 91, 92-94, 98, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107;
+   and economy, 8, 24, 49, 132, 133, 149-150, 229, 234, 275;
+   and education, 73-74, 76-77, 78;
+   government, 2-3, 24-28, 38, 110;
+   and information, 176, 183, 185, 189;
+   and religion, 4, 5, 65, 68, 70;
+   rise to power, 9, 22-24;
+   and social structure, 6, 49, 58-62
+
+ Concordat (1927): 69
+
+ Congress of Paris: 16
+
+ conscripts and conscription (_see also_ military): 7, 212, 219, 220,
+     221, 223
+
+ Constanta: 4, 44, 47, 182, 216, 217, 276
+
+ Constitution: 3, 5, 116;
+   (1866), 16, 17;
+   (1923), 18; (1938), 20;
+   (1948), 5, 110, 111;
+   (1952), 5, 110, 112, 119, 150;
+   (1965), vii, 5, 28, 66, 109, 110, 113-114, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122,
+     124, 125, 126, 146, 160, 161, 163, 206;
+   Commission, 116, 117;
+   development, 110-113
+
+ construction: 227, 232, 256, 257, 279, 280, 283, 287;
+   private, 242, 245;
+   youth, 201
+ consumer goods: 149, 229, 232, 235, 237, 239, 241, 251, 287-288;
+   export, viii;
+   production, 8, 30, 42
+
+ cooperatives: 82, 85, 114, 126, 127;
+   agricultural, 59, 153
+
+ Council of Ministers: 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119-121, 123,
+     124, 133, 140, 147, 161, 162, 176, 195, 198, 200, 214, 230, 240,
+     241, 243, 244, 256
+
+ Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON): iv, 1, 2, 8, 26, 27,
+     150, 156, 157-158, 159, 161, 164, 168, 169, 172, 173, 174, 247,
+     249-250, 275
+
+ Council of Romanian Radio and Television: 182, 184
+
+ Council on Socialist Culture and Education: 94, 120, 176, 181, 186, 189
+
+ Council of State: vii, 109, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117-119, 121, 122, 124,
+     125, 133, 140, 161, 162, 230, 240, 256, 289
+
+ Council of State Security: 119, 120, 121
+
+ counter-subversion: ix, 194, 202, 205
+
+ county. _See judet_
+
+ courts: viii, 115, 122-124, 194, 200, 205, 206-207;
+   military, 223
+
+ credit policies: 242, 245-246, 260, 266, 267-269
+
+ crime (_see also_ penal system): 193, 194, 196, 199, 201-203, 205, 206,
+     223, 257
+
+ Crimean War: 16
+
+ _Crisana_: 10, 32, 179
+
+ cultural activity (_see also_ architecture; arts and the artists; folk
+     culture; literature; music; painting; sculpture): 4, 7, 12, 14, 41,
+     52, 53, 54, 85, 87, 91, 92, 152
+
+ cultural influences: 4, 7, 12, 14-15, 50, 51, 62, 63, 69, 76, 93, 95,
+     96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106;
+   nationalism, 7, 92, 97, 102, 104
+
+ currency (_see also_ exchange): 246-247
+
+ Cuza, Alexander: 16
+
+ Cyrillic alphabet: 14
+
+ Czechoslovakia: xiv, 20, 21, 30, 46, 163, 165, 172, 182, 190, 218, 224,
+     250, 278;
+   invasion of, 7, 9, 28, 119, 135, 150, 154, 159, 164, 165, 166, 170,
+     172, 211, 218
+
+
+ Dacia (_see also_ Dacians): 3, 11, 50, 67, 99
+
+ _Dacia Literata_: 104
+
+ Dacians (_see also_ Dacia; Daco-Romans): 2, 10, 11, 14, 50
+
+ Daco-Romans: 3
+
+ Danube River: 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45-46, 47, 48, 55,
+     167, 216, 217, 254, 279;
+   history, 10, 11, 12, 99
+
+ death rate: 39
+
+ defense (_see also_ armed forces; security): 116, 195, 241;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ Defence Council: 115, 118, 121, 133, 135, 140, 173, 213, 214
+
+ Densus: 99
+
+ Department of Cults: 5, 66
+
+ _Description of Moldavia_: 104
+
+ divorce: 57, 58
+
+ Dobruja: vii, 31, 32, 33, 34, 72, 99, 253;
+   history, 10, 20, 37;
+   population, 41, 55
+
+ Dogmatic Period: 92, 93
+
+ Dragan, Mircea: 103
+
+ Draghici, Alexandru: 130, 131, 134
+
+ droughts: 254
+
+ Dubcek, Alexander: 165
+
+
+ Eastern Europe: v, 8, 68, 94, 110, 155, 156, 158, 165, 166, 169, 172,
+     173, 182, 216, 218, 262;
+   economic relations, viii, 26, 170, 248
+
+ Eastern Orthodox Church (_see also_ Romanian Orthodox Church): 11, 13,
+     14, 53, 67, 99
+
+ Economic Council: 115, 119
+
+ economic development (_see also_ Five Year Plan): viii, 6, 8, 17, 61,
+     73, 119, 149-150, 156, 161, 242;
+   plans, 234-237, 242
+
+ economy (_see also_ agriculture; economic development; finance;
+     industry): v, viii, 8, 24, 25, 26, 42, 112, 113, 116, 120, 132,
+     133, 149, 158, 174, 226-227, 229-237;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ education (_see also_ adult education; indoctrination; schools;
+     technical/vocational education; universities): viii, 4, 6-7, 14, 15,
+     16, 60, 61, 62, 66, 73-83, 126, 200;
+   Act (1964), 74;
+   Commission, 117;
+   curricula, viii, 7, 74, 75, 77, 78, 82;
+   higher, 6, 59, 61, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 84, 85-86, 107-108;
+   law (1948), 77;
+   law (1968), 78, 87;
+   traffic, 204
+
+ Eforie Nord: 100
+
+ elections: vii, 23, 116, 117, 126-127;
+   (1937), 19;
+   (1948), 24;
+   (1969), 127, 135
+
+ electricity: ix, 277, 278-279, 288;
+   hydro, 29, 36, 167, 278, 279
+
+ elite class: 6, 60
+
+ emigration: 40-41, 53, 71;
+   illegal, 203;
+   Jews, 4, 72
+
+ Eminescu, Mihail: 105, 106
+
+ employment (_see also_ labor; wages): 41, 59, 84, 154, 195, 233-234,
+     253, 265, 266, 280, 284-286
+
+ Enescu, Georghe: 101
+
+ English language: 83, 181, 183
+
+ ethnic groups (_see also_ individual groups; minority ethnic groups):
+     vii, 3, 49-50, 55-56
+
+ European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan): 26, 157
+
+ Everac, Paul: 102
+
+ exchange, foreign: ix, 187, 230, 242, 244, 247
+
+ expenditure: 241
+
+ export: 236, 239, 244, 248-249, 251, 253, 286;
+   agricultural, viii, 36, 230, 273
+
+ Export-Import Bank: 251
+
+
+ family: 49, 56-58, 226, 257, 259
+
+ fauna. _See_ wildlife
+
+ Federal Republic of Germany: 28, 34, 43, 53, 159, 164, 165, 168-170,
+     190, 288
+
+ Ferdinand, King: 18, 19
+
+ films: 103, 175, 177, 189-190
+
+ finance (_see also_ budget; foreign exchange; investment; taxation;
+     trade): viii-ix
+
+ fishing and fisheries: 33
+
+ Five-Year Plan: viii, 8;
+   (1960-65), 26;
+   (1971-75), 8, 149-150, 229, 230, 245, 266, 275
+
+ floods: 43, 173, 208, 222, 227, 255, 270
+
+ folk culture: 65, 91, 94-96, 98, 100-101, 105
+
+ foodstuffs: 42-43; export, viii, 30
+
+ foreign exchange. _See_ exchange
+
+ foreign relations: 1, 2, 7, 25, 27, 28, 63, 118, 134, 136, 139, 154,
+     155, 162-174;
+   Commission, 117;
+   diplomatic representation, 118, 155, 159, 162, 163, 164-172;
+   economic. _See_ trade;
+   policy, 116, 120, 133, 152, 156-162, 175
+
+ forests and forestry: 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36, 85, 233, 255, 277-278, 284;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ France: 16, 20, 103, 168, 171, 212, 250;
+   cultural influence, 15, 62, 63, 76, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 190;
+   language, 83, 181, 183
+
+ freedom of expression (_see also_ press): 91-92, 111, 113, 175, 176
+
+ frontier troops: ix, 7, 211, 213, 214, 217, 221
+
+ fruit (_see also_ orchards and vineyards): 254, 272
+
+
+ Galati: 44, 48
+
+ gems: 243, 247
+
+ General Military Academy, Bucharest: 214, 221
+
+ General Regulation for Religious Cults (1948): 66, 70
+
+ General Union of Trade Unions: 120, 121, 133, 134, 136, 147, 148-149,
+     178, 198, 237, 243
+
+ geology: 30-32
+
+ Georgescu, Ion: 98
+
+ German Democratic Republic: 165, 172, 182, 190, 250
+
+ German ethnic group (_see also_ German language): vii, viii, 3, 4, 18,
+     49, 51, 53-54, 55, 56, 57, 69, 71, 102, 127, 135, 143, 151;
+   history, 11, 99
+
+ German language: vii, 51, 53, 54, 69, 83, 89, 180, 181, 183
+
+ Germany (_see also_ Federal Republic of Germany; German Democratic
+     Republic; Nazis): 18, 71, 101, 107, 212
+
+ Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe: 3, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 47, 110, 112, 130, 131,
+     134, 168;
+   foreign relations, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165
+
+ Giurgiu: 43, 44
+
+ gold: 277
+
+ Goths: 50
+
+ government (_see also_ Constitution; local government): vii, 17,
+     109-110, 115,
+  central, 114-124, 126
+
+ Grand National Assembly: 88, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121,
+     122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 133, 140, 151, 161, 162, 173, 237, 240, 241
+
+ Great Britain: 20, 23, 158, 171, 190, 212
+
+ Greater Romania: 18
+
+ Greece: 170-171
+
+ Grigorescu, Nicolae: 97
+
+ gross national product (GNP): 227, 233
+
+ ground force: 215, 224
+
+ Groza Petru: 23
+
+
+ Habsburgs (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 14
+
+ handcrafts: 94-96
+
+ health: 42, 126;
+   Commission, 117;
+   education, 85
+
+ Heinemann, Gustav, president of the federal Republic of Germany: 170
+
+ Higher Political Council: 213
+
+ _History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire_: 104
+
+ Hitler, Adolf: 20
+
+ Holy See. _See_ Vatican
+
+ housing: 40, 41, 42, 57, 58, 59, 61, 99, 195, 201, 233, 245, 256
+
+ Hungarian Autonomous Region (Mures-Magyar): 52, 111, 114, 150
+
+ Hungarian ethnic group (Magyars) (_see also_ Hungarian language): vii,
+     viii, 3, 4, 18, 49, 51, 52-53, 55, 56, 57, 69, 71, 72, 102, 111,
+     127, 135, 143, 151, 166;
+   history, 3, 11, 13, 37, 52, 63, 99
+
+ Hungarian language: vii, 51, 53, 69, 83, 89, 180, 181, 183
+
+ Hungarian People's Union: 23
+
+ Hungary (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 37, 43, 46, 54, 163, 165,
+     166, 167, 172, 182;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 38, 52, 203, 217;
+   history, 11, 19, 20, 21, 52, 53, 55, 67;
+   revolt, 26, 157
+
+
+ Iasi: 15, 105, 182, 186, 189, 213
+
+ ideological campaign: 152, 153, 154, 175, 178, 184
+
+ imports: 229, 239, 248, 249, 251, 253, 277, 284, 287;
+   substitute, 244
+
+ income: 40, 41, 59, 60, 61, 153, 240, 260, 264;
+   church, 66;
+   national, 231, 232, 253;
+   per capita, 230
+
+ independence: 15-17, 113, 135, 160;
+   'declaration of', 1, 2, 27
+
+ indoctrination, political (_see also_ propaganda): viii, ix, 132, 133,
+     139, 141, 144, 145, 146, 175, 176, 178, 183, 191, 201;
+   armed forces, 211, 221-222;
+   youth, 7, 73, 76, 77, 78-79, 80, 83, 84, 87, 132, 148, 180
+
+ industrialization (_see also_ industry): v, 6, 8, 15, 17, 18, 26, 41,
+     43, 49, 77, 85, 150, 161, 229, 247, 251, 253
+
+ industry (_see also_ construction; electricity; industrialization;
+     investment; nationalization): viii, 25, 110, 149, 157, 229-230, 232,
+     233, 275-283, 287-289;
+   commission, 117;
+   labor, vii-viii, 61, 264, 275, 283-286
+
+ information (_see also_ newspapers; periodicals; press; radio;
+     television): ix, 65, 175-177, 190-191;
+   foreign, 132, 152, 175, 181-182, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190
+
+ Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies: 139, 145
+
+ intelligentsia (_see also_ arts and the artists; professionals): 59, 60,
+     62, 142, 148
+
+ international commitments (_see also_ individual pacts): v, ix, 121,
+     160, 172-174, 218-219
+
+ Intervision: 185
+
+ Investment Bank: 242, 243-244
+
+ investment, capital: 30, 42, 229, 233, 243, 268;
+   in agriculture, viii, 266-267; foreign, 18;
+   in industry, viii, 232, 275, 286-287
+
+ Ionescu, Eugene: 102
+
+ iron: 277, 288
+
+ Iron Gate: 31, 34, 55;
+   hydroelectricity, 167, 279
+
+ Iron Guard: 19, 20, 21
+
+ irrigation: 201, 227, 254
+
+ Islam: 4, 72
+
+ Israel: 4, 28, 41, 72, 159, 164, 171
+
+ Italy: 20, 21, 101, 168, 171, 190, 250
+
+
+ Jalea, Ion: 98
+
+ Japan: 21
+
+ Jews and Judaism: 3, 4, 17, 18, 19, 41, 54, 56, 72, 199
+
+ Jiu Valley: 276
+
+ journalists: 7
+
+ _judet_: 109, 110, 114, 124, 148;
+   courts, 122, 123, 124, 207;
+   political, 137, 141, 142;
+   security, 195
+
+ judges: 122, 206, 223
+
+ judiciary (_see also_ courts; military): 122-124, 194, 202, 206
+
+ Junimea: 105
+
+ justice (_see also_ courts; judiciary; military; penal system): viii
+
+ Justinian, patriarch: 70
+
+
+ Khrushchev, Nikita, premier of the Soviet Union: 2, 25, 26, 156, 157, 166
+
+ Kingdom of Romania: v, vii, 16, 18, 19
+
+ Kiselev, Pavel, Count: 15
+
+ Koenig, Cardinal: 70
+
+ Kogalniceanu, Mihail: 104, 105
+
+
+ labor force (_see also_ labor unions): vii-viii, 43, 57, 73, 149, 211,
+     226, 230, 233, 253, 262, 264-266, 269, 280, 282, 283-286;
+   code, 197;
+   conditions of, 111;
+   disputes, 123
+
+ labor unions (_see also_ General Union of Trade Unions): 5, 22, 80, 87,
+     123, 126, 127, 132, 135, 144, 176, 180, 199, 243
+
+ lakes: 32, 33-34
+
+ land (_see also_ forests and forestry; marshland; reform): viii, 237;
+   agricultural, 33, 36, 254-257;
+   conservation, 256, 257;
+   ownership, 230
+
+ languages (_see also_ individual languages): vii, 4, 83, 87, 88, 177,
+     181, 183
+
+ _lautari_: 100
+
+ leu: viii, 246, 305
+
+ Liberal Party: 18, 19, 23
+
+ libraries: 188-189
+
+ life expectancy: 39, 42
+
+ Lipatti, Dinu: 101
+
+ literacy: 6, 68, 73, 76, 79, 219
+
+ literature: 7, 14, 93, 103-107, 152, 187
+
+ livestock: 260;
+   products, 253, 254, 268, 269-270, 271, 272, 273, 274
+
+ living standards: 17, 30, 41-43, 57, 59, 60, 61, 88, 149, 153, 202, 239,
+     240, 264
+
+ local government: viii, 6, 38, 109, 110, 111, 114, 124-126, 198
+
+ _Luceafarul_: 105
+
+ Luchian, Stefan: 97
+
+ Lupescu, Magda: 19
+
+
+ Magyars. _See_ Hungarian ethnic group
+
+ Mairescu, Titu: 105
+
+ Mamaia: 100
+
+ Manescu, Corneliu: 162
+
+ Manescu, Manea: 140
+
+ Mangalia: 48, 100, 216
+
+ Maniu, Iuliu: 19
+
+ Maramures: 10, 32
+
+ marriage: 57, 195
+
+ Marshall Plan. _See_ European Recovery Program
+
+ marshland: 31, 32, 34, 35, 41, 43
+
+ Marxism-Leninism: v, 5, 76, 83, 107, 146, 147, 148, 151, 155, 160, 184,
+     187, 189
+
+ mass organization (_see also_ labor unions; women; youth): 145, 146-149,
+     178, 198-201
+
+ Maurer, Ion Gheorghe: 112, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 158, 162, 169
+
+ medical services: 42;
+   military, 222
+
+ merchant marine: ix, 30, 47-48
+
+ metallurgy: 283, 286
+
+ Michael the Brave (1593-1601): 12, 13
+
+ Michael, King (son of Carol II): 19, 21, 23, 176
+
+ Middle East (_see also_ Israel): 46, 171, 276
+
+ migration, historical: 3, 11, 13, 50
+
+ military (_see also_ aid; armed forces): 7, 8, 118-119, 134, 198;
+   foreign, 167, 171, 173;
+   honours, 226;
+   justice, viii, 122, 123, 205, 207-208, 222-223;
+   personnel, 195, 213, 219-220;
+   service, 7, 112, 211, 212;
+   volunteers, 220
+
+ Military Achievement Exhibit: 224
+
+ militia: 194, 195-197, 200, 203, 204, 206, 221
+
+ minerals (_see also_ coal; iron; natural gas; oil): 36-37, 275
+
+ ministries and ministers (_see also_ Council of Ministers; individual
+     ministries): 115, 119, 120, 133;
+   economic, 231, 234, 282, 283
+
+ Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Industry and Waters: 243, 244, 259, 261,
+     262
+
+ Ministry of the Armed Forces: 7, 121, 145, 195, 208, 212, 213, 214,
+     215, 217;
+   minister, 119, 121, 213-214
+
+ Ministry of Defense: 211
+
+ Ministry of Education: 75, 80-82, 84, 86
+
+ Ministry of Finance: 237, 241, 242, 243, 247
+
+ Ministry of Foreign Affairs: 162, 163;
+   minister, 119
+
+ Ministry of Foreign Trade: 162, 163, 248
+
+ Ministry of Internal Affairs: ix, 145, 195, 196, 208, 217, 221;
+   minister, 119, 121, 195
+
+ Ministry of Justice: 122, 123, 203, 207;
+   minister, 122
+
+ Ministry of Technical Material Supply and Control of the Management of
+     Fixed Assets: 236
+
+ Ministry of Transportation: 43, 46
+
+ Ministry of Youth Problems: 147;
+   minister, 200
+
+ minority ethnic groups (_see also_ individual ethnic groups): vii, 3-4,
+     49-50, 54-55, 91, 135, 139, 149, 150-151, 166;
+   education, 78, 88-89;
+   rights, 111
+
+ missiles: 216
+
+ Mobutu, Joseph, president of Zaire: 172
+
+ Moldavia: vii, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 254;
+   cultural, 95, 96, 99, 103, 104;
+   history, 3, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 33, 37, 67, 74;
+   population, 41, 54
+
+ monarchy, constitutional: 19, 23
+
+ mountains (_see also_ individual ranges): ix, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36,
+     41, 253, 254
+
+ _Munca_: 178
+
+ Muntenia: 31
+
+ music: 100-101, 184;
+   education, 75, 83
+
+ Muslims (_see also_ Islam): 4
+
+ Mures-Magyar. _See_ Hungarian Autonomous Region
+
+
+ National Bank of the Romanian Socialist Republic: viii, 242, 243, 245, 246
+
+ National Center for Cinematography: 189
+
+ National Democratic Front: 22, 23
+
+ National Peasant Party: 19, 22, 23
+
+ National Popular Party: 23
+
+ National Renaissance Party: 20
+
+ National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives: 133, 259
+
+ nationalism: 2, 3, 7, 9, 14, 25, 56, 67, 92, 97, 102, 104, 129, 130,
+     132, 154
+
+ nationalization: 24, 55, 58, 110, 244
+
+ natural gas: ix, 29, 30, 36, 37, 47, 275, 276, 278, 288
+
+ navy: ix, 7, 48, 211, 213, 214, 216, 221
+
+ Nazis: 9, 19, 20-21, 37, 54, 157, 168
+
+ Negruzzi, Constantine: 104, 105
+
+ news agencies: 175, 181-182
+
+ newspapers: 53, 54, 104, 175, 176, 177-180, 182
+
+ Niculescu-Mizil, Paul: 140
+
+ Nixon, Richard M., president of the U.S.A.: 159, 170
+
+ North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): 8, 161, 171, 218
+
+ nuclear free zone: 167, 171
+
+ nuclear power: 279
+
+
+ Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of Romania: 117
+
+ oil: ix, 29, 36, 47, 275-276, 288
+
+ Old Catholics: 72
+
+ Old Church Slavonic: 67, 103
+
+ Old Kingdom. _See_ Kingdom of Romania
+
+ Olt River: 31
+
+ Oltenia: 10, 11, 31, 95, 276
+
+ Oradea: 52
+
+ orchards and vineyards: 31, 32, 36, 254, 255, 257, 268
+
+ Ottoman Empire and the Turks: 9, 12, 13, 16, 32, 55, 63, 67, 72, 91
+
+ ownership (_see also_ private sector): 110, 113-114, 259, 260
+
+
+ PCR. _See_ Romanian Communist Party
+
+ Paciurea, Dimitrie: 98
+
+ painting (_see also_ arts and the artists): 95-98
+
+ Pana, Gheorghe: 140
+
+ Pann, Anton: 101
+
+ party politics (_see also_ individual parties): 14, 17, 20, 22, 175;
+   single party, 2, 5
+
+ pasture: 32, 33, 36, 254, 255, 257
+
+ Patrascanu, Lucretiu: 131, 134
+
+ Pauker, Ana: 22, 24, 25
+
+ peasantry (_see also_ folk culture, working class): 53, 58, 61, 62, 68,
+     74, 148, 153;
+   history, 12, 13;
+   revolt, 17
+
+ penal system: 201-202, 257;
+   code, 194, 205-206, 222;
+   institutions, 207-209
+
+ people's councils: 111, 114, 115, 116, 124, 125, 126, 196;
+   Commission, 117
+
+ People's Democratic Front: 24, 127, 135
+
+ People's Republic of China (_see also_ Sino-Soviet issue): 1, 27, 157,
+     158, 164, 167, 168, 250
+
+ periodicals: 53, 176, 180-181, 182;
+   library, 105, 107, 152
+
+ Peter, tsar of Russia: 2
+
+ petroleum: ix, 17, 20, 29, 37, 47, 276, 278
+
+ Petrosani: 276
+
+ Phanariots: 12-13, 15
+
+ Pioneers Organization: 77, 80, 198, 199, 201
+
+ pipelines: ix, 29, 47
+
+ Ploiesti: 37, 41, 44, 47, 216
+
+ Plowmans Front: 22, 23
+
+ Poland: xiv, 165, 172, 182, 224
+
+ police (_see also_ militia): ix, 24, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203;
+   secret, 3, 25, 193, 197
+
+ pope: 14, 67, 68, 70, 71
+
+ Popescu-Gopo: 103
+
+ population: vii, 3, 30, 35, 38-41, 74
+
+ ports (_see also_ individual ports): ix, 17, 48, 196, 217
+
+ president, office and functions: 117, 118, 161, 214
+
+ Presidium: 110, 112
+
+ press: ix, 23, 93, 139, 176;
+   freedom, 16, 113, 153, 176
+
+ prices: 237-240, 249, 283
+
+ prime minister, office and functions: 110, 119, 120
+
+ private sector: 113-114, 230, 258, 268-269, 273, 280
+
+ professionals (_see also_ intelligentsia): 6;
+   unions, 94
+
+ propaganda (_see also_ indoctrination): v, 92, 139, 141, 153, 175, 176,
+     184, 190
+
+ Prosecutor General: 112, 115, 116, 118, 122, 123-124, 202
+
+ Protestants (_see also_ religion): viii, 4, 5, 13, 53, 71-72
+
+ Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam
+     (VietCong): 163, 171
+
+ Prut River: 29, 30, 31, 33, 38, 46
+
+ publishing: 147, 175, 176, 177, 185-187
+
+ purges, political: 3, 24, 25, 77, 142, 156
+
+
+ Radescu, Nicolae, General: 22, 23
+
+ radio: ix, 54, 101, 175, 176, 177, 182-184, 191, 288
+
+ Radulescu, Ehade: 104
+
+ railways: ix, 16, 29, 43-45, 194, 196, 227
+
+ reform: 14, 16, 19, 132, 133, 153;
+   economic, 8, 19, 231, 237, 248, 285;
+   education, 73, 77-79;
+   land, 16, 17, 18, 55, 58
+
+ religion (_see also_ church-state relations; clergy; Protestants; Roman
+     Catholicism; Romanian Orthodox Church): viii, 4, 5, 62, 65-66, 127;
+   education, 4, 14, 66, 69, 72, 75, 76, 112;
+   freedom of, viii, 5, 65, 68, 111;
+   persecution of, 4, 65, 68, 70
+
+ Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam): 170, 171
+
+ research: 107-108
+
+ revenue (_see also_ taxation): 241, 269
+
+ riparian rights: vii
+
+ rivers (_see also_ individual rivers; riparian rights; waterways): ix,
+     29, 31, 33-34, 36
+
+ roads and highways: ix, 29, 43, 44, 99, 203, 227
+
+ Rodin, Auguste: 98
+
+ Roman Catholicism (_see also_ church-state relations; religion): viii,
+     4, 13, 53, 67, 69-71
+
+ _Romania Libera_: 178, 179
+
+ Romanian Academy of Social and Political Sciences: 82
+
+ Romanian Air Transport (TAROM): ix, 46
+
+ Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman, PCR): vi, vii, 1, 3,
+     5, 6, 7, 8, 19, 22, 27, 55, 84, 92, 94, 98, 101, 109, 110, 111,
+     114, 118, 123, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 132-134, 135, 136-146, 147,
+     149, 153, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 171, 174, 176, 177, 196,
+     198, 211, 226, 229, 234, 235, 237, 248, 275, 280;
+   Central Auditing Committee, 133, 137, 140;
+   Central Collegium, 140;
+   Central Committee, 26, 27, 118, 119, 121, 125, 131, 132, 133, 134,
+     136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143, 145, 153, 158, 162, 176, 178, 180,
+     181, 182, 213, 268;
+   Executive Committee, 120, 121, 131, 138, 139, 140, 152, 198;
+   membership, 61, 129, 142-144, 153, 281;
+   organization, 137-142;
+   policies, 149-153;
+   Secretariat, 119, 138, 139, 140, 152;
+   Standing Presidium, 8, 119, 131, 133, 138, 139, 155, 160, 162, 230
+
+ Romanian ethnic group: 3, 17, 18, 33, 49, 50-52, 52-53, 55, 57, 143;
+   history, 13-14
+
+ Romanian Foreign Trade Bank: 242, 243, 244, 247
+
+ Romanian language: vii, 2, 4, 11, 14, 51, 54, 67, 75, 83, 103, 104, 209
+
+ Romanian Orthodox Church (_see also_ church-state relations; clergy
+     religion): viii, 4, 65, 67-69
+
+ Romanian People's Army. See armed forces
+
+ Romanian People's Republic: v, vii, 5, 24, 110, 111, 131
+
+ Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa, Agerpres): 181, 182
+
+ Romanian Workers' Party: 23, 27, 111, 112, 130, 137, 142
+
+ Romans and the Roman Empire: 3, 10-11, 14, 50, 67, 91, 99
+
+ rural society (_see also_ villages): 38, 41, 57, 62, 65, 68, 79, 87,
+     153, 154, 183, 187, 264;
+   population, 17, 52, 53
+
+ Russia (_see also_ Soviet Union): history, 2, 9, 15, 16, 18, 37, 54;
+   revolution, 19, 37
+
+ Russian language: 2, 27, 83, 181
+
+
+ Sadoveanu, Mihail: 106
+
+ sanitation: 42
+
+ Sarmizegetusa: 99
+
+ Savings and Loan Bank: 242, 244, 245
+
+ schools (_see also_ education; religion; students; universities): 2, 14,
+     27, 53, 54, 57, 65, 73, 74, 75, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83-88, 89, 97, 104,
+     148, 200, 201, 204
+
+ _Scinteia_: 178, 179
+
+ _Scinteia Tineretului_: 178-180
+
+ sculpture: 98
+
+ security (_see also_ crime; defence; police): 133, 139;
+   internal, 116, 120, 193-201;
+   national, ix, 20
+
+ security troops: 193, 194, 197-198, 203, 206, 219
+
+ services: 232, 239
+
+ Sibu: 53
+
+ Sighisoara: 53
+
+ Sino-Soviet issue: v, 1, 27, 158, 164, 166, 167
+
+ Siretul River: 30, 31, 41
+
+ size and location (_see also_ boundaries): vii, xiv, 3, 29, 32
+
+ Slavs: 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 49, 51, 55, 127, 151;
+   language and culture, 50, 51, 67
+
+ social benefits: 88, 260, 262
+
+ Social Democratic Party: 19, 22, 23, 137, 142
+
+ social structure: 6, 17, 58-62
+
+ socialism (_see also_ collective farms; nationalization; Socialist
+     Realism): v, 5, 73, 105, 151-153, 154, 198, 207, 230, 240
+
+ Socialist Party: 142
+
+ Socialist Realism: 7, 92, 93, 106
+
+ Socialist Republic of Romania: v, vii, 1, 3, 5, 28, 66, 113, 131
+
+ Socialist Unity Front: 126, 127, 135, 151, 177, 198
+
+ soils: 29, 35-36, 253, 254
+
+ Soviet Union (_see also_ Czechoslovakia; Sino-Soviet issue): 22, 23, 33,
+     34, 37, 54, 131, 159, 163, 164-165, 167, 172, 182, 199, 212, 216,
+     218, 223, 224, 275, 279;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 46, 217;
+   Communist Party, 137, 156, 166;
+   Constitution (1936), 5, 111;
+   independence of, 1-2, 3, 5, 8, 25, 26, 27, 28, 63, 113, 129, 134, 136,
+     154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 164, 169, 211, 227, 248;
+   influence over Romania, v, viii, 1, 5, 7, 9, 24, 76, 92, 110, 111,
+     137, 152, 156, 158, 198;
+   trade, viii, 190, 250, 276, 277;
+   World War II, 9, 20, 21
+
+ Stalin, Joseph (_see also_ Stalinism): 2, 7, 9, 25, 156
+
+ Stalinism: 2, 25, 156;
+   de-Stalinization, 7, 92, 134-136, 157
+
+ State Committee for Prices: 115,120, 237, 239, 240
+
+ state enterprises: 80, 82, 87, 119, 120, 126, 141, 188, 194, 230, 231,
+     234-237, 238, 239, 242, 243, 246, 248, 281, 283;
+   farms, 257, 258, 261-262, 267, 273;
+   industry, 280, 283
+
+ State Inspectorate General for Product Quality: 289
+
+ State Planning Committee: 119, 120, 121, 237, 242, 243
+
+ State Security Council: 195, 197, 198
+
+ Stephan Gheorghiu Academy of Social-Political Education and the
+     Training of Leading Cadres: 139, 144
+
+ Stephen the Great (1457-1504): 12
+
+ Stoica, Chivu: 130, 131, 133, 136
+
+ Storck, Carol: 98
+
+ Storck, Karl: 98
+
+ students (_see also_ schools): 73, 80, 86, 87, 148;
+   organizations, 77, 78, 80, 87, 199, 200
+
+ suffrage: 126
+
+ sugar beet: 255, 256, 272
+
+ Superior Council of Agriculture: 256, 257
+
+ Supreme Court: viii, 109, 112, 116, 118, 122, 124, 201, 223
+
+ Szeklers: 13, 52, 53
+
+ Szekelys. _See_ Szeklers
+
+
+ _tambal_: 100
+
+ TAROM. _See_ Romanian Air Transport
+
+ Tatars: 3, 4, 11, 12, 50, 51, 72
+
+ Tattarescu, Gheorghe: 97
+
+ taxation: 233, 239, 241, 245
+
+ teachers: 78, 79, 82, 83, 88, 154;
+   training, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 87-88, 89, 144
+
+ technical/vocational education: viii, 6, 7, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81,
+     84, 85, 87, 145, 284
+
+ television: ix, 54, 101, 152, 175, 176, 177, 182, 184-185, 288
+
+ text books: 2, 78, 80, 82
+
+ textiles: 95, 284, 288
+
+ theater: 53, 101-102, 105, 152
+
+ Thracians. _See_ Dacians
+
+ timber: 277-278, 288
+
+ Timisoara: 44, 193
+
+ Tirgu Mures: 44, 52
+
+ Tisza River: 31, 33, 46
+
+ Tonitza, Nicolae: 97
+
+ topography (_see also_ mountains; rivers): vii, 31, 253
+
+ tourists and tourism: 33, 217, 252;
+   exchange rate, ix, 247
+
+ trade (_see also_ export; import; individual countries): 232;
+   balance, viii, 8, 169, 173, 229, 242-243, 248, 251-252;
+   domestic, 236;
+   foreign, viii, 27, 155, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173,
+     217, 229, 230, 237, 246, 247-252
+
+ traffic, vehicular: 203-204
+
+ Trajan, Column of: 14
+
+ Trajan, Emperor: 11, 50, 99
+
+ transport (_see also_ air transport; pipelines; railways; roads and
+     highways; traffic; waterways): 43-48, 110, 216, 232
+
+ Transylvania (_see also_ Transylvanian Alps): vii, 3, 4, 32, 34, 35, 37,
+     47, 68, 99, 166, 254, 276;
+   cultural, 94, 95, 99, 103;
+   history, 3, 10, 11, 13-14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 37, 50, 55, 67, 70;
+   population, 41, 52, 53, 54, 56;
+   transport, 43, 47
+
+ Transylvanian Alps: vii, 30, 31-32, 33, 35, 47, 276
+
+ travel: 61
+
+ Treaty of Berlin (1878): 16
+
+ 'Tudor Vladimirescu': 21
+
+ Turkey (_see also_ Ottoman Empire and the Turks; Turks): vii, 15, 16,
+     170, 171
+
+ Turks (_see also_ Ottoman Empire and the Turks): 3, 4, 15, 50, 53, 55
+
+ Turnu Severin: 44, 99
+
+
+ UTC. _See_ Union of Communist Youth
+
+ underemployment: 233, 253, 264, 265
+
+ Uniate Church: 4, 13, 67, 68, 69
+
+ Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist, UTC): 77, 78,
+     80, 87, 120, 133, 147-148, 178, 181, 198-199, 200, 201, 213
+
+ Union of Student Associations: 77, 80, 198, 200
+
+ Unitarians: 4, 5, 13, 53, 73
+
+ United Nations: ix, 155, 168, 170, 172
+
+ United Principalities: 16
+
+ United States: 23, 167, 170, 190;
+   trade, 158, 246, 250-251
+
+ universities (_see also_ University of Bucharest): 75, 76, 80, 81, 84,
+     85-86, 88, 199, 200, 221;
+   foreign, 15;
+   teachers, 116;
+   workers, 87
+
+ University of Bucharest: 107
+
+ uranium: 277
+
+ urban society: 4, 15, 17, 38, 41, 49, 54, 57, 62, 75, 87, 102, 141,
+     255, 264;
+   government, 124, 125, 126
+
+
+ Vacarescu, Iancu: 104
+
+ Valbudea, Stefan Ionescu: 98
+
+ values and traditions: political, 153-154;
+   social, 49, 62-63, 65
+
+ Vatican (_see also_ pope): 69, 71
+
+ vegetables: 254, 256, 261, 268, 270, 272, 273
+
+ vegetation (_see also_ forests and forestry): 36
+
+ Vietnam (_see also_ Provisional Revolutionary Government of South
+     Vietnam; Republic of Vietnam): 158
+
+ villages: 38, 41, 91, 100;
+   justice, 194
+
+ Vlachs: 11, 12, 50
+
+ Vyshinsky, Andrei: 23
+
+
+ wages (_see also_ income): 88, 149, 260-261, 263-264, 285;
+   prisoners, 208
+
+ Walachia: vii, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 43, 47, 254;
+   cultural, 96, 97, 99, 103;
+   history, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 37, 67, 74;
+   population, 41, 54
+
+ Warsaw Pact. _See_ Warsaw Treaty Organization
+
+ Warsaw Treaty Organization (_see also_ Czechoslovakia): ix, 1, 2, 7, 8,
+     28, 46, 135, 136, 156, 159, 161, 164, 166, 167, 168, 171, 172, 203,
+     211, 212, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227
+
+ waterways: ix, 29, 44, 45-46, 48
+
+ West Germany. _See_ Federal Republic of Germany
+
+ Western nations (_see also_ individual nations): 163, 164, 169, 171, 182;
+   cultural influence (_see also_ France), 91, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101,
+     104, 105, 107, 132, 152, 168, 187, 189, 190;
+   economic relations, 8, 25, 27, 158, 168, 229, 230, 246, 247, 248,
+     250, 251, 275
+
+ wildlife: 32-33
+
+ women: viii, 39, 40, 57, 79, 141, 143, 180, 181, 208, 209;
+   labor, 56-57, 58, 264, 283;
+   organizations, 5, 126, 127, 135, 147, 199
+
+ working class (_see also_ peasantry): 6, 17, 58, 59-60, 61, 86, 92,
+     126, 142, 143, 148, 149, 152
+
+ World Council of Churches: 72
+
+ World War I: 3, 4, 9, 17-18, 32, 37, 40, 74, 212
+
+ World War II: 9, 20-21, 32, 33, 37, 40, 41, 54, 72, 113, 226, 277
+
+
+ youth (_see also_ students; Union of Communist Youth): 7, 73, 76, 78,
+     82, 141, 152, 180, 193, 199-201, 203, 219;
+   organizations, 5, 57, 77, 78, 105, 126, 127, 132, 135, 144, 147, 152,
+     198, 199, 200, 201, 281
+
+ Yugoslavia: 3, 33, 39, 46, 164, 166, 167, 182, 219, 278, 279;
+   border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 34, 37, 216, 217
+
+ Zhivkov, Todor: 166
+
+
+
+
+PUBLISHED AREA HANDBOOKS
+
+
+ 550-65  Afghanistan
+ 550-98  Albania
+ 550-44  Algeria
+ 550-59  Angola
+ 550-73  Argentina
+
+ 550-20  Brazil
+ 550-61  Burma
+ 550-83  Burundi
+ 550-50  Cambodia (Khmer Rep.)
+ 550-96  Ceylon
+
+ 550-159 Chad
+ 550-60  China, People's Republic of
+ 550-63  China, Republic of
+ 550-26  Colombia
+ 550-91  Congo (Brazzaville)
+
+ 550-67  Congo (Kinshasa) (Zaire)
+ 550-90  Costa Rica
+ 550-152 Cuba
+ 550-22  Cyprus
+ 550-158 Czechoslovakia
+
+ 550-54  Dominican Republic
+ 550-155 East Germany
+ 550-52  Ecuador
+ 550-150 El Salvador
+ 550-28  Ethiopia
+
+ 550-29  Germany
+ 556-153 Ghana
+ 550-87  Greece
+ 550-78  Guatemala
+ 550-82  Guyana
+
+ 550-151 Honduras
+ 550-21  India
+ 550-154 Indian Ocean Territories
+ 550-39  Indonesia
+ 550-68  Iran
+
+ 550-31  Iraq
+ 550-25  Israel
+ 550-30  Japan
+ 550-34  Jordan
+ 550-56  Kenya
+ 550-81  Korea, North
+
+ 550-41  Korea, Republic of
+ 550-58  Laos
+ 550-24  Lebanon
+ 550-38  Liberia
+
+ 550-85  Libya
+ 550-45  Malaysia
+ 550-    Mauritania
+ 550-76  Mongolia
+ 550-49  Morocco
+
+ 550-64  Mozambique
+ 550-35  Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan
+ 550-88  Nicaragua
+ 550-167 Nigeria
+ 550-94  Oceania
+
+ 550-48  Pakistan
+ 550-46  Panama
+ 550-156 Paraguay
+ 550-92  Peripheral States of the Arabian Peninsula
+ 550-42  Peru
+
+ 550-72  Philippines, Republic of
+ 550-160 Romania
+ 550-84  Rwanda
+ 550-51  Saudi Arabia
+ 550-70  Senegal
+
+ 550-86  Somalia
+ 550-93  South Africa, Republic of
+ 550-95  Soviet Union
+ 550-27  Sudan
+ 550-47  Syria
+
+ 550-62  Tanzania
+ 550-53  Thailand
+ 550-89  Tunisia
+ 550-80  Turkey
+ 550-74  Uganda
+
+ 550-43  United Arab Republic
+ 550-97  Uruguay
+ 550-71  Venezuela
+ 550-57  Vietnam, North
+ 550-55  Vietnam, South
+ 550-75  Zambia
+
+
+
+
+    +---------------------------------------------------+
+    |             Transcriber's Note:                   |
+    |                                                   |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the      |
+    | original document have been preserved.            |
+    |                                                   |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:       |
+    |                                                   |
+    | Page   6  apprent changed to apparent             |
+    | Page  12  fuedal changed to feudal                |
+    | Page  17  entrepreneuers changed to entrepreneurs |
+    | Page  42  quantitites changed to quantities       |
+    | Page  45  neglible changed to negligible          |
+    | Page  54  inincluding changed to including        |
+    | Page 100  intruments changed to instruments       |
+    | Page 142  it changed to its                       |
+    | Page 142  propanda changed to propaganda          |
+    | Page 150  comisssions changed to commissions      |
+    | Page 150  leaderwhip changed to leadership        |
+    | Page 159  indepedence changed to independence     |
+    | Page 160  spokemen changed to spokesmen           |
+    | Page 161  vaild changed to valid                  |
+    | Page 164  Doctine changed to Doctrine             |
+    | Page 165  Relatons changed to Relations           |
+    | Page 166  Romaian changed to Romanian             |
+    | Page 171  agressive changed to aggressive         |
+    | Page 171  statement changed to statements         |
+    | Page 172  vistied changed to visited              |
+    | Page 177  to changed to a                         |
+    | Page 185  snd changed to and                      |
+    | Page 186  them changed to then                    |
+    | Page 187  hisotrical changed to historical        |
+    | Page 188  principlally changed to principally     |
+    | Page 190  documenaries changed to documentaries   |
+    | Page 193  investigaton changed to investigation   |
+    | Page 193  trails changed to trials                |
+    | Page 200  informaton changed to information       |
+    | Page 201  trail changed to trial                  |
+    | Page 207  miltary changed to military             |
+    | Page 208  rehabilitiate changed to rehabilitate   |
+    | Page 229  indequate changed to inadequate         |
+    | Page 238  pecentage changed to percentage         |
+    | Page 238  indistry changed to industry            |
+    | Page 253  urgenly changed to urgently             |
+    | Page 255  peroid changed to period                |
+    | Page 270  yars changed to  years                  |
+    | Page 280  som changed to some                     |
+    | Page 186  earier changed to earlier               |
+    | Page 291  Prager changed to Praeger               |
+    | Page 291  Fisher changed to Fischer               |
+    | Page 301  Bulentinul changed to Buletinul         |
+    | Page 302  Spetember changed to September          |
+    | Page 307  archaelogy changed to archaeology       |
+    | Page 308  chernozen changed to chernozem          |
+    | Page 316  TARCM changed to TAROM                  |
+    +---------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
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