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diff --git a/32482-8.txt b/32482-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b492405 --- /dev/null +++ b/32482-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1374 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering +Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments + +Author: Robert P. Multhauf + +Release Date: May 22, 2010 [EBook #32482] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-REG. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS *** + + + + +Produced by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + CONTRIBUTIONS FROM + + THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY: + + PAPER 23 + + + THE INTRODUCTION OF SELF-REGISTERING + + METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS + + _Robert P. Multhauf_ + + + THE FIRST SELF-REGISTERING INSTRUMENTS 99 + + SELF-REGISTERING SYSTEMS 105 + + CONCLUSIONS 114 + + + + +_The Introduction of_ SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS + +_Robert P. Multhauf_ + + + _The development of self-registering meteorological instruments + began very shortly after that of scientific meteorological + observation itself. Yet it was not until the 1860's, two centuries + after the beginning of scientific observation, that the + self-registering instrument became a factor in meteorology._ + + _This time delay is attributable less to deficiencies in the + techniques of instrument-making than to deficiencies in the + organisation of meteorology itself. The critical factor was the + establishment in the 1860's of well-financed and competently + directed meteorological observatories, most of which were created + as adjuncts to astronomical observatories._ + + THE AUTHOR: _Robert P. Multhauf is head curator of the department + of science and technology in the United States National Museum, + Smithsonian Institution._ + + +The flowering of science in the 17th century was accompanied by an +efflorescence of instrument invention as luxurious as that of science +itself. Although there were foreshadowing events, this flowering seems +to have owed much to Galileo, whose interest in the measurement of +natural phenomena is well known, and who is himself credited with the +invention of the thermometer and the hydrostatic balance, both of which +he devised in connection with experimentation on specific scientific +problems. Many, if not most, of the other Italian instrument inventors +of the early 17th century were his disciples. Benedetto Castelli, being +interested in the effect of rainfall on the level of a lake, constructed +a rain gauge about 1628. Santorio, well known as a pioneer in the +quantification of animal physiology, is credited with observations, +about 1626, that led to the development of the hygrometer. + +Both of these contemporaries were interested in Galileo's most famous +invention, the thermoscope--forerunner of the thermometer--which he +developed about 1597 as a method of obtaining comparisons of +temperature. The utility of the instrument was immediately recognized by +physicists (not by chemists, oddly enough), and much ingenuity was +expended on its perfection over a 50-year period, in northern Europe as +well as in Italy. The conversion of this open, air-expansion thermoscope +into the modern thermometer was accomplished by the Florentine Accademia +del Cimento about 1660. + +Galileo also inspired the barometer, through his speculations on the +vacuum, which, in 1643, led his disciple Torricelli to experiments +proving the limitation to nature's horror of a vacuum. Torricelli's +apparatus, unlike Galileo's thermoscope, represented the barometer in +essentially its classical form. In his earliest experiments, Torricelli +observed that the air tended to become "thicker and thinner"; as a +consequence, we find the barometer in use (with the thermometer) for +meteorological observation as early as 1649.[1] + +The meetings of the Accademia terminated in 1667, but the 5-year-old +Royal Society of London had already become as fruitful a source of new +instruments, largely through the abilities of its demonstrator, Robert +Hooke, whose task it was to entertain and instruct the members with +experiments. In the course of devising these experiments Hooke became +perhaps the most prolific instrument inventor of all time. He seems to +have invented the first wind pressure gauge, as an aid to seamen, and he +improved the bathometer, hygrometer, hydrometer, and barometer, as well +as instruments not directly involved in measurement such as the vacuum +pump and sea-water sampling devices. As in Florence, these instruments +were immediately brought to bear on the observation of nature. + +It does not appear, however, that we would be justified in concluding +that the rise of scientific meteorology was inspired by the invention of +instruments, for meteorology had begun to free itself of the traditional +weather-lore and demonology early in the 17th century. The Landgraf of +Hesse described some simultaneous weather observations, made without +instruments, in 1637. Francis Bacon's "Natural History of the Wind," +considered the first special work of this kind to attain general +circulation, appeared in 1622.[2] It seems likely that the rise of +scientific meteorology was an aspect of the general rationalization of +nature study which occurred at this time, and that the initial impetus +for such progress was gained not from the invention of instruments but +from the need of navigators for wind data at a time when long voyages +out of sight of land were becoming commonplace. + +[Illustration: Figure 1.--A set of typical Smithsonian meteorological +instruments as recommended in instructions to observers issued by the +Institution in the 1850's. _Top_ (from left): maximum-minimum +thermometer of Professor Phillips, dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers, +and mercurial barometer by Green of New York. _Lower left:_ rain gauge. +The wet-bulb thermometer, although typical, is actually a later +instrument. The rain gauge is a replica. (_Smithsonian photo 46740._)] + +It should be noted in this connection that the two most important +instruments, the thermometer and barometer, were in no way inspired by +an interest in meteorology. But the observation made early in the +history of the barometer that the atmospheric pressure varied in some +relationship to visible changes in the weather soon brought that +instrument into use as a "weather glass." In particular, winds were +attributed to disturbances of barometric equilibrium, and +wind-barometric studies were made by Evangelista Torricelli, Edmé +Mariotte, and Edmund Halley, the latter publishing the first +meteorological chart. In 1678-1679 Gottfried Leibniz endeavored to +encourage observations to test the capacity of the barometer for +foretelling the weather.[3] + +Other questions of a quasi-meteorological nature interested the +scientists of this period, and brought other instruments into use. +Observations of rainfall and evaporation were made in pursuit of the +ancient question of the sources of terrestrial water, the maintenance of +the levels of seas, etc. Physicians brought instruments to bear on the +question of the relationship between weather and the incidence of +disease. The interrelationship between these various meteorological +enterprises was not long in becoming apparent. Soon after its founding +in 1657 the Florentine academy undertook, through the distribution of +thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, and rain gauges, the +establishment of an international network of meteorological observation +stations, a network which did not survive the demise of the Accademia +itself ten years later. + +Not for over a century was the first thoroughgoing attempt made at +systematic observation. There was a meteorological section in the +Academy of Sciences at Mannheim from 1763, and subsequently a separate +society for meteorology. In 1783, the Academy published observations +from 39 stations, those from the central station comprising data from +the hygrometer, wind vane (but not anemometer), rain gauge, +evaporimeter, and apparatus for geomagnetism and atmospheric +electricity, as well as data from the thermometer and barometer. The +Mannheim system was also short-lived, being terminated by the Napoleonic +invasion, but systems of comparable scope were attempted throughout +Europe and America during the next generation. + +In the United States the office of the Surgeon General, U. S. Army, +began the first systematic observation in 1819, using only the +thermometer and wind vane, to which were added the barometer and +hygrometer in 1840-1841 and the wind force anemometer, rain gauge, and +wet bulb thermometer in 1843. State weather observation systems +meanwhile had been inaugurated in New York (1825), Pennsylvania (1836), +and Ohio (1842).[4] + +Nearly 200 years of observation had not, however, noticeably improved +the weather, and the naive faith in the power of instruments to reveal +its mysteries, which had possessed many an early meteorologist, no +longer charmed the scientist of the early 19th century. In the first +published report of the British Association for the Advancement of +Science in 1833, J. D. Forbes called for a reorganization of procedures: + + In the science of Astronomy, for example, as in that of Optics, the + great general truths which emerge in the progress of discovery, + though depending for their establishment upon a multitude of + independent facts and observations, possess sufficient unity to + connect in the mind the bearing of the whole; and the more + perfectly understood connexion of parts invites to further + generalization. + + Very different is the position of an infant science like + Meteorology. The unity of the whole ... is not always kept in view, + even as far as our present very limited general conceptions will + admit of: and as few persons have devoted their whole attention to + this science alone ... no wonder that we find strewed over its + irregular and far-spread surface, patches of cultivation upon spots + chosen without discrimination and treated on no common principle, + which defy the improver to inclose, and the surveyor to estimate + and connect them. Meteorological instruments have been for the most + part treated like toys, and much time and labor have been lost in + making and recording observations utterly useless for any + scientific purpose. Even the numerous registers of a rather + superior class ... hardly contain one jot of information ready for + incorporation in a Report on the progress of Meteorology.... + + The most general mistake probably consists in the idea that + Meteorology, as a science, has no other object but an experimental + acquaintance with the condition of those variable elements which + from day to day constitute the general and vague result of the + state of the _weather_ at any given spot; not considering that ... + when grouped together with others of the same character, [they] may + afford the most valuable aid to scientific generalization.[5] + +Forbes goes on to call for a greater emphasis on theory, and the +replacement of the many small-scale observatories with "a few great +Registers" to be adequately maintained by "great Societies" or by the +government. He suggests that the time for pursuit of theory might be +gained from "the vague mechanical task to which at present they +generally devote their time, namely the search for great numerical +accuracy, to a superfluity of decimal places exceeding the compass of +the instrument to verify." + +From its founding the British Association sponsored systematic +observation at various places. In 1842 it initiated observations at the +Kew Observatory, which has continued until today to be the premier +meteorological observatory in the British Empire. The American scientist +Joseph Henry observed the functioning of an observatory maintained by +the British Association at Plymouth in 1837, and when he became +Secretary of the new Smithsonian Institution a few years later he made +the furtherance of meteorology one of its first objectives. + +The Kew Observatory set a pattern for systematic observation in England +as, from 1855, did the Smithsonian Institution in the United States. The +instruments used differed little from those in use at Mannheim over half +a century earlier[6] (fig. 1). They were undoubtedly more accurate, but +this should not be overstressed. Forbes had noted in his report of 1832 +that some scientists were then calling for a return to Torricelli, for +the construction of a temporary barometer on the site in preference to +reliance on the then existing manufactured instruments. + + + + +The First Self-Registering Instruments + + +From the middle of the 17th century meteorological observations were +recorded in manuscript books known as "registers," many of which were +published in the early scientific journals. The most effective +utilization of these observations was in the compilation of the history +of particular storms, but where a larger synthesis was concerned they +tended, as Forbes has shown, to show themselves unsystematic and +non-comparable. The principal problems of meteorological observation +have been from the outset the construction of precisely comparable +instruments and their use to produce comparable records. The former +problem has been frequently discussed, and perhaps, as Forbes suggests, +overemphasized. It is the latter problem with which we are here +concerned. + +The idea of mechanizing the process of observation, not yet accomplished +in Forbes' time, had been put forward within a little over a decade of +the first use of the thermometer and barometer in meteorology. On +December 9, 1663, Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a +design for a "weather clock," of which a drawing is extant.[7] This +drawing (fig. 2) shows an ordinary clock to which is attached a +pencil-carrying rack, geared to the hour pinion. A discussion of the +clock's "reduction to practice" began the involvement of Robert Hooke, +who was "instructed" in September 1664 to make "a pendulum clock +applicable to the observing of the changes in the weather."[8] This +tribute to Hooke's reputation--and to the versatility of the mechanic +arts at this time--was slightly overoptimistic, as 15 years ensued +before the clock made its appearance. + +[Illustration: Figure 2.--A contemporary drawing of Wren's "weather +clock." (Photo courtesy Royal Society of London.)] + +References to this clock are frequent in the records of the Royal +Society--being mainly periodic injunctions to Hooke to get on with the +work--until its completion in May 1679. The description which Hooke was +asked to supply was subsequently found among his papers and printed by +William Derham as follows:[9] + + The weather-clock consists of two parts; _first_, that which + measures the time, which is a strong and large pendulum-clock, + which moves a week, with once winding up, and is sufficient to turn + a cylinder (upon which the paper is rolled) twice round in a day, + and also to lift a hammer for striking the punches, once every + quarter of an hour. + + _Secondly_, of several instruments for measuring the degrees of + alteration, in the several things, to be observed. The first is, + the barometer, which moves the first punch, an inch and half, + serving to shew the difference between the greatest and the least + pressure of the air. The second is, the thermometer, which moves + the punch that shews the differences between the greatest heat in + summer, and the least in winter. The third is, the hygroscope, + moving the punch, which shews the difference between the moistest + and driest airs. The fourth is, the rain-bucket, serving to shew + the quantity of rain that falls; this hath two parts or punches; + the first, to shew what part of the bucket is fill'd, when there + falls not enough to make it empty itself; the second, to shew how + many full buckets have been emptied. The fifth is the wind vane; + this hath also two parts; the first to shew the strength of the + wind, which is observed by the number of revolutions in the + vane-mill, and marked by three punches; the first marks every + 10,000 revolutions, the second every 1,000, and the third every + 100: The second, to shew the quarters of the wind, this hath four + punches; the first with one point, marking the North quarters, viz. + N.: N. by E.: N. by W.: NNE.: NNW.: NE. by N. and N.W. by N.: NE. + and N.W. The second hath two points, marking the East and its + quarters. The third hath three points, marking the South and its + quarters. The fourth hath four points, marking the West and its + quarters. Some of these punches give one mark, every 100 + revolutions of the vane-mill. + + The stations or places of the first four punches are marked on a + scrowl of paper, by the clock-hammer, falling every quarter of an + hour. The punches, belonging to the fifth, are marked on the said + scrowl, by the revolutions of the vane, which are accounted by a + small numerator, standing at the top of the clock-case, which is + moved by the vane-mill. + +What, exactly, were the instruments applied by Hooke to his weather +clock? It is not always easy even to guess, because it appears that Wren +was actually the first to contrive such a device and seems to have +developed nearly as many instruments as Hooke. It might be supposed that +Hooke would have adapted to the weather clock his wheel-barometer, +introduced in 1667, but it also appears that Wren had described (and +perhaps built) a balance barometer before 1667.[10] As to the +thermometer, we have no evidence of original work by Hooke, but we do +have a description of Wren's self-registering thermometer, a circular, +mercury-filled tube in which changes in temperature move "the whole +instrument, like a wheel on its axis."[11] + +The hygroscope (hygrometer) probably existed in more versions than any +other instrument, although we know nothing of any versions by Wren. +Hooke may have used his own "oat-beard" instrument.[12] Derham follows +his description of the clock--which has been quoted above--with a +detailed description of a tipping-bucket rain gauge invented by Hooke +and used with the clock. He also notes that in 1670 Hooke had described +two other types of rain gauge in which a bucket was counterbalanced in +one case by a string of bullets and in another by an immersed weight. +But here again, Sprat records the invention of a tipping-bucket gauge by +Wren before 1667. + +Hooke has been generally regarded as the first inventor of an +anemometer, in 1662.[13] But this invention was a pressure-plate +gauge--that is, a metal plate held with its face against the +wind--whereas the gauge used with the weather clock is clearly a +windmill type, of which type this may be the first. Wren also had an +anemometer, but we have no description of it. Hooke's account does not +refer to other instruments which the weather clock is supposed to have +had, according to a description quoted by Gunther, which concludes the +enumeration of the elements recorded with "sunshine, etc."[14] One can +only wish for further information on the mechanism by which the +punches--or in Wren's clock, the pencils--were moved. But it is apparent +that Hooke's clock was actually used for some time. + +[Illustration: Figure 3.--Dolland's "atmospheric recorder": 1, siphon and +float barometer; 2, balance (?) thermometer; 3, hygrometer; 4, +electrometer; 5, float rain gauge; 6, float evaporimeter; 7, +suspended-weight wind force indicator; 8, wind direction indicator; 9, +clock; 10, receivers for rain gauge and evaporimeter. (From _Official +... Catalogue of the Great Exhibition, 1851,_ London, 1851, pt. 2).] + +The 17th century was not entirely unprepared for the idea of such a +self-registering instrument. Water clocks and other devices in which +natural forces governed a pointer were known in antiquity, as were +counters of the type of the odometer. A water clock described in Italy +in 1524 was essentially an inversion of one of Hooke's rain gauges, that +in which a bucket was balanced against a string of bullets.[15] The +mechanical clock also had a considerable history in the 17th century, +and had long since been applied to the operations of figures through +cams, as was almost certainly the case with the punches in Hooke's +clock. Still, the combination of an instrument-actuated pointer with a +clock-actuated time-scale and a means of obtaining a permanent record +represent a group of innovations which certainly ranks among the +greatest in the history of instrumentation. It appears that we owe these +innovations to Wren and Hooke. + +Hooke's clock contributed nothing to the systematization of +meteorological observation, and the last record of it appears to have +been a note on its "re-fitting" in 1690. Its complexity is sufficient +reason for its ephemeral history, but complexity in machine design was +the fashion of the time and Hooke may have intended no more than a +mechanistic _tour de force_. On the other hand, he may have recognized +the desideratum to which later meteorologists frequently returned--the +need for simultaneous observations of several instruments on the same +register. In any case, no instrument so comprehensive seems to have been +attempted again until the middle of the 19th century, when George +Dolland exhibited one at the Great Exhibition in London (see fig. 3). +The weather elements recorded by Dolland's instrument were the same as +those recorded by Hooke's, except that atmospheric electricity (unknown +in Hooke's time) was recorded and sunshine was not recorded. Striking +hammers were used by Dolland for some of the instruments and "ever +pointed pencils" for the others. Dolland's barometer was a wheel +instrument controlling a hammer. His thermometric element consisted of +12 balanced mercury thermometers. Its mode of operation is not clear, +but it probably was similar to that of the thermometer developed by Karl +Kreil in Prague about the same time (fig. 4). Dolland's wind force +indicator consisted of a pressure plate counterbalanced by a string of +suspended weights. Altogether, it is not clear that Dolland's instrument +was superior to Hooke's, or that its career was longer.[16] + +The 171 years between these two instruments were not lacking in +inventiveness in this field, but even though inventors set the more +modest aim of a self-recording instrument for a single piece of +meteorological data, their brain children were uniformly still-born. +Then, during the period 1840-1850, we see the appearance of a series of +self-registering instruments which were actually used, which were widely +adopted by observatories, and which were superseded by superior +instruments rather than abandoned. This development was undoubtedly a +consequence of the establishment at that time of permanent observatories +under competent scientific direction. + +Long experience had demonstrated to the meteorologists of the 1840's +that the principal obstacle to the success of self-registering +instruments was friction. Forbes had indicated that the most urgent need +was for automatic registration of wind data, as the erratic fluctuation +of the wind demanded more frequent observation than any manual system +could accomplish. Two of the British Association's observers produced +separate recording instruments for wind direction and force in the late +1830's, a prompt response which suggests that it was not the idea which +was lacking. One of these instruments--designed by William +Whewell--contained gearing, the friction of which vitiated its utility +as it had that of a number of predecessors. The other, designed by A. +Follet Osler, was free of gearing; it separately recorded wind pressure +and direction on a sheet of paper moved laterally by clockwork. The +pressure element was a spring-loaded pressure plate carried around by +the vane to face the wind. Both this plate and the vane itself were made +to move pencils through linkages of chains and pulleys.[17] Osler's +anemometer (fig. 5) deserves to be called the first successful +self-registering meteorological instrument; it was standard equipment in +British observatories until the latter part of the 19th century when it +was replaced by the cup-anemometer of Robinson. + +[Illustration: Figure 4.--Kreil's balance thermometer, 1843. (From Karl +Kreil, _Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag_, Prague, +1843, vol. 3, fig. 1.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 5.--Osler's self-registering pressure plate +anemometer, 1837. The instrument is shown with a tipping-bucket rain +gauge. (From Abbe, _op. cit._ footnote 17.)] + +Self-recording barometers and thermometers were more vulnerable to the +influence of friction than were wind instruments, but fortunately +pressure and temperature were also less subject to sudden fluctuation, +and so self-registration was less necessary. Nevertheless, two events +occurred in the 1840's which led to the development of self-registering +instruments. One event was the development of the geomagnetic +observatory, which used the magnetometer, an instrument as delicate as +the barometer and thermometer, and (as it then seemed), as subject to +fluctuation as the wind vane. The other event was the development of +photography, making possible a recording method free of friction. In +1845 Francis Ronalds at Kew Observatory and Charles Brooke at Greenwich +undertook to develop apparatus to register the magnetometer, +electrometer, thermometer, and barometer by photography.[18] This was +six years after Daguerre's discovery of the photographic process. The +magnetometers of both investigators were put into use in 1847, and the +barometers and thermometers shortly after. They were based on the +deflection--by a mirror in the case of the magnetometer and electrometer +and by the mercury in the barometer and thermometer--of a beam of light +directed against a photographic plate. Brooke exhibited his instruments +at the Great Exhibition of 1850, and they subsequently became items of +commerce and standard appurtenances of the major observatory until +nearly the end of the century (fig. 6). Their advantages in accuracy +were finally insufficient to offset the inconvenience to which a +photographic instrument was subject. + +Before 1850 the British observatories at Kew and Greenwich (the latter +an astronomical observatory with auxiliary meteorological activity) had +self-registering apparatus in use for most of the elements observed. + + + + +Self-Registering Systems + + +In 1870 the Signal Corps, U.S. Army, took on the burden of official +meteorology in the United States as the result of a joint resolution of +the Congress and in accordance with Joseph Henry's dictum that the +Smithsonian Institution should not become the permanent agency for such +scientific work once its permanency had been decided upon. Smithsonian +meteorology had not involved self-recording instruments, and neither did +that of the Signal Corps at the outset "because of the expense of the +apparatus, and because nothing of that kind was at that time +manufactured in this country."[19] + +But almost immediately after 1870 the Signal Corps undertook an +evidently well-financed program for the introduction of +self-registration. "Complete outfits" were purchased, representing +Wild's system, the Kew system as made by Beckley, Hipp's system (fig. +8), Secci's meteorograph (figs. 9, 10), Draper's system, and Hough's +printing barograph and thermograph. Of these only the Kew system, the +photographic system already mentioned, could have been obtained before +1867. + +[Illustration: + + Scale about 1-16th. + + BAROGRAPH, OR + SELF-RECORDING MERCURIAL BAROMETER, £68. + +Figure 6.--Photographic registering mercurial barometer, typical +commercial version. (From J. J. Hicks, _Catalogue of ... Meteorological +Instruments_, London, n.d., about 1870.)] + +Like Kew, Daniel Draper's observatory in Central Park, New York City, +was established primarily for meteorological observation.[20] Draper was +one of the sons of the prominent scientist J. W. Draper. Hipp was an +instrument-maker of Neuchâtel who specialized in precision clocks.[21] +The others after whom these "systems" were named were directors of +astronomical observatories, which were, at this time, the most active +centers of meteorological observation. Wild was at the Bern +Observatory,[22] Secci at the Papal Observatory, Rome,[23] and George +Hough at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York.[24] While the Signal +Corps seems to have acquired all of the principal "systems," some +interesting instruments were developed at still other observatories, +notably by Kreil at the astronomical observatory in Prague.[25] The +principal impetus for this full-scale mechanization of observation +undoubtedly came from the directors of astronomical observatories. + +Thus within little more than the decade of the 1860's were developed +five new systems of meteorological self-registry that were sufficiently +well thought of to be adopted or copied by observatories outside their +places of origin. Wild and Draper tell us that it was decided when their +respective observatories were established--in 1860 and 1868--that all +instruments should be self-registering. Each was obliged to design his +own, being dissatisfied with the photographic registers commercially +available. The development of these systems would therefore appear to +have been due, in part, to the general spread of a conviction that +satisfactory instruments were attainable. + +[Illustration: + +A, is the Vane. + +B, is the Perpendicular Shaft. + +C, is a Horizontal Circular Plate of light material attached to the +shaft. + +E and F, two Rollers communicating motion to the Apron E F from left to +right. + +1, 2, 3, &c., are minute Cards, placed upon the Apron. + +G, is a Clock that regulates the motion of the Roller E, and +consequently that of the apron and cards. + +D, is a small weight to relieve the Clock. + +N, NE, E, &c., are paper boxes placed upon the circular plate, to +receive the cards, as they fall from the apron at E. + +Figure 7.--In 1838 the pioneer American meteorologist James H. Coffin +(1806-1873) devised a self-registering wind direction indicator; in 1849 +he improved it as shown here. The band, moved by clockwork, carries +cards marked with the day and hour. In Coffin's earlier instrument, a +part of which is now in the Smithsonian Institution, the vane carried a +funnel for sand, which ran into a circular row of bottles. (From +_Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of +Science_, 1849, vol. 2, p. 388.)] + +This confidence was warranted, for the decade of the 1850's had seen the +appearance of major innovations in the basic instruments--thermometer, +barometer, and wind velocity indicator--that made available instruments +more adaptable to self-registration. It also saw the development of a +new method of electrical registration derived from the telegraph. Sir +Charles Wheatstone initiated this small revolution in 1843 when he +reported to the British Association that he had constructed an +electromagnetic meteorological register which "records the indications +of the barometer, thermometer and the psychrometer [meaning wet-bulb +thermometer] every half hour ... and prints the results on a sheet of +paper in figures," running a week unattended. The working of this +register involved the insertion of a conductor in the tubes to make a +circuit, the thermometers having open tops.[26] This was ten years after +the development of the electromagnetic relay and six years after +Wheatstone's introduction of his own telegraph. + +Wheatstone's instrument left a very ephemeral record in the +meteorological literature, and appears to have been defective or out of +fashion with its time, which was concerned with the introduction of +photographic instruments. Wheatstone's work was rediscovered, along with +that of several other much earlier inventors, by the determined +observatory directors of the 1860's. + +Of the five systems developed at that time, four used electromagnetic +registration, only Draper adhering to a mechanical system (see fig. 11). +For temperature measurement Secci and Hough used Wheatstone's electrical +system with a mercurial thermometer (fig. 12), but the other four +utilized a physical principle which had been proposed periodically for +at least a century--the unequal thermal expansion of a bimetallic strip. +This principle had been utilized by watchmakers for a quite different +purpose--the temperature compensation of the watch pendulum--but its +possibilities as a thermometer had been known long before the mid-19th +century.[27] + +[Illustration: Figure 8.--Hipp's registering aneroid barometer, with a +telegraphic printer. (_USNM 314544; Smithsonian photo 46740-D._)] + +For the measurement of pressure, Secci, Wild, and Draper adopted, or +rediscovered, the balance barometer devised by Wren in the 17th century. +In this type of instrument (see figs. 13, 15) either the tube or the +reservoir of the barometer is attached to one arm of a balance, the +equilibrium of which is disturbed by the movement of the mercury in the +instrument.[28] + +[Illustration: Figure 9.--Front and rear views of Secci's meteorograph, +1867. (From Lacroix, _op. cit._ footnote 22.)] + +Hough's barometer was an adaptation of the electrical contact +thermometer. The movement of the mercury over a certain minute distance +within the tube served as a switch to energize an electrical recording +system. Hipp, who was perhaps the latest of this group, first applied +the aneroid barometer (fig. 8) to self-registration. The idea of the +aneroid--an air-tight bellows against which the atmospheric pressure +would act--had been advanced by Leibniz in the 17th century and had been +the subject of a few abortive experiments in the 18th century. Not until +1848 was an instrument produced that was acceptable to users of the +barometer.[29] + +As a wind velocity instrument all six systems used the cup-anemometer +developed by Robinson in 1846, an instrument whose chief virtue was the +care which its inventor had taken to work out the relationship between +its movement and the actual velocity of the wind.[30] Beckley and Draper +caused it to move a pencil through gearing; the others used with it +electromagnetic counters actuated by rotating contacts. + +[Illustration: Figure 10.--Chart from Secci's meteorograph. (From +Lacroix, _op. cit._ footnote 22.)] + +As has been indicated, the Signal Corps used all six systems, a panoply +of gadgetry which must have been wondrous to behold. Its Secci +meteorograph, which had attracted much attention at Paris, was estimated +to have cost 15,000 francs. Abbe reported in 1894 that the instruments +were long kept in the apparatus room "as a fascinating show to visitors +and a stimulation to the staff in the invention of other +instruments."[31] + +[Illustration: Figure 11.--Draper's mechanical registering barometer, +as used in the Lick Observatory. (Photo courtesy Lick Observatory.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 12.--Hough's electromechanical registering +barometer, about 1871.] + +[Illustration: Figure 13.--Fuess' "balance barometer after Samuel +Morland," 1880. Wren probably was the originator of this type of +instrument. (From Loewenherz, _op. cit._ footnote 28.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 14.--Marvin's mechanical registering barometer, +1905. This instrument was formerly in the U.S. Weather Bureau. (_USNM +316500_; _Smithsonian photo 46740-E_.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 15.--"Steelyard barometer" as shown in Charles +Hutton's _Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary_ (London, 1796, vol. +1, p. 188). Hutton makes no reference to the originator of this +instrument; he attributes the "Diagonal" (or inclined) barometer to +Samuel Morland.] + +From 1875 the question was no longer one of the introduction of +self-registering instruments to major observatories but their complete +mechanization and the extension of registration to substations. Having +accepted self-registration, meteorologists turned their attention to the +simplification of instruments. In 1904 Charles Marvin, of what is now +the U.S. Weather Bureau, brought the self-registering barometer into +something of a full circle by producing an instrument (fig. 14) that was +nothing more than Hooke's wheel barometer directly adapted to +recording.[32] But this process of simplification had been accomplished +at a stroke, about 1880, with the introduction by the Parisian +instrument-maker Jules Richard of a self-registering barometer and a +thermometer combining the simplest form of instrument with the simplest +form of registration (see fig. 16). This innovation, which fixed the +form of the conventional registering instrument until the advent of the +radiosonde, seems to have stemmed from a source quite outside +meteorology--the technology of the steam gauge. Richard's thermometric +element was the curved metal tube of elliptical cross-section that +Bourdon had developed several decades earlier as a steam gauge. Pressure +within such a tube causes it to straighten, and thus to move a pointer +attached to one end. Bourdon had opened it to the steam source. Richard +filled it with alcohol, closed it, and found that the expansion of the +alcohol on heating caused a similar straightening. His barometric +element was a type of aneroid, which Hipp had already used but which +Richard may have also adopted from a type of steam gauge. For a +recording mechanism, Richard was able to use a simple direct lever +connection, as the forces involved in his instruments, being +concentrated, were not greatly hampered by friction.[33] By 1900 these +simple and inexpensive instruments had relegated to the scrap pile, +unfortunately literally, the elegant products of the mass attack of +observatory directors in the 1860's on the problem of the +self-registering thermometer and barometer.[34] + + + + +Conclusions + + +In view of the rarity of special studies on the history of +meteorological instruments, it is impossible to claim that this brief +review has neglected no important instruments, and conclusions as to the +lineage of the late 19th century instruments can only be tentatively +drawn. The conclusion is inescapable, however, that the majority of the +instruments upon which the self-registering systems of the late 19th +century were based had been proposed and, in most cases, actually +constructed in the 17th century. It is also evident that in the 17th +century at least one attempt was made at a system as comprehensive as +any accomplished in the 19th century. + +[Illustration: Figure 16.--Richard's registering aneroid barometer, an +instrument used at the U.S. Weather Bureau about 1888. The Richard +registering thermometer is similar, the aneroid being replaced by an +alcohol-filled Bourdon tube. (_USNM 252981; Smithsonian photo +46740-C_.)] + +To attribute the success of self-registering instruments in the late +19th century to the unquestionable improvements in the techniques of the +instrument-maker is to beg the question, for it is by no means clear +that the techniques of the 17th-century instrument-maker were unequal to +the task. It should also be noted that the photographic and +electromagnetic systems of the 19th century seem to have been something +of an interlude, for some of the latest and most durable (all of +Draper's and Richard's instruments and Marvin's barograph) were purely +mechanical instruments, as had been those of Hooke and Wren. If we +conclude that the 19th-century instruments were more accurate, we should +also recall Forbes' comments upon the question of instrumental accuracy. + +What, then, was the essential difference between the 17th and 19th +centuries that made possible the development of the self-registering +observatory? It would appear to have been a difference of degree--the +maturation in the 19th century of certain features of the 17th. The +most important of these features were the spread throughout the western +world of the spirit that had animated the scientific societies of +Florence and London, the continued popularity of the astronomical +observatory as an object of the philanthropy of an affluent society, and +the continued existence of the nonspecialized scientist. Under these +circumstances such nonmeteorologists as Wheatstone, Henry, Hough, Wild, +and Secci had the temerity to range over the whole of the not yet +compartmented branches of science and technology, fully confident that +they were capable of finding thereby a solution to any problem important +enough to warrant their attention. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + + +[1] On early meteorological instruments see A. Wolf, _A History of +Science, Technology and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth +Centuries_, New York, 1935, and E. Gerland and F. Traumüller, +_Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst_, Leipzig, 1899. On +the recognition of the meteorological significance of the barometer by +Torricelli and its meteorological use in 1649 see K. Schneider-Carius, +_Wetterkunde Wetterforschung_, Freiburg and Munich, 1955, pp. 62, 71. + +[2] Bacon's book emphasizes "direct" and "indirect" experiments, and +calls for the systematization of observation, but it does not mention +instruments. It is reprinted in Basil Montagu's _The Works of Francis +Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England,_ London, 1825, vols. 10 and 14. + +[3] Wolf, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), pp. 312, 316-320. The interest of the +Royal Society in the barometer seems to have been initiated by +Descartes' theory that the instrument's variation was caused by the +pressure of the moon. + +[4] _On early meteorology in the United States see the report of Joseph +Henry in Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, for the +Year 1855_, 1856, p. 357ff.; also, _Army Meteorological Register for +Twelve Years, 1843-1854_, 1855, introduction. + +[5] J. D. Forbes, "Report upon the Recent Progress and Present State of +Meteorology," _Report of the First and Second Meetings of the British +Association for the Advancement of Science, 1831 and 1832_, 1833, pp. +196-197. + +[6] On the instruments used at Mannheim see Gerland and Traumüller, _op. +cit._ footnote 1, p. 349ff. The Princeton physicist Arnold Guyot +prepared a set of instructions for observers that was published in +_Tenth Annual Report ... of the Smithsonian Institution_, 1856, p. +215ff. It appears from the _Annual Report of the British Association for +the Advance of Science_ in the 1830's that the instruments used in +England were nearly the same as those later adopted by the Smithsonian, +although British observatories were beginning to experiment with the +self-registering anemometer at that time. A typical set of the +Smithsonian instruments is shown in figure 1. + +[7] H. Alan Lloyd, "Horology and Meteorology," _Journal Suisse +d'Horlogerie_, November-December, 1953, nos. 11, 12, p. 372, fig. 1. + +[8] R. T. Gunther, _Early Science in Oxford_, vol. 6, _The Life and Work +of Robert Hooke_, pt. 1, Oxford, 1930, p. 196. In 1670, Hooke's proposed +clock was referred to as "such a one, as Dr. Wren had formerly +contrived" (Gunther, p. 365). + +[9] William Derham, _Philosophical Experiments and Observations of ... +Dr. Robert Hooke_, London, 1726, pp. 41-42 (reprinted in Gunther, _op. +cit._ footnote 8, vol. 7, pp. 519-520). This description, dated December +5, 1678, predates the Royal Society's request for a description +(Gunther, _op. cit._ footnote 8, p. 656) by four months, but the Society +no longer has any description of the clock. As to the actual completion +of the clock, the president of the Society visited "Mr. Hooke's turret" +to see it in January of 1678/79 but it was not reported "ready to be +shown" until the following May (Gunther, pp. 506, 518). + +[10] Wren's clock and its wind vane and anemometer, thermometer, +barometer, and rain gauge are described by T. Sprat, _The History of the +Royal Society..._, London, 1667, pp. 312-313. On the balance-barometer, +see also footnote 28, below, and figure 4. + +[11] Since the above was written, additional information on this clock +has been published by H. E. Hoff and L. A. Geddes, "Graphic Recording +before Carl Ludwig: An Historical Summary," _Archives Internationales +d'Histoire des Sciences_, 1959, vol. 12, pp. 1-25. Hoff and Geddes call +attention to a report on the clock by Monconys, who saw the instrument +in 1663 and published a brief description and crude sketch (Balthasar +Monconys, _Les Voyages de Balthasar de Monconys; Documents pour +l'Histoire de la Science, avec une Introduction par M. Charles Henry_, +Paris, 1887). Monconys says that the thermometer "causes a tablet to +rise and fall while a pencil bears against it." The instrument shown in +his sketch resembles a Galilean thermoscope. + +[12] Hooke's "oat-beard hygrometer" was described in 1667, but +Torricelli seems to have invented the same thing in 1646, according to +E. Gerland, "Historical Sketch of Instrumental Meteorology," in "Report +of the International Meteorological Congress Held at Chicago, Ill., +August 21-24, 1893," O. L. Fassig, ed., _U.S. Weather Bureau Bulletin +No. 11_, pt. 3, 1896, pp. 687-699. + +[13] But a Dutch patent was awarded to one William Douglas in 1627 for +the determination of wind pressure (G. Doorman, _Patents for Inventions +in the Netherlands during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_, The Hague, +1942, p. 127), and Leonardo da Vinci left a sketch of both a wind +pressure meter and a hygrometer (_Codex Atlanticus_, 249 va and 8 vb). + +[14] Gunther, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), pp. 433, 502. + +[15] Battista della Valle, _Vallo Libro Continente Appertiniente ad +Capitanii, Retenere and Fortificare una Citta..._, Venetia, 1523 +(reported under the date 1524 in G. H. Baillie, _Clocks and Watches, an +Historical Bibliography_, London, 1951). + +[16] Dolland's instrument, called an "atmospheric recorder," is +described in the _Official, Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue to the +Great Exhibition, 1851,_ London, 1851, pt. 2, pp. 414-415. As the George +Dolland who joined the famous Dolland firm in 1804 would have been about +80 years of age in 1850, the George Dolland who exhibited this +instrument may have been a younger relative. + +[17] The Osler anemometer and most of the other self-registering +instruments mentioned in this paper are described and illustrated in C. +Abbe, "Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods," _Annual Report +of the Chief Signal Officer for 1887_, Washington, 1888. The use of the +Osler instrument at the British Association's observatory at Plymouth is +mentioned in the Association's annual reports from 1838. There were a +number of earlier self-registering anemometers, but no evidence of their +extended use. See J. K. Laughton, "Historical Sketch of Anemometry and +Anemometers," _Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society_, +1882, vol. 8, pp. 161-188. + +[18] On Ronalds' work see reports of the British Association for the +Advancement of Science, from 1846 to 1850. On Brooke's work see +_Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, 1847, vol. +137, pp. 59-68. + +[19] C. Abbe, "The Meteorological Work of the U.S. Signal Service, 1870 +to 1871," in Fassig, _op. cit._ (footnote 12), pt. 2, 1895, p. 263. + +[20] _Annual Report of the Director of the Meteorological Observatory_, +Central Park, New York, 1871, p. 1ff. + +[21] _Oesterreichische Gesellschaft für Meteorologie, Zeitschrift_, +1871, vol. 6, pp. 104, 117. + +[22] P. H. Carl, _Repertorium für physikalische Technik_, Munich, 1867, +p. 162ff. + +[23] E. Lacroix, _Études sur l'Exposition de 1867_, Paris, 1867, vol. 2, +p. 313ff. See also, Reports of the U.S. Commissioners to the Paris +Universal Exposition, 1867, vol. 3, Washington, 1870, p. 570ff. + +[24] _Annals of the Dudley Observatory_, 1871, vol. 2, p. vii ff. + +[25] Karl Kreil, _Entwurf eines meteorologischen Beobachtungs-Systems +für die österreichische Monarchie_, Vienna, 1850. + +[26] _Report of the 13th Meeting of the British Association for the +Advancement of Science_, 1843, 1844, p. xi ff. I have found no other +reference to this instrument. Considerable attention was given to the +thermometer, however, for Wheatstone proposed to send it aloft in a +balloon for the measurement of temperatures at high altitudes. A small +clock caused a vertical rack to ascend and descend once in six minutes. +The rack carried a platinum wire which moved within the thermometer over +28 degrees. From a galvanic battery and a galvanometer on the ground two +insulated copper wires were to extend to the balloon, one connected to +the mercury and the other to the clock frame. The deflection of the +galvanometer was to be timed with a second clock on the ground. +(Professor Wheatstone, "Report on the Electro-Magnetic Meteorological +Register," _Mechanics' Magazine_, London, 1843, vol. 39, p. 204). + +[27] In 1662 Hooke had proposed the use of a bimetallic pendulum for the +temperature compensation of clocks. Thermometers on this principle were +described to the Royal Society in 1748 and in 1760 (_Philosophical +Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, 1748, vol. 45, p. 128; +1760, vol. 51, p. 823). Some systems used a bimetallic thermometer in +the sun and a mercurial instrument in the shade. + +[28] This instrument has been persistently associated with Sir Samuel +Morland (1625-1695). For example, A. Sprung of the Deutsche Seewarte +described his own balance-barometer as a "Wagebarograph nach Samuel +Morland" (in L. Loewenherz, _Bericht über die wissenschaftlichen +Instrumente auf der Berliner Gewerbeausstellung im Jahre 1879_, Berlin, +1880, p. 230ff). Sprat (_op. cit._ footnote 10, p. 313) reported that +Wren had proposed "balances to shew the weight of the air by their +spontaneous inclination." This must, therefore, be Wren's invention, +unless he got it from Morland, who does not seem to have published +anything about the barometer but only to have described some ideas to a +friend. But Morland's was probably the _inclined_ and not the _balance_ +barometer. (See under "barometer" in Charles Hutton, _Mathematical and +Philosophical Dictionary_, London, 1796, vol. 1; also J. K. Fischer, +_Physikalisches Wörterbuch, Göttingen_, 1798). + +[29] Leibniz, in several letters--beginning with one to Denys Papin on +June 21, 1697--proposed the making of a barometer on the model of a +bellows. Of subsequent versions of such a barometer, that of Vidi +(described by Poggendorff, _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1848, Band +73, p. 620) is generally regarded as the first practical aneroid (see +also Gerland and Traumüller, _op. cit._ footnote 1, pp. 239, 323). + +[30] T. R. Robinson, "Modification of Dr. Whewell's Anemometer for +Measuring the Velocity of the Wind," _Report of the 16th Meeting of the +British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1846_, 1847, pt. 2, +p. 111. + +[31] Abbe, _op. cit._ (footnote 19), pp. 263-264. + +[32] Because of its superior accuracy to the aneroid barograph, Marvin's +barometer was in use through the 1940's. See R. N. Covert, +"Meteorological Instruments and Apparatus Employed by the United States +Weather Bureau," _Journal of the Optical Society of America_, 1925, vol. +10, p. 322. + +[33] Both of Richard's instruments (described in _Bulletin Mensuel de la +Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_, November 1882, ser. +3, vol. 9, pp. 531-543) were in use at Kew by 1885 and at the U.S. +Weather Bureau by 1888. The firm of Richard Freres claimed in 1889 to +have made 7,000 registering instruments, of which the majority were +probably thermographs and barographs. At that time, certainly no other +maker had made more than a small fraction of this number of +self-registering instruments. The origin of Richard's thermograph seems +to have been the "elastic manometer" described by E. Bourdon in 1851 +(_Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_, +1851, no. 562, p. 197). While attempting to restore a flattened +still-pipe, Bourdon had discovered the property of tubes to change shape +under fluid pressure. The instrument he developed in consequence became +the standard steam pressure gauge. + +[34] A few of these instruments, such as the Marvin barograph, survived +for some time because of their superior accuracy. Even as museum pieces, +only a few exist today. + + + + +U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1961. + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing +Office, Washington 25, D.C. - Price 25 cents + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + +Minor errors in punctuation have been corrected without note. The +following typographical errors in the original have been corrected: + +P. 110: 'a panopoly of gadgetry': corrected to panoply +P. 113, caption to Figure 13: 'Feuss': corrected to Fuess +Footnote 28: 'Gewerbeaustellung': corrected to Gewerbeausstellung +Footnote 28: 'Physikalisches Worterbuch': corrected to Wörterbuch +Footnote 29: 'see also Gerland and Traümuller': corrected to Traumüller + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering +Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-REG. 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