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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering
+Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments
+
+Author: Robert P. Multhauf
+
+Release Date: May 22, 2010 [EBook #32482]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-REG. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  CONTRIBUTIONS FROM
+
+  THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY:
+
+  PAPER 23
+
+
+  THE INTRODUCTION OF SELF-REGISTERING
+
+  METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+  _Robert P. Multhauf_
+
+
+  THE FIRST SELF-REGISTERING INSTRUMENTS      99
+
+  SELF-REGISTERING SYSTEMS                   105
+
+  CONCLUSIONS                                114
+
+
+
+
+_The Introduction of_ SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+_Robert P. Multhauf_
+
+
+     _The development of self-registering meteorological instruments
+     began very shortly after that of scientific meteorological
+     observation itself. Yet it was not until the 1860's, two centuries
+     after the beginning of scientific observation, that the
+     self-registering instrument became a factor in meteorology._
+
+     _This time delay is attributable less to deficiencies in the
+     techniques of instrument-making than to deficiencies in the
+     organisation of meteorology itself. The critical factor was the
+     establishment in the 1860's of well-financed and competently
+     directed meteorological observatories, most of which were created
+     as adjuncts to astronomical observatories._
+
+     THE AUTHOR: _Robert P. Multhauf is head curator of the department
+     of science and technology in the United States National Museum,
+     Smithsonian Institution._
+
+
+The flowering of science in the 17th century was accompanied by an
+efflorescence of instrument invention as luxurious as that of science
+itself. Although there were foreshadowing events, this flowering seems
+to have owed much to Galileo, whose interest in the measurement of
+natural phenomena is well known, and who is himself credited with the
+invention of the thermometer and the hydrostatic balance, both of which
+he devised in connection with experimentation on specific scientific
+problems. Many, if not most, of the other Italian instrument inventors
+of the early 17th century were his disciples. Benedetto Castelli, being
+interested in the effect of rainfall on the level of a lake, constructed
+a rain gauge about 1628. Santorio, well known as a pioneer in the
+quantification of animal physiology, is credited with observations,
+about 1626, that led to the development of the hygrometer.
+
+Both of these contemporaries were interested in Galileo's most famous
+invention, the thermoscope--forerunner of the thermometer--which he
+developed about 1597 as a method of obtaining comparisons of
+temperature. The utility of the instrument was immediately recognized by
+physicists (not by chemists, oddly enough), and much ingenuity was
+expended on its perfection over a 50-year period, in northern Europe as
+well as in Italy. The conversion of this open, air-expansion thermoscope
+into the modern thermometer was accomplished by the Florentine Accademia
+del Cimento about 1660.
+
+Galileo also inspired the barometer, through his speculations on the
+vacuum, which, in 1643, led his disciple Torricelli to experiments
+proving the limitation to nature's horror of a vacuum. Torricelli's
+apparatus, unlike Galileo's thermoscope, represented the barometer in
+essentially its classical form. In his earliest experiments, Torricelli
+observed that the air tended to become "thicker and thinner"; as a
+consequence, we find the barometer in use (with the thermometer) for
+meteorological observation as early as 1649.[1]
+
+The meetings of the Accademia terminated in 1667, but the 5-year-old
+Royal Society of London had already become as fruitful a source of new
+instruments, largely through the abilities of its demonstrator, Robert
+Hooke, whose task it was to entertain and instruct the members with
+experiments. In the course of devising these experiments Hooke became
+perhaps the most prolific instrument inventor of all time. He seems to
+have invented the first wind pressure gauge, as an aid to seamen, and he
+improved the bathometer, hygrometer, hydrometer, and barometer, as well
+as instruments not directly involved in measurement such as the vacuum
+pump and sea-water sampling devices. As in Florence, these instruments
+were immediately brought to bear on the observation of nature.
+
+It does not appear, however, that we would be justified in concluding
+that the rise of scientific meteorology was inspired by the invention of
+instruments, for meteorology had begun to free itself of the traditional
+weather-lore and demonology early in the 17th century. The Landgraf of
+Hesse described some simultaneous weather observations, made without
+instruments, in 1637. Francis Bacon's "Natural History of the Wind,"
+considered the first special work of this kind to attain general
+circulation, appeared in 1622.[2] It seems likely that the rise of
+scientific meteorology was an aspect of the general rationalization of
+nature study which occurred at this time, and that the initial impetus
+for such progress was gained not from the invention of instruments but
+from the need of navigators for wind data at a time when long voyages
+out of sight of land were becoming commonplace.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--A set of typical Smithsonian meteorological
+instruments as recommended in instructions to observers issued by the
+Institution in the 1850's. _Top_ (from left): maximum-minimum
+thermometer of Professor Phillips, dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers,
+and mercurial barometer by Green of New York. _Lower left:_ rain gauge.
+The wet-bulb thermometer, although typical, is actually a later
+instrument. The rain gauge is a replica. (_Smithsonian photo 46740._)]
+
+It should be noted in this connection that the two most important
+instruments, the thermometer and barometer, were in no way inspired by
+an interest in meteorology. But the observation made early in the
+history of the barometer that the atmospheric pressure varied in some
+relationship to visible changes in the weather soon brought that
+instrument into use as a "weather glass." In particular, winds were
+attributed to disturbances of barometric equilibrium, and
+wind-barometric studies were made by Evangelista Torricelli, Edmé
+Mariotte, and Edmund Halley, the latter publishing the first
+meteorological chart. In 1678-1679 Gottfried Leibniz endeavored to
+encourage observations to test the capacity of the barometer for
+foretelling the weather.[3]
+
+Other questions of a quasi-meteorological nature interested the
+scientists of this period, and brought other instruments into use.
+Observations of rainfall and evaporation were made in pursuit of the
+ancient question of the sources of terrestrial water, the maintenance of
+the levels of seas, etc. Physicians brought instruments to bear on the
+question of the relationship between weather and the incidence of
+disease. The interrelationship between these various meteorological
+enterprises was not long in becoming apparent. Soon after its founding
+in 1657 the Florentine academy undertook, through the distribution of
+thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, and rain gauges, the
+establishment of an international network of meteorological observation
+stations, a network which did not survive the demise of the Accademia
+itself ten years later.
+
+Not for over a century was the first thoroughgoing attempt made at
+systematic observation. There was a meteorological section in the
+Academy of Sciences at Mannheim from 1763, and subsequently a separate
+society for meteorology. In 1783, the Academy published observations
+from 39 stations, those from the central station comprising data from
+the hygrometer, wind vane (but not anemometer), rain gauge,
+evaporimeter, and apparatus for geomagnetism and atmospheric
+electricity, as well as data from the thermometer and barometer. The
+Mannheim system was also short-lived, being terminated by the Napoleonic
+invasion, but systems of comparable scope were attempted throughout
+Europe and America during the next generation.
+
+In the United States the office of the Surgeon General, U. S. Army,
+began the first systematic observation in 1819, using only the
+thermometer and wind vane, to which were added the barometer and
+hygrometer in 1840-1841 and the wind force anemometer, rain gauge, and
+wet bulb thermometer in 1843. State weather observation systems
+meanwhile had been inaugurated in New York (1825), Pennsylvania (1836),
+and Ohio (1842).[4]
+
+Nearly 200 years of observation had not, however, noticeably improved
+the weather, and the naive faith in the power of instruments to reveal
+its mysteries, which had possessed many an early meteorologist, no
+longer charmed the scientist of the early 19th century. In the first
+published report of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science in 1833, J. D. Forbes called for a reorganization of procedures:
+
+     In the science of Astronomy, for example, as in that of Optics, the
+     great general truths which emerge in the progress of discovery,
+     though depending for their establishment upon a multitude of
+     independent facts and observations, possess sufficient unity to
+     connect in the mind the bearing of the whole; and the more
+     perfectly understood connexion of parts invites to further
+     generalization.
+
+     Very different is the position of an infant science like
+     Meteorology. The unity of the whole ... is not always kept in view,
+     even as far as our present very limited general conceptions will
+     admit of: and as few persons have devoted their whole attention to
+     this science alone ... no wonder that we find strewed over its
+     irregular and far-spread surface, patches of cultivation upon spots
+     chosen without discrimination and treated on no common principle,
+     which defy the improver to inclose, and the surveyor to estimate
+     and connect them. Meteorological instruments have been for the most
+     part treated like toys, and much time and labor have been lost in
+     making and recording observations utterly useless for any
+     scientific purpose. Even the numerous registers of a rather
+     superior class ... hardly contain one jot of information ready for
+     incorporation in a Report on the progress of Meteorology....
+
+     The most general mistake probably consists in the idea that
+     Meteorology, as a science, has no other object but an experimental
+     acquaintance with the condition of those variable elements which
+     from day to day constitute the general and vague result of the
+     state of the _weather_ at any given spot; not considering that ...
+     when grouped together with others of the same character, [they] may
+     afford the most valuable aid to scientific generalization.[5]
+
+Forbes goes on to call for a greater emphasis on theory, and the
+replacement of the many small-scale observatories with "a few great
+Registers" to be adequately maintained by "great Societies" or by the
+government. He suggests that the time for pursuit of theory might be
+gained from "the vague mechanical task to which at present they
+generally devote their time, namely the search for great numerical
+accuracy, to a superfluity of decimal places exceeding the compass of
+the instrument to verify."
+
+From its founding the British Association sponsored systematic
+observation at various places. In 1842 it initiated observations at the
+Kew Observatory, which has continued until today to be the premier
+meteorological observatory in the British Empire. The American scientist
+Joseph Henry observed the functioning of an observatory maintained by
+the British Association at Plymouth in 1837, and when he became
+Secretary of the new Smithsonian Institution a few years later he made
+the furtherance of meteorology one of its first objectives.
+
+The Kew Observatory set a pattern for systematic observation in England
+as, from 1855, did the Smithsonian Institution in the United States. The
+instruments used differed little from those in use at Mannheim over half
+a century earlier[6] (fig. 1). They were undoubtedly more accurate, but
+this should not be overstressed. Forbes had noted in his report of 1832
+that some scientists were then calling for a return to Torricelli, for
+the construction of a temporary barometer on the site in preference to
+reliance on the then existing manufactured instruments.
+
+
+
+
+The First Self-Registering Instruments
+
+
+From the middle of the 17th century meteorological observations were
+recorded in manuscript books known as "registers," many of which were
+published in the early scientific journals. The most effective
+utilization of these observations was in the compilation of the history
+of particular storms, but where a larger synthesis was concerned they
+tended, as Forbes has shown, to show themselves unsystematic and
+non-comparable. The principal problems of meteorological observation
+have been from the outset the construction of precisely comparable
+instruments and their use to produce comparable records. The former
+problem has been frequently discussed, and perhaps, as Forbes suggests,
+overemphasized. It is the latter problem with which we are here
+concerned.
+
+The idea of mechanizing the process of observation, not yet accomplished
+in Forbes' time, had been put forward within a little over a decade of
+the first use of the thermometer and barometer in meteorology. On
+December 9, 1663, Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a
+design for a "weather clock," of which a drawing is extant.[7] This
+drawing (fig. 2) shows an ordinary clock to which is attached a
+pencil-carrying rack, geared to the hour pinion. A discussion of the
+clock's "reduction to practice" began the involvement of Robert Hooke,
+who was "instructed" in September 1664 to make "a pendulum clock
+applicable to the observing of the changes in the weather."[8] This
+tribute to Hooke's reputation--and to the versatility of the mechanic
+arts at this time--was slightly overoptimistic, as 15 years ensued
+before the clock made its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--A contemporary drawing of Wren's "weather
+clock." (Photo courtesy Royal Society of London.)]
+
+References to this clock are frequent in the records of the Royal
+Society--being mainly periodic injunctions to Hooke to get on with the
+work--until its completion in May 1679. The description which Hooke was
+asked to supply was subsequently found among his papers and printed by
+William Derham as follows:[9]
+
+     The weather-clock consists of two parts; _first_, that which
+     measures the time, which is a strong and large pendulum-clock,
+     which moves a week, with once winding up, and is sufficient to turn
+     a cylinder (upon which the paper is rolled) twice round in a day,
+     and also to lift a hammer for striking the punches, once every
+     quarter of an hour.
+
+     _Secondly_, of several instruments for measuring the degrees of
+     alteration, in the several things, to be observed. The first is,
+     the barometer, which moves the first punch, an inch and half,
+     serving to shew the difference between the greatest and the least
+     pressure of the air. The second is, the thermometer, which moves
+     the punch that shews the differences between the greatest heat in
+     summer, and the least in winter. The third is, the hygroscope,
+     moving the punch, which shews the difference between the moistest
+     and driest airs. The fourth is, the rain-bucket, serving to shew
+     the quantity of rain that falls; this hath two parts or punches;
+     the first, to shew what part of the bucket is fill'd, when there
+     falls not enough to make it empty itself; the second, to shew how
+     many full buckets have been emptied. The fifth is the wind vane;
+     this hath also two parts; the first to shew the strength of the
+     wind, which is observed by the number of revolutions in the
+     vane-mill, and marked by three punches; the first marks every
+     10,000 revolutions, the second every 1,000, and the third every
+     100: The second, to shew the quarters of the wind, this hath four
+     punches; the first with one point, marking the North quarters, viz.
+     N.: N. by E.: N. by W.: NNE.: NNW.: NE. by N. and N.W. by N.: NE.
+     and N.W. The second hath two points, marking the East and its
+     quarters. The third hath three points, marking the South and its
+     quarters. The fourth hath four points, marking the West and its
+     quarters. Some of these punches give one mark, every 100
+     revolutions of the vane-mill.
+
+     The stations or places of the first four punches are marked on a
+     scrowl of paper, by the clock-hammer, falling every quarter of an
+     hour. The punches, belonging to the fifth, are marked on the said
+     scrowl, by the revolutions of the vane, which are accounted by a
+     small numerator, standing at the top of the clock-case, which is
+     moved by the vane-mill.
+
+What, exactly, were the instruments applied by Hooke to his weather
+clock? It is not always easy even to guess, because it appears that Wren
+was actually the first to contrive such a device and seems to have
+developed nearly as many instruments as Hooke. It might be supposed that
+Hooke would have adapted to the weather clock his wheel-barometer,
+introduced in 1667, but it also appears that Wren had described (and
+perhaps built) a balance barometer before 1667.[10] As to the
+thermometer, we have no evidence of original work by Hooke, but we do
+have a description of Wren's self-registering thermometer, a circular,
+mercury-filled tube in which changes in temperature move "the whole
+instrument, like a wheel on its axis."[11]
+
+The hygroscope (hygrometer) probably existed in more versions than any
+other instrument, although we know nothing of any versions by Wren.
+Hooke may have used his own "oat-beard" instrument.[12] Derham follows
+his description of the clock--which has been quoted above--with a
+detailed description of a tipping-bucket rain gauge invented by Hooke
+and used with the clock. He also notes that in 1670 Hooke had described
+two other types of rain gauge in which a bucket was counterbalanced in
+one case by a string of bullets and in another by an immersed weight.
+But here again, Sprat records the invention of a tipping-bucket gauge by
+Wren before 1667.
+
+Hooke has been generally regarded as the first inventor of an
+anemometer, in 1662.[13] But this invention was a pressure-plate
+gauge--that is, a metal plate held with its face against the
+wind--whereas the gauge used with the weather clock is clearly a
+windmill type, of which type this may be the first. Wren also had an
+anemometer, but we have no description of it. Hooke's account does not
+refer to other instruments which the weather clock is supposed to have
+had, according to a description quoted by Gunther, which concludes the
+enumeration of the elements recorded with "sunshine, etc."[14] One can
+only wish for further information on the mechanism by which the
+punches--or in Wren's clock, the pencils--were moved. But it is apparent
+that Hooke's clock was actually used for some time.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Dolland's "atmospheric recorder": 1, siphon and
+float barometer; 2, balance (?) thermometer; 3, hygrometer; 4,
+electrometer; 5, float rain gauge; 6, float evaporimeter; 7,
+suspended-weight wind force indicator; 8, wind direction indicator; 9,
+clock; 10, receivers for rain gauge and evaporimeter. (From _Official
+... Catalogue of the Great Exhibition, 1851,_ London, 1851, pt. 2).]
+
+The 17th century was not entirely unprepared for the idea of such a
+self-registering instrument. Water clocks and other devices in which
+natural forces governed a pointer were known in antiquity, as were
+counters of the type of the odometer. A water clock described in Italy
+in 1524 was essentially an inversion of one of Hooke's rain gauges, that
+in which a bucket was balanced against a string of bullets.[15] The
+mechanical clock also had a considerable history in the 17th century,
+and had long since been applied to the operations of figures through
+cams, as was almost certainly the case with the punches in Hooke's
+clock. Still, the combination of an instrument-actuated pointer with a
+clock-actuated time-scale and a means of obtaining a permanent record
+represent a group of innovations which certainly ranks among the
+greatest in the history of instrumentation. It appears that we owe these
+innovations to Wren and Hooke.
+
+Hooke's clock contributed nothing to the systematization of
+meteorological observation, and the last record of it appears to have
+been a note on its "re-fitting" in 1690. Its complexity is sufficient
+reason for its ephemeral history, but complexity in machine design was
+the fashion of the time and Hooke may have intended no more than a
+mechanistic _tour de force_. On the other hand, he may have recognized
+the desideratum to which later meteorologists frequently returned--the
+need for simultaneous observations of several instruments on the same
+register. In any case, no instrument so comprehensive seems to have been
+attempted again until the middle of the 19th century, when George
+Dolland exhibited one at the Great Exhibition in London (see fig. 3).
+The weather elements recorded by Dolland's instrument were the same as
+those recorded by Hooke's, except that atmospheric electricity (unknown
+in Hooke's time) was recorded and sunshine was not recorded. Striking
+hammers were used by Dolland for some of the instruments and "ever
+pointed pencils" for the others. Dolland's barometer was a wheel
+instrument controlling a hammer. His thermometric element consisted of
+12 balanced mercury thermometers. Its mode of operation is not clear,
+but it probably was similar to that of the thermometer developed by Karl
+Kreil in Prague about the same time (fig. 4). Dolland's wind force
+indicator consisted of a pressure plate counterbalanced by a string of
+suspended weights. Altogether, it is not clear that Dolland's instrument
+was superior to Hooke's, or that its career was longer.[16]
+
+The 171 years between these two instruments were not lacking in
+inventiveness in this field, but even though inventors set the more
+modest aim of a self-recording instrument for a single piece of
+meteorological data, their brain children were uniformly still-born.
+Then, during the period 1840-1850, we see the appearance of a series of
+self-registering instruments which were actually used, which were widely
+adopted by observatories, and which were superseded by superior
+instruments rather than abandoned. This development was undoubtedly a
+consequence of the establishment at that time of permanent observatories
+under competent scientific direction.
+
+Long experience had demonstrated to the meteorologists of the 1840's
+that the principal obstacle to the success of self-registering
+instruments was friction. Forbes had indicated that the most urgent need
+was for automatic registration of wind data, as the erratic fluctuation
+of the wind demanded more frequent observation than any manual system
+could accomplish. Two of the British Association's observers produced
+separate recording instruments for wind direction and force in the late
+1830's, a prompt response which suggests that it was not the idea which
+was lacking. One of these instruments--designed by William
+Whewell--contained gearing, the friction of which vitiated its utility
+as it had that of a number of predecessors. The other, designed by A.
+Follet Osler, was free of gearing; it separately recorded wind pressure
+and direction on a sheet of paper moved laterally by clockwork. The
+pressure element was a spring-loaded pressure plate carried around by
+the vane to face the wind. Both this plate and the vane itself were made
+to move pencils through linkages of chains and pulleys.[17] Osler's
+anemometer (fig. 5) deserves to be called the first successful
+self-registering meteorological instrument; it was standard equipment in
+British observatories until the latter part of the 19th century when it
+was replaced by the cup-anemometer of Robinson.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--Kreil's balance thermometer, 1843. (From Karl
+Kreil, _Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag_, Prague,
+1843, vol. 3, fig. 1.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Osler's self-registering pressure plate
+anemometer, 1837. The instrument is shown with a tipping-bucket rain
+gauge. (From Abbe, _op. cit._ footnote 17.)]
+
+Self-recording barometers and thermometers were more vulnerable to the
+influence of friction than were wind instruments, but fortunately
+pressure and temperature were also less subject to sudden fluctuation,
+and so self-registration was less necessary. Nevertheless, two events
+occurred in the 1840's which led to the development of self-registering
+instruments. One event was the development of the geomagnetic
+observatory, which used the magnetometer, an instrument as delicate as
+the barometer and thermometer, and (as it then seemed), as subject to
+fluctuation as the wind vane. The other event was the development of
+photography, making possible a recording method free of friction. In
+1845 Francis Ronalds at Kew Observatory and Charles Brooke at Greenwich
+undertook to develop apparatus to register the magnetometer,
+electrometer, thermometer, and barometer by photography.[18] This was
+six years after Daguerre's discovery of the photographic process. The
+magnetometers of both investigators were put into use in 1847, and the
+barometers and thermometers shortly after. They were based on the
+deflection--by a mirror in the case of the magnetometer and electrometer
+and by the mercury in the barometer and thermometer--of a beam of light
+directed against a photographic plate. Brooke exhibited his instruments
+at the Great Exhibition of 1850, and they subsequently became items of
+commerce and standard appurtenances of the major observatory until
+nearly the end of the century (fig. 6). Their advantages in accuracy
+were finally insufficient to offset the inconvenience to which a
+photographic instrument was subject.
+
+Before 1850 the British observatories at Kew and Greenwich (the latter
+an astronomical observatory with auxiliary meteorological activity) had
+self-registering apparatus in use for most of the elements observed.
+
+
+
+
+Self-Registering Systems
+
+
+In 1870 the Signal Corps, U.S. Army, took on the burden of official
+meteorology in the United States as the result of a joint resolution of
+the Congress and in accordance with Joseph Henry's dictum that the
+Smithsonian Institution should not become the permanent agency for such
+scientific work once its permanency had been decided upon. Smithsonian
+meteorology had not involved self-recording instruments, and neither did
+that of the Signal Corps at the outset "because of the expense of the
+apparatus, and because nothing of that kind was at that time
+manufactured in this country."[19]
+
+But almost immediately after 1870 the Signal Corps undertook an
+evidently well-financed program for the introduction of
+self-registration. "Complete outfits" were purchased, representing
+Wild's system, the Kew system as made by Beckley, Hipp's system (fig.
+8), Secci's meteorograph (figs. 9, 10), Draper's system, and Hough's
+printing barograph and thermograph. Of these only the Kew system, the
+photographic system already mentioned, could have been obtained before
+1867.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Scale about 1-16th.
+
+  BAROGRAPH, OR
+  SELF-RECORDING MERCURIAL BAROMETER, £68.
+
+Figure 6.--Photographic registering mercurial barometer, typical
+commercial version. (From J. J. Hicks, _Catalogue of ... Meteorological
+Instruments_, London, n.d., about 1870.)]
+
+Like Kew, Daniel Draper's observatory in Central Park, New York City,
+was established primarily for meteorological observation.[20] Draper was
+one of the sons of the prominent scientist J. W. Draper. Hipp was an
+instrument-maker of Neuchâtel who specialized in precision clocks.[21]
+The others after whom these "systems" were named were directors of
+astronomical observatories, which were, at this time, the most active
+centers of meteorological observation. Wild was at the Bern
+Observatory,[22] Secci at the Papal Observatory, Rome,[23] and George
+Hough at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York.[24] While the Signal
+Corps seems to have acquired all of the principal "systems," some
+interesting instruments were developed at still other observatories,
+notably by Kreil at the astronomical observatory in Prague.[25] The
+principal impetus for this full-scale mechanization of observation
+undoubtedly came from the directors of astronomical observatories.
+
+Thus within little more than the decade of the 1860's were developed
+five new systems of meteorological self-registry that were sufficiently
+well thought of to be adopted or copied by observatories outside their
+places of origin. Wild and Draper tell us that it was decided when their
+respective observatories were established--in 1860 and 1868--that all
+instruments should be self-registering. Each was obliged to design his
+own, being dissatisfied with the photographic registers commercially
+available. The development of these systems would therefore appear to
+have been due, in part, to the general spread of a conviction that
+satisfactory instruments were attainable.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+A, is the Vane.
+
+B, is the Perpendicular Shaft.
+
+C, is a Horizontal Circular Plate of light material attached to the
+shaft.
+
+E and F, two Rollers communicating motion to the Apron E F from left to
+right.
+
+1, 2, 3, &c., are minute Cards, placed upon the Apron.
+
+G, is a Clock that regulates the motion of the Roller E, and
+consequently that of the apron and cards.
+
+D, is a small weight to relieve the Clock.
+
+N, NE, E, &c., are paper boxes placed upon the circular plate, to
+receive the cards, as they fall from the apron at E.
+
+Figure 7.--In 1838 the pioneer American meteorologist James H. Coffin
+(1806-1873) devised a self-registering wind direction indicator; in 1849
+he improved it as shown here. The band, moved by clockwork, carries
+cards marked with the day and hour. In Coffin's earlier instrument, a
+part of which is now in the Smithsonian Institution, the vane carried a
+funnel for sand, which ran into a circular row of bottles. (From
+_Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Science_, 1849, vol. 2, p. 388.)]
+
+This confidence was warranted, for the decade of the 1850's had seen the
+appearance of major innovations in the basic instruments--thermometer,
+barometer, and wind velocity indicator--that made available instruments
+more adaptable to self-registration. It also saw the development of a
+new method of electrical registration derived from the telegraph. Sir
+Charles Wheatstone initiated this small revolution in 1843 when he
+reported to the British Association that he had constructed an
+electromagnetic meteorological register which "records the indications
+of the barometer, thermometer and the psychrometer [meaning wet-bulb
+thermometer] every half hour ... and prints the results on a sheet of
+paper in figures," running a week unattended. The working of this
+register involved the insertion of a conductor in the tubes to make a
+circuit, the thermometers having open tops.[26] This was ten years after
+the development of the electromagnetic relay and six years after
+Wheatstone's introduction of his own telegraph.
+
+Wheatstone's instrument left a very ephemeral record in the
+meteorological literature, and appears to have been defective or out of
+fashion with its time, which was concerned with the introduction of
+photographic instruments. Wheatstone's work was rediscovered, along with
+that of several other much earlier inventors, by the determined
+observatory directors of the 1860's.
+
+Of the five systems developed at that time, four used electromagnetic
+registration, only Draper adhering to a mechanical system (see fig. 11).
+For temperature measurement Secci and Hough used Wheatstone's electrical
+system with a mercurial thermometer (fig. 12), but the other four
+utilized a physical principle which had been proposed periodically for
+at least a century--the unequal thermal expansion of a bimetallic strip.
+This principle had been utilized by watchmakers for a quite different
+purpose--the temperature compensation of the watch pendulum--but its
+possibilities as a thermometer had been known long before the mid-19th
+century.[27]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--Hipp's registering aneroid barometer, with a
+telegraphic printer. (_USNM 314544; Smithsonian photo 46740-D._)]
+
+For the measurement of pressure, Secci, Wild, and Draper adopted, or
+rediscovered, the balance barometer devised by Wren in the 17th century.
+In this type of instrument (see figs. 13, 15) either the tube or the
+reservoir of the barometer is attached to one arm of a balance, the
+equilibrium of which is disturbed by the movement of the mercury in the
+instrument.[28]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Front and rear views of Secci's meteorograph,
+1867. (From Lacroix, _op. cit._ footnote 22.)]
+
+Hough's barometer was an adaptation of the electrical contact
+thermometer. The movement of the mercury over a certain minute distance
+within the tube served as a switch to energize an electrical recording
+system. Hipp, who was perhaps the latest of this group, first applied
+the aneroid barometer (fig. 8) to self-registration. The idea of the
+aneroid--an air-tight bellows against which the atmospheric pressure
+would act--had been advanced by Leibniz in the 17th century and had been
+the subject of a few abortive experiments in the 18th century. Not until
+1848 was an instrument produced that was acceptable to users of the
+barometer.[29]
+
+As a wind velocity instrument all six systems used the cup-anemometer
+developed by Robinson in 1846, an instrument whose chief virtue was the
+care which its inventor had taken to work out the relationship between
+its movement and the actual velocity of the wind.[30] Beckley and Draper
+caused it to move a pencil through gearing; the others used with it
+electromagnetic counters actuated by rotating contacts.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Chart from Secci's meteorograph. (From
+Lacroix, _op. cit._ footnote 22.)]
+
+As has been indicated, the Signal Corps used all six systems, a panoply
+of gadgetry which must have been wondrous to behold. Its Secci
+meteorograph, which had attracted much attention at Paris, was estimated
+to have cost 15,000 francs. Abbe reported in 1894 that the instruments
+were long kept in the apparatus room "as a fascinating show to visitors
+and a stimulation to the staff in the invention of other
+instruments."[31]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Draper's mechanical registering barometer,
+as used in the Lick Observatory. (Photo courtesy Lick Observatory.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Hough's electromechanical registering
+barometer, about 1871.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--Fuess' "balance barometer after Samuel
+Morland," 1880. Wren probably was the originator of this type of
+instrument. (From Loewenherz, _op. cit._ footnote 28.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Marvin's mechanical registering barometer,
+1905. This instrument was formerly in the U.S. Weather Bureau. (_USNM
+316500_; _Smithsonian photo 46740-E_.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--"Steelyard barometer" as shown in Charles
+Hutton's _Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary_ (London, 1796, vol.
+1, p. 188). Hutton makes no reference to the originator of this
+instrument; he attributes the "Diagonal" (or inclined) barometer to
+Samuel Morland.]
+
+From 1875 the question was no longer one of the introduction of
+self-registering instruments to major observatories but their complete
+mechanization and the extension of registration to substations. Having
+accepted self-registration, meteorologists turned their attention to the
+simplification of instruments. In 1904 Charles Marvin, of what is now
+the U.S. Weather Bureau, brought the self-registering barometer into
+something of a full circle by producing an instrument (fig. 14) that was
+nothing more than Hooke's wheel barometer directly adapted to
+recording.[32] But this process of simplification had been accomplished
+at a stroke, about 1880, with the introduction by the Parisian
+instrument-maker Jules Richard of a self-registering barometer and a
+thermometer combining the simplest form of instrument with the simplest
+form of registration (see fig. 16). This innovation, which fixed the
+form of the conventional registering instrument until the advent of the
+radiosonde, seems to have stemmed from a source quite outside
+meteorology--the technology of the steam gauge. Richard's thermometric
+element was the curved metal tube of elliptical cross-section that
+Bourdon had developed several decades earlier as a steam gauge. Pressure
+within such a tube causes it to straighten, and thus to move a pointer
+attached to one end. Bourdon had opened it to the steam source. Richard
+filled it with alcohol, closed it, and found that the expansion of the
+alcohol on heating caused a similar straightening. His barometric
+element was a type of aneroid, which Hipp had already used but which
+Richard may have also adopted from a type of steam gauge. For a
+recording mechanism, Richard was able to use a simple direct lever
+connection, as the forces involved in his instruments, being
+concentrated, were not greatly hampered by friction.[33] By 1900 these
+simple and inexpensive instruments had relegated to the scrap pile,
+unfortunately literally, the elegant products of the mass attack of
+observatory directors in the 1860's on the problem of the
+self-registering thermometer and barometer.[34]
+
+
+
+
+Conclusions
+
+
+In view of the rarity of special studies on the history of
+meteorological instruments, it is impossible to claim that this brief
+review has neglected no important instruments, and conclusions as to the
+lineage of the late 19th century instruments can only be tentatively
+drawn. The conclusion is inescapable, however, that the majority of the
+instruments upon which the self-registering systems of the late 19th
+century were based had been proposed and, in most cases, actually
+constructed in the 17th century. It is also evident that in the 17th
+century at least one attempt was made at a system as comprehensive as
+any accomplished in the 19th century.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--Richard's registering aneroid barometer, an
+instrument used at the U.S. Weather Bureau about 1888. The Richard
+registering thermometer is similar, the aneroid being replaced by an
+alcohol-filled Bourdon tube. (_USNM 252981; Smithsonian photo
+46740-C_.)]
+
+To attribute the success of self-registering instruments in the late
+19th century to the unquestionable improvements in the techniques of the
+instrument-maker is to beg the question, for it is by no means clear
+that the techniques of the 17th-century instrument-maker were unequal to
+the task. It should also be noted that the photographic and
+electromagnetic systems of the 19th century seem to have been something
+of an interlude, for some of the latest and most durable (all of
+Draper's and Richard's instruments and Marvin's barograph) were purely
+mechanical instruments, as had been those of Hooke and Wren. If we
+conclude that the 19th-century instruments were more accurate, we should
+also recall Forbes' comments upon the question of instrumental accuracy.
+
+What, then, was the essential difference between the 17th and 19th
+centuries that made possible the development of the self-registering
+observatory? It would appear to have been a difference of degree--the
+maturation in the 19th century of certain features of the 17th. The
+most important of these features were the spread throughout the western
+world of the spirit that had animated the scientific societies of
+Florence and London, the continued popularity of the astronomical
+observatory as an object of the philanthropy of an affluent society, and
+the continued existence of the nonspecialized scientist. Under these
+circumstances such nonmeteorologists as Wheatstone, Henry, Hough, Wild,
+and Secci had the temerity to range over the whole of the not yet
+compartmented branches of science and technology, fully confident that
+they were capable of finding thereby a solution to any problem important
+enough to warrant their attention.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] On early meteorological instruments see A. Wolf, _A History of
+Science, Technology and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries_, New York, 1935, and E. Gerland and F. Traumüller,
+_Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst_, Leipzig, 1899. On
+the recognition of the meteorological significance of the barometer by
+Torricelli and its meteorological use in 1649 see K. Schneider-Carius,
+_Wetterkunde Wetterforschung_, Freiburg and Munich, 1955, pp. 62, 71.
+
+[2] Bacon's book emphasizes "direct" and "indirect" experiments, and
+calls for the systematization of observation, but it does not mention
+instruments. It is reprinted in Basil Montagu's _The Works of Francis
+Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England,_ London, 1825, vols. 10 and 14.
+
+[3] Wolf, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), pp. 312, 316-320. The interest of the
+Royal Society in the barometer seems to have been initiated by
+Descartes' theory that the instrument's variation was caused by the
+pressure of the moon.
+
+[4] _On early meteorology in the United States see the report of Joseph
+Henry in Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, for the
+Year 1855_, 1856, p. 357ff.; also, _Army Meteorological Register for
+Twelve Years, 1843-1854_, 1855, introduction.
+
+[5] J. D. Forbes, "Report upon the Recent Progress and Present State of
+Meteorology," _Report of the First and Second Meetings of the British
+Association for the Advancement of Science, 1831 and 1832_, 1833, pp.
+196-197.
+
+[6] On the instruments used at Mannheim see Gerland and Traumüller, _op.
+cit._ footnote 1, p. 349ff. The Princeton physicist Arnold Guyot
+prepared a set of instructions for observers that was published in
+_Tenth Annual Report ... of the Smithsonian Institution_, 1856, p.
+215ff. It appears from the _Annual Report of the British Association for
+the Advance of Science_ in the 1830's that the instruments used in
+England were nearly the same as those later adopted by the Smithsonian,
+although British observatories were beginning to experiment with the
+self-registering anemometer at that time. A typical set of the
+Smithsonian instruments is shown in figure 1.
+
+[7] H. Alan Lloyd, "Horology and Meteorology," _Journal Suisse
+d'Horlogerie_, November-December, 1953, nos. 11, 12, p. 372, fig. 1.
+
+[8] R. T. Gunther, _Early Science in Oxford_, vol. 6, _The Life and Work
+of Robert Hooke_, pt. 1, Oxford, 1930, p. 196. In 1670, Hooke's proposed
+clock was referred to as "such a one, as Dr. Wren had formerly
+contrived" (Gunther, p. 365).
+
+[9] William Derham, _Philosophical Experiments and Observations of ...
+Dr. Robert Hooke_, London, 1726, pp. 41-42 (reprinted in Gunther, _op.
+cit._ footnote 8, vol. 7, pp. 519-520). This description, dated December
+5, 1678, predates the Royal Society's request for a description
+(Gunther, _op. cit._ footnote 8, p. 656) by four months, but the Society
+no longer has any description of the clock. As to the actual completion
+of the clock, the president of the Society visited "Mr. Hooke's turret"
+to see it in January of 1678/79 but it was not reported "ready to be
+shown" until the following May (Gunther, pp. 506, 518).
+
+[10] Wren's clock and its wind vane and anemometer, thermometer,
+barometer, and rain gauge are described by T. Sprat, _The History of the
+Royal Society..._, London, 1667, pp. 312-313. On the balance-barometer,
+see also footnote 28, below, and figure 4.
+
+[11] Since the above was written, additional information on this clock
+has been published by H. E. Hoff and L. A. Geddes, "Graphic Recording
+before Carl Ludwig: An Historical Summary," _Archives Internationales
+d'Histoire des Sciences_, 1959, vol. 12, pp. 1-25. Hoff and Geddes call
+attention to a report on the clock by Monconys, who saw the instrument
+in 1663 and published a brief description and crude sketch (Balthasar
+Monconys, _Les Voyages de Balthasar de Monconys; Documents pour
+l'Histoire de la Science, avec une Introduction par M. Charles Henry_,
+Paris, 1887). Monconys says that the thermometer "causes a tablet to
+rise and fall while a pencil bears against it." The instrument shown in
+his sketch resembles a Galilean thermoscope.
+
+[12] Hooke's "oat-beard hygrometer" was described in 1667, but
+Torricelli seems to have invented the same thing in 1646, according to
+E. Gerland, "Historical Sketch of Instrumental Meteorology," in "Report
+of the International Meteorological Congress Held at Chicago, Ill.,
+August 21-24, 1893," O. L. Fassig, ed., _U.S. Weather Bureau Bulletin
+No. 11_, pt. 3, 1896, pp. 687-699.
+
+[13] But a Dutch patent was awarded to one William Douglas in 1627 for
+the determination of wind pressure (G. Doorman, _Patents for Inventions
+in the Netherlands during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_, The Hague,
+1942, p. 127), and Leonardo da Vinci left a sketch of both a wind
+pressure meter and a hygrometer (_Codex Atlanticus_, 249 va and 8 vb).
+
+[14] Gunther, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), pp. 433, 502.
+
+[15] Battista della Valle, _Vallo Libro Continente Appertiniente ad
+Capitanii, Retenere and Fortificare una Citta..._, Venetia, 1523
+(reported under the date 1524 in G. H. Baillie, _Clocks and Watches, an
+Historical Bibliography_, London, 1951).
+
+[16] Dolland's instrument, called an "atmospheric recorder," is
+described in the _Official, Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue to the
+Great Exhibition, 1851,_ London, 1851, pt. 2, pp. 414-415. As the George
+Dolland who joined the famous Dolland firm in 1804 would have been about
+80 years of age in 1850, the George Dolland who exhibited this
+instrument may have been a younger relative.
+
+[17] The Osler anemometer and most of the other self-registering
+instruments mentioned in this paper are described and illustrated in C.
+Abbe, "Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods," _Annual Report
+of the Chief Signal Officer for 1887_, Washington, 1888. The use of the
+Osler instrument at the British Association's observatory at Plymouth is
+mentioned in the Association's annual reports from 1838. There were a
+number of earlier self-registering anemometers, but no evidence of their
+extended use. See J. K. Laughton, "Historical Sketch of Anemometry and
+Anemometers," _Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society_,
+1882, vol. 8, pp. 161-188.
+
+[18] On Ronalds' work see reports of the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science, from 1846 to 1850. On Brooke's work see
+_Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, 1847, vol.
+137, pp. 59-68.
+
+[19] C. Abbe, "The Meteorological Work of the U.S. Signal Service, 1870
+to 1871," in Fassig, _op. cit._ (footnote 12), pt. 2, 1895, p. 263.
+
+[20] _Annual Report of the Director of the Meteorological Observatory_,
+Central Park, New York, 1871, p. 1ff.
+
+[21] _Oesterreichische Gesellschaft für Meteorologie, Zeitschrift_,
+1871, vol. 6, pp. 104, 117.
+
+[22] P. H. Carl, _Repertorium für physikalische Technik_, Munich, 1867,
+p. 162ff.
+
+[23] E. Lacroix, _Études sur l'Exposition de 1867_, Paris, 1867, vol. 2,
+p. 313ff. See also, Reports of the U.S. Commissioners to the Paris
+Universal Exposition, 1867, vol. 3, Washington, 1870, p. 570ff.
+
+[24] _Annals of the Dudley Observatory_, 1871, vol. 2, p. vii ff.
+
+[25] Karl Kreil, _Entwurf eines meteorologischen Beobachtungs-Systems
+für die österreichische Monarchie_, Vienna, 1850.
+
+[26] _Report of the 13th Meeting of the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science_, 1843, 1844, p. xi ff. I have found no other
+reference to this instrument. Considerable attention was given to the
+thermometer, however, for Wheatstone proposed to send it aloft in a
+balloon for the measurement of temperatures at high altitudes. A small
+clock caused a vertical rack to ascend and descend once in six minutes.
+The rack carried a platinum wire which moved within the thermometer over
+28 degrees. From a galvanic battery and a galvanometer on the ground two
+insulated copper wires were to extend to the balloon, one connected to
+the mercury and the other to the clock frame. The deflection of the
+galvanometer was to be timed with a second clock on the ground.
+(Professor Wheatstone, "Report on the Electro-Magnetic Meteorological
+Register," _Mechanics' Magazine_, London, 1843, vol. 39, p. 204).
+
+[27] In 1662 Hooke had proposed the use of a bimetallic pendulum for the
+temperature compensation of clocks. Thermometers on this principle were
+described to the Royal Society in 1748 and in 1760 (_Philosophical
+Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, 1748, vol. 45, p. 128;
+1760, vol. 51, p. 823). Some systems used a bimetallic thermometer in
+the sun and a mercurial instrument in the shade.
+
+[28] This instrument has been persistently associated with Sir Samuel
+Morland (1625-1695). For example, A. Sprung of the Deutsche Seewarte
+described his own balance-barometer as a "Wagebarograph nach Samuel
+Morland" (in L. Loewenherz, _Bericht über die wissenschaftlichen
+Instrumente auf der Berliner Gewerbeausstellung im Jahre 1879_, Berlin,
+1880, p. 230ff). Sprat (_op. cit._ footnote 10, p. 313) reported that
+Wren had proposed "balances to shew the weight of the air by their
+spontaneous inclination." This must, therefore, be Wren's invention,
+unless he got it from Morland, who does not seem to have published
+anything about the barometer but only to have described some ideas to a
+friend. But Morland's was probably the _inclined_ and not the _balance_
+barometer. (See under "barometer" in Charles Hutton, _Mathematical and
+Philosophical Dictionary_, London, 1796, vol. 1; also J. K. Fischer,
+_Physikalisches Wörterbuch, Göttingen_, 1798).
+
+[29] Leibniz, in several letters--beginning with one to Denys Papin on
+June 21, 1697--proposed the making of a barometer on the model of a
+bellows. Of subsequent versions of such a barometer, that of Vidi
+(described by Poggendorff, _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1848, Band
+73, p. 620) is generally regarded as the first practical aneroid (see
+also Gerland and Traumüller, _op. cit._ footnote 1, pp. 239, 323).
+
+[30] T. R. Robinson, "Modification of Dr. Whewell's Anemometer for
+Measuring the Velocity of the Wind," _Report of the 16th Meeting of the
+British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1846_, 1847, pt. 2,
+p. 111.
+
+[31] Abbe, _op. cit._ (footnote 19), pp. 263-264.
+
+[32] Because of its superior accuracy to the aneroid barograph, Marvin's
+barometer was in use through the 1940's. See R. N. Covert,
+"Meteorological Instruments and Apparatus Employed by the United States
+Weather Bureau," _Journal of the Optical Society of America_, 1925, vol.
+10, p. 322.
+
+[33] Both of Richard's instruments (described in _Bulletin Mensuel de la
+Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_, November 1882, ser.
+3, vol. 9, pp. 531-543) were in use at Kew by 1885 and at the U.S.
+Weather Bureau by 1888. The firm of Richard Freres claimed in 1889 to
+have made 7,000 registering instruments, of which the majority were
+probably thermographs and barographs. At that time, certainly no other
+maker had made more than a small fraction of this number of
+self-registering instruments. The origin of Richard's thermograph seems
+to have been the "elastic manometer" described by E. Bourdon in 1851
+(_Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_,
+1851, no. 562, p. 197). While attempting to restore a flattened
+still-pipe, Bourdon had discovered the property of tubes to change shape
+under fluid pressure. The instrument he developed in consequence became
+the standard steam pressure gauge.
+
+[34] A few of these instruments, such as the Marvin barograph, survived
+for some time because of their superior accuracy. Even as museum pieces,
+only a few exist today.
+
+
+
+
+U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1961.
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office, Washington 25, D.C. - Price 25 cents
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+
+Minor errors in punctuation have been corrected without note. The
+following typographical errors in the original have been corrected:
+
+P. 110: 'a panopoly of gadgetry': corrected to panoply
+P. 113, caption to Figure 13: 'Feuss': corrected to Fuess
+Footnote 28: 'Gewerbeaustellung': corrected to Gewerbeausstellung
+Footnote 28: 'Physikalisches Worterbuch': corrected to Wörterbuch
+Footnote 29: 'see also Gerland and Traümuller': corrected to Traumüller
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering
+Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf
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+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering
+Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments
+
+Author: Robert P. Multhauf
+
+Release Date: May 22, 2010 [EBook #32482]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-REG. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/cover.png" width="400" height="520" alt="Front Cover" title="Front Cover" />
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<h1><span class="smcap">Contributions from<br />
+The Museum of History and Technology:<br />
+Paper 23</span><br /><br /></h1>
+
+<h1><span class="smcap">The Introduction of Self-Registering<br />
+Meteorological Instruments</span><br /><br /></h1>
+
+<p class="right"><i>Robert P. Multhauf</i><br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="right">THE FIRST SELF-REGISTERING INSTRUMENTS &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#ch_1">99</a></p>
+<p class="right">SELF-REGISTERING SYSTEMS &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#ch_2">105</a></p>
+<p class="right">CONCLUSIONS &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#ch_3">114</a></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>The Introduction of</i><br />SELF-REGISTERING <br />METEOROLOGICAL <br />INSTRUMENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Robert P. Multhauf</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquotn"><p><i>The development of self-registering meteorological instruments
+began very shortly after that of scientific meteorological
+observation itself. Yet it was not until the 1860's, two centuries
+after the beginning of scientific observation, that the
+self-registering instrument became a factor in meteorology.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>This time delay is attributable less to deficiencies in the
+techniques of instrument-making than to deficiencies in the
+organisation of meteorology itself. The critical factor was the
+establishment in the 1860's of well-financed and competently
+directed meteorological observatories, most of which were created
+as adjuncts to astronomical observatories.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>: <i>Robert P. Multhauf is head curator of the department
+of science and technology in the United States National Museum,
+Smithsonian Institution.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p>The flowering of science in the 17th century was accompanied by an
+efflorescence of instrument invention as luxurious as that of science
+itself. Although there were foreshadowing events, this flowering seems
+to have owed much to Galileo, whose interest in the measurement of
+natural phenomena is well known, and who is himself credited with the
+invention of the thermometer and the hydrostatic balance, both of which
+he devised in connection with experimentation on specific scientific
+problems. Many, if not most, of the other Italian instrument inventors
+of the early 17th century were his disciples. Benedetto Castelli, being
+interested in the effect of rainfall on the level of a lake, constructed
+a rain gauge about 1628. Santorio, well known as a pioneer in the
+quantification of animal physiology, is credited with observations,
+about 1626, that led to the development of the hygrometer.</p>
+
+<p>Both of these contemporaries were interested in Galileo's most famous
+invention, the thermoscope&mdash;forerunner of the thermometer&mdash;which he
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>developed about 1597 as a method of obtaining comparisons of
+temperature. The utility of the instrument was immediately recognized by
+physicists (not by chemists, oddly enough), and much ingenuity was
+expended on its perfection over a 50-year period, in northern Europe as
+well as in Italy. The conversion of this open, air-expansion thermoscope
+into the modern thermometer was accomplished by the Florentine Accademia
+del Cimento about 1660.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 340px;">
+<img src="images/i097.png" width="300" height="625" alt="Figure 1.&mdash;A set of typical Smithsonian meteorological
+instruments as recommended in instructions to observers issued by the
+Institution in the 1850&#39;s. Top (from left): maximum-minimum
+thermometer of Professor Phillips, dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers,
+and mercurial barometer by Green of New York. Lower left: rain gauge.
+The wet-bulb thermometer, although typical, is actually a later
+instrument. The rain gauge is a replica. (Smithsonian photo 46740.)" title="Figure 1." />
+<p class="caption2" style="width: 300px; margin-left:20px;">Figure 1.&mdash;A set of typical Smithsonian meteorological
+instruments as recommended in instructions to observers issued by the
+Institution in the 1850's. <i>Top</i> (from left): maximum-minimum
+thermometer of Professor Phillips, dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers,
+and mercurial barometer by Green of New York. <i>Lower left:</i> rain gauge.
+The wet-bulb thermometer, although typical, is actually a later
+instrument. The rain gauge is a replica.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Galileo also inspired the barometer, through his speculations on the
+vacuum, which, in 1643, led his disciple Torricelli to experiments
+proving the limitation to nature's horror of a vacuum. Torricelli's
+apparatus, unlike Galileo's thermoscope, represented the barometer in
+essentially its classical form. In his earliest experiments, Torricelli
+observed that the air tended to become "thicker and thinner"; as a
+consequence, we find the barometer in use (with the thermometer) for
+meteorological observation as early as 1649.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The meetings of the Accademia terminated in 1667, but the 5-year-old
+Royal Society of London had already become as fruitful a source of new
+instruments, largely through the abilities of its demonstrator, Robert
+Hooke, whose task it was to entertain and instruct the members with
+experiments. In the course of devising these experiments Hooke became
+perhaps the most prolific instrument inventor of all time. He seems to
+have invented the first wind pressure gauge, as an aid to seamen, and he
+improved the bathometer, hygrometer, hydrometer, and barometer, as well
+as instruments not directly involved in measurement such as the vacuum
+pump and sea-water sampling devices. As in Florence, these instruments
+were immediately brought to bear on the observation of nature.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear, however, that we would be justified in concluding
+that the rise of scientific meteorology was inspired by the invention of
+instruments, for meteorology had begun to free itself of the traditional
+weather-lore and demonology early in the 17th century. The Landgraf of
+Hesse described some simultaneous weather observations, made without
+instruments, in 1637. Francis Bacon's "Natural History of the Wind,"
+considered the first special work of this kind to attain general
+circulation, appeared in 1622.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> It seems likely that the rise of
+scientific meteorology was an aspect of the general rationalization of
+nature study which occurred at this time, and that the initial impetus
+for such progress was gained not from the invention of instruments but
+from the need of navigators for wind data at a time when long voyages
+out of sight of land were becoming commonplace.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+It should be noted in this connection that the two most important
+instruments, the thermometer and barometer, were in no way inspired by
+an interest in meteorology. But the observation made early in the
+history of the barometer that the atmospheric pressure varied in some
+relationship to visible changes in the weather soon brought that
+instrument into use as a "weather glass." In particular, winds were
+attributed to disturbances of barometric equilibrium, and
+wind-barometric studies were made by Evangelista Torricelli, Edm&eacute;
+Mariotte, and Edmund Halley, the latter publishing the first
+meteorological chart. In 1678-1679 Gottfried Leibniz endeavored to
+encourage observations to test the capacity of the barometer for
+foretelling the weather.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other questions of a quasi-meteorological nature interested the
+scientists of this period, and brought other instruments into use.
+Observations of rainfall and evaporation were made in pursuit of the
+ancient question of the sources of terrestrial water, the maintenance of
+the levels of seas, etc. Physicians brought instruments to bear on the
+question of the relationship between weather and the incidence of
+disease. The interrelationship between these various meteorological
+enterprises was not long in becoming apparent. Soon after its founding
+in 1657 the Florentine academy undertook, through the distribution of
+thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, and rain gauges, the
+establishment of an international network of meteorological observation
+stations, a network which did not survive the demise of the Accademia
+itself ten years later.</p>
+
+<p>Not for over a century was the first thoroughgoing attempt made at
+systematic observation. There was a meteorological section in the
+Academy of Sciences at Mannheim from 1763, and subsequently a separate
+society for meteorology. In 1783, the Academy published observations
+from 39 stations, those from the central station comprising data from
+the hygrometer, wind vane (but not anemometer), rain gauge,
+evaporimeter, and apparatus for geomagnetism and atmospheric
+electricity, as well as data from the thermometer and barometer. The
+Mannheim system was also short-lived, being terminated by the Napoleonic
+invasion, but systems of comparable scope were attempted throughout
+Europe and America during the next generation.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the office of the Surgeon General, U. S. Army,
+began the first systematic observation in 1819, using only the
+thermometer and wind vane, to which were added the barometer and
+hygrometer in 1840-1841 and the wind force anemometer, rain gauge, and
+wet bulb thermometer in 1843. State weather observation systems
+meanwhile had been inaugurated in New York (1825), Pennsylvania (1836),
+and Ohio (1842).<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nearly 200 years of observation had not, however, noticeably improved
+the weather, and the naive faith in the power of instruments to reveal
+its mysteries, which had possessed many an early meteorologist, no
+longer charmed the scientist of the early 19th century. In the first
+published report of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science in 1833, J. D. Forbes called for a reorganization of procedures:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In the science of Astronomy, for example, as in that of Optics, the
+great general truths which emerge in the progress of discovery,
+though depending for their establishment upon a multitude of
+independent facts and observations, possess sufficient unity to
+connect in the mind the bearing of the whole; and the more
+perfectly understood connexion of parts invites to further
+generalization.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>Very different is the position of an infant science like
+Meteorology. The unity of the whole ... is not always kept in view,
+even as far as our present very limited general conceptions will
+admit of: and as few persons have devoted their whole attention to
+this science alone ... no wonder that we find strewed over its
+irregular and far-spread surface, patches of cultivation upon spots
+chosen without discrimination and treated on no common principle,
+which defy the improver to inclose, and the surveyor to estimate
+and connect them. Meteorological instruments have been for the most
+part treated like toys, and much time and labor have been lost in
+making and recording observations utterly useless for any
+scientific purpose. Even the numerous registers of a rather
+superior class ... hardly contain one jot of information ready for
+incorporation in a Report on the progress of Meteorology....</p>
+
+<p>The most general mistake probably consists in the idea that
+Meteorology, as a science, has no other object but an experimental
+acquaintance with the condition of those variable elements which
+from day to day constitute the general and vague result of the
+state of the <i>weather</i> at any given spot; not considering that ...
+when grouped together with others of the same character, [they] may
+afford the most valuable aid to scientific generalization.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Forbes goes on to call for a greater emphasis on theory, and the
+replacement of the many small-scale observatories with "a few great
+Registers" to be adequately maintained by "great Societies" or by the
+government. He suggests that the time for pursuit of theory might be
+gained from "the vague mechanical task to which at present they
+generally devote their time, namely the search for great numerical
+accuracy, to a superfluity of decimal places exceeding the compass of
+the instrument to verify."</p>
+
+<p>From its founding the British Association sponsored systematic
+observation at various places. In 1842 it initiated observations at the
+Kew Observatory, which has continued until today to be the premier
+meteorological observatory in the British Empire. The American scientist
+Joseph Henry observed the functioning of an observatory maintained by
+the British Association at Plymouth in 1837, and when he became
+Secretary of the new Smithsonian Institution a few years later he made
+the furtherance of meteorology one of its first objectives.</p>
+
+<p>The Kew Observatory set a pattern for systematic observation in England
+as, from 1855, did the Smithsonian Institution in the United States. The
+instruments used differed little from those in use at Mannheim over half
+a century earlier<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> (fig. 1). They were undoubtedly more accurate, but
+this should not be overstressed. Forbes had noted in his report of 1832
+that some scientists were then calling for a return to Torricelli, for
+the construction of a temporary barometer on the site in preference to
+reliance on the then existing manufactured instruments.</p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="ch_1" id="ch_1"></a>The First Self-Registering Instruments</h2>
+
+<p>From the middle of the 17th century meteorological observations were
+recorded in manuscript books known as "registers," many of which were
+published in the early scientific journals. The most effective
+utilization of these observations was in the compilation of the history
+of particular storms, but where a larger synthesis was concerned they
+tended, as Forbes has shown, to show themselves unsystematic and
+non-comparable. The principal problems of meteorological observation
+have been from the outset the construction of precisely comparable
+instruments and their use to produce comparable records. The former
+problem has been frequently discussed, and perhaps, as Forbes suggests,
+overemphasized. It is the latter problem with which we are here
+concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of mechanizing the process of observation, not yet accomplished
+in Forbes' time, had been put forward within a little over a decade of
+the first use of the thermometer and barometer in meteorology. On
+December 9, 1663, Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a
+design for a "weather clock," of which a drawing is extant.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> This
+drawing (fig. 2) <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>shows an ordinary clock to which is attached a
+pencil-carrying rack, geared to the hour pinion. A discussion of the
+clock's "reduction to practice" began the involvement of Robert Hooke,
+who was "instructed" in September 1664 to make "a pendulum clock
+applicable to the observing of the changes in the weather."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> This
+tribute to Hooke's reputation&mdash;and to the versatility of the mechanic
+arts at this time&mdash;was slightly overoptimistic, as 15 years ensued
+before the clock made its appearance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i100.png" width="600" height="499" alt="Figure 2.&mdash;A contemporary drawing of Wren&#39;s &quot;weather clock.&quot; (Photo
+courtesy Royal Society of London.)" title="Figure 2." />
+<p class="caption">Figure 2.&mdash;A contemporary drawing of Wren&#39;s &quot;weather clock.&quot; (Photo
+courtesy Royal Society of London.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>References to this clock are frequent in the records of the Royal
+Society&mdash;being mainly periodic injunctions to Hooke to get on with the
+work&mdash;until its completion in May 1679. The description which Hooke was
+asked to supply was subsequently found among his papers and printed by
+William Derham as follows:<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The weather-clock consists of two parts; <i>first</i>, that which
+measures the time, which is a strong and large pendulum-clock,
+which moves a week, with once winding up, and is sufficient to turn
+a cylinder (upon which the paper is rolled) twice round in a day,
+and also to lift a hammer for striking the punches, once every
+quarter of an hour.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span><i>Secondly</i>, of several instruments for measuring the degrees of
+alteration, in the several things, to be observed. The first is,
+the barometer, which moves the first punch, an inch and half,
+serving to shew the difference between the greatest and the least
+pressure of the air. The second is, the thermometer, which moves
+the punch that shews the differences between the greatest heat in
+summer, and the least in winter. The third is, the hygroscope,
+moving the punch, which shews the difference between the moistest
+and driest airs. The fourth is, the rain-bucket, serving to shew
+the quantity of rain that falls; this hath two parts or punches;
+the first, to shew what part of the bucket is fill'd, when there
+falls not enough to make it empty itself; the second, to shew how
+many full buckets have been emptied. The fifth is the wind vane;
+this hath also two parts; the first to shew the strength of the
+wind, which is observed by the number of revolutions in the
+vane-mill, and marked by three punches; the first marks every
+10,000 revolutions, the second every 1,000, and the third every
+100: The second, to shew the quarters of the wind, this hath four
+punches; the first with one point, marking the North quarters, viz.
+N.: N. by E.: N. by W.: NNE.: NNW.: NE. by N. and N.W. by N.: NE.
+and N.W. The second hath two points, marking the East and its
+quarters. The third hath three points, marking the South and its
+quarters. The fourth hath four points, marking the West and its
+quarters. Some of these punches give one mark, every 100
+revolutions of the vane-mill.</p>
+
+<p>The stations or places of the first four punches are marked on a
+scrowl of paper, by the clock-hammer, falling every quarter of an
+hour. The punches, belonging to the fifth, are marked on the said
+scrowl, by the revolutions of the vane, which are accounted by a
+small numerator, standing at the top of the clock-case, which is
+moved by the vane-mill.</p></div>
+
+<p>What, exactly, were the instruments applied by Hooke to his weather
+clock? It is not always easy even to guess, because it appears that Wren
+was actually the first to contrive such a device and seems to have
+developed nearly as many instruments as Hooke. It might be supposed that
+Hooke would have adapted to the weather clock his wheel-barometer,
+introduced in 1667, but it also appears that Wren had described (and
+perhaps built) a balance barometer before 1667.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> As to the
+thermometer, we have no evidence of original work by Hooke, but we do
+have a description of Wren's self-registering thermometer, a circular,
+mercury-filled tube in which changes in temperature move "the whole
+instrument, like a wheel on its axis."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The hygroscope (hygrometer) probably existed in more versions than any
+other instrument, although we know nothing of any versions by Wren.
+Hooke may have used his own "oat-beard" instrument.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Derham follows
+his description of the clock&mdash;which has been quoted above&mdash;with a
+detailed description of a tipping-bucket rain gauge invented by Hooke
+and used with the clock. He also notes that in 1670 Hooke had described
+two other types of rain gauge in which a bucket was counterbalanced in
+one case by a string of bullets and in another by an immersed weight.
+But here again, Sprat records the invention of a tipping-bucket gauge by
+Wren before 1667.</p>
+
+<p>Hooke has been generally regarded as the first inventor of an
+anemometer, in 1662.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> But this invention was a pressure-plate
+gauge&mdash;that is, a metal plate held with its face against the
+wind&mdash;whereas the gauge used with the weather clock is clearly a
+windmill type, of which type this may be the first. Wren also had an
+anemometer, but we have no description of it. Hooke's account does not
+refer to other instruments which the weather clock is supposed to have
+had, according to a description quoted by Gunther, which concludes the
+enumeration of the elements recorded with "sunshine, etc."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> One can
+only wish for further information on the mechanism by which the
+punches&mdash;or in Wren's clock, the pencils&mdash;were moved. But it is apparent
+that Hooke's clock was actually used for some time.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i102.png" width="600" height="857" alt="Figure 3.&mdash;Dolland&#39;s &quot;atmospheric recorder&quot;: 1, siphon and float
+barometer; 2, balance (?) thermometer; 3, hygrometer; 4, electrometer;
+5, float rain gauge; 6, float evaporimeter; 7, suspended-weight wind
+force indicator; 8, wind direction indicator; 9, clock; 10, receivers
+for rain gauge and evaporimeter. (From Official ... Catalogue of the
+Great Exhibition, 1851, London, 1851, pt. 2)." title="Figure 3." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 3.&mdash;Dolland&#39;s &quot;atmospheric recorder&quot;: 1, siphon and float
+barometer; 2, balance (?) thermometer; 3, hygrometer; 4, electrometer;
+5, float rain gauge; 6, float evaporimeter; 7, suspended-weight wind
+force indicator; 8, wind direction indicator; 9, clock; 10, receivers
+for rain gauge and evaporimeter. (From <i>Official ... Catalogue of the
+Great Exhibition, 1851</i>, London, 1851, pt. 2).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+The 17th century was not entirely unprepared for the idea of such a
+self-registering instrument. Water clocks and other devices in which
+natural forces governed a pointer were known in antiquity, as were
+counters of the type of the odometer. A water clock described in Italy
+in 1524 was essentially an inversion of one of Hooke's rain gauges, that
+in which a bucket was balanced against a string of bullets.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The
+mechanical clock also had a considerable history in the 17th century,
+and had long since been applied to the operations of figures through
+cams, as was almost certainly the case with the punches in Hooke's
+clock. Still, the combination of an instrument-actuated pointer with a
+clock-actuated time-scale and a means of obtaining a permanent record
+represent a group of innovations which certainly ranks among the
+greatest in the history of instrumentation. It appears that we owe these
+innovations to Wren and Hooke.</p>
+
+<p>Hooke's clock contributed nothing to the systematization of
+meteorological observation, and the last record of it appears to have
+been a note on its "re-fitting" in 1690. Its complexity is sufficient
+reason for its ephemeral history, but complexity in machine design was
+the fashion of the time and Hooke may have intended no more than a
+mechanistic <i>tour de force</i>. On the other hand, he may have recognized
+the desideratum to which later meteorologists frequently returned&mdash;the
+need for simultaneous observations of several instruments on the same
+register. In any case, no instrument so comprehensive seems to have been
+attempted again until the middle of the 19th century, when George
+Dolland exhibited one at the Great Exhibition in London (see fig. 3).
+The weather elements recorded by Dolland's instrument were the same as
+those recorded by Hooke's, except that atmospheric electricity (unknown
+in Hooke's time) was recorded and sunshine was not recorded. Striking
+hammers were used by Dolland for some of the instruments and "ever
+pointed pencils" for the others. Dolland's barometer was a wheel
+instrument controlling a hammer. His thermometric element consisted of
+12 balanced mercury thermometers. Its mode of operation is not clear,
+but it probably was similar to that of the thermometer developed by Karl
+Kreil in Prague about the same time (fig. 4). Dolland's wind force
+indicator consisted of a pressure plate counterbalanced by a string of
+suspended weights. Altogether, it is not clear that Dolland's instrument
+was superior to Hooke's, or that its career was longer.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>The 171 years between these two instruments were not lacking in
+inventiveness in this field, but even though inventors set the more
+modest aim of a self-recording instrument for a single piece of
+meteorological data, their brain children were uniformly still-born.
+Then, during the period 1840-1850, we see the appearance of a series of
+self-registering instruments which were actually used, which were widely
+adopted by observatories, and which were superseded by superior
+instruments rather than abandoned. This development was undoubtedly a
+consequence of the establishment at that time of permanent observatories
+under competent scientific direction.</p>
+
+<p>Long experience had demonstrated to the meteorologists of the 1840's
+that the principal obstacle to the success of self-registering
+instruments was friction. Forbes had indicated that the most urgent need
+was for automatic registration of wind data, as the erratic fluctuation
+of the wind demanded more frequent observation than any manual system
+could accomplish. Two of the British Association's observers produced
+separate recording instruments for wind direction and force in the late
+1830's, a prompt response which suggests that it was not the idea which
+was lacking. One of these instruments&mdash;designed by William
+Whewell&mdash;contained gearing, the friction of which vitiated its utility
+as it had that of a number of predecessors. The other, designed by A.
+Follet Osler, was free of gearing; it separately recorded wind pressure
+and direction on a sheet of paper moved laterally by clockwork. The
+pressure element was a spring-loaded pressure plate carried around by
+the vane to face the wind. Both this plate and the vane itself were made
+to move pencils through linkages of chains and pulleys.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Osler's
+anemometer (fig. 5) deserves to be called the first successful
+self-registering meteorological instrument; it was standard equipment in
+British observatories until the latter part of the 19th century when it
+was replaced by the cup-anemometer of Robinson.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i104.png" width="600" height="484" alt="Figure 4.&mdash;Kreil&#39;s balance thermometer, 1843. (From Karl Kreil,
+Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag, Prague, 1843,
+vol. 3, fig. 1.)" title="Figure 4." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 4.&mdash;Kreil&#39;s balance thermometer, 1843. (From Karl Kreil,
+<i>Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag</i>, Prague, 1843,
+vol. 3, fig. 1.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 340px;">
+<img src="images/i105.png" width="300" height="364" alt="Figure 5.&mdash;Osler&#39;s self-registering pressure plate anemometer, 1837.
+The instrument is shown with a tipping-bucket rain gauge. (From Abbe,
+op. cit. footnote 17.)" title="Figure 5." />
+<p class="caption2" style="width: 300px; margin-left:20px;">Figure 5.&mdash;Osler&#39;s self-registering pressure plate anemometer, 1837.
+The instrument is shown with a tipping-bucket rain gauge. (From Abbe,
+<i>op. cit.</i> footnote <a href="#Footnote_17_17">17</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Self-recording barometers and thermometers were more vulnerable to the
+influence of friction than were wind instruments, but fortunately
+pressure and temperature were also less subject to sudden fluctuation,
+and so self-registration was less necessary. Nevertheless, two events
+occurred in the 1840's which led to the development of self-registering
+instruments. One event was the development of the geomagnetic
+observatory, which used the magnetometer, an instrument as delicate as
+the barometer <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>and thermometer, and (as it then seemed), as subject to
+fluctuation as the wind vane. The other event was the development of
+photography, making possible a recording method free of friction. In
+1845 Francis Ronalds at Kew Observatory and Charles Brooke at Greenwich
+undertook to develop apparatus to register the magnetometer,
+electrometer, thermometer, and barometer by photography.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> This was
+six years after Daguerre's discovery of the photographic process. The
+magnetometers of both investigators were put into use in 1847, and the
+barometers and thermometers shortly after. They were based on the
+deflection&mdash;by a mirror in the case of the magnetometer and electrometer
+and by the mercury in the barometer and thermometer&mdash;of a beam of light
+directed against a photographic plate. Brooke exhibited his instruments
+at the Great Exhibition of 1850, and they subsequently became items of
+commerce and standard appurtenances of the major observatory until
+nearly the end of the century (fig. 6). Their advantages in accuracy
+were finally insufficient to offset the inconvenience to which a
+photographic instrument was subject.</p>
+
+<p>Before 1850 the British observatories at Kew and Greenwich (the latter
+an astronomical observatory with auxiliary meteorological activity) had
+self-registering apparatus in use for most of the elements observed.</p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="ch_2" id="ch_2"></a>Self-Registering Systems</h2>
+
+<p>In 1870 the Signal Corps, U.S. Army, took on the burden of official
+meteorology in the United States as the result of a joint resolution of
+the Congress and in accordance with Joseph Henry's dictum that the
+Smithsonian Institution should not become the permanent agency for such
+scientific work once its permanency had been decided upon. Smithsonian
+meteorology had not involved self-recording instruments, and neither did
+that of the Signal Corps at the outset "because of the expense of the
+apparatus, and because nothing of that kind was at that time
+manufactured in this country."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>But almost immediately after 1870 the Signal Corps undertook an
+evidently well-financed program for the introduction of
+self-registration. "Complete outfits" were purchased, representing
+Wild's system, the Kew system as made by Beckley, Hipp's system (fig.
+8), Secci's meteorograph (figs. 9, 10), Draper's system, and Hough's
+printing barograph and thermograph. Of these only the Kew system, the
+photographic system already mentioned, could have been obtained before
+1867.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i106.png" width="600" height="499" alt="Figure 6.&mdash;Photographic registering mercurial barometer, typical
+commercial version. (From J. J. Hicks, Catalogue of ... Meteorological
+Instruments, London, n.d., about 1870.)" title="Figure 6." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 6.&mdash;Photographic registering mercurial barometer, typical
+commercial version. (From J. J. Hicks, <i>Catalogue of ... Meteorological
+Instruments</i>, London, n.d., about 1870.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like Kew, Daniel Draper's observatory in Central Park, New York City,
+was established primarily for meteorological observation.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Draper was
+one of the sons of the prominent scientist J. W. Draper. Hipp was an
+instrument-maker of Neuch&acirc;tel who specialized in precision clocks.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+The others after whom <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>these "systems" were named were directors of
+astronomical observatories, which were, at this time, the most active
+centers of meteorological observation. Wild was at the Bern
+Observatory,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Secci at the Papal Observatory, Rome,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> and George
+Hough at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> While the Signal
+Corps seems to have acquired all of the principal "systems," some
+interesting instruments were developed at still other observatories,
+notably by Kreil at the astronomical observatory in Prague.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The
+principal impetus for this full-scale mechanization of observation
+undoubtedly came from the directors of astronomical observatories.</p>
+
+<p>Thus within little more than the decade of the 1860's were developed
+five new systems of meteorological self-registry that were sufficiently
+well thought of to be adopted or copied by observatories outside their
+places of origin. Wild and Draper tell us that it was decided when their
+respective observatories were established&mdash;in 1860 and 1868&mdash;that all
+instruments should be self-registering. Each was obliged to design his
+own, being dissatisfied with the photographic registers commercially
+available. The development of these systems would therefore appear to
+have been due, in part, to the general spread of a conviction that
+satisfactory instruments were attainable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i107.png" width="600" height="366" alt="A, is the Vane.
+B, is the Perpendicular Shaft.
+C is a Horizontal Circular Plate of light material attached to the shaft.
+E and F, two Rollers communicating motion to the Apron E F from left to right.
+1, 2, 3, &amp;c., are minute Cards, placed upon the Apron.
+G, is a Clock that regulates the motion of the Roller E, and
+consequently that of the apron and cards.
+D, is a small weight to relieve the Clock.
+N, NE, E, &amp;c., are paper boxes placed upon the circular plate, to
+receive the cards, as they fall from the apron at E." title="Figure 7." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 7.&mdash;In 1838 the pioneer American meteorologist James H. Coffin
+(1806-1873) devised a self-registering wind direction indicator; in 1849
+he improved it as shown here. The band, moved by clockwork, carries
+cards marked with the day and hour. In Coffin&#39;s earlier instrument, a
+part of which is now in the Smithsonian Institution, the vane carried a
+funnel for sand, which ran into a circular row of bottles. (From
+<i>Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Science</i>, 1849, vol. 2, p. 388.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This confidence was warranted, for the decade of the 1850's had seen the
+appearance of major innovations in the basic instruments&mdash;thermometer,
+barometer, and wind velocity indicator&mdash;that made available instruments
+more adaptable to self-registration. It also saw the development of a
+new method of electrical registration derived from the telegraph. Sir
+Charles Wheatstone initiated this small revolution in 1843 when he
+reported to the British Association that he had constructed an
+electromagnetic meteorological register which "records the indications
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>barometer, thermometer and the psychrometer [meaning wet-bulb
+thermometer] every half hour ... and prints the results on a sheet of
+paper in figures," running a week unattended. The working of this
+register involved the insertion of a conductor in the tubes to make a
+circuit, the thermometers having open tops.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> This was ten years after
+the development of the electromagnetic relay and six years after
+Wheatstone's introduction of his own telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>Wheatstone's instrument left a very ephemeral record in the
+meteorological literature, and appears to have been defective or out of
+fashion with its time, which was concerned with the introduction of
+photographic instruments. Wheatstone's work was rediscovered, along with
+that of several other much earlier inventors, by the determined
+observatory directors of the 1860's.</p>
+
+<p>Of the five systems developed at that time, four used electromagnetic
+registration, only Draper adhering to a mechanical system (see fig. 11).
+For temperature measurement Secci and Hough used Wheatstone's electrical
+system with a mercurial thermometer (fig. 12), but the other four
+utilized a physical principle which had been proposed periodically for
+at least a century&mdash;the unequal thermal expansion of a bimetallic strip.
+This principle had been utilized by watchmakers for a quite different
+purpose&mdash;the temperature compensation of the watch pendulum&mdash;but its
+possibilities as a thermometer had been known long before the mid-19th
+century.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i108.png" width="400" height="403" alt="Figure 8.&mdash;Hipp&#39;s registering aneroid barometer, with a telegraphic
+printer. (USNM 314544; Smithsonian photo 46740-D.)" title="Figure 8." />
+<p class="caption">Figure 8.&mdash;Hipp's registering aneroid barometer, with a telegraphic
+printer.<br />(<i>USNM 314544; Smithsonian photo 46740-D.</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the measurement of pressure, Secci, Wild, and Draper adopted, or
+rediscovered, the balance barometer devised by Wren in the 17th century.
+In this type of instrument (see figs. 13, 15) either the tube or the
+reservoir of the barometer is attached to one arm of a balance, the
+equilibrium of which is disturbed by the movement of the mercury in the
+instrument.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i109.png" width="600" height="464" alt="Figure 9.&mdash;Front and rear views of Secci&#39;s meteorograph,
+1867. (From Lacroix, op. cit. footnote 22.)" title="Figure 9." />
+<p class="caption">Figure 9.&mdash;Front and rear views of Secci's meteorograph,
+1867. (From Lacroix, <i>op. cit.</i> footnote 22.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hough's barometer was an adaptation of the electrical contact
+thermometer. The movement of the mercury over a certain minute distance
+within the tube served as a switch to energize an electrical recording
+system. Hipp, who was perhaps the latest of this group, first applied
+the aneroid barometer (fig. 8) to self-registration. The idea of the
+aneroid&mdash;an air-tight bellows against which the atmospheric pressure
+would act&mdash;had been advanced by Leibniz in the 17th century and had been
+the subject of a few abortive experiments in the 18th century. Not until
+1848 was an instrument produced that was acceptable to users of the
+barometer.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>As a wind velocity instrument all six systems used the cup-anemometer
+developed by Robinson in 1846, an instrument whose chief virtue was the
+care which its inventor had taken to work out the relationship between
+its movement and the actual velocity of the wind.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Beckley and Draper
+caused it to move a pencil through gearing; the others used with it
+electromagnetic counters actuated by rotating contacts.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i110.png" width="600" height="755" alt="Figure 10.&mdash;Chart from Secci&#39;s meteorograph. (From
+Lacroix, op. cit. footnote 22.)" title="Figure 10." />
+<p class="caption">Figure 10.&mdash;Chart from Secci's meteorograph. (From
+Lacroix, <i>op. cit.</i> footnote 22.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As has been indicated, the Signal Corps used all six systems, a panoply
+of gadgetry which must have been wondrous to behold. Its Secci
+meteorograph, which had attracted much attention at Paris, was estimated
+to have cost 15,000 francs. Abbe reported in 1894 that the instruments
+were long kept in the apparatus room "as a fascinating show to visitors
+and a stimulation to the staff in the invention of other
+instruments."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i111.png" width="600" height="904" alt="Figure 11.&mdash;Draper&#39;s mechanical registering barometer,
+as used in the Lick Observatory. (Photo courtesy Lick Observatory.)" title="Figure 11." />
+<p class="caption">Figure 11.&mdash;Draper&#39;s mechanical registering barometer,
+as used in the Lick Observatory. (Photo courtesy Lick Observatory.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i112.png" width="600" height="991" alt="Figure 12.&mdash;Hough&#39;s electromechanical registering
+barometer, about 1871." title="Figure 12." />
+<p class="caption">Figure 12.&mdash;Hough&#39;s electromechanical registering
+barometer, about 1871.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i113-left.png" width="250" height="638" alt="Figure 13.&mdash;Fuess&#39; &quot;balance barometer after Samuel
+Morland,&quot; 1880. Wren probably was the originator of this type of
+instrument. (From Loewenherz, op. cit. footnote 28.)" title="Figure 13." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 13.&mdash;Fuess&#39; &quot;balance barometer after Samuel
+Morland,&quot; 1880. Wren probably was the originator of this type of
+instrument. (From Loewenherz, <i>op. cit.</i> footnote 28.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i113-right.png" width="199" height="638" alt="Figure 14.&mdash;Marvin&#39;s mechanical registering barometer,
+1905. This instrument was formerly in the U.S. Weather Bureau. (USNM
+316500; Smithsonian photo 46740-E.)" title="Figure 14." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 14.&mdash;Marvin&#39;s mechanical registering barometer,
+1905. This instrument was formerly in the U.S. Weather Bureau. (<i>USNM
+316500; Smithsonian photo 46740-E.</i>)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i114.png" width="300" height="333" alt="Figure 15.&mdash;&quot;Steelyard barometer&quot; as shown in Charles
+Hutton&#39;s Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (London, 1796, vol.
+1, p. 188). Hutton makes no reference to the originator of this
+instrument; he attributes the &quot;Diagonal&quot; (or inclined) barometer to
+Samuel Morland." title="Figure 15." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 15.&mdash;&quot;Steelyard barometer&quot; as shown in Charles
+Hutton's <i>Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary</i> (London, 1796, vol.
+1, p. 188). Hutton makes no reference to the originator of this
+instrument; he attributes the &quot;Diagonal&quot; (or inclined) barometer to
+Samuel Morland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+From 1875 the question was no longer one of the introduction of
+self-registering instruments to major observatories but their complete
+mechanization and the extension of registration to substations. Having
+accepted self-registration, meteorologists turned their attention to the
+simplification of instruments. In 1904 Charles Marvin, of what is now
+the U.S. Weather Bureau, brought the self-registering barometer into
+something of a full circle by producing an instrument (fig. 14) that was
+nothing more than Hooke's wheel barometer directly adapted to
+recording.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> But this process of simplification had been accomplished
+at a stroke, about 1880, with the introduction by the Parisian
+instrument-maker Jules Richard of a self-registering barometer and a
+thermometer combining the simplest form of instrument with the simplest
+form of registration (see fig. 16). This innovation, which fixed the
+form of the conventional registering instrument until the advent of the
+radiosonde, seems to have stemmed from a source quite outside
+meteorology&mdash;the technology of the steam gauge. Richard's thermometric
+element was the curved metal tube of elliptical cross-section that
+Bourdon had developed several decades earlier as a steam gauge. Pressure
+within such a tube causes it to straighten, and thus to move a pointer
+attached to one end. Bourdon had opened it to the steam source. Richard
+filled it with alcohol, closed it, and found that the expansion of the
+alcohol on heating caused a similar straightening. His barometric
+element was a type of aneroid, which Hipp had already used but which
+Richard may have also adopted from a type of steam gauge. For a
+recording mechanism, Richard was able to use a simple direct lever
+connection, as the forces involved in his instruments, being
+concentrated, were not greatly hampered by friction.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> By 1900 these
+simple and inexpensive instruments had relegated to the scrap pile,
+unfortunately literally, the elegant products of the mass attack of
+observatory directors in the 1860's on the problem of the
+self-registering thermometer and barometer.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="ch_3" id="ch_3"></a>Conclusions</h2>
+
+<p>In view of the rarity of special studies on the history of
+meteorological instruments, it is impossible to claim that this brief
+review has neglected no important instruments, and conclusions as to the
+lineage of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>late 19th century instruments can only be tentatively
+drawn. The conclusion is inescapable, however, that the majority of the
+instruments upon which the self-registering systems of the late 19th
+century were based had been proposed and, in most cases, actually
+constructed in the 17th century. It is also evident that in the 17th
+century at least one attempt was made at a system as comprehensive as
+any accomplished in the 19th century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i115.png" width="400" height="390" alt="Figure 16.&mdash;Richard&#39;s registering aneroid barometer, an
+instrument used at the U.S. Weather Bureau about 1888. The Richard
+registering thermometer is similar, the aneroid being replaced by an
+alcohol-filled Bourdon tube. (USNM 252981; Smithsonian photo
+46740-C.)" title="Figure 16." />
+<p class="caption2">Figure 16.&mdash;Richard's registering aneroid barometer, an
+instrument used at the U.S. Weather Bureau about 1888. The Richard
+registering thermometer is similar, the aneroid being replaced by an
+alcohol-filled Bourdon tube. (<i>USNM 252981; Smithsonian photo
+46740-C</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To attribute the success of self-registering instruments in the late
+19th century to the unquestionable improvements in the techniques of the
+instrument-maker is to beg the question, for it is by no means clear
+that the techniques of the 17th-century instrument-maker were unequal to
+the task. It should also be noted that the photographic and
+electromagnetic systems of the 19th century seem to have been something
+of an interlude, for some of the latest and most durable (all of
+Draper's and Richard's instruments and Marvin's barograph) were purely
+mechanical instruments, as had been those of Hooke and Wren. If we
+conclude that the 19th-century instruments were more accurate, we should
+also recall Forbes' comments upon the question of instrumental accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>What, then, was the essential difference between the 17th and 19th
+centuries that made possible the development of the self-registering
+observatory? It would appear to have been a difference of degree&mdash;the
+maturation in the 19th century of certain features <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>of the 17th. The
+most important of these features were the spread throughout the western
+world of the spirit that had animated the scientific societies of
+Florence and London, the continued popularity of the astronomical
+observatory as an object of the philanthropy of an affluent society, and
+the continued existence of the nonspecialized scientist. Under these
+circumstances such nonmeteorologists as Wheatstone, Henry, Hough, Wild,
+and Secci had the temerity to range over the whole of the not yet
+compartmented branches of science and technology, fully confident that
+they were capable of finding thereby a solution to any problem important
+enough to warrant their attention.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> On early meteorological instruments see A. Wolf, <i>A History
+of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries</i>, New York, 1935, and E. Gerland and F. Traum&uuml;ller,
+<i>Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst</i>, Leipzig, 1899. On
+the recognition of the meteorological significance of the barometer by
+Torricelli and its meteorological use in 1649 see K. Schneider-Carius,
+<i>Wetterkunde Wetterforschung</i>, Freiburg and Munich, 1955, pp. 62, 71.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Bacon's book emphasizes "direct" and "indirect"
+experiments, and calls for the systematization of observation, but it
+does not mention instruments. It is reprinted in Basil Montagu's <i>The
+Works of Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England,</i> London, 1825, vols.
+10 and 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Wolf, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 1), pp. 312, 316-320. The
+interest of the Royal Society in the barometer seems to have been
+initiated by Descartes' theory that the instrument's variation was
+caused by the pressure of the moon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>On early meteorology in the United States see the report
+of Joseph Henry in Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture,
+for the Year 1855</i>, 1856, p. 357ff.; also, <i>Army Meteorological Register
+for Twelve Years, 1843-1854</i>, 1855, introduction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> J. D. Forbes, "Report upon the Recent Progress and Present
+State of Meteorology," <i>Report of the First and Second Meetings of the
+British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1831 and 1832</i>,
+1833, pp. 196-197.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> On the instruments used at Mannheim see Gerland and
+Traum&uuml;ller, <i>op. cit.</i> footnote 1, p. 349ff. The Princeton physicist
+Arnold Guyot prepared a set of instructions for observers that was
+published in <i>Tenth Annual Report ... of the Smithsonian Institution</i>,
+1856, p. 215ff. It appears from the <i>Annual Report of the British
+Association for the Advance of Science</i> in the 1830's that the
+instruments used in England were nearly the same as those later adopted
+by the Smithsonian, although British observatories were beginning to
+experiment with the self-registering anemometer at that time. A typical
+set of the Smithsonian instruments is shown in figure 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> H. Alan Lloyd, "Horology and Meteorology," <i>Journal Suisse
+d'Horlogerie</i>, November-December, 1953, nos. 11, 12, p. 372, fig. 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> R. T. Gunther, <i>Early Science in Oxford</i>, vol. 6, <i>The Life
+and Work of Robert Hooke</i>, pt. 1, Oxford, 1930, p. 196. In 1670, Hooke's
+proposed clock was referred to as "such a one, as Dr. Wren had formerly
+contrived" (Gunther, p. 365).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> William Derham, <i>Philosophical Experiments and Observations
+of ... Dr. Robert Hooke</i>, London, 1726, pp. 41-42 (reprinted in Gunther,
+<i>op. cit.</i> footnote 8, vol. 7, pp. 519-520). This description, dated
+December 5, 1678, predates the Royal Society's request for a description
+(Gunther, <i>op. cit.</i> footnote 8, p. 656) by four months, but the Society
+no longer has any description of the clock. As to the actual completion
+of the clock, the president of the Society visited "Mr. Hooke's turret"
+to see it in January of 1678/79 but it was not reported "ready to be
+shown" until the following May (Gunther, pp. 506, 518).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Wren's clock and its wind vane and anemometer,
+thermometer, barometer, and rain gauge are described by T. Sprat, <i>The
+History of the Royal Society...</i>, London, 1667, pp. 312-313. On the
+balance-barometer, see also footnote 28, below, and figure 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Since the above was written, additional information on
+this clock has been published by H. E. Hoff and L. A. Geddes, "Graphic
+Recording before Carl Ludwig: An Historical Summary," <i>Archives
+Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences</i>, 1959, vol. 12, pp. 1-25. Hoff
+and Geddes call attention to a report on the clock by Monconys, who saw
+the instrument in 1663 and published a brief description and crude
+sketch (Balthasar Monconys, <i>Les Voyages de Balthasar de Monconys;
+Documents pour l'Histoire de la Science, avec une Introduction par M.
+Charles Henry</i>, Paris, 1887). Monconys says that the thermometer "causes
+a tablet to rise and fall while a pencil bears against it." The
+instrument shown in his sketch resembles a Galilean thermoscope.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Hooke's "oat-beard hygrometer" was described in 1667, but
+Torricelli seems to have invented the same thing in 1646, according to
+E. Gerland, "Historical Sketch of Instrumental Meteorology," in "Report
+of the International Meteorological Congress Held at Chicago, Ill.,
+August 21-24, 1893," O. L. Fassig, ed., <i>U.S. Weather Bureau Bulletin
+No. 11</i>, pt. 3, 1896, pp. 687-699.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> But a Dutch patent was awarded to one William Douglas in
+1627 for the determination of wind pressure (G. Doorman, <i>Patents for
+Inventions in the Netherlands during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries</i>,
+The Hague, 1942, p. 127), and Leonardo da Vinci left a sketch of both a
+wind pressure meter and a hygrometer (<i>Codex Atlanticus</i>, 249 va and 8
+vb).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Gunther, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 8), pp. 433, 502.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Battista della Valle, <i>Vallo Libro Continente
+Appertiniente ad Capitanii, Retenere and Fortificare una Citta...</i>,
+Venetia, 1523 (reported under the date 1524 in G. H. Baillie, <i>Clocks
+and Watches, an Historical Bibliography</i>, London, 1951).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Dolland's instrument, called an "atmospheric recorder," is
+described in the <i>Official, Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue to the
+Great Exhibition, 1851,</i> London, 1851, pt. 2, pp. 414-415. As the George
+Dolland who joined the famous Dolland firm in 1804 would have been about
+80 years of age in 1850, the George Dolland who exhibited this
+instrument may have been a younger relative.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The Osler anemometer and most of the other
+self-registering instruments mentioned in this paper are described and
+illustrated in C. Abbe, "Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and
+Methods," <i>Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1887</i>,
+Washington, 1888. The use of the Osler instrument at the British
+Association's observatory at Plymouth is mentioned in the Association's
+annual reports from 1838. There were a number of earlier
+self-registering anemometers, but no evidence of their extended use. See
+J. K. Laughton, "Historical Sketch of Anemometry and Anemometers,"
+<i>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society</i>, 1882, vol. 8,
+pp. 161-188.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> On Ronalds' work see reports of the British Association
+for the Advancement of Science, from 1846 to 1850. On Brooke's work see
+<i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>, 1847, vol.
+137, pp. 59-68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> C. Abbe, "The Meteorological Work of the U.S. Signal
+Service, 1870 to 1871," in Fassig, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 12), pt. 2,
+1895, p. 263.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Annual Report of the Director of the Meteorological
+Observatory</i>, Central Park, New York, 1871, p. 1ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Oesterreichische Gesellschaft f&uuml;r Meteorologie,
+Zeitschrift</i>, 1871, vol. 6, pp. 104, 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> P. H. Carl, <i>Repertorium f&uuml;r physikalische Technik</i>,
+Munich, 1867, p. 162ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> E. Lacroix, <i>&Eacute;tudes sur l'Exposition de 1867</i>, Paris,
+1867, vol. 2, p. 313ff. See also, Reports of the U.S. Commissioners to
+the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, vol. 3, Washington, 1870, p.
+570ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Annals of the Dudley Observatory</i>, 1871, vol. 2, p. vii
+ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Karl Kreil, <i>Entwurf eines meteorologischen
+Beobachtungs-Systems f&uuml;r die &ouml;sterreichische Monarchie</i>, Vienna, 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Report of the 13th Meeting of the British Association for
+the Advancement of Science</i>, 1843, 1844, p. xi ff. I have found no other
+reference to this instrument. Considerable attention was given to the
+thermometer, however, for Wheatstone proposed to send it aloft in a
+balloon for the measurement of temperatures at high altitudes. A small
+clock caused a vertical rack to ascend and descend once in six minutes.
+The rack carried a platinum wire which moved within the thermometer over
+28 degrees. From a galvanic battery and a galvanometer on the ground two
+insulated copper wires were to extend to the balloon, one connected to
+the mercury and the other to the clock frame. The deflection of the
+galvanometer was to be timed with a second clock on the ground.
+(Professor Wheatstone, "Report on the Electro-Magnetic Meteorological
+Register," <i>Mechanics' Magazine</i>, London, 1843, vol. 39, p. 204).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> In 1662 Hooke had proposed the use of a bimetallic
+pendulum for the temperature compensation of clocks. Thermometers on
+this principle were described to the Royal Society in 1748 and in 1760
+(<i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>, 1748, vol.
+45, p. 128; 1760, vol. 51, p. 823). Some systems used a bimetallic
+thermometer in the sun and a mercurial instrument in the shade.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> This instrument has been persistently associated with Sir
+Samuel Morland (1625-1695). For example, A. Sprung of the Deutsche
+Seewarte described his own balance-barometer as a "Wagebarograph nach
+Samuel Morland" (in L. Loewenherz, <i>Bericht &uuml;ber die wissenschaftlichen
+Instrumente auf der Berliner Gewerbeausstellung im Jahre 1879</i>, Berlin,
+1880, p. 230ff). Sprat (<i>op. cit.</i> footnote 10, p. 313) reported that
+Wren had proposed "balances to shew the weight of the air by their
+spontaneous inclination." This must, therefore, be Wren's invention,
+unless he got it from Morland, who does not seem to have published
+anything about the barometer but only to have described some ideas to a
+friend. But Morland's was probably the <i>inclined</i> and not the <i>balance</i>
+barometer. (See under "barometer" in Charles Hutton, <i>Mathematical and
+Philosophical Dictionary</i>, London, 1796, vol. 1; also J. K. Fischer,
+<i>Physikalisches W&ouml;rterbuch, G&ouml;ttingen</i>, 1798).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Leibniz, in several letters&mdash;beginning with one to Denys
+Papin on June 21, 1697&mdash;proposed the making of a barometer on the model
+of a bellows. Of subsequent versions of such a barometer, that of Vidi
+(described by Poggendorff, <i>Annalen der Physik und Chemie</i>, 1848, Band
+73, p. 620) is generally regarded as the first practical aneroid (see
+also Gerland and Traum&uuml;ller, <i>op. cit.</i> footnote 1, pp. 239, 323).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> T. R. Robinson, "Modification of Dr. Whewell's Anemometer
+for Measuring the Velocity of the Wind," <i>Report of the 16th Meeting of
+the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1846</i>, 1847, pt.
+2, p. 111.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Abbe, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 19), pp. 263-264.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Because of its superior accuracy to the aneroid barograph,
+Marvin's barometer was in use through the 1940's. See R. N. Covert,
+"Meteorological Instruments and Apparatus Employed by the United States
+Weather Bureau," <i>Journal of the Optical Society of America</i>, 1925, vol.
+10, p. 322.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Both of Richard's instruments (described in <i>Bulletin
+Mensuel de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale</i>,
+November 1882, ser. 3, vol. 9, pp. 531-543) were in use at Kew by 1885
+and at the U.S. Weather Bureau by 1888. The firm of Richard Freres
+claimed in 1889 to have made 7,000 registering instruments, of which the
+majority were probably thermographs and barographs. At that time,
+certainly no other maker had made more than a small fraction of this
+number of self-registering instruments. The origin of Richard's
+thermograph seems to have been the "elastic manometer" described by E.
+Bourdon in 1851 (<i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Encouragement pour
+l'Industrie Nationale</i>, 1851, no. 562, p. 197). While attempting to
+restore a flattened still-pipe, Bourdon had discovered the property of
+tubes to change shape under fluid pressure. The instrument he developed
+in consequence became the standard steam pressure gauge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> A few of these instruments, such as the Marvin barograph,
+survived for some time because of their superior accuracy. Even as
+museum pieces, only a few exist today.</p></div></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1961.<br />
+<br />
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. - Price 25 cents<br />
+</small></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<h2>Transcriber's Note:</h2>
+
+<p>Minor errors in punctuation have been corrected without note.</p>
+<p>The following typographical errors in the original have been corrected:</p>
+
+<p>P. 110: 'a panopoly of gadgetry': corrected to panoply<br />
+P. 113, caption to Figure 13: 'Feuss': corrected to Fuess<br />
+Footnote 28: 'Gewerbeaustellung': corrected to Gewerbeausstellung<br />
+Footnote 28: 'Physikalisches Worterbuch': corrected to W&ouml;rterbuch<br />
+Footnote 29: 'see also Gerland and Tra&uuml;muller': corrected to Traum&uuml;ller</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering
+Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering
+Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments
+
+Author: Robert P. Multhauf
+
+Release Date: May 22, 2010 [EBook #32482]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-REG. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  CONTRIBUTIONS FROM
+
+  THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY:
+
+  PAPER 23
+
+
+  THE INTRODUCTION OF SELF-REGISTERING
+
+  METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+  _Robert P. Multhauf_
+
+
+  THE FIRST SELF-REGISTERING INSTRUMENTS      99
+
+  SELF-REGISTERING SYSTEMS                   105
+
+  CONCLUSIONS                                114
+
+
+
+
+_The Introduction of_ SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+_Robert P. Multhauf_
+
+
+     _The development of self-registering meteorological instruments
+     began very shortly after that of scientific meteorological
+     observation itself. Yet it was not until the 1860's, two centuries
+     after the beginning of scientific observation, that the
+     self-registering instrument became a factor in meteorology._
+
+     _This time delay is attributable less to deficiencies in the
+     techniques of instrument-making than to deficiencies in the
+     organisation of meteorology itself. The critical factor was the
+     establishment in the 1860's of well-financed and competently
+     directed meteorological observatories, most of which were created
+     as adjuncts to astronomical observatories._
+
+     THE AUTHOR: _Robert P. Multhauf is head curator of the department
+     of science and technology in the United States National Museum,
+     Smithsonian Institution._
+
+
+The flowering of science in the 17th century was accompanied by an
+efflorescence of instrument invention as luxurious as that of science
+itself. Although there were foreshadowing events, this flowering seems
+to have owed much to Galileo, whose interest in the measurement of
+natural phenomena is well known, and who is himself credited with the
+invention of the thermometer and the hydrostatic balance, both of which
+he devised in connection with experimentation on specific scientific
+problems. Many, if not most, of the other Italian instrument inventors
+of the early 17th century were his disciples. Benedetto Castelli, being
+interested in the effect of rainfall on the level of a lake, constructed
+a rain gauge about 1628. Santorio, well known as a pioneer in the
+quantification of animal physiology, is credited with observations,
+about 1626, that led to the development of the hygrometer.
+
+Both of these contemporaries were interested in Galileo's most famous
+invention, the thermoscope--forerunner of the thermometer--which he
+developed about 1597 as a method of obtaining comparisons of
+temperature. The utility of the instrument was immediately recognized by
+physicists (not by chemists, oddly enough), and much ingenuity was
+expended on its perfection over a 50-year period, in northern Europe as
+well as in Italy. The conversion of this open, air-expansion thermoscope
+into the modern thermometer was accomplished by the Florentine Accademia
+del Cimento about 1660.
+
+Galileo also inspired the barometer, through his speculations on the
+vacuum, which, in 1643, led his disciple Torricelli to experiments
+proving the limitation to nature's horror of a vacuum. Torricelli's
+apparatus, unlike Galileo's thermoscope, represented the barometer in
+essentially its classical form. In his earliest experiments, Torricelli
+observed that the air tended to become "thicker and thinner"; as a
+consequence, we find the barometer in use (with the thermometer) for
+meteorological observation as early as 1649.[1]
+
+The meetings of the Accademia terminated in 1667, but the 5-year-old
+Royal Society of London had already become as fruitful a source of new
+instruments, largely through the abilities of its demonstrator, Robert
+Hooke, whose task it was to entertain and instruct the members with
+experiments. In the course of devising these experiments Hooke became
+perhaps the most prolific instrument inventor of all time. He seems to
+have invented the first wind pressure gauge, as an aid to seamen, and he
+improved the bathometer, hygrometer, hydrometer, and barometer, as well
+as instruments not directly involved in measurement such as the vacuum
+pump and sea-water sampling devices. As in Florence, these instruments
+were immediately brought to bear on the observation of nature.
+
+It does not appear, however, that we would be justified in concluding
+that the rise of scientific meteorology was inspired by the invention of
+instruments, for meteorology had begun to free itself of the traditional
+weather-lore and demonology early in the 17th century. The Landgraf of
+Hesse described some simultaneous weather observations, made without
+instruments, in 1637. Francis Bacon's "Natural History of the Wind,"
+considered the first special work of this kind to attain general
+circulation, appeared in 1622.[2] It seems likely that the rise of
+scientific meteorology was an aspect of the general rationalization of
+nature study which occurred at this time, and that the initial impetus
+for such progress was gained not from the invention of instruments but
+from the need of navigators for wind data at a time when long voyages
+out of sight of land were becoming commonplace.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--A set of typical Smithsonian meteorological
+instruments as recommended in instructions to observers issued by the
+Institution in the 1850's. _Top_ (from left): maximum-minimum
+thermometer of Professor Phillips, dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers,
+and mercurial barometer by Green of New York. _Lower left:_ rain gauge.
+The wet-bulb thermometer, although typical, is actually a later
+instrument. The rain gauge is a replica. (_Smithsonian photo 46740._)]
+
+It should be noted in this connection that the two most important
+instruments, the thermometer and barometer, were in no way inspired by
+an interest in meteorology. But the observation made early in the
+history of the barometer that the atmospheric pressure varied in some
+relationship to visible changes in the weather soon brought that
+instrument into use as a "weather glass." In particular, winds were
+attributed to disturbances of barometric equilibrium, and
+wind-barometric studies were made by Evangelista Torricelli, Edme
+Mariotte, and Edmund Halley, the latter publishing the first
+meteorological chart. In 1678-1679 Gottfried Leibniz endeavored to
+encourage observations to test the capacity of the barometer for
+foretelling the weather.[3]
+
+Other questions of a quasi-meteorological nature interested the
+scientists of this period, and brought other instruments into use.
+Observations of rainfall and evaporation were made in pursuit of the
+ancient question of the sources of terrestrial water, the maintenance of
+the levels of seas, etc. Physicians brought instruments to bear on the
+question of the relationship between weather and the incidence of
+disease. The interrelationship between these various meteorological
+enterprises was not long in becoming apparent. Soon after its founding
+in 1657 the Florentine academy undertook, through the distribution of
+thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, and rain gauges, the
+establishment of an international network of meteorological observation
+stations, a network which did not survive the demise of the Accademia
+itself ten years later.
+
+Not for over a century was the first thoroughgoing attempt made at
+systematic observation. There was a meteorological section in the
+Academy of Sciences at Mannheim from 1763, and subsequently a separate
+society for meteorology. In 1783, the Academy published observations
+from 39 stations, those from the central station comprising data from
+the hygrometer, wind vane (but not anemometer), rain gauge,
+evaporimeter, and apparatus for geomagnetism and atmospheric
+electricity, as well as data from the thermometer and barometer. The
+Mannheim system was also short-lived, being terminated by the Napoleonic
+invasion, but systems of comparable scope were attempted throughout
+Europe and America during the next generation.
+
+In the United States the office of the Surgeon General, U. S. Army,
+began the first systematic observation in 1819, using only the
+thermometer and wind vane, to which were added the barometer and
+hygrometer in 1840-1841 and the wind force anemometer, rain gauge, and
+wet bulb thermometer in 1843. State weather observation systems
+meanwhile had been inaugurated in New York (1825), Pennsylvania (1836),
+and Ohio (1842).[4]
+
+Nearly 200 years of observation had not, however, noticeably improved
+the weather, and the naive faith in the power of instruments to reveal
+its mysteries, which had possessed many an early meteorologist, no
+longer charmed the scientist of the early 19th century. In the first
+published report of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science in 1833, J. D. Forbes called for a reorganization of procedures:
+
+     In the science of Astronomy, for example, as in that of Optics, the
+     great general truths which emerge in the progress of discovery,
+     though depending for their establishment upon a multitude of
+     independent facts and observations, possess sufficient unity to
+     connect in the mind the bearing of the whole; and the more
+     perfectly understood connexion of parts invites to further
+     generalization.
+
+     Very different is the position of an infant science like
+     Meteorology. The unity of the whole ... is not always kept in view,
+     even as far as our present very limited general conceptions will
+     admit of: and as few persons have devoted their whole attention to
+     this science alone ... no wonder that we find strewed over its
+     irregular and far-spread surface, patches of cultivation upon spots
+     chosen without discrimination and treated on no common principle,
+     which defy the improver to inclose, and the surveyor to estimate
+     and connect them. Meteorological instruments have been for the most
+     part treated like toys, and much time and labor have been lost in
+     making and recording observations utterly useless for any
+     scientific purpose. Even the numerous registers of a rather
+     superior class ... hardly contain one jot of information ready for
+     incorporation in a Report on the progress of Meteorology....
+
+     The most general mistake probably consists in the idea that
+     Meteorology, as a science, has no other object but an experimental
+     acquaintance with the condition of those variable elements which
+     from day to day constitute the general and vague result of the
+     state of the _weather_ at any given spot; not considering that ...
+     when grouped together with others of the same character, [they] may
+     afford the most valuable aid to scientific generalization.[5]
+
+Forbes goes on to call for a greater emphasis on theory, and the
+replacement of the many small-scale observatories with "a few great
+Registers" to be adequately maintained by "great Societies" or by the
+government. He suggests that the time for pursuit of theory might be
+gained from "the vague mechanical task to which at present they
+generally devote their time, namely the search for great numerical
+accuracy, to a superfluity of decimal places exceeding the compass of
+the instrument to verify."
+
+From its founding the British Association sponsored systematic
+observation at various places. In 1842 it initiated observations at the
+Kew Observatory, which has continued until today to be the premier
+meteorological observatory in the British Empire. The American scientist
+Joseph Henry observed the functioning of an observatory maintained by
+the British Association at Plymouth in 1837, and when he became
+Secretary of the new Smithsonian Institution a few years later he made
+the furtherance of meteorology one of its first objectives.
+
+The Kew Observatory set a pattern for systematic observation in England
+as, from 1855, did the Smithsonian Institution in the United States. The
+instruments used differed little from those in use at Mannheim over half
+a century earlier[6] (fig. 1). They were undoubtedly more accurate, but
+this should not be overstressed. Forbes had noted in his report of 1832
+that some scientists were then calling for a return to Torricelli, for
+the construction of a temporary barometer on the site in preference to
+reliance on the then existing manufactured instruments.
+
+
+
+
+The First Self-Registering Instruments
+
+
+From the middle of the 17th century meteorological observations were
+recorded in manuscript books known as "registers," many of which were
+published in the early scientific journals. The most effective
+utilization of these observations was in the compilation of the history
+of particular storms, but where a larger synthesis was concerned they
+tended, as Forbes has shown, to show themselves unsystematic and
+non-comparable. The principal problems of meteorological observation
+have been from the outset the construction of precisely comparable
+instruments and their use to produce comparable records. The former
+problem has been frequently discussed, and perhaps, as Forbes suggests,
+overemphasized. It is the latter problem with which we are here
+concerned.
+
+The idea of mechanizing the process of observation, not yet accomplished
+in Forbes' time, had been put forward within a little over a decade of
+the first use of the thermometer and barometer in meteorology. On
+December 9, 1663, Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a
+design for a "weather clock," of which a drawing is extant.[7] This
+drawing (fig. 2) shows an ordinary clock to which is attached a
+pencil-carrying rack, geared to the hour pinion. A discussion of the
+clock's "reduction to practice" began the involvement of Robert Hooke,
+who was "instructed" in September 1664 to make "a pendulum clock
+applicable to the observing of the changes in the weather."[8] This
+tribute to Hooke's reputation--and to the versatility of the mechanic
+arts at this time--was slightly overoptimistic, as 15 years ensued
+before the clock made its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--A contemporary drawing of Wren's "weather
+clock." (Photo courtesy Royal Society of London.)]
+
+References to this clock are frequent in the records of the Royal
+Society--being mainly periodic injunctions to Hooke to get on with the
+work--until its completion in May 1679. The description which Hooke was
+asked to supply was subsequently found among his papers and printed by
+William Derham as follows:[9]
+
+     The weather-clock consists of two parts; _first_, that which
+     measures the time, which is a strong and large pendulum-clock,
+     which moves a week, with once winding up, and is sufficient to turn
+     a cylinder (upon which the paper is rolled) twice round in a day,
+     and also to lift a hammer for striking the punches, once every
+     quarter of an hour.
+
+     _Secondly_, of several instruments for measuring the degrees of
+     alteration, in the several things, to be observed. The first is,
+     the barometer, which moves the first punch, an inch and half,
+     serving to shew the difference between the greatest and the least
+     pressure of the air. The second is, the thermometer, which moves
+     the punch that shews the differences between the greatest heat in
+     summer, and the least in winter. The third is, the hygroscope,
+     moving the punch, which shews the difference between the moistest
+     and driest airs. The fourth is, the rain-bucket, serving to shew
+     the quantity of rain that falls; this hath two parts or punches;
+     the first, to shew what part of the bucket is fill'd, when there
+     falls not enough to make it empty itself; the second, to shew how
+     many full buckets have been emptied. The fifth is the wind vane;
+     this hath also two parts; the first to shew the strength of the
+     wind, which is observed by the number of revolutions in the
+     vane-mill, and marked by three punches; the first marks every
+     10,000 revolutions, the second every 1,000, and the third every
+     100: The second, to shew the quarters of the wind, this hath four
+     punches; the first with one point, marking the North quarters, viz.
+     N.: N. by E.: N. by W.: NNE.: NNW.: NE. by N. and N.W. by N.: NE.
+     and N.W. The second hath two points, marking the East and its
+     quarters. The third hath three points, marking the South and its
+     quarters. The fourth hath four points, marking the West and its
+     quarters. Some of these punches give one mark, every 100
+     revolutions of the vane-mill.
+
+     The stations or places of the first four punches are marked on a
+     scrowl of paper, by the clock-hammer, falling every quarter of an
+     hour. The punches, belonging to the fifth, are marked on the said
+     scrowl, by the revolutions of the vane, which are accounted by a
+     small numerator, standing at the top of the clock-case, which is
+     moved by the vane-mill.
+
+What, exactly, were the instruments applied by Hooke to his weather
+clock? It is not always easy even to guess, because it appears that Wren
+was actually the first to contrive such a device and seems to have
+developed nearly as many instruments as Hooke. It might be supposed that
+Hooke would have adapted to the weather clock his wheel-barometer,
+introduced in 1667, but it also appears that Wren had described (and
+perhaps built) a balance barometer before 1667.[10] As to the
+thermometer, we have no evidence of original work by Hooke, but we do
+have a description of Wren's self-registering thermometer, a circular,
+mercury-filled tube in which changes in temperature move "the whole
+instrument, like a wheel on its axis."[11]
+
+The hygroscope (hygrometer) probably existed in more versions than any
+other instrument, although we know nothing of any versions by Wren.
+Hooke may have used his own "oat-beard" instrument.[12] Derham follows
+his description of the clock--which has been quoted above--with a
+detailed description of a tipping-bucket rain gauge invented by Hooke
+and used with the clock. He also notes that in 1670 Hooke had described
+two other types of rain gauge in which a bucket was counterbalanced in
+one case by a string of bullets and in another by an immersed weight.
+But here again, Sprat records the invention of a tipping-bucket gauge by
+Wren before 1667.
+
+Hooke has been generally regarded as the first inventor of an
+anemometer, in 1662.[13] But this invention was a pressure-plate
+gauge--that is, a metal plate held with its face against the
+wind--whereas the gauge used with the weather clock is clearly a
+windmill type, of which type this may be the first. Wren also had an
+anemometer, but we have no description of it. Hooke's account does not
+refer to other instruments which the weather clock is supposed to have
+had, according to a description quoted by Gunther, which concludes the
+enumeration of the elements recorded with "sunshine, etc."[14] One can
+only wish for further information on the mechanism by which the
+punches--or in Wren's clock, the pencils--were moved. But it is apparent
+that Hooke's clock was actually used for some time.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Dolland's "atmospheric recorder": 1, siphon and
+float barometer; 2, balance (?) thermometer; 3, hygrometer; 4,
+electrometer; 5, float rain gauge; 6, float evaporimeter; 7,
+suspended-weight wind force indicator; 8, wind direction indicator; 9,
+clock; 10, receivers for rain gauge and evaporimeter. (From _Official
+... Catalogue of the Great Exhibition, 1851,_ London, 1851, pt. 2).]
+
+The 17th century was not entirely unprepared for the idea of such a
+self-registering instrument. Water clocks and other devices in which
+natural forces governed a pointer were known in antiquity, as were
+counters of the type of the odometer. A water clock described in Italy
+in 1524 was essentially an inversion of one of Hooke's rain gauges, that
+in which a bucket was balanced against a string of bullets.[15] The
+mechanical clock also had a considerable history in the 17th century,
+and had long since been applied to the operations of figures through
+cams, as was almost certainly the case with the punches in Hooke's
+clock. Still, the combination of an instrument-actuated pointer with a
+clock-actuated time-scale and a means of obtaining a permanent record
+represent a group of innovations which certainly ranks among the
+greatest in the history of instrumentation. It appears that we owe these
+innovations to Wren and Hooke.
+
+Hooke's clock contributed nothing to the systematization of
+meteorological observation, and the last record of it appears to have
+been a note on its "re-fitting" in 1690. Its complexity is sufficient
+reason for its ephemeral history, but complexity in machine design was
+the fashion of the time and Hooke may have intended no more than a
+mechanistic _tour de force_. On the other hand, he may have recognized
+the desideratum to which later meteorologists frequently returned--the
+need for simultaneous observations of several instruments on the same
+register. In any case, no instrument so comprehensive seems to have been
+attempted again until the middle of the 19th century, when George
+Dolland exhibited one at the Great Exhibition in London (see fig. 3).
+The weather elements recorded by Dolland's instrument were the same as
+those recorded by Hooke's, except that atmospheric electricity (unknown
+in Hooke's time) was recorded and sunshine was not recorded. Striking
+hammers were used by Dolland for some of the instruments and "ever
+pointed pencils" for the others. Dolland's barometer was a wheel
+instrument controlling a hammer. His thermometric element consisted of
+12 balanced mercury thermometers. Its mode of operation is not clear,
+but it probably was similar to that of the thermometer developed by Karl
+Kreil in Prague about the same time (fig. 4). Dolland's wind force
+indicator consisted of a pressure plate counterbalanced by a string of
+suspended weights. Altogether, it is not clear that Dolland's instrument
+was superior to Hooke's, or that its career was longer.[16]
+
+The 171 years between these two instruments were not lacking in
+inventiveness in this field, but even though inventors set the more
+modest aim of a self-recording instrument for a single piece of
+meteorological data, their brain children were uniformly still-born.
+Then, during the period 1840-1850, we see the appearance of a series of
+self-registering instruments which were actually used, which were widely
+adopted by observatories, and which were superseded by superior
+instruments rather than abandoned. This development was undoubtedly a
+consequence of the establishment at that time of permanent observatories
+under competent scientific direction.
+
+Long experience had demonstrated to the meteorologists of the 1840's
+that the principal obstacle to the success of self-registering
+instruments was friction. Forbes had indicated that the most urgent need
+was for automatic registration of wind data, as the erratic fluctuation
+of the wind demanded more frequent observation than any manual system
+could accomplish. Two of the British Association's observers produced
+separate recording instruments for wind direction and force in the late
+1830's, a prompt response which suggests that it was not the idea which
+was lacking. One of these instruments--designed by William
+Whewell--contained gearing, the friction of which vitiated its utility
+as it had that of a number of predecessors. The other, designed by A.
+Follet Osler, was free of gearing; it separately recorded wind pressure
+and direction on a sheet of paper moved laterally by clockwork. The
+pressure element was a spring-loaded pressure plate carried around by
+the vane to face the wind. Both this plate and the vane itself were made
+to move pencils through linkages of chains and pulleys.[17] Osler's
+anemometer (fig. 5) deserves to be called the first successful
+self-registering meteorological instrument; it was standard equipment in
+British observatories until the latter part of the 19th century when it
+was replaced by the cup-anemometer of Robinson.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--Kreil's balance thermometer, 1843. (From Karl
+Kreil, _Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag_, Prague,
+1843, vol. 3, fig. 1.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Osler's self-registering pressure plate
+anemometer, 1837. The instrument is shown with a tipping-bucket rain
+gauge. (From Abbe, _op. cit._ footnote 17.)]
+
+Self-recording barometers and thermometers were more vulnerable to the
+influence of friction than were wind instruments, but fortunately
+pressure and temperature were also less subject to sudden fluctuation,
+and so self-registration was less necessary. Nevertheless, two events
+occurred in the 1840's which led to the development of self-registering
+instruments. One event was the development of the geomagnetic
+observatory, which used the magnetometer, an instrument as delicate as
+the barometer and thermometer, and (as it then seemed), as subject to
+fluctuation as the wind vane. The other event was the development of
+photography, making possible a recording method free of friction. In
+1845 Francis Ronalds at Kew Observatory and Charles Brooke at Greenwich
+undertook to develop apparatus to register the magnetometer,
+electrometer, thermometer, and barometer by photography.[18] This was
+six years after Daguerre's discovery of the photographic process. The
+magnetometers of both investigators were put into use in 1847, and the
+barometers and thermometers shortly after. They were based on the
+deflection--by a mirror in the case of the magnetometer and electrometer
+and by the mercury in the barometer and thermometer--of a beam of light
+directed against a photographic plate. Brooke exhibited his instruments
+at the Great Exhibition of 1850, and they subsequently became items of
+commerce and standard appurtenances of the major observatory until
+nearly the end of the century (fig. 6). Their advantages in accuracy
+were finally insufficient to offset the inconvenience to which a
+photographic instrument was subject.
+
+Before 1850 the British observatories at Kew and Greenwich (the latter
+an astronomical observatory with auxiliary meteorological activity) had
+self-registering apparatus in use for most of the elements observed.
+
+
+
+
+Self-Registering Systems
+
+
+In 1870 the Signal Corps, U.S. Army, took on the burden of official
+meteorology in the United States as the result of a joint resolution of
+the Congress and in accordance with Joseph Henry's dictum that the
+Smithsonian Institution should not become the permanent agency for such
+scientific work once its permanency had been decided upon. Smithsonian
+meteorology had not involved self-recording instruments, and neither did
+that of the Signal Corps at the outset "because of the expense of the
+apparatus, and because nothing of that kind was at that time
+manufactured in this country."[19]
+
+But almost immediately after 1870 the Signal Corps undertook an
+evidently well-financed program for the introduction of
+self-registration. "Complete outfits" were purchased, representing
+Wild's system, the Kew system as made by Beckley, Hipp's system (fig.
+8), Secci's meteorograph (figs. 9, 10), Draper's system, and Hough's
+printing barograph and thermograph. Of these only the Kew system, the
+photographic system already mentioned, could have been obtained before
+1867.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Scale about 1-16th.
+
+  BAROGRAPH, OR
+  SELF-RECORDING MERCURIAL BAROMETER, L68.
+
+Figure 6.--Photographic registering mercurial barometer, typical
+commercial version. (From J. J. Hicks, _Catalogue of ... Meteorological
+Instruments_, London, n.d., about 1870.)]
+
+Like Kew, Daniel Draper's observatory in Central Park, New York City,
+was established primarily for meteorological observation.[20] Draper was
+one of the sons of the prominent scientist J. W. Draper. Hipp was an
+instrument-maker of Neuchatel who specialized in precision clocks.[21]
+The others after whom these "systems" were named were directors of
+astronomical observatories, which were, at this time, the most active
+centers of meteorological observation. Wild was at the Bern
+Observatory,[22] Secci at the Papal Observatory, Rome,[23] and George
+Hough at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York.[24] While the Signal
+Corps seems to have acquired all of the principal "systems," some
+interesting instruments were developed at still other observatories,
+notably by Kreil at the astronomical observatory in Prague.[25] The
+principal impetus for this full-scale mechanization of observation
+undoubtedly came from the directors of astronomical observatories.
+
+Thus within little more than the decade of the 1860's were developed
+five new systems of meteorological self-registry that were sufficiently
+well thought of to be adopted or copied by observatories outside their
+places of origin. Wild and Draper tell us that it was decided when their
+respective observatories were established--in 1860 and 1868--that all
+instruments should be self-registering. Each was obliged to design his
+own, being dissatisfied with the photographic registers commercially
+available. The development of these systems would therefore appear to
+have been due, in part, to the general spread of a conviction that
+satisfactory instruments were attainable.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+A, is the Vane.
+
+B, is the Perpendicular Shaft.
+
+C, is a Horizontal Circular Plate of light material attached to the
+shaft.
+
+E and F, two Rollers communicating motion to the Apron E F from left to
+right.
+
+1, 2, 3, &c., are minute Cards, placed upon the Apron.
+
+G, is a Clock that regulates the motion of the Roller E, and
+consequently that of the apron and cards.
+
+D, is a small weight to relieve the Clock.
+
+N, NE, E, &c., are paper boxes placed upon the circular plate, to
+receive the cards, as they fall from the apron at E.
+
+Figure 7.--In 1838 the pioneer American meteorologist James H. Coffin
+(1806-1873) devised a self-registering wind direction indicator; in 1849
+he improved it as shown here. The band, moved by clockwork, carries
+cards marked with the day and hour. In Coffin's earlier instrument, a
+part of which is now in the Smithsonian Institution, the vane carried a
+funnel for sand, which ran into a circular row of bottles. (From
+_Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Science_, 1849, vol. 2, p. 388.)]
+
+This confidence was warranted, for the decade of the 1850's had seen the
+appearance of major innovations in the basic instruments--thermometer,
+barometer, and wind velocity indicator--that made available instruments
+more adaptable to self-registration. It also saw the development of a
+new method of electrical registration derived from the telegraph. Sir
+Charles Wheatstone initiated this small revolution in 1843 when he
+reported to the British Association that he had constructed an
+electromagnetic meteorological register which "records the indications
+of the barometer, thermometer and the psychrometer [meaning wet-bulb
+thermometer] every half hour ... and prints the results on a sheet of
+paper in figures," running a week unattended. The working of this
+register involved the insertion of a conductor in the tubes to make a
+circuit, the thermometers having open tops.[26] This was ten years after
+the development of the electromagnetic relay and six years after
+Wheatstone's introduction of his own telegraph.
+
+Wheatstone's instrument left a very ephemeral record in the
+meteorological literature, and appears to have been defective or out of
+fashion with its time, which was concerned with the introduction of
+photographic instruments. Wheatstone's work was rediscovered, along with
+that of several other much earlier inventors, by the determined
+observatory directors of the 1860's.
+
+Of the five systems developed at that time, four used electromagnetic
+registration, only Draper adhering to a mechanical system (see fig. 11).
+For temperature measurement Secci and Hough used Wheatstone's electrical
+system with a mercurial thermometer (fig. 12), but the other four
+utilized a physical principle which had been proposed periodically for
+at least a century--the unequal thermal expansion of a bimetallic strip.
+This principle had been utilized by watchmakers for a quite different
+purpose--the temperature compensation of the watch pendulum--but its
+possibilities as a thermometer had been known long before the mid-19th
+century.[27]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--Hipp's registering aneroid barometer, with a
+telegraphic printer. (_USNM 314544; Smithsonian photo 46740-D._)]
+
+For the measurement of pressure, Secci, Wild, and Draper adopted, or
+rediscovered, the balance barometer devised by Wren in the 17th century.
+In this type of instrument (see figs. 13, 15) either the tube or the
+reservoir of the barometer is attached to one arm of a balance, the
+equilibrium of which is disturbed by the movement of the mercury in the
+instrument.[28]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Front and rear views of Secci's meteorograph,
+1867. (From Lacroix, _op. cit._ footnote 22.)]
+
+Hough's barometer was an adaptation of the electrical contact
+thermometer. The movement of the mercury over a certain minute distance
+within the tube served as a switch to energize an electrical recording
+system. Hipp, who was perhaps the latest of this group, first applied
+the aneroid barometer (fig. 8) to self-registration. The idea of the
+aneroid--an air-tight bellows against which the atmospheric pressure
+would act--had been advanced by Leibniz in the 17th century and had been
+the subject of a few abortive experiments in the 18th century. Not until
+1848 was an instrument produced that was acceptable to users of the
+barometer.[29]
+
+As a wind velocity instrument all six systems used the cup-anemometer
+developed by Robinson in 1846, an instrument whose chief virtue was the
+care which its inventor had taken to work out the relationship between
+its movement and the actual velocity of the wind.[30] Beckley and Draper
+caused it to move a pencil through gearing; the others used with it
+electromagnetic counters actuated by rotating contacts.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Chart from Secci's meteorograph. (From
+Lacroix, _op. cit._ footnote 22.)]
+
+As has been indicated, the Signal Corps used all six systems, a panoply
+of gadgetry which must have been wondrous to behold. Its Secci
+meteorograph, which had attracted much attention at Paris, was estimated
+to have cost 15,000 francs. Abbe reported in 1894 that the instruments
+were long kept in the apparatus room "as a fascinating show to visitors
+and a stimulation to the staff in the invention of other
+instruments."[31]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Draper's mechanical registering barometer,
+as used in the Lick Observatory. (Photo courtesy Lick Observatory.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Hough's electromechanical registering
+barometer, about 1871.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--Fuess' "balance barometer after Samuel
+Morland," 1880. Wren probably was the originator of this type of
+instrument. (From Loewenherz, _op. cit._ footnote 28.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Marvin's mechanical registering barometer,
+1905. This instrument was formerly in the U.S. Weather Bureau. (_USNM
+316500_; _Smithsonian photo 46740-E_.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--"Steelyard barometer" as shown in Charles
+Hutton's _Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary_ (London, 1796, vol.
+1, p. 188). Hutton makes no reference to the originator of this
+instrument; he attributes the "Diagonal" (or inclined) barometer to
+Samuel Morland.]
+
+From 1875 the question was no longer one of the introduction of
+self-registering instruments to major observatories but their complete
+mechanization and the extension of registration to substations. Having
+accepted self-registration, meteorologists turned their attention to the
+simplification of instruments. In 1904 Charles Marvin, of what is now
+the U.S. Weather Bureau, brought the self-registering barometer into
+something of a full circle by producing an instrument (fig. 14) that was
+nothing more than Hooke's wheel barometer directly adapted to
+recording.[32] But this process of simplification had been accomplished
+at a stroke, about 1880, with the introduction by the Parisian
+instrument-maker Jules Richard of a self-registering barometer and a
+thermometer combining the simplest form of instrument with the simplest
+form of registration (see fig. 16). This innovation, which fixed the
+form of the conventional registering instrument until the advent of the
+radiosonde, seems to have stemmed from a source quite outside
+meteorology--the technology of the steam gauge. Richard's thermometric
+element was the curved metal tube of elliptical cross-section that
+Bourdon had developed several decades earlier as a steam gauge. Pressure
+within such a tube causes it to straighten, and thus to move a pointer
+attached to one end. Bourdon had opened it to the steam source. Richard
+filled it with alcohol, closed it, and found that the expansion of the
+alcohol on heating caused a similar straightening. His barometric
+element was a type of aneroid, which Hipp had already used but which
+Richard may have also adopted from a type of steam gauge. For a
+recording mechanism, Richard was able to use a simple direct lever
+connection, as the forces involved in his instruments, being
+concentrated, were not greatly hampered by friction.[33] By 1900 these
+simple and inexpensive instruments had relegated to the scrap pile,
+unfortunately literally, the elegant products of the mass attack of
+observatory directors in the 1860's on the problem of the
+self-registering thermometer and barometer.[34]
+
+
+
+
+Conclusions
+
+
+In view of the rarity of special studies on the history of
+meteorological instruments, it is impossible to claim that this brief
+review has neglected no important instruments, and conclusions as to the
+lineage of the late 19th century instruments can only be tentatively
+drawn. The conclusion is inescapable, however, that the majority of the
+instruments upon which the self-registering systems of the late 19th
+century were based had been proposed and, in most cases, actually
+constructed in the 17th century. It is also evident that in the 17th
+century at least one attempt was made at a system as comprehensive as
+any accomplished in the 19th century.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--Richard's registering aneroid barometer, an
+instrument used at the U.S. Weather Bureau about 1888. The Richard
+registering thermometer is similar, the aneroid being replaced by an
+alcohol-filled Bourdon tube. (_USNM 252981; Smithsonian photo
+46740-C_.)]
+
+To attribute the success of self-registering instruments in the late
+19th century to the unquestionable improvements in the techniques of the
+instrument-maker is to beg the question, for it is by no means clear
+that the techniques of the 17th-century instrument-maker were unequal to
+the task. It should also be noted that the photographic and
+electromagnetic systems of the 19th century seem to have been something
+of an interlude, for some of the latest and most durable (all of
+Draper's and Richard's instruments and Marvin's barograph) were purely
+mechanical instruments, as had been those of Hooke and Wren. If we
+conclude that the 19th-century instruments were more accurate, we should
+also recall Forbes' comments upon the question of instrumental accuracy.
+
+What, then, was the essential difference between the 17th and 19th
+centuries that made possible the development of the self-registering
+observatory? It would appear to have been a difference of degree--the
+maturation in the 19th century of certain features of the 17th. The
+most important of these features were the spread throughout the western
+world of the spirit that had animated the scientific societies of
+Florence and London, the continued popularity of the astronomical
+observatory as an object of the philanthropy of an affluent society, and
+the continued existence of the nonspecialized scientist. Under these
+circumstances such nonmeteorologists as Wheatstone, Henry, Hough, Wild,
+and Secci had the temerity to range over the whole of the not yet
+compartmented branches of science and technology, fully confident that
+they were capable of finding thereby a solution to any problem important
+enough to warrant their attention.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] On early meteorological instruments see A. Wolf, _A History of
+Science, Technology and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries_, New York, 1935, and E. Gerland and F. Traumueller,
+_Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst_, Leipzig, 1899. On
+the recognition of the meteorological significance of the barometer by
+Torricelli and its meteorological use in 1649 see K. Schneider-Carius,
+_Wetterkunde Wetterforschung_, Freiburg and Munich, 1955, pp. 62, 71.
+
+[2] Bacon's book emphasizes "direct" and "indirect" experiments, and
+calls for the systematization of observation, but it does not mention
+instruments. It is reprinted in Basil Montagu's _The Works of Francis
+Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England,_ London, 1825, vols. 10 and 14.
+
+[3] Wolf, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), pp. 312, 316-320. The interest of the
+Royal Society in the barometer seems to have been initiated by
+Descartes' theory that the instrument's variation was caused by the
+pressure of the moon.
+
+[4] _On early meteorology in the United States see the report of Joseph
+Henry in Report of the Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, for the
+Year 1855_, 1856, p. 357ff.; also, _Army Meteorological Register for
+Twelve Years, 1843-1854_, 1855, introduction.
+
+[5] J. D. Forbes, "Report upon the Recent Progress and Present State of
+Meteorology," _Report of the First and Second Meetings of the British
+Association for the Advancement of Science, 1831 and 1832_, 1833, pp.
+196-197.
+
+[6] On the instruments used at Mannheim see Gerland and Traumueller, _op.
+cit._ footnote 1, p. 349ff. The Princeton physicist Arnold Guyot
+prepared a set of instructions for observers that was published in
+_Tenth Annual Report ... of the Smithsonian Institution_, 1856, p.
+215ff. It appears from the _Annual Report of the British Association for
+the Advance of Science_ in the 1830's that the instruments used in
+England were nearly the same as those later adopted by the Smithsonian,
+although British observatories were beginning to experiment with the
+self-registering anemometer at that time. A typical set of the
+Smithsonian instruments is shown in figure 1.
+
+[7] H. Alan Lloyd, "Horology and Meteorology," _Journal Suisse
+d'Horlogerie_, November-December, 1953, nos. 11, 12, p. 372, fig. 1.
+
+[8] R. T. Gunther, _Early Science in Oxford_, vol. 6, _The Life and Work
+of Robert Hooke_, pt. 1, Oxford, 1930, p. 196. In 1670, Hooke's proposed
+clock was referred to as "such a one, as Dr. Wren had formerly
+contrived" (Gunther, p. 365).
+
+[9] William Derham, _Philosophical Experiments and Observations of ...
+Dr. Robert Hooke_, London, 1726, pp. 41-42 (reprinted in Gunther, _op.
+cit._ footnote 8, vol. 7, pp. 519-520). This description, dated December
+5, 1678, predates the Royal Society's request for a description
+(Gunther, _op. cit._ footnote 8, p. 656) by four months, but the Society
+no longer has any description of the clock. As to the actual completion
+of the clock, the president of the Society visited "Mr. Hooke's turret"
+to see it in January of 1678/79 but it was not reported "ready to be
+shown" until the following May (Gunther, pp. 506, 518).
+
+[10] Wren's clock and its wind vane and anemometer, thermometer,
+barometer, and rain gauge are described by T. Sprat, _The History of the
+Royal Society..._, London, 1667, pp. 312-313. On the balance-barometer,
+see also footnote 28, below, and figure 4.
+
+[11] Since the above was written, additional information on this clock
+has been published by H. E. Hoff and L. A. Geddes, "Graphic Recording
+before Carl Ludwig: An Historical Summary," _Archives Internationales
+d'Histoire des Sciences_, 1959, vol. 12, pp. 1-25. Hoff and Geddes call
+attention to a report on the clock by Monconys, who saw the instrument
+in 1663 and published a brief description and crude sketch (Balthasar
+Monconys, _Les Voyages de Balthasar de Monconys; Documents pour
+l'Histoire de la Science, avec une Introduction par M. Charles Henry_,
+Paris, 1887). Monconys says that the thermometer "causes a tablet to
+rise and fall while a pencil bears against it." The instrument shown in
+his sketch resembles a Galilean thermoscope.
+
+[12] Hooke's "oat-beard hygrometer" was described in 1667, but
+Torricelli seems to have invented the same thing in 1646, according to
+E. Gerland, "Historical Sketch of Instrumental Meteorology," in "Report
+of the International Meteorological Congress Held at Chicago, Ill.,
+August 21-24, 1893," O. L. Fassig, ed., _U.S. Weather Bureau Bulletin
+No. 11_, pt. 3, 1896, pp. 687-699.
+
+[13] But a Dutch patent was awarded to one William Douglas in 1627 for
+the determination of wind pressure (G. Doorman, _Patents for Inventions
+in the Netherlands during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_, The Hague,
+1942, p. 127), and Leonardo da Vinci left a sketch of both a wind
+pressure meter and a hygrometer (_Codex Atlanticus_, 249 va and 8 vb).
+
+[14] Gunther, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), pp. 433, 502.
+
+[15] Battista della Valle, _Vallo Libro Continente Appertiniente ad
+Capitanii, Retenere and Fortificare una Citta..._, Venetia, 1523
+(reported under the date 1524 in G. H. Baillie, _Clocks and Watches, an
+Historical Bibliography_, London, 1951).
+
+[16] Dolland's instrument, called an "atmospheric recorder," is
+described in the _Official, Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue to the
+Great Exhibition, 1851,_ London, 1851, pt. 2, pp. 414-415. As the George
+Dolland who joined the famous Dolland firm in 1804 would have been about
+80 years of age in 1850, the George Dolland who exhibited this
+instrument may have been a younger relative.
+
+[17] The Osler anemometer and most of the other self-registering
+instruments mentioned in this paper are described and illustrated in C.
+Abbe, "Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods," _Annual Report
+of the Chief Signal Officer for 1887_, Washington, 1888. The use of the
+Osler instrument at the British Association's observatory at Plymouth is
+mentioned in the Association's annual reports from 1838. There were a
+number of earlier self-registering anemometers, but no evidence of their
+extended use. See J. K. Laughton, "Historical Sketch of Anemometry and
+Anemometers," _Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society_,
+1882, vol. 8, pp. 161-188.
+
+[18] On Ronalds' work see reports of the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science, from 1846 to 1850. On Brooke's work see
+_Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, 1847, vol.
+137, pp. 59-68.
+
+[19] C. Abbe, "The Meteorological Work of the U.S. Signal Service, 1870
+to 1871," in Fassig, _op. cit._ (footnote 12), pt. 2, 1895, p. 263.
+
+[20] _Annual Report of the Director of the Meteorological Observatory_,
+Central Park, New York, 1871, p. 1ff.
+
+[21] _Oesterreichische Gesellschaft fuer Meteorologie, Zeitschrift_,
+1871, vol. 6, pp. 104, 117.
+
+[22] P. H. Carl, _Repertorium fuer physikalische Technik_, Munich, 1867,
+p. 162ff.
+
+[23] E. Lacroix, _Etudes sur l'Exposition de 1867_, Paris, 1867, vol. 2,
+p. 313ff. See also, Reports of the U.S. Commissioners to the Paris
+Universal Exposition, 1867, vol. 3, Washington, 1870, p. 570ff.
+
+[24] _Annals of the Dudley Observatory_, 1871, vol. 2, p. vii ff.
+
+[25] Karl Kreil, _Entwurf eines meteorologischen Beobachtungs-Systems
+fuer die oesterreichische Monarchie_, Vienna, 1850.
+
+[26] _Report of the 13th Meeting of the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science_, 1843, 1844, p. xi ff. I have found no other
+reference to this instrument. Considerable attention was given to the
+thermometer, however, for Wheatstone proposed to send it aloft in a
+balloon for the measurement of temperatures at high altitudes. A small
+clock caused a vertical rack to ascend and descend once in six minutes.
+The rack carried a platinum wire which moved within the thermometer over
+28 degrees. From a galvanic battery and a galvanometer on the ground two
+insulated copper wires were to extend to the balloon, one connected to
+the mercury and the other to the clock frame. The deflection of the
+galvanometer was to be timed with a second clock on the ground.
+(Professor Wheatstone, "Report on the Electro-Magnetic Meteorological
+Register," _Mechanics' Magazine_, London, 1843, vol. 39, p. 204).
+
+[27] In 1662 Hooke had proposed the use of a bimetallic pendulum for the
+temperature compensation of clocks. Thermometers on this principle were
+described to the Royal Society in 1748 and in 1760 (_Philosophical
+Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, 1748, vol. 45, p. 128;
+1760, vol. 51, p. 823). Some systems used a bimetallic thermometer in
+the sun and a mercurial instrument in the shade.
+
+[28] This instrument has been persistently associated with Sir Samuel
+Morland (1625-1695). For example, A. Sprung of the Deutsche Seewarte
+described his own balance-barometer as a "Wagebarograph nach Samuel
+Morland" (in L. Loewenherz, _Bericht ueber die wissenschaftlichen
+Instrumente auf der Berliner Gewerbeausstellung im Jahre 1879_, Berlin,
+1880, p. 230ff). Sprat (_op. cit._ footnote 10, p. 313) reported that
+Wren had proposed "balances to shew the weight of the air by their
+spontaneous inclination." This must, therefore, be Wren's invention,
+unless he got it from Morland, who does not seem to have published
+anything about the barometer but only to have described some ideas to a
+friend. But Morland's was probably the _inclined_ and not the _balance_
+barometer. (See under "barometer" in Charles Hutton, _Mathematical and
+Philosophical Dictionary_, London, 1796, vol. 1; also J. K. Fischer,
+_Physikalisches Woerterbuch, Goettingen_, 1798).
+
+[29] Leibniz, in several letters--beginning with one to Denys Papin on
+June 21, 1697--proposed the making of a barometer on the model of a
+bellows. Of subsequent versions of such a barometer, that of Vidi
+(described by Poggendorff, _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1848, Band
+73, p. 620) is generally regarded as the first practical aneroid (see
+also Gerland and Traumueller, _op. cit._ footnote 1, pp. 239, 323).
+
+[30] T. R. Robinson, "Modification of Dr. Whewell's Anemometer for
+Measuring the Velocity of the Wind," _Report of the 16th Meeting of the
+British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1846_, 1847, pt. 2,
+p. 111.
+
+[31] Abbe, _op. cit._ (footnote 19), pp. 263-264.
+
+[32] Because of its superior accuracy to the aneroid barograph, Marvin's
+barometer was in use through the 1940's. See R. N. Covert,
+"Meteorological Instruments and Apparatus Employed by the United States
+Weather Bureau," _Journal of the Optical Society of America_, 1925, vol.
+10, p. 322.
+
+[33] Both of Richard's instruments (described in _Bulletin Mensuel de la
+Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_, November 1882, ser.
+3, vol. 9, pp. 531-543) were in use at Kew by 1885 and at the U.S.
+Weather Bureau by 1888. The firm of Richard Freres claimed in 1889 to
+have made 7,000 registering instruments, of which the majority were
+probably thermographs and barographs. At that time, certainly no other
+maker had made more than a small fraction of this number of
+self-registering instruments. The origin of Richard's thermograph seems
+to have been the "elastic manometer" described by E. Bourdon in 1851
+(_Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale_,
+1851, no. 562, p. 197). While attempting to restore a flattened
+still-pipe, Bourdon had discovered the property of tubes to change shape
+under fluid pressure. The instrument he developed in consequence became
+the standard steam pressure gauge.
+
+[34] A few of these instruments, such as the Marvin barograph, survived
+for some time because of their superior accuracy. Even as museum pieces,
+only a few exist today.
+
+
+
+
+U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1961.
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office, Washington 25, D.C. - Price 25 cents
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+
+Minor errors in punctuation have been corrected without note. The
+following typographical errors in the original have been corrected:
+
+P. 110: 'a panopoly of gadgetry': corrected to panoply
+P. 113, caption to Figure 13: 'Feuss': corrected to Fuess
+Footnote 28: 'Gewerbeaustellung': corrected to Gewerbeausstellung
+Footnote 28: 'Physikalisches Worterbuch': corrected to Woerterbuch
+Footnote 29: 'see also Gerland and Trauemuller': corrected to Traumueller
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Introduction of Self-Registering
+Meteorological Instruments, by Robert P. Multhauf
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SELF-REG. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
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