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diff --git a/32472.txt b/32472.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..586b463 --- /dev/null +++ b/32472.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1687 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food in War Time, by Graham Lusk + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food in War Time + +Author: Graham Lusk + +Release Date: May 21, 2010 [EBook #32472] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD IN WAR TIME *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Roch, S.D., and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature +in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + +---------- + +Transcriber's Note: + +In the plain-text versions, italics are represented with _underscores_, +and bold text with {braces}. + +For the ASCII version, the following substitutions were made: deg. for +degree symbol, +/- for the plus-minus sign, x for the multiplication +sign, and a for a-umlaut. + +The following corrections were made to the text: Du Bois to DuBois (p. +45, Index entry) and Oleomargarin to Oleomargarine (p. 46, Index entry). + +The variant spelling "calory" (p. 32) has been retained. + +---------- + + + + + FOOD IN WAR TIME + + _By_ + GRAHAM LUSK + + PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY MEDICAL COLLEGE IN + NEW YORK CITY + + PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON + W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY + 1918 + + + Copyright, 1918 + by + W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY + + *** + + PRINTED IN AMERICA + + + DEDICATED + TO MY + FELLOW-COUNTRYMEN + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + I. A BALANCED DIET 7 + + II. CALORIES IN COMMON LIFE 23 + + III. RULES OF SAVING AND SAFETY 43 + + INDEX 45 + + +NOTE + +The major parts of this small volume appeared under articles entitled +"Food in War Time" in the _Scientific Monthly_ and "Calories in Common +Life" in Saunders' _Medical Clinics of North America_. + + + + +FOOD IN WAR TIME + +I + +A BALANCED DIET + + +There is no doubt that under the conditions existing before the war the +American people lived in a higher degree of comfort than that enjoyed in +Europe. Hard times in America have always been better times than the +best times in Europe. As a student in Munich in 1890 I remember paying +three dollars a month for my room, five cents daily for my breakfast, +consisting of coffee and a roll without butter, and thirty-five cents +for a four-course dinner at a fashionable restaurant. This does not +sound extravagant, but it represents luxury when compared with the diet +of the poorest Italian peasants of southern Italy. Two Italian +scientists describe how this class of people live mainly on cornmeal, +olive oil, and green stuffs and have done so for generations. There is +no milk, cheese, or eggs in their dietary. Meat in the form of fat pork +is taken three or four times a year. Cornmeal is taken as "polenta," or +is mixed with beans and oil, or is made into corn bread. Cabbage or the +leaves of beets are boiled in water and then eaten with oil flavored +with garlic or Spanish pepper. One of the families investigated +consisted of eight individuals, of whom two were children. The annual +income was 424 francs, or $84. Of this, three cents per day per adult +was spent for food and the remaining three-fifths of a cent was spent +for other purposes. Little wonder that such people have migrated to +America, but it may strike some as astonishing that a race so nourished +should have become the man power in the construction of our railways, +our subways, and our great buildings. + +Dr. McCollum will tell you that the secret of it all lies in the green +leaves. The quality of the protein in corn is poor, but the protein in +the leaves supplements that of corn, so that a good result is obtained. +Olive oil when taken alone is a poor fat in a nutritive sense, but when +taken with green leaves, these furnish that one of the peculiar +accessory substances, commonly known as vitamines, which is present most +abundantly in butter-fat, and gives to butter-fat and to the fat in +whole milk its dominant nutritive value. The green leaves likewise +furnish another accessory substance, also present in milk, a substance +which is soluble in water and which is necessary for normal life. +Furthermore, the green leaves contain mineral matter in considerable +quantity and in about the same proportions as they exist in milk. + +Here then is the message of economy in diet, corn the cheapest of all +the cereals, a vegetable oil cheaper by far than animal fat, which two +materials taken together would bring disaster upon the human race, but +if taken with the addition of cabbage or beet-tops they become capable +of maintaining mankind from generation to generation. One can safely +refer to such a diet as a balanced diet. Just as in the case of the +modern experimental biological analysis of a balanced ration in which +such a ration is given to rats and its efficiency as a diet is tested by +its capacity to support normal growth and reproduction of the species, +so here the experimental evidence is presented that corn and olive oil +may become a sustaining diet when green leaves are a supplementary +factor. + +This preliminary sketch shows several important fundamentals of food and +nutrition. If one gives an animal a mixture of purified food-stuffs, +pure protein, pure starch, purified fat, and a mixture of salts like the +salts of milk, the animal will surely die. But if one substitutes +butter-fat for purified fat, and adds a water solution of the natural +salts of milk, the animal lives and thrives. + +Again, the illustration shows how corn may be so supplemented with +other food-stuffs as to become extremely valuable in nutrition. It is +especially valuable at the present time because corn is comparatively +cheap and plentiful. But one asks how about pellagra? It must be here +definitely stated that the use of cornmeal is not the cause of pellagra, +provided the right kind of other foods be taken with it. Pellagra occurs +in the "corn belt" of the United States, and especially among the poorer +classes in the south. The disease has developed since the introduction +in 1880 of highly perfected milling machinery which furnishes corn and +wheat completely freed from their outer coverings. In Italy, where the +milling of corn is still primitive, pellagra is not so severe as with +us, because the corn offal is not completely removed and this contains +the accessory food substances or vitamines which are essential to life. +Pellagra is generally believed to be produced by a too exclusive use of +highly milled corn and wheat flour in association with salt meats and +canned goods, all of which are deficient in vitamines. The administration +of fresh milk is naturally indicated. Goldberger states that after the +addition of milk to the diet of a pellagrin, the typical clinical +picture of pellagra no longer persists. The poor in the mill towns of +the South lived too exclusively upon a corn diet without admixture of +milk or fresh animal food or even of cabbage, and pellagra has been the +consequence. + +The Food Administrator asks us to eat corn bread and save the wheat for +export. It is a very small sacrifice to eat corn bread at one meal or +more a day. Indian corn saved our New England ancestors from starvation, +and we can in part substitute it for our wheat and send the latter +abroad to spare others from starvation. The simplest elements of +patriotism demand that we do this. Therefore let us cry, "Eat corn bread +and save the wheat for France, the home of Lafayette!" + +The United States Department of Agriculture has estimated that only 6.6 +per cent. of our corn crop is used for human food, and of this, 3.4 per +cent. is consumed by the farmers and their families. + +The substitution of foods is no new thing. We find that an English +contemporary author thus described the food habits of the English people +during the "golden days of Good Queen Bess," three hundred and fifty +years ago: + + "The gentilitie commonly provide themselves sufficiently of + wheat for their own tables, whylest their household and poore + neighbours in some shires are forced to content themselves + with rye or barleie; yea and in time of dearth many with bread + made eyther of beanes, peason[1] or otes, or of altogether and + some acornes among." + +[1] An obsolete plural of pease. + +A difference between those days and ours is that the "gentilitie" and +the "poore neighbours" are now asked to unite in reducing the +consumption of wheat and to do this for the safety and welfare of all +mankind. + +Another point in war economy is the use of whole milk in greater +quantity, and the diminution of the use of butter and cream. Cream is +bought only by the wealthy, but in sufficient volume to largely reduce +the amount of whole milk available. In Germany before the war 15 per +cent. of the milk supply of that country was used for the production of +cream. The consequent restriction of the milk supply was distinctly to +the detriment of the health of the peasant farmers of Bavaria. Regarding +the use of butter, a Swiss professor, himself an expert in nutrition, +complains that whereas in his youth children were never given butter on +their bread for breakfast, not even when there was no jam in the house, +yet to-day absence of butter from the table is held to be indicative of +direst poverty. + +If one takes a pint of whole milk daily, or even, as we have seen, +cabbage or beet-tops in its stead, one may take fat in the forms of +olive oil or cottonseed oil, corn oil, cocoanut oil, peanut butter, or +in other vegetable oils, without possible prejudice to health. + +Osborne and Mendel, and more recently Halliburton, have pointed out that +oleomargarine as prepared from beef-fat contains the fat-soluble +growth-promoting accessory substance or vitamine which is present in +butter-fat, but which is not contained in vegetable oils or in lard. + +Halliburton and Drummond summarize the practical results of their work +as follows: + + But when we approach the subject of the dietary of the poorer + classes, the question is a more serious one. In ordinary times + the consumption of beef dripping, which is considerable among + the poor, would to a large extent supply the lacking + properties of a vegetable-oil margarine. But at the present + time beef itself is expensive, and the opportunities of + obtaining dripping are therefore minimized. At the same time + the three important foods for children already enumerated + (milk, butter, eggs) have risen in cost, so as to be almost + prohibitive to those with slender incomes. The vegetable-oil + margarines still remain comparatively cheap, and the danger is + that unless measures are taken to insure a proper milk supply + for infants at a reasonable charge, these infants may run the + risk of being fed, so far as fat is concerned, entirely upon + an inferior brand of margarine, destitute of the + growth-promoting accessory substance. It would be truer + economy even for the poor to purchase smaller quantities of an + oleo-oil margarine if they cannot afford the luxury of real + butter. + +The legal restrictions placed upon the sale of oleomargarine and the +taxes enhancing its cost, now in operation in many of our states, are +without warrant in morals or common sense and should be entirely +abolished in times like these. A well-made brand of oleomargarine is +much more palatable than butter of the second grade, and certainly for +cooking purposes is just as valuable. + +Whole milk contains everything necessary for growth and maintenance, +protein, fat, milk-sugar, salts, water, and the unknown but invaluable +accessory substances. It is of such prime importance that each family +should have this admirable food that I have suggested that no family of +five should ever buy meat until they have bought three quarts of milk. +The insistence by scientific men upon the prime importance of milk has +probably had something to do with its rapid enhancement in price. This +latter factor is greatly to be regretted. I have often wondered why it +was that a quart bottle of a fancy brand of milk in New York should cost +about as much as a quart of _vin ordinaire_ on the streets of Paris, and +a quart bottle of cream as much as a quart of good champagne in Paris. +Despite much denial it appears to me that milk is not sold as cheaply as +it ought to be. Everything should be done to conserve our herds of cows +for the increased supply of whole milk and incidentally for the +manufacture of cheese and of milk powder or of condensed milk. + +If one takes milk with other foods, meat may be dispensed with. Thus +Hindhede advocates as ideal a diet consisting of bread, potatoes, fruit, +and a pint of milk. Splendid health, both of body and mind, the +peasants' comparative immunity to indigestion, kidney and liver disease, +as well as an absolute immunity to gout, is the alluring prospect held +out by the following dietary: + + Graham bread 1 pound + Potatoes 2 pounds + Vegetable fat 1/2 pound + Apples 1-1/2 pounds + Milk 1 pint + +This bread-potato-fruit diet gives a very excellent basis of wholesome +nutrition. The potatoes yield an alkaline ash which has a highly solvent +power over uric acid, and, therefore, a good supply of these valuable +tubers is needed by the nation. + +To most Americans the dietary factors here described will appear to be +merely attenuated hypotheses, fit only for philosophic contemplation. +For, in real life, it is the roast beef of Old England, or some other +famed equivalent, that makes its appeal. Far be it from me to disparage +the feast following a hunt of the wild boar or other feasts famed in +song and story, but that is not the question. The question is, is meat +necessary? The description of the Italian dietary answers this in the +negative. + +But is meat desirable? The Italian experimenters believed that the +addition of four or eight ounces of meat to the dietaries of some of +their subjects increased their physical and also their mental powers. +The increase in mental power due to change in diet has always seemed to +me to be a figment of the imagination and not susceptible of +demonstration. Thomas lived for twenty-four days on a diet of starch and +cream, during four days of which time the very small quantity of three +ounces of meat was taken daily, and he found his mental and muscular +power unchanged. + +A remarkable experiment on the effect of a potato diet has been +reported by Hindhede. An individual partook of a diet of between four +and one-half and nine pounds of potatoes daily, with some vegetable +margarine, during a period of nearly three hundred days. The rule was to +eat only when hungry and then the potatoes could be taken at the rate of +an ounce a minute. During the last three months (ninety-five days) of +the experiment severe mechanical work was performed and the total food +intake for the latter period amounted to 770 pounds of potatoes and 48 +pounds of margarine. What could be more simple than stocking the cellar +with coal, potatoes, and a tub of margarine! Who then would worry about +the complexities of modern life? + +Of course, vegetarianism is no new thing. Its principal exponent was +Sylvester Graham. It so happens that he was the brother of my great +grandmother, and of him my father wrote in 1861, "long lanky Sylvester +Vegetable Graham, leanest of men." Graham in 1829 began the advocacy of +moderation in the use of a diet consisting of vegetables, Graham bread, +fruits, nuts, salts and pure water, and excluding meat, sauces, salads, +tea, coffee, alcohol, pepper, and mustard. The first effect of this +diet, which largely eliminated the flavors, was to reduce the weight +through lowering the intake of food, but the health of many followers of +the diet appears to have been benefited. The "Graham System" of dieting +suffered from withering criticism at the time. He published in 1837 a +little book entitled, "Bread and Bread Making," bearing on its cover the +scriptural quotation "Bread strengtheneth man's heart." He says in this +volume: + + But while the people of our country are entirely given up as + they are at present, to gross and promiscuous feeding on the + dead carcasses of animals and to the untiring pursuit of + wealth, it is perhaps wholly vain for a single individual to + raise his voice on a subject of this kind. + +The well-known work of Chittenden has shown that when the protein +intake is reduced by one half or less of that which the average American +appetite suggests, professional men, soldiers and athletes may be +maintained in the best physical condition. One of Yale's champion +intercollegiate athletes won all the events of the year in which he was +entered while living on a reduced protein or Chittenden diet. Upon such +a diet, or less than that, the people of Germany are now living to-day. +The principle involves eating meat very sparingly, taking half a piece +where one would have formerly been taken, and using it only for its +flavor. The wing of a chicken has little meat on it and yet if eaten +together with vegetables it gives the meal a different quality than it +would have had without it, and to this extent its use is warranted. The +muscles are active when hard labor is done, but the muscles do not need +meat for the performance of their work. A fasting man may have +considerable power. The popular idea of the necessity of meat for a +laboring man may be epitomized in the statement: a strong man can eat +more meat than a weak one, hence meat makes a man strong. The +proposition is evidently absurd. + +Not only is the taking of meat without beneficial relation to the +capacity for muscular work, but, in fact, an exclusive meat diet results +in the sensation that work is being accomplished with difficulty. When +meat is metabolized it stimulates the body to a higher heat production, +as great an increase as 55 per cent. having been observed in a resting +man. No other food-stuff will accomplish so great an increase. It is +especially worthy of note that this increase in the heat production, due +to the _specific dynamic action_ of protein, as it is called, cannot be +utilized in the execution of mechanical work. When the organism of a +laborer at work in a hot environment is called upon to eliminate extra +heat, due to the work he is performing, he must also eliminate the quota +of heat which is derived from any large ingestion of meat. Hence, the +American farmer in the hot weather can eat little meat. + +So far as is known, taking meat even in large excess is not harmful, but +it represents luxury and waste. According to an oral statement by A. E. +Taylor, the results of many thousand urinary analyses in Germany during +the second year of the war showed about 7 grams of nitrogen excreted, +which would correspond to a dietary containing about 45 grams of +protein. As a matter of fact, this is the equivalent of the reduced +protein dietary of Chittenden, and it is reported that no ill effects +can be attributed to it. The flavor of meat is such that it lends itself +to the easy preparation of a palatable meal, but this flavor could +undoubtedly be as well obtained if the present consumption of meat were +cut in two. It is a question of habit, but with the present reduced +supply of meat one must adopt new habits. It would be highly desirable +if the grain now fed to fatten beef were given to maintain herds of +milch cows. + +Indulgence in meat is due to the desire for strong flavor. With the +increased distribution of wealth, the demand for meat grows. Its +consumption by all classes had vastly increased in all prosperous +countries prior to the war. It is well, however, to remember that its +use has been excessive and unnecessary, and its price can be cut by +wholesale voluntary abstinence. The British people have suffered no +hardship in the recent reduction of their meat ration. + +A British Commission has reported to Parliament that it takes three +times as much fodder to produce beef as it does to produce milk or pork +of the same food value. Since cows eat chiefly hay and grass and pigs +eat grain the cost of the production of a unit value of milk is much +less than the cost of the same value in the form of pork. It takes only +fifty per cent. more fodder to produce veal than to produce pork. Milk, +pork, and veal have long been the established protein-containing foods +of nations on the continent of Europe. According to these figures beef +should cost in the market twice what veal costs, and yet the butcher +charges nearly the same for the two. It would save food for milk +production if steers were eaten as veal and not fed up into beef cattle. +A suitable tax on all steers over a year old would accomplish this +result. If all heifers were developed into milch cows and no cow capable +of giving milk in quantity were slaughtered, the country would be placed +on a much better basis than at present. It might make beef expensive, +but there is every reason why it should be expensive. It would increase +the dairy business, which is evidently a need of the times, something +for the protection of the welfare of mankind. For it must be remembered +that a well-nourished cow during a single year will give in the form of +milk as much protein and two and a half times the number of calories as +are contained in her own body. + +This was written before the publication of the following words of +Armsby, the foremost authority on animal nutrition:[2] + + Roast pig, to those who like it, is not only a delicacy but a + valuable article of diet, but nevertheless, it is possible to + pay too high a price for it, and while a proposal to restrict + rather than to promote meat production in the present crisis + may appear both irrational and unpatriotic it may nevertheless + be in the interest of true food economy.... + + It may be roughly estimated that about 24 per cent. of the + energy of grain is recovered for human consumption in pork, + about 18 per cent. in milk and only about 3.5 per cent. in + beef and mutton. In other words, the farmer who feeds bread + grains to his stock is burning up 75 to 97 per cent. of them + in order to produce for us a small residue of roast pig, and + so is diminishing the total stock of human food.... + + The task of the stock feeder must be to utilize through his + skill and knowledge the inedible products of the farm and + factory, such as hay, corn stalks, straw, bran, brewers' and + distillers' grains, gluten feed, and the like, and to make at + least a fraction of them available for man's use. In so doing + he will be really adding to the food supply and will be + rendering a great public service. Rather than seek to + stimulate live stock husbandry the ideal should be to adjust + it to the limits set by the available supply of forage crops + and by-product feeding stuffs while, on the other hand, + utilizing these to the greatest practicable extent, because in + this way we save some of what would otherwise be a total + loss.... + + The hog is the great competitor of man for the higher grades + of food, and in swine husbandry as ordinarily conducted we are + in danger of paying too much for our roast pig. Cattle and + sheep, on the other hand, although less efficient as + converters, can utilize products which man can not use and + save some of their potential value as human food. From this + point of view, as well as on account of the importance of milk + to infants and invalids, the high economy of food production + by the dairy cow deserves careful consideration, although of + course the large labor requirement is a counterbalancing + factor. + + At any rate, it is clear that at the present time enthusiastic + but ill-considered "booming" of live stock production may do + more harm than good. If it is desirable to restrict or + prohibit the production of alcohol from grain or potatoes on + the ground that it involves a waste of food value, the same + reason calls for restriction of the burning-up of these + materials to produce roast pig. This means, of course, a + limited meat supply. To some of us this may seem a hardship. + Meat, however, is by no means the essential that we have been + wont to suppose and partial deprivation of it is not + inconsistent with high bodily efficiency. Certainly no + patriotic citizen would wish to insist on his customary + allowance of roast pig at the cost of the food supply of his + brothers in the trenches. + +[2] "Roast Pig," _Science_, 1917, xlvi, 160. + +The United States Department of Agriculture has estimated that a pig +that has reached the weight of 150 pounds should be slaughtered, because +beyond that weight the cost of the quantity of feed required to maintain +the animal is out of proportion to the gain in food value of the pig. +One might, therefore, call a pig weighing 150 pounds a _maximal economic +hog_. + + + + +II + +CALORIES IN COMMON LIFE + + +A person is properly nourished who receives adequate energy in the form +of carbohydrate and fat (and incidentally protein); adequate material +for repair of wornout parts, such as protein and mineral salts; and the +diet must contain certain accessory food substances known as food +hormones or "vitamins." Also, it must contain water. But this is not +all, for the food offered must be acceptable to the palate of the +individual. A member of the French Scientific Commission which visited +the United States in the summer of 1917, when questioned regarding the +use of corn bread in France, replied "on ne peut pas changer des +habitudes." The proper nutrition of an individual depends, therefore, +not only upon a sufficient supply of food from a mechanistic standpoint, +but also upon the reasonable satisfaction of the sense of appetite. +These dual fundamentals of proper nutrition should be ever borne in +mind. + +Heat from the sun enters into the composition of the food substances +when they are being built up in the plants, and this energy, which is +latent in the food, is set free in the animal body and is used as the +source of power behind all the physical activities of the body. The +energy can all be recovered as heat and measured in the form of +calories. According to the principles of the law of the conservation of +energy, heat is not destructible. The understanding of the value of a +calorie is indispensable for the comprehension of nutrition. A calorie +is the measure of a unit of heat, or the quantity of heat necessary to +raise a liter of water from 0 deg. to 1 deg. Centigrade. Apparatus has +been invented for measuring the heat production of a man, an apparatus +which is called a calorimeter or a measurer of calories. If one puts a +man weighing, say, 156 pounds in the box of such an apparatus, so that +he lies comfortably on a bed in complete muscular relaxation, and before +his breakfast, one finds that he produces 70 calories an hour. Only in +certain types of disease is there any variation from this normal, though +of course the weight of the man makes a difference in his requirement +for energy. If, at the same time the subject is in the box, the quantity +of oxygen which he absorbs is measured and if certain other chemical +analyses be carried out, one can calculate the exact amounts of protein, +fat, and sugar which have been oxidized by this oxygen. Now, if one +calculates how much heat ought to have been set free from the oxidation +of these quantities of protein fat and carbohydrate, it is discovered +that the heat which ought to have been produced is exactly that quantity +which was measured as having been produced by the man. This measurement +represents the _basal metabolism_ of a man at complete rest, when his +oxidative activities are at their lowest ebb. + +The basal metabolism as measured by 70 calories per hour in the case of +this individual represents the sum of the fuel needed--(1) to maintain +the beating of the heart, which every minute of a man's life moves the +blood or one-twentieth part of the weight of the body, in a circle +through the blood-vessels; (2) to maintain the muscles of respiration +that the blood may be purified in the lungs; (3) to maintain the body +temperature at that constant level which is so characteristic that a +slight variation signifies illness, and (4) to maintain in the living +state the numerous tissues of the body. Any extraneous muscular +movements are carried out in virtue of an increased oxidation of +materials and the heat production rises above the level of the basal +metabolism with increased muscular effort. For a long time the power for +the maintenance of the human machine can be furnished by its own body +fat, as is seen in cases of prolonged fasting, but usually the power is +derived instead from the food-fuel which is taken. The great question in +the world to-day is whether or not a sufficient quantity of food-fuel is +available to support the human family. The question of calories is not +an academic one, but an intensely practical one. + +Science strives to express itself in mathematic terms, and this paper is +written with that end in view. + +Phenomena of life are phenomena of motion. These motions are maintained +at the expense of chemical energy liberated in the oxidative breakdown +of carbohydrate, fat, and protein. Furthermore, the protein structure of +the body cells and the salts of the bones and other tissues are in a +constant state of wearing down. The energy for the human machine and the +materials for its self-repair are taken in the form of food. The general +term _metabolism_ includes all the chemical activities which take place +under the influence of living cells. + +The total quantity of heat produced by the body is a measure of the +intensity of the oxidation of carbohydrate, fat, and protein within the +body. + +It is important to know definitely whether there is any constant measure +of the level of the basal metabolism in normal people, so that one may +determine in cases of disease whether the heat production is normal or +increased or decreased. + +Rubner discovered that the heat production of mammalia during rest was +the same per square meter of surface whether the being was a horse, a +man, a dog, or a mouse. The proposition has appeared so improbable as to +call forth much antagonism. DuBois deserves the credit of having +established this relationship for man beyond the possibility of a doubt. +He was able to do this on account of his discovery of a new and accurate +method of measuring the area of the body surface. It appears from his +work that the _basal metabolism_ for men between twenty and fifty years +old is approximately 40 calories per hour per square meter of body +surface, within a +/- error of 10 per cent. + +Boothby has found that the metabolism of patients who have recovered +their health after hospital operations and who have been confined in the +hospital between twenty and fifty days does not vary from the normal +standard of DuBois. + +It has been found by DuBois that the basal metabolism in boys of twelve +is 25 per cent. higher than for an adult of the same height and weight, +or {50} calories per square meter of body surface; and that in boys of +fifteen the metabolism is 11 per cent. higher than for the adult of the +same size and shape, or {44} calories per square meter of body surface +(unpublished work of DuBois). These results explain the large appetites +of boys. + +Women show a metabolism which is 7 per cent. lower than that of men, or +{37} calories per hour per square meter of surface. + +From the charts of the average heights and weights of men varying +between fifteen and fifty-five years old, given by American life +insurance companies, Mr. H. V. Atkinson, of my laboratory, has +calculated the basal metabolism in a table here presented. +Unfortunately, the weights given in these statistics include clothes +worn by the individuals. The calculated heat production, however, is in +each case based upon the weight without clothes. The table is computed +from the following values: + + Calories per + square meter + Age in years of surface + + 15 44 + 20-50 40 + 55 37 + +The table may also be used as follows: + + To find the metabolism of-- + + Women between twenty to fifty years, multiply values for man + by 0.93. + + Boys of twelve to thirteen years, multiply values for boys of + fifteen years by 1.10. + + +THE BASAL METABOLISM OF MEN + +_Calculated from values of the basal metabolism determined by the +methods of DuBois and applied to a table showing the average weights of +221,819 men of different ages and heights compiled from the statistics +of the medico-actuarial investigation of 1912._ + + ------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + Age. | | | | | | | | | + Heat per | 5 ft.| 5 ft.| 5 ft.| 5 ft.| 5 ft.| 5 ft.| 6 ft.| 6 ft.| 6 ft. + square meter| 0 in.| 2 in.| 4 in.| 6 in.| 8 in.|10 in.| 0 in.| 2 in.| 4 in. + of surface | | | | | | | | | + ------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + | Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs. + | Cals.| Cals.| Cals.| Cals.| Cals.| Cals.| Cals.| Cals.| Cals. + 15 years | 107 | 112 | 118 | 126 | 134 | 142 | 152 | 162 | 172 + 44 calories |{1510}|{1584}|{1658}|{1753}|{1837}|{1922}|{2006}|{2096}|{2186} + | | | | | | | | | + 20 years | 117 | 122 | 128 | 136 | 144 | 152 | 161 | 171 | 181 + 40 calories |{1430}|{1498}|{1565}|{1647}|{1719}|{1796}|{1868}|{1949}|{2035} + | | | | | | | | | + 25 years | 122 | 126 | 133 | 141 | 149 | 157 | 167 | 179 | 189 + 40 calories |{1459}|{1517}|{1594}|{1671}|{1738}|{1820}|{1896}|{1992}|{2083} + | | | | | | | | | + 30 years | 126 | 130 | 136 | 144 | 152 | 161 | 172 | 184 | 196 + 40 calories |{1478}|{1536}|{1604}|{1685}|{1757}|{1839}|{1920}|{2007}|{2112} + | | | | | | | | | + 35 years | 128 | 132 | 138 | 146 | 155 | 165 | 176 | 189 | 201 + 40 calories |{1488}|{1556}|{1613}|{1695}|{1767}|{1853}|{1939}|{2035}|{2136} + | | | | | | | | | + 40 years | 131 | 135 | 141 | 149 | 158 | 168 | 180 | 193 | 206 + 40 calories |{1498}|{1565}|{1623}|{1709}|{1781}|{1863}|{1959}|{2055}|{2160} + | | | | | | | | | + 45 years | 133 | 137 | 143 | 151 | 160 | 170 | 182 | 195 | 209 + 40 calories |{1507}|{1570}|{1632}|{1719}|{1791}|{1872}|{1968}|{2064}|{2169} + | | | | | | | | | + 50 years | 134 | 138 | 144 | 152 | 161 | 171 | 183 | 197 | 211 + 40 calories |{1517}|{1575}|{1642}|{1724}|{1796}|{1881}|{1973}|{2074}|{2184} + | | | | | | | | | + 55 years | 135 | 139 | 145 | 153 | 163 | 173 | 184 | 198 | 212 + 37 calories |{1449}|{1485}|{1548}|{1620}|{1692}|{1773}|{1854}|{1949}|{2052} + ------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + +The basal metabolism of an average boy of thirteen years of age +weighing 80 pounds and of a height of 4 feet, 10 inches, may be +calculated as 1525 calories per day. This is the same as that of a man +twenty-five years old, weighing 126 pounds and 5 feet, 2 inches tall. + +A boy thirteen years old and weighing 156 pounds, his height being 6 +feet, 1 inch (there are such cases), would have a basal metabolism of +2300 calories, or larger than that of any grown man given in the +table--larger than a man weighing 211 pounds and 6 feet, 4 inches in +height. I personally know a boy of this age and size. His parents are +said to have sent him to boarding school in order to reduce their food +bills. + +It is evident from this discussion that the food requirement of boys +over twelve years old is about the same as that of men. The emaciation +of the children of the poor probably reduces their requirement of food. +It is not generally recognized that the boy needs as much food as his +father. The requirements of girls have not been investigated, but they +probably need as much as their mothers. + +These data will give with close scientific precision the _minimal +requirement for energy_ which is necessary for the maintenance of the +bed-ridden. + +Ordinary life, however, is not constituted after this fashion. "By the +sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread." + +From the work of F. G. Benedict one may calculate the increase in the +basal metabolism, as follows: + + Increase in + the basal + metabolism + Occupation in per cent. + + Sitting 5 + Standing, relaxed 10 + Standing, hand on a staff 11 + Standing, leaning on support 3 + Standing, "attention" 14 + +If one wishes to determine from the basal metabolism table the heat +production of a person who is confined to his room, one should add to +the metabolism of the twenty-four hours the increase above the basal for +those hours of the day during which he is sitting in a chair or +standing. + +Passing to a consideration of the subject of mechanical work done by a +man, one finds that it requires about 1.1 calories to transport a pound +of body weight three miles during an hour, and that increasing power +must be generated if the speed is increased above this rate of _maximal +economic velocity_. + +These relations are shown below: + + Extra calories + per hour required + to move 1 pound + Rate of movement of body + + Walking 3 miles per hour 1.1 + Walking 5.3 miles per hour 3.6 + Running 5.3 miles per hour 3.1 + +If one wishes to determine the heat production of a man weighing 156 +pounds and 5 feet, 7 inches in height, and who is walking or running, +the following calculations can be made: + + Rate of travel per hour in miles 3[3] 5.3[3] 5.3[4] + Cals. Cals. Cals. + + Metabolism for transporting 156 pounds 172 562 484 + Basal metabolism 70 70 70 + Add for standing 7 7 7 + --- --- --- + 249 639 561 + +[3] Walking. + +[4] Running. + +If the man's food cost 10 cents a thousand calories, it may be +calculated that he would have to walk over eight miles at a rate of +three miles per hour in order to save money when he pays a 5-cent +carfare. (This, however, does not include the cost of shoe leather.) + +The carrying of a load of 44 pounds is done at the same expenditure of +energy as the carrying of one's own body weight when the rate is three +miles an hour, so the soldier's equipment would call for the added +expenditure of 48 calories (44 x 1.1), making his total hourly +expenditure of energy nearly 300 calories (249 + 44) during a hike on a +level road. His daily requirement for energy might be: + + Calories + + Sleeping 8 hours at 70 calories per hour 560 + Resting in camp 6 hours at 77 calories per hour 462 + Hike of 30 miles, 10 hours at 300 calories per hour 3000 + ---- + 4022 + +This would be the heat production of a soldier on a day of a "forced +march." The ordinary day's march is only fifteen miles. + +This assumes a level road. If, however, there are hills to climb and +the body weight and the pack are lifted 1000 feet during the hike, this +is done at the additional expense of approximately 0.96 calory of energy +per pound of weight lifted. If the man weighed 156 pounds and the pack +44 pounds, the additional fuel requirement would be 192 calories (200 x +0.96). The total energy requirement for this kind of a hike would have +been 4200 calories. Walking down hill is accomplished at an expenditure +of slightly less energy than walking on the level, but this factor need +not concern one. + +Supposing, however, this individual were running, lightly clad, on a +level road in a race for a distance of 40 miles at the rate of 5.3 miles +per hour, he would complete the distance in seven hours and thirty-three +minutes, which is a reasonable record. His metabolism might thus be +calculated: + + Calories + + Sleeping 10 hours at 70 calories per hour 700 + Resting 6 hours, 23 minutes, at 77 calories per hour 497 + Running 7 hours, 33 minutes, at 561 calories per hour 4236 + ---- + 5433 + +It is a matter of record that a man has run between Milwaukee and +Chicago, a distance of 80 miles, in about fifteen hours. Such an amount +of work would have required over 9000 calories for the day. + +These calculations are all based upon experimental results obtained in +various laboratories in different parts of the world and can be accepted +as being free from any gross error. + +It is evident that the energy requirement is proportional to the amount +of mechanical energy expended. + +One may turn now to the fuel needs in terms of calories in certain +industrial pursuits. According to Becker and Hamalainen, the quantity of +extra metabolism per hour required in various pursuits is as follows: + + Extra calories of + metabolism per + hour due to + occupation + + Occupations of women: + Seamstress 6 + Typist[5] 24 + Seamstress using sewing machine 24-57 + Bookbinder 38-63 + Housemaid 81-157 + Washerwoman 124-214 + + Occupations of men: + Tailor 44 + Bookbinder 81 + Shoemaker 90 + Carpenter 116-164 + Metal worker 141 + Painter (of furniture) 145 + Stonemason 300 + Man sawing wood 378 + +[5] Observation of Carpenter. + +To use this table one may seek the basal metabolism of the individual, +add 10 per cent. for sixteen hours of wakefulness when the person is +sitting or standing, and then multiply the factors in the last table by +the numbers of hours of work. For example, if one takes the individual +weighing 156 pounds, one obtains the following requirements of energy if +his business were that of a tailor and he worked eight hours a day: + + Calories + + Sleeping 8 hours at 70 calories per hour 560 + Awake 16 hours at 77 calories per hour 1232 + Add for work as tailor 8 hours at 44 calories 352 + ---- + 2144 + +After this fashion one might calculate his food requirements had he +followed occupations other than that of tailor: + + Calories of + metabolism + Occupation per day + + Bookbinder 2440 + Shoemaker 2510 + Carpenter 3100 + Metal worker 2900 + Painter 2950 + Stonemason 4200 + Man sawing wood 4800 + +These figures make no allowance for walking to or from the place of +employment. + +The data here given are inadequate to cover the industrial situation, +but they show clearly that heavy work cannot be accomplished without a +sufficient amount of food-fuel. + +The food-fuel with which to accomplish work is necessary not only for +the soldier, but for the workman behind the line, and it should be +adequate in quantity, satisfactory in quality, and not exorbitant in +cost. + +In virtue of the world-wide scarcity of food, the work of the individual +should be worthy of the food which he eats. + +Tables showing the cost of various wholesome food-stuffs about July 1, +1917, are here reproduced for the benefit of the reader. The tables were +prepared by Dr. F. C. Gephart and issued by the Department of Health of +the City of New York in a leaflet edited by Doctors Holt, La Fetra, +Pisek, and Lusk on the subject of food for children. If the world is +seeking after energy in the form of food-fuel, the world is rightly +entitled to understand the value of its purchases. It must be clearly +understood that people are always destined to look with hopeful +anticipation toward the enjoyment of a meal. They will instinctively +"eat calories" just as they instinctively "eat pounds." They _buy +pounds_ of food, and they could buy more intelligently if they knew the +energy value of what they buy. + + Cost of 1000 Price per + calories, pound, + cents cents + TABLE 1--_Cost of Fats._ + Cottonseed oil 7.3 31 + Oleomargarine 8.5 30 + Peanut butter 8.8 25 + Butter 11.9 43 + Olive oil 12.1 51 + Bacon 13.8 37 + Bacon, sliced, in jars 23.8 65 + Cream (extra heavy, 40 per cent.) 37.7 65 (1 pint) + + TABLE 2--_Cost of Cereals._ + Cornmeal, in bulk 3.6 6 + Hominy, in bulk 3.6 6 + Broken rice, in bulk 3.7 6 + Oatmeal, in bulk 3.8 7 + Samp, in bulk 4.2 7 + Quaker Oats, in package 4.4 8 + Macaroni, in package 4.5 8 + Wheat flour, in bulk 4.6 8 + Malt breakfast food, in package 4.8 8 + Pettijohn, in package 5.3 9 + Cream of Wheat, in package 5.7 10 + Farina, in package 5.9 10 + Cracked wheat, in bulk 5.9 10 + Pearl barley, in package 6.0 10 + Barley flour, in bulk 6.1 10 + Whole rice, in bulk 6.1 10 + Wheatena, in package 8.1 14 + + TABLE 3--_Cost of Ready-to-serve Cereals._ + Shredded Wheat Biscuit 7.8 13 + Grape-nuts 8.6 15 + Force 9.4 16 + Corn Flakes 11.7 20 + Puffed rice 23.5 38 + + TABLE 4--_Cost of Vegetables._ + White potatoes 12.9 4.0 + Turnips 20.0 2.5 + New beets 27.6 5.0 + Onions 29.3 6.0 + Spinach 30.0 3.3 + Green peas 39.2 10.0 + Lima beans 39.2 10.0 + Cauliflower 42.9 6.0 + Carrots 50.0 8.0 + String-beans 55.6 10.0 + Squash 76.2 8.0 + Lettuce 89.4 7.0 + Celery 214.0 15.0 + + TABLE 5--_Cost of Breadstuffs._ + Ginger-snaps 6.3 12.0 + Graham bread 8.2 10.3 + White bread 8.5 10.3 + Rye bread 8.7 10.3 + Graham crackers 9.2 18.0 + Soda crackers 9.4 18.0 + French rolls 10.8 14.0 + Uneeda Biscuit 12.4 24.0 + + TABLE 6--_Cost of Proteins._ + Milk (Grade A) 20.0 13.0 (1 quart) + Roast beef (rib) 23.4 26.0 + Buttermilk 26.5 9.0 (1 quart) + Lamb chops (loin) 32.7 43.0 + Lamb chops (rib) 34.9 38.0 + Young codfish (fresh) 38.6 12.0 + Chicken (roasting) 41.3 32.0 + Eggs 44.7 45.0 (1 dozen) + Beefsteak (round) 50.4 34.0 + + TABLE 7--_Cost of Fruit._ + Fresh (in season): + Bananas 23.0 6 + Apples 23.7 5 + Oranges 65.0 10 + Dried: + Prunes 8.4 10 + Apples 11.1 15 + Peaches 12.5 15 + Apricots 15.5 20 + + TABLE 8--_Cost of Syrup._ + Cane sugar 4.5 8 + Karo corn syrup 5.7 8 + +A British scientific commission has reported to Parliament that if the +workman be undernourished he may, by grit and pluck, continue his labor +for a certain time, but in the end his work is sure to fail. It makes no +difference what the nutritive condition of the person is, if a certain +job involving muscular effort is to be done it always requires a +definite amount of extra food-fuel to do it. Rubner, the greatest German +authority on nutrition, excited grossly inappropriate hilarity in the +comic press of his country by showing that a poor woman who waited +several hours in line in order to receive the dole of fat allowed her by +the government actually consumed more of her own body fat in the effort +of standing during those hours than she obtained in the fat given her +when her turn to receive it came at last. + +A method by which food-fuel can readily be saved with benefit to the +nation and to the individual is for the overfat to reduce their weight. +This has been done with drastic severity in Germany. I have heard from +unquestioned sources how a man who had weighed 240 pounds lost 90 pounds +since the war began; how a corpulent professor at Breslau lost greatly +in weight, but during the second summer of the war regained his former +corpulence during a sojourn in the Bavarian Tyrol, a joy not now +tolerated; and how an American woman lost 40 pounds in weight last +winter in Dresden. There is every reason why a man who is overweight at +the age of fifty should reduce his weight until he reaches the weight he +was when he was thirty-five. According to Dr. Fisk he is a better +insurance risk if after thirty-five he is under the weight which is the +average for those of his years. Reduction in weight reduces the basal +requirement for food, and reduces the amount of fuel needed for moving +the body in walking. The most extreme illustration of the effect of +emaciation upon the food requirement is afforded by a woman who after +losing nearly half of her body weight was found to need only 40 per +cent. of the food-fuel formerly required. This represented a state not +far from the border line of death from starvation, but it indicates how +a community may long support itself on restricted rations. It must be +strictly borne in mind, however, that if any external muscular work is +to be accomplished it can only be effected at the expense of a given +added quantity of food-fuel, whether the person be fat or thin. + +It is not at all difficult to reduce the body weight. Suppose a +clergyman or a physician requires 2500 calories daily in the +accomplishment of his work and takes 2580 calories per day instead. The +additional 80 calories is the equivalent of a butter ball weighing a +third of an ounce, or an ounce of bread or half a glass of milk. It +would seem to be the height of absurdity to object to such a trifle. But +if this excess in food intake be continued for a year, the person will +gain nine pounds and at the end of ten years ninety pounds. Such a +person would find that he required a constantly increasing amount of +food in order to transport his constantly increasing weight. In +instances of this sort a motto may be applied which I heard the last +time I was in Washington: "Do not stuff your husband, husband your +stuff." + +Now it is evident that, if instead of taking more than the required +amount of food a little less be taken than is needed, the balance of +food-fuel must be obtained from the reserves of the body's own supply of +fat. By cutting down the quantity of fat taken, or by eliminating a +glass of beer or a drink of whiskey, and not compensating for the loss +of these by adding other food stuffs, the weight may be gradually +reduced. The amusing little book entitled "Eat and Grow Thin" recommends +a high protein and almost carbohydrate-free diet for the accomplishment +of this purpose, but its advice has made so many of my friends so +utterly miserable that I am sure in the end it will counteract its own +message. + +The work of the world is accomplished in largest part by the oxidation +of carbohydrates, that is to say, of sugars and starches. Bread, corn, +rice, macaroni, cane-sugar, these are _par excellence_ the food-fuels of +the human machine. In the dinner-pail of the laborer they testify as to +the source of his power. They are convertible into glucose in the body, +which glucose gives power to the human machine. They may be used for the +production of work without of themselves increasing the heat production +of the worker, as happens after meat ingestion. (See p. 18.) Fat also +may be used as a source of energy, but unless carbohydrate is present a +person can not work up to his fullest capacity. + +Cane-sugar is a valuable condiment, and when taken in small quantities +every half hour, may delay the onset of fatigue. It is more largely used +in the United States than in other countries in the world. As a +substitute, glucose may be used. This is found in grapes and in raisins +and it is also produced in large quantities by the hydrolysis of starch +and sold under the commercial name of corn syrup or Karo. This substance +is entirely wholesome and may be freely employed in the place of sugar, +which is scarce. + +As to the use of alcoholic beverages, the question resolves itself into +several factors. Alcohol gives a sham sensation of added force and in +reality decreases the ability to do work. Alcohol is the greatest cause +of misery in the world, and as Cushny has put it, if alcohol had been a +new synthetic drug introduced from Germany, its importation would long +since have been forbidden. On the other hand, good beer makes poor food +taste well. It also frequently leads to overeating. The cure for bad +food is to have our daughters taught how to cook a decent meal. After +that we can talk about prohibition. + +In some parts of the world whole nations are starving to death. In most +countries of the world people are short of food. In America we have more +food than in any other land, and we must, therefore, be careful in our +abundance, saving it to the utmost, while, at the same time, conserving +the safety of our own people. + + + + +III + +RULES OF SAVING AND SAFETY + + +1. Let no family (of five persons) buy meat until it has bought three +quarts of milk, the cheapest protein food. Farmers should be urged to +meet this demand. + +2. Save the cream and butter and eat oleomargarine and vegetable oils. +Olive oil or cottonseed oil, taken with cabbage, lettuce, or beet-tops, +is excellent food, in many ways imitating milk. + +3. Eat meat sparingly, rich and poor, laborer and indolent alike. Meat +does not increase the muscular power. When a person is exposed to great +cold, meat may be recommended, for it warms the body more than any other +food. In hot weather, for the same reason, it causes increased sweating +and discomfort. In general, twice as much meat is used as is now right, +for to produce meat requires much fodder which might better be used for +milk production. + +4. Eat corn bread. It saved our New England ancestors from starvation. +If we eat it we can send wheat to France. Eat oatmeal. + +5. Drink no alcohol. In many families 10 per cent. of the income is +spent for drink, or a sum which, if spent for real food, would greatly +improve the welfare of the family. + +6. Eat corn syrup on cereals. It will save the sugar. Eat raisins in +rice pudding, for raisins contain sugar. + +7. Eat fresh fish. + +8. Eat fruit and vegetables. + +Since the total energy for the maintenance of our bodies can be measured +in calories, and since this energy serves for the maintenance of the +nations of the world, is it not surprising how little even educated +people know about the subject? + + + + +INDEX + + + Alcoholic beverages, 41 + + Appetite, 23, 35, 41 + + + Balanced ration, biological analysis of, 9 + + Basal metabolism, definition of, 24 + of boys, 26, 29 + of men, 26 + table, 28 + of women, 27 + + Butter, 8 + + + Cabbage, 7 + + Calorie, definition, 24 + + Calories, cost of, 35 + + Calorimeter, 24 + + Cane sugar, 41 + + Carbohydrates and muscular work, 40 + + Chittenden, 16 + + Corn and pellagra, 10 + in Italy, 7 + quantity available, 11 + reasons for using, 10 + syrup, 41 + + Cream, use of, 11 + + + Diet, a balanced, 7 + a proper, 23 + Italian, 7 + of purified food-stuffs, 9 + + DuBois, measurement of surface area, 26 + + + Economy in diet, 8 + + Emaciation, metabolism in, 39 + + Energy of sun, relation of life to, 23 + + + Fasting, metabolism in, 25 + + Foods, cost of, 35 + + + Graham bread, 16 + + Graham, Sylvester, 16 + + Green leaves in diet, 8 + + + Heat production in man, 24 + + Hindhede's dietary, 14 + + + Life, nature of, 25 + + + Meat and muscle work, 18 + desirability of, 15 + economic production of, 19, 20 + in hot weather, 18, 43 + restricted diet of, in America, 18, 20 + in England, 19 + in Germany, 18 + specific dynamic action of, 17 + + Meatless dietary, 14 + + Men, metabolism of, 27 + + Metabolism, definition of, 26 + in emaciation, 39 + in fasting, 25 + + Milk, cost of, 13 + economic production of, 19, 20 + food value, 8, 13, 14 + in pellagra, 10 + + Mineral salts, 8, 23, 25 + + Muscle work, 25, 30 + and carbohydrates, 40 + and diet, 17 + and fasting, 17 + and protein, 18 + and undernutrition, 38, 39 + + + Occupation and metabolism, carrying a load, 31 + climbing, 32 + industrial, 33 + posture, 30 + running, 30-32 + walking, 30 + + Oleomargarine, 12 + + Olive oil, 8 + + Overfat people, 38 + + Oxidation of food-stuffs, 24 + + + Peanut butter, 12 + + Pellagra, 9 + + Pork, economic production of, 19, 20, 21 + + Potato diet, 15 + + + Rules of saving and safety, 43 + + + Substitution of foods, 43 + historical, 11 + + Summary, 43 + + Surface area and heat production, 26 + + + Undernutrition, 38 + and labor, 38 + + + Vegetable oils, use of, 12 + + Vegetarianism, 16 + + Vitamins, 8, 23 + + + Weight, reduction of, 39 + + Women, metabolism of, 27 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food in War Time, by Graham Lusk + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD IN WAR TIME *** + +***** This file should be named 32472.txt or 32472.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/4/7/32472/ + +Produced by Tom Roch, S.D., and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature +in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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