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(A Project Gutenberg eBook) + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { +margin-left:10%; +margin-right:10%; +} + +h1,h2,h3 { +clear:both; +text-align:center; +} + +h1 { +font-size:150%; +} + +h2 { +font-size:125%; +padding-top:2em; +} + +p { +margin-bottom:.75em; +margin-top:.75em; +text-align:justify; +} + +ul { +list-style-type:none; +} + +blockquote { +font-size:85%; +margin:0; +padding:0.5em 0; +} + +table { +font-size:85%; +margin-left:auto; +margin-right:auto; +} + +th { +font-weight:400; +vertical-align:bottom; +} + +th,td { +border-color:#000; +} + +h1#first { +font-size:140%; +padding-top:2em; +} + +h2#chap1 { +padding-top:0; +} + +p.hang { +margin-left:2em; +padding-left:2em; +text-indent:-1em; +} + +p.pad-t { +padding-top:2.5em; +} + +p.pad-tb { +padding:2.5em 0; +} + +.p-t { +padding-top:1.25em; +} + +.pad-r1 { +padding-right:0.75em; +} + +.pad-r2 { +padding-right:2.5em; +} + +.pad-r3 { +padding-right:3.5em; +} + +.pad-r4 { +padding-right:4em; +} + +.pad-l2 { +padding-left:2em; +} + +table#toc { +font-size:100%; +} + +table#basal { +border-bottom:1px solid #000; +border-collapse:collapse; +border-top:1px solid #000; +} + +table.cost { +text-align:right; +width:40em; +} + +table.cost td { +padding-right:3em; +} + +tr.b { +font-weight:700; +} + +th.mid { +vertical-align:middle; +} + +td.total { +border-top:1px solid #000; +} + +td.no-b { +font-weight:400; +} + +td.item { +padding-left:1em; +padding-right:0; +text-align:left; +} + +div#tp,div#copy,div#dedication { +padding:2em 0; +} + +div#tp { +line-height:1.5em; +} + +div.footnotes { +background-color:#F2F2F2; +border:solid #A4A4A4 1px; +margin-top:3em; +padding:1em; +} + +div.footnote { +font-size:85%; +margin-left:10%; +margin-right:10%; +} + +div.footnote a { +text-decoration:none; +} + +div.footnote .label { +padding:8px; +} + +.fnanchor { +background-color:#F2F2F2; +font-size:.8em; +font-weight:400; +text-decoration:none; +vertical-align:super; +} + +div.tn { +background-color:#CFC; +border:solid #38610B 1px; +font-size:80%; +margin:4em; +padding:1em; +} + +span.pagenum { +color:gray; +font-size:small; +font-style:normal; +left:92%; +position:absolute; +text-align:right; +} + +.center { +text-align:center; +} + +.smcap { +font-variant:small-caps; +} + +.lg { +font-size:115%; +} + +.sm { +font-size:85%; +} + +.xsm { +font-size:75%; +} + +</style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food in War Time, by Graham Lusk + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food in War Time + +Author: Graham Lusk + +Release Date: May 21, 2010 [EBook #32472] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD IN WAR TIME *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Roch, S.D., and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature +in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div id="tp"> +<h1>FOOD IN WAR TIME</h1> + +<p class="center pad-tb"><i>By</i><br /> +<span class="lg">GRAHAM LUSK</span><br /> + +<span class="xsm">PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY MEDICAL COLLEGE IN<br /> +NEW YORK CITY</span></p> + +<p class="center pad-t"><span class="sm">PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON</span><br /> +<span class="lg">W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY</span><br /> +<span class="sm">1918</span></p> +</div> + +<div id="copy" class="sm"> +<p class="center">Copyright, 1918<br /> +by<br /> +<span class="smcap">W. B. Saunders Company</span></p> + +<p class="center pad-t xsm">PRINTED IN AMERICA</p> +</div> + +<div id="dedication"> +<p class="center">DEDICATED<br /> +TO MY<br /> +FELLOW-COUNTRYMEN</p> +</div> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table id="toc" cellspacing="4" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="xsm" align="right">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">I.</td> <td class="smcap">A Balanced Diet</td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">II.</td> <td class="smcap">Calories in Common Life</td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">III.</td> <td class="smcap">Rules of Saving and Safety</td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="smcap">Index</td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>NOTE</h3> + +<p>The major parts of this small volume appeared under +articles entitled "Food in War Time" in the <cite>Scientific +Monthly</cite> and "Calories in Common Life" in Saunders' +<cite>Medical Clinics of North America</cite>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> + +<h1 id="first">FOOD IN WAR TIME</h1> + +<h2 id="chap1">I<br /><br /> + +A BALANCED DIET</h2> + +<p>There is no doubt that under the conditions existing +before the war the American people lived in a higher +degree of comfort than that enjoyed in Europe. Hard +times in America have always been better times than +the best times in Europe. As a student in Munich in +1890 I remember paying three dollars a month for my +room, five cents daily for my breakfast, consisting of +coffee and a roll without butter, and thirty-five cents +for a four-course dinner at a fashionable restaurant. +This does not sound extravagant, but it represents +luxury when compared with the diet of the poorest +Italian peasants of southern Italy. Two Italian scientists +describe how this class of people live mainly on +cornmeal, olive oil, and green stuffs and have done +so for generations. There is no milk, cheese, or eggs +in their dietary. Meat in the form of fat pork is taken +three or four times a year. Cornmeal is taken as +"polenta," or is mixed with beans and oil, or is made +into corn bread. Cabbage or the leaves of beets are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +boiled in water and then eaten with oil flavored with +garlic or Spanish pepper. One of the families investigated +consisted of eight individuals, of whom two were +children. The annual income was 424 francs, or $84. +Of this, three cents per day per adult was spent for food +and the remaining three-fifths of a cent was spent for +other purposes. Little wonder that such people have +migrated to America, but it may strike some as astonishing +that a race so nourished should have become the +man power in the construction of our railways, our +subways, and our great buildings.</p> + +<p>Dr. McCollum will tell you that the secret of it all +lies in the green leaves. The quality of the protein in +corn is poor, but the protein in the leaves supplements +that of corn, so that a good result is obtained. Olive +oil when taken alone is a poor fat in a nutritive sense, +but when taken with green leaves, these furnish that +one of the peculiar accessory substances, commonly +known as vitamines, which is present most abundantly +in butter-fat, and gives to butter-fat and to the fat in +whole milk its dominant nutritive value. The green +leaves likewise furnish another accessory substance, +also present in milk, a substance which is soluble in +water and which is necessary for normal life. Furthermore, +the green leaves contain mineral matter in considerable +quantity and in about the same proportions +as they exist in milk.</p> + +<p>Here then is the message of economy in diet, corn the +cheapest of all the cereals, a vegetable oil cheaper by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +far than animal fat, which two materials taken together +would bring disaster upon the human race, but if taken +with the addition of cabbage or beet-tops they become +capable of maintaining mankind from generation to +generation. One can safely refer to such a diet as a +balanced diet. Just as in the case of the modern +experimental biological analysis of a balanced ration +in which such a ration is given to rats and its efficiency +as a diet is tested by its capacity to support normal +growth and reproduction of the species, so here the +experimental evidence is presented that corn and olive +oil may become a sustaining diet when green leaves +are a supplementary factor.</p> + +<p>This preliminary sketch shows several important +fundamentals of food and nutrition. If one gives an +animal a mixture of purified food-stuffs, pure protein, +pure starch, purified fat, and a mixture of salts like the +salts of milk, the animal will surely die. But if one +substitutes butter-fat for purified fat, and adds a water +solution of the natural salts of milk, the animal lives +and thrives.</p> + +<p>Again, the illustration shows how corn may be so +supplemented with other food-stuffs as to become +extremely valuable in nutrition. It is especially +valuable at the present time because corn is comparatively +cheap and plentiful. But one asks how +about pellagra? It must be here definitely stated that +the use of cornmeal is not the cause of pellagra, provided +the right kind of other foods be taken with it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +Pellagra occurs in the "corn belt" of the United States, +and especially among the poorer classes in the south. +The disease has developed since the introduction in +1880 of highly perfected milling machinery which +furnishes corn and wheat completely freed from their +outer coverings. In Italy, where the milling of corn is +still primitive, pellagra is not so severe as with us, +because the corn offal is not completely removed and +this contains the accessory food substances or vitamines +which are essential to life. Pellagra is generally +believed to be produced by a too exclusive use of +highly milled corn and wheat flour in association with +salt meats and canned goods, all of which are deficient +in vitamines. The administration of fresh milk is +naturally indicated. Goldberger states that after the +addition of milk to the diet of a pellagrin, the typical +clinical picture of pellagra no longer persists. The +poor in the mill towns of the South lived too exclusively +upon a corn diet without admixture of milk or fresh +animal food or even of cabbage, and pellagra has been +the consequence.</p> + +<p>The Food Administrator asks us to eat corn bread +and save the wheat for export. It is a very small +sacrifice to eat corn bread at one meal or more a day. +Indian corn saved our New England ancestors from +starvation, and we can in part substitute it for our +wheat and send the latter abroad to spare others from +starvation. The simplest elements of patriotism demand +that we do this. Therefore let us cry, "Eat corn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +bread and save the wheat for France, the home of Lafayette!"</p> + +<p>The United States Department of Agriculture has +estimated that only 6.6 per cent. of our corn crop is +used for human food, and of this, 3.4 per cent. is consumed +by the farmers and their families.</p> + +<p>The substitution of foods is no new thing. We find +that an English contemporary author thus described +the food habits of the English people during the +"golden days of Good Queen Bess," three hundred and +fifty years ago:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>"The gentilitie commonly provide themselves sufficiently of +wheat for their own tables, whylest their household and poore +neighbours in some shires are forced to content themselves with +rye or barleie; yea and in time of dearth many with bread made +eyther of beanes, peason<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> or otes, or of altogether and some +acornes among."</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>A difference between those days and ours is that the +"gentilitie" and the "poore neighbours" are now +asked to unite in reducing the consumption of wheat +and to do this for the safety and welfare of all mankind.</p> + +<p>Another point in war economy is the use of whole +milk in greater quantity, and the diminution of the use +of butter and cream. Cream is bought only by the +wealthy, but in sufficient volume to largely reduce the +amount of whole milk available. In Germany before +the war 15 per cent. of the milk supply of that country +was used for the production of cream. The consequent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +restriction of the milk supply was distinctly to the +detriment of the health of the peasant farmers of +Bavaria. Regarding the use of butter, a Swiss professor, +himself an expert in nutrition, complains that +whereas in his youth children were never given butter +on their bread for breakfast, not even when there was +no jam in the house, yet to-day absence of butter from +the table is held to be indicative of direst poverty.</p> + +<p>If one takes a pint of whole milk daily, or even, as we +have seen, cabbage or beet-tops in its stead, one may +take fat in the forms of olive oil or cottonseed oil, +corn oil, cocoanut oil, peanut butter, or in other vegetable +oils, without possible prejudice to health.</p> + +<p>Osborne and Mendel, and more recently Halliburton, +have pointed out that oleomargarine as prepared from +beef-fat contains the fat-soluble growth-promoting +accessory substance or vitamine which is present in +butter-fat, but which is not contained in vegetable +oils or in lard.</p> + +<p>Halliburton and Drummond summarize the practical +results of their work as follows:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>But when we approach the subject of the dietary of the poorer +classes, the question is a more serious one. In ordinary times the +consumption of beef dripping, which is considerable among the +poor, would to a large extent supply the lacking properties of a +vegetable-oil margarine. But at the present time beef itself is +expensive, and the opportunities of obtaining dripping are therefore +minimized. At the same time the three important foods for +children already enumerated (milk, butter, eggs) have risen in +cost, so as to be almost prohibitive to those with slender incomes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +The vegetable-oil margarines still remain comparatively cheap, +and the danger is that unless measures are taken to insure a proper +milk supply for infants at a reasonable charge, these infants may +run the risk of being fed, so far as fat is concerned, entirely upon +an inferior brand of margarine, destitute of the growth-promoting +accessory substance. It would be truer economy even for the +poor to purchase smaller quantities of an oleo-oil margarine if +they cannot afford the luxury of real butter.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The legal restrictions placed upon the sale of oleomargarine +and the taxes enhancing its cost, now in +operation in many of our states, are without warrant +in morals or common sense and should be entirely +abolished in times like these. A well-made brand of +oleomargarine is much more palatable than butter of +the second grade, and certainly for cooking purposes +is just as valuable.</p> + +<p>Whole milk contains everything necessary for growth +and maintenance, protein, fat, milk-sugar, salts, water, +and the unknown but invaluable accessory substances. +It is of such prime importance that each family should +have this admirable food that I have suggested that +no family of five should ever buy meat until they have +bought three quarts of milk. The insistence by scientific +men upon the prime importance of milk has +probably had something to do with its rapid enhancement +in price. This latter factor is greatly to be +regretted. I have often wondered why it was that a +quart bottle of a fancy brand of milk in New York +should cost about as much as a quart of <i>vin ordinaire</i> +on the streets of Paris, and a quart bottle of cream as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +much as a quart of good champagne in Paris. Despite +much denial it appears to me that milk is not sold as +cheaply as it ought to be. Everything should be done +to conserve our herds of cows for the increased supply +of whole milk and incidentally for the manufacture of +cheese and of milk powder or of condensed milk.</p> + +<p>If one takes milk with other foods, meat may be +dispensed with. Thus Hindhede advocates as ideal a +diet consisting of bread, potatoes, fruit, and a pint of +milk. Splendid health, both of body and mind, the +peasants' comparative immunity to indigestion, kidney +and liver disease, as well as an absolute immunity to +gout, is the alluring prospect held out by the following +dietary:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><td>Graham bread</td> <td>1 pound</td></tr> +<tr><td>Potatoes</td> <td>2 pounds</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-r4">Vegetable fat</td> <td>½ pound</td></tr> +<tr><td>Apples</td> <td>1½ pounds</td></tr> +<tr><td>Milk</td> <td>1 pint</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This bread-potato-fruit diet gives a very excellent +basis of wholesome nutrition. The potatoes yield an +alkaline ash which has a highly solvent power over uric +acid, and, therefore, a good supply of these valuable +tubers is needed by the nation.</p> + +<p>To most Americans the dietary factors here described +will appear to be merely attenuated hypotheses, +fit only for philosophic contemplation. For, in real +life, it is the roast beef of Old England, or some other +famed equivalent, that makes its appeal. Far be it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +from me to disparage the feast following a hunt of the +wild boar or other feasts famed in song and story, but +that is not the question. The question is, is meat +necessary? The description of the Italian dietary +answers this in the negative.</p> + +<p>But is meat desirable? The Italian experimenters +believed that the addition of four or eight ounces of +meat to the dietaries of some of their subjects increased +their physical and also their mental powers. The +increase in mental power due to change in diet has +always seemed to me to be a figment of the imagination +and not susceptible of demonstration. Thomas lived +for twenty-four days on a diet of starch and cream, +during four days of which time the very small quantity +of three ounces of meat was taken daily, and he found +his mental and muscular power unchanged.</p> + +<p>A remarkable experiment on the effect of a potato +diet has been reported by Hindhede. An individual +partook of a diet of between four and one-half and +nine pounds of potatoes daily, with some vegetable +margarine, during a period of nearly three hundred +days. The rule was to eat only when hungry and then +the potatoes could be taken at the rate of an ounce a +minute. During the last three months (ninety-five +days) of the experiment severe mechanical work was +performed and the total food intake for the latter +period amounted to 770 pounds of potatoes and 48 +pounds of margarine. What could be more simple +than stocking the cellar with coal, potatoes, and a tub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +of margarine! Who then would worry about the complexities +of modern life?</p> + +<p>Of course, vegetarianism is no new thing. Its principal +exponent was Sylvester Graham. It so happens +that he was the brother of my great grandmother, and +of him my father wrote in 1861, "long lanky Sylvester +Vegetable Graham, leanest of men." Graham in +1829 began the advocacy of moderation in the use of +a diet consisting of vegetables, Graham bread, fruits, +nuts, salts and pure water, and excluding meat, sauces, +salads, tea, coffee, alcohol, pepper, and mustard. The +first effect of this diet, which largely eliminated the +flavors, was to reduce the weight through lowering the +intake of food, but the health of many followers of the +diet appears to have been benefited. The "Graham +System" of dieting suffered from withering criticism +at the time. He published in 1837 a little book entitled, +"Bread and Bread Making," bearing on its +cover the scriptural quotation "Bread strengtheneth +man's heart." He says in this volume:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>But while the people of our country are entirely given up as they +are at present, to gross and promiscuous feeding on the dead carcasses +of animals and to the untiring pursuit of wealth, it is perhaps +wholly vain for a single individual to raise his voice on a subject +of this kind.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The well-known work of Chittenden has shown that +when the protein intake is reduced by one half or less +of that which the average American appetite suggests, +professional men, soldiers and athletes may be maintained +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>in the best physical condition. One of Yale's +champion intercollegiate athletes won all the events +of the year in which he was entered while living on a +reduced protein or Chittenden diet. Upon such a +diet, or less than that, the people of Germany are now +living to-day. The principle involves eating meat +very sparingly, taking half a piece where one would +have formerly been taken, and using it only for its +flavor. The wing of a chicken has little meat on it +and yet if eaten together with vegetables it gives the +meal a different quality than it would have had without +it, and to this extent its use is warranted. The +muscles are active when hard labor is done, but the +muscles do not need meat for the performance of their +work. A fasting man may have considerable power. +The popular idea of the necessity of meat for a laboring +man may be epitomized in the statement: a strong +man can eat more meat than a weak one, hence meat +makes a man strong. The proposition is evidently +absurd.</p> + +<p>Not only is the taking of meat without beneficial +relation to the capacity for muscular work, but, in fact, +an exclusive meat diet results in the sensation that work +is being accomplished with difficulty. When meat is +metabolized it stimulates the body to a higher heat +production, as great an increase as 55 per cent. having +been observed in a resting man. No other food-stuff +will accomplish so great an increase. It is especially +worthy of note that this increase in the heat production,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +due to the <i>specific dynamic action</i> of protein, as it is +called, cannot be utilized in the execution of mechanical +work. When the organism of a laborer at work in a +hot environment is called upon to eliminate extra heat, +due to the work he is performing, he must also eliminate +the quota of heat which is derived from any large +ingestion of meat. Hence, the American farmer in +the hot weather can eat little meat.</p> + +<p>So far as is known, taking meat even in large excess +is not harmful, but it represents luxury and waste. +According to an oral statement by A. E. Taylor, the +results of many thousand urinary analyses in Germany +during the second year of the war showed about 7 grams +of nitrogen excreted, which would correspond to a +dietary containing about 45 grams of protein. As a +matter of fact, this is the equivalent of the reduced +protein dietary of Chittenden, and it is reported that +no ill effects can be attributed to it. The flavor of +meat is such that it lends itself to the easy preparation +of a palatable meal, but this flavor could undoubtedly +be as well obtained if the present consumption of meat +were cut in two. It is a question of habit, but with the +present reduced supply of meat one must adopt new +habits. It would be highly desirable if the grain now +fed to fatten beef were given to maintain herds of +milch cows.</p> + +<p>Indulgence in meat is due to the desire for strong +flavor. With the increased distribution of wealth, the +demand for meat grows. Its consumption by all classes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +had vastly increased in all prosperous countries prior +to the war. It is well, however, to remember that its +use has been excessive and unnecessary, and its price +can be cut by wholesale voluntary abstinence. The +British people have suffered no hardship in the recent +reduction of their meat ration.</p> + +<p>A British Commission has reported to Parliament +that it takes three times as much fodder to produce +beef as it does to produce milk or pork of the same food +value. Since cows eat chiefly hay and grass and pigs +eat grain the cost of the production of a unit value of +milk is much less than the cost of the same value in +the form of pork. It takes only fifty per cent. more +fodder to produce veal than to produce pork. Milk, +pork, and veal have long been the established protein-containing +foods of nations on the continent of Europe. +According to these figures beef should cost in the market +twice what veal costs, and yet the butcher charges +nearly the same for the two. It would save food for +milk production if steers were eaten as veal and not +fed up into beef cattle. A suitable tax on all steers +over a year old would accomplish this result. If all +heifers were developed into milch cows and no cow +capable of giving milk in quantity were slaughtered, +the country would be placed on a much better basis +than at present. It might make beef expensive, but +there is every reason why it should be expensive. It +would increase the dairy business, which is evidently a +need of the times, something for the protection of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +welfare of mankind. For it must be remembered that +a well-nourished cow during a single year will give in +the form of milk as much protein and two and a half +times the number of calories as are contained in her +own body.</p> + +<p>This was written before the publication of the following +words of Armsby, the foremost authority on animal +nutrition:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<blockquote> +<p>Roast pig, to those who like it, is not only a delicacy but a +valuable article of diet, but nevertheless, it is possible to pay too +high a price for it, and while a proposal to restrict rather than to +promote meat production in the present crisis may appear both +irrational and unpatriotic it may nevertheless be in the interest +of true food economy....</p> + +<p>It may be roughly estimated that about 24 per cent. of the +energy of grain is recovered for human consumption in pork, about +18 per cent. in milk and only about 3.5 per cent. in beef and mutton. +In other words, the farmer who feeds bread grains to his +stock is burning up 75 to 97 per cent. of them in order to produce +for us a small residue of roast pig, and so is diminishing the total +stock of human food....</p> + +<p>The task of the stock feeder must be to utilize through his skill +and knowledge the inedible products of the farm and factory, such +as hay, corn stalks, straw, bran, brewers' and distillers' grains, +gluten feed, and the like, and to make at least a fraction of them +available for man's use. In so doing he will be really adding to the +food supply and will be rendering a great public service. Rather +than seek to stimulate live stock husbandry the ideal should be to +adjust it to the limits set by the available supply of forage crops +and by-product feeding stuffs while, on the other hand, utilizing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +these to the greatest practicable extent, because in this way we +save some of what would otherwise be a total loss....</p> + +<p>The hog is the great competitor of man for the higher grades of +food, and in swine husbandry as ordinarily conducted we are in +danger of paying too much for our roast pig. Cattle and sheep, +on the other hand, although less efficient as converters, can utilize +products which man can not use and save some of their potential +value as human food. From this point of view, as well as on account +of the importance of milk to infants and invalids, the high +economy of food production by the dairy cow deserves careful +consideration, although of course the large labor requirement is a +counterbalancing factor.</p> + +<p>At any rate, it is clear that at the present time enthusiastic +but ill-considered "booming" of live stock production may do +more harm than good. If it is desirable to restrict or prohibit the +production of alcohol from grain or potatoes on the ground that it +involves a waste of food value, the same reason calls for restriction +of the burning-up of these materials to produce roast pig. This +means, of course, a limited meat supply. To some of us this may +seem a hardship. Meat, however, is by no means the essential +that we have been wont to suppose and partial deprivation of it +is not inconsistent with high bodily efficiency. Certainly no +patriotic citizen would wish to insist on his customary allowance +of roast pig at the cost of the food supply of his brothers in the +trenches.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The United States Department of Agriculture has +estimated that a pig that has reached the weight of +150 pounds should be slaughtered, because beyond +that weight the cost of the quantity of feed required +to maintain the animal is out of proportion to the +gain in food value of the pig. One might, therefore, +call a pig weighing 150 pounds a <i>maximal economic +hog</i>.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3 class="smcap">Footnotes:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> An obsolete plural of pease.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> "Roast Pig," <cite>Science</cite>, 1917, xlvi, 160.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"><br />[23]</a></span></p> + +<h2>II<br /><br /> +CALORIES IN COMMON LIFE</h2> + +<p>A person is properly nourished who receives adequate +energy in the form of carbohydrate and fat (and incidentally +protein); adequate material for repair of +wornout parts, such as protein and mineral salts; and +the diet must contain certain accessory food substances +known as food hormones or "vitamins." Also, it +must contain water. But this is not all, for the food +offered must be acceptable to the palate of the individual. +A member of the French Scientific Commission +which visited the United States in the summer of 1917, +when questioned regarding the use of corn bread in +France, replied "on ne peut pas changer des habitudes." +The proper nutrition of an individual depends, therefore, +not only upon a sufficient supply of food from a +mechanistic standpoint, but also upon the reasonable +satisfaction of the sense of appetite. These dual fundamentals +of proper nutrition should be ever borne in mind.</p> + +<p>Heat from the sun enters into the composition of the +food substances when they are being built up in the +plants, and this energy, which is latent in the food, is +set free in the animal body and is used as the source of +power behind all the physical activities of the body. +The energy can all be recovered as heat and measured +in the form of calories. According to the principles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +the law of the conservation of energy, heat is not destructible. +The understanding of the value of a calorie +is indispensable for the comprehension of nutrition. A +calorie is the measure of a unit of heat, or the quantity +of heat necessary to raise a liter of water from 0° to 1° +Centigrade. Apparatus has been invented for measuring +the heat production of a man, an apparatus which +is called a calorimeter or a measurer of calories. If one +puts a man weighing, say, 156 pounds in the box of +such an apparatus, so that he lies comfortably on a bed +in complete muscular relaxation, and before his breakfast, +one finds that he produces 70 calories an hour. +Only in certain types of disease is there any variation +from this normal, though of course the weight of the +man makes a difference in his requirement for energy. +If, at the same time the subject is in the box, the quantity +of oxygen which he absorbs is measured and if certain +other chemical analyses be carried out, one can +calculate the exact amounts of protein, fat, and sugar +which have been oxidized by this oxygen. Now, if one +calculates how much heat ought to have been set free +from the oxidation of these quantities of protein fat and +carbohydrate, it is discovered that the heat which +ought to have been produced is exactly that quantity +which was measured as having been produced by the +man. This measurement represents the <i>basal metabolism</i> +of a man at complete rest, when his oxidative activities +are at their lowest ebb.</p> + +<p>The basal metabolism as measured by 70 calories per +hour in the case of this individual represents the sum of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +the fuel needed—(1) to maintain the beating of the +heart, which every minute of a man's life moves the +blood or one-twentieth part of the weight of the body, in +a circle through the blood-vessels; (2) to maintain the +muscles of respiration that the blood may be purified in +the lungs; (3) to maintain the body temperature at +that constant level which is so characteristic that a +slight variation signifies illness, and (4) to maintain in +the living state the numerous tissues of the body. Any +extraneous muscular movements are carried out in virtue +of an increased oxidation of materials and the heat +production rises above the level of the basal metabolism +with increased muscular effort. For a long time +the power for the maintenance of the human machine +can be furnished by its own body fat, as is seen in cases +of prolonged fasting, but usually the power is derived +instead from the food-fuel which is taken. The great +question in the world to-day is whether or not a sufficient +quantity of food-fuel is available to support the +human family. The question of calories is not an +academic one, but an intensely practical one.</p> + +<p>Science strives to express itself in mathematic terms, +and this paper is written with that end in view.</p> + +<p>Phenomena of life are phenomena of motion. These +motions are maintained at the expense of chemical +energy liberated in the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrate, +fat, and protein. Furthermore, the protein +structure of the body cells and the salts of the bones and +other tissues are in a constant state of wearing down. +The energy for the human machine and the materials<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +for its self-repair are taken in the form of food. The +general term <i>metabolism</i> includes all the chemical activities +which take place under the influence of living cells.</p> + +<p>The total quantity of heat produced by the body is a +measure of the intensity of the oxidation of carbohydrate, +fat, and protein within the body.</p> + +<p>It is important to know definitely whether there is +any constant measure of the level of the basal metabolism +in normal people, so that one may determine in +cases of disease whether the heat production is normal +or increased or decreased.</p> + +<p>Rubner discovered that the heat production of mammalia +during rest was the same per square meter of surface +whether the being was a horse, a man, a dog, or a +mouse. The proposition has appeared so improbable +as to call forth much antagonism. DuBois deserves +the credit of having established this relationship for +man beyond the possibility of a doubt. He was able +to do this on account of his discovery of a new and accurate +method of measuring the area of the body surface. +It appears from his work that the <i>basal metabolism</i> +for men between twenty and fifty years old is approximately +40 calories per hour per square meter of +body surface, within a ± error of 10 per cent.</p> + +<p>Boothby has found that the metabolism of patients +who have recovered their health after hospital operations +and who have been confined in the hospital between +twenty and fifty days does not vary from the +normal standard of DuBois.</p> + +<p>It has been found by DuBois that the basal metabolism +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>in boys of twelve is 25 per cent. higher than for an +adult of the same height and weight, or <b>50</b> calories per +square meter of body surface; and that in boys of fifteen +the metabolism is 11 per cent. higher than for the +adult of the same size and shape, or <b>44</b> calories per square +meter of body surface (unpublished work of DuBois). +These results explain the large appetites of boys.</p> + +<p>Women show a metabolism which is 7 per cent. lower +than that of men, or <b>37</b> calories per hour per square +meter of surface.</p> + +<p>From the charts of the average heights and weights +of men varying between fifteen and fifty-five years old, +given by American life insurance companies, Mr. H. V. +Atkinson, of my laboratory, has calculated the basal +metabolism in a table here presented. Unfortunately, +the weights given in these statistics include clothes +worn by the individuals. The calculated heat production, +however, is in each case based upon the weight +without clothes. The table is computed from the following +values:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><th class="pad-r4">Age in years</th> +<th>Calories per<br /> square meter<br /> of surface</th></tr> + +<tr><td>15</td> <td align="center">44</td></tr> +<tr><td>20-50</td> <td align="center">40</td></tr> +<tr><td>55</td> <td align="center">37</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The table may also be used as follows:</p> + +<div class="sm"> +<p>To find the metabolism of—</p> + +<p class="hang">Women between twenty to fifty years, multiply values for +man by 0.93.</p> + +<p class="hang">Boys of twelve to thirteen years, multiply values for boys of +fifteen years by 1.10.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE BASAL METABOLISM OF MEN</h3> + +<p><i>Calculated from values of the basal metabolism determined by the +methods of DuBois and applied to a table showing the average weights +of 221,819 men of different ages and heights compiled from the statistics +of the medico-actuarial investigation of 1912.</i></p> + +<table id="basal" frame="hsides" rules="groups" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" summary=""> +<colgroup /><colgroup /><colgroup /><colgroup /> +<colgroup /><colgroup /><colgroup /><colgroup /> +<colgroup /><colgroup /> +<thead> +<tr><th>Age.<br /> +Heat per<br /> +square meter<br /> +of surface</th> +<th class="mid">5 ft.<br />0 in.</th> +<th class="mid">5 ft.<br />2 in.</th> +<th class="mid">5 ft.<br />4 in.</th> +<th class="mid">5 ft.<br />6 in.</th> +<th class="mid">5 ft.<br />8 in.</th> +<th class="mid">5 ft.<br />10 in.</th> +<th class="mid">6 ft.<br />0 in.</th> +<th class="mid">6 ft.<br />2 in.</th> +<th class="mid">6 ft.<br />4 in.</th></tr> +</thead> + +<tr><td></td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td> +<td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td> +<td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td><td>Lbs.<br />Cals.</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left">15 years</td> +<td>107</td><td>112</td><td>118</td> +<td>126</td><td>134</td><td>142</td> +<td>152</td><td>162</td><td>172</td></tr> +<tr class="b"><td class="no-b">44 calories</td> +<td>1510</td><td>1584</td><td>1658</td> +<td>1753</td><td>1837</td><td>1922</td><td>2006</td> +<td>2096</td><td>2186</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">20 years</td> +<td class="p-t">117</td><td class="p-t">122</td><td class="p-t">128</td> +<td class="p-t">136</td><td class="p-t">144</td><td class="p-t">152</td> +<td class="p-t">161</td><td class="p-t">171</td><td class="p-t">181</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1430</td><td>1498</td><td>1565</td> +<td>1647</td><td>1719</td><td>1796</td> +<td>1868</td><td>1949</td><td>2035</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">25 years</td> +<td class="p-t">122</td><td class="p-t">126</td><td class="p-t">133</td> +<td class="p-t">141</td><td class="p-t">149</td><td class="p-t">157</td> +<td class="p-t">167</td><td class="p-t">179</td><td class="p-t">189</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1459</td><td>1517</td><td>1594</td> +<td>1671</td><td>1738</td><td>1820</td> +<td>1896</td><td>1992</td><td>2083</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">30 years</td> +<td class="p-t">126</td><td class="p-t">130</td><td class="p-t">136</td> +<td class="p-t">144</td><td class="p-t">152</td><td class="p-t">161</td> +<td class="p-t">172</td><td class="p-t">184</td><td class="p-t">196</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1478</td><td>1536</td><td>1604</td> +<td>1685</td><td>1757</td><td>1839</td> +<td>1920</td><td>2007</td><td>2112</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">35 years</td> +<td class="p-t">128</td><td class="p-t">132</td><td class="p-t">138</td> +<td class="p-t">146</td><td class="p-t">155</td><td class="p-t">165</td> +<td class="p-t">176</td><td class="p-t">189</td><td class="p-t">201</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1488</td><td>1556</td><td>1613</td> +<td>1695</td><td>1767</td><td>1853</td> +<td>1939</td><td>2035</td><td>2136</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">40 years</td> +<td class="p-t">131</td><td class="p-t">135</td><td class="p-t">141</td> +<td class="p-t">149</td><td class="p-t">158</td><td class="p-t">168</td> +<td class="p-t">180</td><td class="p-t">193</td><td class="p-t">206</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1498</td><td>1565</td><td>1623</td> +<td>1709</td><td>1781</td><td>1863</td> +<td>1959</td><td>2055</td><td>2160</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">45 years</td> +<td class="p-t">133</td><td class="p-t">137</td><td class="p-t">143</td> +<td class="p-t">151</td><td class="p-t">160</td><td class="p-t">170</td> +<td class="p-t">182</td><td class="p-t">195</td><td class="p-t">209</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1507</td><td>1570</td><td>1632</td> +<td>1719</td><td>1791</td><td>1872</td> +<td>1968</td><td>2064</td><td>2169</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">50 years</td> +<td class="p-t">134</td><td class="p-t">138</td><td class="p-t">144</td> +<td class="p-t">152</td><td class="p-t">161</td><td class="p-t">171</td> +<td class="p-t">183</td><td class="p-t">197</td><td class="p-t">211</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">40 calories</td> +<td>1517</td><td>1575</td><td>1642</td> +<td>1724</td><td>1796</td><td>1881</td> +<td>1973</td><td>2074</td><td>2184</td></tr> + +<tr align="right"><td align="left" class="p-t">55 years</td> +<td class="p-t">135</td><td class="p-t">139</td><td class="p-t">145</td> +<td class="p-t">153</td><td class="p-t">163</td><td class="p-t">173</td> +<td class="p-t">184</td><td class="p-t">198</td><td class="p-t">212</td></tr> +<tr align="right" class="b"><td align="left" class="no-b">37 calories</td> +<td>1449</td><td>1485</td><td>1548</td> +<td>1620</td><td>1692</td><td>1773</td> +<td>1854</td><td>1949</td><td>2052</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> +<p>The basal metabolism of an average boy of thirteen +years of age weighing 80 pounds and of a height of 4 +feet, 10 inches, may be calculated as 1525 calories per +day. This is the same as that of a man twenty-five +years old, weighing 126 pounds and 5 feet, 2 inches tall.</p> + +<p>A boy thirteen years old and weighing 156 pounds, +his height being 6 feet, 1 inch (there are such cases), +would have a basal metabolism of 2300 calories, or +larger than that of any grown man given in the table—larger +than a man weighing 211 pounds and 6 feet, 4 +inches in height. I personally know a boy of this age +and size. His parents are said to have sent him to +boarding school in order to reduce their food bills.</p> + +<p>It is evident from this discussion that the food requirement +of boys over twelve years old is about the +same as that of men. The emaciation of the children +of the poor probably reduces their requirement of food. +It is not generally recognized that the boy needs as +much food as his father. The requirements of girls +have not been investigated, but they probably need as +much as their mothers.</p> + +<p>These data will give with close scientific precision the +<i>minimal requirement for energy</i> which is necessary for +the maintenance of the bed-ridden.</p> + +<p>Ordinary life, however, is not constituted after this +fashion. "By the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat +bread."</p> + +<p>From the work of F. G. Benedict one may calculate +the increase in the basal metabolism, as follows:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><th>Occupation</th> +<th>Increase in<br /> the basal<br /> metabolism<br /> in per cent.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Sitting</td><td align='right' class="pad-r2">5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Standing, relaxed</td><td align='right' class="pad-r2">10</td></tr> +<tr><td>Standing, hand on a staff</td><td align='right' class="pad-r2">11</td></tr> +<tr><td>Standing, leaning on support</td><td align='right' class="pad-r2">3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Standing, "attention"</td><td align='right' class="pad-r2">14</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If one wishes to determine from the basal metabolism +table the heat production of a person who is confined +to his room, one should add to the metabolism of the +twenty-four hours the increase above the basal for +those hours of the day during which he is sitting in a +chair or standing.</p> + +<p>Passing to a consideration of the subject of mechanical +work done by a man, one finds that it requires about +1.1 calories to transport a pound of body weight three +miles during an hour, and that increasing power must +be generated if the speed is increased above this rate of +<i>maximal economic velocity</i>.</p> + +<p>These relations are shown below:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><th>Rate of movement</th> +<th>Extra calories<br /> +per hour required<br /> +to move 1 pound<br /> +of body</th></tr> +<tr><td>Walking 3 miles per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r3">1.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Walking 5.3 miles per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r3">3.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Running 5.3 miles per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r3">3.1</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If one wishes to determine the heat production of a +man weighing 156 pounds and 5 feet, 7 inches in height, +and who is walking or running, the following calculations +can be made:</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><th class="pad-r4">Rate of travel per hour in miles</th> +<th>3<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><br /> Cals.</th> +<th>5.3<a name="FNanchor_3b_3b" id="FNanchor_3b_3b"></a><a href="#Footnote_3b_3b" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><br /> Cals.</th> +<th>5.3<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a><br /> Cals.</th></tr> + +<tr><td class="pad-r4">Metabolism for transporting 156 pounds</td><td align='right'>172</td><td align='right'>562</td><td align='right'>484</td></tr> +<tr><td>Basal metabolism</td><td align='right'>70</td><td align='right'>70</td><td align='right'>70</td></tr> +<tr><td>Add for standing</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>7</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="total" align='right'>249</td><td class="total" align='right'>639</td><td class="total" align='right'>561</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If the man's food cost 10 cents a thousand calories, +it may be calculated that he would have to walk over +eight miles at a rate of three miles per hour in order to +save money when he pays a 5-cent carfare. (This, +however, does not include the cost of shoe leather.)</p> + +<p>The carrying of a load of 44 pounds is done at the +same expenditure of energy as the carrying of one's own +body weight when the rate is three miles an hour, so +the soldier's equipment would call for the added expenditure +of 48 calories (44 × 1.1), making his total +hourly expenditure of energy nearly 300 calories (249 + 44) +during a hike on a level road. His daily requirement +for energy might be:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><th>Calories</th></tr> +<tr><td>Sleeping 8 hours at 70 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">560</td></tr> +<tr><td>Resting in camp 6 hours at 77 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">462</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-r4">Hike of 30 miles, 10 hours at 300 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">3000</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="total pad-r1" align='right'>4022</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This would be the heat production of a soldier on a +day of a "forced march." The ordinary day's march is +only fifteen miles.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p><p>This assumes a level road. If, however, there are +hills to climb and the body weight and the pack are +lifted 1000 feet during the hike, this is done at the additional +expense of approximately 0.96 calory of energy +per pound of weight lifted. If the man weighed 156 +pounds and the pack 44 pounds, the additional fuel requirement +would be 192 calories (200 × 0.96). The +total energy requirement for this kind of a hike would +have been 4200 calories. Walking down hill is accomplished +at an expenditure of slightly less energy than +walking on the level, but this factor need not concern +one.</p> + +<p>Supposing, however, this individual were running, +lightly clad, on a level road in a race for a distance of 40 +miles at the rate of 5.3 miles per hour, he would complete +the distance in seven hours and thirty-three minutes, +which is a reasonable record. His metabolism +might thus be calculated:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><th>Calories</th></tr> +<tr><td>Sleeping 10 hours at 70 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">700</td></tr> +<tr><td>Resting 6 hours, 23 minutes, at 77 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">497</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-r4">Running 7 hours, 33 minutes, at 561 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">4236</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="total pad-r1" align='right'>5433</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It is a matter of record that a man has run between +Milwaukee and Chicago, a distance of 80 miles, in about +fifteen hours. Such an amount of work would have required +over 9000 calories for the day.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p><p>These calculations are all based upon experimental +results obtained in various laboratories in different +parts of the world and can be accepted as being free +from any gross error.</p> + +<p>It is evident that the energy requirement is proportional +to the amount of mechanical energy expended.</p> + +<p>One may turn now to the fuel needs in terms of calories +in certain industrial pursuits. According to +Becker and Hämäläinen, the quantity of extra metabolism +per hour required in various pursuits is as follows:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> + +<tr><td></td><th>Extra calories of<br /> +metabolism per<br /> +hour due to<br /> +occupation</th></tr> + +<tr><td>Occupations of women:</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Seamstress</td> <td align="center">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Typist<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td> + <td align="center">24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2 pad-r4">Seamstress using sewing machine</td> <td align="center">24-57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Bookbinder</td> <td align="center">38-63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Housemaid</td> <td align="center">81-157</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Washerwoman</td> <td align="center">124-214</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Occupations of men:</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Tailor</td> <td align="center">44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Bookbinder</td> <td align="center">81</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Shoemaker</td> <td align="center">90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Carpenter</td> <td align="center">116-164</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Metal worker</td> <td align="center">141</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Painter (of furniture)</td> <td align="center">145</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Stonemason</td> <td align="center">300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-l2">Man sawing wood</td> <td align="center">378</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>To use this table one may seek the basal metabolism +of the individual, add 10 per cent. for sixteen hours of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +wakefulness when the person is sitting or standing, and +then multiply the factors in the last table by the numbers +of hours of work. For example, if one takes the +individual weighing 156 pounds, one obtains the following +requirements of energy if his business were that of a +tailor and he worked eight hours a day:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><th>Calories</th></tr> +<tr><td>Sleeping 8 hours at 70 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">560</td></tr> +<tr><td>Awake 16 hours at 77 calories per hour</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">1232</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-r4">Add for work as tailor 8 hours at 44 calories</td><td align='right' class="pad-r1">352</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="total pad-r1" align='right'>2144</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>After this fashion one might calculate his food requirements +had he followed occupations other than +that of tailor:</p> + +<table cellspacing="2" summary=""> + +<tr><th>Occupation</th> +<th>Calories of<br /> +metabolism<br /> +per day</th></tr> + +<tr><td>Bookbinder</td> <td align="center">2440</td></tr> +<tr><td>Shoemaker</td> <td align="center">2510</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carpenter</td> <td align="center">3100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Metal worker</td> <td align="center">2900</td></tr> +<tr><td>Painter</td> <td align="center">2950</td></tr> +<tr><td>Stonemason</td> <td align="center">4200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="pad-r4">Man sawing wood</td> <td align="center">4800</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures make no allowance for walking to or +from the place of employment.</p> + +<p>The data here given are inadequate to cover the industrial +situation, but they show clearly that heavy work +cannot be accomplished without a sufficient amount +of food-fuel.</p> + +<p>The food-fuel with which to accomplish work is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +necessary not only for the soldier, but for the workman +behind the line, and it should be adequate in quantity, +satisfactory in quality, and not exorbitant in cost.</p> + +<p>In virtue of the world-wide scarcity of food, the work +of the individual should be worthy of the food which he +eats.</p> + +<p>Tables showing the cost of various wholesome food-stuffs +about July 1, 1917, are here reproduced for the +benefit of the reader. The tables were prepared by +Dr. F. C. Gephart and issued by the Department of +Health of the City of New York in a leaflet edited by +Doctors Holt, La Fetra, Pisek, and Lusk on the subject +of food for children. If the world is seeking after energy +in the form of food-fuel, the world is rightly entitled +to understand the value of its purchases. It +must be clearly understood that people are always destined +to look with hopeful anticipation toward the enjoyment +of a meal. They will instinctively "eat calories" +just as they instinctively "eat pounds." They +<i>buy pounds</i> of food, and they could buy more intelligently +if they knew the energy value of what they buy.</p> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td></td><th align="center">Cost of 1000 calories, cents</th> +<th align="center" class="pad-l2">Price per pound, cents</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 1</span>—<i>Cost of Fats.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Cottonseed oil</td> <td>7.3</td> <td>31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Oleomargarine</td> <td>8.5</td> <td>30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Peanut butter</td> <td>8.8</td> <td>25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Butter</td> <td>11.9</td> <td>43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Olive oil</td> <td>12.1</td> <td>51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Bacon</td> <td>13.8</td> <td>37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Bacon, sliced, in jars</td> <td>23.8</td> <td>65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Cream (extra heavy, 40 per cent.)</td> <td>37.7</td> <td>65 (1 pint)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 2</span>—<i>Cost of Cereals.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Cornmeal, in bulk</td> <td>3.6</td> <td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Hominy, in bulk</td> <td>3.6</td> <td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Broken rice, in bulk</td> <td>3.7</td> <td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Oatmeal, in bulk</td> <td>3.8</td> <td>7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Samp, in bulk</td> <td>4.2</td> <td>7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Quaker Oats, in package</td> <td>4.4</td> <td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Macaroni, in package</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Wheat flour, in bulk</td> <td>4.6</td> <td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Malt breakfast food, in package</td> <td>4.8</td> <td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Pettijohn, in package</td> <td>5.3</td> <td>9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Cream of Wheat, in package</td> <td>5.7</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Farina, in package</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Cracked wheat, in bulk</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Pearl barley, in package</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Barley flour, in bulk</td> <td>6.1</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Whole rice, in bulk</td> <td>6.1</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Wheatena, in package</td> <td>8.1</td> <td>14</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 3</span>—<i>Cost of Ready-to-serve Cereals.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Shredded Wheat Biscuit</td> <td>7.8</td> <td>13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Grape-nuts</td> <td>8.6</td> <td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Force</td> <td>9.4</td> <td>16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Corn Flakes</td> <td>11.7</td> <td>20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Puffed rice</td> <td>23.5</td> <td>38</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 4</span>—<i>Cost of Vegetables.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">White potatoes</td> <td>12.9</td> <td>4.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Turnips</td> <td>20.0</td> <td>2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">New beets</td> <td>27.6</td> <td>5.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Onions</td> <td>29.3</td> <td>6.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Spinach</td> <td>30.0</td> <td>3.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Green peas</td> <td>39.2</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Lima beans</td> <td>39.2</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +Cauliflower</td> <td>42.9</td> <td>6.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Carrots</td> <td>50.0</td> <td>8.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">String-beans</td> <td>55.6</td> <td>10.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Squash</td> <td>76.2</td> <td>8.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Lettuce</td> <td>89.4</td> <td>7.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Celery</td> <td>214.0</td> <td>15.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 5</span>—<i>Cost of Breadstuffs.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Ginger-snaps</td> <td>6.3</td> <td>12.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Graham bread</td> <td>8.2</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">White bread</td> <td>8.5</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Rye bread</td> <td>8.7</td> <td>10.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Graham crackers</td> <td>9.2</td> <td>18.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Soda crackers</td> <td>9.4</td> <td>18.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">French rolls</td> <td>10.8</td> <td>14.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Uneeda Biscuit</td> <td>12.4</td> <td>24.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 6</span>—<i>Cost of Proteins.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Milk (Grade A)</td> <td>20.0</td> <td>13.0 (1 quart)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Roast beef (rib)</td> <td>23.4</td> <td>26.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Buttermilk</td> <td>26.5</td> <td>9.0 (1 quart)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Lamb chops (loin)</td> <td>32.7</td> <td>43.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Lamb chops (rib)</td> <td>34.9</td> <td>38.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Young codfish (fresh)</td> <td>38.6</td> <td>12.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Chicken (roasting)</td> <td>41.3</td> <td>32.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Eggs</td> <td>44.7</td> <td>45.0 (1 dozen)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Beefsteak (round)</td> <td>50.4</td> <td>34.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 7</span>—<i>Cost of Fruit.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item" colspan="3">Fresh (in season):</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Bananas</td> <td>23.0</td> <td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Apples</td> <td>23.7</td> <td>5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Oranges</td> <td>65.0</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item" colspan="3"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +Dried:</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Prunes</td> <td>8.4</td> <td>10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Apples</td> <td>11.1</td> <td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Peaches</td> <td>12.5</td> <td>15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" class="pad-l2">Apricots</td> <td>15.5</td> <td>20</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="cost" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<col width="54%"></col> +<col width="20%"></col> +<col width="26%"></col> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table 8</span>—<i>Cost of Syrup.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Cane sugar</td> <td>4.5</td> <td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="item">Karo corn syrup</td> <td>5.7</td> <td>8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A British scientific commission has reported to Parliament +that if the workman be undernourished he may, +by grit and pluck, continue his labor for a certain time, +but in the end his work is sure to fail. It makes no +difference what the nutritive condition of the person is, +if a certain job involving muscular effort is to be done it +always requires a definite amount of extra food-fuel +to do it. Rubner, the greatest German authority on +nutrition, excited grossly inappropriate hilarity in the +comic press of his country by showing that a poor +woman who waited several hours in line in order to receive +the dole of fat allowed her by the government +actually consumed more of her own body fat in the +effort of standing during those hours than she obtained +in the fat given her when her turn to receive it came at +last.</p> + +<p>A method by which food-fuel can readily be saved +with benefit to the nation and to the individual is for +the overfat to reduce their weight. This has been done +with drastic severity in Germany. I have heard from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +unquestioned sources how a man who had weighed 240 +pounds lost 90 pounds since the war began; how a corpulent +professor at Breslau lost greatly in weight, but +during the second summer of the war regained his +former corpulence during a sojourn in the Bavarian +Tyrol, a joy not now tolerated; and how an American +woman lost 40 pounds in weight last winter in Dresden. +There is every reason why a man who is overweight at +the age of fifty should reduce his weight until he reaches +the weight he was when he was thirty-five. According +to Dr. Fisk he is a better insurance risk if after thirty-five +he is under the weight which is the average for +those of his years. Reduction in weight reduces the +basal requirement for food, and reduces the amount of +fuel needed for moving the body in walking. The most +extreme illustration of the effect of emaciation upon the +food requirement is afforded by a woman who after +losing nearly half of her body weight was found to need +only 40 per cent. of the food-fuel formerly required. +This represented a state not far from the border line of +death from starvation, but it indicates how a community +may long support itself on restricted rations. It +must be strictly borne in mind, however, that if any external +muscular work is to be accomplished it can only +be effected at the expense of a given added quantity of +food-fuel, whether the person be fat or thin.</p> + +<p>It is not at all difficult to reduce the body weight. +Suppose a clergyman or a physician requires 2500 calories +daily in the accomplishment of his work and takes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +2580 calories per day instead. The additional 80 +calories is the equivalent of a butter ball weighing a +third of an ounce, or an ounce of bread or half a glass of +milk. It would seem to be the height of absurdity to +object to such a trifle. But if this excess in food intake +be continued for a year, the person will gain nine +pounds and at the end of ten years ninety pounds. +Such a person would find that he required a constantly +increasing amount of food in order to transport his constantly +increasing weight. In instances of this sort a +motto may be applied which I heard the last time I was +in Washington: "Do not stuff your husband, husband +your stuff."</p> + +<p>Now it is evident that, if instead of taking more than +the required amount of food a little less be taken than is +needed, the balance of food-fuel must be obtained from +the reserves of the body's own supply of fat. By cutting +down the quantity of fat taken, or by eliminating a +glass of beer or a drink of whiskey, and not compensating +for the loss of these by adding other food stuffs, +the weight may be gradually reduced. The amusing +little book entitled "Eat and Grow Thin" recommends +a high protein and almost carbohydrate-free diet for +the accomplishment of this purpose, but its advice has +made so many of my friends so utterly miserable that +I am sure in the end it will counteract its own message.</p> + +<p>The work of the world is accomplished in largest part +by the oxidation of carbohydrates, that is to say, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +sugars and starches. Bread, corn, rice, macaroni, +cane-sugar, these are <i>par excellence</i> the food-fuels of +the human machine. In the dinner-pail of the laborer +they testify as to the source of his power. They are +convertible into glucose in the body, which glucose +gives power to the human machine. They may be used +for the production of work without of themselves increasing +the heat production of the worker, as happens +after meat ingestion. (<a href="#Page_18">See p. 18.</a>) Fat also may be +used as a source of energy, but unless carbohydrate is +present a person can not work up to his fullest capacity.</p> + +<p>Cane-sugar is a valuable condiment, and when taken +in small quantities every half hour, may delay the onset +of fatigue. It is more largely used in the United States +than in other countries in the world. As a substitute, +glucose may be used. This is found in grapes and in +raisins and it is also produced in large quantities by the +hydrolysis of starch and sold under the commercial +name of corn syrup or Karo. This substance is entirely +wholesome and may be freely employed in the +place of sugar, which is scarce.</p> + +<p>As to the use of alcoholic beverages, the question resolves +itself into several factors. Alcohol gives a sham +sensation of added force and in reality decreases the +ability to do work. Alcohol is the greatest cause of +misery in the world, and as Cushny has put it, if alcohol +had been a new synthetic drug introduced from Germany, +its importation would long since have been forbidden. +On the other hand, good beer makes poor food<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +taste well. It also frequently leads to overeating. +The cure for bad food is to have our daughters taught +how to cook a decent meal. After that we can talk +about prohibition.</p> + +<p>In some parts of the world whole nations are starving +to death. In most countries of the world people are +short of food. In America we have more food than in +any other land, and we must, therefore, be careful in our +abundance, saving it to the utmost, while, at the same +time, conserving the safety of our own people.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3 class="smcap">Footnotes:</h3> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a name="Footnote_3b_3b" id="Footnote_3b_3b"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Walking.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Running.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Observation of Carpenter.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<h2>III<br /><br /> +RULES OF SAVING AND SAFETY</h2> + +<p>1. Let no family (of five persons) buy meat until it +has bought three quarts of milk, the cheapest protein +food. Farmers should be urged to meet this demand.</p> + +<p>2. Save the cream and butter and eat oleomargarine +and vegetable oils. Olive oil or cottonseed oil, taken +with cabbage, lettuce, or beet-tops, is excellent food, in +many ways imitating milk.</p> + +<p>3. Eat meat sparingly, rich and poor, laborer and +indolent alike. Meat does not increase the muscular +power. When a person is exposed to great cold, meat +may be recommended, for it warms the body more than +any other food. In hot weather, for the same reason, it +causes increased sweating and discomfort. In general, +twice as much meat is used as is now right, for to produce +meat requires much fodder which might better be +used for milk production.</p> + +<p>4. Eat corn bread. It saved our New England ancestors +from starvation. If we eat it we can send wheat +to France. Eat oatmeal.</p> + +<p>5. Drink no alcohol. In many families 10 per cent. +of the income is spent for drink, or a sum which, if +spent for real food, would greatly improve the welfare +of the family.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p><p>6. Eat corn syrup on cereals. It will save the sugar. +Eat raisins in rice pudding, for raisins contain sugar.</p> + +<p>7. Eat fresh fish.</p> + +<p>8. Eat fruit and vegetables.</p> + +<p>Since the total energy for the maintenance of our +bodies can be measured in calories, and since this energy +serves for the maintenance of the nations of the +world, is it not surprising how little even educated +people know about the subject?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<ul><li><span class="smcap">Alcoholic</span> beverages, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Appetite, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Balanced</span> ration, biological analysis of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Basal metabolism, definition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> +<ul> +<li> of boys, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li> of men, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> +<ul><li> table, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li></ul> +</li> +<li> of women, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Butter, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Cabbage</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>Calorie, definition, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Calories, cost of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Calorimeter, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Cane sugar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Carbohydrates and muscular work, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>Chittenden, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + +<li>Corn and pellagra, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> +<ul><li> in Italy, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> +<li> quantity available, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li> reasons for using, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li> syrup, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>Cream, use of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Diet</span>, a balanced, <a href="#Page_7">7</a> +<ul> +<li> a proper, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li> Italian, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> +<li> of purified food-stuffs, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>DuBois, measurement of surface area, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Economy</span> in diet, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Emaciation, metabolism in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Energy of sun, relation of life to, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Fasting</span>, metabolism in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Foods, cost of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Graham</span> bread, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + +<li>Graham, Sylvester, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + +<li>Green leaves in diet, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Heat</span> production in man, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Hindhede's dietary, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Life</span>, nature of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Meat</span> and muscle work, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> +<ul><li> desirability of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li> economic production of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li> in hot weather, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li> restricted diet of, in America, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> +<ul><li> in England, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li> in Germany, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li></ul> +</li> +<li> specific dynamic action of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>Meatless dietary, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Men, metabolism of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Metabolism, definition of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> +<ul><li> in emaciation, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li> in fasting, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>Milk, cost of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> +<ul><li> economic production of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li> food value, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li> in pellagra, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>Mineral salts, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Muscle work, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> +<ul><li> and carbohydrates, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li> and diet, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li> and fasting, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li> and protein, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li> and undernutrition, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li></ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Occupation</span> and metabolism, carrying a load, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> +<ul><li> climbing, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li> industrial, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li> posture, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li> running, <a href="#Page_30">30-32</a></li> +<li> walking, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>Oleomargarine, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Olive oil, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Overfat people, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Oxidation of food-stuffs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Peanut</span> butter, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Pellagra, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Pork, economic production of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Potato diet, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Rules</span> of saving and safety, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Substitution</span> of foods, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> +<ul><li> historical, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li></ul> +</li> + +<li>Summary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Surface area and heat production, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Undernutrition</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> +<ul><li> and labor, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li></ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Vegetable</span> oils, use of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Vegetarianism, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + +<li>Vitamins, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><span class="smcap">Weight</span>, reduction of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Women, metabolism of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +</ul> + +<div class="tn"> +<h3 class="smcap">Transcriber's Note:</h3> + +<p>The following corrections were made to the text: Du Bois to DuBois (<a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>, +Index entry) and Oleomargarin to Oleomargarine (<a href="#Page_46">p. 46</a>, Index entry).</p> + +<p>The variant spelling "calory" (<a href="#Page_32">p. 32</a>) has been retained.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project 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