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diff --git a/32251-h/32251-h.htm b/32251-h/32251-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e76724 --- /dev/null +++ b/32251-h/32251-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5249 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Applied Physiology, by Frank Overton</title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + + .gap { margin-top: 1em; } + +hr { + margin: 3em auto 3em auto; + height: 0px; + border-width: 1px 0 0 0; + border-style: solid; + border-color: #dcdcdc; + width: 500px; + clear: both; +} + +hr.hr2 { + width: 250px; + margin: 3em auto 3em auto; +} + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +table { + width: auto; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + border-collapse: collapse; +} + +td.c1 { + text-align: right; + vertical-align: top; + padding-right: 1em; +} + +td.c2 { + text-align: left; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-right: 1em; + vertical-align: top; +} + +td.c3 { + text-align: right; + padding-left: 1em; + vertical-align: bottom; +} + +td.c11 { + text-align: left; + vertical-align: top; + padding-right: 1em; +} + +td.c33 { + text-align: left; + padding-left: 1em; + vertical-align: bottom; +} + +td {padding: 0em 1em;} +th {padding: 0em 1em;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: #999; +} /* page numbers */ + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +/* Images */ + .figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + + .bord img { + padding: 1px; + border: 1px solid black; +} + +p.caption { + margin-top: 0; + font-size: 70%; + text-align: left; +} + +p.caption2 { + margin-top: 0; + font-size: 70%; + text-align: center; +} + + .figleft { + clear: left; + float: left; + padding: 0; + text-align: left; + width: auto; +} + + .figright { + clear: right; + float: right; + margin: 0em 0em 0em 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: left; + width: auto; +} + +/* INDEX */ +ul.index { list-style-type: none; + width: 20em; + margin: 2em auto; +} + +ul.index2 { list-style-type: none; } + +li.pad { padding-top: 2.0%; } + +/* Transcriber Notes */ +div.tn { + background-color:#EEE; + border:dashed 1px; + color:#000; + margin-left:10em; + margin-right:10em; + margin-top:5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + padding:1em; +} + +ul.corrections { + list-style-type:circle; +} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Applied Physiology, by Frank Overton</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Applied Physiology</p> +<p> Including the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics</p> +<p>Author: Frank Overton</p> +<p>Release Date: May 4, 2010 [eBook #32251]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Larry B. Harrison<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1>APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY</h1> +<h5>INCLUDING</h5> +<h2>THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL<br /> +AND NARCOTICS</h2> + +<p> </p> + +<h4>BY</h4> +<h3>FRANK OVERTON, A.M., M.D.</h3> +<h5>LATE HOUSE SURGEON TO THE CITY HOSPITAL, NEW YORK</h5> + +<p> </p> + +<h3><i>PRIMARY GRADE</i></h3> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h4>NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO</h4> +<h3>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h3> + + +<hr /> +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1898, 1910, by</span></h5> +<h4>FRANK OVERTON</h4> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h5>OV. PHYSIOL. (PRIM.)</h5> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>E-P 42</h5> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>This primary text-book of applied physiology follows +a natural order of treatment. In each subject +elementary anatomical facts are presented in a manner +which impresses function rather than form, and +from the form described derives the function. The +facts and principles are then applied to everyday +life. Anatomy and pure physiology make clear and +fix hygienic points, while applied physiology lends +interest to the otherwise dry facts of physiology and +anatomy. From the great range of the science +there are included only those subjects which are +directly concerned in the growth and development +of children.</p> + +<p>The value of a primary book depends largely +upon the language used. In bringing the truths +within the comprehension of children, the author +has made sparing use of the complex sentence. He +has made the sentences short and simple in form, +and logical in arrangement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> + A child grasps new ideas mainly as they appeal +directly to the senses. For this reason, physiological +demonstrations are indispensable. Subjects for +demonstrations are not given, because they cannot +be performed by the children; but the teacher +should make free use of the series given in the +author's advanced physiology.</p> + +<p>Cuts and diagrams are inserted where they are +needed to explain the text. They are taken from +the author's <i>Applied Physiology, Intermediate Grade</i>. +Each was chosen, not for artistic effect, but because +of its fitness to illustrate a point. Most of the cuts +are adapted for reproduction on the blackboard.</p> + +<p>The effects of alcohol and other narcotics are +treated with special fulness. The subject is given +a fair and judicial discussion, and those conclusions +are presented which are universally accepted by the +medical profession. But while this most important +form of intemperance is singled out, it should be +remembered that the breaking of any of nature's +laws is also a form of intemperance, and that the +whole study of applied physiology is to encourage +a more healthy and a more noble and self-denying +mode of life.</p> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table class="toc" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="c1"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td class="c2"> </td><td class="c3"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">I.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Cells</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">II.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Of what Cells are made</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">III.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Digestion of Food in the Mouth</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">IV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Digestion of Food in the Stomach</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">V.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Foods</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">VI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Tobacco</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">VII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Fermentation</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">VIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Kinds of Strong Drink</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">IX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Blood</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">X.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Breathing, Heat, and Clothing</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Skin and Kidneys</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Nerves, Spinal Cord, and Brain</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Senses</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XIV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Bones and Joints</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Muscles</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XVI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Disease Germs</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XVII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Preventing Sickness</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="c2"> </td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> +<h1>APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY</h1> + + +<hr class="hr2" /> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> +<h3>CELLS</h3> + + +<p>Our body is made of many parts. Its head +thinks. Its legs carry it, and its arms and hands +take hold of things. The leg cannot do the work +of the arm, nor the head do the work of the hand; +but each part does only its own work.</p> + +<p><b>1. The simplest animal.</b>—Some animals have +parts like a man's; but these parts are fewer. No +animal has arms or hands like a man. A fish has +little fins in place of legs and arms, while a worm has +not even a head, but only a body, and yet it moves. +An oyster has only a body and cannot move. The +simplest of all animals is very small. A thousand +of them would not reach an inch. Yet each is a +complete animal. It is called the <i>ameba</i>. It is only +a lump of jelly. It can put out any part of its body +like an arm and take a lump of food. This same +arm can eat the food, too. It can also put out any + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +part of its body like a leg and move by rolling the +rest of its body into the leg. It can do some things +better than a man can do them, for any part of its +body can do all kinds of work. So the ameba +grows and moves and does as it likes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0008a-illus" id="i0008a-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0008a-illus.jpg" width="500" height="89" alt="Ameba" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>Different forms of an ameba (×400).</b></p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0008b-illus" id="i0008b-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0008b-illus.jpg" width="150" height="95" alt="Human cells" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Cells from the human body (×200).</b><br /> +<i>a</i> A colored cell from the eye.<br /> +<i>b</i> A white blood cell.<br /> +<i>c</i> A connective tissue cell.<br /> +<i>d</i> A cell from the lining of the mouth.<br /> +<i>e</i> Liver cells.<br /> +<i>f</i> A muscle cell from the intestine.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>2. Cells.</b>—A man's finger moves and grows +something like a separate animal, but it must +keep with the rest of +the body. A little piece +of a finger moves and +grows, too. If you +should look at a finger, +or any other part of +your body, through a +microscope, you would +see that it is composed +of little lumps of jelly. +Each little lump looks +like an ameba. We call each lump a cell. The +cells make up the finger.</p> + +<p><b>3. What cells do.</b>—Each cell acts much as an +ameba does. From the blood it gets food and air + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +and takes them in through any part of its body. +It also grows and moves. But the cells are not +free to do as they wish, for they are all tied +together in armies by very fine strings. We call +these strings <i>connective tissue</i>. One army of cells +makes the skin, and other armies make the bones +and flesh. Some armies make the fingers, and some +the legs. Every part of our body is made up of +armies of separate cells.</p> + +<p><b>4. The mind.</b>—The body is a home for the +mind. The cells obey the mind. The mind pays +the cells by feeding them and taking good care +of them. When an army of cells is hurt, the body +feels sick, and then the mind tells the whole body +to rest until the cells are well again. When we +study about a man's body, we learn about the separate +cells in his body.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Our body is made up of many small parts.</p> +<p>2. The smallest parts are each like a little animal, +and are called <i>cells</i>.</p> +<p>3. Each cell eats and grows.</p> +<p>4. One army of cells makes a finger and another a +leg, and so on through the body.</p> +<p>5. The mind lives in the body.</p> +<p>6. The mind takes care of the cells.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>OF WHAT CELLS ARE MADE</h3> + +<p>The cells of our body are made of five common +things. You would know all these things if you +should see them.</p> + +<p><b>5. Water.</b>—The first thing in the cells is <i>water</i>. +Water is everywhere in the body. Even the teeth +have water. Most of our flesh is water. Without +water we should soon shrink up. Our flesh would +be stiff like bone and no one could live.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0010-illus" id="i0010-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0010-illus.jpg" width="500" height="227" alt="Items, cells made of" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>The body is made of these five things.</b></p> +</div> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0011-illus" id="i0011-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0011-illus.jpg" width="150" height="107" alt="Tissue" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> + <b>Fat tissue (×100).</b><br /> +The liquid fat is stored in living pockets.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>6. Albumin.</b>—<i>Second</i>, next to water, something +like the white of an egg makes the most of the +body. The white of an egg is <i>albumin</i>. When + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +dried it is like gelatine or glue. Albumin makes +the most of the solid part of each cell. Lean meat +and cheese are nearly all albumin. When it is +heated it becomes +harder and turns +white. The word +albumin means white. +Dry albumin is hard +and tough, but in +the living cells it is +dissolved in water +and is soft like meat. +It is the only living +substance in the body, and it alone gives it strength.</p> + +<p><b>7. Fat.</b>—<i>Third</i>, next to albumin, the most of +the body is fat. Fat does not grow inside the cells +of the body, but it fills little pockets between the +cells. Fat does not give strength. It makes the +body round and handsome. It also makes the cells +warm and keeps them from getting hurt.</p> + +<p><b>8. Sugar.</b>—<i>Fourth</i>, sugar also is found in the +body. Sugar is made out of starch. When we +eat starch it changes to sugar. Starch and sugar +are much alike. We eat a great deal of starch and +sugar, but they are soon used in warming the body. +Only a little is in the body at once.</p> + +<p><b>9. Minerals.</b>—<i>Fifth</i>, there are also some minerals + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +in the body. When flesh is burned they are +left as <i>ashes</i>. Salt, lime, iron, soda, and potash are +all found in the body.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0012-illus" id="i0012-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0012-illus.jpg" width="150" height="103" alt="Grains" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> <b>Starch grains (×400).</b><br /> +<i>a</i>, of potato. <i>b</i>, of corn.</p> +</div> + +<p>Everything in the body is either water, albumin, +fat, sugar, or minerals. +These things +are also our food. +We eat them mixed +together in bread, +meat, eggs, milk, +and other foods.</p> + +<p><b>10. Life.</b>—Our +food is not alive, but after we eat it the body +makes it alive. We do not know how it does it. +When the body dies we cannot put life into it +again. There is life in each cell.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The body is made of five things: water, albumin, +fat, sugar, and minerals.</p> + +<p>2. Water is mixed with all parts of the body.</p> + +<p>3. Albumin makes the living part of each cell.</p> + +<p>4. Fat is in pockets between the cells. It warms +the cells and keeps them from being hurt.</p> + +<p>5. Sugar is made from starch. It warms the body.</p> + +<p>6. The minerals in the body are salt, lime, iron, +soda, and potash.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> +<h3>DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE MOUTH</h3> + +<p><b>11. Food of the cells.</b>—All the cells of the body +work and wear out. They must eat and keep growing. +The food of the cells is the blood. Water, +albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals are in the blood. +The cells eat these things and grow. All food +must be one or more of these five things. Before +they reach the blood, they must all be changed +to a liquid. A few cells of the body are set aside +to do this work of changing them. Changing food +into blood is digestion.</p> + +<p><b>12. Cooking.</b>—Cooking begins digestion. It +softens and dissolves food. It makes food taste +better. Most food is unfit for use until it is +cooked. Poor cooking often makes food still worse +for use. Food should always be soft and taste +good after cooking. Softening food by cooking +saves the mouth and stomach a great deal of work. +The good taste of the food makes it pleasant for +them to digest it. We must cut our food into +small pieces before we eat it. If we eat only a + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +small piece at a time we shall not eat too fast. +If we cut our food fine we can find any bones and +other hard things, and can keep them from getting +inside the body.</p> + +<p><b>13. Chewing.</b>—Digestion goes on in the mouth. +The mouth does three things to food. <i>First</i>, it +mixes and grinds it between the teeth.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, it pours water over the food through +fine tubes. The water of the mouth is called the +saliva. The saliva makes the food a thin paste.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, the saliva changes some of the starch to +sugar. Starch must be all changed to sugar before +it can feed the cells.</p> + +<p><b>14. Too fast eating.</b>—Some boys fill their mouths +with food. Then they cannot chew their food and +cannot mix saliva with it. They swallow their food +whole, and then their stomachs have to grind it. +The saliva cannot mix with the food and so it is +too dry in the stomach. Then their stomachs ache, +and they are sick. Eating too fast and too much +makes children sick oftener than anything else.</p> + +<p>Birds swallow their food whole, for they have no +teeth. Instead, a strong gizzard inside grinds the +food. We have no gizzards, and so we must grind +our food with our teeth.</p> + +<p><b>15. Teeth.</b>—We have two kinds of teeth. The +front teeth are sharp and cut the food; the back + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +teeth are flat and rough and grind it. If you bite +nuts or other hard things you may break off a little +piece of a tooth. Then the tooth may decay and +ache.</p> + +<p>After you eat, some food will sometimes stick +to the teeth. Then it may decay and make your +breath smell bad. After each meal always pick the +teeth with a wooden toothpick. Your teeth will +also get dirty and become +stained unless you clean +them. Always brush your +teeth with water every +morning. This will also +keep them from decaying.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0015-illus" id="i0015-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0015-illus.jpg" width="150" height="169" alt="View of a bird" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> <b>Digestive organs of a bird.</b><br /> +<i>a</i> esophagus or swallowing tube.<br /> +<i>b</i> crop or bag for carrying food.<br /> +<i>c</i> stomach.<br /> +<i>d</i> intestine.<br /> +<i>e</i> gizzard or food grinder.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>16. Swallowing.</b>—When +food has been chewed and +mixed with saliva until it +is a paste, it is ready to be +swallowed. The tongue +pushes the food into a bag +just back of the mouth. We +call the bag the <i>pharynx</i>. +Then the pharynx squeezes it down a long tube +and into the stomach. The nose and windpipe +also open into this bag, but both are closed by +little doors while we swallow. We cannot breathe +while we swallow. If the doors are not shut + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +tightly, some food gets into the windpipe and +chokes us.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. We eat to feed the cells of the body.</p> +<p>2. All food must be made into blood.</p> +<p>3. Changing food to blood is digestion.</p> +<p>4. Cooking softens food and makes it taste good.</p> +<p>5. Food is ground fine in the mouth, and mixed +with saliva to form a paste. Some of its +starch is changed to sugar.</p> +<p>6. If food is only half chewed the stomach has to +grind it.</p> +<p>7. When we swallow, the tongue pushes the food +into a bag back of the mouth and the bag +squeezes it down a long tube to the stomach.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h3>DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH</h3> + +<p><b>17. The stomach.</b>—When food is swallowed it +goes to the stomach. The stomach is a thin bag. +In a man it holds about three pints. Like the +mouth, it does three things to the food.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0017-illus" id="i0017-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0017-illus.jpg" width="150" height="195" alt="Stomach glands" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Gastric glands in the stomach<br /> + + (×200).</b><br /> +The cells <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, form the juice.<br /> +The fibers <i>c</i>, bind the tubes in place.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>First</i>, the stomach gently +stirs and mixes the food.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, it pours a fluid +over the food. This fluid +is called the <i>gastric juice</i>. +The gastric juice is sour +and bitter.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, the gastric juice +changes some of the albumin +of food to a liquid form.</p> + +<p>If the mouth has done +its work well, the stomach +does its work easily and +we do not know it. But if the mouth has eaten +food too fast and has not chewed it well, then the +stomach must do the work of the mouth too. In +that case it gets tired and aches.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> + <b>18. The intestine.</b>—The food stays in the stomach +only a little while. All the time a little keeps +trickling into a long coil of tube. This tube is +called the <i>intestine</i> or the <i>bowels</i>. Three or four +hours after a hearty meal the stomach is empty. +Some of the food has been changed to a liquid, +but most of it has only been ground to smaller +pieces, and mixed with a great deal of water. +Now it all must be changed to a liquid.</p> + +<p><b>19. What the intestine does.</b>—Like the mouth +and stomach, the intestine does three things.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, it mixes the food and makes it pass down +the tube.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, two sets of cells behind the stomach +make two liquids and pour them into the intestine. +One set of cells is the <i>sweetbread</i>, or <i>pancreas</i>, +and its liquid is the <i>pancreatic juice</i>. The +other is the <i>liver</i> and its fluid is the <i>bile</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, the pancreatic juice makes three changes +in food. <i>First</i>, like the mouth, it changes starch +to sugar. <i>Second</i>, like the stomach, it makes albumin +a liquid. <i>Third</i>, it divides fat into fine drops. +These drops then mix with water and do not float +on its top.</p> + +<p><b>20. Bile.</b>—The bile is yellow and bitter. It +helps the pancreatic juice do its work. It also +helps to keep the inside of the intestine clean.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> + <b>21. Digestion of water and minerals.</b>—Water and +the mineral parts of food do not need to be +changed at all, but can become part of the blood +just as they are. Seeds and husks and tough +strings of flesh all pass the length of the intestine +and are not changed.</p> + +<p><b>22. How food gets into the blood.</b>—By the time +food is half way down the intestine it is mostly +liquid and ready to become part of the blood. +This liquid soaks through the sides of the intestine +and into the blood tubes. At last the food +reaches the end of the intestine. Most of its liquid +has then soaked into the blood tubes and only +some solid waste is left.</p> + +<p><b>23. Work of the liver.</b>—The food is now in the +blood, but has not become a part of it. It is +carried to the liver. There the liver changes the +food to good blood, and then the blood hurries +on and feeds the cells of the body. Spoiled food +may be swallowed and taken into the blood with +the good food. The liver takes out the poisons +and sends them back again with the bile. The +liver keeps us from getting poisoned.</p> + +<p><b>24. Bad food.</b>—Sometimes the stomach and intestine +cannot digest the food. They cannot digest +green apples, but they try hard to do so. They +stir the apples faster and faster until there is + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +a great pain. Sometimes the stomach throws up +the food and then the pain and sickness stop. +Spoiled food makes us sick in the same way.</p> + +<p><b>25. Too fast eating.</b>—When the food stays too +long in the stomach or intestine it sours, or decays, +just as it does outside of the body. This makes +us very sick. When we eat too much, or when +we do not chew the food to small pieces, the +stomach may be a long time in digesting the +food. Then it may become sour and make us +sick.</p> + +<p><b>26. Biliousness.</b>—When the food is poor or becomes +sour, it is poorly digested. Then the liver +has more work to do, and does not change the +food to blood as it should. It also lets some of the +sour poisons pass by it. These poison the whole +body and make the head ache. We call this <i>biliousness</i>. +The tongue is then covered with a white +or yellow coat and the mouth tastes bad. These +are signs of sickness. The stomach and liver are +out of order.</p> + +<p><b>27. Rules for eating.</b>—If we eat as we should, +our stomach will digest its food. We must follow +three rules.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, we must chew the food in the mouth +until all the lumps are fine. Then the food will +be ready for the stomach.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> + <i>Second</i>, we must eat slowly. If we eat fast we +cannot chew the food well. The stomach cannot +take care of food if it comes too fast. We must +swallow all of one mouthful before we put another +into the mouth.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, we must eat only at meal times. The +stomach needs a rest. Even a little candy, or +apples, or nuts will keep the stomach at work, +and tire it out. A child needs to eat more often +than his father. So, besides his meals, he should +have something to eat in the middle of the morning +and some more in the afternoon. But he should +not be eating at all hours. He ought not to eat +little bits just before dinner, for that spoils his +meal.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The stomach and intestine stir and rub the +food, and mix it with juices.</p> +<p>2. The juices change albumin to a liquid, and +starch to sugar. They also change fat to +the form of tiny drops.</p> +<p>3. The digested food soaks through the sides of +the intestine into the blood tubes.</p> +<p>4. The blood carries the food to the liver.</p> +<p>5. The liver changes food to blood.</p> +<p>6. Blood goes to all parts of the body and feeds +the cells.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> + 7. The liver keeps poisons from getting into the blood.</p> +<p>8. Water and minerals become a part of the blood +without being digested.</p> +<p>9. When food is not well digested, the liver cannot +make it into good blood. This makes us +bilious.</p> +<p>10. If food is not soon digested it sours and decays. +This makes us sick.</p> +<p>11. We can make food digest quickly by chewing +it well and eating slowly.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> +<h3>FOODS</h3> + +<p><b>28. Kinds of food.</b>—The cells of the body need +water, albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals for food. +We sometimes eat sugar alone, and we drink pure +water. But most of our food is a mixture of all +five kinds of food. Food comes from animals and +plants.</p> + +<p><b>29. Milk</b>.—Milk is the best food known. It +contains just enough water, albumin, fat, sugar, and +minerals. Babies and young mammals live on milk +alone. A man can live upon four quarts of milk a +day. In sickness, milk is the very best food for +men, as well as for babies.</p> + +<p>The albumin of milk becomes hard when the +milk sours. This makes <i>cheese</i>. The fat of milk +rises to the top. We call it <i>cream</i>. When cream +is churned, the pure fat comes together in a lump. +Pure fat of milk is called <i>butter</i>. Cheese and butter +are both good foods.</p> + +<p><b>30. Eggs.</b>—Eggs are also good food. The white +of an egg is almost pure albumin. The yolk is +albumin and fat. Eggs have no starch or sugar. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +They are not a perfect food, for some sugar must +be eaten. But they can be quickly digested and +they produce a great deal of strength.</p> + +<p><b>31. Meat.</b>—Meat contains albumin and fat, but +no sugar. Fish, oysters, and clams are like meat. +They all make good food. Boys and girls should +eat milk, eggs, and meat. These foods are the best +to give strength to the body. Nearly all food from +animals is more quickly digested and gives more +strength than food from plants.</p> + +<p><b>32. Bread.</b>—White bread is a food made from +wheat. The wheat is ground to flour. Flour is +mixed with water, and yeast is added. The yeast +makes a gas, and the gas puffs up the wet flour +and makes it full of holes. The holes make the +bread <i>light</i>. Then bread is baked. Rye or corn +meal makes good bread. Cake, biscuit, and pancakes +are much like bread. Sometimes in place of +yeast, baking powder is used to make the bread or +cake light.</p> + +<p><b>33. Meal.</b>—Oatmeal, corn meal, and cracked +wheat and rice are sometimes boiled, and eaten +with milk. Bread, biscuit, oatmeal, and corn meal +are made from grain. All are very much alike. +The cooking makes them look and taste different, +but yet they are nearly the same.</p> + +<p><b>34. Why we need grain food.</b>—All kinds of grain + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +have much albumin, but only a little fat. But all +have a great deal of starch. By digestion the starch +becomes sugar. Grain is a good food because it +has starch or sugar. Animal foods have no sugar, +so we eat grain food with them. The two together +make the most nourishing food. Potatoes have a +great deal of starch and only a little albumin. +They also are good food with meat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0025-illus" id="i0025-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0025-illus.jpg" width="500" height="272" alt="Healthy foods" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>A healthy man needs as much food as this every day.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>A person cannot live well upon plant food alone, +for it has too much starch and sugar, and too little +albumin and fat. We need nearly equal parts of +albumin, fat, and sugar. A mixture of bread, meat, +eggs, vegetables, and milk makes the best food.</p> + +<p><b>35. Fruit.</b>—Fruit, like apples, peaches, and plums +all have sugar. They taste good, and give us an + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +appetite for other kinds of food. They have little +albumin or fat.</p> + +<p><b>36. Salt.</b>—There is enough mineral matter in all +food, and we do not have to eat iron or lime or soda. +But we do need some more salt. Even animals +need salt. Salt makes food taste good, and helps +its digestion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0026-illus" id="i0026-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0026-illus.jpg" width="500" height="427" alt="Unhealthy well" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>People are made sick by drinking water from such a well.</b></p> +</div> + +<p><b>37. Water.</b>—Water is also a food, for it forms +the most of our bodies. All food has water. Even +dry crackers contain it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> + <b>38. Pure water.</b>—Water in a well runs through +the dirty earth, and yet is clear and pure. This is +because sand holds back the dirt. But sometimes +slops from the house, and water from the barn yard, +soak through the soil until the sand is full. Then +the well water will be dirty and poisonous. People +are often made sick by drinking such water. In +cities the dirt fills all the soil and spoils the water. +So the water must be brought from the country in +large pipes.</p> + +<p>Water in lead pipes takes up some of the lead. +Lead is a poison. You should let the water run off +from a pipe a little while before you use it. Good +water is clear and has no smell or taste. Dirty or +yellow water, or water with a taste or smell, is not +fit for use.</p> + +<p><b>39. Tea and coffee.</b>—Tea and coffee are steeped in +water and used as a drink. The drink is the water. +The tea and coffee are neither food nor drink. +They cause the cells of the body to do more work, +and at the same time they take away the feeling +of being tired. They do not give strength to the +body, but are like a whip and make the body work +harder.</p> + +<p><b>40. The appetite.</b>—When we have so many kinds +of food, what kind is best for us? The taste of +food tells us the kind of food to eat. Bread and + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +meat, and such plain foods, always taste good, and +we never get tired of them. Sugar tastes good +until we get enough. Any more makes us sick. +More than enough sugar or starch is found in +bread and potatoes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0028-illus" id="i0028-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0028-illus.jpg" width="500" height="429" alt="Intemperance" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>One kind of intemperance.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>If we can eat food day after day, without getting +tired of it, the food is good for us. If we get +tired of its taste, either the food is not good for +us or we are eating too much. Bad tasting or +bad smelling food is always dangerous. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> + +<p>We can tell how much food to eat by our <i>hunger</i> +or <i>appetite</i>. We can always feel when we have +enough. Then is the time to stop.</p> + +<p>Sometimes we eat plain bread and meat until we +have enough, and then sweet cake or pie is brought +in. Then we have a false appetite for sweet things. +If the sweet things had not made a false hunger, we +should have had enough to eat. But the false appetite +makes us want more, and so we eat too much, +and sometimes get sick from it.</p> + +<p><b>41. Intemperance.</b>—Eating for the sake of a false +appetite is <i>intemperance</i>. Drinking strong drink +for the sake of its taste is a common form of intemperance. +But eating too much preserves, pie, and +candy is intemperance too, and can do a great deal +of harm. A little pie, or pudding, or candy, is good, +because we can eat our sugar as well that way as in +bread. But we should eat only a little.</p> + +<p><b>42. Food and Diseases.</b>—If our food is dirty or is +handled with dirty hands, or is put into dirty dishes, +there may be disease germs in it. Our food should +always be clean, and we should have our hands clean +when we handle it or eat it.</p> + +<p>Storekeepers sometimes keep fruit and vegetables +out of doors where street dust may blow upon it. +This dust is often full of disease germs. Flies may +also bring disease germs to the food. If food is + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +kept where dust and flies can get at it, we ought not +to buy it.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Food is a mixture of water, albumin, fat, starch +or sugar, and minerals.</p> +<p>2. Animal foods, like milk, eggs, and meat, have +albumin and fat in the best form.</p> +<p>3. Plant food has albumin and fat, but it has +very much starch or sugar. So, taken together +with animal food, it makes a complete +food.</p> +<p>4. Lime, iron, soda, and salt are found in all foods, +but we must add a little more salt to food.</p> +<p>5. Water is found in all food, but we must drink +some besides.</p> +<p>6. Dirty water, or water with a taste or smell, is +not fit for use.</p> +<p>7. Taste tells us what kind of food to use.</p> +<p>8. Hunger, or the appetite, tells us how much food +to use.</p> +<p>9. There can be a false hunger for sweet things. +This may lead us to eat too much.</p> +<p>10. Eating too much of sweet things is one form +of intemperance.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> +<h3>TOBACCO</h3> + +<p><b>43. Harmful eating.</b>—Men often eat for the fun +of eating, and sometimes they eat harmful things. +They chew tobacco and drink strong drinks, because +they like their taste, just as a child eats +candy.</p> + +<p><b>44. Tobacco.</b>—Men have always drunk strong +drink. Within the last four hundred years, men +have learned another way to please a wrong taste. +When Columbus discovered America, the Indians +were using tobacco. They taught the Spaniards +how to smoke it, and since then almost the whole +world has used it.</p> + +<p>Tobacco is the leaf of a tall plant. It needs a +better soil than any other crop. It takes the richness +from the ground, and spoils it for other crops.</p> + +<p><b>45. Nicotine.</b>—About 1/30 of each tobacco leaf is +a strong poison. This poison is called <i>nicotine</i>. +A drop or two of it, or as much of it as is in a +strong cigar, will kill a man. It gives the tobacco +its smell and taste. Men use tobacco for the sake +of a poison.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> + <b>46. Why men use tobacco.</b>—Men give queer reasons +for using tobacco. One smokes for its company, +another because he is with company. One +smokes to make his brain think better, and another +to keep himself from thinking. Some use tobacco +to help digest their food, and others use it to keep +themselves from eating so much. Boys smoke to +make themselves look like men. The real reason +for using tobacco is that men learn to like its taste, +and do not care if it harms them.</p> + +<p><b>47. Spitting.</b>—Tobacco in any form makes the +saliva flow. Men do not dare swallow it, for it +makes them sick. So they spit it out. No one +likes to see this. It is a dirty and filthy habit. +Besides, the saliva is lost, and cannot help digest +food.</p> + +<p>Tobacco stains the teeth brown. You can always +tell a tobacco chewer by his teeth. His breath will +smell of tobacco, and even his clothes are offensive +to the nose.</p> + +<p><b>48. Tobacco lessens strength.</b>—Tobacco always +makes a person sick at the stomach, at first. After +a while, he becomes used to it, and an ordinary +chew or smoke does not make him sick. But a +large chew or smoke will always make him sick +again. When a person is sick from tobacco he +is very weak. Even if he is not sick, the tobacco + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +poisons his muscles and makes his strength less. +When a man trains for a hard race he never uses +tobacco.</p> + +<p><b>49. Tobacco hinders digestion.</b>—Tobacco and its +smoke both have a burning taste. This makes the +throat sore, and causes a cough. Tobacco does +not help the stomach to digest food. Smokers and +chewers often have headaches and coated tongues. +These are signs of a poor digestion.</p> + +<p><b>50. Effect upon the young.</b>—Tobacco is more +harmful to boys than to men. If boys smoke they +cannot run fast or long. They cannot work hard +with their brains or hands. They do not grow +fast, and are liable to have weak hearts.</p> + +<p><b>51. Tobacco harms others.</b>—Many persons do not +like the smell of tobacco, and no one likes the spit. +No one should use it in the presence of others. +The tobacco user's pleasure should not spoil the +comfort and happiness of others.</p> + +<p><b>52. Snuff.</b>—Powdered tobacco is called snuff. +Snuff causes sneezing. No one should harm the +nose and the whole body for the pleasure of a +sneeze. Years ago snuff was used much more than +it is now.</p> + +<p><b>53. Chewing.</b>—Chewing tobacco is the most +poisonous way of using it, for it keeps most of +the nicotine in the mouth. Chewing will make + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +any one very sick, unless he spits out all the +saliva.</p> + +<p><b>54. Smoking.</b>—Men smoke pipes, cigars, and +cigarettes. The smoke has nicotine, and is poisonous. +Pipe stems get dirty and full of nicotine. +After a while they smell bad and are very poisonous. +An old smoker's pipe will make a young +smoker sick.</p> + +<p><b>55. Cigarettes.</b>—Cigars are not so poisonous as +a pipe, for more of the nicotine is burned up. +Cigarettes are often made of weak tobacco. A +cigarette does not contain so much tobacco as a +cigar. Hence a cigarette does not cost much. It +can be smoked in a hurry. It does not make a boy +so sick as cigars do. Boys and men use a great +many cigarettes where they would not touch a cigar. +This makes the use of cigarettes the most dangerous +form of smoking. Selling cigarettes to young +boys is forbidden by law.</p> + +<p><b>56. Habit.</b>—When men have used tobacco for +some time, they like it and feel bad without it. +So they get into the habit of using it, and find it +hard to stop. The tobacco seems to help them, +but it does not do so. It cheats men, and they +do not know it.</p> + +<p><b>57. Chewing gum.</b>—Chewing gum is made from +pitch or paraffin, for these substances will not dissolve + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +in the mouth. The gum is flavored with +sugar and spices. The gum and its flavors are +not harmful in themselves, and yet chewing them +is harmful. Chewing makes a great deal of saliva +flow. All this saliva is wasted, and when we eat +our meals we may have too little. Then our food +will not digest well, but we shall have dyspepsia +and headaches.</p> + +<p>By pulling and handling the gum while chewing +it, you may get some poisonous dirt into your +mouth, and make yourself very sick.</p> + +<p>Even if your gum should not harm you, there is +a good reason for letting it alone. When you are +chewing gum, you look as if you were chewing +tobacco. No one likes to see a boy or girl even +appearing to chew tobacco. If you form a habit +of chewing gum you will be more likely to chew +tobacco when you are grown.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Men use tobacco for the sake of its nicotine. +Nicotine is a very strong poison.</p> +<p>2. Tobacco causes a man to waste his saliva.</p> +<p>3. Tobacco makes the mouth dry.</p> +<p>4. Tobacco hinders digestion.</p> +<p>5. Tobacco stains the teeth, and makes the breath +smell bad.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> +<p>6. Tobacco makes a person sick at the stomach.</p> +<p>7. Tobacco weakens the muscles.</p> +<p>8. Tobacco is more harmful to the young than to +grown persons.</p> +<p>9. Chewing is the worst form of using tobacco.</p> +<p>10. Smoking cigarettes is the worst form of smoking.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> +<h3>FERMENTATION</h3> + +<p><b>58. Souring of fruit.</b>—When a little fruit is set +away in a warm place for a day or two it sours or +ferments. Anything sweet will do the same thing. +Little bubbles rise up through the juice and a foam +comes on top. Then the juice +has a sharp taste or is sour. +Canned and preserved fruit becomes +sour soon after the jar +is opened, and cider soon turns +to vinegar. All fruit juice does +this even in cold weather. But +in cold weather it keeps for a +longer time.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0037-illus" id="i0037-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0037-illus.jpg" width="150" height="192" alt="Fermentation" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Fermentation in a jar of<br /> + cherries.</b></p> +</div> + +<p><b>59. Preserving fruit.</b>—If your +mother wishes to keep fruit all winter she boils it +and at once puts it into tight jars. This shuts +out the air and then the fruit keeps good all winter. +Boiling kills all living things, and no more can get +in through the tight jars. Does a living thing + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +have anything to do with making the fruit juice +turn sour?</p> + +<p><b>60. Yeast.</b>—Yeast will make all sweet things ferment. +Bakers make yeast grow in bread sponge. +Yeast is alive. It is made of millions +of tiny round cells. New +cells sprout out from the side +of the old cells like young lilies +on an old lily bulb. Soon each +new cell breaks off and lives all +by itself. In a single night +enough new cells will form to fill +the whole loaf of bread.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0038-illus" id="i0038-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0038-illus.jpg" width="150" height="257" alt="Yeast" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Yeast plant cells (×500).</b></p> +</div> + +<p><b>61. How yeast makes alcohol.</b>—Yeast +will grow only where sugar +is. When it has grown for some +time there is no more sugar, and instead of a sweet +taste there is a sharp or sour taste. The yeast has +changed the sugar to alcohol. All alcohol is made +from sugar by yeast.</p> + +<p>The seeds of the yeast plant are everywhere in +the air. Some are on the skins of fruit and so are +found in the juice when it is squeezed out. There +they begin to grow at once and soon change the +sugar to alcohol. They do this by taking a gas +away from the sugar. The gas rises in little bubbles, +and makes a froth upon the top of the juice. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +Boiling kills the yeast plant. If the juice is at +once put into tight jars no new yeast plants can +get in, and so the juice keeps.</p> + +<p><b>62. Vinegar.</b>—Sometimes fruit juice turns sour. +The sourness is due to vinegar. Besides yeast, +other little living plants fall into the juice and turn +the sugar to vinegar. But if there is much alcohol +in the juice, the vinegar plants will not grow.</p> + +<p><b>63. Yeast in bread.</b>—Growing yeast plants always +make alcohol. They change some of the sugar of +bread dough to alcohol and a gas. The gas bubbles +through the bread and makes it light. When bread +is baked, the heat of the oven drives off the alcohol, +and so we do not eat any in bread.</p> + +<p><b>64. Alcohol.</b>—Alcohol is a clear liquid and looks +like water. It has a sharp taste and smell. It +burns very easily and makes a very hot flame. Its +smoke cannot be seen, and its flame will not make +anything black, as a match flame will do.</p> + +<p><b>65. Use of alcohol.</b>—Alcohol will dissolve more +things than water will dissolve. It is used to dissolve +drugs, varnishes, perfumery, and many other +things. It will dissolve even oil and fat. Tailors +clean grease spots from clothes with it. It takes +water away from flesh and makes it dry, hard, and +tough. It will keep anything from rotting. In +museums we pour alcohol over pieces of flesh or + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +plants in glass jars. Then they will keep and we +can look at them at any time. Thus alcohol is a +very useful thing, and we could hardly do without it.</p> + +<p><b>66. Strong drink.</b>—Some men use alcohol in a +wrong way. They swallow it as a drink. But +men cannot drink pure alcohol, for it would burn +their mouths. They always drink it mixed with +some water. Alcohol in water is called <i>strong +drink</i>.</p> + +<p><b>67. Why men use strong drink.</b>—Some men take +strong drink to make themselves warm, and some +to make themselves cool. Some drink to keep +themselves awake, and some to make themselves +sleep. Some drink to keep themselves still, and +some to make themselves stir around faster. Men +use strong drink really because it seems to make +them feel strong for a while. It does not make +them stronger, but it harms the body and the mind. +Its alcohol does the harm.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Sugar in fruit or in water turns to alcohol or +vinegar, and a gas.</p> +<p>2. The change to alcohol is caused by the cells of +the yeast plant.</p> +<p>3. The change to vinegar is caused by another +small plant.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> + 4. Boiling fruit juice kills the yeast plants and then +the juice will keep without change.</p> +<p>5. Alcohol looks like water. It has a sharp and +burning taste.</p> +<p>6. Alcohol takes water from flesh and hardens it.</p> +<p>7. Alcohol burns with a great heat and no smoke.</p> +<p>8. Alcohol is used to dissolve things, and to keep +things from spoiling.</p> +<p>9. Alcohol in water forms <i>strong drink</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<h3>KINDS OF STRONG DRINK</h3> + +<p><b>68. Wine.</b>—All strong drink is alcohol and +water. There may be other things to give it taste, +but alcohol and water are always in it. No strong +drink is over one half alcohol.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0042-illus" id="i0042-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0042-illus.jpg" width="150" height="229" alt="Wine" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A glass of wine contains so,<br /> + much alcohol.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>In olden times wine was the only strong drink. +Men used to crush out the juice of grapes and let +it ferment. This made wine. But +very often they used the juice before it +fermented. Then it had no alcohol and +could do no harm, but was a good food. +We read of wine in the Bible. Some +of it was fresh fruit juice.</p> + +<p>In wine, the sugar is changed to +alcohol. The rest of the juice stays +the same. All wine is made by the yeast plant +growing in fruit juice. No yeast is put in, for +there is always enough on the outside of the fruit. +Wine is about one tenth alcohol.</p> + +<p><b>69. Homemade wine.</b>—Cider is a kind of wine. +It is made from apple juice. It has alcohol a day +or two after it is made. All homemade wines have + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +alcohol. Any of them can make a person drunk. +Using weak homemade wine and cider often makes +an appetite for stronger drinks. The alcohol in any +of them is enough to harm the body.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0043-illus" id="i0043-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0043-illus.jpg" width="150" height="223" alt="Beer" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A glass of beer contains so<br /> + much alcohol.</b></p> +</div> + +<p><b>70. Beer.</b>—After man had made wine for a long +time, some one found out how to cultivate yeast. +Then men could make sugar and water +ferment whenever they wanted to. So +men boiled grain to take out its sugar. +Then they poured off the liquor and +added yeast and let it ferment. This +made beer and ale. Now millions of +bushels of grain are used every year +in making beer. Men call beer a <i>light</i> +drink. But it has alcohol and is a strong drink, +and can make men drunk.</p> + +<p><b>71. Root beer.</b>—Some persons boil roots and +herbs, and add molasses and yeast. Then the +liquid ferments and becomes <i>root beer</i>. They say +"it has no alcohol, for we made it." But it does +have alcohol, for yeast always makes alcohol. Some +ginger ale is made by putting yeast in sweetened +ginger water. It has alcohol, too.</p> + +<p><b>72. Distillation.</b>—Boiling water turns to vapor +or steam and goes off in the air. When the vapor +is cooled, you can see the water again. It often +cools on the window and makes little streams of + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +water. You can catch the steam in a tube. If +you keep the tube cool, the steam will turn to water +in the tube. This process is called <i>distillation</i>.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0044-illus" id="i0044-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0044-illus.jpg" width="150" height="221" alt="Whisky" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A glass of whisky contains so<br /> + much alcohol.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>Boiling alcohol also passes off into the air as +vapor. When the vapor is cooled, it becomes liquid +again. Alcohol boils with less heat +than water. When alcohol in water +is heated, the alcohol boils first. So +the vapor has more alcohol than the +water. When the vapor is cooled, the +liquid has more alcohol than it had at +first. When the liquid is distilled again +it has more alcohol yet. Pure alcohol +can be made in this way.</p> + +<p><b>73. Whisky.</b>—Distilling wine or strong beer +makes <i>whisky</i> and <i>brandy</i>. Whisky is one half +alcohol. It is more harmful than wine or beer.</p> + +<p><b>74. Habit.</b>—Some strong drinks have only a +little alcohol and some have a great deal. No one +begins to drink the strong liquors. He begins with +wine or beer. When he has once learned, he has +a hard time to stop drinking. It is dangerous to +drink even weak drinks.</p> + +<p><b>75. Strong drink and thirst.</b>—When a man is +thirsty, water will satisfy him but strong drink will +not. Sometimes the mouth is dry and dirty and +then a man feels thirsty. Rinsing the mouth + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +with water, and rubbing the tongue and teeth +clean will help the dryness and stop the thirst. +At any rate, strong drink will only make the +mouth dryer.</p> + +<p>Some men drink only when they are tired. Then +a cup of strong and hot tea or coffee will make +them feel much better than a glass of strong drink, +and will not harm them so much.</p> + +<p>When strong drink is swallowed, its alcohol takes +water from the mouth. When your mouth is dry, +you feel thirsty. Strong drink makes the mouth +dry, and so a drink makes a man more thirsty. +The alcohol also makes the mouth smart. Men +need another drink to cool the mouth after the first +one. So one drink leads to another. All the while +a person drinks water with the alcohol until he has +too much water. But his mouth is dry and he feels +as thirsty as ever.</p> + +<p><b>76. Effect of alcohol upon the stomach.</b>—When +strong drink is swallowed it makes the stomach +smart just as it does the mouth. So the stomach +feels warm, but it is really no warmer. This harms +the stomach and keeps it from working well.</p> + +<p>Alcohol also keeps the gastric juice from changing +albumin to a liquid. Alcohol keeps flesh from +decaying in a museum. In the same way it may +hinder the digestion of food in the stomach.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> + When alcohol is used for only a short time, the +stomach can get well; but if it is used for months +and years, the stomach will stay weak. Then the +drinker can hardly eat at all.</p> + +<p><b>77. What becomes of alcohol.</b>—In the stomach +a great deal of gastric juice is mixed with the +alcohol. So it is very weak when it reaches the +intestine. Alcohol needs only a little digesting. +It soon soaks into the blood from the intestine +along with the other food. The blood flows fast +and washes the alcohol away as soon as it leaves +the intestine. Too little gets into the blood at once +to harm it much.</p> + +<p>Alcohol goes to the liver, and is there destroyed; +but it still does great harm. The liver has to +attend to the alcohol, and so it does not change +the food to good blood, and it does not take all the +poisons out of the blood. Then the whole body +becomes weak and sick. Alcohol hurts the liver +first, and more than other parts of the body. On +this account, drinkers often have bilious attacks +and stomach troubles.</p> + +<p><b>78. Bitters.</b>—Many medicines are made by dissolving +drugs in alcohol. In taking a strong medicine, +we use only a few drops, and so do not get +much alcohol. Some kinds of medicines must be +taken in large doses. Bitters are weak medicines, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +and must be taken by the tablespoonful. A tablespoonful +of the medicine has more alcohol than a +large drink of whisky. The bitters seem to make +a person feel well, but it is because he is taking +a large amount of strong drink.</p> + +<p>Jamaica Ginger is only common ginger dissolved +in alcohol. It, too, is a form of strong drink.</p> + +<p><b>79. Strong drink as medicine.</b>—People sometimes +keep whisky or brandy in the house to give for +colds or other slight forms of sickness. A drink of +hot coffee does more good than the strong drink, +and has none of its dangers.</p> + +<p>By using whisky or brandy for medicine, children +learn to believe in strong drink, and so they +will be likely to use it when they grow up. This +reason alone ought to keep any one from giving it +to a child.</p> + +<p><b>80. Alcohol in cooking.</b>—In making bread, alcohol +is formed in the dough by the yeast. When the +bread is baked, all the alcohol is driven off by +the heat, and so we do not eat any.</p> + +<p>Sometimes brandy or wine is put into desserts. +If it is put in after the dessert is cooked, we shall +get as much alcohol as if we had drunk it. If the +liquor is put in before cooking, the heat will drive +off the alcohol but the flavor of the liquor will +remain. The flavor will do no harm in itself, but + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +people will learn its taste, and from it may learn to +like the strong drink itself. The alcohol in bread +has no special flavor and does not leave any taste +behind. So we cannot learn to like strong drink +by eating bread.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Fruit juice makes wine or cider.</p> +<p>2. All kinds of wine contain alcohol.</p> +<p>3. When the liquid from boiled grain has fermented, +it becomes beer, or ale.</p> +<p>4. By boiling wine or beer, and cooling the vapor, +distilled drinks like whisky are made. They +are one half alcohol.</p> +<p>5. Water will satisfy a real thirst. Strong drink +will not.</p> +<p>6. Alcohol keeps the stomach from digesting food.</p> +<p>7. Alcohol soaks into the blood tubes and goes to +the liver.</p> +<p>8. The liver destroys the alcohol, but is hurt in +doing it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> +<h3>THE BLOOD</h3> + +<p><b>81. Blood.</b>—After food becomes blood, it goes +to every part of the body to feed the cells. Even +a pin prick anywhere in the body draws blood. +The blood makes the skin pink. +There are five or six quarts of blood +in a man's body. This is about 1/13 +of his body.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0049-illus" id="i0049-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0049-illus.jpg" width="150" height="106" alt="Blood cells" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Blood corpuscles (×400).</b><br /> +<i>a</i> a pile of red blood cells.<br /> +<i>b</i> red blood cells seen flatwise.<br /> +<i>c</i> red blood cells seen edgewise.<br /> +<i>d</i> white blood cells.</p> +</div> + +<p>Blood looks like a red liquid. +But if you look at it through a +strong microscope, it looks like +water, and millions of little red cells. +These cells carry air through the +body. They make the blood look red. +There are also a smaller number of white cells. +Blood is made of red cells, white cells, and a liquid.</p> + +<p><b>82. The liquid in blood.</b>—The liquid part of the +blood is albumin, and water, with a little fat, sugar, +and minerals. It is food and drink for the cells of +the body. When blood is drawn from the body +it soon becomes like jelly. We call the jelly a +<i>clot</i>. When you cut your finger, a clot forms in + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +the cut and plugs up the bleeding place. If it +did not, the blood would all run out of the body +and we should die.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0050-illus" id="i0050-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0050-illus.jpg" width="150" height="155" alt="The heart" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Diagram of the heart while it is beating.</b><br /> +<i>a</i> vein entering the auricle.<br /> +<i>b</i> auricle.<br /> +<i>c</i> closed valve to keep blood from flowing<br /> + back into the auricle.<br /> +<i>d</i> ventricle.<br /> +<i>e</i> artery.<br /> +<i>f</i> valve to keep blood from returning to the<br /> + ventricle.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>83. The heart.</b>—The blood is held in tubes. A +pump inside the body keeps it always moving. +This pump is called the <i>heart</i>. The heart is +a bag of muscle with +thick sides. It is about +as large as your fist. +When it is full, it has +the power to make itself +smaller, and so it +squeezes the blood out +through a tube. We +can feel each squeeze +as a heart-beat. You +can find the heart-beat +just to the left of the +middle of the body +about two hand-breadths +below the +neck.</p> + +<p><b>84. The heart-beat.</b>—A man's heart beats about +seventy times each minute. Boys' and girls' hearts +beat much faster. Running or hard work of any +kind makes the heart beat faster yet. Your heart +will keep on beating until you die. It does not + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +seem to rest at all, yet it works only while you +feel it beat. Between each beat it rests while the +blood is filling it again. So it really rests one half +of the time.</p> + +<p><b>85. Arteries.</b>—The heart pumps the blood +through a single tube. This tube opens into +smaller tubes. These open into still smaller ones. +You must use a strong microscope to see the +finest blood tubes. The tubes reach every part +of the body, and carry blood to its cells. They +are called <i>arteries</i>. At each heart-beat a wave +of blood can be felt +in an artery. This +wave is the <i>pulse</i>. It +can be felt in the +wrist, temples, and +other places. By the +pulse we can tell how +often and how strongly +the heart is beating.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0051-illus" id="i0051-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0051-illus.jpg" width="150" height="131" alt="Capillaries" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Arrangement of capillaries.</b><br /> + <i>a</i> smallest artery.<br /> + <i>b</i> smallest vein.<br /> + <i>c</i> network of capillaries.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>86. Capillaries.</b>—The +smallest arteries +divide into a fine network +of small tubes. These tubes are the <i>capillaries</i>. +They lie around every cell of the body. +Their sides are very thin. As the blood flows +through them, some of it soaks through the sides + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +of the tubes. Blood contains all kinds of food +for the cells. Each cell is always wet with food +and can eat it at any time. The cells are like +the tiny animal, the ameba, and can take in the +food by any part of their bodies. The cells are +better off than the ameba, for their food is brought +to them. They pay the body for their food by +working for it.</p> + +<p><b>87. Veins.</b>—The capillaries come together again +to form large tubes. These tubes are called <i>veins</i>. +Only a little of the blood goes through the sides of +a capillary. The rest flows on into the veins. The +veins unite to form two large tubes. These two +tubes open into the heart.</p> + +<p><b>88. How the blood flows.</b>—The blood is pumped +out of the heart, through the arteries to the capillaries. +There some goes out to the cells. The rest +flows into the veins and goes back to the heart. +All the blood in the body passes through the heart +every two minutes. It takes only twenty seconds +for a drop of blood to go from the heart to the toes +and back again. The arteries are deep in the flesh, +but some of the large veins can be seen upon the +back of the hands.</p> + +<p><b>89. Bleeding.</b>—If a large artery or vein is cut +there is a great deal of bleeding. You can always +stop a cut from bleeding by holding it fast between + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +the hands. Do not be afraid of the blood when +you see any one bleeding, but hold the sides of the +cut tightly with both of your hands. This will stop +any bleeding until help comes. You may keep a +person from bleeding to death by doing this when +other persons are afraid of the blood.</p> + +<p><b>90. Healing cuts.</b>—When your flesh is cut it +soon grows together again. The work of the little +white cells in the blood is to help heal cuts and +wounds and bruises. These cells are like little +amebas in the blood. They keep moving around +with the blood, and now and then burrow outside +the capillaries to see if all is well. If they find a +cut, hundreds and thousands rush to the spot at +once. Some eat up any specks of dirt on the cut. +Others fit themselves into the sides of the cut and +grow long and slender, like strings, and so bind the +two edges of the cut together. In this way all cuts +are healed.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0054-illus" id="i0054-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0054-illus.jpg" width="150" height="102" alt="Bacteria" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Bacteria growing in a kidney and producing +an abscess (×300).</b><br /> + <i>a</i> kidney tube.<br /> + <i>b</i> white blood cell attacking bacteria.<br /> + <i>c</i> bacteria.<br /> + <i>d</i> blood vessel of the kidney.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>91. The white blood cells kill disease germs.</b>—There +are tiny living beings everywhere in the air, +and soil, and water. Some of them can grow inside +a man and make him sick. These tiny things are +called <i>disease germs</i>. One kind gives a man +typhoid fever, and another diphtheria. Another +kind grows on cuts, and sometimes makes them +very sore. The white cells of the blood are always + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +watching for these enemies, like a cat hunting mice, +and when they find them they at once try to kill +them. But sometimes +the white blood cells +get killed. Then they +look like cream in the +cut. We call this +creamy liquid <i>matter</i> +or <i>pus</i>, and say "We +have caught cold in the +cut." In most pricks +and cuts the white +cells of the blood can +kill all these enemies +and also heal the cut.</p> + +<p><b>92. Catching cold.</b>—Sometimes the cold air blows +on our head and hurts the cells of the nose. If +there are disease germs in the air, they may grow in +the injured part of the nose and make us have a +"cold in the head." Then the white blood cells +gather at the spot so as to kill the disease germs. +Also the arteries bring a great deal of blood to the +nose so as to heal the injured parts. Some of the +white blood cells and the liquid from the blood run +out, and we have to blow the nose. The white +blood cells help to make us well whenever we catch +a cold or other kind of sickness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> + <b>93. Red blood cells.</b>—The red blood cells are like +tiny flat plates. They float in the liquid part of the +blood and make the blood look red. They carry +air from the lungs to the cells of every part of the +body, and thus help all the cells to breathe.</p> + +<p><b>94. Why the heart beats hard when we run.</b>—When +we work hard, the cells of our bodies need +a great deal of food. So the heart beats much +harder, and sends them much more blood. We can +feel our heart beat when we run hard.</p> + +<p>When the cells work they get more blood in +another way. The arteries become larger and hold +more blood. Then the part looks red and feels +warm. Thus your face gets red when you run +hard. This is because your heart and arteries +bring more blood to feed the working cells.</p> + +<p><b>95. Need of a strong heart.</b>—The heart must +keep sending blood to feed the cells. If it should +stop for only a little while, the cells would starve to +death and we should die. We need strong hearts. +When we work very hard for a long time, the heart +gets tired. Then the cells do not get enough food +and we feel weak all over. Boys ought not to run +and lift till they are tired out, for this hurts their +hearts.</p> + +<p><b>96. What alcohol does to the blood.</b>—Alcohol +hinders the digestion of food. Then too little food + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +will reach the blood, and so the cells of the body +will get too little. Alcohol does not add strength +to the body, but it takes it away. It seems to +make men stronger, for it takes away their tired +feelings. But it makes them really weaker, for it +harms the blood.</p> + +<p><b>97. How alcohol affects the heart.</b>—Alcohol at +first makes the heart beat more strongly and +quickly, but it tires it out and makes it weaker. +Then the heart pumps too little blood to the rest +of the body, and a man is weaker all over.</p> + +<p>If a drinker tries to run or work hard, his heart +may not pump enough food to the working cells +of his arms and legs. Strong drink takes away a +man's strength and makes him less able to endure +a long strain.</p> + +<p><b>98. How alcohol harms the arteries.</b>—Alcohol +causes the arteries to become larger and to carry +more blood. Then the face will be red and the +skin will become warm. This makes a person feel +well, and he seems to be helped. His blood seems +to be flowing faster because his face is red. But +really it is flowing slower.</p> + +<p>When the arteries have been made large very +often, they stay large all the time. A drinker's +nose is often red from this cause.</p> + +<p>Alcohol sometimes causes the arteries to become + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +hard, and even to change to a kind of bone. Then +they cannot change their size to carry just so much +blood as each part needs.</p> + +<p><b>99. How tobacco affects the heart.</b>—Tobacco weakens +all the body, but it harms the heart more than +the rest. It often makes the heart beat slowly at +one time and fast at another. It weakens the heart +and keeps it from working harder when the working +cells need more food. A smoker gets out of +breath quickly. He cannot run far or work very +hard. Chewing is a still more harmful form of +using tobacco. When men train for a game or a +race they never use tobacco.</p> + +<p>Boys are not so strong as men, and so tobacco is +more hurtful to them. Boys are harmed by tobacco +far more than men. Cigarette smoke harms their +stomachs and keeps food from their blood. If boys +smoke, they become pale and weak. The poisonous +smoke weakens the heart, and they cannot run +or work so hard as they should. Even if a father +uses tobacco, he should not allow his boys to use it.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Blood is a liquid. It contains many round red +cells and a few white cells.</p> +<p>2. Blood contains all kinds of food for the cells +of the body.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> + 3. The blood is kept moving by the heart.</p> +<p>4. The heart pumps or beats about seventy times +a minute.</p> +<p>5. The blood flows through arteries to all parts +of the body.</p> +<p>6. The arteries open into the capillaries. Capillaries +make a network around each cell of +the body.</p> +<p>7. Some of the liquid parts of the blood go out +through the sides of the capillaries and +become food for the cells of the body.</p> +<p>8. From the capillaries the blood flows into the +veins and back to the heart.</p> +<p>9. Bleeding can be stopped by holding the cut +tightly between the hands.</p> +<p>10. The white blood cells grow into the sides of +cuts, and so heal them. They also guard +the body against the seeds of many diseases.</p> +<p>11. The red blood cells carry air to the cells of the +body.</p> +<p>12. Alcohol weakens the heart and arteries.</p> +<p>13. Tobacco harms the heart.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> +<h3>BREATHING, HEAT, AND CLOTHING</h3> + +<p><b>100. The lungs.</b>—Our food becomes blood and +feeds the cells of our body, but we grow only a +little heavier. What +becomes of the +food?</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0059-illus" id="i0059-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0059-illus.jpg" width="150" height="233" alt="The lung" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> <b>The air tubes and lung.</b><br /> +<i>a</i> larynx or voice box.<br /> +<i>b</i> trachea or windpipe.<br /> +<i>d</i> air sacs, each like a tiny frog's lung.</p> +</div> + +<p>Besides food, air +is always getting into +our bodies. In +breathing, air passes +through the nose +into a tube in the +neck. This tube is +called the <i>windpipe</i>. +You can feel it as a +pile of hard rings in +the front part of the +neck. The windpipe +divides into many +branches. At the +end of its smallest +branches are little + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +bags or sacs. The branches and the sacs make +the two lungs. So a lung is a soft and spongy +piece of flesh, and can be blown +up like a rubber bag. A frog's +lung is a single, thin bag, about +half an inch across it. Each little +sac of a man's lung is like a tiny +frog's lung.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="i0060a-illus" id="i0060a-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0060a-illus.jpg" width="150" height="273" alt="Lung" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A frog's lung (×4).</b></p> +</div> + +<p><b>101. The diaphragm.</b>—The lungs +fill the upper part of the body just +below the neck. They are covered +by the bony ribs, and rest +upon a broad muscle. This muscle +is called the <i>diaphragm</i>. It divides +the inside of the body into +two parts. The upper part +is the <i>chest</i>, and holds the +heart and lungs. The lower +part is the <i>abdomen</i>, and +holds the stomach, intestine, +and liver, and a few other +parts.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0060b-illus" id="i0060b-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0060b-illus.jpg" width="150" height="189" alt="Internal parts" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> <b>The parts inside the body.</b></p> +<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption"> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>a</i> lungs.</td><td class="c33"><i>d</i> stomach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>b</i> heart.</td><td class="c33"><i>e</i> liver.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>c</i> diaphragm.</td><td class="c33"><i>f</i> intestine.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><b>102. Breathing.</b>—When +the diaphragm lowers itself, +or the ribs are raised, the +chest is made larger. Then +the air rushes through the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +nose and swells out the lungs to the size of the chest. +This is taking a breath. Then the chest becomes +smaller again, and blows the air out. A man +breathes about eighteen times a minute. He does +not seem to rest in breathing, but as he works only +when he takes in breath, he rests one half of the +time.</p> + +<p><b>103. How air gets into the blood.</b>—After the +blood has been around the body through the arteries +and capillaries and veins, the heart sends +every drop to the lungs before it sends it out to +feed the cells again. The blood flows through +little capillaries upon the sides of the air sacs. +There the red blood cells take up some of the +air, and carry it with them. When they have a +load of air, they become of a brighter red color. +The blood in the arteries on its way to the cells +is bright red.</p> + +<p><b>104. How the cells get air.</b>—When the blood +reaches the capillaries around the cells of the body, +the red blood cells give up some of the air to the +cells. Thus each cell of the body gets some air, +and so it breathes. The cells cannot reach the +air themselves, and so the red blood cells bring it +to them. We breathe so as to supply the cells +with air.</p> + +<p><b>105. What burning is.</b>—When meat is put into a + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +hot stove it quickly burns, and passes off in smoke, +and leaves only a little ashes. The ashes are the +mineral parts of the meat. If the fire is very hot, +you cannot see the smoke. The burning of the +meat makes heat. Heat in a steam engine makes +the machine do work.</p> + +<p>Every fire must have plenty of air. If air is shut +off, the fire goes out. When meat burns, the air +unites with the meat and makes smoke, and ashes, +and gives out heat. Air unites with something in +every fire.</p> + +<p><b>106. Burning inside the body.</b>—In every part of +a man's body a very slow fire is always burning. +The blood brings to the cells food from the intestine, +and air from the lungs. The food and air +join in a burning. The smoke goes back to the +blood and is carried to the lungs, and breathed out +with the breath. The ashes, also, go back to the +blood, and are carried away by the skin and kidneys. +The burning makes no flame or light for it +goes on very slowly. You cannot see the smoke, +but you can feel the warmth of the burning. Some +of the heat is turned to power, and gives the body +strength to do work. The body is like a steam +engine. It burns up all its food.</p> + +<p><b>107. How the body is warmed.</b>—The body is +warmed by the slow burning in the cells. This + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +burning keeps the body always at the same warmth. +On a hot summer's day you feel warmer than on a +cold snowy morning. But your body is no warmer. +Only your skin is warmer.</p> + +<p>If the skin is warm, the whole body feels warm, +but if the skin is cold, the whole body feels cold. +On a hot summer's day the heat is kept in the skin, +and we feel warm. On a cold winter's day a great +deal of heat passes off from the skin, and we feel +cold. Yet our bodies have the same warmth in +winter as in summer.</p> + +<p><b>108. How the sweat keeps us cool.</b>—When your +hands or feet are wet, they are cold. On a hot +summer's day, your body becomes wet with sweat. +This cools the body as if water were poured over it. +So sweating keeps you from getting too warm, and +from being sunstruck.</p> + +<p>We are sweating all the time, but the sweat +usually dries as fast as it forms. When we are +too warm it comes out faster than it dries. On a +winter's day we sweat only a little, and so we save +the heat. But more heat passes off from the skin +into the cold air, and we do not grow warmer.</p> + +<p><b>109. Clothes.</b>—We wear clothes to keep the heat +in the body. They do not make heat, but they +keep it from going off. Wool and flannel clothes +keep the heat in better than cotton. We wear + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +woolen in the winter, and cotton in the summer.</p> + +<p>Fur keeps in heat the best of all. In very cold +lands only fur is worn.</p> + +<p>Linen lets heat out easily. It makes good summer +clothes.</p> + +<p><b>110. Where to wear the most clothes.</b>—The face +and hands are kept warm by the blood and we do +not cover them except in the coldest weather. Our +feet are more tender and need to be covered enough +to keep them warm. We ought to wear thick-soled +shoes or rubbers in damp weather so as to keep +the feet dry and warm. We ought to dry the stockings +every night, for they will get wet with sweat.</p> + +<p>The trunk of the body needs the most clothes. +The legs ought to be kept warm, too. If the dress +reaches only to the knee, thick underclothing is +needed for the lower part of the leg.</p> + +<p>Do not keep one part of the body warm while +another part remains cold. It is wrong to bundle +the neck or wear too much clothing over any part +of the body. It is also wrong to wear too little and +be cold.</p> + +<p>When you are moving about, you need less clothing +than when you are sitting still. When you +have worked until you are very warm, it is wrong +to stop to cool off. When you stop, you ought to + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +put on a thick coat or else go into the house. If +you do not, you may be chilled and made weak so +that you can easily catch cold or some other disease.</p> + +<p><b>111. Heating houses.</b>—In winter our bodies cannot +make heat fast enough to keep us warm unless +we put on a great deal of clothing. So we warm +our houses. Our grandfathers used fireplaces, but +these did not give out much heat. People now +use stoves, but some use a furnace in the cellar, +or heat the rooms by steam. Some use kerosene +stoves, but they are not so good, for they make the +air bad. A room should feel neither too warm nor +too cold. It is of the right warmth when we do not +notice either heat or cold.</p> + +<p><b>112. Change of air.</b>—After air has been breathed +it is no longer fit for use. In an hour or two you +would breathe all the air of a small room once if it +were not changed. When the air is partly used, +you feel dull and short of breath, and your head +aches. As soon as you get out of doors, you feel +better. Foul air of houses and meeting places often +contains disease germs. It is necessary to change +the air of all rooms often. You can do this by +opening a door or window. It is a good plan to +sleep with your bedroom window open, so as to get +good air all night.</p> + +<p>Air passes in and out of every crack in the windows + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +and doors. If only one person is in a room, +this may make enough change of air. If many persons +are in a room, you will need to change the air +in other ways. You can do this by opening a door +or window. Do not let the cold air blow upon any +one, for it may help to make him catch cold, if the +air of the room is impure. If we lower a window +from the top, warm impure air may pass out above +it without making a draft.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0066-illus" id="i0066-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0066-illus.jpg" width="500" height="436" alt="Room ventilation" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>Diagram of the natural ventilation of a room.</b><br /> +The arrows show the direction of the air currents.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> + You need fresh air at night as much as in the +daytime. You need not be afraid of the night air, +for it is good and pure like the day air. You +ought to sleep with your window open a little. +You ought to open the windows wide every morning +and air your bed well. At night you ought to +take off all your clothes and put on a night-dress. +Then hang your clothes up to air and dry.</p> + +<p><b>113. When to air a room.</b>—When you first enter +a room full of bad air it smells musty and unpleasant. +But after you have been in the room +a while, you get used to it. If, however, you go +out of doors a minute and then come back, you +will smell the bad air again. If the air smells bad, +open a door or window until it is sweet again.</p> + +<p><b>114. How to breathe.</b>—When you run hard, the +cells of your body use up all the air, and then you +feel short of breath. While you run, burning goes +on faster, and you feel warmer. You can work +harder and longer if you can breathe in a great +deal of air. You will also feel better and stronger +for it. Then if you are sick, you will be able to +get well more quickly. You ought to know how +to breathe right.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, you ought to breathe through your nose. +Even when you run, you ought to keep your mouth +closed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> + <i>Second</i>, you should try to breathe deeply. You +should take a very deep breath often, and hold it as +long as you can. By practice you can learn to hold +it a full minute.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, you ought to run, or do some hard work, +every day. When you get short of breath, you will +have to breathe more deeply. After a while you +may be able to run a half mile, or even a mile, without +getting out of breath. But do not get tired out +in your run, for this will harm you.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, you must sit and stand with your shoulders +back, and your chest thrown forward. A +round-shouldered boy cannot have large lungs or +be long winded.</p> + +<p>By breathing right, you can make your lungs +very much larger and stronger.</p> + +<p><b>115. The voice.</b>—We talk by means of the breath. +At the upper part of the windpipe is a small box. +Its front corner can be felt in the neck, just under +the chin, and is called the <i>Adam's apple</i>. Two +thin, strong covers slide across the top of the box, +and can be made to meet in the middle. The +covers have sharp edges. When they are near +together, and air is breathed out between them, a +sound is made. This sound is the <i>voice</i>. The +tongue and lips change it to form <i>words</i>.</p> + +<p><b>116. Care of the voice.</b>—The voice shows our + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +feelings, even if we do not tell them in words. We +can form a habit of speaking in a loud and harsh +tone, as if we were always angry, or we can speak +gently and kindly. We shall be more pleasant +company to others if we are careful always to speak +in gentle but distinct tones.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="i0069-illus" id="i0069-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0069-illus.jpg" width="500" height="153" alt="Larynx views" title=""/> +<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption"> +<tr><td class="c11"><b>Top view of the larynx, with the<br />vocal cords closed, as in speaking.</b></td> + <td class="c33"><b>Top view of the larynx, with the<br />vocal cords open, as in breathing.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"> <i>a</i> epiglottis. <i>b</i> vocal cords.</td> + <td class="c33"> <i>a</i> epiglottis. <i>b</i> vocal cords.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Shouting strains the voice and spoils its tone for +singing. Reading until the throat is tired makes +the voice weak. Singing or shouting in a cold or +damp air is also bad for the voice. Breathing +through the mouth is the worst of all for the +voice.</p> + +<p><b>117. What becomes of alcohol in the body.</b>—When +alcohol is taken up by the blood, it is carried to the +liver. The liver tries to get rid of it by taking +some air from the blood and burning it up, just as +it burns the real food of the body. But this takes +some air from the cells of the body. Then they do +not burn as they should.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> + When a stove gets too little air through its draft, +it makes an unpleasant smoke, and cools off. Just +so, when the cells of the body do not burn as they +should, they produce the wrong kind of smoke and +ashes. This poisons the body and makes men sick. +The most of the poisoning of alcohol is due to +these new poisons.</p> + +<p>When alcohol takes air from the cells of the +body, they do not get enough air. Then they are +like a short-winded boy, and do not do their work +well. In this way alcohol makes the body weak.</p> + +<p>Alcohol does not cease to be harmful because it +is burned up in the body. It is harmful just because +it burns so quickly. Using alcohol in the body is +like trying to burn kerosene in a coal stove. The +body is not made to burn alcohol any more than a +coal stove is made to burn kerosene. You can +burn a little kerosene in a coal stove if you are +very careful. Just so, men can burn alcohol in +their bodies. But kerosene will always smoke and +clog up the stove, and may explode and kill some +one. So alcohol in the body burns quickly and +forms poisons. It always harms the body and +may destroy life at once.</p> + +<p><b>118. Alcohol and the lungs.</b>—If you run a long +race, your lungs will need a great deal of air. If +you take strong drink, the alcohol will use up + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +much of the air, and you will not have enough +to use on your run. So you will feel short of +breath, and will surely lose the race. You cannot +drink and be long-winded.</p> + +<p>Two drinks of whisky will use up as much air +as the body uses in an hour. It would be easy to +smother a person with strong drink. Drunken +persons are really smothered; they often die because +of the failure of their breathing, even while +their heart is able to beat well.</p> + +<p>Alcohol often causes the lungs to become thickened. +Then air cannot easily pass through their +sides, and a person suffers from shortness of breath. +Sometimes these persons cannot lie down at all, +but must sit up to catch their breath.</p> + +<p><b>119. Drinking and taking cold.</b>—A strong, healthy +man can stand a great deal of cold and wet. If he +breathes deeply in his work, all the cells of his body +get plenty of air, and if he eats good food, the cells +get plenty to eat. Then it will take a great deal to +harm them. But alcohol hinders the digestion of +their food, and also takes away their air. So the +cells are both starved and smothered, and are easily +hurt. Then a little cold and wet may do great +harm to his body, for a drinker cannot stand bad +weather or hard work so well as he could if he +should leave drink alone.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> + Men often drink to keep themselves from taking +cold. The alcohol really makes them more liable +to take cold. It causes the blood to flow near the +surface of the skin; there it is easily cooled, and +the drinker soon becomes chilled; then he feels +colder than ever. The cold harms the cells of his +body, and then the white blood cells cannot easily +fight disease germs. For this reason a drinker +easily takes cold and other diseases.</p> + +<p><b>120. Alcohol lessens the warmth of the body.</b>—Alcohol +causes the blood tubes in the skin to become +larger. Then more blood will touch the cool +air, and the body will become cooler. But because +more warm blood flows through the skin, a man +feels warmer. But he is really colder. Alcohol +makes men less able to stand the cold. Travelers +in cold lands know this and do not use it.</p> + +<p><b>121. How tobacco affects breathing.</b>—We would +not live in a room with a smoking stove. But +tobacco smoke is more harmful than smoke from +a stove, for it has nicotine in it. Tobacco smoke +in a room may make a child sick.</p> + +<p>Cigarette smoking is very harmful to the lungs, +for the smoke is drawn deeply into them, and more +of the poison is likely to stay in the body. The +smoke of tobacco burns the throat and causes a +cough. This harms the voice.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Air is always being breathed into little sacs +inside the body. The sacs form the lungs.</p> +<p>2. The red blood cells pass through the lungs, +and take little loads of air. They then +carry the air through the arteries to the +capillaries.</p> +<p>3. In the capillaries the air leaves the red blood +cells, and goes to the cells of the body.</p> +<p>4. The air unites with the cells, and slowly burns +them to smoke and ashes.</p> +<p>5. The smoke goes back to the blood, and is +carried to the lungs and given off by the +breath. The ashes go back to the blood +and pass off through the skin and the kidneys.</p> +<p>6. The burning in the cells makes heat.</p> +<p>7. Some of the heat is changed to power, as it +is in a steam engine.</p> +<p>8. The heat also warms the body. It keeps it +at the same warmth on a cold day as on +a hot day.</p> +<p>9. We wear clothes to keep the heat in, and so +to keep us warm.</p> +<p>10. The air of a room needs to be changed often. +It is made stuffy by our breath.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> + 11. The voice is made by the breath in a box in +the neck.</p> +<p>12. Alcohol uses air belonging to the cells of the +body.</p> +<p>13. Tobacco smoke has the same poisons as tobacco. +It can poison the whole body through +the lungs.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> +<h3>THE SKIN AND KIDNEYS</h3> + +<p><b>122. Waste matters.</b>—The food is burned in the +cells. As this burning goes on, the <i>smoke</i> goes off +by the lungs and the +unburned substances, +the <i>ashes</i>, go off by +the skin and kidneys. +The ashes are +mostly the minerals +of the cells, but there +are also some from +the burned albumin. +All these go back to +the blood and are +carried to the skin +and kidneys.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0075-illus" id="i0075-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0075-illus.jpg" width="150" height="178" alt="Skin" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> <b>The skin (×100).</b><br /> +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> epidermis.<br /> +<i>d</i> and <i>g</i> tough and thick part of skin.<br /> +<i>e</i> sweat gland.<br /> +<i>f</i> blood tubes.<br /> +<i>h</i> fat pockets.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>123. The skin.</b>—The +skin covers the +whole body. It is +strong and keeps the body from being hurt.</p> + +<p><b>124. The epithelium.</b>—The skin is covered with +a thin layer of cells like fine scales. These scales + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +are called <i>epithelium</i>, or <i>epidermis</i>. They have no +blood tubes or nerves and so have no feeling. +You can run a pin under them without feeling +pain. They are always growing on their under +side and wearing off on their upper side. They +keep the nerves and blood tubes of the skin from +being hurt.</p> + +<p><b>125. The nails.</b>—The top scales of epithelium +at the ends of the fingers become matted together +to make the nails. The nails keep the ends of +the fingers from being hurt. They can also be +used to hold or cut small things. The new parts +of the nails form under the skin and push down +the older parts. So the nail grows farther than +the end of the finger and needs to be cut off. +Biting the nails leaves their ends rough. Then +they may catch in the clothes and tear into the +tender flesh. We ought to keep the nails cut +even with the ends of the fingers.</p> + +<p>The nails are not poisonous, but the dirt under +them may be. We ought to keep them clean. +Clean nails are one mark of a careful boy or girl.</p> + +<p><b>126. Hair.</b>—Some of the scales of epithelium +over some parts of the body dip into tiny holes +in the skin. In each hole they become matted +together to form a <i>hair</i>. Fine short hair grows +on almost every part of the body. On the top + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +of the head it grows long and thick. When boys +become men, it also grows long upon their faces. +The skin pours out a kind of oil to keep the hair +soft and glossy.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0077-illus" id="i0077-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0077-illus.jpg" width="150" height="153" alt="Hair" title=""/> +<p class="caption"> <b>A hair (×200).</b><br /> +<i>a</i> the surface of the skin.<br /> +<i>b</i> a hair.<br /> +<i>c</i> an oil gland.<br /> +<i>d</i> a muscle to make the hair stand on end.<br /> +<i>e</i> and <i>g</i>, the growing cells of the hair.<br /> +<i>f</i> fat in the skin.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>127. Care of +the hair.</b>—The +hair may become +dirty like +any other part +of the body. +Brushing it +takes out a +great deal of +dirt, but you +should also +wash it once a +week.</p> + +<p>The oil in +the skin ought +to be enough +for the hair. +Hair oils do not do the hair any good. If you +wet the hair too often, you may make it stiff +and take away its gloss. It is best to comb the +hair dry. Brush it so as to spread the oil of +the skin. Hair dyes are poisonous, and ought not +to be used.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> + <b>128. The sweat or perspiration.</b>—The scales of +epithelium dip into the skin and there line tiny +tubes. The tubes form the <i>sweat</i>, or <i>perspiration</i>, +out of the blood. The tubes are too fine to be +seen, but they are upon almost every part of the +body. They take the ashes or other waste matter +or poisons from the blood and wash them out of +the tubes with the perspiration. So the perspiration +has two uses. First, it takes heat away from +the body (see § <a href="#Page_63">108</a>). Second, it gets rid of the +waste matters or ashes of the body. It has very +little of these at any one time, but in a day it gets +rid of a great deal.</p> + +<p><b>129. The kidneys.</b>—The kidneys are close to the +backbone, below the heart. They are made of +tiny tubes much like the sweat tubes in the skin. +The tubes take ashes and other waste matters from +the blood, also a great deal of water. They also take +away poisons and disease germs when we are sick. +The kidneys take away about as much water as the +skin, but they get rid of very much more poisons +and waste matters than the skin does. If our kidneys +should stop their work, we should soon die.</p> + +<p><b>130. Need of bathing.</b>—When the perspiration +dries from the skin, it leaves the waste and poisons +behind. We cannot always see the dried matters, +but they always have an unpleasant odor. We + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +should bathe often enough to keep our body from +having an unpleasant smell. We should wash the +whole body with soap and hot water at least once a +week in winter and more often than that in summer.</p> + +<p>Another reason for bathing is to wash disease +germs from the body. Most dirt has disease germs +in it. Disease germs also float in the dust of the +air and stick to our skin when we go into a dusty +room. If our skin is dirty, some of the germs may +be carried into our flesh when our skin is pricked, +or scratched, or cut. We sometimes catch boils, or +erysipelas, or lockjaw, from very little wounds in a +dirty skin. Cleanliness of our skin helps to keep +us from catching diseases.</p> + +<p><b>131. Cold baths.</b>—Sometimes we bathe when we +are clean so as to get refreshed. If we bathe in +cold water, we feel cold at first. In a little while +we feel warm again. Then we feel stronger, and +refreshed for work. If we stay in the bath too long, +we become cold again and feel weak. When boys +go in swimming, they ought to come out before +they begin to feel cold.</p> + +<p>It is a good plan to take a cold bath every morning +when you get up, even if you use only a wash-bowl +with a little water. It will take only a few +minutes, but will keep you clean and make you feel +more like doing your day's work.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> + <b>132. A fair skin.</b>—We must wash often, to make +the skin fair and smooth. Use enough good soap +to keep the skin clean.</p> + +<p>If you eat as you should, and digest the food +well, your skin will have the least amount of waste +to give off. Then it will look well. A bad looking +skin is due to bad food and to bad digestion. If +you do not digest your food well, you cannot have +a fair skin.</p> + +<p>Face paint and powder make the skin look worse, +for they hinder perspiration. Nothing of that sort +will do the skin any good. You must eat as you +should, and you must keep clean. Then your skin +will be clear.</p> + +<p><b>133. Washing clothes.</b>—Our clothes rub off a +great deal of the perspiration and waste. They +become soiled. A great deal of dirt also gets upon +the sheets of our beds. Our clothes need to be +washed as well as our bodies when they are soiled. +Air and the sun as well as water destroy the waste +of the body. Our clothes need to be aired at night, +and the bed and bedroom should be aired through +the day.</p> + +<p><b>134. Slops.</b>—After water has been used to wash +our body or our clothes it is dirty and is not fit to +be used again. It must not be thrown where it can +run into a well. If a person has typhoid fever or + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +cholera or other catching disease, the water may +carry germs of the disease to the well, and so other +persons may get it. Slops from the house should +not be poured out at the back door, but they should +be carried away from the house. In cities the slops +are poured into large pipes and tunnels underground. +These pipes are called <i>sewers</i>. They +empty outside the city.</p> + +<p><b>135. Alcohol and the skin.</b>—Alcohol interferes +with digestion and causes biliousness. This makes +the skin rough and pimply. A drinker seldom has +a clear skin.</p> + +<p>Alcohol causes the arteries of the face to become +enlarged. Then the face is red. A red nose is one +of the signs of drinking. When a person uses +strong drink he is often uncleanly. He does not +care for the bad looks of his clothes and skin, and +so he lets them stay dirty. This harms the skin +and makes it look bad. The dirt also poisons the +skin and may itself be a cause of sickness.</p> + +<p>Because alcohol poisons the whole body and +often produces kidney diseases, the drinker is apt +to catch other diseases. Drinkers are the first to +catch such diseases as smallpox and yellow fever. +Where there are great numbers of cases, the +drinkers are the first and often the only persons +to die. This is because their skin and kidneys + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +have been harmed by the alcohol and cannot throw +off the poisons of the disease. Any kind of sickness +will be worse in a drinker. Surgeons do not +like to operate on drinkers, for their wounds do not +heal so quickly as in other people.</p> + +<p>When there is too little air, a fire burns slower, +and makes a blacker smoke and more ashes. Alcohol +takes some air from the cells of the body. So +they burn with smoke and ashes of the wrong kind. +The skin has to work harder to get rid of these, +and sometimes it cannot do it well. Then the body +is poisoned. The alcohol is burned and cannot +poison the body any more. But it causes the body +to make poisons, and so it is to blame. The poisons +do great harm to the skin and kidneys. Alcohol +causes more kidney disease than all other things +put together.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Little tubes in the skin are always giving off +ashes and waste matters in the perspiration.</p> +<p>2. Perspiration dries on the skin. So the skin +must be washed often.</p> +<p>3. The kidneys get rid of more water and waste +matter than the skin does.</p> +<p>4. Perspiration also gets upon the clothes and bed +sheets. These must be washed too.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> + 5. Dirty water from washing should be thrown out +where it cannot run into a well.</p> +<p>6. The skin is thick and strong and keeps the body +from being hurt.</p> +<p>7. The skin is covered with a layer of scales. The +scales have no feeling.</p> +<p>8. The scales form the nails on the ends of the +fingers.</p> +<p>9. The scales also form the hair.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> +<h3>THE NERVES, SPINAL CORD, AND BRAIN</h3> + +<p><b>136. Need of nerves.</b>—The cells of the mouth, +stomach, and intestine digest food; the cells of +the liver change the food to blood; the cells of the +heart pump the blood to feed all the cells of the +body; the red blood cells carry air for the cells to +breathe; and the cells of the skin and kidneys +carry away the waste of the rest of the cells. Each +set of cells works for all the rest. If the cells of the +body were only tied together, each one would do as +it pleased, and no two would work together. But +something tells each cell of the body to work with +the others. The cells all obey the mind. A tiny +thread goes to each cell of the body. Each thread +is a <i>nerve</i>. The mind and the cells signal to each +other over the nerves. By means of the nerves the +mind makes the cells work together.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0084-illus" id="i0084-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0084-illus.jpg" width="500" height="75" alt="A nerve" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>A nerve thread (×400).</b><br /><br /> +<i>a</i> central conducting fiber. <i>b</i> covering of fat.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0085-illus" id="i0085-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0085-illus.jpg" width="150" height="131" alt="A sliced nerve" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A thin slice for the end of a cut<br /> nerve (×200).</b><br /> +<i>a</i> nerve thread.<br /> +<i>b</i> connective tissue binding the<br /> + threads into a cord.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> + <b>137. Nerve messages.</b>—The nerve threads run in +bundles and form nerves large enough to be seen. +The mind uses the nerves to tell the cells to do +work. It tells the muscles +to move the arms and legs. +It tells the heart to beat +and stomach to pour out +gastric juice; and it tells +each of the cells to eat.</p> + +<p>The cells also send word +over the nerves to the mind. +They tell the mind when +they are touching anything, +and whether it is hard, or +smooth, or hot, and many other things about it. +The cells also tell the mind if they need more +food, or are tired.</p> + +<p>The nerves are always carrying messages to and +from the cells. The cells depend upon these messages +to tell them when and how to work. If the +nerve of any part of the body is hurt or cut, we +cannot feel with the part or move it, and its cells +do not act in the right way. We do not feel the +nerves while they are carrying the messages. We +wish the cells of the arm to work, and they work, +but we do not feel the message as it goes from the +mind to the cells of the arm.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0086-illus" id="i0086-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0086-illus.jpg" width="150" height="96" alt="The spinal cord" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A thin slice from the spinal cord with the<br /> +cells and nerves magnified 200 diameters.</b><br /> + <i>a</i> cells in the gray matter.<br /> + <i>b</i> fibers in the gray matter.<br /> + <i>c</i> nerve threads in the white matter.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> + <b>138. The spinal cord.</b>—The nerves start inside the +backbone. The backbone is hollow. It has a soft, +white cord inside, as +thick as the little finger. +Part of the mind lives +in this cord. The cord +is called the <i>spinal cord</i>. +Some of the nerves +start from cells of the +spinal cord. These +cells send word to the +muscles to move and +to all the cells of the body to eat and grow. They +also send word to the arteries to carry the right +amount of blood to the cells.</p> + +<p>From the nerves the spinal cord gets word when +something hurts any part of the body. You may +put your finger on a sharp pin. The spinal cord +feels the prick, and quickly sends word to snatch +the finger away. So the finger is taken away +before you really feel the prick. When some one +sticks a pin into you, you cannot help jumping. +This is because the spinal cord sends word for you +to jump away from the pin before it can harm you +much. Thus the spinal cord keeps the body from +being hurt. It acts while we are asleep as well as +when we are awake.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> + <b>139. Need of a spinal cord.</b>—We do not feel the +spinal cord acting, and we cannot keep it from acting. +It tells the cells when to eat and grow, and it +tells the heart and arteries how much blood to send +to each cell. If we had to think about feeding an +arm or a leg, we should sometimes forget it, but the +spinal cord keeps doing it without our thinking of +it. We put food into the body, and the spinal cord +tells the cells to use it. If it stops acting for an +instant, the cells stop work and we die. We cannot +change its action by any amount of thinking.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0087-illus" id="i0087-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0087-illus.jpg" width="500" height="547" alt="The human head" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>Regions of the head and action of the different parts<br /> +of the brain.</b></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> + <b>140. The brain.</b>—The nerves of the body go to +the brain as well as to the spinal cord. The brain +lies in the top of the head. A hard cover of bone +keeps it from getting hurt. It is a soft white mass, +and weighs about three pounds. Its outside is made +of cells, while its inside is the very beginning of the +nerves of the body.</p> + +<p><b>141. The mind.</b>—The mind is the real man. It +is the thinking part of himself. It lives in the body +and works by means of the cells of the brain. If +these cells are hurt or killed, the body seems to +have no mind, but yet it may keep on living. If all +the mind leaves the body, the body is dead.</p> + +<p>By means of the mind we feel, and know, and +think. The mind uses each part of the brain for +only one kind of work.</p> + +<p><b>142. The senses.</b>—The cells of the body send +word to the brain over the nerves. The eye tells +of sight, the ear of sounds, the nose of odors, the +mouth of tastes, and the skin of feelings. All these +messages go to the back part of the brain. They +tell the mind of the news outside of the body. We +get all our knowledge in this way. The cells also +tell of their need of food and drink by means of +the feelings of hunger and thirst.</p> + +<p><b>143. Motion.</b>—The mind in the cells of the top +part of the head sends the orders for moving the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +different parts of the body. When we wish to +run, the mind in the top of our head sends an +order over our nerves to our legs, and they carry +the body where we wish. If the top part of your +brain is hurt, as by a blow, it cannot send orders +to move, but you will lie stunned.</p> + +<p><b>144. Memory.</b>—The mind lays away all its messages, +and often looks them over again. These old +messages are called <i>memories</i>. They always stay +with the brain, and the mind can call them up at +any time. Our memories make our knowledge.</p> + +<p>Every act of the mind leaves some mark on the +memory. We may not be able to bring it back +when we want to, but it will come back some time. +Every bad word and evil deed will tend to come +back and make us bad again. Every good work +and word will leave its memory and make us +better. We ought to fill our minds with good +memories.</p> + +<p><b>145. Thinking.</b>—The brain also thinks. Thinking +is different from feeling and from moving, but +we can think about our feelings and about our +movements. The brain just back of the forehead +does all our thinking. A dog has only a little +forehead, and cannot think much. But the rest +of its brain is large, for it can see and hear and +run as well as a man. A baby can see and hear + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +and move, but it cannot think until it is taught +how. Boys and girls go to school to learn to think. +Thinking is work, just as truly as running is work. +At school, no one can learn to think without working. +Looking at things and hearing some one +talk about them will not make you a strong-minded +man, but thinking about these things will. Boys +and girls should study and think, as well as look +around and listen.</p> + +<p><b>146. How thought rules the body.</b>—We are +always feeling and moving. We often do these +things without trying, but we must make ourselves +think. We can make our bodies move, or keep +still, and we can keep from too much feeling. Our +thoughts direct our natural desires to move and +feel. In an animal, the feelings and movements +direct the thoughts. When men let their feelings +rule their thoughts, they are like animals. When +the thoughts control the feelings and acts, we are +men. If you get angry and cry, when you hurt +your finger, then you are like an animal; but if +you think about it and control your feelings, you +are behaving like a strong and noble man. The +thought part of the brain ought to rule all the +rest.</p> + +<p><b>147. Sleep.</b>—Most of the brain does its work +without our knowing it, but we know when we + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +think. The thinking part of the brain gets tired, +like any other part of the body. When it stops +work, we are asleep.</p> + +<p>We must give the brain a rest in sleep, just as +we must rest an arm or a leg. We ought to give +it regular rest. Every night we ought to go to +bed early. Then we shall be ready to get up early +and shall feel like working. Boys and girls need +nine or ten hours' sleep each day. When they +are grown, they need seven or eight hours' sleep +each day.</p> + +<p>The spinal cord and some parts of the brain +must always stay awake to make the cells of the +body eat and grow. When we are asleep, they +must be wide awake, and must repair the worn-out +parts. They do not seem to rest at all. If they +rested for any length of time, then the lungs, heart, +stomach and all other parts of the body would stop +work, and we should die. But they really rest a part +of the time. Like the heart, they act for a second, +and then stop for a second. They seem to act all +the time, but in all they rest half the time.</p> + +<p><b>148. Worry.</b>—The mind can do a great deal of +work, if it gets good sleep. If a person gets +enough sleep and rest, he cannot harm his mind +by hard work. Sometimes the mind is troubled +and worried over a danger or a loss. Then + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +it cannot rest, but soon wears itself out. Worry is +far more tiresome than hard work. By an effort, +we can keep from worrying. It never does us +good to worry, and we ought to keep from it.</p> + +<p><b>149. Nervousness.</b>—The thoughts are able to +rule all the rest of the mind. They can keep us +from feeling ill-tempered when we cannot have our +own way. Sometimes a little unpleasant feeling +makes us very unhappy, and keeps us from thinking +about our work. A little noise or pain keeps +some children from study, while others can bear +a great deal without being disturbed by it. Some +persons jump at a little noise, and are afraid of +a tiny bug or mouse. This is because their feelings +rule their thoughts. Such persons are called +<i>nervous</i>.</p> + +<p>A nervous person is very uncomfortable and +makes others so too. Yet any one can get over the +habit of being nervous, if he will try. You ought +not to laugh at a nervous person if he is afraid +of some little thing while you are not. You should +help him to get over his nervousness and to become +brave.</p> + +<p><b>150. Fear.</b>—Some persons are always brave. In +danger they calmly stop to think, and then know +how to save themselves. A timid person does not +think, but rushes where his feelings lead. When + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +a crowd is in danger, all will rush to do one thing. +All will run for a door, and perhaps tread on one +another. Then some one will surely be hurt. At +a fire, or in any other danger, you should always +stop to think how to act. If you rush with the +crowd, you may be hurt. You will be more likely +to be safe, if you stay away from them. Then, if +help comes, you will be able to receive it. Besides, +if you are cool and brave, you will help others +around you to be brave too.</p> + +<p><b>151. Fire drill.</b>—In schools the children are +taught how to go out of the building when there is +a fire. A bell is struck when the children do not +expect it. Then every child must leave his seat at +once and march out of the building. The bell is +struck every few days. Then, when the bell really +sounds for a fire, the children know how to march +out quickly, and so they learn to be brave.</p> + +<p>By training we can learn to be brave at all times. +We fear many harmless things, and in many cases +do not fear real dangers. We are liable to be hurt +at any time. We are more liable to be hurt by a +horse when we are out driving than we are by the +dark. Yet we do not fear the horse, while some do +fear the dark. We ought to learn to think, so as to +control our fear.</p> + +<p>Some are afraid of the dark, some are frightened + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +by ghost stories, and others expect to see a wild +animal jump from behind every bush. No one +fears these things unless he has been told about +them. We ought to be careful not to tell children +of these things. We ought to teach them to control +their fear.</p> + +<p><b>152. Habit.</b>—After we have thought about a +thing a few times, its hold on our memory becomes +strong, and leads us to think about it often. When +we have done a thing a few times, we are likely to +do it again without knowing it. We call this doing +things over again <i>habit</i>. When we once form a +habit, we find it very hard to break. We can form +habits of doing right or of doing wrong. We can +get into the habit of swearing or of drinking by +doing these things a few times. Then we shall do +these things when we do not want to. When a +drinker begins, he does not expect to keep on +drinking. But his habit makes him drink, and he +cannot help it. We should be careful not to do +bad things, for we easily form the habit of doing +them.</p> + +<p><b>153. Good habits.</b>—We can form habits of doing +right. We can speak kindly and be generous. +Then we shall do these things as easily as others +get cross. After a person has tried to do good a +few times, he will find it much easier to do good. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +Then he will speak kindly and give generously just +as easily as others get angry and keep their good +things to themselves.</p> + +<p><b>154. Alcohol takes away thought.</b>—Alcohol affects +and weakens the cells of the brain sooner than it +does those of any other part of the body. It first +makes the thought cells weak. Then a person does +not think how he acts. He lights his pipe in the +barn and throws the match in the hay. He drives +his horse on a run through a crowded street. He +swears and uses bad language. He gets angry at +little things and wants to fight. He seems to think +of himself, and of no one else. He is happy, for +he does not think of the bad effects of the drink. +He has a good time, and does not care for its +cost. He likes to drink, because it makes him feel +happy.</p> + +<p><b>155. Alcohol spoils motion.</b>—Some cells of the +brain cause the arms and legs, and all other parts +of the body, to move. Alcohol next makes these +weak. Then a person cannot move his legs right, +but he staggers when he walks. He cannot carry +a full cup to his lips. His hands tremble, and he +cannot take care of himself. He is now really +drunk.</p> + +<p><b>156. Alcohol takes away feeling.</b>—After a man is +drunk, he loses the sense of feeling. He does not + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +feel cuts and blows. Because he does not feel tired, +he feels very strong. He often sees two things for +one, and hears strange noises. The whole brain at +last gets weak, and cannot act. Then the drinker +lies down in a drunken sleep, and cannot be waked +up. Some die in this state.</p> + +<p><b>157. Insanity.</b>—When the brain is misused by +alcohol for some time, it cannot get over it. Then +the person becomes insane. Drink sends more persons +to the insane asylum than all other causes put +together.</p> + +<p><b>158. Delirium tremens.</b>—If a drinker gets hurt, +or becomes sick, he sometimes has terrible dreams. +In them he sees dirty and savage animals coming +to harm him. These dreams seem very real to +him, and he cries out in his fright. This is called +<i>delirium tremens</i>. A person is liable to die from it.</p> + +<p><b>159. Alcohol harms a drinker's children.</b>—The +children of drinkers are apt to be weak in body and +mind. A drinker hurts his children even more +than he hurts himself. They are liable to catch +diseases, and are often cross and nervous, or weak-minded. +It is a terrible thing for a man to make +his children weak and nervous.</p> + +<p><b>160. Other bad things about drink.</b>—There are +many other terrible things about drink, besides the +harm it does a man's body. Many a man has + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +made himself drunk so as to steal or kill. No man +can drink long without becoming a worse man for +it. Men will not trust him, and he loses the respect +of his friends.</p> + +<p>Making strong drink takes thousands of men +away from good work. They might work at building +houses, or raising grain, or teaching school. +As it is, their work is wasted.</p> + +<p>A great deal of money is wasted on strong drink. +All the mines of the world cannot produce enough +gold and silver to pay the drink bill. The people +of the United States pay more for strong drink +than for bread.</p> + +<p>The price of two or three drinks a day would +amount to enough, in ten years, to buy a small +home.</p> + +<p>The cost of strong drink is made much greater +if we count the cost of jails and insane asylums. +Over one half of all crimes and cases of insanity are +caused by strong drink.</p> + +<p>We must also add the misery and suffering of +most children of drunken fathers. This loss cannot +be counted in money. Numbers of children become +truants from school and learn theft and falsehoods +from lack of a father's care. When all the +cost is counted, nothing will be found so expensive +as strong drink.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> + On the other hand, what do people get for their +money and suffering? They get only a little +pleasure, and then they are ashamed of it. Men +use strong drink only because they like it more +than they dislike its bad effects.</p> + +<p>Since drink does a great deal of harm, with no +good to any one, it is right to make laws to control +its sale.</p> + +<p><b>161. How tobacco affects the brain.</b>—Some men +smoke to make themselves think, and some to keep +themselves from thinking. Now, smoking cannot +do both things. It really makes the brain less able +to think, for it weakens the whole body. A school-boy's +brain will surely be harmed if he uses tobacco +at all.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The mind makes all the cells of the body work +together.</p> +<p>2. Tiny nerve threads carry messages from the +mind to the cells.</p> +<p>3. Most of the nerves begin at the spinal cord in +the backbone.</p> +<p>4. The mind in the spinal cord tells the cells to +eat and grow. It tells the arteries how much +blood to carry to the cells.</p> +<p>5. The cells tell the spinal cord if they need food, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +or if something suddenly hurts them. The +spinal cord sends word to snatch the part +from danger.</p> +<p>6. Nerves carry to the brain news of sight, sound, +odor, taste, and touch.</p> +<p>7. The brain sends word to the muscles to move +the arms, the legs, and the rest of the body.</p> +<p>8. The brain thinks.</p> +<p>9. The brain stores up all its messages; these +make memory and knowledge.</p> +<p>10. The thought part of the brain can control the +feelings and the movements of the body.</p> +<p>11. Alcohol is more harmful to the brain than to +any other part of the body.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> +<h3>THE SENSES</h3> + +<p><b>162.</b> A man has five ways of knowing about +things outside of the body. He can feel, see, hear, +smell, and taste.</p> + +<p><b>163. Feeling.</b>—Nerves go to nearly every cell in +the body. They carry news to the brain when +anything touches them. The news produces a +feeling. Feelings are of three kinds:—</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, when anything touches the cells without +harming them, we feel a <i>touch</i>. We feel a +touch by nerves in the skin. Those in the ends of +the fingers and tongue can feel the best. Those +upon the back give but little feeling.</p> + +<p>Touch tells whether anything is hard, or rough, or +round, or square, or has other qualities and shapes.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, when anything touches the bare nerves +or hurts the cells, we feel a <i>pain</i>. We can feel a +pain anywhere in the body. Pain tells us if we are +being harmed. If we had no feeling of pain, we +might be killed before we could know of our +danger. Pain warns us away from danger.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> + <i>Third</i>, we can feel <i>heat</i> and <i>cold</i>. Anything +very hot or very cold, however, makes only a pain +and gives no feeling either of cold or of heat.</p> + +<p><b>164. Sight.</b>—We see with our eyes. An eye is a +hollow ball. In its front is a clear window. Behind +the window is a round curtain with a round hole in +its middle. When we speak of the color of the +eye, we mean the color of this curtain. Light passes +through the hole in the curtain and falls upon some +nerves in the back of the eyeballs. There it forms +a picture like a photograph. The nerves carry this +picture to the brain, and we see it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0101-illus" id="i0101-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0101-illus.jpg" width="500" height="460" alt="An eye" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>The human eye.</b></p> +<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption"> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>a</i> bony case of the eye.</td><td class="c33"><i>e</i> lining or seeing part of the eye.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>b</i> muscle to move the eye.</td><td class="c33"><i>f</i> eyelid. <i>g</i> colored curtain or iris.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>c</i> and <i>d</i> coverings of the eye.</td><td class="c33"><i>h</i> and <i>i</i> clear windows of the eye.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> + <b>165. Movements of the eyes.</b>—We can turn our +eyes so as to look in any direction. Sometimes a +person has one eye turned sidewise. Such a person +is cross-eyed, and sees well out of only one eye at a +time. Glasses may help the eyes, but sometimes +a surgeon has to cut a tiny muscle.</p> + +<p><b>166. Coverings of the eyes.</b>—The eyeballs lie in +a bony case, upon a soft bed of fat. In front each +is covered with two lids. We can shut the lids to +keep out dust and insects. When we are sleepy, +they come together and cover the eyes. Little +hairs at their edges help to keep out the dust.</p> + +<p>Sometimes a little dirt gets under the lids. Then +the eye smarts or itches, and we want to rub it; +but this may grind the dirt in deeper. Then you +should get some one else to lift your eyelid and +pick out the dust with a soft handkerchief. If you +cannot get help, lift the lid by the eyelashes; blow +your nose hard, and the tears may wash the dirt +away.</p> + +<p>Dust and disease germs may get into our eyes +and make them sore and red. You should bathe +your eyes well every time you wash your face. You +should use a clean towel, for a dirty one may carry +disease germs to your eyes. Some forms of sore +eyes are catching. If any one has sore eyes, no +one else should use his towels or handkerchiefs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> + <b>167. Tears.</b>—Clear salt water is always running +over the eyes and down a tube into the nose. The +use of this water is to bathe the eyes and keep them +clean. It sometimes runs over the lids in drops +called <i>tears</i>.</p> + +<p><b>168. How to use the eyes.</b>—If using your eyes +makes them painful or gives you a headache, you +are straining your eyes. Facing a bright light +strains the eyes. Shade your eyes while you +study. A cap may be used as a shade if you +cannot get anything else. Never try to look at +the sun or a very bright light. You should have +the light at one side or behind you. The light +should be steady. Reading in a dim light will harm +the eyes.</p> + +<p><b>169. Near sight.</b>—If you cannot read without +holding your book less than a foot from your eyes, +you are nearsighted, and should wear glasses all +the time. If you do this, your eyes may be strong, +and you may be able to see well.</p> + +<p><b>170. Far sight.</b>—If you cannot read without holding +your book at arm's length, you are farsighted +and need glasses. Most old persons are farsighted.</p> + +<p><b>171. Alcohol and the eyes.</b>—Alcohol makes the +eyes red. It weakens the eyes and may produce +blindness. A drunken person often sees double.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> + <b>172. Tobacco</b> causes dimness of sight and sometimes +produces blindness.</p> + +<p><b>173. Hearing.</b>—We hear with the ears. Sound +is made by waves in the air. The part of the +ear on the outside of the head catches the air +waves and throws them inside the ear. These +air waves strike against a little drum. Three little +bones then carry the waves on to nerves farther +inside the head. Animals can turn their ears and +catch sound from any direction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0104-illus" id="i0104-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0104-illus.jpg" width="500" height="367" alt="An ear" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>Diagram of the ear.</b></p> +<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption"> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>a</i> outer ear.</td><td class="c33"><i>f</i> <i>g</i> and <i>h</i> inner ear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>b</i> drum head.</td><td class="c33"><i>i</i> tube to the mouth.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11"><i>c</i> <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> bones to carry sound to inner ear.</td><td class="c33"><i>j</i> middle ear.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><b>174. Ear wax.</b>—Wax is formed just inside the +ear. It keeps flies and insects from crawling into +the ear. Boys in swimming sometimes get cold +water into their ears. This may make them have +an earache.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> + <b>175. How the throat affects the ear.</b>—An air tube +runs from the inside of the ear to the mouth. +Sometimes when you blow your nose, you blow +air into the ear. This makes you partly deaf and +you hear a roaring in your ears.</p> + +<p>Sometimes when you have a cold in your throat, +this little tube is stopped. Then your ear may +ache and may even discharge matter. This may +make you somewhat deaf. Earache and deafness +are most often due to a cold in the throat and a +stoppage of this tube.</p> + +<p>Many little boys and girls are deaf and do not +know it. They cannot hear the teacher well, and +sometimes the teacher thinks they are bad or careless +because they do not answer.</p> + +<p><b>176. Care of the ears.</b>—Very loud noises may +harm the ear and make you deaf. When you +expect a very loud noise, put your fingers in your +ears to shut out the sound.</p> + +<p>Boxing the ears may break their tiny drums +and make you deaf.</p> + +<p>Do not get cold water in your ear. This may +cause an earache and make you deaf. If you get +water in your ear while you are in swimming, +turn your head to one side and shake it. This +will get the water out.</p> + +<p>Do not put cotton or anything else into your ears.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> + <b>177. Smell.</b>—We smell with the nose. Some +things give out a vapor to the air. When we +draw the air into the nose, this vapor touches the +nerves, and we perceive a smell. The nerves are +high up in the nose. In order to perceive smell +clearly, we sniff the air far up the nose.</p> + +<p><b>178. Use of smell.</b>—Bad air and spoiled food +smell bad. A bad smell is the sign of something +spoiled. The sense of smell tells us when food +or air is unfit for use. Some people try to hide +a bad smell with perfumery. To do this only +makes the danger greater, for then the smell does +not tell us of the danger of food or air.</p> + +<p>Some animals can smell much better than a +man. A dog will smell the track of a wild animal +hours after it is made. Savages can smell much +better than civilized men.</p> + +<p><b>179. Taste.</b>—We taste with the tongue. Dry +food has no taste, but it must first dissolve in +the mouth. Spoiled food tastes bad. Bad-tasting +food is not fit to eat. Taste tells us whether food +is good or bad.</p> + +<p>We can learn to like the taste of harmful things. +At first no one likes tobacco or strong drink, but +the liking is formed the more one uses these. +We ought to be careful not to begin to use +such things.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> + <i>Alcohol</i> and <i>tobacco</i> burn the mouth and harm +the taste. Food does not taste so good and we +may eat spoiled food and not know it.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. We can feel in every part of the body, but +mostly in the ends of the fingers.</p> +<p>2. Light makes a picture upon the nerves inside +of the eye.</p> +<p>3. If the eyes ache, the light should be softened +or the position of the book or work changed, +or else the eyes should be rested.</p> +<p>4. Sound in the air goes into the ear and strikes +against a drum. Bones then carry the sound +to the ear nerves.</p> +<p>5. Air snuffed up the nose gives the sense of +smell. Smell tells us if the air or food is +fit for use.</p> +<p>6. Taste tells us whether food is fit for use. Men +can learn to like the taste of wrong things +like tobacco or alcohol.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0108-illus" id="i0108-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0108-illus.jpg" width="500" height="868" alt="A human skeleton" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>The Human Skeleton, showing position of bones.</b></p> +</div> + + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> +<h3>BONES AND JOINTS</h3> + +<p><b>180.</b> Bones make the body stiff and strong, and +give it shape. Long bones reach through the +arms and legs, and little bones reach down the fingers +and toes. Rounded plates of bone form the +head, and a pile of bony rings makes up the backbone. +Each bone is built to fit exactly into its +own place and to do its own work. In all there +are over two hundred bones in the body. They +form one seventh of its weight.</p> + +<p><b>181. Form of bones.</b>—A bone is not like a solid +piece of timber, but is hollow like the frame of a +bicycle. This makes it strong and light. At its +ends a bone is like a hard sponge covered with a +firm shell. This makes it too strong to be easily +crushed, and keeps it light.</p> + +<p>A bone grows like any other part of the body. +It is made of living cells like woven threads. Lime +is mixed among the cells, and makes them stiff like +starch among the threads of a linen collar. Blood +tubes go through every part of the bone so as to + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +feed the cells. The living cells form one third of +the bone, while the lime forms two thirds.</p> + +<p><b>182. Broken bones.</b>—Bones are very hard, and +yet they can bend a little without breaking. Most +of them are curved a little, and so they will spring +instead of breaking when they are pressed hard. +But sometimes they break. Then a person must +wear a splint and bandage to keep the bones in +place until they grow together again. The living +cells will mend a bone in about a month.</p> + +<p>An old person's bones are more tender than a +child's, and will not spring much without breaking. +An old man is afraid of falling and breaking his +bones, while a child falls a dozen times a day without +danger.</p> + +<p>The bones of some children bend too easily. +When they stand, the bones of their legs bend a +little. After a while they grow in the crooked +shape, and the child is bow-legged.</p> + +<p><b>183. Joints.</b>—Some bones are hinged upon each +other. A bone hinge is a <i>joint</i>. The rings of the +backbone are held together by very tough pads +of flesh. Each pad lets the backbone bend only a +little, but altogether they let us bend our backs in +any direction. These pads are like rubber springs +in a wagon, and keep our bodies from being jarred +too much.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> + The finger and toe joints, the wrists and ankles, +the elbows and the knees, bend back and forth like +a hinge. Tough bands of flesh bind the bones +together. The ends of the bones are rounded +and smooth. They fit together and make perfect +hinges. The joints are oiled by +a fluid like the white of an egg. +In old people this fluid sometimes +dries up. Then the joints become +stiff, and creak like a squeaking +hinge.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0111-illus" id="i0111-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0111-illus.jpg" width="150" height="245" alt="The elbow" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Hinge joint of the elbow.</b><br /> +1 humerus 2 ulna</p> +</div> + +<p>The shoulders and hips can be +moved in every direction. The +upper ends of the arm and leg +bones are round like half a ball. +They fit into cups on the shoulder +and hip bones. They are +very smooth, and are oiled like the hinge joints. +The joints are made to work very smoothly and +easily.</p> + +<p><b>184. Bones out of joint.</b>—When the ends of bones +are torn away from each other, the bone is out of +joint. Then the bone cannot be moved without +great pain. It should be put back in place at once +and kept there by splints and bandages. A person +is less liable to have his joints out of place than he +is to have his bones broken.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> + <b>185. Sprains.</b>—Sometimes a joint is turned too +much. This stretches the flesh around the joint, +and makes it very tender and painful. This is a +<i>sprain</i>. When you sprain a joint, you should put it +in hot water for an hour or two. Then keep it +still for a few days.</p> + +<p><b>186. Why bones and joints grow wrong.</b>—While +bones and joints are growing they can be made to +take any shape we please. They cannot be bent +all at once, but if we hold them in one way much of +the time, they will keep that shape. Some boys and +girls sit with their backs bent forward and lean +against the desk as if they were too lazy to sit up. +When they grow up, they will be bent and round-shouldered. +You should sit and stand straight. +Then you will grow tall and straight and strong. +A soldier has square shoulders and walks erect +because he is drilled until his bones and joints grow +in the proper shape. As you stand straight with +your feet together, your two big toes, your two +ankles, and your two knees should touch each +other.</p> + +<p>If you wear tight shoes and press the toes out of +shape, they will soon grow so. Nearly every one's +feet are out of shape from wearing short, pointed +shoes. Your toes should be straight and not +cramped by the shoe. If you wear narrow shoes, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +you may harm your feet. It is better to have one's +feet useful, even if they are large, than to make +them small and useless.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Bones make the body stiff, and give it form.</p> +<p>2. Some bones are long, some round, and some flat. +All are hard and springy.</p> +<p>3. Some bones are hinged together. The hinge +is a joint.</p> +<p>4. The ends of bones in joints are rounded and +smooth, and are oiled with a liquid like the +white of an egg.</p> +<p>5. Some bones are bound together by springy pads, +as in the backbone.</p> +<p>6. Bones can be broken. They will grow together +again themselves.</p> +<p>7. Joints can be put out of place; then we must +put them back.</p> +<p>8. If joints or bones are kept in wrong positions +they will grow into bad shapes. Tight shoes +deform the feet.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0114-illus" id="i0114-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0114-illus.jpg" width="500" height="884" alt="The body's muscles" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>The muscular system.</b></p> +</div> + + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> +<h3>MUSCLES</h3> + +<p><b>187. Shape of muscles.</b>—Bones are covered with +muscles. Muscles give shape to the body, and +move it about. One half of the body consists of +muscles. These are arranged in bundles, and each +causes a bone to make one motion. There are over +four hundred separate bundles of muscle in the body.</p> + +<p>One end of a muscle is large and round and is +fast to a bone. The other end tapers to a strong +string or tendon. The tendon passes over a joint, +and becomes fast to another +bone. You can easily feel +the tendons in the wrist and +behind the knee.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0115-illus" id="i0115-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0115-illus.jpg" width="150" height="122" alt="Cells" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Muscle cells, cut across<br /> + (×200).</b><br /> +<i>a</i> muscle cell.<br /> +<i>b</i> connective tissue binding the<br /> + cells together.</p> +</div> + +<p>A muscle is made of tiny +strings. You can pick them +apart until they are too fine +to be seen with the eye. Each +string is a living muscle cell. +It is the largest kind of cell +in the body. You can see the fine strings in cooked +meat.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;"> +<a name="i0116-illus" id="i0116-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0116-illus.jpg" width="150" height="145" alt="Slice of muscle" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>A thin slice of a voluntary muscle,<br /> + cut lengthwise (×100).</b><br /> +<i>a</i> muscle cell.<br /> +<i>b</i> capillaries surrounding the cells.<br /> +<i>c</i> connective tissue binding the<br /> + cells together.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> + <b>188. How muscles act.</b>—A nerve runs from the +brain, and touches every cell of the muscle. When +we wish to move, the brain sends an order down +the nerve. Then each muscle +cell makes itself thicker +and shorter. This pulls its +ends together, and bends the +joint. We can make muscle +cells move when we wish to, +but we cannot make any +other kind of cell move. We +make all our movements by +means of our muscles.</p> + +<p><b>189. Where you can see +muscles.</b>—In a butcher's shop you can see lean +meat. This is the animal's muscle. White and +tough flesh divides the tender red meat into +bundles. Each red bundle is a muscle. You will +see how the muscle tapers to a string or tendon. +The butcher often hangs up the meat by the tendons. +You can see the muscles and tendons in a +chicken's leg or wing when it is being dressed for +dinner.</p> + +<p>Roll up your sleeve to see your own muscles. +Shut your hand tight. You will see little rolls +under your skin, just below the elbow. Each roll +is a muscle. You can feel them get hard when + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +you shut your hand. You can feel their tendons +as they cross the wrist.</p> + +<p>Open your hand wide. You can see and feel +the tendons of the fingers upon the back of the +hand. These tendons come from muscles on the +back of the arm. You can feel the bundles of +these muscles when they open the fingers. There +are no muscles in the fingers, but all are in the +hand or arm. You cannot open your hand so +strongly as you can close it.</p> + +<p><b>190. Strength of muscle.</b>—By using a muscle you +can make it grow larger and stronger. If you do +not use your muscles they will be small and weak. +Children ought to use their muscles in some way, +but if they use them too much, they will be tired +out. Then they will grow weaker instead of +stronger. Lifting heavy weights, or running long +distances, tires out the muscles, and makes them +weaker. Small boys sometimes try to lift as much +as the big boys. This may do their muscles great +harm.</p> + +<p><b>191. Round shoulders.</b>—The muscles hold up the +back and head, and keep us straight when we sit +or stand. A lazy boy will not use his muscles to +hold himself up, but will lean against something. +He will let his shoulders fall, and will sit down in +a heap. Sometimes he is made to wear shoulder + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +braces to keep his shoulders back. This gives the +muscles nothing to do, and so they grow weaker +than ever. The best thing to do for round shoulders +is to make the boy sit and stand straight, like +a soldier. Then he will use his muscles until they +are strong enough to hold his shoulders back.</p> + +<p><b>192. How exercise makes the body healthy.</b>—When +you use your muscles, you become warmer. +Your face will be red, for the heart sends more +blood to the working muscle cells. You will be +short of breath, for the cells need more air. You +will eat more, for your food is used up. Your +muscles are like an engine. They get their power +from burning food in their own cells. When they +work they need to use more food and air. So +working a muscle makes us eat more and breathe +deeper. The blood flows faster, and we feel better +all over. The muscle itself grows much larger and +stronger.</p> + +<p>If we sit still all day, the fires in our bodies burn +low and get clogged with ashes. We feel dull and +sleepy. If we run about for a few minutes, we +shall breathe deeply. The fires will burn brighter. +Our brains will be clearer, and we shall feel like +work again. Boys and girls need to use their +muscles when they go to school. Games and +play will make you get your lessons sooner.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> + <b>193. How to use the muscles.</b>—You should use +your muscles to make yourself healthy, and not +for the sake of growing strong. Some very strong +men are not well, and some men with small muscles +are very healthy. Some boys have strong +muscles because their fathers had strong muscles +before them. Strength of muscle does not make +a man.</p> + +<p>You ought to have healthy muscles. Then your +whole bodies will be healthy, and you can do a great +deal of work. You ought to learn how to use your +muscles rather than how to make them strong. An +awkward and bashful boy may be very strong, but +he cannot use his muscles. A boy is graceful +because he can use them.</p> + +<p>The best way to use your muscles is in doing +something useful. You can help your mother in +the house and your father at the barn. You can +run errands. You can learn to use carpenter's +tools or to plant a garden. Then you will get +exercise and not know it. You will also be learning +something useful.</p> + +<p>Play is also needed. Work gets tiresome, and +you will not want to use your muscles. Play is bad +when it takes you from your work or when you +hurt yourself trying to beat somebody.</p> + +<p><b>194. Alcohol and the muscles.</b>—Men use alcohol + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +to make themselves strong. It dulls their weak +feelings, and then they think themselves strong. +They are really weaker. The alcohol hinders digestion +and keeps food from the cells. Then the fires +in the body burn low, and there is little strength.</p> + +<p>Alcohol sometimes causes muscle cells to change +to fat. This weakens the muscles.</p> + +<p>Men sometimes have to do hard work in cold +countries; and at other times they must make long +marches across hot deserts. Neither the Eskimos +in the cold north, nor the Arabs in the hot desert, +use strong drink. Alcohol does not help a man in +either place. It really weakens the body. The +government used to give out liquor to its soldiers; +but soldiers can do more work and have better +health without liquor and it is no longer given out.</p> + +<p>A few years ago men were ashamed to refuse to +drink. Even when a new church building was +raised, rum was bought by the church and given to +the workmen. Farmers used to give their men a +jug of rum when they went to work. Farm hands +would not work without it.</p> + +<p>Now all this has changed. Men do not want +drinkers to work for them. A railroad company +will discharge a man at once if he is known to +drink at all. A man can now refuse to drink anywhere +and men will not think any less of him.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> + <b>195. Tobacco</b> poisons the muscle cells and makes +them weak. At first it makes boys too sick to move. +It always poisons the cells even if they do not feel +sick.</p> + +<p><b>196. A long life.</b>—A man's body is built to last +eighty years, but only a few live so long. If you are +careful in your eating and drinking, if you breathe +pure air, and if you use your muscles, your body +will be healthy and will last the eighty years and +more. All through your life you will be strong and +able to do good work.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Muscles cover the bones and move the body.</p> +<p>2. Muscle is lean meat. It is made of bundles of +cells like strings. Nerves from the brain +touch each cell.</p> +<p>3. Each muscle is fast to a bone. It becomes +a small string or tendon at the other end. +The tendon crosses a joint and is fast to +another bone.</p> +<p>4. When we wish to move, the brain sends an +order to the muscle cells to make themselves +thicker and shorter and so bend the joint.</p> +<p>5. You can feel the muscles and tendons in the +arm and wrist.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> + 6. Muscle work makes us breathe deeper, and eat +more food. It makes the blood flow faster. +So it makes our whole bodies more healthy.</p> +<p>7. Every one ought to use his muscles some part of +the day.</p> +<p>8. Alcohol and tobacco lessen the strength of the +muscles.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> +<h3>DISEASE GERMS</h3> + +<p><b>197. Catching diseases.</b>—Our body may get out +of order like a machine. Some parts of it may be +cut, or broken, or worn out, or hurt in other ways. +Then we are sick until it is made whole again. +Sickness always means that a part of the body is out +of order.</p> + +<p>Some kinds of sickness are like a fire. A small +bit of something from a sick person may start a sickness +in us, just as a spark may set a house on fire. +Then we may give the sickness to others, just as a +fire may spread to other houses. If a person has +measles, we may catch the measles if we go near him; +but if a person has a toothache, we cannot catch the +toothache from him. So we may catch some kinds +of diseases, but we cannot catch other kinds.</p> + +<p><b>198. Bacteria and germs.</b>—Every kind of catching +sickness is caused by tiny living things growing in +our flesh and blood. Some of them are tiny animals. +Most of them are plants, and are called +<i>bacteria</i> or <i>microbes</i>. A common name for all of +them is <i>germs</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> + The word germ means nearly the same as the +word seed. Bacteria are so small that we cannot +see them unless we look at them through a strong +microscope. Then they look like little dots and +lines (p. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>). A million of them could lie on a pin +point; but if they have a chance, they may grow in +numbers, so that in two days they would fill a pint +measure.</p> + +<p>Very many kinds of bacteria and other germs are +found nearly everywhere. They are in the soil and +in water, and some float in the air as dust. When +they fall on dead things, they cause <i>decay</i> or <i>rotting</i>. +When we can fruit, we kill the germs by boiling the +fruit and the cans. Then we close the cans tightly +so that no new germs can get into them. The +fruit will then keep fresh for years.</p> + +<p>Decay is nearly always a good thing, for by it dead +bodies and waste substances are destroyed and given +back to the ground, where plants feed upon them. +Many plants would not grow if they could not feed +upon decaying things. So most bacteria and other +germs are useful to us. But some kinds of germs +will grow only in our bodies, and these kinds are the +cause of most of our sickness.</p> + +<p><b>199. Germs of sickness.</b>—We catch a sickness by +taking a few of the germs of the sickness into our +flesh. There they grow quickly, like weed seeds in + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +the ground, and form crops of new germs within a +few hours. After a few days the germs become +millions in number, and crowd the cells of our flesh, +just as weeds may crowd a potato plant (p. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>).</p> + +<p>Disease germs in the body also form poisons, just +as some weeds in a field form poisons. The poisons +make us sick, just as if we had swallowed the leaves +of a poisonous weed.</p> + +<p><b>200. Fever.</b>—If a sickness is caused by disease +germs, the body is nearly always too warm. Then +we say that the sick person has a <i>fever</i>. Almost the +only cause for a fever is disease germs growing in the +body. We can make a person have any kind of +fever by planting a few of the germs of the fever in +the right part of his body.</p> + +<p>We are made sick by the germs of fevers more +often than by all other causes put together. Here +is a list of common diseases caused by fever germs:—colds +and sore throats, most stomach aches, blood +poisoning in wounds, boils and pimples, tuberculosis, +whooping cough, measles, chicken pox, diphtheria, +scarlet fever, typhoid fever, smallpox, and malaria.</p> + +<p>Which of these kinds of sickness have you had? +What sickness have you had besides these?</p> + +<p><b>201. Sickness and Dirt.</b>—Disease germs leave the +body of a sick person in three ways: first, through the +skin, second, through the kidneys and intestines, and + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +third, through the nose and throat. In these same +ways our body gives off its waste matters. If we did +not take anything from another person's body into +our own body we should not catch fevers.</p> + +<p>Whatever a feverish person soils may contain +disease germs. When a person has only a slight +fever he often keeps at work, and then he may +scatter disease germs wherever he goes. So disease +germs are likely to be found wherever there is +dirt or filth. Cleanliness means good health as well +as good looks.</p> + +<p><b>202. Disease germs in the skin.</b>—Disease germs +may often be found in sores and pimples on the skin, +but they will not leave anybody's flesh and blood +through sound and healthy skin. If our skin is +smooth and fair, there will be few disease germs on +it unless we rub against something dirty. A dirty +skin nearly always contains disease germs. Washing +and bathing our body will take disease germs from +our skin and help us to keep well.</p> + +<p><b>203. Disease germs in slops.</b>—A great many disease +germs leave the body through the intestine and +kidneys, and may be found in the slops and waste +water of our houses. Slops are dangerous to health, +for they may run into a well, or spring, or river, and +so carry disease germs into our drinking water +(p. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>). Also, house flies may light on the pails + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +or puddles and carry the germs to our food. In +these ways we catch typhoid fever, stomach aches, +and other diseases of the intestines. All slops and +waste matters from the body should be put where +they cannot reach our drinking water, and where +flies cannot crawl over them (p. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>).</p> + +<p><b>204. Disease germs from the nose and throat.</b>—If +a person is sick with a fever, many of the germs are +likely to be found in his nose and throat. Thousands +of them are driven out with every drop of +saliva and phlegm when he blows his nose, or +spits, coughs, or sneezes, or talks. If he puts anything +into his mouth, it will be covered with germs. +More diseases are spread from the nose and mouth +than in any other way, for we are always doing +something to spread bits of saliva and phlegm.</p> + +<p><b>205. Spitting.</b>—Colds and consumption and other +forms of sickness are often spread by sick persons +spitting on the floor or pavement. The germs become +dried and are blown away as dust. For this +reason dust from the streets of cities and in crowded +halls is often the cause of sickness. In many places +spitting on a floor or pavement is strictly forbidden +by law.</p> + +<p><b>206. Putting things in the mouth.</b>—Many persons +have the habit of sucking their fingers, or of touching +a pencil to the tongue when they write or think, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +or of wetting their fingers with their lips when they +turn the leaves of a book. In all these ways we may +give a disease to others or may take a disease from +some one else.</p> + +<p><b>207. Public drinking cup.</b>—When you touch your +lips to a cup, you leave some saliva and cells from your +mouth on the cup. If a cup is used by a number +of persons, some one is almost sure to leave germs +of sickness on it, and others are likely to take them +into their own mouths when they drink. So a public +drinking cup is a dangerous thing. Each school +child should have his own cup. Public drinking +fountains should be so made that we may drink by +putting our lips to a stream of running water.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="i0128-illus" id="i0128-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0128-illus.jpg" width="500" height="271" alt="Drinking places" title=""/> +<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption"> +<tr><td class="c11"><b>A safe drinking fountain.</b></td><td class="c33"><b>An unsafe drinking place.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c11">A stream of water gushes up from the<br /> + middle of the cup.</td><td class="c33">Photograph taken in the basement of<br /> + a schoolhouse.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> + <b>208. Sweeping.</b>—Dusty air in a room is dangerous +to health, for disease germs are likely to be +found in it. We can get rid of dust by keeping our +floors swept clean. After sweeping we should wipe +the dust from the tables and furniture. A feather +duster or dry cloth will only stir up the dust and +make it float in the air again. We should use +either a damp cloth, or a dry duster made of tufts +of wool, so that the dust will stick to the duster.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="i0129-illus" id="i0129-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0129-illus.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="A fly" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b> House fly, magnified.</b><br /> +The hairs on its body and legs catch<br /> +dirt and disease germs.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>209. Foul air.</b>—If we live in a closed room, the +air soon becomes +foul and dusty, +and is likely to +have disease +germs in it. Foul +air is one of the +greatest of the +causes of sickness. +We should +change the air of +a room often so as +to keep it fresh +and free from dust +and disease germs +(pp. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>–<a href="#Page_67">67</a>).</p> + +<p><b>210. House flies.</b>—House flies come from garbage +heaps and filth of all sorts. So they carry disease + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +germs on their bodies. They light on our food +and on our faces, and so they often make us sick. +They are often the cause of typhoid fever, stomach +aches, and stomach sickness in babies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i0130a-illus" id="i0130a-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0130a-illus.jpg" width="500" height="285" alt="Life cycle" title=""/> +<p class="caption2"><b>Life history of house flies.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>Flies are hatched in manure piles and garbage +heaps. At first they look like white worms, and +are called <i>maggots</i>. Every maggot is a young fly. +We can get rid of flies by cleaning up every garbage +heap and manure +pile.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="i0130b-illus" id="i0130b-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0130b-illus.jpg" width="150" height="49" alt="The young" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Young mosquitoes hanging<br /> +head downward in water.</b></p> +</div> + +<p><b>211. Mosquitoes.</b>—Mosquitoes +carry malaria and +yellow fever from +sick persons to +the well. If there were no mosquitoes, there would +be no malaria or yellow fever.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> + Mosquitoes are hatched in water, and the young +are called <i>wigglers</i>. We may often see them in +rain barrels. We may get rid of mosquitoes by +emptying all rain barrels and pails and cans of dirty +water, at least once a week, and by drying up +swamps and marshes.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. We catch a fever by taking disease germs into +the body.</p> +<p>2. Disease germs cannot be seen without a strong +microscope.</p> +<p>3. The germs may be found in dust and dirt.</p> +<p>4. Slops from our houses are often full of the germs.</p> +<p>5. You may take germs into your body by putting +pencils and other things into your mouth, and +by drinking from a public drinking cup.</p> +<p>6. Spitting on the floor or pavement may scatter +disease germs.</p> +<p>7. House flies and mosquitoes often spread diseases.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> +<h3>PREVENTING SICKNESS</h3> + +<p><b>212. How our body kills disease germs.</b>—We take +disease germs into the body in three ways: first, +through the mouth, second, through the nose, and +third, through the skin. So we should watch the +purity of our food, drink, and air, and should be +careful about putting things into the mouth, and +about the cleanliness of the skin. We often take a +few disease germs into the body without catching +a disease. This is because the white cells of our +blood fight the germs and kill them (p. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>). If +the body is hurt or weakened, the white blood cells +may also be weakened so that they cannot kill the +germs. We should take good care of the body so +that every part of it may do its work well. We need +not be able to run fast, or to lift heavy weights, but +the best sign that every part of the body is in good +order is to feel bright and wide-awake. Then our +white blood cells will also be in good order and able +to fight disease germs.</p> + +<p><b>213. Catching cold.</b>—When we catch a disease, we +often say that we have caught cold. We used to + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +think that cold air and dampness were almost the +only causes of taking cold, and this is the reason +why we called many kinds of sickness by the name +of colds. Now we know that we catch cold by taking +disease germs into the body. The germs will not be +able to grow unless the body is weakened in some +way, as by cold and dampness. Yet if we are wet +and cold, we shall not catch cold unless we take +disease germs into the body. We do not get the +germs from the outdoor air, for very few germs are +there. We get them from the foul air of our houses +when we come in to warm and dry ourselves. If the +air of our houses were always as clean and pure as +the outdoor air, we should hardly ever have colds.</p> + +<p>We can safely let the cold air blow on us if we are +out of doors, but if we sit in a house, a small draft +sometimes seems to make us take cold. This is +because there are likely to be many disease germs +in the house and few out of doors.</p> + +<p>Other things besides cold air and dampness may +weaken the body, and so help us to take cold. If +germs of colds are in a warm room, we may sit there +and take cold even if we are not wet or chilled at all. +The body may be weakened by poor food, wrong +eating, or overwork, so that disease germs will easily +grow in it. We take as many colds from these +causes as from cold air and dampness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> + <b>214. Kinds of colds.</b>—A person takes most of the +germs of colds through his nose and mouth. If +they grow only in his nose, we say that he has a +cold in his head. If they grow in his throat, he has +a sore throat, or tonsillitis. If they reach as far as +the upper part of his windpipe, he is hoarse, or has +a cough, or the croup. If the germs are planted in +his lungs, he may have bronchitis or pneumonia. +All these kinds of sickness often spread from one +person to another. If one person in a family has a +cold, others in the family often catch cold from him.</p> + +<p><b>215. Diseases like colds.</b>—Diphtheria, tuberculosis, +whooping cough, and measles all begin like a +common cold and often look like a cold during the +whole sickness. Colds do not turn into any of these +diseases, for each of them comes from its own germ, +just as corn comes only from seed corn.</p> + +<p><b>216. Curing a cold.</b>—If you have a cold, you ought +to stay at home and rest, or lie in bed. Then your +white blood cells can gain strength to fight the disease +germs. You ought to have plenty of fresh air +in your room. You ought not to eat much food +for a few days, so that your stomach and intestine +and liver can use all their strength in throwing +off the poisons of the germs. But you ought +to drink plenty of water, so as to help wash away +the poisons from your body.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> + <b>217. Keeping colds from spreading.</b>—You should +keep away from other persons while you have a +cold, or other catching disease, so as to keep from +spreading the sickness. You ought not to go visiting, +or go to school, or to church, or to other meeting +places. When you cough or sneeze, you should +hold a handkerchief to your mouth, so as to keep +from blowing disease germs from your throat and +nose. You ought to sleep in a bed by yourself, so +that no one may take the disease germs from your +bedclothes. No one else should use your towel, or +handkerchief, or knife, or fork, or spoon, or dish, +until they have been washed in hot water, so as to +kill the disease germs on them.</p> + +<p><b>218. Keeping from catching cold.</b>—You can keep +yourself from catching cold by keeping your body +strong and in good order. You should keep your +clothes dry, eat good food, breathe pure air, get +good rest and sleep, and keep your body, your +clothes, and your house clean. You should also +keep disease germs out of your body. You should +not form a habit of putting your fingers or a pencil +to your mouth (p. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>). You should keep your +nose, your throat, and your mouth clean.</p> + +<p><b>219. Cleanliness of the nose.</b>—The inside of the +nose is wet with a slippery liquid. If you have a cold, +the liquid is thick and stops your nose, and is called + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +<i>phlegm</i>. The liquid catches and holds dust and +disease germs, and keeps them from going into the +windpipe. It also kills many of the disease germs.</p> + +<p>You should always carry a handkerchief and use +it so as to blow the germs out of your nose. You +should have a clean handkerchief every day.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="i0136-illus" id="i0136-illus"></a> +<img src="images/i0136-illus.jpg" width="150" height="208" alt="View of nose and throat" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><b>Photograph of model of the<br />nose and throat.</b><br /> + <i>A.</i> tonsil; <i>B.</i> adenoids;<br /> + <i>C.</i> opening of Eustachian tube.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>220. Adenoids and large tonsils.</b>—Sometimes children +have large tonsils growing in the back of the +throat, or soft +bunches of flesh +called <i>adenoids</i> +back of the nose. +These children +cannot breathe +well through the +nose, but must +breathe through +the mouth. Then +they take dust +and disease germs +deep into the +body, and so take +colds and other +sickness easily. +If a child has adenoids +or large +tonsils, an operation should be done to take them out.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> + <b>221. Cleanliness of the mouth.</b>—We often breathe +dust and disease germs into the mouth or snuff them +into the throat from the nose. Then they are caught +between the teeth and in the folds of the cheeks and +throat. There they may grow, and finally go deeper +into the body and make us sick. A dirty mouth is +very often the cause of colds and other sickness.</p> + +<p>We should keep our mouths clean by brushing our +teeth with a toothbrush two or three times a day. +We should also rub the toothbrush over the tongue +and around the back part of the throat so as to clean +the germs from every part of the mouth. Each child +should have a toothbrush of his own, and should +use it every day.</p> + +<p><b>222. Contagious diseases.</b>—Diphtheria, whooping +cough, measles, scarlet fever, and smallpox are all +dangerous kinds of sickness, and spread with great +ease. The germs may float in the air, and we may +take them into our bodies if we go into a room where +any one has the sickness. So we call these diseases +<i>contagious</i>. If a person has one of these diseases, +he should be made to stay in a house or room by +himself until he is well. Keeping the sick away from +well persons is called <i>quarantine</i>. When the sickness +is cured, the sick room and everything in it +should be cleaned and washed so as to kill the germs.</p> + +<p><b>223. <a name="Board" id="Board"></a>Board of health.</b>—There is a board of health + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +in every city and town. The men on the board show +persons how to keep diseases from spreading, and +make them obey the rules of health. Everybody in +a town should help the board of health in every +possible way.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The white blood cells of our body kill disease +germs.</p> +<p>2. We catch cold by taking disease germs into our +body.</p> +<p>3. The germs of colds are not often found in the +air out of doors. They are often found in the +foul air of houses.</p> +<p>4. If a person has a cold, he should keep away from +other persons, so as to keep from spreading +the sickness.</p> +<p>5. Cleansing the nose helps us to keep from catching +cold.</p> +<p>6. Cleansing the teeth and the inside of the mouth +removes many disease germs.</p> +<p>7. Adenoids and large tonsils should be taken from +the throat by an operation.</p> +<p>8. If a person has a dangerous contagious disease, +he should be quarantined.</p> +<p>9. Boards of health have charge of the prevention +of contagious diseases.</p> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<ul class="index"> + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Abdomen, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li>Adam's apple, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + <li>Adenoids, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li>Air, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + <li>Albumin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + <li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + <li>Alcohol and arteries, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. + <ul class="index2"> + <li>biliousness, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li>bitters, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li>blood, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>brain, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>breathing, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + <li>burning, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + <li>catching cold, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li>character, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li>cooking, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li>delirium tremens, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li>digestion, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li>eyes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>feeling, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>habit, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + <li>heart, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + <li>heat, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + <li>heredity, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li>insanity, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li>Jamaica ginger, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li>kidneys, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li>liver, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li>lungs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + <li>medicine, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li>money waste, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li>motion, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>muscles, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + <li>sickness, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + <li>skin, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li>stomach, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + <li>strength, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + <li>strong drink, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + <li>suffering, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + <li>taste, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + <li>thirst, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + <li>thought, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Alcohol, use of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + <li>Ameba, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li>Appetite, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> + Arteries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>Ashes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> B </li> + + <li>Bacteria, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + <li>Bathing, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>Beer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li>Bile, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Biliousness, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li>Bitters, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + <li>Bleeding, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li>Blood, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li>Board of Health, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Bones, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + <li>Bowels, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Bowlegs, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li>Brain, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li>Brandy, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + <li>Bread, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + <li>Breathing, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li>Broken bones, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li>Burning, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + <li>Butter, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> C </li> + + <li>Cake, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li>Candy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li>Canning fruit, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li>Capillaries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li>Catching cold, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + <li>Cells, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + <li>Cells, blood tubes of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. + <ul class="index2"> + <li>breathing of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li>burning of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + <li>composition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li>food of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>messages of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Cells of blood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. + <ul class="index2"> + <li>bone, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + <li>brain, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li>epithelium, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + <li>muscle, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + <li>skin, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li>spinal cord, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li>yeast plant, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Cheese, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Chest, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li>Chewing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li>Chewing gum, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Chewing tobacco, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>Cider, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + <li>Cigarettes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Cigars, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Clams, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Clot, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + <li>Clothes, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li>Coated tongue, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li>Cold, feelings of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li>Colds, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> + Connective tissue, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + <li>Contagious diseases, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Cooking, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + <li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li>Cream, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Cross-eyes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + <li>Cuts, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> D </li> + + <li>Deafness, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + <li>Decay, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + <li>Delirium tremens, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li>Diaphragm, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + <li>Digestion, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + <li>Diphtheria, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Dirt, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>Dirt in eye, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + <li>Disease germs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + <li>Distillation, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li>Drinking cup, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> E </li> + + <li>Ear, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li>Ear wax, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li>Eating, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li>Egg, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Epidermis, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + <li>Epithelium, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li>Eustachian tube, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li>Exercise, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + <li><a name="Eye" id="Eye"></a>Eye, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li>Eyeball, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li>Eyelids, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> F </li> + + <li>Far sight, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>Fat, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li>Fear, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li>Feeling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Fermentation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li>Fever, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + <li>Fire drill, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + <li>Fish, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Flannel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li>Flies, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + <li>Food, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Fresh air, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + <li>Fruit, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li>Fur, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> G </li> + + <li>Gastric juice, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li>Gelatine, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li>Germs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + <li>Gizzard, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li>Good habits, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + <li>Grain, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> H </li> + + <li>Habit, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li>Hair, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + <li>Hair dyes, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> + Hair oil, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li>Handkerchief, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li>Healing, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + <li>Hearing, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li>Heart, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li>Heart beat, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>Heat, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li>Heating houses, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + <li>House flies, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + <li>Hunger, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> I </li> + + <li>Intemperance, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li>Intestine, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Iron, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> J </li> + + <li>Jamaica ginger, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li>Joints, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> K </li> + + <li>Kidneys, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li>Knowledge, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> L </li> + + <li>Lead, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li>Life, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li>Lime, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li>Linen, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + <li>Liver, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + <li>Lungs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> M </li> + + <li>Maggots, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + <li>Malaria, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + <li>Matter, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + <li>Meal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Measles, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Meat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li>Memory, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + <li>Microbes, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + <li>Microscope, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + <li>Milk, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Mind, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li>Minerals, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + <li>Mosquitoes, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + <li>Motion, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li>Motor nerves, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li>Mouth, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Muscles, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> N </li> + + <li>Nails, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + <li>Near sight, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>Nerve messages, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li>Nerves, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li>Nervousness, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li>Nicotine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li>Night air, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li>Nose, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> O </li> + + <li>Oatmeal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Oysters, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> P </li> + + <li>Pain, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Pancakes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Pancreatic juice, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Pencils, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + <li>Perspiration, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li>Pie, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + <li>Pneumonia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>Poisons, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + <li>Potash, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li>Potatoes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li>Public drinking cup, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + <li>Pulse, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + <li>Pus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> Q </li> + + <li>Quarantine, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> R </li> + + <li>Red blood cells, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + <li>Reflex action, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li>Root beer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li>Round shoulders, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li>Rubbers, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> S </li> + + <li>Saliva, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li>Salt, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + <li>Scarlet fever, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Senses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Sensory nerves, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + <li>Sewers, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li>Sick room, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + <li>Sight, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + <li>Skin, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>Sleep, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + <li>Slops, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>Smallpox, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Smell, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li>Smoke, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + <li>Smoking, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Snuff, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>Soda, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + <li>Spinal cord, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li>Spitting, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li>Sprains, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + <li>Starch, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li>Steam engine, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + <li>Stockings, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + <li>Stomach, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li>Strength, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + <li>Strong drink, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + <li>Sugar, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + <li>Swallowing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Sweat, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li>Sweeping, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + <li>Sweetbread, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> T </li> + + <li>Taste, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li>Tea, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> + Tears, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + <li>Teeth, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Tendon, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + <li>Thinking, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + <li>Tight shoes, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li>Tobacco and brain, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. + <ul class="index2"> + <li>breathing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + <li>chewing, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>children, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>digestion, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>eyes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li>habit, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>heart, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li>muscle, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + <li>strength, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + <li>taste, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + <li>teeth, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Tongue, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Tonsils, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li>Toothpick, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Touch, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>Typhoid fever, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> V </li> + + <li>Vegetables, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li>Veins, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li>Ventilation, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + <li>Vinegar, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + <li>Voice, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> W </li> + + <li>Warmth, feeling of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li>Washing clothes, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + <li>Waste of body, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + <li>Water, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + <li>Wells, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + <li>Whisky, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + <li>White blood cells, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + <li>Whooping cough, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + <li>Wigglers, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + <li>Windpipe, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li>Wine, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + <li>Wool, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li>Words, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + <li>Working of fruit, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li>Worry, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + + + <li class="pad"> </li> + <li class="pad"> Y </li> + + <li>Yeast, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +</ul> + +<hr /> +<div class="tn"> +<h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4> +<ul class="corrections"> +<li>Pg <a href="#Board">137</a> Added period after "223" in "223 Board of health".</li> +<li>Pg <a href="#Eye">141</a> Replaced a comma with a period after "101" in "Eye, 101".</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 32251-h.txt or 32251-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/2/5/32251">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/2/5/32251</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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