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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Applied Physiology, by Frank Overton
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Applied Physiology
+       Including the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics
+
+
+Author: Frank Overton
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 4, 2010  [eBook #32251]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Larry B. Harrison and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 32251-h.htm or 32251-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32251/32251-h/32251-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32251/32251-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face
+      in the original (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
+
+Including the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics
+
+by
+
+FRANK OVERTON, A.M., M.D.
+
+Late House Surgeon to the City Hospital, New York
+
+Primary Grade
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York  Cincinnati  Chicago
+American Book Company
+
+Copyright, 1898, 1910, by
+Frank Overton
+
+OV. PHYSIOL. (PRIM.)
+E-P 42
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This primary text-book of applied physiology follows a natural order
+of treatment. In each subject elementary anatomical facts are
+presented in a manner which impresses function rather than form, and
+from the form described derives the function. The facts and principles
+are then applied to everyday life. Anatomy and pure physiology make
+clear and fix hygienic points, while applied physiology lends interest
+to the otherwise dry facts of physiology and anatomy. From the great
+range of the science there are included only those subjects which are
+directly concerned in the growth and development of children.
+
+The value of a primary book depends largely upon the language used. In
+bringing the truths within the comprehension of children, the author
+has made sparing use of the complex sentence. He has made the
+sentences short and simple in form, and logical in arrangement.
+
+A child grasps new ideas mainly as they appeal directly to the senses.
+For this reason, physiological demonstrations are indispensable.
+Subjects for demonstrations are not given, because they cannot be
+performed by the children; but the teacher should make free use of the
+series given in the author's advanced physiology.
+
+Cuts and diagrams are inserted where they are needed to explain the
+text. They are taken from the author's _Applied Physiology,
+Intermediate Grade_. Each was chosen, not for artistic effect, but
+because of its fitness to illustrate a point. Most of the cuts are
+adapted for reproduction on the blackboard.
+
+The effects of alcohol and other narcotics are treated with special
+fulness. The subject is given a fair and judicial discussion, and
+those conclusions are presented which are universally accepted by the
+medical profession. But while this most important form of intemperance
+is singled out, it should be remembered that the breaking of any of
+nature's laws is also a form of intemperance, and that the whole study
+of applied physiology is to encourage a more healthy and a more noble
+and self-denying mode of life.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                        PAGE
+
+       I. CELLS                                     7
+
+      II. OF WHAT CELLS ARE MADE                   10
+
+     III. DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE MOUTH           13
+
+      IV. DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE STOMACH         17
+
+       V. FOODS                                    23
+
+      VI. TOBACCO                                  31
+
+     VII. FERMENTATION                             37
+
+    VIII. KINDS OF STRONG DRINK                    42
+
+      IX. THE BLOOD                                49
+
+       X. BREATHING, HEAT, AND CLOTHING            59
+
+      XI. THE SKIN AND KIDNEYS                     75
+
+     XII. THE NERVES, SPINAL CORD, AND BRAIN       84
+
+    XIII. THE SENSES                              100
+
+     XIV. BONES AND JOINTS                        109
+
+      XV. MUSCLES                                 115
+
+     XVI. DISEASE GERMS                           123
+
+    XVII. PREVENTING SICKNESS                     132
+
+    INDEX                                         139
+
+
+
+
+APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CELLS
+
+
+Our body is made of many parts. Its head thinks. Its legs carry it,
+and its arms and hands take hold of things. The leg cannot do the work
+of the arm, nor the head do the work of the hand; but each part does
+only its own work.
+
+=1. The simplest animal.=--Some animals have parts like a man's; but
+these parts are fewer. No animal has arms or hands like a man. A fish
+has little fins in place of legs and arms, while a worm has not even a
+head, but only a body, and yet it moves. An oyster has only a body and
+cannot move. The simplest of all animals is very small. A thousand of
+them would not reach an inch. Yet each is a complete animal. It is
+called the _ameba_. It is only a lump of jelly. It can put out any part
+of its body like an arm and take a lump of food. This same arm can eat
+the food, too. It can also put out any part of its body like a leg and
+move by rolling the rest of its body into the leg. It can do some things
+better than a man can do them, for any part of its body can do all kinds
+of work. So the ameba grows and moves and does as it likes.
+
+[Illustration: =Different forms of an ameba (�400).=]
+
+[Illustration: =Cells from the human body (�200).=
+
+  _a_ A colored cell from the eye.
+  _b_ A white blood cell.
+  _c_ A connective tissue cell.
+  _d_ A cell from the lining of the mouth.
+  _e_ Liver cells.
+  _f_ A muscle cell from the intestine.]
+
+=2. Cells.=--A man's finger moves and grows something like a separate
+animal, but it must keep with the rest of the body. A little piece of
+a finger moves and grows, too. If you should look at a finger, or any
+other part of your body, through a microscope, you would see that it
+is composed of little lumps of jelly. Each little lump looks like an
+ameba. We call each lump a cell. The cells make up the finger.
+
+=3. What cells do.=--Each cell acts much as an ameba does. From the
+blood it gets food and air and takes them in through any part of its
+body. It also grows and moves. But the cells are not free to do as
+they wish, for they are all tied together in armies by very fine
+strings. We call these strings _connective tissue_. One army of cells
+makes the skin, and other armies make the bones and flesh. Some armies
+make the fingers, and some the legs. Every part of our body is made up
+of armies of separate cells.
+
+=4. The mind.=--The body is a home for the mind. The cells obey the
+mind. The mind pays the cells by feeding them and taking good care
+of them. When an army of cells is hurt, the body feels sick, and
+then the mind tells the whole body to rest until the cells are well
+again. When we study about a man's body, we learn about the separate
+cells in his body.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Our body is made up of many small parts.
+
+     2. The smallest parts are each like a little animal, and are
+          called _cells_.
+
+     3. Each cell eats and grows.
+
+     4. One army of cells makes a finger and another a leg, and so on
+          through the body.
+
+     5. The mind lives in the body.
+
+     6. The mind takes care of the cells.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+OF WHAT CELLS ARE MADE
+
+
+The cells of our body are made of five common things. You would know
+all these things if you should see them.
+
+=5. Water.=--The first thing in the cells is _water_. Water is
+everywhere in the body. Even the teeth have water. Most of our flesh
+is water. Without water we should soon shrink up. Our flesh would be
+stiff like bone and no one could live.
+
+[Illustration: =The body is made of these five things.=]
+
+[Illustration: =Fat tissue (�100).= The liquid fat is stored in living
+pockets.]
+
+=6. Albumin.=--_Second_, next to water, something like the white of an
+egg makes the most of the body. The white of an egg is _albumin_.
+When dried it is like gelatine or glue. Albumin makes the most of the
+solid part of each cell. Lean meat and cheese are nearly all albumin.
+When it is heated it becomes harder and turns white. The word albumin
+means white. Dry albumin is hard and tough, but in the living cells it
+is dissolved in water and is soft like meat. It is the only living
+substance in the body, and it alone gives it strength.
+
+=7. Fat.=--_Third_, next to albumin, the most of the body is fat. Fat
+does not grow inside the cells of the body, but it fills little
+pockets between the cells. Fat does not give strength. It makes the
+body round and handsome. It also makes the cells warm and keeps them
+from getting hurt.
+
+=8. Sugar.=--_Fourth_, sugar also is found in the body. Sugar is made
+out of starch. When we eat starch it changes to sugar. Starch and sugar
+are much alike. We eat a great deal of starch and sugar, but they are
+soon used in warming the body. Only a little is in the body at once.
+
+=9. Minerals.=--_Fifth_, there are also some minerals in the body.
+When flesh is burned they are left as _ashes_. Salt, lime, iron, soda,
+and potash are all found in the body.
+
+[Illustration: =Starch grains (�400).=
+
+  _a_, of potato.
+  _b_, of corn.]
+
+Everything in the body is either water, albumin, fat, sugar, or
+minerals. These things are also our food. We eat them mixed together
+in bread, meat, eggs, milk, and other foods.
+
+=10. Life.=--Our food is not alive, but after we eat it the body makes
+it alive. We do not know how it does it. When the body dies we cannot
+put life into it again. There is life in each cell.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The body is made of five things: water, albumin, fat, sugar,
+          and minerals.
+
+     2. Water is mixed with all parts of the body.
+
+     3. Albumin makes the living part of each cell.
+
+     4. Fat is in pockets between the cells. It warms the cells and
+          keeps them from being hurt.
+
+     5. Sugar is made from starch. It warms the body.
+
+     6. The minerals in the body are salt, lime, iron, soda, and potash.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE MOUTH
+
+
+=11. Food of the cells.=--All the cells of the body work and wear out.
+They must eat and keep growing. The food of the cells is the blood.
+Water, albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals are in the blood. The cells
+eat these things and grow. All food must be one or more of these five
+things. Before they reach the blood, they must all be changed to a
+liquid. A few cells of the body are set aside to do this work of
+changing them. Changing food into blood is digestion.
+
+=12. Cooking.=--Cooking begins digestion. It softens and dissolves
+food. It makes food taste better. Most food is unfit for use until it
+is cooked. Poor cooking often makes food still worse for use. Food
+should always be soft and taste good after cooking. Softening food by
+cooking saves the mouth and stomach a great deal of work. The good
+taste of the food makes it pleasant for them to digest it. We must cut
+our food into small pieces before we eat it. If we eat only a small
+piece at a time we shall not eat too fast. If we cut our food fine we
+can find any bones and other hard things, and can keep them from
+getting inside the body.
+
+=13. Chewing.=--Digestion goes on in the mouth. The mouth does three
+things to food. _First_, it mixes and grinds it between the teeth.
+
+_Second_, it pours water over the food through fine tubes. The water of
+the mouth is called the saliva. The saliva makes the food a thin paste.
+
+_Third_, the saliva changes some of the starch to sugar. Starch must
+be all changed to sugar before it can feed the cells.
+
+=14. Too fast eating.=--Some boys fill their mouths with food. Then
+they cannot chew their food and cannot mix saliva with it. They
+swallow their food whole, and then their stomachs have to grind it.
+The saliva cannot mix with the food and so it is too dry in the
+stomach. Then their stomachs ache, and they are sick. Eating too fast
+and too much makes children sick oftener than anything else.
+
+Birds swallow their food whole, for they have no teeth. Instead, a
+strong gizzard inside grinds the food. We have no gizzards, and so we
+must grind our food with our teeth.
+
+=15. Teeth.=--We have two kinds of teeth. The front teeth are sharp
+and cut the food; the back teeth are flat and rough and grind it. If
+you bite nuts or other hard things you may break off a little piece of
+a tooth. Then the tooth may decay and ache.
+
+After you eat, some food will sometimes stick to the teeth. Then it
+may decay and make your breath smell bad. After each meal always pick
+the teeth with a wooden toothpick. Your teeth will also get dirty and
+become stained unless you clean them. Always brush your teeth with
+water every morning. This will also keep them from decaying.
+
+[Illustration: =Digestive organs of a bird.=
+
+  _a_ esophagus or swallowing tube.
+  _b_ crop or bag for carrying food.
+  _c_ stomach.
+  _d_ intestine.
+  _e_ gizzard or food grinder.]
+
+=16. Swallowing.=--When food has been chewed and mixed with saliva
+until it is a paste, it is ready to be swallowed. The tongue pushes
+the food into a bag just back of the mouth. We call the bag the
+_pharynx_. Then the pharynx squeezes it down a long tube and into the
+stomach. The nose and windpipe also open into this bag, but both are
+closed by little doors while we swallow. We cannot breathe while we
+swallow. If the doors are not shut tightly, some food gets into the
+windpipe and chokes us.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. We eat to feed the cells of the body.
+
+     2. All food must be made into blood.
+
+     3. Changing food to blood is digestion.
+
+     4. Cooking softens food and makes it taste good.
+
+     5. Food is ground fine in the mouth, and mixed with saliva to
+          form a paste. Some of its starch is changed to sugar.
+
+     6. If food is only half chewed the stomach has to grind it.
+
+     7. When we swallow, the tongue pushes the food into a bag back of
+          the mouth and the bag squeezes it down a long tube to the
+          stomach.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
+
+
+=17. The stomach.=--When food is swallowed it goes to the stomach. The
+stomach is a thin bag. In a man it holds about three pints. Like the
+mouth, it does three things to the food.
+
+[Illustration: =Gastric glands in the stomach (�200).=
+
+The cells _a_ and _b_, form the juice. The fibers _c_, bind the tubes
+in place.]
+
+_First_, the stomach gently stirs and mixes the food.
+
+_Second_, it pours a fluid over the food. This fluid is called the
+_gastric juice_. The gastric juice is sour and bitter.
+
+_Third_, the gastric juice changes some of the albumin of food to a
+liquid form.
+
+If the mouth has done its work well, the stomach does its work easily
+and we do not know it. But if the mouth has eaten food too fast and
+has not chewed it well, then the stomach must do the work of the mouth
+too. In that case it gets tired and aches.
+
+=18. The intestine.=--The food stays in the stomach only a little
+while. All the time a little keeps trickling into a long coil of tube.
+This tube is called the _intestine_ or the _bowels_. Three or four
+hours after a hearty meal the stomach is empty. Some of the food has
+been changed to a liquid, but most of it has only been ground to
+smaller pieces, and mixed with a great deal of water. Now it all must
+be changed to a liquid.
+
+=19. What the intestine does.=--Like the mouth and stomach, the
+intestine does three things.
+
+_First_, it mixes the food and makes it pass down the tube.
+
+_Second_, two sets of cells behind the stomach make two liquids and
+pour them into the intestine. One set of cells is the _sweetbread_, or
+_pancreas_, and its liquid is the _pancreatic juice_. The other is the
+_liver_ and its fluid is the _bile_.
+
+_Third_, the pancreatic juice makes three changes in food. _First_,
+like the mouth, it changes starch to sugar. _Second_, like the
+stomach, it makes albumin a liquid. _Third_, it divides fat into fine
+drops. These drops then mix with water and do not float on its top.
+
+=20. Bile.=--The bile is yellow and bitter. It helps the pancreatic
+juice do its work. It also helps to keep the inside of the intestine
+clean.
+
+=21. Digestion of water and minerals.=--Water and the mineral parts of
+food do not need to be changed at all, but can become part of the
+blood just as they are. Seeds and husks and tough strings of flesh all
+pass the length of the intestine and are not changed.
+
+=22. How food gets into the blood.=--By the time food is half way down
+the intestine it is mostly liquid and ready to become part of the
+blood. This liquid soaks through the sides of the intestine and into
+the blood tubes. At last the food reaches the end of the intestine.
+Most of its liquid has then soaked into the blood tubes and only some
+solid waste is left.
+
+=23. Work of the liver.=--The food is now in the blood, but has not
+become a part of it. It is carried to the liver. There the liver changes
+the food to good blood, and then the blood hurries on and feeds the
+cells of the body. Spoiled food may be swallowed and taken into the
+blood with the good food. The liver takes out the poisons and sends them
+back again with the bile. The liver keeps us from getting poisoned.
+
+=24. Bad food.=--Sometimes the stomach and intestine cannot digest the
+food. They cannot digest green apples, but they try hard to do so.
+They stir the apples faster and faster until there is a great pain.
+Sometimes the stomach throws up the food and then the pain and
+sickness stop. Spoiled food makes us sick in the same way.
+
+=25. Too fast eating.=--When the food stays too long in the stomach or
+intestine it sours, or decays, just as it does outside of the body.
+This makes us very sick. When we eat too much, or when we do not chew
+the food to small pieces, the stomach may be a long time in digesting
+the food. Then it may become sour and make us sick.
+
+=26. Biliousness.=--When the food is poor or becomes sour, it is
+poorly digested. Then the liver has more work to do, and does not
+change the food to blood as it should. It also lets some of the sour
+poisons pass by it. These poison the whole body and make the head
+ache. We call this _biliousness_. The tongue is then covered with a
+white or yellow coat and the mouth tastes bad. These are signs of
+sickness. The stomach and liver are out of order.
+
+=27. Rules for eating.=--If we eat as we should, our stomach will
+digest its food. We must follow three rules.
+
+_First_, we must chew the food in the mouth until all the lumps are
+fine. Then the food will be ready for the stomach.
+
+_Second_, we must eat slowly. If we eat fast we cannot chew the food
+well. The stomach cannot take care of food if it comes too fast. We
+must swallow all of one mouthful before we put another into the mouth.
+
+_Third_, we must eat only at meal times. The stomach needs a rest.
+Even a little candy, or apples, or nuts will keep the stomach at work,
+and tire it out. A child needs to eat more often than his father. So,
+besides his meals, he should have something to eat in the middle of
+the morning and some more in the afternoon. But he should not be
+eating at all hours. He ought not to eat little bits just before
+dinner, for that spoils his meal.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The stomach and intestine stir and rub the food, and mix it
+          with juices.
+
+     2. The juices change albumin to a liquid, and starch to sugar.
+          They also change fat to the form of tiny drops.
+
+     3. The digested food soaks through the sides of the intestine
+          into the blood tubes.
+
+     4. The blood carries the food to the liver.
+
+     5. The liver changes food to blood.
+
+     6. Blood goes to all parts of the body and feeds the cells.
+
+     7. The liver keeps poisons from getting into the blood.
+
+     8. Water and minerals become a part of the blood without being
+          digested.
+
+     9. When food is not well digested, the liver cannot make it into
+          good blood. This makes us bilious.
+
+     10. If food is not soon digested it sours and decays. This makes
+          us sick.
+
+     11. We can make food digest quickly by chewing it well and eating
+          slowly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FOODS
+
+
+=28. Kinds of food.=--The cells of the body need water, albumin, fat,
+sugar, and minerals for food. We sometimes eat sugar alone, and we
+drink pure water. But most of our food is a mixture of all five kinds
+of food. Food comes from animals and plants.
+
+=29. Milk=.--Milk is the best food known. It contains just enough
+water, albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals. Babies and young mammals
+live on milk alone. A man can live upon four quarts of milk a day. In
+sickness, milk is the very best food for men, as well as for babies.
+
+The albumin of milk becomes hard when the milk sours. This makes
+_cheese_. The fat of milk rises to the top. We call it _cream_. When
+cream is churned, the pure fat comes together in a lump. Pure fat of
+milk is called _butter_. Cheese and butter are both good foods.
+
+=30. Eggs.=--Eggs are also good food. The white of an egg is almost pure
+albumin. The yolk is albumin and fat. Eggs have no starch or sugar.
+They are not a perfect food, for some sugar must be eaten. But they can
+be quickly digested and they produce a great deal of strength.
+
+=31. Meat.=--Meat contains albumin and fat, but no sugar. Fish,
+oysters, and clams are like meat. They all make good food. Boys and
+girls should eat milk, eggs, and meat. These foods are the best to
+give strength to the body. Nearly all food from animals is more
+quickly digested and gives more strength than food from plants.
+
+=32. Bread.=--White bread is a food made from wheat. The wheat is
+ground to flour. Flour is mixed with water, and yeast is added. The
+yeast makes a gas, and the gas puffs up the wet flour and makes it
+full of holes. The holes make the bread _light_. Then bread is baked.
+Rye or corn meal makes good bread. Cake, biscuit, and pancakes are
+much like bread. Sometimes in place of yeast, baking powder is used to
+make the bread or cake light.
+
+=33. Meal.=--Oatmeal, corn meal, and cracked wheat and rice are
+sometimes boiled, and eaten with milk. Bread, biscuit, oatmeal, and
+corn meal are made from grain. All are very much alike. The cooking
+makes them look and taste different, but yet they are nearly the same.
+
+=34. Why we need grain food.=--All kinds of grain have much albumin,
+but only a little fat. But all have a great deal of starch. By
+digestion the starch becomes sugar. Grain is a good food because it
+has starch or sugar. Animal foods have no sugar, so we eat grain food
+with them. The two together make the most nourishing food. Potatoes
+have a great deal of starch and only a little albumin. They also are
+good food with meat.
+
+[Illustration: =A healthy man needs as much food as this every day.=]
+
+A person cannot live well upon plant food alone, for it has too much
+starch and sugar, and too little albumin and fat. We need nearly equal
+parts of albumin, fat, and sugar. A mixture of bread, meat, eggs,
+vegetables, and milk makes the best food.
+
+=35. Fruit.=--Fruit, like apples, peaches, and plums all have sugar.
+They taste good, and give us an appetite for other kinds of food.
+They have little albumin or fat.
+
+=36. Salt.=--There is enough mineral matter in all food, and we do not
+have to eat iron or lime or soda. But we do need some more salt. Even
+animals need salt. Salt makes food taste good, and helps its digestion.
+
+[Illustration: =People are made sick by drinking water from such a
+well.=]
+
+=37. Water.=--Water is also a food, for it forms the most of our
+bodies. All food has water. Even dry crackers contain it.
+
+=38. Pure water.=--Water in a well runs through the dirty earth, and
+yet is clear and pure. This is because sand holds back the dirt. But
+sometimes slops from the house, and water from the barn yard, soak
+through the soil until the sand is full. Then the well water will be
+dirty and poisonous. People are often made sick by drinking such
+water. In cities the dirt fills all the soil and spoils the water. So
+the water must be brought from the country in large pipes.
+
+Water in lead pipes takes up some of the lead. Lead is a poison. You
+should let the water run off from a pipe a little while before you use
+it. Good water is clear and has no smell or taste. Dirty or yellow
+water, or water with a taste or smell, is not fit for use.
+
+=39. Tea and coffee.=--Tea and coffee are steeped in water and used as a
+drink. The drink is the water. The tea and coffee are neither food nor
+drink. They cause the cells of the body to do more work, and at the same
+time they take away the feeling of being tired. They do not give
+strength to the body, but are like a whip and make the body work harder.
+
+=40. The appetite.=--When we have so many kinds of food, what kind is
+best for us? The taste of food tells us the kind of food to eat. Bread
+and meat, and such plain foods, always taste good, and we never get
+tired of them. Sugar tastes good until we get enough. Any more makes us
+sick. More than enough sugar or starch is found in bread and potatoes.
+
+[Illustration: =One kind of intemperance.=]
+
+If we can eat food day after day, without getting tired of it, the
+food is good for us. If we get tired of its taste, either the food is
+not good for us or we are eating too much. Bad tasting or bad smelling
+food is always dangerous.
+
+We can tell how much food to eat by our _hunger_ or _appetite_. We can
+always feel when we have enough. Then is the time to stop.
+
+Sometimes we eat plain bread and meat until we have enough, and then
+sweet cake or pie is brought in. Then we have a false appetite for
+sweet things. If the sweet things had not made a false hunger, we
+should have had enough to eat. But the false appetite makes us want
+more, and so we eat too much, and sometimes get sick from it.
+
+=41. Intemperance.=--Eating for the sake of a false appetite is
+_intemperance_. Drinking strong drink for the sake of its taste is a
+common form of intemperance. But eating too much preserves, pie, and
+candy is intemperance too, and can do a great deal of harm. A little
+pie, or pudding, or candy, is good, because we can eat our sugar as
+well that way as in bread. But we should eat only a little.
+
+=42. Food and Diseases.=--If our food is dirty or is handled with
+dirty hands, or is put into dirty dishes, there may be disease germs
+in it. Our food should always be clean, and we should have our hands
+clean when we handle it or eat it.
+
+Storekeepers sometimes keep fruit and vegetables out of doors where
+street dust may blow upon it. This dust is often full of disease
+germs. Flies may also bring disease germs to the food. If food is
+kept where dust and flies can get at it, we ought not to buy it.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Food is a mixture of water, albumin, fat, starch or sugar, and
+          minerals.
+
+     2. Animal foods, like milk, eggs, and meat, have albumin and fat
+          in the best form.
+
+     3. Plant food has albumin and fat, but it has very much starch or
+          sugar. So, taken together with animal food, it makes a
+          complete food.
+
+     4. Lime, iron, soda, and salt are found in all foods, but we must
+          add a little more salt to food.
+
+     5. Water is found in all food, but we must drink some besides.
+
+     6. Dirty water, or water with a taste or smell, is not fit for use.
+
+     7. Taste tells us what kind of food to use.
+
+     8. Hunger, or the appetite, tells us how much food to use.
+
+     9. There can be a false hunger for sweet things. This may lead us
+          to eat too much.
+
+     10. Eating too much of sweet things is one form of intemperance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TOBACCO
+
+
+=43. Harmful eating.=--Men often eat for the fun of eating, and
+sometimes they eat harmful things. They chew tobacco and drink strong
+drinks, because they like their taste, just as a child eats candy.
+
+=44. Tobacco.=--Men have always drunk strong drink. Within the last
+four hundred years, men have learned another way to please a wrong
+taste. When Columbus discovered America, the Indians were using
+tobacco. They taught the Spaniards how to smoke it, and since then
+almost the whole world has used it.
+
+Tobacco is the leaf of a tall plant. It needs a better soil than any
+other crop. It takes the richness from the ground, and spoils it for
+other crops.
+
+=45. Nicotine.=--About 1/30 of each tobacco leaf is a strong poison.
+This poison is called _nicotine_. A drop or two of it, or as much of
+it as is in a strong cigar, will kill a man. It gives the tobacco its
+smell and taste. Men use tobacco for the sake of a poison.
+
+=46. Why men use tobacco.=--Men give queer reasons for using tobacco.
+One smokes for its company, another because he is with company. One
+smokes to make his brain think better, and another to keep himself
+from thinking. Some use tobacco to help digest their food, and others
+use it to keep themselves from eating so much. Boys smoke to make
+themselves look like men. The real reason for using tobacco is that
+men learn to like its taste, and do not care if it harms them.
+
+=47. Spitting.=--Tobacco in any form makes the saliva flow. Men do not
+dare swallow it, for it makes them sick. So they spit it out. No one
+likes to see this. It is a dirty and filthy habit. Besides, the saliva
+is lost, and cannot help digest food.
+
+Tobacco stains the teeth brown. You can always tell a tobacco chewer
+by his teeth. His breath will smell of tobacco, and even his clothes
+are offensive to the nose.
+
+=48. Tobacco lessens strength.=--Tobacco always makes a person sick at
+the stomach, at first. After a while, he becomes used to it, and an
+ordinary chew or smoke does not make him sick. But a large chew or
+smoke will always make him sick again. When a person is sick from
+tobacco he is very weak. Even if he is not sick, the tobacco poisons
+his muscles and makes his strength less. When a man trains for a hard
+race he never uses tobacco.
+
+=49. Tobacco hinders digestion.=--Tobacco and its smoke both have a
+burning taste. This makes the throat sore, and causes a cough. Tobacco
+does not help the stomach to digest food. Smokers and chewers often
+have headaches and coated tongues. These are signs of a poor digestion.
+
+=50. Effect upon the young.=--Tobacco is more harmful to boys than to
+men. If boys smoke they cannot run fast or long. They cannot work hard
+with their brains or hands. They do not grow fast, and are liable to
+have weak hearts.
+
+=51. Tobacco harms others.=--Many persons do not like the smell of
+tobacco, and no one likes the spit. No one should use it in the
+presence of others. The tobacco user's pleasure should not spoil the
+comfort and happiness of others.
+
+=52. Snuff.=--Powdered tobacco is called snuff. Snuff causes sneezing.
+No one should harm the nose and the whole body for the pleasure of a
+sneeze. Years ago snuff was used much more than it is now.
+
+=53. Chewing.=--Chewing tobacco is the most poisonous way of using it,
+for it keeps most of the nicotine in the mouth. Chewing will make any
+one very sick, unless he spits out all the saliva.
+
+=54. Smoking.=--Men smoke pipes, cigars, and cigarettes. The smoke has
+nicotine, and is poisonous. Pipe stems get dirty and full of nicotine.
+After a while they smell bad and are very poisonous. An old smoker's
+pipe will make a young smoker sick.
+
+=55. Cigarettes.=--Cigars are not so poisonous as a pipe, for more of
+the nicotine is burned up. Cigarettes are often made of weak tobacco.
+A cigarette does not contain so much tobacco as a cigar. Hence a
+cigarette does not cost much. It can be smoked in a hurry. It does not
+make a boy so sick as cigars do. Boys and men use a great many
+cigarettes where they would not touch a cigar. This makes the use of
+cigarettes the most dangerous form of smoking. Selling cigarettes to
+young boys is forbidden by law.
+
+=56. Habit.=--When men have used tobacco for some time, they like it
+and feel bad without it. So they get into the habit of using it, and
+find it hard to stop. The tobacco seems to help them, but it does not
+do so. It cheats men, and they do not know it.
+
+=57. Chewing gum.=--Chewing gum is made from pitch or paraffin, for
+these substances will not dissolve in the mouth. The gum is flavored
+with sugar and spices. The gum and its flavors are not harmful in
+themselves, and yet chewing them is harmful. Chewing makes a great
+deal of saliva flow. All this saliva is wasted, and when we eat our
+meals we may have too little. Then our food will not digest well, but
+we shall have dyspepsia and headaches.
+
+By pulling and handling the gum while chewing it, you may get some
+poisonous dirt into your mouth, and make yourself very sick.
+
+Even if your gum should not harm you, there is a good reason for
+letting it alone. When you are chewing gum, you look as if you were
+chewing tobacco. No one likes to see a boy or girl even appearing to
+chew tobacco. If you form a habit of chewing gum you will be more
+likely to chew tobacco when you are grown.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Men use tobacco for the sake of its nicotine. Nicotine is a
+          very strong poison.
+
+     2. Tobacco causes a man to waste his saliva.
+
+     3. Tobacco makes the mouth dry.
+
+     4. Tobacco hinders digestion.
+
+     5. Tobacco stains the teeth, and makes the breath smell bad.
+
+     6. Tobacco makes a person sick at the stomach.
+
+     7. Tobacco weakens the muscles.
+
+     8. Tobacco is more harmful to the young than to grown persons.
+
+     9. Chewing is the worst form of using tobacco.
+
+     10. Smoking cigarettes is the worst form of smoking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FERMENTATION
+
+
+=58. Souring of fruit.=--When a little fruit is set away in a warm
+place for a day or two it sours or ferments. Anything sweet will do
+the same thing. Little bubbles rise up through the juice and a foam
+comes on top. Then the juice has a sharp taste or is sour. Canned and
+preserved fruit becomes sour soon after the jar is opened, and cider
+soon turns to vinegar. All fruit juice does this even in cold weather.
+But in cold weather it keeps for a longer time.
+
+[Illustration: =Fermentation in a jar of cherries.=]
+
+=59. Preserving fruit.=--If your mother wishes to keep fruit all winter
+she boils it and at once puts it into tight jars. This shuts out the air
+and then the fruit keeps good all winter. Boiling kills all living
+things, and no more can get in through the tight jars. Does a living
+thing have anything to do with making the fruit juice turn sour?
+
+=60. Yeast.=--Yeast will make all sweet things ferment. Bakers make
+yeast grow in bread sponge. Yeast is alive. It is made of millions of
+tiny round cells. New cells sprout out from the side of the old cells
+like young lilies on an old lily bulb. Soon each new cell breaks off
+and lives all by itself. In a single night enough new cells will form
+to fill the whole loaf of bread.
+
+[Illustration: =Yeast plant cells (�500).=]
+
+=61. How yeast makes alcohol.=--Yeast will grow only where sugar is.
+When it has grown for some time there is no more sugar, and instead of
+a sweet taste there is a sharp or sour taste. The yeast has changed
+the sugar to alcohol. All alcohol is made from sugar by yeast.
+
+The seeds of the yeast plant are everywhere in the air. Some are on
+the skins of fruit and so are found in the juice when it is squeezed
+out. There they begin to grow at once and soon change the sugar to
+alcohol. They do this by taking a gas away from the sugar. The gas
+rises in little bubbles, and makes a froth upon the top of the juice.
+Boiling kills the yeast plant. If the juice is at once put into tight
+jars no new yeast plants can get in, and so the juice keeps.
+
+=62. Vinegar.=--Sometimes fruit juice turns sour. The sourness is due
+to vinegar. Besides yeast, other little living plants fall into the
+juice and turn the sugar to vinegar. But if there is much alcohol in
+the juice, the vinegar plants will not grow.
+
+=63. Yeast in bread.=--Growing yeast plants always make alcohol. They
+change some of the sugar of bread dough to alcohol and a gas. The gas
+bubbles through the bread and makes it light. When bread is baked, the
+heat of the oven drives off the alcohol, and so we do not eat any in
+bread.
+
+=64. Alcohol.=--Alcohol is a clear liquid and looks like water. It has
+a sharp taste and smell. It burns very easily and makes a very hot
+flame. Its smoke cannot be seen, and its flame will not make anything
+black, as a match flame will do.
+
+=65. Use of alcohol.=--Alcohol will dissolve more things than water
+will dissolve. It is used to dissolve drugs, varnishes, perfumery, and
+many other things. It will dissolve even oil and fat. Tailors clean
+grease spots from clothes with it. It takes water away from flesh and
+makes it dry, hard, and tough. It will keep anything from rotting. In
+museums we pour alcohol over pieces of flesh or plants in glass jars.
+Then they will keep and we can look at them at any time. Thus alcohol
+is a very useful thing, and we could hardly do without it.
+
+=66. Strong drink.=--Some men use alcohol in a wrong way. They swallow
+it as a drink. But men cannot drink pure alcohol, for it would burn
+their mouths. They always drink it mixed with some water. Alcohol in
+water is called _strong drink_.
+
+=67. Why men use strong drink.=--Some men take strong drink to make
+themselves warm, and some to make themselves cool. Some drink to keep
+themselves awake, and some to make themselves sleep. Some drink to
+keep themselves still, and some to make themselves stir around faster.
+Men use strong drink really because it seems to make them feel strong
+for a while. It does not make them stronger, but it harms the body and
+the mind. Its alcohol does the harm.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Sugar in fruit or in water turns to alcohol or vinegar, and a
+          gas.
+
+     2. The change to alcohol is caused by the cells of the yeast plant.
+
+     3. The change to vinegar is caused by another small plant.
+
+     4. Boiling fruit juice kills the yeast plants and then the juice
+          will keep without change.
+
+     5. Alcohol looks like water. It has a sharp and burning taste.
+
+     6. Alcohol takes water from flesh and hardens it.
+
+     7. Alcohol burns with a great heat and no smoke.
+
+     8. Alcohol is used to dissolve things, and to keep things from
+          spoiling.
+
+     9. Alcohol in water forms _strong drink_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+KINDS OF STRONG DRINK
+
+
+=68. Wine.=--All strong drink is alcohol and water. There may be other
+things to give it taste, but alcohol and water are always in it. No
+strong drink is over one half alcohol.
+
+[Illustration: =A glass of wine contains so much alcohol.=]
+
+In olden times wine was the only strong drink. Men used to crush out
+the juice of grapes and let it ferment. This made wine. But very often
+they used the juice before it fermented. Then it had no alcohol and
+could do no harm, but was a good food. We read of wine in the Bible.
+Some of it was fresh fruit juice.
+
+In wine, the sugar is changed to alcohol. The rest of the juice stays
+the same. All wine is made by the yeast plant growing in fruit juice.
+No yeast is put in, for there is always enough on the outside of the
+fruit. Wine is about one tenth alcohol.
+
+=69. Homemade wine.=--Cider is a kind of wine. It is made from apple
+juice. It has alcohol a day or two after it is made. All homemade
+wines have alcohol. Any of them can make a person drunk. Using weak
+homemade wine and cider often makes an appetite for stronger drinks.
+The alcohol in any of them is enough to harm the body.
+
+[Illustration: =A glass of beer contains so much alcohol.=]
+
+=70. Beer.=--After man had made wine for a long time, some one found
+out how to cultivate yeast. Then men could make sugar and water
+ferment whenever they wanted to. So men boiled grain to take out its
+sugar. Then they poured off the liquor and added yeast and let it
+ferment. This made beer and ale. Now millions of bushels of grain are
+used every year in making beer. Men call beer a _light_ drink. But it
+has alcohol and is a strong drink, and can make men drunk.
+
+=71. Root beer.=--Some persons boil roots and herbs, and add molasses
+and yeast. Then the liquid ferments and becomes _root beer_. They say
+"it has no alcohol, for we made it." But it does have alcohol, for
+yeast always makes alcohol. Some ginger ale is made by putting yeast
+in sweetened ginger water. It has alcohol, too.
+
+=72. Distillation.=--Boiling water turns to vapor or steam and goes
+off in the air. When the vapor is cooled, you can see the water again.
+It often cools on the window and makes little streams of water. You
+can catch the steam in a tube. If you keep the tube cool, the steam
+will turn to water in the tube. This process is called _distillation_.
+
+[Illustration: =A glass of whisky contains so much alcohol.=]
+
+Boiling alcohol also passes off into the air as vapor. When the vapor
+is cooled, it becomes liquid again. Alcohol boils with less heat than
+water. When alcohol in water is heated, the alcohol boils first. So
+the vapor has more alcohol than the water. When the vapor is cooled,
+the liquid has more alcohol than it had at first. When the liquid is
+distilled again it has more alcohol yet. Pure alcohol can be made in
+this way.
+
+=73. Whisky.=--Distilling wine or strong beer makes _whisky_ and
+_brandy_. Whisky is one half alcohol. It is more harmful than wine or
+beer.
+
+=74. Habit.=--Some strong drinks have only a little alcohol and some
+have a great deal. No one begins to drink the strong liquors. He
+begins with wine or beer. When he has once learned, he has a hard time
+to stop drinking. It is dangerous to drink even weak drinks.
+
+=75. Strong drink and thirst.=--When a man is thirsty, water will
+satisfy him but strong drink will not. Sometimes the mouth is dry and
+dirty and then a man feels thirsty. Rinsing the mouth with water, and
+rubbing the tongue and teeth clean will help the dryness and stop the
+thirst. At any rate, strong drink will only make the mouth dryer.
+
+Some men drink only when they are tired. Then a cup of strong and hot
+tea or coffee will make them feel much better than a glass of strong
+drink, and will not harm them so much.
+
+When strong drink is swallowed, its alcohol takes water from the
+mouth. When your mouth is dry, you feel thirsty. Strong drink makes
+the mouth dry, and so a drink makes a man more thirsty. The alcohol
+also makes the mouth smart. Men need another drink to cool the mouth
+after the first one. So one drink leads to another. All the while a
+person drinks water with the alcohol until he has too much water. But
+his mouth is dry and he feels as thirsty as ever.
+
+=76. Effect of alcohol upon the stomach.=--When strong drink is
+swallowed it makes the stomach smart just as it does the mouth. So the
+stomach feels warm, but it is really no warmer. This harms the stomach
+and keeps it from working well.
+
+Alcohol also keeps the gastric juice from changing albumin to a
+liquid. Alcohol keeps flesh from decaying in a museum. In the same way
+it may hinder the digestion of food in the stomach.
+
+When alcohol is used for only a short time, the stomach can get well;
+but if it is used for months and years, the stomach will stay weak.
+Then the drinker can hardly eat at all.
+
+=77. What becomes of alcohol.=--In the stomach a great deal of gastric
+juice is mixed with the alcohol. So it is very weak when it reaches
+the intestine. Alcohol needs only a little digesting. It soon soaks
+into the blood from the intestine along with the other food. The blood
+flows fast and washes the alcohol away as soon as it leaves the
+intestine. Too little gets into the blood at once to harm it much.
+
+Alcohol goes to the liver, and is there destroyed; but it still does
+great harm. The liver has to attend to the alcohol, and so it does not
+change the food to good blood, and it does not take all the poisons
+out of the blood. Then the whole body becomes weak and sick. Alcohol
+hurts the liver first, and more than other parts of the body. On this
+account, drinkers often have bilious attacks and stomach troubles.
+
+=78. Bitters.=--Many medicines are made by dissolving drugs in
+alcohol. In taking a strong medicine, we use only a few drops, and so
+do not get much alcohol. Some kinds of medicines must be taken in
+large doses. Bitters are weak medicines, and must be taken by the
+tablespoonful. A tablespoonful of the medicine has more alcohol than a
+large drink of whisky. The bitters seem to make a person feel well,
+but it is because he is taking a large amount of strong drink.
+
+Jamaica Ginger is only common ginger dissolved in alcohol. It, too, is
+a form of strong drink.
+
+=79. Strong drink as medicine.=--People sometimes keep whisky or
+brandy in the house to give for colds or other slight forms of
+sickness. A drink of hot coffee does more good than the strong drink,
+and has none of its dangers.
+
+By using whisky or brandy for medicine, children learn to believe in
+strong drink, and so they will be likely to use it when they grow up.
+This reason alone ought to keep any one from giving it to a child.
+
+=80. Alcohol in cooking.=--In making bread, alcohol is formed in the
+dough by the yeast. When the bread is baked, all the alcohol is driven
+off by the heat, and so we do not eat any.
+
+Sometimes brandy or wine is put into desserts. If it is put in after
+the dessert is cooked, we shall get as much alcohol as if we had drunk
+it. If the liquor is put in before cooking, the heat will drive off
+the alcohol but the flavor of the liquor will remain. The flavor will
+do no harm in itself, but people will learn its taste, and from it
+may learn to like the strong drink itself. The alcohol in bread has no
+special flavor and does not leave any taste behind. So we cannot learn
+to like strong drink by eating bread.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Fruit juice makes wine or cider.
+
+     2. All kinds of wine contain alcohol.
+
+     3. When the liquid from boiled grain has fermented, it becomes
+          beer, or ale.
+
+     4. By boiling wine or beer, and cooling the vapor, distilled
+          drinks like whisky are made. They are one half alcohol.
+
+     5. Water will satisfy a real thirst. Strong drink will not.
+
+     6. Alcohol keeps the stomach from digesting food.
+
+     7. Alcohol soaks into the blood tubes and goes to the liver.
+
+     8. The liver destroys the alcohol, but is hurt in doing it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE BLOOD
+
+
+=81. Blood.=--After food becomes blood, it goes to every part of the
+body to feed the cells. Even a pin prick anywhere in the body draws
+blood. The blood makes the skin pink. There are five or six quarts of
+blood in a man's body. This is about 1/13 of his body.
+
+[Illustration: =Blood corpuscles (�400).=
+
+  _a_ a pile of red blood cells.
+  _b_ red blood cells seen flatwise.
+  _c_ red blood cells seen edgewise.
+  _d_ white blood cells.]
+
+Blood looks like a red liquid. But if you look at it through a strong
+microscope, it looks like water, and millions of little red cells.
+These cells carry air through the body. They make the blood look red.
+There are also a smaller number of white cells. Blood is made of red
+cells, white cells, and a liquid.
+
+=82. The liquid in blood.=--The liquid part of the blood is albumin,
+and water, with a little fat, sugar, and minerals. It is food and
+drink for the cells of the body. When blood is drawn from the body it
+soon becomes like jelly. We call the jelly a _clot_. When you cut your
+finger, a clot forms in the cut and plugs up the bleeding place. If
+it did not, the blood would all run out of the body and we should die.
+
+[Illustration: =Diagram of the heart while it is beating.=
+
+  _a_ vein entering the auricle.
+  _b_ auricle.
+  _c_ closed valve to keep blood from flowing back into the auricle.
+  _d_ ventricle.
+  _e_ artery.
+  _f_ valve to keep blood from returning to the ventricle.]
+
+=83. The heart.=--The blood is held in tubes. A pump inside the body
+keeps it always moving. This pump is called the _heart_. The heart is
+a bag of muscle with thick sides. It is about as large as your fist.
+When it is full, it has the power to make itself smaller, and so it
+squeezes the blood out through a tube. We can feel each squeeze as a
+heart-beat. You can find the heart-beat just to the left of the middle
+of the body about two hand-breadths below the neck.
+
+=84. The heart-beat.=--A man's heart beats about seventy times each
+minute. Boys' and girls' hearts beat much faster. Running or hard work
+of any kind makes the heart beat faster yet. Your heart will keep on
+beating until you die. It does not seem to rest at all, yet it works
+only while you feel it beat. Between each beat it rests while the
+blood is filling it again. So it really rests one half of the time.
+
+=85. Arteries.=--The heart pumps the blood through a single tube. This
+tube opens into smaller tubes. These open into still smaller ones. You
+must use a strong microscope to see the finest blood tubes. The tubes
+reach every part of the body, and carry blood to its cells. They are
+called _arteries_. At each heart-beat a wave of blood can be felt in
+an artery. This wave is the _pulse_. It can be felt in the wrist,
+temples, and other places. By the pulse we can tell how often and how
+strongly the heart is beating.
+
+[Illustration: =Arrangement of capillaries.=
+
+  _a_ smallest artery.
+  _b_ smallest vein.
+  _c_ network of capillaries.]
+
+=86. Capillaries.=--The smallest arteries divide into a fine network
+of small tubes. These tubes are the _capillaries_. They lie around
+every cell of the body. Their sides are very thin. As the blood flows
+through them, some of it soaks through the sides of the tubes. Blood
+contains all kinds of food for the cells. Each cell is always wet with
+food and can eat it at any time. The cells are like the tiny animal,
+the ameba, and can take in the food by any part of their bodies. The
+cells are better off than the ameba, for their food is brought to
+them. They pay the body for their food by working for it.
+
+=87. Veins.=--The capillaries come together again to form large tubes.
+These tubes are called _veins_. Only a little of the blood goes through
+the sides of a capillary. The rest flows on into the veins. The veins
+unite to form two large tubes. These two tubes open into the heart.
+
+=88. How the blood flows.=--The blood is pumped out of the heart,
+through the arteries to the capillaries. There some goes out to the
+cells. The rest flows into the veins and goes back to the heart. All
+the blood in the body passes through the heart every two minutes. It
+takes only twenty seconds for a drop of blood to go from the heart to
+the toes and back again. The arteries are deep in the flesh, but some
+of the large veins can be seen upon the back of the hands.
+
+=89. Bleeding.=--If a large artery or vein is cut there is a great
+deal of bleeding. You can always stop a cut from bleeding by holding
+it fast between the hands. Do not be afraid of the blood when you see
+any one bleeding, but hold the sides of the cut tightly with both of
+your hands. This will stop any bleeding until help comes. You may keep
+a person from bleeding to death by doing this when other persons are
+afraid of the blood.
+
+=90. Healing cuts.=--When your flesh is cut it soon grows together
+again. The work of the little white cells in the blood is to help heal
+cuts and wounds and bruises. These cells are like little amebas in the
+blood. They keep moving around with the blood, and now and then burrow
+outside the capillaries to see if all is well. If they find a cut,
+hundreds and thousands rush to the spot at once. Some eat up any
+specks of dirt on the cut. Others fit themselves into the sides of the
+cut and grow long and slender, like strings, and so bind the two edges
+of the cut together. In this way all cuts are healed.
+
+[Illustration: =Bacteria growing in a kidney and producing an abscess
+(�300).=
+
+  _a_ kidney tube.
+  _b_ white blood cell attacking bacteria.
+  _c_ bacteria.
+  _d_ blood vessel of the kidney.]
+
+=91. The white blood cells kill disease germs.=--There are tiny living
+beings everywhere in the air, and soil, and water. Some of them can grow
+inside a man and make him sick. These tiny things are called _disease
+germs_. One kind gives a man typhoid fever, and another diphtheria.
+Another kind grows on cuts, and sometimes makes them very sore. The
+white cells of the blood are always watching for these enemies, like a
+cat hunting mice, and when they find them they at once try to kill them.
+But sometimes the white blood cells get killed. Then they look like
+cream in the cut. We call this creamy liquid _matter_ or _pus_, and say
+"We have caught cold in the cut." In most pricks and cuts the white
+cells of the blood can kill all these enemies and also heal the cut.
+
+=92. Catching cold.=--Sometimes the cold air blows on our head and
+hurts the cells of the nose. If there are disease germs in the air,
+they may grow in the injured part of the nose and make us have a "cold
+in the head." Then the white blood cells gather at the spot so as to
+kill the disease germs. Also the arteries bring a great deal of blood
+to the nose so as to heal the injured parts. Some of the white blood
+cells and the liquid from the blood run out, and we have to blow the
+nose. The white blood cells help to make us well whenever we catch a
+cold or other kind of sickness.
+
+=93. Red blood cells.=--The red blood cells are like tiny flat plates.
+They float in the liquid part of the blood and make the blood look
+red. They carry air from the lungs to the cells of every part of the
+body, and thus help all the cells to breathe.
+
+=94. Why the heart beats hard when we run.=--When we work hard, the
+cells of our bodies need a great deal of food. So the heart beats much
+harder, and sends them much more blood. We can feel our heart beat
+when we run hard.
+
+When the cells work they get more blood in another way. The arteries
+become larger and hold more blood. Then the part looks red and feels
+warm. Thus your face gets red when you run hard. This is because your
+heart and arteries bring more blood to feed the working cells.
+
+=95. Need of a strong heart.=--The heart must keep sending blood to
+feed the cells. If it should stop for only a little while, the cells
+would starve to death and we should die. We need strong hearts. When
+we work very hard for a long time, the heart gets tired. Then the
+cells do not get enough food and we feel weak all over. Boys ought not
+to run and lift till they are tired out, for this hurts their hearts.
+
+=96. What alcohol does to the blood.=--Alcohol hinders the digestion
+of food. Then too little food will reach the blood, and so the cells
+of the body will get too little. Alcohol does not add strength to the
+body, but it takes it away. It seems to make men stronger, for it
+takes away their tired feelings. But it makes them really weaker, for
+it harms the blood.
+
+=97. How alcohol affects the heart.=--Alcohol at first makes the heart
+beat more strongly and quickly, but it tires it out and makes it
+weaker. Then the heart pumps too little blood to the rest of the body,
+and a man is weaker all over.
+
+If a drinker tries to run or work hard, his heart may not pump enough
+food to the working cells of his arms and legs. Strong drink takes
+away a man's strength and makes him less able to endure a long strain.
+
+=98. How alcohol harms the arteries.=--Alcohol causes the arteries to
+become larger and to carry more blood. Then the face will be red and
+the skin will become warm. This makes a person feel well, and he seems
+to be helped. His blood seems to be flowing faster because his face is
+red. But really it is flowing slower.
+
+When the arteries have been made large very often, they stay large all
+the time. A drinker's nose is often red from this cause.
+
+Alcohol sometimes causes the arteries to become hard, and even to
+change to a kind of bone. Then they cannot change their size to carry
+just so much blood as each part needs.
+
+=99. How tobacco affects the heart.=--Tobacco weakens all the body,
+but it harms the heart more than the rest. It often makes the heart
+beat slowly at one time and fast at another. It weakens the heart and
+keeps it from working harder when the working cells need more food. A
+smoker gets out of breath quickly. He cannot run far or work very
+hard. Chewing is a still more harmful form of using tobacco. When men
+train for a game or a race they never use tobacco.
+
+Boys are not so strong as men, and so tobacco is more hurtful to them.
+Boys are harmed by tobacco far more than men. Cigarette smoke harms
+their stomachs and keeps food from their blood. If boys smoke, they
+become pale and weak. The poisonous smoke weakens the heart, and they
+cannot run or work so hard as they should. Even if a father uses
+tobacco, he should not allow his boys to use it.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Blood is a liquid. It contains many round red cells and a few
+          white cells.
+
+     2. Blood contains all kinds of food for the cells of the body.
+
+     3. The blood is kept moving by the heart.
+
+     4. The heart pumps or beats about seventy times a minute.
+
+     5. The blood flows through arteries to all parts of the body.
+
+     6. The arteries open into the capillaries. Capillaries make a
+          network around each cell of the body.
+
+     7. Some of the liquid parts of the blood go out through the sides
+          of the capillaries and become food for the cells of the
+          body.
+
+     8. From the capillaries the blood flows into the veins and back
+          to the heart.
+
+     9. Bleeding can be stopped by holding the cut tightly between the
+          hands.
+
+     10. The white blood cells grow into the sides of cuts, and so
+          heal them. They also guard the body against the seeds of
+          many diseases.
+
+     11. The red blood cells carry air to the cells of the body.
+
+     12. Alcohol weakens the heart and arteries.
+
+     13. Tobacco harms the heart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+BREATHING, HEAT, AND CLOTHING
+
+
+=100. The lungs.=--Our food becomes blood and feeds the cells of our
+body, but we grow only a little heavier. What becomes of the food?
+
+[Illustration: =The air tubes and lung.=
+
+  _a_ larynx or voice box.
+  _b_ trachea or windpipe.
+  _d_ air sacs, each like a tiny frog's lung.]
+
+Besides food, air is always getting into our bodies. In breathing, air
+passes through the nose into a tube in the neck. This tube is called
+the _windpipe_. You can feel it as a pile of hard rings in the front
+part of the neck. The windpipe divides into many branches. At the end
+of its smallest branches are little bags or sacs. The branches and
+the sacs make the two lungs. So a lung is a soft and spongy piece of
+flesh, and can be blown up like a rubber bag. A frog's lung is a
+single, thin bag, about half an inch across it. Each little sac of a
+man's lung is like a tiny frog's lung.
+
+[Illustration: =A frog's lung (�4).=]
+
+=101. The diaphragm.=--The lungs fill the upper part of the body just
+below the neck. They are covered by the bony ribs, and rest upon a
+broad muscle. This muscle is called the _diaphragm_. It divides the
+inside of the body into two parts. The upper part is the _chest_, and
+holds the heart and lungs. The lower part is the _abdomen_, and holds
+the stomach, intestine, and liver, and a few other parts.
+
+[Illustration: =The parts inside the body.=
+
+  _a_ lungs.
+  _b_ heart.
+  _c_ diaphragm.
+  _d_ stomach.
+  _e_ liver.
+  _f_ intestine.]
+
+=102. Breathing.=--When the diaphragm lowers itself, or the ribs are
+raised, the chest is made larger. Then the air rushes through the
+nose and swells out the lungs to the size of the chest. This is taking
+a breath. Then the chest becomes smaller again, and blows the air out.
+A man breathes about eighteen times a minute. He does not seem to rest
+in breathing, but as he works only when he takes in breath, he rests
+one half of the time.
+
+=103. How air gets into the blood.=--After the blood has been around the
+body through the arteries and capillaries and veins, the heart sends
+every drop to the lungs before it sends it out to feed the cells again.
+The blood flows through little capillaries upon the sides of the air
+sacs. There the red blood cells take up some of the air, and carry it
+with them. When they have a load of air, they become of a brighter red
+color. The blood in the arteries on its way to the cells is bright red.
+
+=104. How the cells get air.=--When the blood reaches the capillaries
+around the cells of the body, the red blood cells give up some of the
+air to the cells. Thus each cell of the body gets some air, and so it
+breathes. The cells cannot reach the air themselves, and so the red
+blood cells bring it to them. We breathe so as to supply the cells
+with air.
+
+=105. What burning is.=--When meat is put into a hot stove it quickly
+burns, and passes off in smoke, and leaves only a little ashes. The
+ashes are the mineral parts of the meat. If the fire is very hot, you
+cannot see the smoke. The burning of the meat makes heat. Heat in a
+steam engine makes the machine do work.
+
+Every fire must have plenty of air. If air is shut off, the fire goes
+out. When meat burns, the air unites with the meat and makes smoke, and
+ashes, and gives out heat. Air unites with something in every fire.
+
+=106. Burning inside the body.=--In every part of a man's body a very
+slow fire is always burning. The blood brings to the cells food from
+the intestine, and air from the lungs. The food and air join in a
+burning. The smoke goes back to the blood and is carried to the lungs,
+and breathed out with the breath. The ashes, also, go back to the
+blood, and are carried away by the skin and kidneys. The burning makes
+no flame or light for it goes on very slowly. You cannot see the
+smoke, but you can feel the warmth of the burning. Some of the heat is
+turned to power, and gives the body strength to do work. The body is
+like a steam engine. It burns up all its food.
+
+=107. How the body is warmed.=--The body is warmed by the slow burning
+in the cells. This burning keeps the body always at the same warmth.
+On a hot summer's day you feel warmer than on a cold snowy morning.
+But your body is no warmer. Only your skin is warmer.
+
+If the skin is warm, the whole body feels warm, but if the skin is
+cold, the whole body feels cold. On a hot summer's day the heat is
+kept in the skin, and we feel warm. On a cold winter's day a great
+deal of heat passes off from the skin, and we feel cold. Yet our
+bodies have the same warmth in winter as in summer.
+
+=108. How the sweat keeps us cool.=--When your hands or feet are wet,
+they are cold. On a hot summer's day, your body becomes wet with
+sweat. This cools the body as if water were poured over it. So
+sweating keeps you from getting too warm, and from being sunstruck.
+
+We are sweating all the time, but the sweat usually dries as fast as
+it forms. When we are too warm it comes out faster than it dries. On a
+winter's day we sweat only a little, and so we save the heat. But more
+heat passes off from the skin into the cold air, and we do not grow
+warmer.
+
+=109. Clothes.=--We wear clothes to keep the heat in the body. They do
+not make heat, but they keep it from going off. Wool and flannel
+clothes keep the heat in better than cotton. We wear woolen in the
+winter, and cotton in the summer.
+
+Fur keeps in heat the best of all. In very cold lands only fur is worn.
+
+Linen lets heat out easily. It makes good summer clothes.
+
+=110. Where to wear the most clothes.=--The face and hands are kept
+warm by the blood and we do not cover them except in the coldest
+weather. Our feet are more tender and need to be covered enough to
+keep them warm. We ought to wear thick-soled shoes or rubbers in damp
+weather so as to keep the feet dry and warm. We ought to dry the
+stockings every night, for they will get wet with sweat.
+
+The trunk of the body needs the most clothes. The legs ought to be
+kept warm, too. If the dress reaches only to the knee, thick
+underclothing is needed for the lower part of the leg.
+
+Do not keep one part of the body warm while another part remains cold.
+It is wrong to bundle the neck or wear too much clothing over any part
+of the body. It is also wrong to wear too little and be cold.
+
+When you are moving about, you need less clothing than when you are
+sitting still. When you have worked until you are very warm, it is
+wrong to stop to cool off. When you stop, you ought to put on a thick
+coat or else go into the house. If you do not, you may be chilled and
+made weak so that you can easily catch cold or some other disease.
+
+=111. Heating houses.=--In winter our bodies cannot make heat fast
+enough to keep us warm unless we put on a great deal of clothing. So
+we warm our houses. Our grandfathers used fireplaces, but these did
+not give out much heat. People now use stoves, but some use a furnace
+in the cellar, or heat the rooms by steam. Some use kerosene stoves,
+but they are not so good, for they make the air bad. A room should
+feel neither too warm nor too cold. It is of the right warmth when we
+do not notice either heat or cold.
+
+=112. Change of air.=--After air has been breathed it is no longer fit
+for use. In an hour or two you would breathe all the air of a small room
+once if it were not changed. When the air is partly used, you feel dull
+and short of breath, and your head aches. As soon as you get out of
+doors, you feel better. Foul air of houses and meeting places often
+contains disease germs. It is necessary to change the air of all rooms
+often. You can do this by opening a door or window. It is a good plan to
+sleep with your bedroom window open, so as to get good air all night.
+
+Air passes in and out of every crack in the windows and doors. If
+only one person is in a room, this may make enough change of air. If
+many persons are in a room, you will need to change the air in other
+ways. You can do this by opening a door or window. Do not let the cold
+air blow upon any one, for it may help to make him catch cold, if the
+air of the room is impure. If we lower a window from the top, warm
+impure air may pass out above it without making a draft.
+
+[Illustration: =Diagram of the natural ventilation of a room.=
+
+The arrows show the direction of the air currents.]
+
+You need fresh air at night as much as in the daytime. You need not be
+afraid of the night air, for it is good and pure like the day air. You
+ought to sleep with your window open a little. You ought to open the
+windows wide every morning and air your bed well. At night you ought
+to take off all your clothes and put on a night-dress. Then hang your
+clothes up to air and dry.
+
+=113. When to air a room.=--When you first enter a room full of bad
+air it smells musty and unpleasant. But after you have been in the
+room a while, you get used to it. If, however, you go out of doors a
+minute and then come back, you will smell the bad air again. If the
+air smells bad, open a door or window until it is sweet again.
+
+=114. How to breathe.=--When you run hard, the cells of your body use
+up all the air, and then you feel short of breath. While you run,
+burning goes on faster, and you feel warmer. You can work harder and
+longer if you can breathe in a great deal of air. You will also feel
+better and stronger for it. Then if you are sick, you will be able to
+get well more quickly. You ought to know how to breathe right.
+
+_First_, you ought to breathe through your nose. Even when you run,
+you ought to keep your mouth closed.
+
+_Second_, you should try to breathe deeply. You should take a very
+deep breath often, and hold it as long as you can. By practice you can
+learn to hold it a full minute.
+
+_Third_, you ought to run, or do some hard work, every day. When you
+get short of breath, you will have to breathe more deeply. After a
+while you may be able to run a half mile, or even a mile, without
+getting out of breath. But do not get tired out in your run, for this
+will harm you.
+
+_Fourth_, you must sit and stand with your shoulders back, and your
+chest thrown forward. A round-shouldered boy cannot have large lungs
+or be long winded.
+
+By breathing right, you can make your lungs very much larger and
+stronger.
+
+=115. The voice.=--We talk by means of the breath. At the upper part
+of the windpipe is a small box. Its front corner can be felt in the
+neck, just under the chin, and is called the _Adam's apple_. Two thin,
+strong covers slide across the top of the box, and can be made to meet
+in the middle. The covers have sharp edges. When they are near
+together, and air is breathed out between them, a sound is made. This
+sound is the _voice_. The tongue and lips change it to form _words_.
+
+=116. Care of the voice.=--The voice shows our feelings, even if we
+do not tell them in words. We can form a habit of speaking in a loud
+and harsh tone, as if we were always angry, or we can speak gently and
+kindly. We shall be more pleasant company to others if we are careful
+always to speak in gentle but distinct tones.
+
+[Illustration: =Top view of the larynx, with the vocal cords closed,
+as in speaking.=
+
+  _a_ epiglottis.
+  _b_ vocal cords.]
+
+[Illustration: =Top view of the larynx, with the vocal cords open, as
+in breathing.=
+
+  _a_ epiglottis.
+  _b_ vocal cords.]
+
+Shouting strains the voice and spoils its tone for singing. Reading
+until the throat is tired makes the voice weak. Singing or shouting in
+a cold or damp air is also bad for the voice. Breathing through the
+mouth is the worst of all for the voice.
+
+=117. What becomes of alcohol in the body.=--When alcohol is taken up
+by the blood, it is carried to the liver. The liver tries to get rid
+of it by taking some air from the blood and burning it up, just as it
+burns the real food of the body. But this takes some air from the
+cells of the body. Then they do not burn as they should.
+
+When a stove gets too little air through its draft, it makes an
+unpleasant smoke, and cools off. Just so, when the cells of the body
+do not burn as they should, they produce the wrong kind of smoke and
+ashes. This poisons the body and makes men sick. The most of the
+poisoning of alcohol is due to these new poisons.
+
+When alcohol takes air from the cells of the body, they do not get
+enough air. Then they are like a short-winded boy, and do not do their
+work well. In this way alcohol makes the body weak.
+
+Alcohol does not cease to be harmful because it is burned up in the
+body. It is harmful just because it burns so quickly. Using alcohol in
+the body is like trying to burn kerosene in a coal stove. The body is
+not made to burn alcohol any more than a coal stove is made to burn
+kerosene. You can burn a little kerosene in a coal stove if you are
+very careful. Just so, men can burn alcohol in their bodies. But
+kerosene will always smoke and clog up the stove, and may explode and
+kill some one. So alcohol in the body burns quickly and forms poisons.
+It always harms the body and may destroy life at once.
+
+=118. Alcohol and the lungs.=--If you run a long race, your lungs will
+need a great deal of air. If you take strong drink, the alcohol will
+use up much of the air, and you will not have enough to use on your
+run. So you will feel short of breath, and will surely lose the race.
+You cannot drink and be long-winded.
+
+Two drinks of whisky will use up as much air as the body uses in an
+hour. It would be easy to smother a person with strong drink. Drunken
+persons are really smothered; they often die because of the failure of
+their breathing, even while their heart is able to beat well.
+
+Alcohol often causes the lungs to become thickened. Then air cannot
+easily pass through their sides, and a person suffers from shortness
+of breath. Sometimes these persons cannot lie down at all, but must
+sit up to catch their breath.
+
+=119. Drinking and taking cold.=--A strong, healthy man can stand a
+great deal of cold and wet. If he breathes deeply in his work, all the
+cells of his body get plenty of air, and if he eats good food, the
+cells get plenty to eat. Then it will take a great deal to harm them.
+But alcohol hinders the digestion of their food, and also takes away
+their air. So the cells are both starved and smothered, and are easily
+hurt. Then a little cold and wet may do great harm to his body, for a
+drinker cannot stand bad weather or hard work so well as he could if
+he should leave drink alone.
+
+Men often drink to keep themselves from taking cold. The alcohol
+really makes them more liable to take cold. It causes the blood to
+flow near the surface of the skin; there it is easily cooled, and the
+drinker soon becomes chilled; then he feels colder than ever. The cold
+harms the cells of his body, and then the white blood cells cannot
+easily fight disease germs. For this reason a drinker easily takes
+cold and other diseases.
+
+=120. Alcohol lessens the warmth of the body.=--Alcohol causes the
+blood tubes in the skin to become larger. Then more blood will touch
+the cool air, and the body will become cooler. But because more warm
+blood flows through the skin, a man feels warmer. But he is really
+colder. Alcohol makes men less able to stand the cold. Travelers in
+cold lands know this and do not use it.
+
+=121. How tobacco affects breathing.=--We would not live in a room
+with a smoking stove. But tobacco smoke is more harmful than smoke
+from a stove, for it has nicotine in it. Tobacco smoke in a room may
+make a child sick.
+
+Cigarette smoking is very harmful to the lungs, for the smoke is drawn
+deeply into them, and more of the poison is likely to stay in the
+body. The smoke of tobacco burns the throat and causes a cough. This
+harms the voice.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Air is always being breathed into little sacs inside the body.
+          The sacs form the lungs.
+
+     2. The red blood cells pass through the lungs, and take little
+          loads of air. They then carry the air through the arteries
+          to the capillaries.
+
+     3. In the capillaries the air leaves the red blood cells, and
+          goes to the cells of the body.
+
+     4. The air unites with the cells, and slowly burns them to smoke
+          and ashes.
+
+     5. The smoke goes back to the blood, and is carried to the lungs
+          and given off by the breath. The ashes go back to the blood
+          and pass off through the skin and the kidneys.
+
+     6. The burning in the cells makes heat.
+
+     7. Some of the heat is changed to power, as it is in a steam
+          engine.
+
+     8. The heat also warms the body. It keeps it at the same warmth
+          on a cold day as on a hot day.
+
+     9. We wear clothes to keep the heat in, and so to keep us warm.
+
+     10. The air of a room needs to be changed often. It is made
+          stuffy by our breath.
+
+     11. The voice is made by the breath in a box in the neck.
+
+     12. Alcohol uses air belonging to the cells of the body.
+
+     13. Tobacco smoke has the same poisons as tobacco. It can poison
+          the whole body through the lungs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE SKIN AND KIDNEYS
+
+
+=122. Waste matters.=--The food is burned in the cells. As this
+burning goes on, the _smoke_ goes off by the lungs and the unburned
+substances, the _ashes_, go off by the skin and kidneys. The ashes are
+mostly the minerals of the cells, but there are also some from the
+burned albumin. All these go back to the blood and are carried to the
+skin and kidneys.
+
+[Illustration: =The skin (�100).=
+
+  _a_, _b_ and _c_ epidermis.
+  _d_ and _g_ tough and thick part of skin.
+  _e_ sweat gland.
+  _f_ blood tubes.
+  _h_ fat pockets.]
+
+=123. The skin.=--The skin covers the whole body. It is strong and
+keeps the body from being hurt.
+
+=124. The epithelium.=--The skin is covered with a thin layer of cells
+like fine scales. These scales are called _epithelium_, or _epidermis_.
+They have no blood tubes or nerves and so have no feeling. You can run a
+pin under them without feeling pain. They are always growing on their
+under side and wearing off on their upper side. They keep the nerves and
+blood tubes of the skin from being hurt.
+
+=125. The nails.=--The top scales of epithelium at the ends of the
+fingers become matted together to make the nails. The nails keep the
+ends of the fingers from being hurt. They can also be used to hold or
+cut small things. The new parts of the nails form under the skin and
+push down the older parts. So the nail grows farther than the end of the
+finger and needs to be cut off. Biting the nails leaves their ends
+rough. Then they may catch in the clothes and tear into the tender
+flesh. We ought to keep the nails cut even with the ends of the fingers.
+
+The nails are not poisonous, but the dirt under them may be. We ought
+to keep them clean. Clean nails are one mark of a careful boy or girl.
+
+=126. Hair.=--Some of the scales of epithelium over some parts of the
+body dip into tiny holes in the skin. In each hole they become matted
+together to form a _hair_. Fine short hair grows on almost every part
+of the body. On the top of the head it grows long and thick. When
+boys become men, it also grows long upon their faces. The skin pours
+out a kind of oil to keep the hair soft and glossy.
+
+[Illustration: =A hair (�200).=
+
+  _a_ the surface of the skin.
+  _b_ a hair.
+  _c_ an oil gland.
+  _d_ a muscle to make the hair stand on end.
+  _e_ and _g_, the growing cells of the hair.
+  _f_ fat in the skin.]
+
+=127. Care of the hair.=--The hair may become dirty like any other
+part of the body. Brushing it takes out a great deal of dirt, but you
+should also wash it once a week.
+
+The oil in the skin ought to be enough for the hair. Hair oils do not
+do the hair any good. If you wet the hair too often, you may make it
+stiff and take away its gloss. It is best to comb the hair dry. Brush
+it so as to spread the oil of the skin. Hair dyes are poisonous, and
+ought not to be used.
+
+=128. The sweat or perspiration.=--The scales of epithelium dip into
+the skin and there line tiny tubes. The tubes form the _sweat_, or
+_perspiration_, out of the blood. The tubes are too fine to be seen,
+but they are upon almost every part of the body. They take the ashes
+or other waste matter or poisons from the blood and wash them out of
+the tubes with the perspiration. So the perspiration has two uses.
+First, it takes heat away from the body (see � 108). Second, it gets
+rid of the waste matters or ashes of the body. It has very little of
+these at any one time, but in a day it gets rid of a great deal.
+
+=129. The kidneys.=--The kidneys are close to the backbone, below the
+heart. They are made of tiny tubes much like the sweat tubes in the
+skin. The tubes take ashes and other waste matters from the blood, also
+a great deal of water. They also take away poisons and disease germs
+when we are sick. The kidneys take away about as much water as the skin,
+but they get rid of very much more poisons and waste matters than the
+skin does. If our kidneys should stop their work, we should soon die.
+
+=130. Need of bathing.=--When the perspiration dries from the skin, it
+leaves the waste and poisons behind. We cannot always see the dried
+matters, but they always have an unpleasant odor. We should bathe
+often enough to keep our body from having an unpleasant smell. We
+should wash the whole body with soap and hot water at least once a
+week in winter and more often than that in summer.
+
+Another reason for bathing is to wash disease germs from the body.
+Most dirt has disease germs in it. Disease germs also float in the
+dust of the air and stick to our skin when we go into a dusty room. If
+our skin is dirty, some of the germs may be carried into our flesh
+when our skin is pricked, or scratched, or cut. We sometimes catch
+boils, or erysipelas, or lockjaw, from very little wounds in a dirty
+skin. Cleanliness of our skin helps to keep us from catching diseases.
+
+=131. Cold baths.=--Sometimes we bathe when we are clean so as to get
+refreshed. If we bathe in cold water, we feel cold at first. In a
+little while we feel warm again. Then we feel stronger, and refreshed
+for work. If we stay in the bath too long, we become cold again and
+feel weak. When boys go in swimming, they ought to come out before
+they begin to feel cold.
+
+It is a good plan to take a cold bath every morning when you get up,
+even if you use only a wash-bowl with a little water. It will take
+only a few minutes, but will keep you clean and make you feel more
+like doing your day's work.
+
+=132. A fair skin.=--We must wash often, to make the skin fair and
+smooth. Use enough good soap to keep the skin clean.
+
+If you eat as you should, and digest the food well, your skin will
+have the least amount of waste to give off. Then it will look well. A
+bad looking skin is due to bad food and to bad digestion. If you do
+not digest your food well, you cannot have a fair skin.
+
+Face paint and powder make the skin look worse, for they hinder
+perspiration. Nothing of that sort will do the skin any good. You must
+eat as you should, and you must keep clean. Then your skin will be
+clear.
+
+=133. Washing clothes.=--Our clothes rub off a great deal of the
+perspiration and waste. They become soiled. A great deal of dirt also
+gets upon the sheets of our beds. Our clothes need to be washed as
+well as our bodies when they are soiled. Air and the sun as well as
+water destroy the waste of the body. Our clothes need to be aired at
+night, and the bed and bedroom should be aired through the day.
+
+=134. Slops.=--After water has been used to wash our body or our
+clothes it is dirty and is not fit to be used again. It must not be
+thrown where it can run into a well. If a person has typhoid fever or
+cholera or other catching disease, the water may carry germs of the
+disease to the well, and so other persons may get it. Slops from the
+house should not be poured out at the back door, but they should be
+carried away from the house. In cities the slops are poured into large
+pipes and tunnels underground. These pipes are called _sewers_. They
+empty outside the city.
+
+=135. Alcohol and the skin.=--Alcohol interferes with digestion and
+causes biliousness. This makes the skin rough and pimply. A drinker
+seldom has a clear skin.
+
+Alcohol causes the arteries of the face to become enlarged. Then the
+face is red. A red nose is one of the signs of drinking. When a person
+uses strong drink he is often uncleanly. He does not care for the bad
+looks of his clothes and skin, and so he lets them stay dirty. This
+harms the skin and makes it look bad. The dirt also poisons the skin
+and may itself be a cause of sickness.
+
+Because alcohol poisons the whole body and often produces kidney
+diseases, the drinker is apt to catch other diseases. Drinkers are the
+first to catch such diseases as smallpox and yellow fever. Where there
+are great numbers of cases, the drinkers are the first and often the
+only persons to die. This is because their skin and kidneys have been
+harmed by the alcohol and cannot throw off the poisons of the disease.
+Any kind of sickness will be worse in a drinker. Surgeons do not like
+to operate on drinkers, for their wounds do not heal so quickly as in
+other people.
+
+When there is too little air, a fire burns slower, and makes a blacker
+smoke and more ashes. Alcohol takes some air from the cells of the
+body. So they burn with smoke and ashes of the wrong kind. The skin
+has to work harder to get rid of these, and sometimes it cannot do it
+well. Then the body is poisoned. The alcohol is burned and cannot
+poison the body any more. But it causes the body to make poisons, and
+so it is to blame. The poisons do great harm to the skin and kidneys.
+Alcohol causes more kidney disease than all other things put together.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Little tubes in the skin are always giving off ashes and waste
+          matters in the perspiration.
+
+     2. Perspiration dries on the skin. So the skin must be washed
+          often.
+
+     3. The kidneys get rid of more water and waste matter than the
+          skin does.
+
+     4. Perspiration also gets upon the clothes and bed sheets. These
+          must be washed too.
+
+     5. Dirty water from washing should be thrown out where it cannot
+          run into a well.
+
+     6. The skin is thick and strong and keeps the body from being hurt.
+
+     7. The skin is covered with a layer of scales. The scales have no
+          feeling.
+
+     8. The scales form the nails on the ends of the fingers.
+
+     9. The scales also form the hair.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE NERVES, SPINAL CORD, AND BRAIN
+
+
+=136. Need of nerves.=--The cells of the mouth, stomach, and intestine
+digest food; the cells of the liver change the food to blood; the
+cells of the heart pump the blood to feed all the cells of the body;
+the red blood cells carry air for the cells to breathe; and the cells
+of the skin and kidneys carry away the waste of the rest of the cells.
+Each set of cells works for all the rest. If the cells of the body
+were only tied together, each one would do as it pleased, and no two
+would work together. But something tells each cell of the body to work
+with the others. The cells all obey the mind. A tiny thread goes to
+each cell of the body. Each thread is a _nerve_. The mind and the
+cells signal to each other over the nerves. By means of the nerves the
+mind makes the cells work together.
+
+[Illustration: =A nerve thread (�400).=
+
+  _a_ central conducting fiber.
+  _b_ covering of fat.]
+
+[Illustration: =A thin slice for the end of a cut nerve (�200).=
+
+  _a_ nerve thread.
+  _b_ connective tissue binding the threads into a cord.]
+
+=137. Nerve messages.=--The nerve threads run in bundles and form
+nerves large enough to be seen. The mind uses the nerves to tell the
+cells to do work. It tells the muscles to move the arms and legs. It
+tells the heart to beat and stomach to pour out gastric juice; and it
+tells each of the cells to eat.
+
+The cells also send word over the nerves to the mind. They tell the
+mind when they are touching anything, and whether it is hard, or
+smooth, or hot, and many other things about it. The cells also tell
+the mind if they need more food, or are tired.
+
+The nerves are always carrying messages to and from the cells. The
+cells depend upon these messages to tell them when and how to work. If
+the nerve of any part of the body is hurt or cut, we cannot feel with
+the part or move it, and its cells do not act in the right way. We do
+not feel the nerves while they are carrying the messages. We wish the
+cells of the arm to work, and they work, but we do not feel the
+message as it goes from the mind to the cells of the arm.
+
+[Illustration: =A thin slice from the spinal cord with the cells and
+nerves magnified 200 diameters.=
+
+  _a_ cells in the gray matter.
+  _b_ fibers in the gray matter.
+  _c_ nerve threads in the white matter.]
+
+=138. The spinal cord.=--The nerves start inside the backbone. The
+backbone is hollow. It has a soft, white cord inside, as thick as the
+little finger. Part of the mind lives in this cord. The cord is called
+the _spinal cord_. Some of the nerves start from cells of the spinal
+cord. These cells send word to the muscles to move and to all the
+cells of the body to eat and grow. They also send word to the arteries
+to carry the right amount of blood to the cells.
+
+From the nerves the spinal cord gets word when something hurts any
+part of the body. You may put your finger on a sharp pin. The spinal
+cord feels the prick, and quickly sends word to snatch the finger
+away. So the finger is taken away before you really feel the prick.
+When some one sticks a pin into you, you cannot help jumping. This is
+because the spinal cord sends word for you to jump away from the pin
+before it can harm you much. Thus the spinal cord keeps the body from
+being hurt. It acts while we are asleep as well as when we are awake.
+
+=139. Need of a spinal cord.=--We do not feel the spinal cord acting,
+and we cannot keep it from acting. It tells the cells when to eat and
+grow, and it tells the heart and arteries how much blood to send to
+each cell. If we had to think about feeding an arm or a leg, we should
+sometimes forget it, but the spinal cord keeps doing it without our
+thinking of it. We put food into the body, and the spinal cord tells
+the cells to use it. If it stops acting for an instant, the cells stop
+work and we die. We cannot change its action by any amount of thinking.
+
+[Illustration: =Regions of the head and action of the different parts
+of the brain.=]
+
+=140. The brain.=--The nerves of the body go to the brain as well as
+to the spinal cord. The brain lies in the top of the head. A hard
+cover of bone keeps it from getting hurt. It is a soft white mass, and
+weighs about three pounds. Its outside is made of cells, while its
+inside is the very beginning of the nerves of the body.
+
+=141. The mind.=--The mind is the real man. It is the thinking part of
+himself. It lives in the body and works by means of the cells of the
+brain. If these cells are hurt or killed, the body seems to have no
+mind, but yet it may keep on living. If all the mind leaves the body,
+the body is dead.
+
+By means of the mind we feel, and know, and think. The mind uses each
+part of the brain for only one kind of work.
+
+=142. The senses.=--The cells of the body send word to the brain over
+the nerves. The eye tells of sight, the ear of sounds, the nose of
+odors, the mouth of tastes, and the skin of feelings. All these
+messages go to the back part of the brain. They tell the mind of the
+news outside of the body. We get all our knowledge in this way. The
+cells also tell of their need of food and drink by means of the
+feelings of hunger and thirst.
+
+=143. Motion.=--The mind in the cells of the top part of the head
+sends the orders for moving the different parts of the body. When we
+wish to run, the mind in the top of our head sends an order over our
+nerves to our legs, and they carry the body where we wish. If the top
+part of your brain is hurt, as by a blow, it cannot send orders to
+move, but you will lie stunned.
+
+=144. Memory.=--The mind lays away all its messages, and often looks
+them over again. These old messages are called _memories_. They always
+stay with the brain, and the mind can call them up at any time. Our
+memories make our knowledge.
+
+Every act of the mind leaves some mark on the memory. We may not be
+able to bring it back when we want to, but it will come back some
+time. Every bad word and evil deed will tend to come back and make us
+bad again. Every good work and word will leave its memory and make us
+better. We ought to fill our minds with good memories.
+
+=145. Thinking.=--The brain also thinks. Thinking is different from
+feeling and from moving, but we can think about our feelings and about
+our movements. The brain just back of the forehead does all our
+thinking. A dog has only a little forehead, and cannot think much. But
+the rest of its brain is large, for it can see and hear and run as
+well as a man. A baby can see and hear and move, but it cannot think
+until it is taught how. Boys and girls go to school to learn to think.
+Thinking is work, just as truly as running is work. At school, no one
+can learn to think without working. Looking at things and hearing some
+one talk about them will not make you a strong-minded man, but
+thinking about these things will. Boys and girls should study and
+think, as well as look around and listen.
+
+=146. How thought rules the body.=--We are always feeling and moving.
+We often do these things without trying, but we must make ourselves
+think. We can make our bodies move, or keep still, and we can keep
+from too much feeling. Our thoughts direct our natural desires to move
+and feel. In an animal, the feelings and movements direct the
+thoughts. When men let their feelings rule their thoughts, they are
+like animals. When the thoughts control the feelings and acts, we are
+men. If you get angry and cry, when you hurt your finger, then you are
+like an animal; but if you think about it and control your feelings,
+you are behaving like a strong and noble man. The thought part of the
+brain ought to rule all the rest.
+
+=147. Sleep.=--Most of the brain does its work without our knowing it,
+but we know when we think. The thinking part of the brain gets tired,
+like any other part of the body. When it stops work, we are asleep.
+
+We must give the brain a rest in sleep, just as we must rest an arm or
+a leg. We ought to give it regular rest. Every night we ought to go to
+bed early. Then we shall be ready to get up early and shall feel like
+working. Boys and girls need nine or ten hours' sleep each day. When
+they are grown, they need seven or eight hours' sleep each day.
+
+The spinal cord and some parts of the brain must always stay awake to
+make the cells of the body eat and grow. When we are asleep, they must
+be wide awake, and must repair the worn-out parts. They do not seem to
+rest at all. If they rested for any length of time, then the lungs,
+heart, stomach and all other parts of the body would stop work, and we
+should die. But they really rest a part of the time. Like the heart,
+they act for a second, and then stop for a second. They seem to act
+all the time, but in all they rest half the time.
+
+=148. Worry.=--The mind can do a great deal of work, if it gets good
+sleep. If a person gets enough sleep and rest, he cannot harm his mind
+by hard work. Sometimes the mind is troubled and worried over a danger
+or a loss. Then it cannot rest, but soon wears itself out. Worry is
+far more tiresome than hard work. By an effort, we can keep from
+worrying. It never does us good to worry, and we ought to keep from it.
+
+=149. Nervousness.=--The thoughts are able to rule all the rest of the
+mind. They can keep us from feeling ill-tempered when we cannot have
+our own way. Sometimes a little unpleasant feeling makes us very
+unhappy, and keeps us from thinking about our work. A little noise or
+pain keeps some children from study, while others can bear a great
+deal without being disturbed by it. Some persons jump at a little
+noise, and are afraid of a tiny bug or mouse. This is because their
+feelings rule their thoughts. Such persons are called _nervous_.
+
+A nervous person is very uncomfortable and makes others so too. Yet
+any one can get over the habit of being nervous, if he will try. You
+ought not to laugh at a nervous person if he is afraid of some little
+thing while you are not. You should help him to get over his
+nervousness and to become brave.
+
+=150. Fear.=--Some persons are always brave. In danger they calmly
+stop to think, and then know how to save themselves. A timid person
+does not think, but rushes where his feelings lead. When a crowd is
+in danger, all will rush to do one thing. All will run for a door, and
+perhaps tread on one another. Then some one will surely be hurt. At a
+fire, or in any other danger, you should always stop to think how to
+act. If you rush with the crowd, you may be hurt. You will be more
+likely to be safe, if you stay away from them. Then, if help comes,
+you will be able to receive it. Besides, if you are cool and brave,
+you will help others around you to be brave too.
+
+=151. Fire drill.=--In schools the children are taught how to go out
+of the building when there is a fire. A bell is struck when the
+children do not expect it. Then every child must leave his seat at
+once and march out of the building. The bell is struck every few days.
+Then, when the bell really sounds for a fire, the children know how to
+march out quickly, and so they learn to be brave.
+
+By training we can learn to be brave at all times. We fear many
+harmless things, and in many cases do not fear real dangers. We are
+liable to be hurt at any time. We are more liable to be hurt by a
+horse when we are out driving than we are by the dark. Yet we do not
+fear the horse, while some do fear the dark. We ought to learn to
+think, so as to control our fear.
+
+Some are afraid of the dark, some are frightened by ghost stories,
+and others expect to see a wild animal jump from behind every bush. No
+one fears these things unless he has been told about them. We ought to
+be careful not to tell children of these things. We ought to teach
+them to control their fear.
+
+=152. Habit.=--After we have thought about a thing a few times, its
+hold on our memory becomes strong, and leads us to think about it
+often. When we have done a thing a few times, we are likely to do it
+again without knowing it. We call this doing things over again
+_habit_. When we once form a habit, we find it very hard to break. We
+can form habits of doing right or of doing wrong. We can get into the
+habit of swearing or of drinking by doing these things a few times.
+Then we shall do these things when we do not want to. When a drinker
+begins, he does not expect to keep on drinking. But his habit makes
+him drink, and he cannot help it. We should be careful not to do bad
+things, for we easily form the habit of doing them.
+
+=153. Good habits.=--We can form habits of doing right. We can speak
+kindly and be generous. Then we shall do these things as easily as
+others get cross. After a person has tried to do good a few times, he
+will find it much easier to do good. Then he will speak kindly and
+give generously just as easily as others get angry and keep their good
+things to themselves.
+
+=154. Alcohol takes away thought.=--Alcohol affects and weakens the
+cells of the brain sooner than it does those of any other part of the
+body. It first makes the thought cells weak. Then a person does not
+think how he acts. He lights his pipe in the barn and throws the match
+in the hay. He drives his horse on a run through a crowded street. He
+swears and uses bad language. He gets angry at little things and wants
+to fight. He seems to think of himself, and of no one else. He is
+happy, for he does not think of the bad effects of the drink. He has a
+good time, and does not care for its cost. He likes to drink, because
+it makes him feel happy.
+
+=155. Alcohol spoils motion.=--Some cells of the brain cause the arms
+and legs, and all other parts of the body, to move. Alcohol next makes
+these weak. Then a person cannot move his legs right, but he staggers
+when he walks. He cannot carry a full cup to his lips. His hands
+tremble, and he cannot take care of himself. He is now really drunk.
+
+=156. Alcohol takes away feeling.=--After a man is drunk, he loses the
+sense of feeling. He does not feel cuts and blows. Because he does
+not feel tired, he feels very strong. He often sees two things for
+one, and hears strange noises. The whole brain at last gets weak, and
+cannot act. Then the drinker lies down in a drunken sleep, and cannot
+be waked up. Some die in this state.
+
+=157. Insanity.=--When the brain is misused by alcohol for some time,
+it cannot get over it. Then the person becomes insane. Drink sends
+more persons to the insane asylum than all other causes put together.
+
+=158. Delirium tremens.=--If a drinker gets hurt, or becomes sick, he
+sometimes has terrible dreams. In them he sees dirty and savage
+animals coming to harm him. These dreams seem very real to him, and he
+cries out in his fright. This is called _delirium tremens_. A person
+is liable to die from it.
+
+=159. Alcohol harms a drinker's children.=--The children of drinkers
+are apt to be weak in body and mind. A drinker hurts his children even
+more than he hurts himself. They are liable to catch diseases, and are
+often cross and nervous, or weak-minded. It is a terrible thing for a
+man to make his children weak and nervous.
+
+=160. Other bad things about drink.=--There are many other terrible
+things about drink, besides the harm it does a man's body. Many a man
+has made himself drunk so as to steal or kill. No man can drink long
+without becoming a worse man for it. Men will not trust him, and he
+loses the respect of his friends.
+
+Making strong drink takes thousands of men away from good work. They
+might work at building houses, or raising grain, or teaching school.
+As it is, their work is wasted.
+
+A great deal of money is wasted on strong drink. All the mines of the
+world cannot produce enough gold and silver to pay the drink bill. The
+people of the United States pay more for strong drink than for bread.
+
+The price of two or three drinks a day would amount to enough, in ten
+years, to buy a small home.
+
+The cost of strong drink is made much greater if we count the cost of
+jails and insane asylums. Over one half of all crimes and cases of
+insanity are caused by strong drink.
+
+We must also add the misery and suffering of most children of drunken
+fathers. This loss cannot be counted in money. Numbers of children
+become truants from school and learn theft and falsehoods from lack of
+a father's care. When all the cost is counted, nothing will be found
+so expensive as strong drink.
+
+On the other hand, what do people get for their money and suffering?
+They get only a little pleasure, and then they are ashamed of it. Men
+use strong drink only because they like it more than they dislike its
+bad effects.
+
+Since drink does a great deal of harm, with no good to any one, it is
+right to make laws to control its sale.
+
+=161. How tobacco affects the brain.=--Some men smoke to make
+themselves think, and some to keep themselves from thinking. Now,
+smoking cannot do both things. It really makes the brain less able to
+think, for it weakens the whole body. A school-boy's brain will surely
+be harmed if he uses tobacco at all.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The mind makes all the cells of the body work together.
+
+     2. Tiny nerve threads carry messages from the mind to the cells.
+
+     3. Most of the nerves begin at the spinal cord in the backbone.
+
+     4. The mind in the spinal cord tells the cells to eat and grow.
+          It tells the arteries how much blood to carry to the cells.
+
+     5. The cells tell the spinal cord if they need food, or if
+          something suddenly hurts them. The spinal cord sends word to
+          snatch the part from danger.
+
+     6. Nerves carry to the brain news of sight, sound, odor, taste,
+          and touch.
+
+     7. The brain sends word to the muscles to move the arms, the
+          legs, and the rest of the body.
+
+     8. The brain thinks.
+
+     9. The brain stores up all its messages; these make memory and
+          knowledge.
+
+     10. The thought part of the brain can control the feelings and
+          the movements of the body.
+
+     11. Alcohol is more harmful to the brain than to any other part
+          of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE SENSES
+
+
+=162.= A man has five ways of knowing about things outside of the
+body. He can feel, see, hear, smell, and taste.
+
+=163. Feeling.=--Nerves go to nearly every cell in the body. They
+carry news to the brain when anything touches them. The news produces
+a feeling. Feelings are of three kinds:--
+
+_First_, when anything touches the cells without harming them, we feel
+a _touch_. We feel a touch by nerves in the skin. Those in the ends of
+the fingers and tongue can feel the best. Those upon the back give but
+little feeling.
+
+Touch tells whether anything is hard, or rough, or round, or square,
+or has other qualities and shapes.
+
+_Second_, when anything touches the bare nerves or hurts the cells, we
+feel a _pain_. We can feel a pain anywhere in the body. Pain tells us if
+we are being harmed. If we had no feeling of pain, we might be killed
+before we could know of our danger. Pain warns us away from danger.
+
+_Third_, we can feel _heat_ and _cold_. Anything very hot or very
+cold, however, makes only a pain and gives no feeling either of cold
+or of heat.
+
+=164. Sight.=--We see with our eyes. An eye is a hollow ball. In its
+front is a clear window. Behind the window is a round curtain with a
+round hole in its middle. When we speak of the color of the eye, we
+mean the color of this curtain. Light passes through the hole in the
+curtain and falls upon some nerves in the back of the eyeballs. There
+it forms a picture like a photograph. The nerves carry this picture to
+the brain, and we see it.
+
+[Illustration: =The human eye.=
+
+  _a_ bony case of the eye.
+  _b_ muscle to move the eye.
+  _c_ and _d_ coverings of the eye.
+  _e_ lining or seeing part of the eye.
+  _f_ eyelid.
+  _g_ colored curtain or iris.
+  _h_ and _i_ clear windows of the eye.]
+
+=165. Movements of the eyes.=--We can turn our eyes so as to look in any
+direction. Sometimes a person has one eye turned sidewise. Such a person
+is cross-eyed, and sees well out of only one eye at a time. Glasses may
+help the eyes, but sometimes a surgeon has to cut a tiny muscle.
+
+=166. Coverings of the eyes.=--The eyeballs lie in a bony case, upon a
+soft bed of fat. In front each is covered with two lids. We can shut
+the lids to keep out dust and insects. When we are sleepy, they come
+together and cover the eyes. Little hairs at their edges help to keep
+out the dust.
+
+Sometimes a little dirt gets under the lids. Then the eye smarts or
+itches, and we want to rub it; but this may grind the dirt in deeper.
+Then you should get some one else to lift your eyelid and pick out the
+dust with a soft handkerchief. If you cannot get help, lift the lid by
+the eyelashes; blow your nose hard, and the tears may wash the dirt
+away.
+
+Dust and disease germs may get into our eyes and make them sore and
+red. You should bathe your eyes well every time you wash your face.
+You should use a clean towel, for a dirty one may carry disease germs
+to your eyes. Some forms of sore eyes are catching. If any one has
+sore eyes, no one else should use his towels or handkerchiefs.
+
+=167. Tears.=--Clear salt water is always running over the eyes and
+down a tube into the nose. The use of this water is to bathe the eyes
+and keep them clean. It sometimes runs over the lids in drops called
+_tears_.
+
+=168. How to use the eyes.=--If using your eyes makes them painful or
+gives you a headache, you are straining your eyes. Facing a bright
+light strains the eyes. Shade your eyes while you study. A cap may be
+used as a shade if you cannot get anything else. Never try to look at
+the sun or a very bright light. You should have the light at one side
+or behind you. The light should be steady. Reading in a dim light will
+harm the eyes.
+
+=169. Near sight.=--If you cannot read without holding your book less
+than a foot from your eyes, you are nearsighted, and should wear
+glasses all the time. If you do this, your eyes may be strong, and you
+may be able to see well.
+
+=170. Far sight.=--If you cannot read without holding your book at
+arm's length, you are farsighted and need glasses. Most old persons
+are farsighted.
+
+=171. Alcohol and the eyes.=--Alcohol makes the eyes red. It weakens the
+eyes and may produce blindness. A drunken person often sees double.
+
+=172. Tobacco= causes dimness of sight and sometimes produces blindness.
+
+=173. Hearing.=--We hear with the ears. Sound is made by waves in the
+air. The part of the ear on the outside of the head catches the air
+waves and throws them inside the ear. These air waves strike against a
+little drum. Three little bones then carry the waves on to nerves
+farther inside the head. Animals can turn their ears and catch sound
+from any direction.
+
+[Illustration: =Diagram of the ear.=
+
+  _a_ outer ear.
+  _b_ drum head.
+  _c_ _d_ and _e_ bones to carry sound to inner ear.
+  _f_ _g_ and _h_ inner ear.
+  _i_ tube to the mouth.
+  _j_ middle ear.]
+
+=174. Ear wax.=--Wax is formed just inside the ear. It keeps flies and
+insects from crawling into the ear. Boys in swimming sometimes get
+cold water into their ears. This may make them have an earache.
+
+=175. How the throat affects the ear.=--An air tube runs from the
+inside of the ear to the mouth. Sometimes when you blow your nose, you
+blow air into the ear. This makes you partly deaf and you hear a
+roaring in your ears.
+
+Sometimes when you have a cold in your throat, this little tube is
+stopped. Then your ear may ache and may even discharge matter. This
+may make you somewhat deaf. Earache and deafness are most often due to
+a cold in the throat and a stoppage of this tube.
+
+Many little boys and girls are deaf and do not know it. They cannot
+hear the teacher well, and sometimes the teacher thinks they are bad
+or careless because they do not answer.
+
+=176. Care of the ears.=--Very loud noises may harm the ear and make
+you deaf. When you expect a very loud noise, put your fingers in your
+ears to shut out the sound.
+
+Boxing the ears may break their tiny drums and make you deaf.
+
+Do not get cold water in your ear. This may cause an earache and make
+you deaf. If you get water in your ear while you are in swimming, turn
+your head to one side and shake it. This will get the water out.
+
+Do not put cotton or anything else into your ears.
+
+=177. Smell.=--We smell with the nose. Some things give out a vapor to
+the air. When we draw the air into the nose, this vapor touches the
+nerves, and we perceive a smell. The nerves are high up in the nose.
+In order to perceive smell clearly, we sniff the air far up the nose.
+
+=178. Use of smell.=--Bad air and spoiled food smell bad. A bad smell
+is the sign of something spoiled. The sense of smell tells us when
+food or air is unfit for use. Some people try to hide a bad smell with
+perfumery. To do this only makes the danger greater, for then the
+smell does not tell us of the danger of food or air.
+
+Some animals can smell much better than a man. A dog will smell the
+track of a wild animal hours after it is made. Savages can smell much
+better than civilized men.
+
+=179. Taste.=--We taste with the tongue. Dry food has no taste, but it
+must first dissolve in the mouth. Spoiled food tastes bad. Bad-tasting
+food is not fit to eat. Taste tells us whether food is good or bad.
+
+We can learn to like the taste of harmful things. At first no one
+likes tobacco or strong drink, but the liking is formed the more one
+uses these. We ought to be careful not to begin to use such things.
+
+_Alcohol_ and _tobacco_ burn the mouth and harm the taste. Food does
+not taste so good and we may eat spoiled food and not know it.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. We can feel in every part of the body, but mostly in the ends
+          of the fingers.
+
+     2. Light makes a picture upon the nerves inside of the eye.
+
+     3. If the eyes ache, the light should be softened or the position
+          of the book or work changed, or else the eyes should be
+          rested.
+
+     4. Sound in the air goes into the ear and strikes against a drum.
+          Bones then carry the sound to the ear nerves.
+
+     5. Air snuffed up the nose gives the sense of smell. Smell tells
+          us if the air or food is fit for use.
+
+     6. Taste tells us whether food is fit for use. Men can learn to
+          like the taste of wrong things like tobacco or alcohol.
+
+[Illustration: =The Human Skeleton, showing position of bones.=]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+BONES AND JOINTS
+
+
+=180.= Bones make the body stiff and strong, and give it shape. Long
+bones reach through the arms and legs, and little bones reach down the
+fingers and toes. Rounded plates of bone form the head, and a pile of
+bony rings makes up the backbone. Each bone is built to fit exactly
+into its own place and to do its own work. In all there are over two
+hundred bones in the body. They form one seventh of its weight.
+
+=181. Form of bones.=--A bone is not like a solid piece of timber, but
+is hollow like the frame of a bicycle. This makes it strong and light.
+At its ends a bone is like a hard sponge covered with a firm shell.
+This makes it too strong to be easily crushed, and keeps it light.
+
+A bone grows like any other part of the body. It is made of living cells
+like woven threads. Lime is mixed among the cells, and makes them stiff
+like starch among the threads of a linen collar. Blood tubes go through
+every part of the bone so as to feed the cells. The living cells form
+one third of the bone, while the lime forms two thirds.
+
+=182. Broken bones.=--Bones are very hard, and yet they can bend a
+little without breaking. Most of them are curved a little, and so they
+will spring instead of breaking when they are pressed hard. But
+sometimes they break. Then a person must wear a splint and bandage to
+keep the bones in place until they grow together again. The living
+cells will mend a bone in about a month.
+
+An old person's bones are more tender than a child's, and will not
+spring much without breaking. An old man is afraid of falling and
+breaking his bones, while a child falls a dozen times a day without
+danger.
+
+The bones of some children bend too easily. When they stand, the bones
+of their legs bend a little. After a while they grow in the crooked
+shape, and the child is bow-legged.
+
+=183. Joints.=--Some bones are hinged upon each other. A bone hinge is a
+_joint_. The rings of the backbone are held together by very tough pads
+of flesh. Each pad lets the backbone bend only a little, but altogether
+they let us bend our backs in any direction. These pads are like rubber
+springs in a wagon, and keep our bodies from being jarred too much.
+
+The finger and toe joints, the wrists and ankles, the elbows and the
+knees, bend back and forth like a hinge. Tough bands of flesh bind the
+bones together. The ends of the bones are rounded and smooth. They fit
+together and make perfect hinges. The joints are oiled by a fluid like
+the white of an egg. In old people this fluid sometimes dries up. Then
+the joints become stiff, and creak like a squeaking hinge.
+
+[Illustration: =Hinge joint of the elbow.=
+
+  1 humerus
+  2 ulna]
+
+The shoulders and hips can be moved in every direction. The upper ends
+of the arm and leg bones are round like half a ball. They fit into cups
+on the shoulder and hip bones. They are very smooth, and are oiled like
+the hinge joints. The joints are made to work very smoothly and easily.
+
+=184. Bones out of joint.=--When the ends of bones are torn away from
+each other, the bone is out of joint. Then the bone cannot be moved
+without great pain. It should be put back in place at once and kept
+there by splints and bandages. A person is less liable to have his
+joints out of place than he is to have his bones broken.
+
+=185. Sprains.=--Sometimes a joint is turned too much. This stretches
+the flesh around the joint, and makes it very tender and painful. This
+is a _sprain_. When you sprain a joint, you should put it in hot water
+for an hour or two. Then keep it still for a few days.
+
+=186. Why bones and joints grow wrong.=--While bones and joints are
+growing they can be made to take any shape we please. They cannot be
+bent all at once, but if we hold them in one way much of the time,
+they will keep that shape. Some boys and girls sit with their backs
+bent forward and lean against the desk as if they were too lazy to sit
+up. When they grow up, they will be bent and round-shouldered. You
+should sit and stand straight. Then you will grow tall and straight
+and strong. A soldier has square shoulders and walks erect because he
+is drilled until his bones and joints grow in the proper shape. As you
+stand straight with your feet together, your two big toes, your two
+ankles, and your two knees should touch each other.
+
+If you wear tight shoes and press the toes out of shape, they will
+soon grow so. Nearly every one's feet are out of shape from wearing
+short, pointed shoes. Your toes should be straight and not cramped by
+the shoe. If you wear narrow shoes, you may harm your feet. It is
+better to have one's feet useful, even if they are large, than to make
+them small and useless.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Bones make the body stiff, and give it form.
+
+     2. Some bones are long, some round, and some flat. All are hard
+          and springy.
+
+     3. Some bones are hinged together. The hinge is a joint.
+
+     4. The ends of bones in joints are rounded and smooth, and are
+          oiled with a liquid like the white of an egg.
+
+     5. Some bones are bound together by springy pads, as in the
+          backbone.
+
+     6. Bones can be broken. They will grow together again themselves.
+
+     7. Joints can be put out of place; then we must put them back.
+
+     8. If joints or bones are kept in wrong positions they will grow
+          into bad shapes. Tight shoes deform the feet.
+
+[Illustration: =The muscular system.=]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MUSCLES
+
+
+=187. Shape of muscles.=--Bones are covered with muscles. Muscles give
+shape to the body, and move it about. One half of the body consists of
+muscles. These are arranged in bundles, and each causes a bone to make
+one motion. There are over four hundred separate bundles of muscle in
+the body.
+
+One end of a muscle is large and round and is fast to a bone. The
+other end tapers to a strong string or tendon. The tendon passes over
+a joint, and becomes fast to another bone. You can easily feel the
+tendons in the wrist and behind the knee.
+
+[Illustration: =Muscle cells, cut across (�200).=
+
+  _a_ muscle cell.
+  _b_ connective tissue binding the cells together.]
+
+A muscle is made of tiny strings. You can pick them apart until they
+are too fine to be seen with the eye. Each string is a living muscle
+cell. It is the largest kind of cell in the body. You can see the fine
+strings in cooked meat.
+
+[Illustration: =A thin slice of a voluntary muscle, cut lengthwise
+(�100).=
+
+  _a_ muscle cell.
+  _b_ capillaries surrounding the cells.
+  _c_ connective tissue binding the cells together.]
+
+=188. How muscles act.=--A nerve runs from the brain, and touches
+every cell of the muscle. When we wish to move, the brain sends an
+order down the nerve. Then each muscle cell makes itself thicker and
+shorter. This pulls its ends together, and bends the joint. We can
+make muscle cells move when we wish to, but we cannot make any other
+kind of cell move. We make all our movements by means of our muscles.
+
+=189. Where you can see muscles.=--In a butcher's shop you can see lean
+meat. This is the animal's muscle. White and tough flesh divides the
+tender red meat into bundles. Each red bundle is a muscle. You will see
+how the muscle tapers to a string or tendon. The butcher often hangs up
+the meat by the tendons. You can see the muscles and tendons in a
+chicken's leg or wing when it is being dressed for dinner.
+
+Roll up your sleeve to see your own muscles. Shut your hand tight. You
+will see little rolls under your skin, just below the elbow. Each roll
+is a muscle. You can feel them get hard when you shut your hand. You
+can feel their tendons as they cross the wrist.
+
+Open your hand wide. You can see and feel the tendons of the fingers
+upon the back of the hand. These tendons come from muscles on the back
+of the arm. You can feel the bundles of these muscles when they open
+the fingers. There are no muscles in the fingers, but all are in the
+hand or arm. You cannot open your hand so strongly as you can close it.
+
+=190. Strength of muscle.=--By using a muscle you can make it grow
+larger and stronger. If you do not use your muscles they will be small
+and weak. Children ought to use their muscles in some way, but if they
+use them too much, they will be tired out. Then they will grow weaker
+instead of stronger. Lifting heavy weights, or running long distances,
+tires out the muscles, and makes them weaker. Small boys sometimes try
+to lift as much as the big boys. This may do their muscles great harm.
+
+=191. Round shoulders.=--The muscles hold up the back and head, and
+keep us straight when we sit or stand. A lazy boy will not use his
+muscles to hold himself up, but will lean against something. He will
+let his shoulders fall, and will sit down in a heap. Sometimes he is
+made to wear shoulder braces to keep his shoulders back. This gives
+the muscles nothing to do, and so they grow weaker than ever. The best
+thing to do for round shoulders is to make the boy sit and stand
+straight, like a soldier. Then he will use his muscles until they are
+strong enough to hold his shoulders back.
+
+=192. How exercise makes the body healthy.=--When you use your
+muscles, you become warmer. Your face will be red, for the heart sends
+more blood to the working muscle cells. You will be short of breath,
+for the cells need more air. You will eat more, for your food is used
+up. Your muscles are like an engine. They get their power from burning
+food in their own cells. When they work they need to use more food and
+air. So working a muscle makes us eat more and breathe deeper. The
+blood flows faster, and we feel better all over. The muscle itself
+grows much larger and stronger.
+
+If we sit still all day, the fires in our bodies burn low and get
+clogged with ashes. We feel dull and sleepy. If we run about for a few
+minutes, we shall breathe deeply. The fires will burn brighter. Our
+brains will be clearer, and we shall feel like work again. Boys and
+girls need to use their muscles when they go to school. Games and play
+will make you get your lessons sooner.
+
+=193. How to use the muscles.=--You should use your muscles to make
+yourself healthy, and not for the sake of growing strong. Some very
+strong men are not well, and some men with small muscles are very
+healthy. Some boys have strong muscles because their fathers had
+strong muscles before them. Strength of muscle does not make a man.
+
+You ought to have healthy muscles. Then your whole bodies will be
+healthy, and you can do a great deal of work. You ought to learn how
+to use your muscles rather than how to make them strong. An awkward
+and bashful boy may be very strong, but he cannot use his muscles. A
+boy is graceful because he can use them.
+
+The best way to use your muscles is in doing something useful. You can
+help your mother in the house and your father at the barn. You can run
+errands. You can learn to use carpenter's tools or to plant a garden.
+Then you will get exercise and not know it. You will also be learning
+something useful.
+
+Play is also needed. Work gets tiresome, and you will not want to use
+your muscles. Play is bad when it takes you from your work or when you
+hurt yourself trying to beat somebody.
+
+=194. Alcohol and the muscles.=--Men use alcohol to make themselves
+strong. It dulls their weak feelings, and then they think themselves
+strong. They are really weaker. The alcohol hinders digestion and
+keeps food from the cells. Then the fires in the body burn low, and
+there is little strength.
+
+Alcohol sometimes causes muscle cells to change to fat. This weakens
+the muscles.
+
+Men sometimes have to do hard work in cold countries; and at other
+times they must make long marches across hot deserts. Neither the
+Eskimos in the cold north, nor the Arabs in the hot desert, use strong
+drink. Alcohol does not help a man in either place. It really weakens
+the body. The government used to give out liquor to its soldiers; but
+soldiers can do more work and have better health without liquor and it
+is no longer given out.
+
+A few years ago men were ashamed to refuse to drink. Even when a new
+church building was raised, rum was bought by the church and given to
+the workmen. Farmers used to give their men a jug of rum when they
+went to work. Farm hands would not work without it.
+
+Now all this has changed. Men do not want drinkers to work for them. A
+railroad company will discharge a man at once if he is known to drink
+at all. A man can now refuse to drink anywhere and men will not think
+any less of him.
+
+=195. Tobacco= poisons the muscle cells and makes them weak. At first
+it makes boys too sick to move. It always poisons the cells even if
+they do not feel sick.
+
+=196. A long life.=--A man's body is built to last eighty years, but
+only a few live so long. If you are careful in your eating and
+drinking, if you breathe pure air, and if you use your muscles, your
+body will be healthy and will last the eighty years and more. All
+through your life you will be strong and able to do good work.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Muscles cover the bones and move the body.
+
+     2. Muscle is lean meat. It is made of bundles of cells like
+          strings. Nerves from the brain touch each cell.
+
+     3. Each muscle is fast to a bone. It becomes a small string or
+          tendon at the other end. The tendon crosses a joint and is
+          fast to another bone.
+
+     4. When we wish to move, the brain sends an order to the muscle
+          cells to make themselves thicker and shorter and so bend the
+          joint.
+
+     5. You can feel the muscles and tendons in the arm and wrist.
+
+     6. Muscle work makes us breathe deeper, and eat more food. It
+          makes the blood flow faster. So it makes our whole bodies
+          more healthy.
+
+     7. Every one ought to use his muscles some part of the day.
+
+     8. Alcohol and tobacco lessen the strength of the muscles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+DISEASE GERMS
+
+
+=197. Catching diseases.=--Our body may get out of order like a
+machine. Some parts of it may be cut, or broken, or worn out, or hurt
+in other ways. Then we are sick until it is made whole again. Sickness
+always means that a part of the body is out of order.
+
+Some kinds of sickness are like a fire. A small bit of something from
+a sick person may start a sickness in us, just as a spark may set a
+house on fire. Then we may give the sickness to others, just as a fire
+may spread to other houses. If a person has measles, we may catch the
+measles if we go near him; but if a person has a toothache, we cannot
+catch the toothache from him. So we may catch some kinds of diseases,
+but we cannot catch other kinds.
+
+=198. Bacteria and germs.=--Every kind of catching sickness is caused
+by tiny living things growing in our flesh and blood. Some of them are
+tiny animals. Most of them are plants, and are called _bacteria_ or
+_microbes_. A common name for all of them is _germs_.
+
+The word germ means nearly the same as the word seed. Bacteria are so
+small that we cannot see them unless we look at them through a strong
+microscope. Then they look like little dots and lines (p. 54). A
+million of them could lie on a pin point; but if they have a chance,
+they may grow in numbers, so that in two days they would fill a pint
+measure.
+
+Very many kinds of bacteria and other germs are found nearly
+everywhere. They are in the soil and in water, and some float in the
+air as dust. When they fall on dead things, they cause _decay_ or
+_rotting_. When we can fruit, we kill the germs by boiling the fruit
+and the cans. Then we close the cans tightly so that no new germs can
+get into them. The fruit will then keep fresh for years.
+
+Decay is nearly always a good thing, for by it dead bodies and waste
+substances are destroyed and given back to the ground, where plants
+feed upon them. Many plants would not grow if they could not feed upon
+decaying things. So most bacteria and other germs are useful to us.
+But some kinds of germs will grow only in our bodies, and these kinds
+are the cause of most of our sickness.
+
+=199. Germs of sickness.=--We catch a sickness by taking a few of the
+germs of the sickness into our flesh. There they grow quickly, like
+weed seeds in the ground, and form crops of new germs within a few
+hours. After a few days the germs become millions in number, and crowd
+the cells of our flesh, just as weeds may crowd a potato plant (p. 54).
+
+Disease germs in the body also form poisons, just as some weeds in a
+field form poisons. The poisons make us sick, just as if we had
+swallowed the leaves of a poisonous weed.
+
+=200. Fever.=--If a sickness is caused by disease germs, the body is
+nearly always too warm. Then we say that the sick person has a
+_fever_. Almost the only cause for a fever is disease germs growing in
+the body. We can make a person have any kind of fever by planting a
+few of the germs of the fever in the right part of his body.
+
+We are made sick by the germs of fevers more often than by all other
+causes put together. Here is a list of common diseases caused by fever
+germs:--colds and sore throats, most stomach aches, blood poisoning in
+wounds, boils and pimples, tuberculosis, whooping cough, measles,
+chicken pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, smallpox, and
+malaria.
+
+Which of these kinds of sickness have you had? What sickness have you
+had besides these?
+
+=201. Sickness and Dirt.=--Disease germs leave the body of a sick person
+in three ways: first, through the skin, second, through the kidneys and
+intestines, and third, through the nose and throat. In these same ways
+our body gives off its waste matters. If we did not take anything from
+another person's body into our own body we should not catch fevers.
+
+Whatever a feverish person soils may contain disease germs. When a
+person has only a slight fever he often keeps at work, and then he may
+scatter disease germs wherever he goes. So disease germs are likely to
+be found wherever there is dirt or filth. Cleanliness means good
+health as well as good looks.
+
+=202. Disease germs in the skin.=--Disease germs may often be found in
+sores and pimples on the skin, but they will not leave anybody's flesh
+and blood through sound and healthy skin. If our skin is smooth and
+fair, there will be few disease germs on it unless we rub against
+something dirty. A dirty skin nearly always contains disease germs.
+Washing and bathing our body will take disease germs from our skin and
+help us to keep well.
+
+=203. Disease germs in slops.=--A great many disease germs leave the
+body through the intestine and kidneys, and may be found in the slops
+and waste water of our houses. Slops are dangerous to health, for they
+may run into a well, or spring, or river, and so carry disease germs
+into our drinking water (p. 27). Also, house flies may light on the
+pails or puddles and carry the germs to our food. In these ways we
+catch typhoid fever, stomach aches, and other diseases of the
+intestines. All slops and waste matters from the body should be put
+where they cannot reach our drinking water, and where flies cannot
+crawl over them (p. 80).
+
+=204. Disease germs from the nose and throat.=--If a person is sick with
+a fever, many of the germs are likely to be found in his nose and
+throat. Thousands of them are driven out with every drop of saliva and
+phlegm when he blows his nose, or spits, coughs, or sneezes, or talks.
+If he puts anything into his mouth, it will be covered with germs. More
+diseases are spread from the nose and mouth than in any other way, for
+we are always doing something to spread bits of saliva and phlegm.
+
+=205. Spitting.=--Colds and consumption and other forms of sickness
+are often spread by sick persons spitting on the floor or pavement.
+The germs become dried and are blown away as dust. For this reason
+dust from the streets of cities and in crowded halls is often the
+cause of sickness. In many places spitting on a floor or pavement is
+strictly forbidden by law.
+
+=206. Putting things in the mouth.=--Many persons have the habit of
+sucking their fingers, or of touching a pencil to the tongue when they
+write or think, or of wetting their fingers with their lips when they
+turn the leaves of a book. In all these ways we may give a disease to
+others or may take a disease from some one else.
+
+=207. Public drinking cup.=--When you touch your lips to a cup, you
+leave some saliva and cells from your mouth on the cup. If a cup is
+used by a number of persons, some one is almost sure to leave germs of
+sickness on it, and others are likely to take them into their own
+mouths when they drink. So a public drinking cup is a dangerous thing.
+Each school child should have his own cup. Public drinking fountains
+should be so made that we may drink by putting our lips to a stream of
+running water.
+
+[Illustration: =A safe drinking fountain.=
+
+A stream of water gushes up from the middle of the cup.]
+
+[Illustration: =An unsafe drinking place.=
+
+Photograph taken in the basement of a schoolhouse.]
+
+=208. Sweeping.=--Dusty air in a room is dangerous to health, for
+disease germs are likely to be found in it. We can get rid of dust by
+keeping our floors swept clean. After sweeping we should wipe the dust
+from the tables and furniture. A feather duster or dry cloth will only
+stir up the dust and make it float in the air again. We should use
+either a damp cloth, or a dry duster made of tufts of wool, so that
+the dust will stick to the duster.
+
+[Illustration: =House fly, magnified.=
+
+The hairs on its body and legs catch dirt and disease germs.]
+
+=209. Foul air.=--If we live in a closed room, the air soon becomes
+foul and dusty, and is likely to have disease germs in it. Foul air is
+one of the greatest of the causes of sickness. We should change the
+air of a room often so as to keep it fresh and free from dust and
+disease germs (pp. 65-67).
+
+=210. House flies.=--House flies come from garbage heaps and filth of
+all sorts. So they carry disease germs on their bodies. They light on
+our food and on our faces, and so they often make us sick. They are
+often the cause of typhoid fever, stomach aches, and stomach sickness
+in babies.
+
+[Illustration: =Life history of house flies.=]
+
+Flies are hatched in manure piles and garbage heaps. At first they
+look like white worms, and are called _maggots_. Every maggot is a
+young fly. We can get rid of flies by cleaning up every garbage heap
+and manure pile.
+
+[Illustration: =Young mosquitoes hanging head downward in water.=]
+
+=211. Mosquitoes.=--Mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow fever from
+sick persons to the well. If there were no mosquitoes, there would be
+no malaria or yellow fever.
+
+Mosquitoes are hatched in water, and the young are called _wigglers_.
+We may often see them in rain barrels. We may get rid of mosquitoes by
+emptying all rain barrels and pails and cans of dirty water, at least
+once a week, and by drying up swamps and marshes.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. We catch a fever by taking disease germs into the body.
+
+     2. Disease germs cannot be seen without a strong microscope.
+
+     3. The germs may be found in dust and dirt.
+
+     4. Slops from our houses are often full of the germs.
+
+     5. You may take germs into your body by putting pencils and other
+          things into your mouth, and by drinking from a public
+          drinking cup.
+
+     6. Spitting on the floor or pavement may scatter disease germs.
+
+     7. House flies and mosquitoes often spread diseases.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PREVENTING SICKNESS
+
+
+=212. How our body kills disease germs.=--We take disease germs into
+the body in three ways: first, through the mouth, second, through the
+nose, and third, through the skin. So we should watch the purity of
+our food, drink, and air, and should be careful about putting things
+into the mouth, and about the cleanliness of the skin. We often take a
+few disease germs into the body without catching a disease. This is
+because the white cells of our blood fight the germs and kill them (p.
+53). If the body is hurt or weakened, the white blood cells may also
+be weakened so that they cannot kill the germs. We should take good
+care of the body so that every part of it may do its work well. We
+need not be able to run fast, or to lift heavy weights, but the best
+sign that every part of the body is in good order is to feel bright
+and wide-awake. Then our white blood cells will also be in good order
+and able to fight disease germs.
+
+=213. Catching cold.=--When we catch a disease, we often say that we
+have caught cold. We used to think that cold air and dampness were
+almost the only causes of taking cold, and this is the reason why we
+called many kinds of sickness by the name of colds. Now we know that
+we catch cold by taking disease germs into the body. The germs will
+not be able to grow unless the body is weakened in some way, as by
+cold and dampness. Yet if we are wet and cold, we shall not catch cold
+unless we take disease germs into the body. We do not get the germs
+from the outdoor air, for very few germs are there. We get them from
+the foul air of our houses when we come in to warm and dry ourselves.
+If the air of our houses were always as clean and pure as the outdoor
+air, we should hardly ever have colds.
+
+We can safely let the cold air blow on us if we are out of doors, but
+if we sit in a house, a small draft sometimes seems to make us take
+cold. This is because there are likely to be many disease germs in the
+house and few out of doors.
+
+Other things besides cold air and dampness may weaken the body, and so
+help us to take cold. If germs of colds are in a warm room, we may sit
+there and take cold even if we are not wet or chilled at all. The body
+may be weakened by poor food, wrong eating, or overwork, so that
+disease germs will easily grow in it. We take as many colds from these
+causes as from cold air and dampness.
+
+=214. Kinds of colds.=--A person takes most of the germs of colds
+through his nose and mouth. If they grow only in his nose, we say that
+he has a cold in his head. If they grow in his throat, he has a sore
+throat, or tonsillitis. If they reach as far as the upper part of his
+windpipe, he is hoarse, or has a cough, or the croup. If the germs are
+planted in his lungs, he may have bronchitis or pneumonia. All these
+kinds of sickness often spread from one person to another. If one person
+in a family has a cold, others in the family often catch cold from him.
+
+=215. Diseases like colds.=--Diphtheria, tuberculosis, whooping cough,
+and measles all begin like a common cold and often look like a cold
+during the whole sickness. Colds do not turn into any of these
+diseases, for each of them comes from its own germ, just as corn comes
+only from seed corn.
+
+=216. Curing a cold.=--If you have a cold, you ought to stay at home
+and rest, or lie in bed. Then your white blood cells can gain strength
+to fight the disease germs. You ought to have plenty of fresh air in
+your room. You ought not to eat much food for a few days, so that your
+stomach and intestine and liver can use all their strength in throwing
+off the poisons of the germs. But you ought to drink plenty of water,
+so as to help wash away the poisons from your body.
+
+=217. Keeping colds from spreading.=--You should keep away from other
+persons while you have a cold, or other catching disease, so as to
+keep from spreading the sickness. You ought not to go visiting, or go
+to school, or to church, or to other meeting places. When you cough or
+sneeze, you should hold a handkerchief to your mouth, so as to keep
+from blowing disease germs from your throat and nose. You ought to
+sleep in a bed by yourself, so that no one may take the disease germs
+from your bedclothes. No one else should use your towel, or
+handkerchief, or knife, or fork, or spoon, or dish, until they have
+been washed in hot water, so as to kill the disease germs on them.
+
+=218. Keeping from catching cold.=--You can keep yourself from
+catching cold by keeping your body strong and in good order. You
+should keep your clothes dry, eat good food, breathe pure air, get
+good rest and sleep, and keep your body, your clothes, and your house
+clean. You should also keep disease germs out of your body. You should
+not form a habit of putting your fingers or a pencil to your mouth (p.
+127). You should keep your nose, your throat, and your mouth clean.
+
+=219. Cleanliness of the nose.=--The inside of the nose is wet with a
+slippery liquid. If you have a cold, the liquid is thick and stops
+your nose, and is called _phlegm_. The liquid catches and holds dust
+and disease germs, and keeps them from going into the windpipe. It
+also kills many of the disease germs.
+
+You should always carry a handkerchief and use it so as to blow the
+germs out of your nose. You should have a clean handkerchief every day.
+
+[Illustration: =Photograph of model of the nose and throat.=
+
+_A._ tonsil; _B._ adenoids; _C._ opening of Eustachian tube.]
+
+=220. Adenoids and large tonsils.=--Sometimes children have large
+tonsils growing in the back of the throat, or soft bunches of flesh
+called _adenoids_ back of the nose. These children cannot breathe well
+through the nose, but must breathe through the mouth. Then they take
+dust and disease germs deep into the body, and so take colds and other
+sickness easily. If a child has adenoids or large tonsils, an
+operation should be done to take them out.
+
+=221. Cleanliness of the mouth.=--We often breathe dust and disease
+germs into the mouth or snuff them into the throat from the nose. Then
+they are caught between the teeth and in the folds of the cheeks and
+throat. There they may grow, and finally go deeper into the body and
+make us sick. A dirty mouth is very often the cause of colds and other
+sickness.
+
+We should keep our mouths clean by brushing our teeth with a
+toothbrush two or three times a day. We should also rub the toothbrush
+over the tongue and around the back part of the throat so as to clean
+the germs from every part of the mouth. Each child should have a
+toothbrush of his own, and should use it every day.
+
+=222. Contagious diseases.=--Diphtheria, whooping cough, measles,
+scarlet fever, and smallpox are all dangerous kinds of sickness, and
+spread with great ease. The germs may float in the air, and we may
+take them into our bodies if we go into a room where any one has the
+sickness. So we call these diseases _contagious_. If a person has one
+of these diseases, he should be made to stay in a house or room by
+himself until he is well. Keeping the sick away from well persons is
+called _quarantine_. When the sickness is cured, the sick room and
+everything in it should be cleaned and washed so as to kill the germs.
+
+=223. Board of health.=--There is a board of health in every city and
+town. The men on the board show persons how to keep diseases from
+spreading, and make them obey the rules of health. Everybody in a town
+should help the board of health in every possible way.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The white blood cells of our body kill disease germs.
+
+     2. We catch cold by taking disease germs into our body.
+
+     3. The germs of colds are not often found in the air out of
+          doors. They are often found in the foul air of houses.
+
+     4. If a person has a cold, he should keep away from other
+          persons, so as to keep from spreading the sickness.
+
+     5. Cleansing the nose helps us to keep from catching cold.
+
+     6. Cleansing the teeth and the inside of the mouth removes many
+          disease germs.
+
+     7. Adenoids and large tonsils should be taken from the throat by
+          an operation.
+
+     8. If a person has a dangerous contagious disease, he should be
+          quarantined.
+
+     9. Boards of health have charge of the prevention of contagious
+          diseases.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abdomen, 60.
+
+  Adam's apple, 68.
+
+  Adenoids, 136.
+
+  Air, 59, 65, 129.
+
+  Albumin, 10, 17, 18, 49.
+
+  Alcohol, 38.
+
+  Alcohol and arteries, 56.
+              biliousness, 46.
+              bitters, 46.
+              blood, 55.
+              brain, 95.
+              breathing, 70.
+              burning, 69.
+              catching cold, 71.
+              character, 97.
+              cooking, 47.
+              delirium tremens, 96.
+              digestion, 46.
+              eyes, 103.
+              feeling, 95.
+              habit, 44.
+              heart, 56.
+              heat, 72.
+              heredity, 96.
+              insanity, 96.
+              Jamaica ginger, 47.
+              kidneys, 81.
+              liver, 46.
+              lungs, 70.
+              medicine, 47.
+              money waste, 97.
+              motion, 95.
+              muscles, 119.
+              sickness, 82.
+              skin, 81.
+              stomach, 45.
+              strength, 56, 120.
+              strong drink, 40.
+              suffering, 97.
+              taste, 107.
+              thirst, 44.
+              thought, 95.
+
+  Alcohol, use of, 39.
+
+  Ameba, 7, 52.
+
+  Appetite, 27.
+
+  Arteries, 51, 55.
+
+  Ashes, 12, 62, 78.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Bacteria, 123.
+
+  Bathing, 78, 126.
+
+  Beer, 43.
+
+  Bile, 18.
+
+  Biliousness, 20.
+
+  Bitters, 46.
+
+  Bleeding, 49, 52.
+
+  Blood, 13, 19, 49, 61.
+
+  Board of Health, 137.
+
+  Bones, 109.
+
+  Bowels, 18.
+
+  Bowlegs, 110.
+
+  Brain, 88.
+
+  Brandy, 44.
+
+  Bread, 24, 38.
+
+  Breathing, 59, 60, 67.
+
+  Broken bones, 110.
+
+  Burning, 61, 118.
+
+  Butter, 23.
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cake, 24, 29.
+
+  Candy, 29.
+
+  Canning fruit, 37, 124.
+
+  Capillaries, 51, 61.
+
+  Catching cold, 54, 65, 72, 125, 132.
+
+  Cells, 8.
+
+  Cells, blood tubes of, 51.
+         breathing of, 61.
+         burning of, 62.
+         composition of, 11.
+         food of, 13, 55.
+         messages of, 85, 100.
+
+  Cells of blood, 49, 132.
+           bone, 109.
+           brain, 88.
+           epithelium, 76.
+           muscle, 115.
+           skin, 75.
+           spinal cord, 86.
+           yeast plant, 38.
+
+  Cheese, 23.
+
+  Chest, 60.
+
+  Chewing, 14.
+
+  Chewing gum, 34.
+
+  Chewing tobacco, 33.
+
+  Cider, 42.
+
+  Cigarettes, 34.
+
+  Cigars, 34.
+
+  Clams, 24.
+
+  Clot, 49.
+
+  Clothes, 63.
+
+  Coated tongue, 20.
+
+  Coffee, 27.
+
+  Cold, feelings of, 101.
+
+  Colds, 54, 65, 72, 125, 132.
+
+  Connective tissue, 9.
+
+  Contagious diseases, 137.
+
+  Cooking, 13.
+
+  Cotton, 63.
+
+  Cream, 23.
+
+  Cross-eyes, 102.
+
+  Cuts, 53.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Deafness, 105.
+
+  Decay, 124.
+
+  Delirium tremens, 96.
+
+  Diaphragm, 60.
+
+  Digestion, 13.
+
+  Diphtheria, 53, 134, 137.
+
+  Dirt, 126.
+
+  Dirt in eye, 102.
+
+  Disease germs, 29, 53, 65, 72, 81, 123.
+
+  Distillation, 43.
+
+  Drinking cup, 128.
+
+
+  E
+
+  Ear, 104.
+
+  Ear wax, 104.
+
+  Eating, 20.
+
+  Egg, 23.
+
+  Epidermis, 76.
+
+  Epithelium, 75.
+
+  Eustachian tube, 105, 136.
+
+  Exercise, 118.
+
+  Eye, 101.
+
+  Eyeball, 101.
+
+  Eyelids, 102.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Far sight, 103.
+
+  Fat, 11, 18, 25, 49, 92.
+
+  Fear, 92.
+
+  Feeling, 100.
+
+  Fermentation, 37.
+
+  Fever, 125.
+
+  Fire drill, 93.
+
+  Fish, 24.
+
+  Flannel, 63.
+
+  Flies, 130.
+
+  Food, 12, 13, 19, 23.
+
+  Fresh air, 67, 129.
+
+  Fruit, 25.
+
+  Fur, 64.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gastric juice, 17.
+
+  Gelatine, 11.
+
+  Germs, 29, 53, 65, 72, 81, 123.
+
+  Gizzard, 14.
+
+  Good habits, 94.
+
+  Grain, 24.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Habit, 94, 127.
+
+  Hair, 76.
+
+  Hair dyes, 77.
+
+  Hair oil, 77.
+
+  Handkerchief, 135, 136.
+
+  Healing, 53.
+
+  Hearing, 104.
+
+  Heart, 50.
+
+  Heart beat, 50, 55.
+
+  Heat, 62, 101.
+
+  Heating houses, 65.
+
+  House flies, 129.
+
+  Hunger, 29.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Intemperance, 29.
+
+  Intestine, 18.
+
+  Iron, 12.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jamaica ginger, 47.
+
+  Joints, 110.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kidneys, 62, 78.
+
+  Knowledge, 89.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lead, 27.
+
+  Life, 12.
+
+  Lime, 12.
+
+  Linen, 64.
+
+  Liver, 18, 19.
+
+  Lungs, 60.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Maggots, 130.
+
+  Malaria, 130.
+
+  Matter, 54.
+
+  Meal, 24.
+
+  Measles, 134, 137.
+
+  Meat, 24, 116.
+
+  Memory, 89.
+
+  Microbes, 123.
+
+  Microscope, 8.
+
+  Milk, 23.
+
+  Mind, 9, 84, 88.
+
+  Minerals, 11, 19, 49.
+
+  Mosquitoes, 130.
+
+  Motion, 88.
+
+  Motor nerves, 85.
+
+  Mouth, 14, 127, 137.
+
+  Muscles, 115.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nails, 76.
+
+  Near sight, 103.
+
+  Nerve messages, 85.
+
+  Nerves, 84, 116.
+
+  Nervousness, 92.
+
+  Nicotine, 31.
+
+  Night air, 67.
+
+  Nose, 127, 135.
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oatmeal, 24.
+
+  Oysters, 24.
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pain, 100.
+
+  Pancakes, 24.
+
+  Pancreatic juice, 18.
+
+  Pencils, 127, 135.
+
+  Perspiration, 78.
+
+  Pie, 29.
+
+  Pneumonia, 134.
+
+  Poisons, 19.
+
+  Potash, 12.
+
+  Potatoes, 25.
+
+  Public drinking cup, 128.
+
+  Pulse, 51.
+
+  Pus, 54.
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quarantine, 137.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Red blood cells, 49, 54, 61.
+
+  Reflex action, 86.
+
+  Root beer, 43.
+
+  Round shoulders, 112, 117.
+
+  Rubbers, 64.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saliva, 14.
+
+  Salt, 12, 26.
+
+  Scarlet fever, 137.
+
+  Senses, 88, 100.
+
+  Sensory nerves, 85.
+
+  Sewers, 81.
+
+  Sick room, 66.
+
+  Sight, 101.
+
+  Skin, 63, 75, 126.
+
+  Sleep, 90.
+
+  Slops, 80, 126.
+
+  Smallpox, 137.
+
+  Smell, 106.
+
+  Smoke, 62.
+
+  Smoking, 34.
+
+  Snuff, 33.
+
+  Soda, 12.
+
+  Spinal cord, 86.
+
+  Spitting, 32, 127.
+
+  Sprains, 112.
+
+  Starch, 11, 14, 18, 25.
+
+  Steam engine, 62.
+
+  Stockings, 64.
+
+  Stomach, 17.
+
+  Strength, 117.
+
+  Strong drink, 40.
+
+  Sugar, 11, 14, 18, 25, 28, 38, 42, 49.
+
+  Swallowing, 15.
+
+  Sweat, 63, 78.
+
+  Sweeping, 129.
+
+  Sweetbread, 18.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Taste, 28, 106.
+
+  Tea, 27.
+
+  Tears, 102.
+
+  Teeth, 14, 137.
+
+  Tendon, 115.
+
+  Thinking, 89.
+
+  Tight shoes, 112.
+
+  Tobacco, 31.
+
+  Tobacco and brain, 98.
+              breathing, 72.
+              chewing, 33.
+              children, 33.
+              digestion, 33.
+              eyes, 104.
+              habit, 34.
+              heart, 57.
+              muscle, 121.
+              strength, 32.
+              taste, 107.
+              teeth, 32.
+
+  Tongue, 15.
+
+  Tonsils, 134, 136.
+
+  Toothpick, 15.
+
+  Touch, 100.
+
+  Tuberculosis, 134.
+
+  Typhoid fever, 53, 127.
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vegetables, 25.
+
+  Veins, 52.
+
+  Ventilation, 65, 129.
+
+  Vinegar, 39.
+
+  Voice, 68.
+
+
+  W
+
+  Warmth, feeling of, 63.
+
+  Washing clothes, 80.
+
+  Waste of body, 75, 78.
+
+  Water, 10, 19, 26, 49, 127.
+
+  Wells, 26, 81.
+
+  Whisky, 44, 71.
+
+  White blood cells, 49, 53, 132.
+
+  Whooping cough, 134, 137.
+
+  Wigglers, 131.
+
+  Windpipe, 15, 59.
+
+  Wine, 42.
+
+  Wool, 63.
+
+  Words, 68.
+
+  Working of fruit, 37.
+
+  Worry, 91.
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yeast, 24, 38, 42.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+   Pg 137 Added period after "223" in "223 Board of health".
+
+   Pg 141 Replaced a comma with a period after "101" in "Eye, 101".
+
+
+
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Applied Physiology, by Frank Overton</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Applied Physiology</p>
+<p>       Including the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics</p>
+<p>Author: Frank Overton</p>
+<p>Release Date: May 4, 2010  [eBook #32251]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Larry B. Harrison<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY</h1>
+<h5>INCLUDING</h5>
+<h2>THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL<br />
+AND NARCOTICS</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<h3>FRANK OVERTON, A.M., M.D.</h3>
+<h5>LATE HOUSE SURGEON TO THE CITY HOSPITAL, NEW YORK</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3><i>PRIMARY GRADE</i></h3>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</h4>
+<h3>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h3>
+
+
+<hr />
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1898, 1910, by</span></h5>
+<h4>FRANK OVERTON</h4>
+
+<hr class="hr2" />
+
+<h5>OV. PHYSIOL. (PRIM.)</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h5>E-P 42</h5>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>This primary text-book of applied physiology follows
+a natural order of treatment. In each subject
+elementary anatomical facts are presented in a manner
+which impresses function rather than form, and
+from the form described derives the function. The
+facts and principles are then applied to everyday
+life. Anatomy and pure physiology make clear and
+fix hygienic points, while applied physiology lends
+interest to the otherwise dry facts of physiology and
+anatomy. From the great range of the science
+there are included only those subjects which are
+directly concerned in the growth and development
+of children.</p>
+
+<p>The value of a primary book depends largely
+upon the language used. In bringing the truths
+within the comprehension of children, the author
+has made sparing use of the complex sentence. He
+has made the sentences short and simple in form,
+and logical in arrangement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+        A child grasps new ideas mainly as they appeal
+directly to the senses. For this reason, physiological
+demonstrations are indispensable. Subjects for
+demonstrations are not given, because they cannot
+be performed by the children; but the teacher
+should make free use of the series given in the
+author's advanced physiology.</p>
+
+<p>Cuts and diagrams are inserted where they are
+needed to explain the text. They are taken from
+the author's <i>Applied Physiology, Intermediate Grade</i>.
+Each was chosen, not for artistic effect, but because
+of its fitness to illustrate a point. Most of the cuts
+are adapted for reproduction on the blackboard.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of alcohol and other narcotics are
+treated with special fulness. The subject is given
+a fair and judicial discussion, and those conclusions
+are presented which are universally accepted by the
+medical profession. But while this most important
+form of intemperance is singled out, it should be
+remembered that the breaking of any of nature's
+laws is also a form of intemperance, and that the
+whole study of applied physiology is to encourage
+a more healthy and a more noble and self-denying
+mode of life.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="c1"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td class="c2">&nbsp;</td><td class="c3"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">I.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Cells</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">II.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Of what Cells are made</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">III.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Digestion of Food in the Mouth</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">IV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Digestion of Food in the Stomach</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">V.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Foods</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">VI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Tobacco</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">VII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Fermentation</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">VIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Kinds of Strong Drink</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">IX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Blood</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">X.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Breathing, Heat, and Clothing</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Skin and Kidneys</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Nerves, Spinal Cord, and Brain</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Senses</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XIV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Bones and Joints</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Muscles</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XVI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Disease Germs</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XVII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Preventing Sickness</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="c2">&nbsp;</td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h1>APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY</h1>
+
+
+<hr class="hr2" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h3>CELLS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Our body is made of many parts. Its head
+thinks. Its legs carry it, and its arms and hands
+take hold of things. The leg cannot do the work
+of the arm, nor the head do the work of the hand;
+but each part does only its own work.</p>
+
+<p><b>1. The simplest animal.</b>&mdash;Some animals have
+parts like a man's; but these parts are fewer. No
+animal has arms or hands like a man. A fish has
+little fins in place of legs and arms, while a worm has
+not even a head, but only a body, and yet it moves.
+An oyster has only a body and cannot move. The
+simplest of all animals is very small. A thousand
+of them would not reach an inch. Yet each is a
+complete animal. It is called the <i>ameba</i>. It is only
+a lump of jelly. It can put out any part of its body
+like an arm and take a lump of food. This same
+arm can eat the food, too. It can also put out any
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+part of its body like a leg and move by rolling the
+rest of its body into the leg. It can do some things
+better than a man can do them, for any part of its
+body can do all kinds of work. So the ameba
+grows and moves and does as it likes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0008a-illus" id="i0008a-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0008a-illus.jpg" width="500" height="89" alt="Ameba" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>Different forms of an ameba (&#215;400).</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0008b-illus" id="i0008b-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0008b-illus.jpg" width="150" height="95" alt="Human cells" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Cells from the human body (&#215;200).</b><br />
+<i>a</i> A colored cell from the eye.<br />
+<i>b</i> A white blood cell.<br />
+<i>c</i> A connective tissue cell.<br />
+<i>d</i> A cell from the lining of the mouth.<br />
+<i>e</i> Liver cells.<br />
+<i>f</i> A muscle cell from the intestine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>2. Cells.</b>&mdash;A man's finger moves and grows
+something like a separate animal, but it must
+keep with the rest of
+the body. A little piece
+of a finger moves and
+grows, too. If you
+should look at a finger,
+or any other part of
+your body, through a
+microscope, you would
+see that it is composed
+of little lumps of jelly.
+Each little lump looks
+like an ameba. We call each lump a cell. The
+cells make up the finger.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. What cells do.</b>&mdash;Each cell acts much as an
+ameba does. From the blood it gets food and air
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+and takes them in through any part of its body.
+It also grows and moves. But the cells are not
+free to do as they wish, for they are all tied
+together in armies by very fine strings. We call
+these strings <i>connective tissue</i>. One army of cells
+makes the skin, and other armies make the bones
+and flesh. Some armies make the fingers, and some
+the legs. Every part of our body is made up of
+armies of separate cells.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The mind.</b>&mdash;The body is a home for the
+mind. The cells obey the mind. The mind pays
+the cells by feeding them and taking good care
+of them. When an army of cells is hurt, the body
+feels sick, and then the mind tells the whole body
+to rest until the cells are well again. When we
+study about a man's body, we learn about the separate
+cells in his body.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Our body is made up of many small parts.</p>
+<p>2. The smallest parts are each like a little animal,
+and are called <i>cells</i>.</p>
+<p>3. Each cell eats and grows.</p>
+<p>4. One army of cells makes a finger and another a
+leg, and so on through the body.</p>
+<p>5. The mind lives in the body.</p>
+<p>6. The mind takes care of the cells.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<h3>OF WHAT CELLS ARE MADE</h3>
+
+<p>The cells of our body are made of five common
+things. You would know all these things if you
+should see them.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Water.</b>&mdash;The first thing in the cells is <i>water</i>.
+Water is everywhere in the body. Even the teeth
+have water. Most of our flesh is water. Without
+water we should soon shrink up. Our flesh would
+be stiff like bone and no one could live.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0010-illus" id="i0010-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0010-illus.jpg" width="500" height="227" alt="Items, cells made of" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>The body is made of these five things.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0011-illus" id="i0011-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0011-illus.jpg" width="150" height="107" alt="Tissue" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+        <b>Fat tissue (&#215;100).</b><br />
+The liquid fat is stored in living pockets.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>6. Albumin.</b>&mdash;<i>Second</i>, next to water, something
+like the white of an egg makes the most of the
+body. The white of an egg is <i>albumin</i>. When
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+dried it is like gelatine or glue. Albumin makes
+the most of the solid part of each cell. Lean meat
+and cheese are nearly all albumin. When it is
+heated it becomes
+harder and turns
+white. The word
+albumin means white.
+Dry albumin is hard
+and tough, but in
+the living cells it is
+dissolved in water
+and is soft like meat.
+It is the only living
+substance in the body, and it alone gives it strength.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. Fat.</b>&mdash;<i>Third</i>, next to albumin, the most of
+the body is fat. Fat does not grow inside the cells
+of the body, but it fills little pockets between the
+cells. Fat does not give strength. It makes the
+body round and handsome. It also makes the cells
+warm and keeps them from getting hurt.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. Sugar.</b>&mdash;<i>Fourth</i>, sugar also is found in the
+body. Sugar is made out of starch. When we
+eat starch it changes to sugar. Starch and sugar
+are much alike. We eat a great deal of starch and
+sugar, but they are soon used in warming the body.
+Only a little is in the body at once.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Minerals.</b>&mdash;<i>Fifth</i>, there are also some minerals
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+in the body. When flesh is burned they are
+left as <i>ashes</i>. Salt, lime, iron, soda, and potash are
+all found in the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0012-illus" id="i0012-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0012-illus.jpg" width="150" height="103" alt="Grains" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>Starch grains (&#215;400).</b><br />
+<i>a</i>, of potato.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i>, of corn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Everything in the body is either water, albumin,
+fat, sugar, or minerals.
+These things
+are also our food.
+We eat them mixed
+together in bread,
+meat, eggs, milk,
+and other foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Life.</b>&mdash;Our
+food is not alive, but after we eat it the body
+makes it alive. We do not know how it does it.
+When the body dies we cannot put life into it
+again. There is life in each cell.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. The body is made of five things: water, albumin,
+fat, sugar, and minerals.</p>
+
+<p>2. Water is mixed with all parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>3. Albumin makes the living part of each cell.</p>
+
+<p>4. Fat is in pockets between the cells. It warms
+the cells and keeps them from being hurt.</p>
+
+<p>5. Sugar is made from starch. It warms the body.</p>
+
+<p>6. The minerals in the body are salt, lime, iron,
+soda, and potash.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<h3>DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE MOUTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>11. Food of the cells.</b>&mdash;All the cells of the body
+work and wear out. They must eat and keep growing.
+The food of the cells is the blood. Water,
+albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals are in the blood.
+The cells eat these things and grow. All food
+must be one or more of these five things. Before
+they reach the blood, they must all be changed
+to a liquid. A few cells of the body are set aside
+to do this work of changing them. Changing food
+into blood is digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Cooking.</b>&mdash;Cooking begins digestion. It
+softens and dissolves food. It makes food taste
+better. Most food is unfit for use until it is
+cooked. Poor cooking often makes food still worse
+for use. Food should always be soft and taste
+good after cooking. Softening food by cooking
+saves the mouth and stomach a great deal of work.
+The good taste of the food makes it pleasant for
+them to digest it. We must cut our food into
+small pieces before we eat it. If we eat only a
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+small piece at a time we shall not eat too fast.
+If we cut our food fine we can find any bones and
+other hard things, and can keep them from getting
+inside the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. Chewing.</b>&mdash;Digestion goes on in the mouth.
+The mouth does three things to food. <i>First</i>, it
+mixes and grinds it between the teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, it pours water over the food through
+fine tubes. The water of the mouth is called the
+saliva. The saliva makes the food a thin paste.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, the saliva changes some of the starch to
+sugar. Starch must be all changed to sugar before
+it can feed the cells.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Too fast eating.</b>&mdash;Some boys fill their mouths
+with food. Then they cannot chew their food and
+cannot mix saliva with it. They swallow their food
+whole, and then their stomachs have to grind it.
+The saliva cannot mix with the food and so it is
+too dry in the stomach. Then their stomachs ache,
+and they are sick. Eating too fast and too much
+makes children sick oftener than anything else.</p>
+
+<p>Birds swallow their food whole, for they have no
+teeth. Instead, a strong gizzard inside grinds the
+food. We have no gizzards, and so we must grind
+our food with our teeth.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. Teeth.</b>&mdash;We have two kinds of teeth. The
+front teeth are sharp and cut the food; the back
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+teeth are flat and rough and grind it. If you bite
+nuts or other hard things you may break off a little
+piece of a tooth. Then the tooth may decay and
+ache.</p>
+
+<p>After you eat, some food will sometimes stick
+to the teeth. Then it may decay and make your
+breath smell bad. After each meal always pick the
+teeth with a wooden toothpick. Your teeth will
+also get dirty and become
+stained unless you clean
+them. Always brush your
+teeth with water every
+morning. This will also
+keep them from decaying.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0015-illus" id="i0015-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0015-illus.jpg" width="150" height="169" alt="View of a bird" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>Digestive organs of a bird.</b><br />
+<i>a</i> esophagus or swallowing tube.<br />
+<i>b</i> crop or bag for carrying food.<br />
+<i>c</i> stomach.<br />
+<i>d</i> intestine.<br />
+<i>e</i> gizzard or food grinder.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>16. Swallowing.</b>&mdash;When
+food has been chewed and
+mixed with saliva until it
+is a paste, it is ready to be
+swallowed. The tongue
+pushes the food into a bag
+just back of the mouth. We
+call the bag the <i>pharynx</i>.
+Then the pharynx squeezes it down a long tube
+and into the stomach. The nose and windpipe
+also open into this bag, but both are closed by
+little doors while we swallow. We cannot breathe
+while we swallow. If the doors are not shut
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+tightly, some food gets into the windpipe and
+chokes us.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. We eat to feed the cells of the body.</p>
+<p>2. All food must be made into blood.</p>
+<p>3. Changing food to blood is digestion.</p>
+<p>4. Cooking softens food and makes it taste good.</p>
+<p>5. Food is ground fine in the mouth, and mixed
+with saliva to form a paste. Some of its
+starch is changed to sugar.</p>
+<p>6. If food is only half chewed the stomach has to
+grind it.</p>
+<p>7. When we swallow, the tongue pushes the food
+into a bag back of the mouth and the bag
+squeezes it down a long tube to the stomach.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<h3>DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH</h3>
+
+<p><b>17. The stomach.</b>&mdash;When food is swallowed it
+goes to the stomach. The stomach is a thin bag.
+In a man it holds about three pints. Like the
+mouth, it does three things to the food.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0017-illus" id="i0017-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0017-illus.jpg" width="150" height="195" alt="Stomach glands" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Gastric glands in the stomach<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+        &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(&#215;200).</b><br />
+The cells <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, form the juice.<br />
+The fibers <i>c</i>, bind the tubes in place.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, the stomach gently
+stirs and mixes the food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, it pours a fluid
+over the food. This fluid
+is called the <i>gastric juice</i>.
+The gastric juice is sour
+and bitter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, the gastric juice
+changes some of the albumin
+of food to a liquid form.</p>
+
+<p>If the mouth has done
+its work well, the stomach
+does its work easily and
+we do not know it. But if the mouth has eaten
+food too fast and has not chewed it well, then the
+stomach must do the work of the mouth too. In
+that case it gets tired and aches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+        <b>18. The intestine.</b>&mdash;The food stays in the stomach
+only a little while. All the time a little keeps
+trickling into a long coil of tube. This tube is
+called the <i>intestine</i> or the <i>bowels</i>. Three or four
+hours after a hearty meal the stomach is empty.
+Some of the food has been changed to a liquid,
+but most of it has only been ground to smaller
+pieces, and mixed with a great deal of water.
+Now it all must be changed to a liquid.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. What the intestine does.</b>&mdash;Like the mouth
+and stomach, the intestine does three things.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, it mixes the food and makes it pass down
+the tube.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, two sets of cells behind the stomach
+make two liquids and pour them into the intestine.
+One set of cells is the <i>sweetbread</i>, or <i>pancreas</i>,
+and its liquid is the <i>pancreatic juice</i>. The
+other is the <i>liver</i> and its fluid is the <i>bile</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, the pancreatic juice makes three changes
+in food. <i>First</i>, like the mouth, it changes starch
+to sugar. <i>Second</i>, like the stomach, it makes albumin
+a liquid. <i>Third</i>, it divides fat into fine drops.
+These drops then mix with water and do not float
+on its top.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. Bile.</b>&mdash;The bile is yellow and bitter. It
+helps the pancreatic juice do its work. It also
+helps to keep the inside of the intestine clean.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+        <b>21. Digestion of water and minerals.</b>&mdash;Water and
+the mineral parts of food do not need to be
+changed at all, but can become part of the blood
+just as they are. Seeds and husks and tough
+strings of flesh all pass the length of the intestine
+and are not changed.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. How food gets into the blood.</b>&mdash;By the time
+food is half way down the intestine it is mostly
+liquid and ready to become part of the blood.
+This liquid soaks through the sides of the intestine
+and into the blood tubes. At last the food
+reaches the end of the intestine. Most of its liquid
+has then soaked into the blood tubes and only
+some solid waste is left.</p>
+
+<p><b>23. Work of the liver.</b>&mdash;The food is now in the
+blood, but has not become a part of it. It is
+carried to the liver. There the liver changes the
+food to good blood, and then the blood hurries
+on and feeds the cells of the body. Spoiled food
+may be swallowed and taken into the blood with
+the good food. The liver takes out the poisons
+and sends them back again with the bile. The
+liver keeps us from getting poisoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. Bad food.</b>&mdash;Sometimes the stomach and intestine
+cannot digest the food. They cannot digest
+green apples, but they try hard to do so. They
+stir the apples faster and faster until there is
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+a great pain. Sometimes the stomach throws up
+the food and then the pain and sickness stop.
+Spoiled food makes us sick in the same way.</p>
+
+<p><b>25. Too fast eating.</b>&mdash;When the food stays too
+long in the stomach or intestine it sours, or decays,
+just as it does outside of the body. This makes
+us very sick. When we eat too much, or when
+we do not chew the food to small pieces, the
+stomach may be a long time in digesting the
+food. Then it may become sour and make us
+sick.</p>
+
+<p><b>26. Biliousness.</b>&mdash;When the food is poor or becomes
+sour, it is poorly digested. Then the liver
+has more work to do, and does not change the
+food to blood as it should. It also lets some of the
+sour poisons pass by it. These poison the whole
+body and make the head ache. We call this <i>biliousness</i>.
+The tongue is then covered with a white
+or yellow coat and the mouth tastes bad. These
+are signs of sickness. The stomach and liver are
+out of order.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. Rules for eating.</b>&mdash;If we eat as we should,
+our stomach will digest its food. We must follow
+three rules.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, we must chew the food in the mouth
+until all the lumps are fine. Then the food will
+be ready for the stomach.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+        <i>Second</i>, we must eat slowly. If we eat fast we
+cannot chew the food well. The stomach cannot
+take care of food if it comes too fast. We must
+swallow all of one mouthful before we put another
+into the mouth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, we must eat only at meal times. The
+stomach needs a rest. Even a little candy, or
+apples, or nuts will keep the stomach at work,
+and tire it out. A child needs to eat more often
+than his father. So, besides his meals, he should
+have something to eat in the middle of the morning
+and some more in the afternoon. But he should
+not be eating at all hours. He ought not to eat
+little bits just before dinner, for that spoils his
+meal.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. The stomach and intestine stir and rub the
+food, and mix it with juices.</p>
+<p>2. The juices change albumin to a liquid, and
+starch to sugar. They also change fat to
+the form of tiny drops.</p>
+<p>3. The digested food soaks through the sides of
+the intestine into the blood tubes.</p>
+<p>4. The blood carries the food to the liver.</p>
+<p>5. The liver changes food to blood.</p>
+<p>6. Blood goes to all parts of the body and feeds
+the cells.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+        7. The liver keeps poisons from getting into the blood.</p>
+<p>8. Water and minerals become a part of the blood
+without being digested.</p>
+<p>9. When food is not well digested, the liver cannot
+make it into good blood. This makes us
+bilious.</p>
+<p>10. If food is not soon digested it sours and decays.
+This makes us sick.</p>
+<p>11. We can make food digest quickly by chewing
+it well and eating slowly.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<h3>FOODS</h3>
+
+<p><b>28. Kinds of food.</b>&mdash;The cells of the body need
+water, albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals for food.
+We sometimes eat sugar alone, and we drink pure
+water. But most of our food is a mixture of all
+five kinds of food. Food comes from animals and
+plants.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. Milk</b>.&mdash;Milk is the best food known. It
+contains just enough water, albumin, fat, sugar, and
+minerals. Babies and young mammals live on milk
+alone. A man can live upon four quarts of milk a
+day. In sickness, milk is the very best food for
+men, as well as for babies.</p>
+
+<p>The albumin of milk becomes hard when the
+milk sours. This makes <i>cheese</i>. The fat of milk
+rises to the top. We call it <i>cream</i>. When cream
+is churned, the pure fat comes together in a lump.
+Pure fat of milk is called <i>butter</i>. Cheese and butter
+are both good foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. Eggs.</b>&mdash;Eggs are also good food. The white
+of an egg is almost pure albumin. The yolk is
+albumin and fat. Eggs have no starch or sugar.
+         <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+They are not a perfect food, for some sugar must
+be eaten. But they can be quickly digested and
+they produce a great deal of strength.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. Meat.</b>&mdash;Meat contains albumin and fat, but
+no sugar. Fish, oysters, and clams are like meat.
+They all make good food. Boys and girls should
+eat milk, eggs, and meat. These foods are the best
+to give strength to the body. Nearly all food from
+animals is more quickly digested and gives more
+strength than food from plants.</p>
+
+<p><b>32. Bread.</b>&mdash;White bread is a food made from
+wheat. The wheat is ground to flour. Flour is
+mixed with water, and yeast is added. The yeast
+makes a gas, and the gas puffs up the wet flour
+and makes it full of holes. The holes make the
+bread <i>light</i>. Then bread is baked. Rye or corn
+meal makes good bread. Cake, biscuit, and pancakes
+are much like bread. Sometimes in place of
+yeast, baking powder is used to make the bread or
+cake light.</p>
+
+<p><b>33. Meal.</b>&mdash;Oatmeal, corn meal, and cracked
+wheat and rice are sometimes boiled, and eaten
+with milk. Bread, biscuit, oatmeal, and corn meal
+are made from grain. All are very much alike.
+The cooking makes them look and taste different,
+but yet they are nearly the same.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. Why we need grain food.</b>&mdash;All kinds of grain
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+have much albumin, but only a little fat. But all
+have a great deal of starch. By digestion the starch
+becomes sugar. Grain is a good food because it
+has starch or sugar. Animal foods have no sugar,
+so we eat grain food with them. The two together
+make the most nourishing food. Potatoes have a
+great deal of starch and only a little albumin.
+They also are good food with meat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0025-illus" id="i0025-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0025-illus.jpg" width="500" height="272" alt="Healthy foods" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>A healthy man needs as much food as this every day.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A person cannot live well upon plant food alone,
+for it has too much starch and sugar, and too little
+albumin and fat. We need nearly equal parts of
+albumin, fat, and sugar. A mixture of bread, meat,
+eggs, vegetables, and milk makes the best food.</p>
+
+<p><b>35. Fruit.</b>&mdash;Fruit, like apples, peaches, and plums
+all have sugar. They taste good, and give us an
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+appetite for other kinds of food. They have little
+albumin or fat.</p>
+
+<p><b>36. Salt.</b>&mdash;There is enough mineral matter in all
+food, and we do not have to eat iron or lime or soda.
+But we do need some more salt. Even animals
+need salt. Salt makes food taste good, and helps
+its digestion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0026-illus" id="i0026-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0026-illus.jpg" width="500" height="427" alt="Unhealthy well" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>People are made sick by drinking water from such a well.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>37. Water.</b>&mdash;Water is also a food, for it forms
+the most of our bodies. All food has water. Even
+dry crackers contain it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+        <b>38. Pure water.</b>&mdash;Water in a well runs through
+the dirty earth, and yet is clear and pure. This is
+because sand holds back the dirt. But sometimes
+slops from the house, and water from the barn yard,
+soak through the soil until the sand is full. Then
+the well water will be dirty and poisonous. People
+are often made sick by drinking such water. In
+cities the dirt fills all the soil and spoils the water.
+So the water must be brought from the country in
+large pipes.</p>
+
+<p>Water in lead pipes takes up some of the lead.
+Lead is a poison. You should let the water run off
+from a pipe a little while before you use it. Good
+water is clear and has no smell or taste. Dirty or
+yellow water, or water with a taste or smell, is not
+fit for use.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. Tea and coffee.</b>&mdash;Tea and coffee are steeped in
+water and used as a drink. The drink is the water.
+The tea and coffee are neither food nor drink.
+They cause the cells of the body to do more work,
+and at the same time they take away the feeling
+of being tired. They do not give strength to the
+body, but are like a whip and make the body work
+harder.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. The appetite.</b>&mdash;When we have so many kinds
+of food, what kind is best for us? The taste of
+food tells us the kind of food to eat. Bread and
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+meat, and such plain foods, always taste good, and
+we never get tired of them. Sugar tastes good
+until we get enough. Any more makes us sick.
+More than enough sugar or starch is found in
+bread and potatoes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0028-illus" id="i0028-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0028-illus.jpg" width="500" height="429" alt="Intemperance" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>One kind of intemperance.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If we can eat food day after day, without getting
+tired of it, the food is good for us. If we get
+tired of its taste, either the food is not good for
+us or we are eating too much. Bad tasting or
+bad smelling food is always dangerous.
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We can tell how much food to eat by our <i>hunger</i>
+or <i>appetite</i>. We can always feel when we have
+enough. Then is the time to stop.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes we eat plain bread and meat until we
+have enough, and then sweet cake or pie is brought
+in. Then we have a false appetite for sweet things.
+If the sweet things had not made a false hunger, we
+should have had enough to eat. But the false appetite
+makes us want more, and so we eat too much,
+and sometimes get sick from it.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. Intemperance.</b>&mdash;Eating for the sake of a false
+appetite is <i>intemperance</i>. Drinking strong drink
+for the sake of its taste is a common form of intemperance.
+But eating too much preserves, pie, and
+candy is intemperance too, and can do a great deal
+of harm. A little pie, or pudding, or candy, is good,
+because we can eat our sugar as well that way as in
+bread. But we should eat only a little.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. Food and Diseases.</b>&mdash;If our food is dirty or is
+handled with dirty hands, or is put into dirty dishes,
+there may be disease germs in it. Our food should
+always be clean, and we should have our hands clean
+when we handle it or eat it.</p>
+
+<p>Storekeepers sometimes keep fruit and vegetables
+out of doors where street dust may blow upon it.
+This dust is often full of disease germs. Flies may
+also bring disease germs to the food. If food is
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+kept where dust and flies can get at it, we ought not
+to buy it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Food is a mixture of water, albumin, fat, starch
+or sugar, and minerals.</p>
+<p>2. Animal foods, like milk, eggs, and meat, have
+albumin and fat in the best form.</p>
+<p>3. Plant food has albumin and fat, but it has
+very much starch or sugar. So, taken together
+with animal food, it makes a complete
+food.</p>
+<p>4. Lime, iron, soda, and salt are found in all foods,
+but we must add a little more salt to food.</p>
+<p>5. Water is found in all food, but we must drink
+some besides.</p>
+<p>6. Dirty water, or water with a taste or smell, is
+not fit for use.</p>
+<p>7. Taste tells us what kind of food to use.</p>
+<p>8. Hunger, or the appetite, tells us how much food
+to use.</p>
+<p>9. There can be a false hunger for sweet things.
+This may lead us to eat too much.</p>
+<p>10. Eating too much of sweet things is one form
+of intemperance.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+<h3>TOBACCO</h3>
+
+<p><b>43. Harmful eating.</b>&mdash;Men often eat for the fun
+of eating, and sometimes they eat harmful things.
+They chew tobacco and drink strong drinks, because
+they like their taste, just as a child eats
+candy.</p>
+
+<p><b>44. Tobacco.</b>&mdash;Men have always drunk strong
+drink. Within the last four hundred years, men
+have learned another way to please a wrong taste.
+When Columbus discovered America, the Indians
+were using tobacco. They taught the Spaniards
+how to smoke it, and since then almost the whole
+world has used it.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco is the leaf of a tall plant. It needs a
+better soil than any other crop. It takes the richness
+from the ground, and spoils it for other crops.</p>
+
+<p><b>45. Nicotine.</b>&mdash;About 1/30 of each tobacco leaf is
+a strong poison. This poison is called <i>nicotine</i>.
+A drop or two of it, or as much of it as is in a
+strong cigar, will kill a man. It gives the tobacco
+its smell and taste. Men use tobacco for the sake
+of a poison.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+        <b>46. Why men use tobacco.</b>&mdash;Men give queer reasons
+for using tobacco. One smokes for its company,
+another because he is with company. One
+smokes to make his brain think better, and another
+to keep himself from thinking. Some use tobacco
+to help digest their food, and others use it to keep
+themselves from eating so much. Boys smoke to
+make themselves look like men. The real reason
+for using tobacco is that men learn to like its taste,
+and do not care if it harms them.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. Spitting.</b>&mdash;Tobacco in any form makes the
+saliva flow. Men do not dare swallow it, for it
+makes them sick. So they spit it out. No one
+likes to see this. It is a dirty and filthy habit.
+Besides, the saliva is lost, and cannot help digest
+food.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco stains the teeth brown. You can always
+tell a tobacco chewer by his teeth. His breath will
+smell of tobacco, and even his clothes are offensive
+to the nose.</p>
+
+<p><b>48. Tobacco lessens strength.</b>&mdash;Tobacco always
+makes a person sick at the stomach, at first. After
+a while, he becomes used to it, and an ordinary
+chew or smoke does not make him sick. But a
+large chew or smoke will always make him sick
+again. When a person is sick from tobacco he
+is very weak. Even if he is not sick, the tobacco
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+poisons his muscles and makes his strength less.
+When a man trains for a hard race he never uses
+tobacco.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. Tobacco hinders digestion.</b>&mdash;Tobacco and its
+smoke both have a burning taste. This makes the
+throat sore, and causes a cough. Tobacco does
+not help the stomach to digest food. Smokers and
+chewers often have headaches and coated tongues.
+These are signs of a poor digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. Effect upon the young.</b>&mdash;Tobacco is more
+harmful to boys than to men. If boys smoke they
+cannot run fast or long. They cannot work hard
+with their brains or hands. They do not grow
+fast, and are liable to have weak hearts.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. Tobacco harms others.</b>&mdash;Many persons do not
+like the smell of tobacco, and no one likes the spit.
+No one should use it in the presence of others.
+The tobacco user's pleasure should not spoil the
+comfort and happiness of others.</p>
+
+<p><b>52. Snuff.</b>&mdash;Powdered tobacco is called snuff.
+Snuff causes sneezing. No one should harm the
+nose and the whole body for the pleasure of a
+sneeze. Years ago snuff was used much more than
+it is now.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. Chewing.</b>&mdash;Chewing tobacco is the most
+poisonous way of using it, for it keeps most of
+the nicotine in the mouth. Chewing will make
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+any one very sick, unless he spits out all the
+saliva.</p>
+
+<p><b>54. Smoking.</b>&mdash;Men smoke pipes, cigars, and
+cigarettes. The smoke has nicotine, and is poisonous.
+Pipe stems get dirty and full of nicotine.
+After a while they smell bad and are very poisonous.
+An old smoker's pipe will make a young
+smoker sick.</p>
+
+<p><b>55. Cigarettes.</b>&mdash;Cigars are not so poisonous as
+a pipe, for more of the nicotine is burned up.
+Cigarettes are often made of weak tobacco. A
+cigarette does not contain so much tobacco as a
+cigar. Hence a cigarette does not cost much. It
+can be smoked in a hurry. It does not make a boy
+so sick as cigars do. Boys and men use a great
+many cigarettes where they would not touch a cigar.
+This makes the use of cigarettes the most dangerous
+form of smoking. Selling cigarettes to young
+boys is forbidden by law.</p>
+
+<p><b>56. Habit.</b>&mdash;When men have used tobacco for
+some time, they like it and feel bad without it.
+So they get into the habit of using it, and find it
+hard to stop. The tobacco seems to help them,
+but it does not do so. It cheats men, and they
+do not know it.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. Chewing gum.</b>&mdash;Chewing gum is made from
+pitch or paraffin, for these substances will not dissolve
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+in the mouth. The gum is flavored with
+sugar and spices. The gum and its flavors are
+not harmful in themselves, and yet chewing them
+is harmful. Chewing makes a great deal of saliva
+flow. All this saliva is wasted, and when we eat
+our meals we may have too little. Then our food
+will not digest well, but we shall have dyspepsia
+and headaches.</p>
+
+<p>By pulling and handling the gum while chewing
+it, you may get some poisonous dirt into your
+mouth, and make yourself very sick.</p>
+
+<p>Even if your gum should not harm you, there is
+a good reason for letting it alone. When you are
+chewing gum, you look as if you were chewing
+tobacco. No one likes to see a boy or girl even
+appearing to chew tobacco. If you form a habit
+of chewing gum you will be more likely to chew
+tobacco when you are grown.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Men use tobacco for the sake of its nicotine.
+Nicotine is a very strong poison.</p>
+<p>2. Tobacco causes a man to waste his saliva.</p>
+<p>3. Tobacco makes the mouth dry.</p>
+<p>4. Tobacco hinders digestion.</p>
+<p>5. Tobacco stains the teeth, and makes the breath
+smell bad.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<p>6. Tobacco makes a person sick at the stomach.</p>
+<p>7. Tobacco weakens the muscles.</p>
+<p>8. Tobacco is more harmful to the young than to
+grown persons.</p>
+<p>9. Chewing is the worst form of using tobacco.</p>
+<p>10. Smoking cigarettes is the worst form of smoking.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+<h3>FERMENTATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>58. Souring of fruit.</b>&mdash;When a little fruit is set
+away in a warm place for a day or two it sours or
+ferments. Anything sweet will do the same thing.
+Little bubbles rise up through the juice and a foam
+comes on top. Then the juice
+has a sharp taste or is sour.
+Canned and preserved fruit becomes
+sour soon after the jar
+is opened, and cider soon turns
+to vinegar. All fruit juice does
+this even in cold weather. But
+in cold weather it keeps for a
+longer time.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0037-illus" id="i0037-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0037-illus.jpg" width="150" height="192" alt="Fermentation" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Fermentation in a jar of<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cherries.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>59. Preserving fruit.</b>&mdash;If your
+mother wishes to keep fruit all winter she boils it
+and at once puts it into tight jars. This shuts
+out the air and then the fruit keeps good all winter.
+Boiling kills all living things, and no more can get
+in through the tight jars. Does a living thing
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+have anything to do with making the fruit juice
+turn sour?</p>
+
+<p><b>60. Yeast.</b>&mdash;Yeast will make all sweet things ferment.
+Bakers make yeast grow in bread sponge.
+Yeast is alive. It is made of millions
+of tiny round cells. New
+cells sprout out from the side
+of the old cells like young lilies
+on an old lily bulb. Soon each
+new cell breaks off and lives all
+by itself. In a single night
+enough new cells will form to fill
+the whole loaf of bread.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0038-illus" id="i0038-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0038-illus.jpg" width="150" height="257" alt="Yeast" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Yeast plant cells (&#215;500).</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>61. How yeast makes alcohol.</b>&mdash;Yeast
+will grow only where sugar
+is. When it has grown for some
+time there is no more sugar, and instead of a sweet
+taste there is a sharp or sour taste. The yeast has
+changed the sugar to alcohol. All alcohol is made
+from sugar by yeast.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds of the yeast plant are everywhere in
+the air. Some are on the skins of fruit and so are
+found in the juice when it is squeezed out. There
+they begin to grow at once and soon change the
+sugar to alcohol. They do this by taking a gas
+away from the sugar. The gas rises in little bubbles,
+and makes a froth upon the top of the juice.
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+Boiling kills the yeast plant. If the juice is at
+once put into tight jars no new yeast plants can
+get in, and so the juice keeps.</p>
+
+<p><b>62. Vinegar.</b>&mdash;Sometimes fruit juice turns sour.
+The sourness is due to vinegar. Besides yeast,
+other little living plants fall into the juice and turn
+the sugar to vinegar. But if there is much alcohol
+in the juice, the vinegar plants will not grow.</p>
+
+<p><b>63. Yeast in bread.</b>&mdash;Growing yeast plants always
+make alcohol. They change some of the sugar of
+bread dough to alcohol and a gas. The gas bubbles
+through the bread and makes it light. When bread
+is baked, the heat of the oven drives off the alcohol,
+and so we do not eat any in bread.</p>
+
+<p><b>64. Alcohol.</b>&mdash;Alcohol is a clear liquid and looks
+like water. It has a sharp taste and smell. It
+burns very easily and makes a very hot flame. Its
+smoke cannot be seen, and its flame will not make
+anything black, as a match flame will do.</p>
+
+<p><b>65. Use of alcohol.</b>&mdash;Alcohol will dissolve more
+things than water will dissolve. It is used to dissolve
+drugs, varnishes, perfumery, and many other
+things. It will dissolve even oil and fat. Tailors
+clean grease spots from clothes with it. It takes
+water away from flesh and makes it dry, hard, and
+tough. It will keep anything from rotting. In
+museums we pour alcohol over pieces of flesh or
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+plants in glass jars. Then they will keep and we
+can look at them at any time. Thus alcohol is a
+very useful thing, and we could hardly do without it.</p>
+
+<p><b>66. Strong drink.</b>&mdash;Some men use alcohol in a
+wrong way. They swallow it as a drink. But
+men cannot drink pure alcohol, for it would burn
+their mouths. They always drink it mixed with
+some water. Alcohol in water is called <i>strong
+drink</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>67. Why men use strong drink.</b>&mdash;Some men take
+strong drink to make themselves warm, and some
+to make themselves cool. Some drink to keep
+themselves awake, and some to make themselves
+sleep. Some drink to keep themselves still, and
+some to make themselves stir around faster. Men
+use strong drink really because it seems to make
+them feel strong for a while. It does not make
+them stronger, but it harms the body and the mind.
+Its alcohol does the harm.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Sugar in fruit or in water turns to alcohol or
+vinegar, and a gas.</p>
+<p>2. The change to alcohol is caused by the cells of
+the yeast plant.</p>
+<p>3. The change to vinegar is caused by another
+small plant.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+        4. Boiling fruit juice kills the yeast plants and then
+the juice will keep without change.</p>
+<p>5. Alcohol looks like water. It has a sharp and
+burning taste.</p>
+<p>6. Alcohol takes water from flesh and hardens it.</p>
+<p>7. Alcohol burns with a great heat and no smoke.</p>
+<p>8. Alcohol is used to dissolve things, and to keep
+things from spoiling.</p>
+<p>9. Alcohol in water forms <i>strong drink</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<h3>KINDS OF STRONG DRINK</h3>
+
+<p><b>68. Wine.</b>&mdash;All strong drink is alcohol and
+water. There may be other things to give it taste,
+but alcohol and water are always in it. No strong
+drink is over one half alcohol.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0042-illus" id="i0042-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0042-illus.jpg" width="150" height="229" alt="Wine" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A glass of wine contains so,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;much alcohol.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In olden times wine was the only strong drink.
+Men used to crush out the juice of grapes and let
+it ferment. This made wine. But
+very often they used the juice before it
+fermented. Then it had no alcohol and
+could do no harm, but was a good food.
+We read of wine in the Bible. Some
+of it was fresh fruit juice.</p>
+
+<p>In wine, the sugar is changed to
+alcohol. The rest of the juice stays
+the same. All wine is made by the yeast plant
+growing in fruit juice. No yeast is put in, for
+there is always enough on the outside of the fruit.
+Wine is about one tenth alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><b>69. Homemade wine.</b>&mdash;Cider is a kind of wine.
+It is made from apple juice. It has alcohol a day
+or two after it is made. All homemade wines have
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+alcohol. Any of them can make a person drunk.
+Using weak homemade wine and cider often makes
+an appetite for stronger drinks. The alcohol in any
+of them is enough to harm the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0043-illus" id="i0043-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0043-illus.jpg" width="150" height="223" alt="Beer" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A glass of beer contains so<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;much alcohol.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>70. Beer.</b>&mdash;After man had made wine for a long
+time, some one found out how to cultivate yeast.
+Then men could make sugar and water
+ferment whenever they wanted to. So
+men boiled grain to take out its sugar.
+Then they poured off the liquor and
+added yeast and let it ferment. This
+made beer and ale. Now millions of
+bushels of grain are used every year
+in making beer. Men call beer a <i>light</i>
+drink. But it has alcohol and is a strong drink,
+and can make men drunk.</p>
+
+<p><b>71. Root beer.</b>&mdash;Some persons boil roots and
+herbs, and add molasses and yeast. Then the
+liquid ferments and becomes <i>root beer</i>. They say
+"it has no alcohol, for we made it." But it does
+have alcohol, for yeast always makes alcohol. Some
+ginger ale is made by putting yeast in sweetened
+ginger water. It has alcohol, too.</p>
+
+<p><b>72. Distillation.</b>&mdash;Boiling water turns to vapor
+or steam and goes off in the air. When the vapor
+is cooled, you can see the water again. It often
+cools on the window and makes little streams of
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+water. You can catch the steam in a tube. If
+you keep the tube cool, the steam will turn to water
+in the tube. This process is called <i>distillation</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0044-illus" id="i0044-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0044-illus.jpg" width="150" height="221" alt="Whisky" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A glass of whisky contains so<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;much alcohol.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Boiling alcohol also passes off into the air as
+vapor. When the vapor is cooled, it becomes liquid
+again. Alcohol boils with less heat
+than water. When alcohol in water
+is heated, the alcohol boils first. So
+the vapor has more alcohol than the
+water. When the vapor is cooled, the
+liquid has more alcohol than it had at
+first. When the liquid is distilled again
+it has more alcohol yet. Pure alcohol
+can be made in this way.</p>
+
+<p><b>73. Whisky.</b>&mdash;Distilling wine or strong beer
+makes <i>whisky</i> and <i>brandy</i>. Whisky is one half
+alcohol. It is more harmful than wine or beer.</p>
+
+<p><b>74. Habit.</b>&mdash;Some strong drinks have only a
+little alcohol and some have a great deal. No one
+begins to drink the strong liquors. He begins with
+wine or beer. When he has once learned, he has
+a hard time to stop drinking. It is dangerous to
+drink even weak drinks.</p>
+
+<p><b>75. Strong drink and thirst.</b>&mdash;When a man is
+thirsty, water will satisfy him but strong drink will
+not. Sometimes the mouth is dry and dirty and
+then a man feels thirsty. Rinsing the mouth
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+with water, and rubbing the tongue and teeth
+clean will help the dryness and stop the thirst.
+At any rate, strong drink will only make the
+mouth dryer.</p>
+
+<p>Some men drink only when they are tired. Then
+a cup of strong and hot tea or coffee will make
+them feel much better than a glass of strong drink,
+and will not harm them so much.</p>
+
+<p>When strong drink is swallowed, its alcohol takes
+water from the mouth. When your mouth is dry,
+you feel thirsty. Strong drink makes the mouth
+dry, and so a drink makes a man more thirsty.
+The alcohol also makes the mouth smart. Men
+need another drink to cool the mouth after the first
+one. So one drink leads to another. All the while
+a person drinks water with the alcohol until he has
+too much water. But his mouth is dry and he feels
+as thirsty as ever.</p>
+
+<p><b>76. Effect of alcohol upon the stomach.</b>&mdash;When
+strong drink is swallowed it makes the stomach
+smart just as it does the mouth. So the stomach
+feels warm, but it is really no warmer. This harms
+the stomach and keeps it from working well.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol also keeps the gastric juice from changing
+albumin to a liquid. Alcohol keeps flesh from
+decaying in a museum. In the same way it may
+hinder the digestion of food in the stomach.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+        When alcohol is used for only a short time, the
+stomach can get well; but if it is used for months
+and years, the stomach will stay weak. Then the
+drinker can hardly eat at all.</p>
+
+<p><b>77. What becomes of alcohol.</b>&mdash;In the stomach
+a great deal of gastric juice is mixed with the
+alcohol. So it is very weak when it reaches the
+intestine. Alcohol needs only a little digesting.
+It soon soaks into the blood from the intestine
+along with the other food. The blood flows fast
+and washes the alcohol away as soon as it leaves
+the intestine. Too little gets into the blood at once
+to harm it much.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol goes to the liver, and is there destroyed;
+but it still does great harm. The liver has to
+attend to the alcohol, and so it does not change
+the food to good blood, and it does not take all the
+poisons out of the blood. Then the whole body
+becomes weak and sick. Alcohol hurts the liver
+first, and more than other parts of the body. On
+this account, drinkers often have bilious attacks
+and stomach troubles.</p>
+
+<p><b>78. Bitters.</b>&mdash;Many medicines are made by dissolving
+drugs in alcohol. In taking a strong medicine,
+we use only a few drops, and so do not get
+much alcohol. Some kinds of medicines must be
+taken in large doses. Bitters are weak medicines,
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+and must be taken by the tablespoonful. A tablespoonful
+of the medicine has more alcohol than a
+large drink of whisky. The bitters seem to make
+a person feel well, but it is because he is taking
+a large amount of strong drink.</p>
+
+<p>Jamaica Ginger is only common ginger dissolved
+in alcohol. It, too, is a form of strong drink.</p>
+
+<p><b>79. Strong drink as medicine.</b>&mdash;People sometimes
+keep whisky or brandy in the house to give for
+colds or other slight forms of sickness. A drink of
+hot coffee does more good than the strong drink,
+and has none of its dangers.</p>
+
+<p>By using whisky or brandy for medicine, children
+learn to believe in strong drink, and so they
+will be likely to use it when they grow up. This
+reason alone ought to keep any one from giving it
+to a child.</p>
+
+<p><b>80. Alcohol in cooking.</b>&mdash;In making bread, alcohol
+is formed in the dough by the yeast. When the
+bread is baked, all the alcohol is driven off by
+the heat, and so we do not eat any.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes brandy or wine is put into desserts.
+If it is put in after the dessert is cooked, we shall
+get as much alcohol as if we had drunk it. If the
+liquor is put in before cooking, the heat will drive
+off the alcohol but the flavor of the liquor will
+remain. The flavor will do no harm in itself, but
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+people will learn its taste, and from it may learn to
+like the strong drink itself. The alcohol in bread
+has no special flavor and does not leave any taste
+behind. So we cannot learn to like strong drink
+by eating bread.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Fruit juice makes wine or cider.</p>
+<p>2. All kinds of wine contain alcohol.</p>
+<p>3. When the liquid from boiled grain has fermented,
+it becomes beer, or ale.</p>
+<p>4. By boiling wine or beer, and cooling the vapor,
+distilled drinks like whisky are made. They
+are one half alcohol.</p>
+<p>5. Water will satisfy a real thirst. Strong drink
+will not.</p>
+<p>6. Alcohol keeps the stomach from digesting food.</p>
+<p>7. Alcohol soaks into the blood tubes and goes to
+the liver.</p>
+<p>8. The liver destroys the alcohol, but is hurt in
+doing it.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+<h3>THE BLOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>81. Blood.</b>&mdash;After food becomes blood, it goes
+to every part of the body to feed the cells. Even
+a pin prick anywhere in the body draws blood.
+The blood makes the skin pink.
+There are five or six quarts of blood
+in a man's body. This is about 1/13
+of his body.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0049-illus" id="i0049-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0049-illus.jpg" width="150" height="106" alt="Blood cells" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Blood corpuscles (&#215;400).</b><br />
+<i>a</i> a pile of red blood cells.<br />
+<i>b</i> red blood cells seen flatwise.<br />
+<i>c</i> red blood cells seen edgewise.<br />
+<i>d</i> white blood cells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Blood looks like a red liquid.
+But if you look at it through a
+strong microscope, it looks like
+water, and millions of little red cells.
+These cells carry air through the
+body. They make the blood look red.
+There are also a smaller number of white cells.
+Blood is made of red cells, white cells, and a liquid.</p>
+
+<p><b>82. The liquid in blood.</b>&mdash;The liquid part of the
+blood is albumin, and water, with a little fat, sugar,
+and minerals. It is food and drink for the cells of
+the body. When blood is drawn from the body
+it soon becomes like jelly. We call the jelly a
+<i>clot</i>. When you cut your finger, a clot forms in
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+the cut and plugs up the bleeding place. If it
+did not, the blood would all run out of the body
+and we should die.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0050-illus" id="i0050-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0050-illus.jpg" width="150" height="155" alt="The heart" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Diagram of the heart while it is beating.</b><br />
+<i>a</i> vein entering the auricle.<br />
+<i>b</i> auricle.<br />
+<i>c</i> closed valve to keep blood from flowing<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;back into the auricle.<br />
+<i>d</i> ventricle.<br />
+<i>e</i> artery.<br />
+<i>f</i> valve to keep blood from returning to the<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ventricle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>83. The heart.</b>&mdash;The blood is held in tubes. A
+pump inside the body keeps it always moving.
+This pump is called the <i>heart</i>. The heart is
+a bag of muscle with
+thick sides. It is about
+as large as your fist.
+When it is full, it has
+the power to make itself
+smaller, and so it
+squeezes the blood out
+through a tube. We
+can feel each squeeze
+as a heart-beat. You
+can find the heart-beat
+just to the left of the
+middle of the body
+about two hand-breadths
+below the
+neck.</p>
+
+<p><b>84. The heart-beat.</b>&mdash;A man's heart beats about
+seventy times each minute. Boys' and girls' hearts
+beat much faster. Running or hard work of any
+kind makes the heart beat faster yet. Your heart
+will keep on beating until you die. It does not
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+seem to rest at all, yet it works only while you
+feel it beat. Between each beat it rests while the
+blood is filling it again. So it really rests one half
+of the time.</p>
+
+<p><b>85. Arteries.</b>&mdash;The heart pumps the blood
+through a single tube. This tube opens into
+smaller tubes. These open into still smaller ones.
+You must use a strong microscope to see the
+finest blood tubes. The tubes reach every part
+of the body, and carry blood to its cells. They
+are called <i>arteries</i>. At each heart-beat a wave
+of blood can be felt
+in an artery. This
+wave is the <i>pulse</i>. It
+can be felt in the
+wrist, temples, and
+other places. By the
+pulse we can tell how
+often and how strongly
+the heart is beating.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0051-illus" id="i0051-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0051-illus.jpg" width="150" height="131" alt="Capillaries" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Arrangement of capillaries.</b><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i> smallest artery.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i> smallest vein.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>c</i> network of capillaries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>86. Capillaries.</b>&mdash;The
+smallest arteries
+divide into a fine network
+of small tubes. These tubes are the <i>capillaries</i>.
+They lie around every cell of the body.
+Their sides are very thin. As the blood flows
+through them, some of it soaks through the sides
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+of the tubes. Blood contains all kinds of food
+for the cells. Each cell is always wet with food
+and can eat it at any time. The cells are like
+the tiny animal, the ameba, and can take in the
+food by any part of their bodies. The cells are
+better off than the ameba, for their food is brought
+to them. They pay the body for their food by
+working for it.</p>
+
+<p><b>87. Veins.</b>&mdash;The capillaries come together again
+to form large tubes. These tubes are called <i>veins</i>.
+Only a little of the blood goes through the sides of
+a capillary. The rest flows on into the veins. The
+veins unite to form two large tubes. These two
+tubes open into the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>88. How the blood flows.</b>&mdash;The blood is pumped
+out of the heart, through the arteries to the capillaries.
+There some goes out to the cells. The rest
+flows into the veins and goes back to the heart.
+All the blood in the body passes through the heart
+every two minutes. It takes only twenty seconds
+for a drop of blood to go from the heart to the toes
+and back again. The arteries are deep in the flesh,
+but some of the large veins can be seen upon the
+back of the hands.</p>
+
+<p><b>89. Bleeding.</b>&mdash;If a large artery or vein is cut
+there is a great deal of bleeding. You can always
+stop a cut from bleeding by holding it fast between
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+the hands. Do not be afraid of the blood when
+you see any one bleeding, but hold the sides of the
+cut tightly with both of your hands. This will stop
+any bleeding until help comes. You may keep a
+person from bleeding to death by doing this when
+other persons are afraid of the blood.</p>
+
+<p><b>90. Healing cuts.</b>&mdash;When your flesh is cut it
+soon grows together again. The work of the little
+white cells in the blood is to help heal cuts and
+wounds and bruises. These cells are like little
+amebas in the blood. They keep moving around
+with the blood, and now and then burrow outside
+the capillaries to see if all is well. If they find a
+cut, hundreds and thousands rush to the spot at
+once. Some eat up any specks of dirt on the cut.
+Others fit themselves into the sides of the cut and
+grow long and slender, like strings, and so bind the
+two edges of the cut together. In this way all cuts
+are healed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0054-illus" id="i0054-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0054-illus.jpg" width="150" height="102" alt="Bacteria" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Bacteria growing in a kidney and producing
+an abscess (&#215;300).</b><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i> kidney tube.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i> white blood cell attacking bacteria.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>c</i> bacteria.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>d</i> blood vessel of the kidney.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>91. The white blood cells kill disease germs.</b>&mdash;There
+are tiny living beings everywhere in the air,
+and soil, and water. Some of them can grow inside
+a man and make him sick. These tiny things are
+called <i>disease germs</i>. One kind gives a man
+typhoid fever, and another diphtheria. Another
+kind grows on cuts, and sometimes makes them
+very sore. The white cells of the blood are always
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+watching for these enemies, like a cat hunting mice,
+and when they find them they at once try to kill
+them. But sometimes
+the white blood cells
+get killed. Then they
+look like cream in the
+cut. We call this
+creamy liquid <i>matter</i>
+or <i>pus</i>, and say "We
+have caught cold in the
+cut." In most pricks
+and cuts the white
+cells of the blood can
+kill all these enemies
+and also heal the cut.</p>
+
+<p><b>92. Catching cold.</b>&mdash;Sometimes the cold air blows
+on our head and hurts the cells of the nose. If
+there are disease germs in the air, they may grow in
+the injured part of the nose and make us have a
+"cold in the head." Then the white blood cells
+gather at the spot so as to kill the disease germs.
+Also the arteries bring a great deal of blood to the
+nose so as to heal the injured parts. Some of the
+white blood cells and the liquid from the blood run
+out, and we have to blow the nose. The white
+blood cells help to make us well whenever we catch
+a cold or other kind of sickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+        <b>93. Red blood cells.</b>&mdash;The red blood cells are like
+tiny flat plates. They float in the liquid part of the
+blood and make the blood look red. They carry
+air from the lungs to the cells of every part of the
+body, and thus help all the cells to breathe.</p>
+
+<p><b>94. Why the heart beats hard when we run.</b>&mdash;When
+we work hard, the cells of our bodies need
+a great deal of food. So the heart beats much
+harder, and sends them much more blood. We can
+feel our heart beat when we run hard.</p>
+
+<p>When the cells work they get more blood in
+another way. The arteries become larger and hold
+more blood. Then the part looks red and feels
+warm. Thus your face gets red when you run
+hard. This is because your heart and arteries
+bring more blood to feed the working cells.</p>
+
+<p><b>95. Need of a strong heart.</b>&mdash;The heart must
+keep sending blood to feed the cells. If it should
+stop for only a little while, the cells would starve to
+death and we should die. We need strong hearts.
+When we work very hard for a long time, the heart
+gets tired. Then the cells do not get enough food
+and we feel weak all over. Boys ought not to run
+and lift till they are tired out, for this hurts their
+hearts.</p>
+
+<p><b>96. What alcohol does to the blood.</b>&mdash;Alcohol
+hinders the digestion of food. Then too little food
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+will reach the blood, and so the cells of the body
+will get too little. Alcohol does not add strength
+to the body, but it takes it away. It seems to
+make men stronger, for it takes away their tired
+feelings. But it makes them really weaker, for it
+harms the blood.</p>
+
+<p><b>97. How alcohol affects the heart.</b>&mdash;Alcohol at
+first makes the heart beat more strongly and
+quickly, but it tires it out and makes it weaker.
+Then the heart pumps too little blood to the rest
+of the body, and a man is weaker all over.</p>
+
+<p>If a drinker tries to run or work hard, his heart
+may not pump enough food to the working cells
+of his arms and legs. Strong drink takes away a
+man's strength and makes him less able to endure
+a long strain.</p>
+
+<p><b>98. How alcohol harms the arteries.</b>&mdash;Alcohol
+causes the arteries to become larger and to carry
+more blood. Then the face will be red and the
+skin will become warm. This makes a person feel
+well, and he seems to be helped. His blood seems
+to be flowing faster because his face is red. But
+really it is flowing slower.</p>
+
+<p>When the arteries have been made large very
+often, they stay large all the time. A drinker's
+nose is often red from this cause.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol sometimes causes the arteries to become
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+hard, and even to change to a kind of bone. Then
+they cannot change their size to carry just so much
+blood as each part needs.</p>
+
+<p><b>99. How tobacco affects the heart.</b>&mdash;Tobacco weakens
+all the body, but it harms the heart more than
+the rest. It often makes the heart beat slowly at
+one time and fast at another. It weakens the heart
+and keeps it from working harder when the working
+cells need more food. A smoker gets out of
+breath quickly. He cannot run far or work very
+hard. Chewing is a still more harmful form of
+using tobacco. When men train for a game or a
+race they never use tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Boys are not so strong as men, and so tobacco is
+more hurtful to them. Boys are harmed by tobacco
+far more than men. Cigarette smoke harms their
+stomachs and keeps food from their blood. If boys
+smoke, they become pale and weak. The poisonous
+smoke weakens the heart, and they cannot run
+or work so hard as they should. Even if a father
+uses tobacco, he should not allow his boys to use it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Blood is a liquid. It contains many round red
+cells and a few white cells.</p>
+<p>2. Blood contains all kinds of food for the cells
+of the body.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+        3. The blood is kept moving by the heart.</p>
+<p>4. The heart pumps or beats about seventy times
+a minute.</p>
+<p>5. The blood flows through arteries to all parts
+of the body.</p>
+<p>6. The arteries open into the capillaries. Capillaries
+make a network around each cell of
+the body.</p>
+<p>7. Some of the liquid parts of the blood go out
+through the sides of the capillaries and
+become food for the cells of the body.</p>
+<p>8. From the capillaries the blood flows into the
+veins and back to the heart.</p>
+<p>9. Bleeding can be stopped by holding the cut
+tightly between the hands.</p>
+<p>10. The white blood cells grow into the sides of
+cuts, and so heal them. They also guard
+the body against the seeds of many diseases.</p>
+<p>11. The red blood cells carry air to the cells of the
+body.</p>
+<p>12. Alcohol weakens the heart and arteries.</p>
+<p>13. Tobacco harms the heart.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+<h3>BREATHING, HEAT, AND CLOTHING</h3>
+
+<p><b>100. The lungs.</b>&mdash;Our food becomes blood and
+feeds the cells of our body, but we grow only a
+little heavier. What
+becomes of the
+food?</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0059-illus" id="i0059-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0059-illus.jpg" width="150" height="233" alt="The lung" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>The air tubes and lung.</b><br />
+<i>a</i> larynx or voice box.<br />
+<i>b</i> trachea or windpipe.<br />
+<i>d</i> air sacs, each like a tiny frog's lung.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides food, air
+is always getting into
+our bodies. In
+breathing, air passes
+through the nose
+into a tube in the
+neck. This tube is
+called the <i>windpipe</i>.
+You can feel it as a
+pile of hard rings in
+the front part of the
+neck. The windpipe
+divides into many
+branches. At the
+end of its smallest
+branches are little
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+bags or sacs. The branches and the sacs make
+the two lungs. So a lung is a soft and spongy
+piece of flesh, and can be blown
+up like a rubber bag. A frog's
+lung is a single, thin bag, about
+half an inch across it. Each little
+sac of a man's lung is like a tiny
+frog's lung.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="i0060a-illus" id="i0060a-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0060a-illus.jpg" width="150" height="273" alt="Lung" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A frog's lung (&#215;4).</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>101. The diaphragm.</b>&mdash;The lungs
+fill the upper part of the body just
+below the neck. They are covered
+by the bony ribs, and rest
+upon a broad muscle. This muscle
+is called the <i>diaphragm</i>. It divides
+the inside of the body into
+two parts. The upper part
+is the <i>chest</i>, and holds the
+heart and lungs. The lower
+part is the <i>abdomen</i>, and
+holds the stomach, intestine,
+and liver, and a few other
+parts.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0060b-illus" id="i0060b-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0060b-illus.jpg" width="150" height="189" alt="Internal parts" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>The parts inside the body.</b></p>
+<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption">
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>a</i> lungs.</td><td class="c33"><i>d</i> stomach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>b</i> heart.</td><td class="c33"><i>e</i> liver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>c</i> diaphragm.</td><td class="c33"><i>f</i> intestine.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>102. Breathing.</b>&mdash;When
+the diaphragm lowers itself,
+or the ribs are raised, the
+chest is made larger. Then
+the air rushes through the
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+nose and swells out the lungs to the size of the chest.
+This is taking a breath. Then the chest becomes
+smaller again, and blows the air out. A man
+breathes about eighteen times a minute. He does
+not seem to rest in breathing, but as he works only
+when he takes in breath, he rests one half of the
+time.</p>
+
+<p><b>103. How air gets into the blood.</b>&mdash;After the
+blood has been around the body through the arteries
+and capillaries and veins, the heart sends
+every drop to the lungs before it sends it out to
+feed the cells again. The blood flows through
+little capillaries upon the sides of the air sacs.
+There the red blood cells take up some of the
+air, and carry it with them. When they have a
+load of air, they become of a brighter red color.
+The blood in the arteries on its way to the cells
+is bright red.</p>
+
+<p><b>104. How the cells get air.</b>&mdash;When the blood
+reaches the capillaries around the cells of the body,
+the red blood cells give up some of the air to the
+cells. Thus each cell of the body gets some air,
+and so it breathes. The cells cannot reach the
+air themselves, and so the red blood cells bring it
+to them. We breathe so as to supply the cells
+with air.</p>
+
+<p><b>105. What burning is.</b>&mdash;When meat is put into a
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+hot stove it quickly burns, and passes off in smoke,
+and leaves only a little ashes. The ashes are the
+mineral parts of the meat. If the fire is very hot,
+you cannot see the smoke. The burning of the
+meat makes heat. Heat in a steam engine makes
+the machine do work.</p>
+
+<p>Every fire must have plenty of air. If air is shut
+off, the fire goes out. When meat burns, the air
+unites with the meat and makes smoke, and ashes,
+and gives out heat. Air unites with something in
+every fire.</p>
+
+<p><b>106. Burning inside the body.</b>&mdash;In every part of
+a man's body a very slow fire is always burning.
+The blood brings to the cells food from the intestine,
+and air from the lungs. The food and air
+join in a burning. The smoke goes back to the
+blood and is carried to the lungs, and breathed out
+with the breath. The ashes, also, go back to the
+blood, and are carried away by the skin and kidneys.
+The burning makes no flame or light for it
+goes on very slowly. You cannot see the smoke,
+but you can feel the warmth of the burning. Some
+of the heat is turned to power, and gives the body
+strength to do work. The body is like a steam
+engine. It burns up all its food.</p>
+
+<p><b>107. How the body is warmed.</b>&mdash;The body is
+warmed by the slow burning in the cells. This
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+burning keeps the body always at the same warmth.
+On a hot summer's day you feel warmer than on a
+cold snowy morning. But your body is no warmer.
+Only your skin is warmer.</p>
+
+<p>If the skin is warm, the whole body feels warm,
+but if the skin is cold, the whole body feels cold.
+On a hot summer's day the heat is kept in the skin,
+and we feel warm. On a cold winter's day a great
+deal of heat passes off from the skin, and we feel
+cold. Yet our bodies have the same warmth in
+winter as in summer.</p>
+
+<p><b>108. How the sweat keeps us cool.</b>&mdash;When your
+hands or feet are wet, they are cold. On a hot
+summer's day, your body becomes wet with sweat.
+This cools the body as if water were poured over it.
+So sweating keeps you from getting too warm, and
+from being sunstruck.</p>
+
+<p>We are sweating all the time, but the sweat
+usually dries as fast as it forms. When we are
+too warm it comes out faster than it dries. On a
+winter's day we sweat only a little, and so we save
+the heat. But more heat passes off from the skin
+into the cold air, and we do not grow warmer.</p>
+
+<p><b>109. Clothes.</b>&mdash;We wear clothes to keep the heat
+in the body. They do not make heat, but they
+keep it from going off. Wool and flannel clothes
+keep the heat in better than cotton. We wear
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+woolen in the winter, and cotton in the summer.</p>
+
+<p>Fur keeps in heat the best of all. In very cold
+lands only fur is worn.</p>
+
+<p>Linen lets heat out easily. It makes good summer
+clothes.</p>
+
+<p><b>110. Where to wear the most clothes.</b>&mdash;The face
+and hands are kept warm by the blood and we do
+not cover them except in the coldest weather. Our
+feet are more tender and need to be covered enough
+to keep them warm. We ought to wear thick-soled
+shoes or rubbers in damp weather so as to keep
+the feet dry and warm. We ought to dry the stockings
+every night, for they will get wet with sweat.</p>
+
+<p>The trunk of the body needs the most clothes.
+The legs ought to be kept warm, too. If the dress
+reaches only to the knee, thick underclothing is
+needed for the lower part of the leg.</p>
+
+<p>Do not keep one part of the body warm while
+another part remains cold. It is wrong to bundle
+the neck or wear too much clothing over any part
+of the body. It is also wrong to wear too little and
+be cold.</p>
+
+<p>When you are moving about, you need less clothing
+than when you are sitting still. When you
+have worked until you are very warm, it is wrong
+to stop to cool off. When you stop, you ought to
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+put on a thick coat or else go into the house. If
+you do not, you may be chilled and made weak so
+that you can easily catch cold or some other disease.</p>
+
+<p><b>111. Heating houses.</b>&mdash;In winter our bodies cannot
+make heat fast enough to keep us warm unless
+we put on a great deal of clothing. So we warm
+our houses. Our grandfathers used fireplaces, but
+these did not give out much heat. People now
+use stoves, but some use a furnace in the cellar,
+or heat the rooms by steam. Some use kerosene
+stoves, but they are not so good, for they make the
+air bad. A room should feel neither too warm nor
+too cold. It is of the right warmth when we do not
+notice either heat or cold.</p>
+
+<p><b>112. Change of air.</b>&mdash;After air has been breathed
+it is no longer fit for use. In an hour or two you
+would breathe all the air of a small room once if it
+were not changed. When the air is partly used,
+you feel dull and short of breath, and your head
+aches. As soon as you get out of doors, you feel
+better. Foul air of houses and meeting places often
+contains disease germs. It is necessary to change
+the air of all rooms often. You can do this by
+opening a door or window. It is a good plan to
+sleep with your bedroom window open, so as to get
+good air all night.</p>
+
+<p>Air passes in and out of every crack in the windows
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+and doors. If only one person is in a room,
+this may make enough change of air. If many persons
+are in a room, you will need to change the air
+in other ways. You can do this by opening a door
+or window. Do not let the cold air blow upon any
+one, for it may help to make him catch cold, if the
+air of the room is impure. If we lower a window
+from the top, warm impure air may pass out above
+it without making a draft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0066-illus" id="i0066-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0066-illus.jpg" width="500" height="436" alt="Room ventilation" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>Diagram of the natural ventilation of a room.</b><br />
+The arrows show the direction of the air currents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+        You need fresh air at night as much as in the
+daytime. You need not be afraid of the night air,
+for it is good and pure like the day air. You
+ought to sleep with your window open a little.
+You ought to open the windows wide every morning
+and air your bed well. At night you ought to
+take off all your clothes and put on a night-dress.
+Then hang your clothes up to air and dry.</p>
+
+<p><b>113. When to air a room.</b>&mdash;When you first enter
+a room full of bad air it smells musty and unpleasant.
+But after you have been in the room
+a while, you get used to it. If, however, you go
+out of doors a minute and then come back, you
+will smell the bad air again. If the air smells bad,
+open a door or window until it is sweet again.</p>
+
+<p><b>114. How to breathe.</b>&mdash;When you run hard, the
+cells of your body use up all the air, and then you
+feel short of breath. While you run, burning goes
+on faster, and you feel warmer. You can work
+harder and longer if you can breathe in a great
+deal of air. You will also feel better and stronger
+for it. Then if you are sick, you will be able to
+get well more quickly. You ought to know how
+to breathe right.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, you ought to breathe through your nose.
+Even when you run, you ought to keep your mouth
+closed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+        <i>Second</i>, you should try to breathe deeply. You
+should take a very deep breath often, and hold it as
+long as you can. By practice you can learn to hold
+it a full minute.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, you ought to run, or do some hard work,
+every day. When you get short of breath, you will
+have to breathe more deeply. After a while you
+may be able to run a half mile, or even a mile, without
+getting out of breath. But do not get tired out
+in your run, for this will harm you.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, you must sit and stand with your shoulders
+back, and your chest thrown forward. A
+round-shouldered boy cannot have large lungs or
+be long winded.</p>
+
+<p>By breathing right, you can make your lungs
+very much larger and stronger.</p>
+
+<p><b>115. The voice.</b>&mdash;We talk by means of the breath.
+At the upper part of the windpipe is a small box.
+Its front corner can be felt in the neck, just under
+the chin, and is called the <i>Adam's apple</i>. Two
+thin, strong covers slide across the top of the box,
+and can be made to meet in the middle. The
+covers have sharp edges. When they are near
+together, and air is breathed out between them, a
+sound is made. This sound is the <i>voice</i>. The
+tongue and lips change it to form <i>words</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>116. Care of the voice.</b>&mdash;The voice shows our
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+feelings, even if we do not tell them in words. We
+can form a habit of speaking in a loud and harsh
+tone, as if we were always angry, or we can speak
+gently and kindly. We shall be more pleasant
+company to others if we are careful always to speak
+in gentle but distinct tones.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 550px;">
+<a name="i0069-illus" id="i0069-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0069-illus.jpg" width="500" height="153" alt="Larynx views" title=""/>
+<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption">
+<tr><td class="c11"><b>Top view of the larynx, with the<br />vocal cords closed, as in speaking.</b></td>
+        <td class="c33"><b>Top view of the larynx, with the<br />vocal cords open, as in breathing.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i> epiglottis.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i> vocal cords.</td>
+        <td class="c33">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i> epiglottis.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i> vocal cords.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shouting strains the voice and spoils its tone for
+singing. Reading until the throat is tired makes
+the voice weak. Singing or shouting in a cold or
+damp air is also bad for the voice. Breathing
+through the mouth is the worst of all for the
+voice.</p>
+
+<p><b>117. What becomes of alcohol in the body.</b>&mdash;When
+alcohol is taken up by the blood, it is carried to the
+liver. The liver tries to get rid of it by taking
+some air from the blood and burning it up, just as
+it burns the real food of the body. But this takes
+some air from the cells of the body. Then they do
+not burn as they should.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+        When a stove gets too little air through its draft,
+it makes an unpleasant smoke, and cools off. Just
+so, when the cells of the body do not burn as they
+should, they produce the wrong kind of smoke and
+ashes. This poisons the body and makes men sick.
+The most of the poisoning of alcohol is due to
+these new poisons.</p>
+
+<p>When alcohol takes air from the cells of the
+body, they do not get enough air. Then they are
+like a short-winded boy, and do not do their work
+well. In this way alcohol makes the body weak.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol does not cease to be harmful because it
+is burned up in the body. It is harmful just because
+it burns so quickly. Using alcohol in the body is
+like trying to burn kerosene in a coal stove. The
+body is not made to burn alcohol any more than a
+coal stove is made to burn kerosene. You can
+burn a little kerosene in a coal stove if you are
+very careful. Just so, men can burn alcohol in
+their bodies. But kerosene will always smoke and
+clog up the stove, and may explode and kill some
+one. So alcohol in the body burns quickly and
+forms poisons. It always harms the body and
+may destroy life at once.</p>
+
+<p><b>118. Alcohol and the lungs.</b>&mdash;If you run a long
+race, your lungs will need a great deal of air. If
+you take strong drink, the alcohol will use up
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+much of the air, and you will not have enough
+to use on your run. So you will feel short of
+breath, and will surely lose the race. You cannot
+drink and be long-winded.</p>
+
+<p>Two drinks of whisky will use up as much air
+as the body uses in an hour. It would be easy to
+smother a person with strong drink. Drunken
+persons are really smothered; they often die because
+of the failure of their breathing, even while
+their heart is able to beat well.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol often causes the lungs to become thickened.
+Then air cannot easily pass through their
+sides, and a person suffers from shortness of breath.
+Sometimes these persons cannot lie down at all,
+but must sit up to catch their breath.</p>
+
+<p><b>119. Drinking and taking cold.</b>&mdash;A strong, healthy
+man can stand a great deal of cold and wet. If he
+breathes deeply in his work, all the cells of his body
+get plenty of air, and if he eats good food, the cells
+get plenty to eat. Then it will take a great deal to
+harm them. But alcohol hinders the digestion of
+their food, and also takes away their air. So the
+cells are both starved and smothered, and are easily
+hurt. Then a little cold and wet may do great
+harm to his body, for a drinker cannot stand bad
+weather or hard work so well as he could if he
+should leave drink alone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+        Men often drink to keep themselves from taking
+cold. The alcohol really makes them more liable
+to take cold. It causes the blood to flow near the
+surface of the skin; there it is easily cooled, and
+the drinker soon becomes chilled; then he feels
+colder than ever. The cold harms the cells of his
+body, and then the white blood cells cannot easily
+fight disease germs. For this reason a drinker
+easily takes cold and other diseases.</p>
+
+<p><b>120. Alcohol lessens the warmth of the body.</b>&mdash;Alcohol
+causes the blood tubes in the skin to become
+larger. Then more blood will touch the cool
+air, and the body will become cooler. But because
+more warm blood flows through the skin, a man
+feels warmer. But he is really colder. Alcohol
+makes men less able to stand the cold. Travelers
+in cold lands know this and do not use it.</p>
+
+<p><b>121. How tobacco affects breathing.</b>&mdash;We would
+not live in a room with a smoking stove. But
+tobacco smoke is more harmful than smoke from
+a stove, for it has nicotine in it. Tobacco smoke
+in a room may make a child sick.</p>
+
+<p>Cigarette smoking is very harmful to the lungs,
+for the smoke is drawn deeply into them, and more
+of the poison is likely to stay in the body. The
+smoke of tobacco burns the throat and causes a
+cough. This harms the voice.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Air is always being breathed into little sacs
+inside the body. The sacs form the lungs.</p>
+<p>2. The red blood cells pass through the lungs,
+and take little loads of air. They then
+carry the air through the arteries to the
+capillaries.</p>
+<p>3. In the capillaries the air leaves the red blood
+cells, and goes to the cells of the body.</p>
+<p>4. The air unites with the cells, and slowly burns
+them to smoke and ashes.</p>
+<p>5. The smoke goes back to the blood, and is
+carried to the lungs and given off by the
+breath. The ashes go back to the blood
+and pass off through the skin and the kidneys.</p>
+<p>6. The burning in the cells makes heat.</p>
+<p>7. Some of the heat is changed to power, as it
+is in a steam engine.</p>
+<p>8. The heat also warms the body. It keeps it
+at the same warmth on a cold day as on
+a hot day.</p>
+<p>9. We wear clothes to keep the heat in, and so
+to keep us warm.</p>
+<p>10. The air of a room needs to be changed often.
+It is made stuffy by our breath.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+        11. The voice is made by the breath in a box in
+the neck.</p>
+<p>12. Alcohol uses air belonging to the cells of the
+body.</p>
+<p>13. Tobacco smoke has the same poisons as tobacco.
+It can poison the whole body through
+the lungs.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+<h3>THE SKIN AND KIDNEYS</h3>
+
+<p><b>122. Waste matters.</b>&mdash;The food is burned in the
+cells. As this burning goes on, the <i>smoke</i> goes off
+by the lungs and the
+unburned substances,
+the <i>ashes</i>, go off by
+the skin and kidneys.
+The ashes are
+mostly the minerals
+of the cells, but there
+are also some from
+the burned albumin.
+All these go back to
+the blood and are
+carried to the skin
+and kidneys.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0075-illus" id="i0075-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0075-illus.jpg" width="150" height="178" alt="Skin" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>The skin (&#215;100).</b><br />
+<i>a</i>, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> epidermis.<br />
+<i>d</i> and <i>g</i> tough and thick part of skin.<br />
+<i>e</i> sweat gland.<br />
+<i>f</i> blood tubes.<br />
+<i>h</i> fat pockets.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>123. The skin.</b>&mdash;The
+skin covers the
+whole body. It is
+strong and keeps the body from being hurt.</p>
+
+<p><b>124. The epithelium.</b>&mdash;The skin is covered with
+a thin layer of cells like fine scales. These scales
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+are called <i>epithelium</i>, or <i>epidermis</i>. They have no
+blood tubes or nerves and so have no feeling.
+You can run a pin under them without feeling
+pain. They are always growing on their under
+side and wearing off on their upper side. They
+keep the nerves and blood tubes of the skin from
+being hurt.</p>
+
+<p><b>125. The nails.</b>&mdash;The top scales of epithelium
+at the ends of the fingers become matted together
+to make the nails. The nails keep the ends of
+the fingers from being hurt. They can also be
+used to hold or cut small things. The new parts
+of the nails form under the skin and push down
+the older parts. So the nail grows farther than
+the end of the finger and needs to be cut off.
+Biting the nails leaves their ends rough. Then
+they may catch in the clothes and tear into the
+tender flesh. We ought to keep the nails cut
+even with the ends of the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The nails are not poisonous, but the dirt under
+them may be. We ought to keep them clean.
+Clean nails are one mark of a careful boy or girl.</p>
+
+<p><b>126. Hair.</b>&mdash;Some of the scales of epithelium
+over some parts of the body dip into tiny holes
+in the skin. In each hole they become matted
+together to form a <i>hair</i>. Fine short hair grows
+on almost every part of the body. On the top
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+of the head it grows long and thick. When boys
+become men, it also grows long upon their faces.
+The skin pours out a kind of oil to keep the hair
+soft and glossy.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0077-illus" id="i0077-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0077-illus.jpg" width="150" height="153" alt="Hair" title=""/>
+<p class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>A hair (&#215;200).</b><br />
+<i>a</i> the surface of the skin.<br />
+<i>b</i> a hair.<br />
+<i>c</i> an oil gland.<br />
+<i>d</i> a muscle to make the hair stand on end.<br />
+<i>e</i> and <i>g</i>, the growing cells of the hair.<br />
+<i>f</i> fat in the skin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>127. Care of
+the hair.</b>&mdash;The
+hair may become
+dirty like
+any other part
+of the body.
+Brushing it
+takes out a
+great deal of
+dirt, but you
+should also
+wash it once a
+week.</p>
+
+<p>The oil in
+the skin ought
+to be enough
+for the hair.
+Hair oils do not do the hair any good. If you
+wet the hair too often, you may make it stiff
+and take away its gloss. It is best to comb the
+hair dry. Brush it so as to spread the oil of
+the skin. Hair dyes are poisonous, and ought not
+to be used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+        <b>128. The sweat or perspiration.</b>&mdash;The scales of
+epithelium dip into the skin and there line tiny
+tubes. The tubes form the <i>sweat</i>, or <i>perspiration</i>,
+out of the blood. The tubes are too fine to be
+seen, but they are upon almost every part of the
+body. They take the ashes or other waste matter
+or poisons from the blood and wash them out of
+the tubes with the perspiration. So the perspiration
+has two uses. First, it takes heat away from
+the body (see &sect; <a href="#Page_63">108</a>). Second, it gets rid of the
+waste matters or ashes of the body. It has very
+little of these at any one time, but in a day it gets
+rid of a great deal.</p>
+
+<p><b>129. The kidneys.</b>&mdash;The kidneys are close to the
+backbone, below the heart. They are made of
+tiny tubes much like the sweat tubes in the skin.
+The tubes take ashes and other waste matters from
+the blood, also a great deal of water. They also take
+away poisons and disease germs when we are sick.
+The kidneys take away about as much water as the
+skin, but they get rid of very much more poisons
+and waste matters than the skin does. If our kidneys
+should stop their work, we should soon die.</p>
+
+<p><b>130. Need of bathing.</b>&mdash;When the perspiration
+dries from the skin, it leaves the waste and poisons
+behind. We cannot always see the dried matters,
+but they always have an unpleasant odor. We
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+should bathe often enough to keep our body from
+having an unpleasant smell. We should wash the
+whole body with soap and hot water at least once a
+week in winter and more often than that in summer.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason for bathing is to wash disease
+germs from the body. Most dirt has disease germs
+in it. Disease germs also float in the dust of the
+air and stick to our skin when we go into a dusty
+room. If our skin is dirty, some of the germs may
+be carried into our flesh when our skin is pricked,
+or scratched, or cut. We sometimes catch boils, or
+erysipelas, or lockjaw, from very little wounds in a
+dirty skin. Cleanliness of our skin helps to keep
+us from catching diseases.</p>
+
+<p><b>131. Cold baths.</b>&mdash;Sometimes we bathe when we
+are clean so as to get refreshed. If we bathe in
+cold water, we feel cold at first. In a little while
+we feel warm again. Then we feel stronger, and
+refreshed for work. If we stay in the bath too long,
+we become cold again and feel weak. When boys
+go in swimming, they ought to come out before
+they begin to feel cold.</p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan to take a cold bath every morning
+when you get up, even if you use only a wash-bowl
+with a little water. It will take only a few
+minutes, but will keep you clean and make you feel
+more like doing your day's work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+        <b>132. A fair skin.</b>&mdash;We must wash often, to make
+the skin fair and smooth. Use enough good soap
+to keep the skin clean.</p>
+
+<p>If you eat as you should, and digest the food
+well, your skin will have the least amount of waste
+to give off. Then it will look well. A bad looking
+skin is due to bad food and to bad digestion. If
+you do not digest your food well, you cannot have
+a fair skin.</p>
+
+<p>Face paint and powder make the skin look worse,
+for they hinder perspiration. Nothing of that sort
+will do the skin any good. You must eat as you
+should, and you must keep clean. Then your skin
+will be clear.</p>
+
+<p><b>133. Washing clothes.</b>&mdash;Our clothes rub off a
+great deal of the perspiration and waste. They
+become soiled. A great deal of dirt also gets upon
+the sheets of our beds. Our clothes need to be
+washed as well as our bodies when they are soiled.
+Air and the sun as well as water destroy the waste
+of the body. Our clothes need to be aired at night,
+and the bed and bedroom should be aired through
+the day.</p>
+
+<p><b>134. Slops.</b>&mdash;After water has been used to wash
+our body or our clothes it is dirty and is not fit to
+be used again. It must not be thrown where it can
+run into a well. If a person has typhoid fever or
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+cholera or other catching disease, the water may
+carry germs of the disease to the well, and so other
+persons may get it. Slops from the house should
+not be poured out at the back door, but they should
+be carried away from the house. In cities the slops
+are poured into large pipes and tunnels underground.
+These pipes are called <i>sewers</i>. They
+empty outside the city.</p>
+
+<p><b>135. Alcohol and the skin.</b>&mdash;Alcohol interferes
+with digestion and causes biliousness. This makes
+the skin rough and pimply. A drinker seldom has
+a clear skin.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol causes the arteries of the face to become
+enlarged. Then the face is red. A red nose is one
+of the signs of drinking. When a person uses
+strong drink he is often uncleanly. He does not
+care for the bad looks of his clothes and skin, and
+so he lets them stay dirty. This harms the skin
+and makes it look bad. The dirt also poisons the
+skin and may itself be a cause of sickness.</p>
+
+<p>Because alcohol poisons the whole body and
+often produces kidney diseases, the drinker is apt
+to catch other diseases. Drinkers are the first to
+catch such diseases as smallpox and yellow fever.
+Where there are great numbers of cases, the
+drinkers are the first and often the only persons
+to die. This is because their skin and kidneys
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+have been harmed by the alcohol and cannot throw
+off the poisons of the disease. Any kind of sickness
+will be worse in a drinker. Surgeons do not
+like to operate on drinkers, for their wounds do not
+heal so quickly as in other people.</p>
+
+<p>When there is too little air, a fire burns slower,
+and makes a blacker smoke and more ashes. Alcohol
+takes some air from the cells of the body. So
+they burn with smoke and ashes of the wrong kind.
+The skin has to work harder to get rid of these,
+and sometimes it cannot do it well. Then the body
+is poisoned. The alcohol is burned and cannot
+poison the body any more. But it causes the body
+to make poisons, and so it is to blame. The poisons
+do great harm to the skin and kidneys. Alcohol
+causes more kidney disease than all other things
+put together.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Little tubes in the skin are always giving off
+ashes and waste matters in the perspiration.</p>
+<p>2. Perspiration dries on the skin. So the skin
+must be washed often.</p>
+<p>3. The kidneys get rid of more water and waste
+matter than the skin does.</p>
+<p>4. Perspiration also gets upon the clothes and bed
+sheets. These must be washed too.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+        5. Dirty water from washing should be thrown out
+where it cannot run into a well.</p>
+<p>6. The skin is thick and strong and keeps the body
+from being hurt.</p>
+<p>7. The skin is covered with a layer of scales. The
+scales have no feeling.</p>
+<p>8. The scales form the nails on the ends of the
+fingers.</p>
+<p>9. The scales also form the hair.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+<h3>THE NERVES, SPINAL CORD, AND BRAIN</h3>
+
+<p><b>136. Need of nerves.</b>&mdash;The cells of the mouth,
+stomach, and intestine digest food; the cells of
+the liver change the food to blood; the cells of the
+heart pump the blood to feed all the cells of the
+body; the red blood cells carry air for the cells to
+breathe; and the cells of the skin and kidneys
+carry away the waste of the rest of the cells. Each
+set of cells works for all the rest. If the cells of the
+body were only tied together, each one would do as
+it pleased, and no two would work together. But
+something tells each cell of the body to work with
+the others. The cells all obey the mind. A tiny
+thread goes to each cell of the body. Each thread
+is a <i>nerve</i>. The mind and the cells signal to each
+other over the nerves. By means of the nerves the
+mind makes the cells work together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0084-illus" id="i0084-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0084-illus.jpg" width="500" height="75" alt="A nerve" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>A nerve thread (&#215;400).</b><br /><br />
+<i>a</i> central conducting fiber.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i> covering of fat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0085-illus" id="i0085-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0085-illus.jpg" width="150" height="131" alt="A sliced nerve" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A thin slice for the end of a cut<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nerve (&#215;200).</b><br />
+<i>a</i> nerve thread.<br />
+<i>b</i> connective tissue binding the<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;threads into a cord.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+        <b>137. Nerve messages.</b>&mdash;The nerve threads run in
+bundles and form nerves large enough to be seen.
+The mind uses the nerves to tell the cells to do
+work. It tells the muscles
+to move the arms and legs.
+It tells the heart to beat
+and stomach to pour out
+gastric juice; and it tells
+each of the cells to eat.</p>
+
+<p>The cells also send word
+over the nerves to the mind.
+They tell the mind when
+they are touching anything,
+and whether it is hard, or
+smooth, or hot, and many other things about it.
+The cells also tell the mind if they need more
+food, or are tired.</p>
+
+<p>The nerves are always carrying messages to and
+from the cells. The cells depend upon these messages
+to tell them when and how to work. If the
+nerve of any part of the body is hurt or cut, we
+cannot feel with the part or move it, and its cells
+do not act in the right way. We do not feel the
+nerves while they are carrying the messages. We
+wish the cells of the arm to work, and they work,
+but we do not feel the message as it goes from the
+mind to the cells of the arm.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0086-illus" id="i0086-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0086-illus.jpg" width="150" height="96" alt="The spinal cord" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A thin slice from the spinal cord with the<br />
+cells and nerves magnified 200 diameters.</b><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i> cells in the gray matter.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b</i> fibers in the gray matter.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>c</i> nerve threads in the white matter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+        <b>138. The spinal cord.</b>&mdash;The nerves start inside the
+backbone. The backbone is hollow. It has a soft,
+white cord inside, as
+thick as the little finger.
+Part of the mind lives
+in this cord. The cord
+is called the <i>spinal cord</i>.
+Some of the nerves
+start from cells of the
+spinal cord. These
+cells send word to the
+muscles to move and
+to all the cells of the body to eat and grow. They
+also send word to the arteries to carry the right
+amount of blood to the cells.</p>
+
+<p>From the nerves the spinal cord gets word when
+something hurts any part of the body. You may
+put your finger on a sharp pin. The spinal cord
+feels the prick, and quickly sends word to snatch
+the finger away. So the finger is taken away
+before you really feel the prick. When some one
+sticks a pin into you, you cannot help jumping.
+This is because the spinal cord sends word for you
+to jump away from the pin before it can harm you
+much. Thus the spinal cord keeps the body from
+being hurt. It acts while we are asleep as well as
+when we are awake.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+        <b>139. Need of a spinal cord.</b>&mdash;We do not feel the
+spinal cord acting, and we cannot keep it from acting.
+It tells the cells when to eat and grow, and it
+tells the heart and arteries how much blood to send
+to each cell. If we had to think about feeding an
+arm or a leg, we should sometimes forget it, but the
+spinal cord keeps doing it without our thinking of
+it. We put food into the body, and the spinal cord
+tells the cells to use it. If it stops acting for an
+instant, the cells stop work and we die. We cannot
+change its action by any amount of thinking.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0087-illus" id="i0087-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0087-illus.jpg" width="500" height="547" alt="The human head" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>Regions of the head and action of the different parts<br />
+of the brain.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+        <b>140. The brain.</b>&mdash;The nerves of the body go to
+the brain as well as to the spinal cord. The brain
+lies in the top of the head. A hard cover of bone
+keeps it from getting hurt. It is a soft white mass,
+and weighs about three pounds. Its outside is made
+of cells, while its inside is the very beginning of the
+nerves of the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>141. The mind.</b>&mdash;The mind is the real man. It
+is the thinking part of himself. It lives in the body
+and works by means of the cells of the brain. If
+these cells are hurt or killed, the body seems to
+have no mind, but yet it may keep on living. If all
+the mind leaves the body, the body is dead.</p>
+
+<p>By means of the mind we feel, and know, and
+think. The mind uses each part of the brain for
+only one kind of work.</p>
+
+<p><b>142. The senses.</b>&mdash;The cells of the body send
+word to the brain over the nerves. The eye tells
+of sight, the ear of sounds, the nose of odors, the
+mouth of tastes, and the skin of feelings. All these
+messages go to the back part of the brain. They
+tell the mind of the news outside of the body. We
+get all our knowledge in this way. The cells also
+tell of their need of food and drink by means of
+the feelings of hunger and thirst.</p>
+
+<p><b>143. Motion.</b>&mdash;The mind in the cells of the top
+part of the head sends the orders for moving the
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+different parts of the body. When we wish to
+run, the mind in the top of our head sends an
+order over our nerves to our legs, and they carry
+the body where we wish. If the top part of your
+brain is hurt, as by a blow, it cannot send orders
+to move, but you will lie stunned.</p>
+
+<p><b>144. Memory.</b>&mdash;The mind lays away all its messages,
+and often looks them over again. These old
+messages are called <i>memories</i>. They always stay
+with the brain, and the mind can call them up at
+any time. Our memories make our knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Every act of the mind leaves some mark on the
+memory. We may not be able to bring it back
+when we want to, but it will come back some time.
+Every bad word and evil deed will tend to come
+back and make us bad again. Every good work
+and word will leave its memory and make us
+better. We ought to fill our minds with good
+memories.</p>
+
+<p><b>145. Thinking.</b>&mdash;The brain also thinks. Thinking
+is different from feeling and from moving, but
+we can think about our feelings and about our
+movements. The brain just back of the forehead
+does all our thinking. A dog has only a little
+forehead, and cannot think much. But the rest
+of its brain is large, for it can see and hear and
+run as well as a man. A baby can see and hear
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+and move, but it cannot think until it is taught
+how. Boys and girls go to school to learn to think.
+Thinking is work, just as truly as running is work.
+At school, no one can learn to think without working.
+Looking at things and hearing some one
+talk about them will not make you a strong-minded
+man, but thinking about these things will. Boys
+and girls should study and think, as well as look
+around and listen.</p>
+
+<p><b>146. How thought rules the body.</b>&mdash;We are
+always feeling and moving. We often do these
+things without trying, but we must make ourselves
+think. We can make our bodies move, or keep
+still, and we can keep from too much feeling. Our
+thoughts direct our natural desires to move and
+feel. In an animal, the feelings and movements
+direct the thoughts. When men let their feelings
+rule their thoughts, they are like animals. When
+the thoughts control the feelings and acts, we are
+men. If you get angry and cry, when you hurt
+your finger, then you are like an animal; but if
+you think about it and control your feelings, you
+are behaving like a strong and noble man. The
+thought part of the brain ought to rule all the
+rest.</p>
+
+<p><b>147. Sleep.</b>&mdash;Most of the brain does its work
+without our knowing it, but we know when we
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+think. The thinking part of the brain gets tired,
+like any other part of the body. When it stops
+work, we are asleep.</p>
+
+<p>We must give the brain a rest in sleep, just as
+we must rest an arm or a leg. We ought to give
+it regular rest. Every night we ought to go to
+bed early. Then we shall be ready to get up early
+and shall feel like working. Boys and girls need
+nine or ten hours' sleep each day. When they
+are grown, they need seven or eight hours' sleep
+each day.</p>
+
+<p>The spinal cord and some parts of the brain
+must always stay awake to make the cells of the
+body eat and grow. When we are asleep, they
+must be wide awake, and must repair the worn-out
+parts. They do not seem to rest at all. If they
+rested for any length of time, then the lungs, heart,
+stomach and all other parts of the body would stop
+work, and we should die. But they really rest a part
+of the time. Like the heart, they act for a second,
+and then stop for a second. They seem to act all
+the time, but in all they rest half the time.</p>
+
+<p><b>148. Worry.</b>&mdash;The mind can do a great deal of
+work, if it gets good sleep. If a person gets
+enough sleep and rest, he cannot harm his mind
+by hard work. Sometimes the mind is troubled
+and worried over a danger or a loss. Then
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+it cannot rest, but soon wears itself out. Worry is
+far more tiresome than hard work. By an effort,
+we can keep from worrying. It never does us
+good to worry, and we ought to keep from it.</p>
+
+<p><b>149. Nervousness.</b>&mdash;The thoughts are able to
+rule all the rest of the mind. They can keep us
+from feeling ill-tempered when we cannot have our
+own way. Sometimes a little unpleasant feeling
+makes us very unhappy, and keeps us from thinking
+about our work. A little noise or pain keeps
+some children from study, while others can bear
+a great deal without being disturbed by it. Some
+persons jump at a little noise, and are afraid of
+a tiny bug or mouse. This is because their feelings
+rule their thoughts. Such persons are called
+<i>nervous</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A nervous person is very uncomfortable and
+makes others so too. Yet any one can get over the
+habit of being nervous, if he will try. You ought
+not to laugh at a nervous person if he is afraid
+of some little thing while you are not. You should
+help him to get over his nervousness and to become
+brave.</p>
+
+<p><b>150. Fear.</b>&mdash;Some persons are always brave. In
+danger they calmly stop to think, and then know
+how to save themselves. A timid person does not
+think, but rushes where his feelings lead. When
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+a crowd is in danger, all will rush to do one thing.
+All will run for a door, and perhaps tread on one
+another. Then some one will surely be hurt. At
+a fire, or in any other danger, you should always
+stop to think how to act. If you rush with the
+crowd, you may be hurt. You will be more likely
+to be safe, if you stay away from them. Then, if
+help comes, you will be able to receive it. Besides,
+if you are cool and brave, you will help others
+around you to be brave too.</p>
+
+<p><b>151. Fire drill.</b>&mdash;In schools the children are
+taught how to go out of the building when there is
+a fire. A bell is struck when the children do not
+expect it. Then every child must leave his seat at
+once and march out of the building. The bell is
+struck every few days. Then, when the bell really
+sounds for a fire, the children know how to march
+out quickly, and so they learn to be brave.</p>
+
+<p>By training we can learn to be brave at all times.
+We fear many harmless things, and in many cases
+do not fear real dangers. We are liable to be hurt
+at any time. We are more liable to be hurt by a
+horse when we are out driving than we are by the
+dark. Yet we do not fear the horse, while some do
+fear the dark. We ought to learn to think, so as to
+control our fear.</p>
+
+<p>Some are afraid of the dark, some are frightened
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+by ghost stories, and others expect to see a wild
+animal jump from behind every bush. No one
+fears these things unless he has been told about
+them. We ought to be careful not to tell children
+of these things. We ought to teach them to control
+their fear.</p>
+
+<p><b>152. Habit.</b>&mdash;After we have thought about a
+thing a few times, its hold on our memory becomes
+strong, and leads us to think about it often. When
+we have done a thing a few times, we are likely to
+do it again without knowing it. We call this doing
+things over again <i>habit</i>. When we once form a
+habit, we find it very hard to break. We can form
+habits of doing right or of doing wrong. We can
+get into the habit of swearing or of drinking by
+doing these things a few times. Then we shall do
+these things when we do not want to. When a
+drinker begins, he does not expect to keep on
+drinking. But his habit makes him drink, and he
+cannot help it. We should be careful not to do
+bad things, for we easily form the habit of doing
+them.</p>
+
+<p><b>153. Good habits.</b>&mdash;We can form habits of doing
+right. We can speak kindly and be generous.
+Then we shall do these things as easily as others
+get cross. After a person has tried to do good a
+few times, he will find it much easier to do good.
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+Then he will speak kindly and give generously just
+as easily as others get angry and keep their good
+things to themselves.</p>
+
+<p><b>154. Alcohol takes away thought.</b>&mdash;Alcohol affects
+and weakens the cells of the brain sooner than it
+does those of any other part of the body. It first
+makes the thought cells weak. Then a person does
+not think how he acts. He lights his pipe in the
+barn and throws the match in the hay. He drives
+his horse on a run through a crowded street. He
+swears and uses bad language. He gets angry at
+little things and wants to fight. He seems to think
+of himself, and of no one else. He is happy, for
+he does not think of the bad effects of the drink.
+He has a good time, and does not care for its
+cost. He likes to drink, because it makes him feel
+happy.</p>
+
+<p><b>155. Alcohol spoils motion.</b>&mdash;Some cells of the
+brain cause the arms and legs, and all other parts
+of the body, to move. Alcohol next makes these
+weak. Then a person cannot move his legs right,
+but he staggers when he walks. He cannot carry
+a full cup to his lips. His hands tremble, and he
+cannot take care of himself. He is now really
+drunk.</p>
+
+<p><b>156. Alcohol takes away feeling.</b>&mdash;After a man is
+drunk, he loses the sense of feeling. He does not
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+feel cuts and blows. Because he does not feel tired,
+he feels very strong. He often sees two things for
+one, and hears strange noises. The whole brain at
+last gets weak, and cannot act. Then the drinker
+lies down in a drunken sleep, and cannot be waked
+up. Some die in this state.</p>
+
+<p><b>157. Insanity.</b>&mdash;When the brain is misused by
+alcohol for some time, it cannot get over it. Then
+the person becomes insane. Drink sends more persons
+to the insane asylum than all other causes put
+together.</p>
+
+<p><b>158. Delirium tremens.</b>&mdash;If a drinker gets hurt,
+or becomes sick, he sometimes has terrible dreams.
+In them he sees dirty and savage animals coming
+to harm him. These dreams seem very real to
+him, and he cries out in his fright. This is called
+<i>delirium tremens</i>. A person is liable to die from it.</p>
+
+<p><b>159. Alcohol harms a drinker's children.</b>&mdash;The
+children of drinkers are apt to be weak in body and
+mind. A drinker hurts his children even more
+than he hurts himself. They are liable to catch
+diseases, and are often cross and nervous, or weak-minded.
+It is a terrible thing for a man to make
+his children weak and nervous.</p>
+
+<p><b>160. Other bad things about drink.</b>&mdash;There are
+many other terrible things about drink, besides the
+harm it does a man's body. Many a man has
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+made himself drunk so as to steal or kill. No man
+can drink long without becoming a worse man for
+it. Men will not trust him, and he loses the respect
+of his friends.</p>
+
+<p>Making strong drink takes thousands of men
+away from good work. They might work at building
+houses, or raising grain, or teaching school.
+As it is, their work is wasted.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of money is wasted on strong drink.
+All the mines of the world cannot produce enough
+gold and silver to pay the drink bill. The people
+of the United States pay more for strong drink
+than for bread.</p>
+
+<p>The price of two or three drinks a day would
+amount to enough, in ten years, to buy a small
+home.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of strong drink is made much greater
+if we count the cost of jails and insane asylums.
+Over one half of all crimes and cases of insanity are
+caused by strong drink.</p>
+
+<p>We must also add the misery and suffering of
+most children of drunken fathers. This loss cannot
+be counted in money. Numbers of children become
+truants from school and learn theft and falsehoods
+from lack of a father's care. When all the
+cost is counted, nothing will be found so expensive
+as strong drink.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+        On the other hand, what do people get for their
+money and suffering? They get only a little
+pleasure, and then they are ashamed of it. Men
+use strong drink only because they like it more
+than they dislike its bad effects.</p>
+
+<p>Since drink does a great deal of harm, with no
+good to any one, it is right to make laws to control
+its sale.</p>
+
+<p><b>161. How tobacco affects the brain.</b>&mdash;Some men
+smoke to make themselves think, and some to keep
+themselves from thinking. Now, smoking cannot
+do both things. It really makes the brain less able
+to think, for it weakens the whole body. A school-boy's
+brain will surely be harmed if he uses tobacco
+at all.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. The mind makes all the cells of the body work
+together.</p>
+<p>2. Tiny nerve threads carry messages from the
+mind to the cells.</p>
+<p>3. Most of the nerves begin at the spinal cord in
+the backbone.</p>
+<p>4. The mind in the spinal cord tells the cells to
+eat and grow. It tells the arteries how much
+blood to carry to the cells.</p>
+<p>5. The cells tell the spinal cord if they need food,
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+or if something suddenly hurts them. The
+spinal cord sends word to snatch the part
+from danger.</p>
+<p>6. Nerves carry to the brain news of sight, sound,
+odor, taste, and touch.</p>
+<p>7. The brain sends word to the muscles to move
+the arms, the legs, and the rest of the body.</p>
+<p>8. The brain thinks.</p>
+<p>9. The brain stores up all its messages; these
+make memory and knowledge.</p>
+<p>10. The thought part of the brain can control the
+feelings and the movements of the body.</p>
+<p>11. Alcohol is more harmful to the brain than to
+any other part of the body.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+<h3>THE SENSES</h3>
+
+<p><b>162.</b> A man has five ways of knowing about
+things outside of the body. He can feel, see, hear,
+smell, and taste.</p>
+
+<p><b>163. Feeling.</b>&mdash;Nerves go to nearly every cell in
+the body. They carry news to the brain when
+anything touches them. The news produces a
+feeling. Feelings are of three kinds:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, when anything touches the cells without
+harming them, we feel a <i>touch</i>. We feel a
+touch by nerves in the skin. Those in the ends of
+the fingers and tongue can feel the best. Those
+upon the back give but little feeling.</p>
+
+<p>Touch tells whether anything is hard, or rough, or
+round, or square, or has other qualities and shapes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, when anything touches the bare nerves
+or hurts the cells, we feel a <i>pain</i>. We can feel a
+pain anywhere in the body. Pain tells us if we are
+being harmed. If we had no feeling of pain, we
+might be killed before we could know of our
+danger. Pain warns us away from danger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+        <i>Third</i>, we can feel <i>heat</i> and <i>cold</i>. Anything
+very hot or very cold, however, makes only a pain
+and gives no feeling either of cold or of heat.</p>
+
+<p><b>164. Sight.</b>&mdash;We see with our eyes. An eye is a
+hollow ball. In its front is a clear window. Behind
+the window is a round curtain with a round hole in
+its middle. When we speak of the color of the
+eye, we mean the color of this curtain. Light passes
+through the hole in the curtain and falls upon some
+nerves in the back of the eyeballs. There it forms
+a picture like a photograph. The nerves carry this
+picture to the brain, and we see it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0101-illus" id="i0101-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0101-illus.jpg" width="500" height="460" alt="An eye" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>The human eye.</b></p>
+<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption">
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>a</i> bony case of the eye.</td><td class="c33"><i>e</i> lining or seeing part of the eye.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>b</i> muscle to move the eye.</td><td class="c33"><i>f</i> eyelid.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>g</i> colored curtain or iris.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>c</i> and <i>d</i> coverings of the eye.</td><td class="c33"><i>h</i> and <i>i</i> clear windows of the eye.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+        <b>165. Movements of the eyes.</b>&mdash;We can turn our
+eyes so as to look in any direction. Sometimes a
+person has one eye turned sidewise. Such a person
+is cross-eyed, and sees well out of only one eye at a
+time. Glasses may help the eyes, but sometimes
+a surgeon has to cut a tiny muscle.</p>
+
+<p><b>166. Coverings of the eyes.</b>&mdash;The eyeballs lie in
+a bony case, upon a soft bed of fat. In front each
+is covered with two lids. We can shut the lids to
+keep out dust and insects. When we are sleepy,
+they come together and cover the eyes. Little
+hairs at their edges help to keep out the dust.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a little dirt gets under the lids. Then
+the eye smarts or itches, and we want to rub it;
+but this may grind the dirt in deeper. Then you
+should get some one else to lift your eyelid and
+pick out the dust with a soft handkerchief. If you
+cannot get help, lift the lid by the eyelashes; blow
+your nose hard, and the tears may wash the dirt
+away.</p>
+
+<p>Dust and disease germs may get into our eyes
+and make them sore and red. You should bathe
+your eyes well every time you wash your face. You
+should use a clean towel, for a dirty one may carry
+disease germs to your eyes. Some forms of sore
+eyes are catching. If any one has sore eyes, no
+one else should use his towels or handkerchiefs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+        <b>167. Tears.</b>&mdash;Clear salt water is always running
+over the eyes and down a tube into the nose. The
+use of this water is to bathe the eyes and keep them
+clean. It sometimes runs over the lids in drops
+called <i>tears</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>168. How to use the eyes.</b>&mdash;If using your eyes
+makes them painful or gives you a headache, you
+are straining your eyes. Facing a bright light
+strains the eyes. Shade your eyes while you
+study. A cap may be used as a shade if you
+cannot get anything else. Never try to look at
+the sun or a very bright light. You should have
+the light at one side or behind you. The light
+should be steady. Reading in a dim light will harm
+the eyes.</p>
+
+<p><b>169. Near sight.</b>&mdash;If you cannot read without
+holding your book less than a foot from your eyes,
+you are nearsighted, and should wear glasses all
+the time. If you do this, your eyes may be strong,
+and you may be able to see well.</p>
+
+<p><b>170. Far sight.</b>&mdash;If you cannot read without holding
+your book at arm's length, you are farsighted
+and need glasses. Most old persons are farsighted.</p>
+
+<p><b>171. Alcohol and the eyes.</b>&mdash;Alcohol makes the
+eyes red. It weakens the eyes and may produce
+blindness. A drunken person often sees double.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+        <b>172. Tobacco</b> causes dimness of sight and sometimes
+produces blindness.</p>
+
+<p><b>173. Hearing.</b>&mdash;We hear with the ears. Sound
+is made by waves in the air. The part of the
+ear on the outside of the head catches the air
+waves and throws them inside the ear. These
+air waves strike against a little drum. Three little
+bones then carry the waves on to nerves farther
+inside the head. Animals can turn their ears and
+catch sound from any direction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0104-illus" id="i0104-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0104-illus.jpg" width="500" height="367" alt="An ear" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>Diagram of the ear.</b></p>
+<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption">
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>a</i> outer ear.</td><td class="c33"><i>f</i> <i>g</i> and <i>h</i> inner ear.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>b</i> drum head.</td><td class="c33"><i>i</i> tube to the mouth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11"><i>c</i> <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> bones to carry sound to inner ear.</td><td class="c33"><i>j</i> middle ear.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>174. Ear wax.</b>&mdash;Wax is formed just inside the
+ear. It keeps flies and insects from crawling into
+the ear. Boys in swimming sometimes get cold
+water into their ears. This may make them have
+an earache.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+        <b>175. How the throat affects the ear.</b>&mdash;An air tube
+runs from the inside of the ear to the mouth.
+Sometimes when you blow your nose, you blow
+air into the ear. This makes you partly deaf and
+you hear a roaring in your ears.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes when you have a cold in your throat,
+this little tube is stopped. Then your ear may
+ache and may even discharge matter. This may
+make you somewhat deaf. Earache and deafness
+are most often due to a cold in the throat and a
+stoppage of this tube.</p>
+
+<p>Many little boys and girls are deaf and do not
+know it. They cannot hear the teacher well, and
+sometimes the teacher thinks they are bad or careless
+because they do not answer.</p>
+
+<p><b>176. Care of the ears.</b>&mdash;Very loud noises may
+harm the ear and make you deaf. When you
+expect a very loud noise, put your fingers in your
+ears to shut out the sound.</p>
+
+<p>Boxing the ears may break their tiny drums
+and make you deaf.</p>
+
+<p>Do not get cold water in your ear. This may
+cause an earache and make you deaf. If you get
+water in your ear while you are in swimming,
+turn your head to one side and shake it. This
+will get the water out.</p>
+
+<p>Do not put cotton or anything else into your ears.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+        <b>177. Smell.</b>&mdash;We smell with the nose. Some
+things give out a vapor to the air. When we
+draw the air into the nose, this vapor touches the
+nerves, and we perceive a smell. The nerves are
+high up in the nose. In order to perceive smell
+clearly, we sniff the air far up the nose.</p>
+
+<p><b>178. Use of smell.</b>&mdash;Bad air and spoiled food
+smell bad. A bad smell is the sign of something
+spoiled. The sense of smell tells us when food
+or air is unfit for use. Some people try to hide
+a bad smell with perfumery. To do this only
+makes the danger greater, for then the smell does
+not tell us of the danger of food or air.</p>
+
+<p>Some animals can smell much better than a
+man. A dog will smell the track of a wild animal
+hours after it is made. Savages can smell much
+better than civilized men.</p>
+
+<p><b>179. Taste.</b>&mdash;We taste with the tongue. Dry
+food has no taste, but it must first dissolve in
+the mouth. Spoiled food tastes bad. Bad-tasting
+food is not fit to eat. Taste tells us whether food
+is good or bad.</p>
+
+<p>We can learn to like the taste of harmful things.
+At first no one likes tobacco or strong drink, but
+the liking is formed the more one uses these.
+We ought to be careful not to begin to use
+such things.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+        <i>Alcohol</i> and <i>tobacco</i> burn the mouth and harm
+the taste. Food does not taste so good and we
+may eat spoiled food and not know it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. We can feel in every part of the body, but
+mostly in the ends of the fingers.</p>
+<p>2. Light makes a picture upon the nerves inside
+of the eye.</p>
+<p>3. If the eyes ache, the light should be softened
+or the position of the book or work changed,
+or else the eyes should be rested.</p>
+<p>4. Sound in the air goes into the ear and strikes
+against a drum. Bones then carry the sound
+to the ear nerves.</p>
+<p>5. Air snuffed up the nose gives the sense of
+smell. Smell tells us if the air or food is
+fit for use.</p>
+<p>6. Taste tells us whether food is fit for use. Men
+can learn to like the taste of wrong things
+like tobacco or alcohol.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0108-illus" id="i0108-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0108-illus.jpg" width="500" height="868" alt="A human skeleton" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>The Human Skeleton, showing position of bones.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+<h3>BONES AND JOINTS</h3>
+
+<p><b>180.</b> Bones make the body stiff and strong, and
+give it shape. Long bones reach through the
+arms and legs, and little bones reach down the fingers
+and toes. Rounded plates of bone form the
+head, and a pile of bony rings makes up the backbone.
+Each bone is built to fit exactly into its
+own place and to do its own work. In all there
+are over two hundred bones in the body. They
+form one seventh of its weight.</p>
+
+<p><b>181. Form of bones.</b>&mdash;A bone is not like a solid
+piece of timber, but is hollow like the frame of a
+bicycle. This makes it strong and light. At its
+ends a bone is like a hard sponge covered with a
+firm shell. This makes it too strong to be easily
+crushed, and keeps it light.</p>
+
+<p>A bone grows like any other part of the body.
+It is made of living cells like woven threads. Lime
+is mixed among the cells, and makes them stiff like
+starch among the threads of a linen collar. Blood
+tubes go through every part of the bone so as to
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+feed the cells. The living cells form one third of
+the bone, while the lime forms two thirds.</p>
+
+<p><b>182. Broken bones.</b>&mdash;Bones are very hard, and
+yet they can bend a little without breaking. Most
+of them are curved a little, and so they will spring
+instead of breaking when they are pressed hard.
+But sometimes they break. Then a person must
+wear a splint and bandage to keep the bones in
+place until they grow together again. The living
+cells will mend a bone in about a month.</p>
+
+<p>An old person's bones are more tender than a
+child's, and will not spring much without breaking.
+An old man is afraid of falling and breaking his
+bones, while a child falls a dozen times a day without
+danger.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of some children bend too easily.
+When they stand, the bones of their legs bend a
+little. After a while they grow in the crooked
+shape, and the child is bow-legged.</p>
+
+<p><b>183. Joints.</b>&mdash;Some bones are hinged upon each
+other. A bone hinge is a <i>joint</i>. The rings of the
+backbone are held together by very tough pads
+of flesh. Each pad lets the backbone bend only a
+little, but altogether they let us bend our backs in
+any direction. These pads are like rubber springs
+in a wagon, and keep our bodies from being jarred
+too much.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+        The finger and toe joints, the wrists and ankles,
+the elbows and the knees, bend back and forth like
+a hinge. Tough bands of flesh bind the bones
+together. The ends of the bones are rounded
+and smooth. They fit together and make perfect
+hinges. The joints are oiled by
+a fluid like the white of an egg.
+In old people this fluid sometimes
+dries up. Then the joints become
+stiff, and creak like a squeaking
+hinge.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0111-illus" id="i0111-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0111-illus.jpg" width="150" height="245" alt="The elbow" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Hinge joint of the elbow.</b><br />
+1 humerus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2 ulna</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The shoulders and hips can be
+moved in every direction. The
+upper ends of the arm and leg
+bones are round like half a ball.
+They fit into cups on the shoulder
+and hip bones. They are
+very smooth, and are oiled like the hinge joints.
+The joints are made to work very smoothly and
+easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>184. Bones out of joint.</b>&mdash;When the ends of bones
+are torn away from each other, the bone is out of
+joint. Then the bone cannot be moved without
+great pain. It should be put back in place at once
+and kept there by splints and bandages. A person
+is less liable to have his joints out of place than he
+is to have his bones broken.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+        <b>185. Sprains.</b>&mdash;Sometimes a joint is turned too
+much. This stretches the flesh around the joint,
+and makes it very tender and painful. This is a
+<i>sprain</i>. When you sprain a joint, you should put it
+in hot water for an hour or two. Then keep it
+still for a few days.</p>
+
+<p><b>186. Why bones and joints grow wrong.</b>&mdash;While
+bones and joints are growing they can be made to
+take any shape we please. They cannot be bent
+all at once, but if we hold them in one way much of
+the time, they will keep that shape. Some boys and
+girls sit with their backs bent forward and lean
+against the desk as if they were too lazy to sit up.
+When they grow up, they will be bent and round-shouldered.
+You should sit and stand straight.
+Then you will grow tall and straight and strong.
+A soldier has square shoulders and walks erect
+because he is drilled until his bones and joints grow
+in the proper shape. As you stand straight with
+your feet together, your two big toes, your two
+ankles, and your two knees should touch each
+other.</p>
+
+<p>If you wear tight shoes and press the toes out of
+shape, they will soon grow so. Nearly every one's
+feet are out of shape from wearing short, pointed
+shoes. Your toes should be straight and not
+cramped by the shoe. If you wear narrow shoes,
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+you may harm your feet. It is better to have one's
+feet useful, even if they are large, than to make
+them small and useless.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Bones make the body stiff, and give it form.</p>
+<p>2. Some bones are long, some round, and some flat.
+All are hard and springy.</p>
+<p>3. Some bones are hinged together. The hinge
+is a joint.</p>
+<p>4. The ends of bones in joints are rounded and
+smooth, and are oiled with a liquid like the
+white of an egg.</p>
+<p>5. Some bones are bound together by springy pads,
+as in the backbone.</p>
+<p>6. Bones can be broken. They will grow together
+again themselves.</p>
+<p>7. Joints can be put out of place; then we must
+put them back.</p>
+<p>8. If joints or bones are kept in wrong positions
+they will grow into bad shapes. Tight shoes
+deform the feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0114-illus" id="i0114-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0114-illus.jpg" width="500" height="884" alt="The body's muscles" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>The muscular system.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+<h3>MUSCLES</h3>
+
+<p><b>187. Shape of muscles.</b>&mdash;Bones are covered with
+muscles. Muscles give shape to the body, and
+move it about. One half of the body consists of
+muscles. These are arranged in bundles, and each
+causes a bone to make one motion. There are over
+four hundred separate bundles of muscle in the body.</p>
+
+<p>One end of a muscle is large and round and is
+fast to a bone. The other end tapers to a strong
+string or tendon. The tendon passes over a joint,
+and becomes fast to another
+bone. You can easily feel
+the tendons in the wrist and
+behind the knee.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0115-illus" id="i0115-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0115-illus.jpg" width="150" height="122" alt="Cells" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Muscle cells, cut across<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(&#215;200).</b><br />
+<i>a</i> muscle cell.<br />
+<i>b</i> connective tissue binding the<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cells together.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A muscle is made of tiny
+strings. You can pick them
+apart until they are too fine
+to be seen with the eye. Each
+string is a living muscle cell.
+It is the largest kind of cell
+in the body. You can see the fine strings in cooked
+meat.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 225px;">
+<a name="i0116-illus" id="i0116-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0116-illus.jpg" width="150" height="145" alt="Slice of muscle" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>A thin slice of a voluntary muscle,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cut lengthwise (&#215;100).</b><br />
+<i>a</i> muscle cell.<br />
+<i>b</i> capillaries surrounding the cells.<br />
+<i>c</i> connective tissue binding the<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cells together.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+        <b>188. How muscles act.</b>&mdash;A nerve runs from the
+brain, and touches every cell of the muscle. When
+we wish to move, the brain sends an order down
+the nerve. Then each muscle
+cell makes itself thicker
+and shorter. This pulls its
+ends together, and bends the
+joint. We can make muscle
+cells move when we wish to,
+but we cannot make any
+other kind of cell move. We
+make all our movements by
+means of our muscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>189. Where you can see
+muscles.</b>&mdash;In a butcher's shop you can see lean
+meat. This is the animal's muscle. White and
+tough flesh divides the tender red meat into
+bundles. Each red bundle is a muscle. You will
+see how the muscle tapers to a string or tendon.
+The butcher often hangs up the meat by the tendons.
+You can see the muscles and tendons in a
+chicken's leg or wing when it is being dressed for
+dinner.</p>
+
+<p>Roll up your sleeve to see your own muscles.
+Shut your hand tight. You will see little rolls
+under your skin, just below the elbow. Each roll
+is a muscle. You can feel them get hard when
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+you shut your hand. You can feel their tendons
+as they cross the wrist.</p>
+
+<p>Open your hand wide. You can see and feel
+the tendons of the fingers upon the back of the
+hand. These tendons come from muscles on the
+back of the arm. You can feel the bundles of
+these muscles when they open the fingers. There
+are no muscles in the fingers, but all are in the
+hand or arm. You cannot open your hand so
+strongly as you can close it.</p>
+
+<p><b>190. Strength of muscle.</b>&mdash;By using a muscle you
+can make it grow larger and stronger. If you do
+not use your muscles they will be small and weak.
+Children ought to use their muscles in some way,
+but if they use them too much, they will be tired
+out. Then they will grow weaker instead of
+stronger. Lifting heavy weights, or running long
+distances, tires out the muscles, and makes them
+weaker. Small boys sometimes try to lift as much
+as the big boys. This may do their muscles great
+harm.</p>
+
+<p><b>191. Round shoulders.</b>&mdash;The muscles hold up the
+back and head, and keep us straight when we sit
+or stand. A lazy boy will not use his muscles to
+hold himself up, but will lean against something.
+He will let his shoulders fall, and will sit down in
+a heap. Sometimes he is made to wear shoulder
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+braces to keep his shoulders back. This gives the
+muscles nothing to do, and so they grow weaker
+than ever. The best thing to do for round shoulders
+is to make the boy sit and stand straight, like
+a soldier. Then he will use his muscles until they
+are strong enough to hold his shoulders back.</p>
+
+<p><b>192. How exercise makes the body healthy.</b>&mdash;When
+you use your muscles, you become warmer.
+Your face will be red, for the heart sends more
+blood to the working muscle cells. You will be
+short of breath, for the cells need more air. You
+will eat more, for your food is used up. Your
+muscles are like an engine. They get their power
+from burning food in their own cells. When they
+work they need to use more food and air. So
+working a muscle makes us eat more and breathe
+deeper. The blood flows faster, and we feel better
+all over. The muscle itself grows much larger and
+stronger.</p>
+
+<p>If we sit still all day, the fires in our bodies burn
+low and get clogged with ashes. We feel dull and
+sleepy. If we run about for a few minutes, we
+shall breathe deeply. The fires will burn brighter.
+Our brains will be clearer, and we shall feel like
+work again. Boys and girls need to use their
+muscles when they go to school. Games and
+play will make you get your lessons sooner.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+        <b>193. How to use the muscles.</b>&mdash;You should use
+your muscles to make yourself healthy, and not
+for the sake of growing strong. Some very strong
+men are not well, and some men with small muscles
+are very healthy. Some boys have strong
+muscles because their fathers had strong muscles
+before them. Strength of muscle does not make
+a man.</p>
+
+<p>You ought to have healthy muscles. Then your
+whole bodies will be healthy, and you can do a great
+deal of work. You ought to learn how to use your
+muscles rather than how to make them strong. An
+awkward and bashful boy may be very strong, but
+he cannot use his muscles. A boy is graceful
+because he can use them.</p>
+
+<p>The best way to use your muscles is in doing
+something useful. You can help your mother in
+the house and your father at the barn. You can
+run errands. You can learn to use carpenter's
+tools or to plant a garden. Then you will get
+exercise and not know it. You will also be learning
+something useful.</p>
+
+<p>Play is also needed. Work gets tiresome, and
+you will not want to use your muscles. Play is bad
+when it takes you from your work or when you
+hurt yourself trying to beat somebody.</p>
+
+<p><b>194. Alcohol and the muscles.</b>&mdash;Men use alcohol
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+to make themselves strong. It dulls their weak
+feelings, and then they think themselves strong.
+They are really weaker. The alcohol hinders digestion
+and keeps food from the cells. Then the fires
+in the body burn low, and there is little strength.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol sometimes causes muscle cells to change
+to fat. This weakens the muscles.</p>
+
+<p>Men sometimes have to do hard work in cold
+countries; and at other times they must make long
+marches across hot deserts. Neither the Eskimos
+in the cold north, nor the Arabs in the hot desert,
+use strong drink. Alcohol does not help a man in
+either place. It really weakens the body. The
+government used to give out liquor to its soldiers;
+but soldiers can do more work and have better
+health without liquor and it is no longer given out.</p>
+
+<p>A few years ago men were ashamed to refuse to
+drink. Even when a new church building was
+raised, rum was bought by the church and given to
+the workmen. Farmers used to give their men a
+jug of rum when they went to work. Farm hands
+would not work without it.</p>
+
+<p>Now all this has changed. Men do not want
+drinkers to work for them. A railroad company
+will discharge a man at once if he is known to
+drink at all. A man can now refuse to drink anywhere
+and men will not think any less of him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+        <b>195. Tobacco</b> poisons the muscle cells and makes
+them weak. At first it makes boys too sick to move.
+It always poisons the cells even if they do not feel
+sick.</p>
+
+<p><b>196. A long life.</b>&mdash;A man's body is built to last
+eighty years, but only a few live so long. If you are
+careful in your eating and drinking, if you breathe
+pure air, and if you use your muscles, your body
+will be healthy and will last the eighty years and
+more. All through your life you will be strong and
+able to do good work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Muscles cover the bones and move the body.</p>
+<p>2. Muscle is lean meat. It is made of bundles of
+cells like strings. Nerves from the brain
+touch each cell.</p>
+<p>3. Each muscle is fast to a bone. It becomes
+a small string or tendon at the other end.
+The tendon crosses a joint and is fast to
+another bone.</p>
+<p>4. When we wish to move, the brain sends an
+order to the muscle cells to make themselves
+thicker and shorter and so bend the joint.</p>
+<p>5. You can feel the muscles and tendons in the
+arm and wrist.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+        6. Muscle work makes us breathe deeper, and eat
+more food. It makes the blood flow faster.
+So it makes our whole bodies more healthy.</p>
+<p>7. Every one ought to use his muscles some part of
+the day.</p>
+<p>8. Alcohol and tobacco lessen the strength of the
+muscles.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+<h3>DISEASE GERMS</h3>
+
+<p><b>197. Catching diseases.</b>&mdash;Our body may get out
+of order like a machine. Some parts of it may be
+cut, or broken, or worn out, or hurt in other ways.
+Then we are sick until it is made whole again.
+Sickness always means that a part of the body is out
+of order.</p>
+
+<p>Some kinds of sickness are like a fire. A small
+bit of something from a sick person may start a sickness
+in us, just as a spark may set a house on fire.
+Then we may give the sickness to others, just as a
+fire may spread to other houses. If a person has
+measles, we may catch the measles if we go near him;
+but if a person has a toothache, we cannot catch the
+toothache from him. So we may catch some kinds
+of diseases, but we cannot catch other kinds.</p>
+
+<p><b>198. Bacteria and germs.</b>&mdash;Every kind of catching
+sickness is caused by tiny living things growing in
+our flesh and blood. Some of them are tiny animals.
+Most of them are plants, and are called
+<i>bacteria</i> or <i>microbes</i>. A common name for all of
+them is <i>germs</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+        The word germ means nearly the same as the
+word seed. Bacteria are so small that we cannot
+see them unless we look at them through a strong
+microscope. Then they look like little dots and
+lines (p. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>). A million of them could lie on a pin
+point; but if they have a chance, they may grow in
+numbers, so that in two days they would fill a pint
+measure.</p>
+
+<p>Very many kinds of bacteria and other germs are
+found nearly everywhere. They are in the soil and
+in water, and some float in the air as dust. When
+they fall on dead things, they cause <i>decay</i> or <i>rotting</i>.
+When we can fruit, we kill the germs by boiling the
+fruit and the cans. Then we close the cans tightly
+so that no new germs can get into them. The
+fruit will then keep fresh for years.</p>
+
+<p>Decay is nearly always a good thing, for by it dead
+bodies and waste substances are destroyed and given
+back to the ground, where plants feed upon them.
+Many plants would not grow if they could not feed
+upon decaying things. So most bacteria and other
+germs are useful to us. But some kinds of germs
+will grow only in our bodies, and these kinds are the
+cause of most of our sickness.</p>
+
+<p><b>199. Germs of sickness.</b>&mdash;We catch a sickness by
+taking a few of the germs of the sickness into our
+flesh. There they grow quickly, like weed seeds in
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+the ground, and form crops of new germs within a
+few hours. After a few days the germs become
+millions in number, and crowd the cells of our flesh,
+just as weeds may crowd a potato plant (p. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Disease germs in the body also form poisons, just
+as some weeds in a field form poisons. The poisons
+make us sick, just as if we had swallowed the leaves
+of a poisonous weed.</p>
+
+<p><b>200. Fever.</b>&mdash;If a sickness is caused by disease
+germs, the body is nearly always too warm. Then
+we say that the sick person has a <i>fever</i>. Almost the
+only cause for a fever is disease germs growing in the
+body. We can make a person have any kind of
+fever by planting a few of the germs of the fever in
+the right part of his body.</p>
+
+<p>We are made sick by the germs of fevers more
+often than by all other causes put together. Here
+is a list of common diseases caused by fever germs:&mdash;colds
+and sore throats, most stomach aches, blood
+poisoning in wounds, boils and pimples, tuberculosis,
+whooping cough, measles, chicken pox, diphtheria,
+scarlet fever, typhoid fever, smallpox, and malaria.</p>
+
+<p>Which of these kinds of sickness have you had?
+What sickness have you had besides these?</p>
+
+<p><b>201. Sickness and Dirt.</b>&mdash;Disease germs leave the
+body of a sick person in three ways: first, through the
+skin, second, through the kidneys and intestines, and
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+third, through the nose and throat. In these same
+ways our body gives off its waste matters. If we did
+not take anything from another person's body into
+our own body we should not catch fevers.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever a feverish person soils may contain
+disease germs. When a person has only a slight
+fever he often keeps at work, and then he may
+scatter disease germs wherever he goes. So disease
+germs are likely to be found wherever there is
+dirt or filth. Cleanliness means good health as well
+as good looks.</p>
+
+<p><b>202. Disease germs in the skin.</b>&mdash;Disease germs
+may often be found in sores and pimples on the skin,
+but they will not leave anybody's flesh and blood
+through sound and healthy skin. If our skin is
+smooth and fair, there will be few disease germs on
+it unless we rub against something dirty. A dirty
+skin nearly always contains disease germs. Washing
+and bathing our body will take disease germs from
+our skin and help us to keep well.</p>
+
+<p><b>203. Disease germs in slops.</b>&mdash;A great many disease
+germs leave the body through the intestine and
+kidneys, and may be found in the slops and waste
+water of our houses. Slops are dangerous to health,
+for they may run into a well, or spring, or river, and
+so carry disease germs into our drinking water
+(p. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>). Also, house flies may light on the pails
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+or puddles and carry the germs to our food. In
+these ways we catch typhoid fever, stomach aches,
+and other diseases of the intestines. All slops and
+waste matters from the body should be put where
+they cannot reach our drinking water, and where
+flies cannot crawl over them (p. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>204. Disease germs from the nose and throat.</b>&mdash;If
+a person is sick with a fever, many of the germs are
+likely to be found in his nose and throat. Thousands
+of them are driven out with every drop of
+saliva and phlegm when he blows his nose, or
+spits, coughs, or sneezes, or talks. If he puts anything
+into his mouth, it will be covered with germs.
+More diseases are spread from the nose and mouth
+than in any other way, for we are always doing
+something to spread bits of saliva and phlegm.</p>
+
+<p><b>205. Spitting.</b>&mdash;Colds and consumption and other
+forms of sickness are often spread by sick persons
+spitting on the floor or pavement. The germs become
+dried and are blown away as dust. For this
+reason dust from the streets of cities and in crowded
+halls is often the cause of sickness. In many places
+spitting on a floor or pavement is strictly forbidden
+by law.</p>
+
+<p><b>206. Putting things in the mouth.</b>&mdash;Many persons
+have the habit of sucking their fingers, or of touching
+a pencil to the tongue when they write or think,
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+or of wetting their fingers with their lips when they
+turn the leaves of a book. In all these ways we may
+give a disease to others or may take a disease from
+some one else.</p>
+
+<p><b>207. Public drinking cup.</b>&mdash;When you touch your
+lips to a cup, you leave some saliva and cells from your
+mouth on the cup. If a cup is used by a number
+of persons, some one is almost sure to leave germs
+of sickness on it, and others are likely to take them
+into their own mouths when they drink. So a public
+drinking cup is a dangerous thing. Each school
+child should have his own cup. Public drinking
+fountains should be so made that we may drink by
+putting our lips to a stream of running water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 550px;">
+<a name="i0128-illus" id="i0128-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0128-illus.jpg" width="500" height="271" alt="Drinking places" title=""/>
+<table class="toc" summary="2-Column Caption">
+<tr><td class="c11"><b>A safe drinking fountain.</b></td><td class="c33"><b>An unsafe drinking place.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c11">A stream of water gushes up from the<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;middle of the cup.</td><td class="c33">Photograph taken in the basement of<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a schoolhouse.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+        <b>208. Sweeping.</b>&mdash;Dusty air in a room is dangerous
+to health, for disease germs are likely to be
+found in it. We can get rid of dust by keeping our
+floors swept clean. After sweeping we should wipe
+the dust from the tables and furniture. A feather
+duster or dry cloth will only stir up the dust and
+make it float in the air again. We should use
+either a damp cloth, or a dry duster made of tufts
+of wool, so that the dust will stick to the duster.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="i0129-illus" id="i0129-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0129-illus.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="A fly" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;House fly, magnified.</b><br />
+The hairs on its body and legs catch<br />
+dirt and disease germs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>209. Foul air.</b>&mdash;If we live in a closed room, the
+air soon becomes
+foul and dusty,
+and is likely to
+have disease
+germs in it. Foul
+air is one of the
+greatest of the
+causes of sickness.
+We should
+change the air of
+a room often so as
+to keep it fresh
+and free from dust
+and disease germs
+(pp. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_67">67</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>210. House flies.</b>&mdash;House flies come from garbage
+heaps and filth of all sorts. So they carry disease
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+germs on their bodies. They light on our food
+and on our faces, and so they often make us sick.
+They are often the cause of typhoid fever, stomach
+aches, and stomach sickness in babies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i0130a-illus" id="i0130a-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0130a-illus.jpg" width="500" height="285" alt="Life cycle" title=""/>
+<p class="caption2"><b>Life history of house flies.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Flies are hatched in manure piles and garbage
+heaps. At first they look like white worms, and
+are called <i>maggots</i>. Every maggot is a young fly.
+We can get rid of flies by cleaning up every garbage
+heap and manure
+pile.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="i0130b-illus" id="i0130b-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0130b-illus.jpg" width="150" height="49" alt="The young" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Young mosquitoes hanging<br />
+head downward in water.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>211. Mosquitoes.</b>&mdash;Mosquitoes
+carry malaria and
+yellow fever from
+sick persons to
+the well. If there were no mosquitoes, there would
+be no malaria or yellow fever.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+        Mosquitoes are hatched in water, and the young
+are called <i>wigglers</i>. We may often see them in
+rain barrels. We may get rid of mosquitoes by
+emptying all rain barrels and pails and cans of dirty
+water, at least once a week, and by drying up
+swamps and marshes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. We catch a fever by taking disease germs into
+the body.</p>
+<p>2. Disease germs cannot be seen without a strong
+microscope.</p>
+<p>3. The germs may be found in dust and dirt.</p>
+<p>4. Slops from our houses are often full of the germs.</p>
+<p>5. You may take germs into your body by putting
+pencils and other things into your mouth, and
+by drinking from a public drinking cup.</p>
+<p>6. Spitting on the floor or pavement may scatter
+disease germs.</p>
+<p>7. House flies and mosquitoes often spread diseases.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+<h3>PREVENTING SICKNESS</h3>
+
+<p><b>212. How our body kills disease germs.</b>&mdash;We take
+disease germs into the body in three ways: first,
+through the mouth, second, through the nose, and
+third, through the skin. So we should watch the
+purity of our food, drink, and air, and should be
+careful about putting things into the mouth, and
+about the cleanliness of the skin. We often take a
+few disease germs into the body without catching
+a disease. This is because the white cells of our
+blood fight the germs and kill them (p. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>). If
+the body is hurt or weakened, the white blood cells
+may also be weakened so that they cannot kill the
+germs. We should take good care of the body so
+that every part of it may do its work well. We need
+not be able to run fast, or to lift heavy weights, but
+the best sign that every part of the body is in good
+order is to feel bright and wide-awake. Then our
+white blood cells will also be in good order and able
+to fight disease germs.</p>
+
+<p><b>213. Catching cold.</b>&mdash;When we catch a disease, we
+often say that we have caught cold. We used to
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+think that cold air and dampness were almost the
+only causes of taking cold, and this is the reason
+why we called many kinds of sickness by the name
+of colds. Now we know that we catch cold by taking
+disease germs into the body. The germs will not be
+able to grow unless the body is weakened in some
+way, as by cold and dampness. Yet if we are wet
+and cold, we shall not catch cold unless we take
+disease germs into the body. We do not get the
+germs from the outdoor air, for very few germs are
+there. We get them from the foul air of our houses
+when we come in to warm and dry ourselves. If the
+air of our houses were always as clean and pure as
+the outdoor air, we should hardly ever have colds.</p>
+
+<p>We can safely let the cold air blow on us if we are
+out of doors, but if we sit in a house, a small draft
+sometimes seems to make us take cold. This is
+because there are likely to be many disease germs
+in the house and few out of doors.</p>
+
+<p>Other things besides cold air and dampness may
+weaken the body, and so help us to take cold. If
+germs of colds are in a warm room, we may sit there
+and take cold even if we are not wet or chilled at all.
+The body may be weakened by poor food, wrong
+eating, or overwork, so that disease germs will easily
+grow in it. We take as many colds from these
+causes as from cold air and dampness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+        <b>214. Kinds of colds.</b>&mdash;A person takes most of the
+germs of colds through his nose and mouth. If
+they grow only in his nose, we say that he has a
+cold in his head. If they grow in his throat, he has
+a sore throat, or tonsillitis. If they reach as far as
+the upper part of his windpipe, he is hoarse, or has
+a cough, or the croup. If the germs are planted in
+his lungs, he may have bronchitis or pneumonia.
+All these kinds of sickness often spread from one
+person to another. If one person in a family has a
+cold, others in the family often catch cold from him.</p>
+
+<p><b>215. Diseases like colds.</b>&mdash;Diphtheria, tuberculosis,
+whooping cough, and measles all begin like a
+common cold and often look like a cold during the
+whole sickness. Colds do not turn into any of these
+diseases, for each of them comes from its own germ,
+just as corn comes only from seed corn.</p>
+
+<p><b>216. Curing a cold.</b>&mdash;If you have a cold, you ought
+to stay at home and rest, or lie in bed. Then your
+white blood cells can gain strength to fight the disease
+germs. You ought to have plenty of fresh air
+in your room. You ought not to eat much food
+for a few days, so that your stomach and intestine
+and liver can use all their strength in throwing
+off the poisons of the germs. But you ought
+to drink plenty of water, so as to help wash away
+the poisons from your body.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+        <b>217. Keeping colds from spreading.</b>&mdash;You should
+keep away from other persons while you have a
+cold, or other catching disease, so as to keep from
+spreading the sickness. You ought not to go visiting,
+or go to school, or to church, or to other meeting
+places. When you cough or sneeze, you should
+hold a handkerchief to your mouth, so as to keep
+from blowing disease germs from your throat and
+nose. You ought to sleep in a bed by yourself, so
+that no one may take the disease germs from your
+bedclothes. No one else should use your towel, or
+handkerchief, or knife, or fork, or spoon, or dish,
+until they have been washed in hot water, so as to
+kill the disease germs on them.</p>
+
+<p><b>218. Keeping from catching cold.</b>&mdash;You can keep
+yourself from catching cold by keeping your body
+strong and in good order. You should keep your
+clothes dry, eat good food, breathe pure air, get
+good rest and sleep, and keep your body, your
+clothes, and your house clean. You should also
+keep disease germs out of your body. You should
+not form a habit of putting your fingers or a pencil
+to your mouth (p. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>). You should keep your
+nose, your throat, and your mouth clean.</p>
+
+<p><b>219. Cleanliness of the nose.</b>&mdash;The inside of the
+nose is wet with a slippery liquid. If you have a cold,
+the liquid is thick and stops your nose, and is called
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+<i>phlegm</i>. The liquid catches and holds dust and
+disease germs, and keeps them from going into the
+windpipe. It also kills many of the disease germs.</p>
+
+<p>You should always carry a handkerchief and use
+it so as to blow the germs out of your nose. You
+should have a clean handkerchief every day.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="i0136-illus" id="i0136-illus"></a>
+<img src="images/i0136-illus.jpg" width="150" height="208" alt="View of nose and throat" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><b>Photograph of model of the<br />nose and throat.</b><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>A.</i> tonsil; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>B.</i> adenoids;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>C.</i> opening of Eustachian tube.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>220. Adenoids and large tonsils.</b>&mdash;Sometimes children
+have large tonsils growing in the back of the
+throat, or soft
+bunches of flesh
+called <i>adenoids</i>
+back of the nose.
+These children
+cannot breathe
+well through the
+nose, but must
+breathe through
+the mouth. Then
+they take dust
+and disease germs
+deep into the
+body, and so take
+colds and other
+sickness easily.
+If a child has adenoids
+or large
+tonsils, an operation should be done to take them out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+        <b>221. Cleanliness of the mouth.</b>&mdash;We often breathe
+dust and disease germs into the mouth or snuff them
+into the throat from the nose. Then they are caught
+between the teeth and in the folds of the cheeks and
+throat. There they may grow, and finally go deeper
+into the body and make us sick. A dirty mouth is
+very often the cause of colds and other sickness.</p>
+
+<p>We should keep our mouths clean by brushing our
+teeth with a toothbrush two or three times a day.
+We should also rub the toothbrush over the tongue
+and around the back part of the throat so as to clean
+the germs from every part of the mouth. Each child
+should have a toothbrush of his own, and should
+use it every day.</p>
+
+<p><b>222. Contagious diseases.</b>&mdash;Diphtheria, whooping
+cough, measles, scarlet fever, and smallpox are all
+dangerous kinds of sickness, and spread with great
+ease. The germs may float in the air, and we may
+take them into our bodies if we go into a room where
+any one has the sickness. So we call these diseases
+<i>contagious</i>. If a person has one of these diseases,
+he should be made to stay in a house or room by
+himself until he is well. Keeping the sick away from
+well persons is called <i>quarantine</i>. When the sickness
+is cured, the sick room and everything in it
+should be cleaned and washed so as to kill the germs.</p>
+
+<p><b>223. <a name="Board" id="Board"></a>Board of health.</b>&mdash;There is a board of health
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+in every city and town. The men on the board show
+persons how to keep diseases from spreading, and
+make them obey the rules of health. Everybody in
+a town should help the board of health in every
+possible way.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. The white blood cells of our body kill disease
+germs.</p>
+<p>2. We catch cold by taking disease germs into our
+body.</p>
+<p>3. The germs of colds are not often found in the
+air out of doors. They are often found in the
+foul air of houses.</p>
+<p>4. If a person has a cold, he should keep away from
+other persons, so as to keep from spreading
+the sickness.</p>
+<p>5. Cleansing the nose helps us to keep from catching
+cold.</p>
+<p>6. Cleansing the teeth and the inside of the mouth
+removes many disease germs.</p>
+<p>7. Adenoids and large tonsils should be taken from
+the throat by an operation.</p>
+<p>8. If a person has a dangerous contagious disease,
+he should be quarantined.</p>
+<p>9. Boards of health have charge of the prevention
+of contagious diseases.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul class="index">
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Abdomen, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+    <li>Adam's apple, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+    <li>Adenoids, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+    <li>Air, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+    <li>Albumin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+    <li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+    <li>Alcohol and arteries, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.
+        <ul class="index2">
+            <li>biliousness, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+            <li>bitters, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+            <li>blood, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+            <li>brain, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+            <li>breathing, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+            <li>burning, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+            <li>catching cold, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+            <li>character, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+            <li>cooking, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+            <li>delirium tremens, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+            <li>digestion, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+            <li>eyes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+            <li>feeling, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+            <li>habit, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+            <li>heart, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+            <li>heat, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+            <li>heredity, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+            <li>insanity, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+            <li>Jamaica ginger, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+            <li>kidneys, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+            <li>liver, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+            <li>lungs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+            <li>medicine, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+            <li>money waste, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+            <li>motion, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+            <li>muscles, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+            <li>sickness, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+            <li>skin, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+            <li>stomach, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+            <li>strength, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+            <li>strong drink, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+            <li>suffering, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+            <li>taste, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+            <li>thirst, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+            <li>thought, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Alcohol, use of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ameba, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+    <li>Appetite, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+            Arteries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ashes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> B </li>
+
+    <li>Bacteria, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bathing, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+    <li>Beer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bile, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Biliousness, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bitters, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bleeding, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+    <li>Blood, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+    <li>Board of Health, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bones, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bowels, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bowlegs, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+    <li>Brain, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+    <li>Brandy, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bread, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+    <li>Breathing, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+    <li>Broken bones, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+    <li>Burning, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+    <li>Butter, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> C </li>
+
+    <li>Cake, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+    <li>Candy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+    <li>Canning fruit, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+    <li>Capillaries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+    <li>Catching cold, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cells, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cells, blood tubes of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.
+        <ul class="index2">
+            <li>breathing of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+            <li>burning of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+            <li>composition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+            <li>food of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+            <li>messages of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Cells of blood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.
+        <ul class="index2">
+            <li>bone, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+            <li>brain, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+            <li>epithelium, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+            <li>muscle, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+            <li>skin, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+            <li>spinal cord, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+            <li>yeast plant, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Cheese, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Chest, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+    <li>Chewing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+    <li>Chewing gum, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Chewing tobacco, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cider, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cigarettes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cigars, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Clams, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Clot, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+    <li>Clothes, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+    <li>Coated tongue, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+    <li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cold, feelings of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+    <li>Colds, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+            Connective tissue, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+    <li>Contagious diseases, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cooking, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cream, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cross-eyes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cuts, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> D </li>
+
+    <li>Deafness, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+    <li>Decay, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+    <li>Delirium tremens, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+    <li>Diaphragm, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+    <li>Digestion, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+    <li>Diphtheria, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Dirt, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+    <li>Dirt in eye, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+    <li>Disease germs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+    <li>Distillation, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+    <li>Drinking cup, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> E </li>
+
+    <li>Ear, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ear wax, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+    <li>Eating, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+    <li>Egg, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Epidermis, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+    <li>Epithelium, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+    <li>Eustachian tube, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+    <li>Exercise, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+    <li><a name="Eye" id="Eye"></a>Eye, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+    <li>Eyeball, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+    <li>Eyelids, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> F </li>
+
+    <li>Far sight, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fat, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fear, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+    <li>Feeling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fermentation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fever, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fire drill, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fish, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Flannel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+    <li>Flies, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+    <li>Food, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fresh air, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fruit, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fur, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> G </li>
+
+    <li>Gastric juice, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+    <li>Gelatine, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+    <li>Germs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+    <li>Gizzard, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+    <li>Good habits, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+    <li>Grain, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> H </li>
+
+    <li>Habit, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hair, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hair dyes, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+            Hair oil, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+    <li>Handkerchief, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+    <li>Healing, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hearing, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+    <li>Heart, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+    <li>Heart beat, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+    <li>Heat, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+    <li>Heating houses, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+    <li>House flies, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hunger, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> I </li>
+
+    <li>Intemperance, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+    <li>Intestine, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Iron, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> J </li>
+
+    <li>Jamaica ginger, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+    <li>Joints, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> K </li>
+
+    <li>Kidneys, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+    <li>Knowledge, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> L </li>
+
+    <li>Lead, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+    <li>Life, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+    <li>Lime, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+    <li>Linen, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+    <li>Liver, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+    <li>Lungs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> M </li>
+
+    <li>Maggots, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+    <li>Malaria, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+    <li>Matter, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+    <li>Meal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Measles, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Meat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+    <li>Memory, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+    <li>Microbes, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+    <li>Microscope, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+    <li>Milk, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mind, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+    <li>Minerals, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mosquitoes, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+    <li>Motion, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+    <li>Motor nerves, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mouth, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Muscles, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> N </li>
+
+    <li>Nails, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+    <li>Near sight, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nerve messages, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nerves, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nervousness, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nicotine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+    <li>Night air, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nose, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> O </li>
+
+    <li>Oatmeal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Oysters, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> P </li>
+
+    <li>Pain, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pancakes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pancreatic juice, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pencils, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+    <li>Perspiration, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pie, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pneumonia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+    <li>Poisons, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+    <li>Potash, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+    <li>Potatoes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+    <li>Public drinking cup, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pulse, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> Q </li>
+
+    <li>Quarantine, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> R </li>
+
+    <li>Red blood cells, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+    <li>Reflex action, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+    <li>Root beer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+    <li>Round shoulders, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+    <li>Rubbers, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> S </li>
+
+    <li>Saliva, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+    <li>Salt, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+    <li>Scarlet fever, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Senses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sensory nerves, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sewers, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sick room, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sight, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+    <li>Skin, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sleep, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+    <li>Slops, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smallpox, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smell, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smoke, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smoking, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Snuff, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+    <li>Soda, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+    <li>Spinal cord, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+    <li>Spitting, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sprains, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+    <li>Starch, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+    <li>Steam engine, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+    <li>Stockings, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+    <li>Stomach, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+    <li>Strength, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+    <li>Strong drink, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sugar, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+    <li>Swallowing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sweat, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sweeping, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sweetbread, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> T </li>
+
+    <li>Taste, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tea, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+            Tears, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+    <li>Teeth, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tendon, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+    <li>Thinking, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tight shoes, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tobacco and brain, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.
+        <ul class="index2">
+            <li>breathing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+            <li>chewing, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+            <li>children, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+            <li>digestion, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+            <li>eyes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+            <li>habit, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+            <li>heart, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+            <li>muscle, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+            <li>strength, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+            <li>taste, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+            <li>teeth, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Tongue, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tonsils, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+    <li>Toothpick, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Touch, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+    <li>Typhoid fever, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> V </li>
+
+    <li>Vegetables, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+    <li>Veins, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ventilation, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+    <li>Vinegar, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+    <li>Voice, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> W </li>
+
+    <li>Warmth, feeling of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+    <li>Washing clothes, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+    <li>Waste of body, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+    <li>Water, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+    <li>Wells, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+    <li>Whisky, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+    <li>White blood cells, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+    <li>Whooping cough, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Wigglers, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+    <li>Windpipe, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+    <li>Wine, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+    <li>Wool, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+    <li>Words, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+    <li>Working of fruit, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+    <li>Worry, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+    <li class="pad"> Y </li>
+
+    <li>Yeast, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr />
+<div class="tn">
+<h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4>
+<ul class="corrections">
+<li>Pg <a href="#Board">137</a> Added period after "223" in "223 Board of health".</li>
+<li>Pg <a href="#Eye">141</a>  Replaced a comma with a period after "101" in "Eye, 101".</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
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@@ -0,0 +1,4161 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Applied Physiology, by Frank Overton
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Applied Physiology
+       Including the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics
+
+
+Author: Frank Overton
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 4, 2010  [eBook #32251]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Larry B. Harrison and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 32251-h.htm or 32251-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32251/32251-h/32251-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32251/32251-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face
+      in the original (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
+
+Including the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics
+
+by
+
+FRANK OVERTON, A.M., M.D.
+
+Late House Surgeon to the City Hospital, New York
+
+Primary Grade
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York  Cincinnati  Chicago
+American Book Company
+
+Copyright, 1898, 1910, by
+Frank Overton
+
+OV. PHYSIOL. (PRIM.)
+E-P 42
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This primary text-book of applied physiology follows a natural order
+of treatment. In each subject elementary anatomical facts are
+presented in a manner which impresses function rather than form, and
+from the form described derives the function. The facts and principles
+are then applied to everyday life. Anatomy and pure physiology make
+clear and fix hygienic points, while applied physiology lends interest
+to the otherwise dry facts of physiology and anatomy. From the great
+range of the science there are included only those subjects which are
+directly concerned in the growth and development of children.
+
+The value of a primary book depends largely upon the language used. In
+bringing the truths within the comprehension of children, the author
+has made sparing use of the complex sentence. He has made the
+sentences short and simple in form, and logical in arrangement.
+
+A child grasps new ideas mainly as they appeal directly to the senses.
+For this reason, physiological demonstrations are indispensable.
+Subjects for demonstrations are not given, because they cannot be
+performed by the children; but the teacher should make free use of the
+series given in the author's advanced physiology.
+
+Cuts and diagrams are inserted where they are needed to explain the
+text. They are taken from the author's _Applied Physiology,
+Intermediate Grade_. Each was chosen, not for artistic effect, but
+because of its fitness to illustrate a point. Most of the cuts are
+adapted for reproduction on the blackboard.
+
+The effects of alcohol and other narcotics are treated with special
+fulness. The subject is given a fair and judicial discussion, and
+those conclusions are presented which are universally accepted by the
+medical profession. But while this most important form of intemperance
+is singled out, it should be remembered that the breaking of any of
+nature's laws is also a form of intemperance, and that the whole study
+of applied physiology is to encourage a more healthy and a more noble
+and self-denying mode of life.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                        PAGE
+
+       I. CELLS                                     7
+
+      II. OF WHAT CELLS ARE MADE                   10
+
+     III. DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE MOUTH           13
+
+      IV. DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE STOMACH         17
+
+       V. FOODS                                    23
+
+      VI. TOBACCO                                  31
+
+     VII. FERMENTATION                             37
+
+    VIII. KINDS OF STRONG DRINK                    42
+
+      IX. THE BLOOD                                49
+
+       X. BREATHING, HEAT, AND CLOTHING            59
+
+      XI. THE SKIN AND KIDNEYS                     75
+
+     XII. THE NERVES, SPINAL CORD, AND BRAIN       84
+
+    XIII. THE SENSES                              100
+
+     XIV. BONES AND JOINTS                        109
+
+      XV. MUSCLES                                 115
+
+     XVI. DISEASE GERMS                           123
+
+    XVII. PREVENTING SICKNESS                     132
+
+    INDEX                                         139
+
+
+
+
+APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CELLS
+
+
+Our body is made of many parts. Its head thinks. Its legs carry it,
+and its arms and hands take hold of things. The leg cannot do the work
+of the arm, nor the head do the work of the hand; but each part does
+only its own work.
+
+=1. The simplest animal.=--Some animals have parts like a man's; but
+these parts are fewer. No animal has arms or hands like a man. A fish
+has little fins in place of legs and arms, while a worm has not even a
+head, but only a body, and yet it moves. An oyster has only a body and
+cannot move. The simplest of all animals is very small. A thousand of
+them would not reach an inch. Yet each is a complete animal. It is
+called the _ameba_. It is only a lump of jelly. It can put out any part
+of its body like an arm and take a lump of food. This same arm can eat
+the food, too. It can also put out any part of its body like a leg and
+move by rolling the rest of its body into the leg. It can do some things
+better than a man can do them, for any part of its body can do all kinds
+of work. So the ameba grows and moves and does as it likes.
+
+[Illustration: =Different forms of an ameba (x400).=]
+
+[Illustration: =Cells from the human body (x200).=
+
+  _a_ A colored cell from the eye.
+  _b_ A white blood cell.
+  _c_ A connective tissue cell.
+  _d_ A cell from the lining of the mouth.
+  _e_ Liver cells.
+  _f_ A muscle cell from the intestine.]
+
+=2. Cells.=--A man's finger moves and grows something like a separate
+animal, but it must keep with the rest of the body. A little piece of
+a finger moves and grows, too. If you should look at a finger, or any
+other part of your body, through a microscope, you would see that it
+is composed of little lumps of jelly. Each little lump looks like an
+ameba. We call each lump a cell. The cells make up the finger.
+
+=3. What cells do.=--Each cell acts much as an ameba does. From the
+blood it gets food and air and takes them in through any part of its
+body. It also grows and moves. But the cells are not free to do as
+they wish, for they are all tied together in armies by very fine
+strings. We call these strings _connective tissue_. One army of cells
+makes the skin, and other armies make the bones and flesh. Some armies
+make the fingers, and some the legs. Every part of our body is made up
+of armies of separate cells.
+
+=4. The mind.=--The body is a home for the mind. The cells obey the
+mind. The mind pays the cells by feeding them and taking good care
+of them. When an army of cells is hurt, the body feels sick, and
+then the mind tells the whole body to rest until the cells are well
+again. When we study about a man's body, we learn about the separate
+cells in his body.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Our body is made up of many small parts.
+
+     2. The smallest parts are each like a little animal, and are
+          called _cells_.
+
+     3. Each cell eats and grows.
+
+     4. One army of cells makes a finger and another a leg, and so on
+          through the body.
+
+     5. The mind lives in the body.
+
+     6. The mind takes care of the cells.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+OF WHAT CELLS ARE MADE
+
+
+The cells of our body are made of five common things. You would know
+all these things if you should see them.
+
+=5. Water.=--The first thing in the cells is _water_. Water is
+everywhere in the body. Even the teeth have water. Most of our flesh
+is water. Without water we should soon shrink up. Our flesh would be
+stiff like bone and no one could live.
+
+[Illustration: =The body is made of these five things.=]
+
+[Illustration: =Fat tissue (x100).= The liquid fat is stored in living
+pockets.]
+
+=6. Albumin.=--_Second_, next to water, something like the white of an
+egg makes the most of the body. The white of an egg is _albumin_.
+When dried it is like gelatine or glue. Albumin makes the most of the
+solid part of each cell. Lean meat and cheese are nearly all albumin.
+When it is heated it becomes harder and turns white. The word albumin
+means white. Dry albumin is hard and tough, but in the living cells it
+is dissolved in water and is soft like meat. It is the only living
+substance in the body, and it alone gives it strength.
+
+=7. Fat.=--_Third_, next to albumin, the most of the body is fat. Fat
+does not grow inside the cells of the body, but it fills little
+pockets between the cells. Fat does not give strength. It makes the
+body round and handsome. It also makes the cells warm and keeps them
+from getting hurt.
+
+=8. Sugar.=--_Fourth_, sugar also is found in the body. Sugar is made
+out of starch. When we eat starch it changes to sugar. Starch and sugar
+are much alike. We eat a great deal of starch and sugar, but they are
+soon used in warming the body. Only a little is in the body at once.
+
+=9. Minerals.=--_Fifth_, there are also some minerals in the body.
+When flesh is burned they are left as _ashes_. Salt, lime, iron, soda,
+and potash are all found in the body.
+
+[Illustration: =Starch grains (x400).=
+
+  _a_, of potato.
+  _b_, of corn.]
+
+Everything in the body is either water, albumin, fat, sugar, or
+minerals. These things are also our food. We eat them mixed together
+in bread, meat, eggs, milk, and other foods.
+
+=10. Life.=--Our food is not alive, but after we eat it the body makes
+it alive. We do not know how it does it. When the body dies we cannot
+put life into it again. There is life in each cell.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The body is made of five things: water, albumin, fat, sugar,
+          and minerals.
+
+     2. Water is mixed with all parts of the body.
+
+     3. Albumin makes the living part of each cell.
+
+     4. Fat is in pockets between the cells. It warms the cells and
+          keeps them from being hurt.
+
+     5. Sugar is made from starch. It warms the body.
+
+     6. The minerals in the body are salt, lime, iron, soda, and potash.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE MOUTH
+
+
+=11. Food of the cells.=--All the cells of the body work and wear out.
+They must eat and keep growing. The food of the cells is the blood.
+Water, albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals are in the blood. The cells
+eat these things and grow. All food must be one or more of these five
+things. Before they reach the blood, they must all be changed to a
+liquid. A few cells of the body are set aside to do this work of
+changing them. Changing food into blood is digestion.
+
+=12. Cooking.=--Cooking begins digestion. It softens and dissolves
+food. It makes food taste better. Most food is unfit for use until it
+is cooked. Poor cooking often makes food still worse for use. Food
+should always be soft and taste good after cooking. Softening food by
+cooking saves the mouth and stomach a great deal of work. The good
+taste of the food makes it pleasant for them to digest it. We must cut
+our food into small pieces before we eat it. If we eat only a small
+piece at a time we shall not eat too fast. If we cut our food fine we
+can find any bones and other hard things, and can keep them from
+getting inside the body.
+
+=13. Chewing.=--Digestion goes on in the mouth. The mouth does three
+things to food. _First_, it mixes and grinds it between the teeth.
+
+_Second_, it pours water over the food through fine tubes. The water of
+the mouth is called the saliva. The saliva makes the food a thin paste.
+
+_Third_, the saliva changes some of the starch to sugar. Starch must
+be all changed to sugar before it can feed the cells.
+
+=14. Too fast eating.=--Some boys fill their mouths with food. Then
+they cannot chew their food and cannot mix saliva with it. They
+swallow their food whole, and then their stomachs have to grind it.
+The saliva cannot mix with the food and so it is too dry in the
+stomach. Then their stomachs ache, and they are sick. Eating too fast
+and too much makes children sick oftener than anything else.
+
+Birds swallow their food whole, for they have no teeth. Instead, a
+strong gizzard inside grinds the food. We have no gizzards, and so we
+must grind our food with our teeth.
+
+=15. Teeth.=--We have two kinds of teeth. The front teeth are sharp
+and cut the food; the back teeth are flat and rough and grind it. If
+you bite nuts or other hard things you may break off a little piece of
+a tooth. Then the tooth may decay and ache.
+
+After you eat, some food will sometimes stick to the teeth. Then it
+may decay and make your breath smell bad. After each meal always pick
+the teeth with a wooden toothpick. Your teeth will also get dirty and
+become stained unless you clean them. Always brush your teeth with
+water every morning. This will also keep them from decaying.
+
+[Illustration: =Digestive organs of a bird.=
+
+  _a_ esophagus or swallowing tube.
+  _b_ crop or bag for carrying food.
+  _c_ stomach.
+  _d_ intestine.
+  _e_ gizzard or food grinder.]
+
+=16. Swallowing.=--When food has been chewed and mixed with saliva
+until it is a paste, it is ready to be swallowed. The tongue pushes
+the food into a bag just back of the mouth. We call the bag the
+_pharynx_. Then the pharynx squeezes it down a long tube and into the
+stomach. The nose and windpipe also open into this bag, but both are
+closed by little doors while we swallow. We cannot breathe while we
+swallow. If the doors are not shut tightly, some food gets into the
+windpipe and chokes us.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. We eat to feed the cells of the body.
+
+     2. All food must be made into blood.
+
+     3. Changing food to blood is digestion.
+
+     4. Cooking softens food and makes it taste good.
+
+     5. Food is ground fine in the mouth, and mixed with saliva to
+          form a paste. Some of its starch is changed to sugar.
+
+     6. If food is only half chewed the stomach has to grind it.
+
+     7. When we swallow, the tongue pushes the food into a bag back of
+          the mouth and the bag squeezes it down a long tube to the
+          stomach.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
+
+
+=17. The stomach.=--When food is swallowed it goes to the stomach. The
+stomach is a thin bag. In a man it holds about three pints. Like the
+mouth, it does three things to the food.
+
+[Illustration: =Gastric glands in the stomach (x200).=
+
+The cells _a_ and _b_, form the juice. The fibers _c_, bind the tubes
+in place.]
+
+_First_, the stomach gently stirs and mixes the food.
+
+_Second_, it pours a fluid over the food. This fluid is called the
+_gastric juice_. The gastric juice is sour and bitter.
+
+_Third_, the gastric juice changes some of the albumin of food to a
+liquid form.
+
+If the mouth has done its work well, the stomach does its work easily
+and we do not know it. But if the mouth has eaten food too fast and
+has not chewed it well, then the stomach must do the work of the mouth
+too. In that case it gets tired and aches.
+
+=18. The intestine.=--The food stays in the stomach only a little
+while. All the time a little keeps trickling into a long coil of tube.
+This tube is called the _intestine_ or the _bowels_. Three or four
+hours after a hearty meal the stomach is empty. Some of the food has
+been changed to a liquid, but most of it has only been ground to
+smaller pieces, and mixed with a great deal of water. Now it all must
+be changed to a liquid.
+
+=19. What the intestine does.=--Like the mouth and stomach, the
+intestine does three things.
+
+_First_, it mixes the food and makes it pass down the tube.
+
+_Second_, two sets of cells behind the stomach make two liquids and
+pour them into the intestine. One set of cells is the _sweetbread_, or
+_pancreas_, and its liquid is the _pancreatic juice_. The other is the
+_liver_ and its fluid is the _bile_.
+
+_Third_, the pancreatic juice makes three changes in food. _First_,
+like the mouth, it changes starch to sugar. _Second_, like the
+stomach, it makes albumin a liquid. _Third_, it divides fat into fine
+drops. These drops then mix with water and do not float on its top.
+
+=20. Bile.=--The bile is yellow and bitter. It helps the pancreatic
+juice do its work. It also helps to keep the inside of the intestine
+clean.
+
+=21. Digestion of water and minerals.=--Water and the mineral parts of
+food do not need to be changed at all, but can become part of the
+blood just as they are. Seeds and husks and tough strings of flesh all
+pass the length of the intestine and are not changed.
+
+=22. How food gets into the blood.=--By the time food is half way down
+the intestine it is mostly liquid and ready to become part of the
+blood. This liquid soaks through the sides of the intestine and into
+the blood tubes. At last the food reaches the end of the intestine.
+Most of its liquid has then soaked into the blood tubes and only some
+solid waste is left.
+
+=23. Work of the liver.=--The food is now in the blood, but has not
+become a part of it. It is carried to the liver. There the liver changes
+the food to good blood, and then the blood hurries on and feeds the
+cells of the body. Spoiled food may be swallowed and taken into the
+blood with the good food. The liver takes out the poisons and sends them
+back again with the bile. The liver keeps us from getting poisoned.
+
+=24. Bad food.=--Sometimes the stomach and intestine cannot digest the
+food. They cannot digest green apples, but they try hard to do so.
+They stir the apples faster and faster until there is a great pain.
+Sometimes the stomach throws up the food and then the pain and
+sickness stop. Spoiled food makes us sick in the same way.
+
+=25. Too fast eating.=--When the food stays too long in the stomach or
+intestine it sours, or decays, just as it does outside of the body.
+This makes us very sick. When we eat too much, or when we do not chew
+the food to small pieces, the stomach may be a long time in digesting
+the food. Then it may become sour and make us sick.
+
+=26. Biliousness.=--When the food is poor or becomes sour, it is
+poorly digested. Then the liver has more work to do, and does not
+change the food to blood as it should. It also lets some of the sour
+poisons pass by it. These poison the whole body and make the head
+ache. We call this _biliousness_. The tongue is then covered with a
+white or yellow coat and the mouth tastes bad. These are signs of
+sickness. The stomach and liver are out of order.
+
+=27. Rules for eating.=--If we eat as we should, our stomach will
+digest its food. We must follow three rules.
+
+_First_, we must chew the food in the mouth until all the lumps are
+fine. Then the food will be ready for the stomach.
+
+_Second_, we must eat slowly. If we eat fast we cannot chew the food
+well. The stomach cannot take care of food if it comes too fast. We
+must swallow all of one mouthful before we put another into the mouth.
+
+_Third_, we must eat only at meal times. The stomach needs a rest.
+Even a little candy, or apples, or nuts will keep the stomach at work,
+and tire it out. A child needs to eat more often than his father. So,
+besides his meals, he should have something to eat in the middle of
+the morning and some more in the afternoon. But he should not be
+eating at all hours. He ought not to eat little bits just before
+dinner, for that spoils his meal.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The stomach and intestine stir and rub the food, and mix it
+          with juices.
+
+     2. The juices change albumin to a liquid, and starch to sugar.
+          They also change fat to the form of tiny drops.
+
+     3. The digested food soaks through the sides of the intestine
+          into the blood tubes.
+
+     4. The blood carries the food to the liver.
+
+     5. The liver changes food to blood.
+
+     6. Blood goes to all parts of the body and feeds the cells.
+
+     7. The liver keeps poisons from getting into the blood.
+
+     8. Water and minerals become a part of the blood without being
+          digested.
+
+     9. When food is not well digested, the liver cannot make it into
+          good blood. This makes us bilious.
+
+     10. If food is not soon digested it sours and decays. This makes
+          us sick.
+
+     11. We can make food digest quickly by chewing it well and eating
+          slowly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FOODS
+
+
+=28. Kinds of food.=--The cells of the body need water, albumin, fat,
+sugar, and minerals for food. We sometimes eat sugar alone, and we
+drink pure water. But most of our food is a mixture of all five kinds
+of food. Food comes from animals and plants.
+
+=29. Milk=.--Milk is the best food known. It contains just enough
+water, albumin, fat, sugar, and minerals. Babies and young mammals
+live on milk alone. A man can live upon four quarts of milk a day. In
+sickness, milk is the very best food for men, as well as for babies.
+
+The albumin of milk becomes hard when the milk sours. This makes
+_cheese_. The fat of milk rises to the top. We call it _cream_. When
+cream is churned, the pure fat comes together in a lump. Pure fat of
+milk is called _butter_. Cheese and butter are both good foods.
+
+=30. Eggs.=--Eggs are also good food. The white of an egg is almost pure
+albumin. The yolk is albumin and fat. Eggs have no starch or sugar.
+They are not a perfect food, for some sugar must be eaten. But they can
+be quickly digested and they produce a great deal of strength.
+
+=31. Meat.=--Meat contains albumin and fat, but no sugar. Fish,
+oysters, and clams are like meat. They all make good food. Boys and
+girls should eat milk, eggs, and meat. These foods are the best to
+give strength to the body. Nearly all food from animals is more
+quickly digested and gives more strength than food from plants.
+
+=32. Bread.=--White bread is a food made from wheat. The wheat is
+ground to flour. Flour is mixed with water, and yeast is added. The
+yeast makes a gas, and the gas puffs up the wet flour and makes it
+full of holes. The holes make the bread _light_. Then bread is baked.
+Rye or corn meal makes good bread. Cake, biscuit, and pancakes are
+much like bread. Sometimes in place of yeast, baking powder is used to
+make the bread or cake light.
+
+=33. Meal.=--Oatmeal, corn meal, and cracked wheat and rice are
+sometimes boiled, and eaten with milk. Bread, biscuit, oatmeal, and
+corn meal are made from grain. All are very much alike. The cooking
+makes them look and taste different, but yet they are nearly the same.
+
+=34. Why we need grain food.=--All kinds of grain have much albumin,
+but only a little fat. But all have a great deal of starch. By
+digestion the starch becomes sugar. Grain is a good food because it
+has starch or sugar. Animal foods have no sugar, so we eat grain food
+with them. The two together make the most nourishing food. Potatoes
+have a great deal of starch and only a little albumin. They also are
+good food with meat.
+
+[Illustration: =A healthy man needs as much food as this every day.=]
+
+A person cannot live well upon plant food alone, for it has too much
+starch and sugar, and too little albumin and fat. We need nearly equal
+parts of albumin, fat, and sugar. A mixture of bread, meat, eggs,
+vegetables, and milk makes the best food.
+
+=35. Fruit.=--Fruit, like apples, peaches, and plums all have sugar.
+They taste good, and give us an appetite for other kinds of food.
+They have little albumin or fat.
+
+=36. Salt.=--There is enough mineral matter in all food, and we do not
+have to eat iron or lime or soda. But we do need some more salt. Even
+animals need salt. Salt makes food taste good, and helps its digestion.
+
+[Illustration: =People are made sick by drinking water from such a
+well.=]
+
+=37. Water.=--Water is also a food, for it forms the most of our
+bodies. All food has water. Even dry crackers contain it.
+
+=38. Pure water.=--Water in a well runs through the dirty earth, and
+yet is clear and pure. This is because sand holds back the dirt. But
+sometimes slops from the house, and water from the barn yard, soak
+through the soil until the sand is full. Then the well water will be
+dirty and poisonous. People are often made sick by drinking such
+water. In cities the dirt fills all the soil and spoils the water. So
+the water must be brought from the country in large pipes.
+
+Water in lead pipes takes up some of the lead. Lead is a poison. You
+should let the water run off from a pipe a little while before you use
+it. Good water is clear and has no smell or taste. Dirty or yellow
+water, or water with a taste or smell, is not fit for use.
+
+=39. Tea and coffee.=--Tea and coffee are steeped in water and used as a
+drink. The drink is the water. The tea and coffee are neither food nor
+drink. They cause the cells of the body to do more work, and at the same
+time they take away the feeling of being tired. They do not give
+strength to the body, but are like a whip and make the body work harder.
+
+=40. The appetite.=--When we have so many kinds of food, what kind is
+best for us? The taste of food tells us the kind of food to eat. Bread
+and meat, and such plain foods, always taste good, and we never get
+tired of them. Sugar tastes good until we get enough. Any more makes us
+sick. More than enough sugar or starch is found in bread and potatoes.
+
+[Illustration: =One kind of intemperance.=]
+
+If we can eat food day after day, without getting tired of it, the
+food is good for us. If we get tired of its taste, either the food is
+not good for us or we are eating too much. Bad tasting or bad smelling
+food is always dangerous.
+
+We can tell how much food to eat by our _hunger_ or _appetite_. We can
+always feel when we have enough. Then is the time to stop.
+
+Sometimes we eat plain bread and meat until we have enough, and then
+sweet cake or pie is brought in. Then we have a false appetite for
+sweet things. If the sweet things had not made a false hunger, we
+should have had enough to eat. But the false appetite makes us want
+more, and so we eat too much, and sometimes get sick from it.
+
+=41. Intemperance.=--Eating for the sake of a false appetite is
+_intemperance_. Drinking strong drink for the sake of its taste is a
+common form of intemperance. But eating too much preserves, pie, and
+candy is intemperance too, and can do a great deal of harm. A little
+pie, or pudding, or candy, is good, because we can eat our sugar as
+well that way as in bread. But we should eat only a little.
+
+=42. Food and Diseases.=--If our food is dirty or is handled with
+dirty hands, or is put into dirty dishes, there may be disease germs
+in it. Our food should always be clean, and we should have our hands
+clean when we handle it or eat it.
+
+Storekeepers sometimes keep fruit and vegetables out of doors where
+street dust may blow upon it. This dust is often full of disease
+germs. Flies may also bring disease germs to the food. If food is
+kept where dust and flies can get at it, we ought not to buy it.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Food is a mixture of water, albumin, fat, starch or sugar, and
+          minerals.
+
+     2. Animal foods, like milk, eggs, and meat, have albumin and fat
+          in the best form.
+
+     3. Plant food has albumin and fat, but it has very much starch or
+          sugar. So, taken together with animal food, it makes a
+          complete food.
+
+     4. Lime, iron, soda, and salt are found in all foods, but we must
+          add a little more salt to food.
+
+     5. Water is found in all food, but we must drink some besides.
+
+     6. Dirty water, or water with a taste or smell, is not fit for use.
+
+     7. Taste tells us what kind of food to use.
+
+     8. Hunger, or the appetite, tells us how much food to use.
+
+     9. There can be a false hunger for sweet things. This may lead us
+          to eat too much.
+
+     10. Eating too much of sweet things is one form of intemperance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TOBACCO
+
+
+=43. Harmful eating.=--Men often eat for the fun of eating, and
+sometimes they eat harmful things. They chew tobacco and drink strong
+drinks, because they like their taste, just as a child eats candy.
+
+=44. Tobacco.=--Men have always drunk strong drink. Within the last
+four hundred years, men have learned another way to please a wrong
+taste. When Columbus discovered America, the Indians were using
+tobacco. They taught the Spaniards how to smoke it, and since then
+almost the whole world has used it.
+
+Tobacco is the leaf of a tall plant. It needs a better soil than any
+other crop. It takes the richness from the ground, and spoils it for
+other crops.
+
+=45. Nicotine.=--About 1/30 of each tobacco leaf is a strong poison.
+This poison is called _nicotine_. A drop or two of it, or as much of
+it as is in a strong cigar, will kill a man. It gives the tobacco its
+smell and taste. Men use tobacco for the sake of a poison.
+
+=46. Why men use tobacco.=--Men give queer reasons for using tobacco.
+One smokes for its company, another because he is with company. One
+smokes to make his brain think better, and another to keep himself
+from thinking. Some use tobacco to help digest their food, and others
+use it to keep themselves from eating so much. Boys smoke to make
+themselves look like men. The real reason for using tobacco is that
+men learn to like its taste, and do not care if it harms them.
+
+=47. Spitting.=--Tobacco in any form makes the saliva flow. Men do not
+dare swallow it, for it makes them sick. So they spit it out. No one
+likes to see this. It is a dirty and filthy habit. Besides, the saliva
+is lost, and cannot help digest food.
+
+Tobacco stains the teeth brown. You can always tell a tobacco chewer
+by his teeth. His breath will smell of tobacco, and even his clothes
+are offensive to the nose.
+
+=48. Tobacco lessens strength.=--Tobacco always makes a person sick at
+the stomach, at first. After a while, he becomes used to it, and an
+ordinary chew or smoke does not make him sick. But a large chew or
+smoke will always make him sick again. When a person is sick from
+tobacco he is very weak. Even if he is not sick, the tobacco poisons
+his muscles and makes his strength less. When a man trains for a hard
+race he never uses tobacco.
+
+=49. Tobacco hinders digestion.=--Tobacco and its smoke both have a
+burning taste. This makes the throat sore, and causes a cough. Tobacco
+does not help the stomach to digest food. Smokers and chewers often
+have headaches and coated tongues. These are signs of a poor digestion.
+
+=50. Effect upon the young.=--Tobacco is more harmful to boys than to
+men. If boys smoke they cannot run fast or long. They cannot work hard
+with their brains or hands. They do not grow fast, and are liable to
+have weak hearts.
+
+=51. Tobacco harms others.=--Many persons do not like the smell of
+tobacco, and no one likes the spit. No one should use it in the
+presence of others. The tobacco user's pleasure should not spoil the
+comfort and happiness of others.
+
+=52. Snuff.=--Powdered tobacco is called snuff. Snuff causes sneezing.
+No one should harm the nose and the whole body for the pleasure of a
+sneeze. Years ago snuff was used much more than it is now.
+
+=53. Chewing.=--Chewing tobacco is the most poisonous way of using it,
+for it keeps most of the nicotine in the mouth. Chewing will make any
+one very sick, unless he spits out all the saliva.
+
+=54. Smoking.=--Men smoke pipes, cigars, and cigarettes. The smoke has
+nicotine, and is poisonous. Pipe stems get dirty and full of nicotine.
+After a while they smell bad and are very poisonous. An old smoker's
+pipe will make a young smoker sick.
+
+=55. Cigarettes.=--Cigars are not so poisonous as a pipe, for more of
+the nicotine is burned up. Cigarettes are often made of weak tobacco.
+A cigarette does not contain so much tobacco as a cigar. Hence a
+cigarette does not cost much. It can be smoked in a hurry. It does not
+make a boy so sick as cigars do. Boys and men use a great many
+cigarettes where they would not touch a cigar. This makes the use of
+cigarettes the most dangerous form of smoking. Selling cigarettes to
+young boys is forbidden by law.
+
+=56. Habit.=--When men have used tobacco for some time, they like it
+and feel bad without it. So they get into the habit of using it, and
+find it hard to stop. The tobacco seems to help them, but it does not
+do so. It cheats men, and they do not know it.
+
+=57. Chewing gum.=--Chewing gum is made from pitch or paraffin, for
+these substances will not dissolve in the mouth. The gum is flavored
+with sugar and spices. The gum and its flavors are not harmful in
+themselves, and yet chewing them is harmful. Chewing makes a great
+deal of saliva flow. All this saliva is wasted, and when we eat our
+meals we may have too little. Then our food will not digest well, but
+we shall have dyspepsia and headaches.
+
+By pulling and handling the gum while chewing it, you may get some
+poisonous dirt into your mouth, and make yourself very sick.
+
+Even if your gum should not harm you, there is a good reason for
+letting it alone. When you are chewing gum, you look as if you were
+chewing tobacco. No one likes to see a boy or girl even appearing to
+chew tobacco. If you form a habit of chewing gum you will be more
+likely to chew tobacco when you are grown.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Men use tobacco for the sake of its nicotine. Nicotine is a
+          very strong poison.
+
+     2. Tobacco causes a man to waste his saliva.
+
+     3. Tobacco makes the mouth dry.
+
+     4. Tobacco hinders digestion.
+
+     5. Tobacco stains the teeth, and makes the breath smell bad.
+
+     6. Tobacco makes a person sick at the stomach.
+
+     7. Tobacco weakens the muscles.
+
+     8. Tobacco is more harmful to the young than to grown persons.
+
+     9. Chewing is the worst form of using tobacco.
+
+     10. Smoking cigarettes is the worst form of smoking.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FERMENTATION
+
+
+=58. Souring of fruit.=--When a little fruit is set away in a warm
+place for a day or two it sours or ferments. Anything sweet will do
+the same thing. Little bubbles rise up through the juice and a foam
+comes on top. Then the juice has a sharp taste or is sour. Canned and
+preserved fruit becomes sour soon after the jar is opened, and cider
+soon turns to vinegar. All fruit juice does this even in cold weather.
+But in cold weather it keeps for a longer time.
+
+[Illustration: =Fermentation in a jar of cherries.=]
+
+=59. Preserving fruit.=--If your mother wishes to keep fruit all winter
+she boils it and at once puts it into tight jars. This shuts out the air
+and then the fruit keeps good all winter. Boiling kills all living
+things, and no more can get in through the tight jars. Does a living
+thing have anything to do with making the fruit juice turn sour?
+
+=60. Yeast.=--Yeast will make all sweet things ferment. Bakers make
+yeast grow in bread sponge. Yeast is alive. It is made of millions of
+tiny round cells. New cells sprout out from the side of the old cells
+like young lilies on an old lily bulb. Soon each new cell breaks off
+and lives all by itself. In a single night enough new cells will form
+to fill the whole loaf of bread.
+
+[Illustration: =Yeast plant cells (x500).=]
+
+=61. How yeast makes alcohol.=--Yeast will grow only where sugar is.
+When it has grown for some time there is no more sugar, and instead of
+a sweet taste there is a sharp or sour taste. The yeast has changed
+the sugar to alcohol. All alcohol is made from sugar by yeast.
+
+The seeds of the yeast plant are everywhere in the air. Some are on
+the skins of fruit and so are found in the juice when it is squeezed
+out. There they begin to grow at once and soon change the sugar to
+alcohol. They do this by taking a gas away from the sugar. The gas
+rises in little bubbles, and makes a froth upon the top of the juice.
+Boiling kills the yeast plant. If the juice is at once put into tight
+jars no new yeast plants can get in, and so the juice keeps.
+
+=62. Vinegar.=--Sometimes fruit juice turns sour. The sourness is due
+to vinegar. Besides yeast, other little living plants fall into the
+juice and turn the sugar to vinegar. But if there is much alcohol in
+the juice, the vinegar plants will not grow.
+
+=63. Yeast in bread.=--Growing yeast plants always make alcohol. They
+change some of the sugar of bread dough to alcohol and a gas. The gas
+bubbles through the bread and makes it light. When bread is baked, the
+heat of the oven drives off the alcohol, and so we do not eat any in
+bread.
+
+=64. Alcohol.=--Alcohol is a clear liquid and looks like water. It has
+a sharp taste and smell. It burns very easily and makes a very hot
+flame. Its smoke cannot be seen, and its flame will not make anything
+black, as a match flame will do.
+
+=65. Use of alcohol.=--Alcohol will dissolve more things than water
+will dissolve. It is used to dissolve drugs, varnishes, perfumery, and
+many other things. It will dissolve even oil and fat. Tailors clean
+grease spots from clothes with it. It takes water away from flesh and
+makes it dry, hard, and tough. It will keep anything from rotting. In
+museums we pour alcohol over pieces of flesh or plants in glass jars.
+Then they will keep and we can look at them at any time. Thus alcohol
+is a very useful thing, and we could hardly do without it.
+
+=66. Strong drink.=--Some men use alcohol in a wrong way. They swallow
+it as a drink. But men cannot drink pure alcohol, for it would burn
+their mouths. They always drink it mixed with some water. Alcohol in
+water is called _strong drink_.
+
+=67. Why men use strong drink.=--Some men take strong drink to make
+themselves warm, and some to make themselves cool. Some drink to keep
+themselves awake, and some to make themselves sleep. Some drink to
+keep themselves still, and some to make themselves stir around faster.
+Men use strong drink really because it seems to make them feel strong
+for a while. It does not make them stronger, but it harms the body and
+the mind. Its alcohol does the harm.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Sugar in fruit or in water turns to alcohol or vinegar, and a
+          gas.
+
+     2. The change to alcohol is caused by the cells of the yeast plant.
+
+     3. The change to vinegar is caused by another small plant.
+
+     4. Boiling fruit juice kills the yeast plants and then the juice
+          will keep without change.
+
+     5. Alcohol looks like water. It has a sharp and burning taste.
+
+     6. Alcohol takes water from flesh and hardens it.
+
+     7. Alcohol burns with a great heat and no smoke.
+
+     8. Alcohol is used to dissolve things, and to keep things from
+          spoiling.
+
+     9. Alcohol in water forms _strong drink_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+KINDS OF STRONG DRINK
+
+
+=68. Wine.=--All strong drink is alcohol and water. There may be other
+things to give it taste, but alcohol and water are always in it. No
+strong drink is over one half alcohol.
+
+[Illustration: =A glass of wine contains so much alcohol.=]
+
+In olden times wine was the only strong drink. Men used to crush out
+the juice of grapes and let it ferment. This made wine. But very often
+they used the juice before it fermented. Then it had no alcohol and
+could do no harm, but was a good food. We read of wine in the Bible.
+Some of it was fresh fruit juice.
+
+In wine, the sugar is changed to alcohol. The rest of the juice stays
+the same. All wine is made by the yeast plant growing in fruit juice.
+No yeast is put in, for there is always enough on the outside of the
+fruit. Wine is about one tenth alcohol.
+
+=69. Homemade wine.=--Cider is a kind of wine. It is made from apple
+juice. It has alcohol a day or two after it is made. All homemade
+wines have alcohol. Any of them can make a person drunk. Using weak
+homemade wine and cider often makes an appetite for stronger drinks.
+The alcohol in any of them is enough to harm the body.
+
+[Illustration: =A glass of beer contains so much alcohol.=]
+
+=70. Beer.=--After man had made wine for a long time, some one found
+out how to cultivate yeast. Then men could make sugar and water
+ferment whenever they wanted to. So men boiled grain to take out its
+sugar. Then they poured off the liquor and added yeast and let it
+ferment. This made beer and ale. Now millions of bushels of grain are
+used every year in making beer. Men call beer a _light_ drink. But it
+has alcohol and is a strong drink, and can make men drunk.
+
+=71. Root beer.=--Some persons boil roots and herbs, and add molasses
+and yeast. Then the liquid ferments and becomes _root beer_. They say
+"it has no alcohol, for we made it." But it does have alcohol, for
+yeast always makes alcohol. Some ginger ale is made by putting yeast
+in sweetened ginger water. It has alcohol, too.
+
+=72. Distillation.=--Boiling water turns to vapor or steam and goes
+off in the air. When the vapor is cooled, you can see the water again.
+It often cools on the window and makes little streams of water. You
+can catch the steam in a tube. If you keep the tube cool, the steam
+will turn to water in the tube. This process is called _distillation_.
+
+[Illustration: =A glass of whisky contains so much alcohol.=]
+
+Boiling alcohol also passes off into the air as vapor. When the vapor
+is cooled, it becomes liquid again. Alcohol boils with less heat than
+water. When alcohol in water is heated, the alcohol boils first. So
+the vapor has more alcohol than the water. When the vapor is cooled,
+the liquid has more alcohol than it had at first. When the liquid is
+distilled again it has more alcohol yet. Pure alcohol can be made in
+this way.
+
+=73. Whisky.=--Distilling wine or strong beer makes _whisky_ and
+_brandy_. Whisky is one half alcohol. It is more harmful than wine or
+beer.
+
+=74. Habit.=--Some strong drinks have only a little alcohol and some
+have a great deal. No one begins to drink the strong liquors. He
+begins with wine or beer. When he has once learned, he has a hard time
+to stop drinking. It is dangerous to drink even weak drinks.
+
+=75. Strong drink and thirst.=--When a man is thirsty, water will
+satisfy him but strong drink will not. Sometimes the mouth is dry and
+dirty and then a man feels thirsty. Rinsing the mouth with water, and
+rubbing the tongue and teeth clean will help the dryness and stop the
+thirst. At any rate, strong drink will only make the mouth dryer.
+
+Some men drink only when they are tired. Then a cup of strong and hot
+tea or coffee will make them feel much better than a glass of strong
+drink, and will not harm them so much.
+
+When strong drink is swallowed, its alcohol takes water from the
+mouth. When your mouth is dry, you feel thirsty. Strong drink makes
+the mouth dry, and so a drink makes a man more thirsty. The alcohol
+also makes the mouth smart. Men need another drink to cool the mouth
+after the first one. So one drink leads to another. All the while a
+person drinks water with the alcohol until he has too much water. But
+his mouth is dry and he feels as thirsty as ever.
+
+=76. Effect of alcohol upon the stomach.=--When strong drink is
+swallowed it makes the stomach smart just as it does the mouth. So the
+stomach feels warm, but it is really no warmer. This harms the stomach
+and keeps it from working well.
+
+Alcohol also keeps the gastric juice from changing albumin to a
+liquid. Alcohol keeps flesh from decaying in a museum. In the same way
+it may hinder the digestion of food in the stomach.
+
+When alcohol is used for only a short time, the stomach can get well;
+but if it is used for months and years, the stomach will stay weak.
+Then the drinker can hardly eat at all.
+
+=77. What becomes of alcohol.=--In the stomach a great deal of gastric
+juice is mixed with the alcohol. So it is very weak when it reaches
+the intestine. Alcohol needs only a little digesting. It soon soaks
+into the blood from the intestine along with the other food. The blood
+flows fast and washes the alcohol away as soon as it leaves the
+intestine. Too little gets into the blood at once to harm it much.
+
+Alcohol goes to the liver, and is there destroyed; but it still does
+great harm. The liver has to attend to the alcohol, and so it does not
+change the food to good blood, and it does not take all the poisons
+out of the blood. Then the whole body becomes weak and sick. Alcohol
+hurts the liver first, and more than other parts of the body. On this
+account, drinkers often have bilious attacks and stomach troubles.
+
+=78. Bitters.=--Many medicines are made by dissolving drugs in
+alcohol. In taking a strong medicine, we use only a few drops, and so
+do not get much alcohol. Some kinds of medicines must be taken in
+large doses. Bitters are weak medicines, and must be taken by the
+tablespoonful. A tablespoonful of the medicine has more alcohol than a
+large drink of whisky. The bitters seem to make a person feel well,
+but it is because he is taking a large amount of strong drink.
+
+Jamaica Ginger is only common ginger dissolved in alcohol. It, too, is
+a form of strong drink.
+
+=79. Strong drink as medicine.=--People sometimes keep whisky or
+brandy in the house to give for colds or other slight forms of
+sickness. A drink of hot coffee does more good than the strong drink,
+and has none of its dangers.
+
+By using whisky or brandy for medicine, children learn to believe in
+strong drink, and so they will be likely to use it when they grow up.
+This reason alone ought to keep any one from giving it to a child.
+
+=80. Alcohol in cooking.=--In making bread, alcohol is formed in the
+dough by the yeast. When the bread is baked, all the alcohol is driven
+off by the heat, and so we do not eat any.
+
+Sometimes brandy or wine is put into desserts. If it is put in after
+the dessert is cooked, we shall get as much alcohol as if we had drunk
+it. If the liquor is put in before cooking, the heat will drive off
+the alcohol but the flavor of the liquor will remain. The flavor will
+do no harm in itself, but people will learn its taste, and from it
+may learn to like the strong drink itself. The alcohol in bread has no
+special flavor and does not leave any taste behind. So we cannot learn
+to like strong drink by eating bread.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Fruit juice makes wine or cider.
+
+     2. All kinds of wine contain alcohol.
+
+     3. When the liquid from boiled grain has fermented, it becomes
+          beer, or ale.
+
+     4. By boiling wine or beer, and cooling the vapor, distilled
+          drinks like whisky are made. They are one half alcohol.
+
+     5. Water will satisfy a real thirst. Strong drink will not.
+
+     6. Alcohol keeps the stomach from digesting food.
+
+     7. Alcohol soaks into the blood tubes and goes to the liver.
+
+     8. The liver destroys the alcohol, but is hurt in doing it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE BLOOD
+
+
+=81. Blood.=--After food becomes blood, it goes to every part of the
+body to feed the cells. Even a pin prick anywhere in the body draws
+blood. The blood makes the skin pink. There are five or six quarts of
+blood in a man's body. This is about 1/13 of his body.
+
+[Illustration: =Blood corpuscles (x400).=
+
+  _a_ a pile of red blood cells.
+  _b_ red blood cells seen flatwise.
+  _c_ red blood cells seen edgewise.
+  _d_ white blood cells.]
+
+Blood looks like a red liquid. But if you look at it through a strong
+microscope, it looks like water, and millions of little red cells.
+These cells carry air through the body. They make the blood look red.
+There are also a smaller number of white cells. Blood is made of red
+cells, white cells, and a liquid.
+
+=82. The liquid in blood.=--The liquid part of the blood is albumin,
+and water, with a little fat, sugar, and minerals. It is food and
+drink for the cells of the body. When blood is drawn from the body it
+soon becomes like jelly. We call the jelly a _clot_. When you cut your
+finger, a clot forms in the cut and plugs up the bleeding place. If
+it did not, the blood would all run out of the body and we should die.
+
+[Illustration: =Diagram of the heart while it is beating.=
+
+  _a_ vein entering the auricle.
+  _b_ auricle.
+  _c_ closed valve to keep blood from flowing back into the auricle.
+  _d_ ventricle.
+  _e_ artery.
+  _f_ valve to keep blood from returning to the ventricle.]
+
+=83. The heart.=--The blood is held in tubes. A pump inside the body
+keeps it always moving. This pump is called the _heart_. The heart is
+a bag of muscle with thick sides. It is about as large as your fist.
+When it is full, it has the power to make itself smaller, and so it
+squeezes the blood out through a tube. We can feel each squeeze as a
+heart-beat. You can find the heart-beat just to the left of the middle
+of the body about two hand-breadths below the neck.
+
+=84. The heart-beat.=--A man's heart beats about seventy times each
+minute. Boys' and girls' hearts beat much faster. Running or hard work
+of any kind makes the heart beat faster yet. Your heart will keep on
+beating until you die. It does not seem to rest at all, yet it works
+only while you feel it beat. Between each beat it rests while the
+blood is filling it again. So it really rests one half of the time.
+
+=85. Arteries.=--The heart pumps the blood through a single tube. This
+tube opens into smaller tubes. These open into still smaller ones. You
+must use a strong microscope to see the finest blood tubes. The tubes
+reach every part of the body, and carry blood to its cells. They are
+called _arteries_. At each heart-beat a wave of blood can be felt in
+an artery. This wave is the _pulse_. It can be felt in the wrist,
+temples, and other places. By the pulse we can tell how often and how
+strongly the heart is beating.
+
+[Illustration: =Arrangement of capillaries.=
+
+  _a_ smallest artery.
+  _b_ smallest vein.
+  _c_ network of capillaries.]
+
+=86. Capillaries.=--The smallest arteries divide into a fine network
+of small tubes. These tubes are the _capillaries_. They lie around
+every cell of the body. Their sides are very thin. As the blood flows
+through them, some of it soaks through the sides of the tubes. Blood
+contains all kinds of food for the cells. Each cell is always wet with
+food and can eat it at any time. The cells are like the tiny animal,
+the ameba, and can take in the food by any part of their bodies. The
+cells are better off than the ameba, for their food is brought to
+them. They pay the body for their food by working for it.
+
+=87. Veins.=--The capillaries come together again to form large tubes.
+These tubes are called _veins_. Only a little of the blood goes through
+the sides of a capillary. The rest flows on into the veins. The veins
+unite to form two large tubes. These two tubes open into the heart.
+
+=88. How the blood flows.=--The blood is pumped out of the heart,
+through the arteries to the capillaries. There some goes out to the
+cells. The rest flows into the veins and goes back to the heart. All
+the blood in the body passes through the heart every two minutes. It
+takes only twenty seconds for a drop of blood to go from the heart to
+the toes and back again. The arteries are deep in the flesh, but some
+of the large veins can be seen upon the back of the hands.
+
+=89. Bleeding.=--If a large artery or vein is cut there is a great
+deal of bleeding. You can always stop a cut from bleeding by holding
+it fast between the hands. Do not be afraid of the blood when you see
+any one bleeding, but hold the sides of the cut tightly with both of
+your hands. This will stop any bleeding until help comes. You may keep
+a person from bleeding to death by doing this when other persons are
+afraid of the blood.
+
+=90. Healing cuts.=--When your flesh is cut it soon grows together
+again. The work of the little white cells in the blood is to help heal
+cuts and wounds and bruises. These cells are like little amebas in the
+blood. They keep moving around with the blood, and now and then burrow
+outside the capillaries to see if all is well. If they find a cut,
+hundreds and thousands rush to the spot at once. Some eat up any
+specks of dirt on the cut. Others fit themselves into the sides of the
+cut and grow long and slender, like strings, and so bind the two edges
+of the cut together. In this way all cuts are healed.
+
+[Illustration: =Bacteria growing in a kidney and producing an abscess
+(x300).=
+
+  _a_ kidney tube.
+  _b_ white blood cell attacking bacteria.
+  _c_ bacteria.
+  _d_ blood vessel of the kidney.]
+
+=91. The white blood cells kill disease germs.=--There are tiny living
+beings everywhere in the air, and soil, and water. Some of them can grow
+inside a man and make him sick. These tiny things are called _disease
+germs_. One kind gives a man typhoid fever, and another diphtheria.
+Another kind grows on cuts, and sometimes makes them very sore. The
+white cells of the blood are always watching for these enemies, like a
+cat hunting mice, and when they find them they at once try to kill them.
+But sometimes the white blood cells get killed. Then they look like
+cream in the cut. We call this creamy liquid _matter_ or _pus_, and say
+"We have caught cold in the cut." In most pricks and cuts the white
+cells of the blood can kill all these enemies and also heal the cut.
+
+=92. Catching cold.=--Sometimes the cold air blows on our head and
+hurts the cells of the nose. If there are disease germs in the air,
+they may grow in the injured part of the nose and make us have a "cold
+in the head." Then the white blood cells gather at the spot so as to
+kill the disease germs. Also the arteries bring a great deal of blood
+to the nose so as to heal the injured parts. Some of the white blood
+cells and the liquid from the blood run out, and we have to blow the
+nose. The white blood cells help to make us well whenever we catch a
+cold or other kind of sickness.
+
+=93. Red blood cells.=--The red blood cells are like tiny flat plates.
+They float in the liquid part of the blood and make the blood look
+red. They carry air from the lungs to the cells of every part of the
+body, and thus help all the cells to breathe.
+
+=94. Why the heart beats hard when we run.=--When we work hard, the
+cells of our bodies need a great deal of food. So the heart beats much
+harder, and sends them much more blood. We can feel our heart beat
+when we run hard.
+
+When the cells work they get more blood in another way. The arteries
+become larger and hold more blood. Then the part looks red and feels
+warm. Thus your face gets red when you run hard. This is because your
+heart and arteries bring more blood to feed the working cells.
+
+=95. Need of a strong heart.=--The heart must keep sending blood to
+feed the cells. If it should stop for only a little while, the cells
+would starve to death and we should die. We need strong hearts. When
+we work very hard for a long time, the heart gets tired. Then the
+cells do not get enough food and we feel weak all over. Boys ought not
+to run and lift till they are tired out, for this hurts their hearts.
+
+=96. What alcohol does to the blood.=--Alcohol hinders the digestion
+of food. Then too little food will reach the blood, and so the cells
+of the body will get too little. Alcohol does not add strength to the
+body, but it takes it away. It seems to make men stronger, for it
+takes away their tired feelings. But it makes them really weaker, for
+it harms the blood.
+
+=97. How alcohol affects the heart.=--Alcohol at first makes the heart
+beat more strongly and quickly, but it tires it out and makes it
+weaker. Then the heart pumps too little blood to the rest of the body,
+and a man is weaker all over.
+
+If a drinker tries to run or work hard, his heart may not pump enough
+food to the working cells of his arms and legs. Strong drink takes
+away a man's strength and makes him less able to endure a long strain.
+
+=98. How alcohol harms the arteries.=--Alcohol causes the arteries to
+become larger and to carry more blood. Then the face will be red and
+the skin will become warm. This makes a person feel well, and he seems
+to be helped. His blood seems to be flowing faster because his face is
+red. But really it is flowing slower.
+
+When the arteries have been made large very often, they stay large all
+the time. A drinker's nose is often red from this cause.
+
+Alcohol sometimes causes the arteries to become hard, and even to
+change to a kind of bone. Then they cannot change their size to carry
+just so much blood as each part needs.
+
+=99. How tobacco affects the heart.=--Tobacco weakens all the body,
+but it harms the heart more than the rest. It often makes the heart
+beat slowly at one time and fast at another. It weakens the heart and
+keeps it from working harder when the working cells need more food. A
+smoker gets out of breath quickly. He cannot run far or work very
+hard. Chewing is a still more harmful form of using tobacco. When men
+train for a game or a race they never use tobacco.
+
+Boys are not so strong as men, and so tobacco is more hurtful to them.
+Boys are harmed by tobacco far more than men. Cigarette smoke harms
+their stomachs and keeps food from their blood. If boys smoke, they
+become pale and weak. The poisonous smoke weakens the heart, and they
+cannot run or work so hard as they should. Even if a father uses
+tobacco, he should not allow his boys to use it.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Blood is a liquid. It contains many round red cells and a few
+          white cells.
+
+     2. Blood contains all kinds of food for the cells of the body.
+
+     3. The blood is kept moving by the heart.
+
+     4. The heart pumps or beats about seventy times a minute.
+
+     5. The blood flows through arteries to all parts of the body.
+
+     6. The arteries open into the capillaries. Capillaries make a
+          network around each cell of the body.
+
+     7. Some of the liquid parts of the blood go out through the sides
+          of the capillaries and become food for the cells of the
+          body.
+
+     8. From the capillaries the blood flows into the veins and back
+          to the heart.
+
+     9. Bleeding can be stopped by holding the cut tightly between the
+          hands.
+
+     10. The white blood cells grow into the sides of cuts, and so
+          heal them. They also guard the body against the seeds of
+          many diseases.
+
+     11. The red blood cells carry air to the cells of the body.
+
+     12. Alcohol weakens the heart and arteries.
+
+     13. Tobacco harms the heart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+BREATHING, HEAT, AND CLOTHING
+
+
+=100. The lungs.=--Our food becomes blood and feeds the cells of our
+body, but we grow only a little heavier. What becomes of the food?
+
+[Illustration: =The air tubes and lung.=
+
+  _a_ larynx or voice box.
+  _b_ trachea or windpipe.
+  _d_ air sacs, each like a tiny frog's lung.]
+
+Besides food, air is always getting into our bodies. In breathing, air
+passes through the nose into a tube in the neck. This tube is called
+the _windpipe_. You can feel it as a pile of hard rings in the front
+part of the neck. The windpipe divides into many branches. At the end
+of its smallest branches are little bags or sacs. The branches and
+the sacs make the two lungs. So a lung is a soft and spongy piece of
+flesh, and can be blown up like a rubber bag. A frog's lung is a
+single, thin bag, about half an inch across it. Each little sac of a
+man's lung is like a tiny frog's lung.
+
+[Illustration: =A frog's lung (x4).=]
+
+=101. The diaphragm.=--The lungs fill the upper part of the body just
+below the neck. They are covered by the bony ribs, and rest upon a
+broad muscle. This muscle is called the _diaphragm_. It divides the
+inside of the body into two parts. The upper part is the _chest_, and
+holds the heart and lungs. The lower part is the _abdomen_, and holds
+the stomach, intestine, and liver, and a few other parts.
+
+[Illustration: =The parts inside the body.=
+
+  _a_ lungs.
+  _b_ heart.
+  _c_ diaphragm.
+  _d_ stomach.
+  _e_ liver.
+  _f_ intestine.]
+
+=102. Breathing.=--When the diaphragm lowers itself, or the ribs are
+raised, the chest is made larger. Then the air rushes through the
+nose and swells out the lungs to the size of the chest. This is taking
+a breath. Then the chest becomes smaller again, and blows the air out.
+A man breathes about eighteen times a minute. He does not seem to rest
+in breathing, but as he works only when he takes in breath, he rests
+one half of the time.
+
+=103. How air gets into the blood.=--After the blood has been around the
+body through the arteries and capillaries and veins, the heart sends
+every drop to the lungs before it sends it out to feed the cells again.
+The blood flows through little capillaries upon the sides of the air
+sacs. There the red blood cells take up some of the air, and carry it
+with them. When they have a load of air, they become of a brighter red
+color. The blood in the arteries on its way to the cells is bright red.
+
+=104. How the cells get air.=--When the blood reaches the capillaries
+around the cells of the body, the red blood cells give up some of the
+air to the cells. Thus each cell of the body gets some air, and so it
+breathes. The cells cannot reach the air themselves, and so the red
+blood cells bring it to them. We breathe so as to supply the cells
+with air.
+
+=105. What burning is.=--When meat is put into a hot stove it quickly
+burns, and passes off in smoke, and leaves only a little ashes. The
+ashes are the mineral parts of the meat. If the fire is very hot, you
+cannot see the smoke. The burning of the meat makes heat. Heat in a
+steam engine makes the machine do work.
+
+Every fire must have plenty of air. If air is shut off, the fire goes
+out. When meat burns, the air unites with the meat and makes smoke, and
+ashes, and gives out heat. Air unites with something in every fire.
+
+=106. Burning inside the body.=--In every part of a man's body a very
+slow fire is always burning. The blood brings to the cells food from
+the intestine, and air from the lungs. The food and air join in a
+burning. The smoke goes back to the blood and is carried to the lungs,
+and breathed out with the breath. The ashes, also, go back to the
+blood, and are carried away by the skin and kidneys. The burning makes
+no flame or light for it goes on very slowly. You cannot see the
+smoke, but you can feel the warmth of the burning. Some of the heat is
+turned to power, and gives the body strength to do work. The body is
+like a steam engine. It burns up all its food.
+
+=107. How the body is warmed.=--The body is warmed by the slow burning
+in the cells. This burning keeps the body always at the same warmth.
+On a hot summer's day you feel warmer than on a cold snowy morning.
+But your body is no warmer. Only your skin is warmer.
+
+If the skin is warm, the whole body feels warm, but if the skin is
+cold, the whole body feels cold. On a hot summer's day the heat is
+kept in the skin, and we feel warm. On a cold winter's day a great
+deal of heat passes off from the skin, and we feel cold. Yet our
+bodies have the same warmth in winter as in summer.
+
+=108. How the sweat keeps us cool.=--When your hands or feet are wet,
+they are cold. On a hot summer's day, your body becomes wet with
+sweat. This cools the body as if water were poured over it. So
+sweating keeps you from getting too warm, and from being sunstruck.
+
+We are sweating all the time, but the sweat usually dries as fast as
+it forms. When we are too warm it comes out faster than it dries. On a
+winter's day we sweat only a little, and so we save the heat. But more
+heat passes off from the skin into the cold air, and we do not grow
+warmer.
+
+=109. Clothes.=--We wear clothes to keep the heat in the body. They do
+not make heat, but they keep it from going off. Wool and flannel
+clothes keep the heat in better than cotton. We wear woolen in the
+winter, and cotton in the summer.
+
+Fur keeps in heat the best of all. In very cold lands only fur is worn.
+
+Linen lets heat out easily. It makes good summer clothes.
+
+=110. Where to wear the most clothes.=--The face and hands are kept
+warm by the blood and we do not cover them except in the coldest
+weather. Our feet are more tender and need to be covered enough to
+keep them warm. We ought to wear thick-soled shoes or rubbers in damp
+weather so as to keep the feet dry and warm. We ought to dry the
+stockings every night, for they will get wet with sweat.
+
+The trunk of the body needs the most clothes. The legs ought to be
+kept warm, too. If the dress reaches only to the knee, thick
+underclothing is needed for the lower part of the leg.
+
+Do not keep one part of the body warm while another part remains cold.
+It is wrong to bundle the neck or wear too much clothing over any part
+of the body. It is also wrong to wear too little and be cold.
+
+When you are moving about, you need less clothing than when you are
+sitting still. When you have worked until you are very warm, it is
+wrong to stop to cool off. When you stop, you ought to put on a thick
+coat or else go into the house. If you do not, you may be chilled and
+made weak so that you can easily catch cold or some other disease.
+
+=111. Heating houses.=--In winter our bodies cannot make heat fast
+enough to keep us warm unless we put on a great deal of clothing. So
+we warm our houses. Our grandfathers used fireplaces, but these did
+not give out much heat. People now use stoves, but some use a furnace
+in the cellar, or heat the rooms by steam. Some use kerosene stoves,
+but they are not so good, for they make the air bad. A room should
+feel neither too warm nor too cold. It is of the right warmth when we
+do not notice either heat or cold.
+
+=112. Change of air.=--After air has been breathed it is no longer fit
+for use. In an hour or two you would breathe all the air of a small room
+once if it were not changed. When the air is partly used, you feel dull
+and short of breath, and your head aches. As soon as you get out of
+doors, you feel better. Foul air of houses and meeting places often
+contains disease germs. It is necessary to change the air of all rooms
+often. You can do this by opening a door or window. It is a good plan to
+sleep with your bedroom window open, so as to get good air all night.
+
+Air passes in and out of every crack in the windows and doors. If
+only one person is in a room, this may make enough change of air. If
+many persons are in a room, you will need to change the air in other
+ways. You can do this by opening a door or window. Do not let the cold
+air blow upon any one, for it may help to make him catch cold, if the
+air of the room is impure. If we lower a window from the top, warm
+impure air may pass out above it without making a draft.
+
+[Illustration: =Diagram of the natural ventilation of a room.=
+
+The arrows show the direction of the air currents.]
+
+You need fresh air at night as much as in the daytime. You need not be
+afraid of the night air, for it is good and pure like the day air. You
+ought to sleep with your window open a little. You ought to open the
+windows wide every morning and air your bed well. At night you ought
+to take off all your clothes and put on a night-dress. Then hang your
+clothes up to air and dry.
+
+=113. When to air a room.=--When you first enter a room full of bad
+air it smells musty and unpleasant. But after you have been in the
+room a while, you get used to it. If, however, you go out of doors a
+minute and then come back, you will smell the bad air again. If the
+air smells bad, open a door or window until it is sweet again.
+
+=114. How to breathe.=--When you run hard, the cells of your body use
+up all the air, and then you feel short of breath. While you run,
+burning goes on faster, and you feel warmer. You can work harder and
+longer if you can breathe in a great deal of air. You will also feel
+better and stronger for it. Then if you are sick, you will be able to
+get well more quickly. You ought to know how to breathe right.
+
+_First_, you ought to breathe through your nose. Even when you run,
+you ought to keep your mouth closed.
+
+_Second_, you should try to breathe deeply. You should take a very
+deep breath often, and hold it as long as you can. By practice you can
+learn to hold it a full minute.
+
+_Third_, you ought to run, or do some hard work, every day. When you
+get short of breath, you will have to breathe more deeply. After a
+while you may be able to run a half mile, or even a mile, without
+getting out of breath. But do not get tired out in your run, for this
+will harm you.
+
+_Fourth_, you must sit and stand with your shoulders back, and your
+chest thrown forward. A round-shouldered boy cannot have large lungs
+or be long winded.
+
+By breathing right, you can make your lungs very much larger and
+stronger.
+
+=115. The voice.=--We talk by means of the breath. At the upper part
+of the windpipe is a small box. Its front corner can be felt in the
+neck, just under the chin, and is called the _Adam's apple_. Two thin,
+strong covers slide across the top of the box, and can be made to meet
+in the middle. The covers have sharp edges. When they are near
+together, and air is breathed out between them, a sound is made. This
+sound is the _voice_. The tongue and lips change it to form _words_.
+
+=116. Care of the voice.=--The voice shows our feelings, even if we
+do not tell them in words. We can form a habit of speaking in a loud
+and harsh tone, as if we were always angry, or we can speak gently and
+kindly. We shall be more pleasant company to others if we are careful
+always to speak in gentle but distinct tones.
+
+[Illustration: =Top view of the larynx, with the vocal cords closed,
+as in speaking.=
+
+  _a_ epiglottis.
+  _b_ vocal cords.]
+
+[Illustration: =Top view of the larynx, with the vocal cords open, as
+in breathing.=
+
+  _a_ epiglottis.
+  _b_ vocal cords.]
+
+Shouting strains the voice and spoils its tone for singing. Reading
+until the throat is tired makes the voice weak. Singing or shouting in
+a cold or damp air is also bad for the voice. Breathing through the
+mouth is the worst of all for the voice.
+
+=117. What becomes of alcohol in the body.=--When alcohol is taken up
+by the blood, it is carried to the liver. The liver tries to get rid
+of it by taking some air from the blood and burning it up, just as it
+burns the real food of the body. But this takes some air from the
+cells of the body. Then they do not burn as they should.
+
+When a stove gets too little air through its draft, it makes an
+unpleasant smoke, and cools off. Just so, when the cells of the body
+do not burn as they should, they produce the wrong kind of smoke and
+ashes. This poisons the body and makes men sick. The most of the
+poisoning of alcohol is due to these new poisons.
+
+When alcohol takes air from the cells of the body, they do not get
+enough air. Then they are like a short-winded boy, and do not do their
+work well. In this way alcohol makes the body weak.
+
+Alcohol does not cease to be harmful because it is burned up in the
+body. It is harmful just because it burns so quickly. Using alcohol in
+the body is like trying to burn kerosene in a coal stove. The body is
+not made to burn alcohol any more than a coal stove is made to burn
+kerosene. You can burn a little kerosene in a coal stove if you are
+very careful. Just so, men can burn alcohol in their bodies. But
+kerosene will always smoke and clog up the stove, and may explode and
+kill some one. So alcohol in the body burns quickly and forms poisons.
+It always harms the body and may destroy life at once.
+
+=118. Alcohol and the lungs.=--If you run a long race, your lungs will
+need a great deal of air. If you take strong drink, the alcohol will
+use up much of the air, and you will not have enough to use on your
+run. So you will feel short of breath, and will surely lose the race.
+You cannot drink and be long-winded.
+
+Two drinks of whisky will use up as much air as the body uses in an
+hour. It would be easy to smother a person with strong drink. Drunken
+persons are really smothered; they often die because of the failure of
+their breathing, even while their heart is able to beat well.
+
+Alcohol often causes the lungs to become thickened. Then air cannot
+easily pass through their sides, and a person suffers from shortness
+of breath. Sometimes these persons cannot lie down at all, but must
+sit up to catch their breath.
+
+=119. Drinking and taking cold.=--A strong, healthy man can stand a
+great deal of cold and wet. If he breathes deeply in his work, all the
+cells of his body get plenty of air, and if he eats good food, the
+cells get plenty to eat. Then it will take a great deal to harm them.
+But alcohol hinders the digestion of their food, and also takes away
+their air. So the cells are both starved and smothered, and are easily
+hurt. Then a little cold and wet may do great harm to his body, for a
+drinker cannot stand bad weather or hard work so well as he could if
+he should leave drink alone.
+
+Men often drink to keep themselves from taking cold. The alcohol
+really makes them more liable to take cold. It causes the blood to
+flow near the surface of the skin; there it is easily cooled, and the
+drinker soon becomes chilled; then he feels colder than ever. The cold
+harms the cells of his body, and then the white blood cells cannot
+easily fight disease germs. For this reason a drinker easily takes
+cold and other diseases.
+
+=120. Alcohol lessens the warmth of the body.=--Alcohol causes the
+blood tubes in the skin to become larger. Then more blood will touch
+the cool air, and the body will become cooler. But because more warm
+blood flows through the skin, a man feels warmer. But he is really
+colder. Alcohol makes men less able to stand the cold. Travelers in
+cold lands know this and do not use it.
+
+=121. How tobacco affects breathing.=--We would not live in a room
+with a smoking stove. But tobacco smoke is more harmful than smoke
+from a stove, for it has nicotine in it. Tobacco smoke in a room may
+make a child sick.
+
+Cigarette smoking is very harmful to the lungs, for the smoke is drawn
+deeply into them, and more of the poison is likely to stay in the
+body. The smoke of tobacco burns the throat and causes a cough. This
+harms the voice.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Air is always being breathed into little sacs inside the body.
+          The sacs form the lungs.
+
+     2. The red blood cells pass through the lungs, and take little
+          loads of air. They then carry the air through the arteries
+          to the capillaries.
+
+     3. In the capillaries the air leaves the red blood cells, and
+          goes to the cells of the body.
+
+     4. The air unites with the cells, and slowly burns them to smoke
+          and ashes.
+
+     5. The smoke goes back to the blood, and is carried to the lungs
+          and given off by the breath. The ashes go back to the blood
+          and pass off through the skin and the kidneys.
+
+     6. The burning in the cells makes heat.
+
+     7. Some of the heat is changed to power, as it is in a steam
+          engine.
+
+     8. The heat also warms the body. It keeps it at the same warmth
+          on a cold day as on a hot day.
+
+     9. We wear clothes to keep the heat in, and so to keep us warm.
+
+     10. The air of a room needs to be changed often. It is made
+          stuffy by our breath.
+
+     11. The voice is made by the breath in a box in the neck.
+
+     12. Alcohol uses air belonging to the cells of the body.
+
+     13. Tobacco smoke has the same poisons as tobacco. It can poison
+          the whole body through the lungs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE SKIN AND KIDNEYS
+
+
+=122. Waste matters.=--The food is burned in the cells. As this
+burning goes on, the _smoke_ goes off by the lungs and the unburned
+substances, the _ashes_, go off by the skin and kidneys. The ashes are
+mostly the minerals of the cells, but there are also some from the
+burned albumin. All these go back to the blood and are carried to the
+skin and kidneys.
+
+[Illustration: =The skin (x100).=
+
+  _a_, _b_ and _c_ epidermis.
+  _d_ and _g_ tough and thick part of skin.
+  _e_ sweat gland.
+  _f_ blood tubes.
+  _h_ fat pockets.]
+
+=123. The skin.=--The skin covers the whole body. It is strong and
+keeps the body from being hurt.
+
+=124. The epithelium.=--The skin is covered with a thin layer of cells
+like fine scales. These scales are called _epithelium_, or _epidermis_.
+They have no blood tubes or nerves and so have no feeling. You can run a
+pin under them without feeling pain. They are always growing on their
+under side and wearing off on their upper side. They keep the nerves and
+blood tubes of the skin from being hurt.
+
+=125. The nails.=--The top scales of epithelium at the ends of the
+fingers become matted together to make the nails. The nails keep the
+ends of the fingers from being hurt. They can also be used to hold or
+cut small things. The new parts of the nails form under the skin and
+push down the older parts. So the nail grows farther than the end of the
+finger and needs to be cut off. Biting the nails leaves their ends
+rough. Then they may catch in the clothes and tear into the tender
+flesh. We ought to keep the nails cut even with the ends of the fingers.
+
+The nails are not poisonous, but the dirt under them may be. We ought
+to keep them clean. Clean nails are one mark of a careful boy or girl.
+
+=126. Hair.=--Some of the scales of epithelium over some parts of the
+body dip into tiny holes in the skin. In each hole they become matted
+together to form a _hair_. Fine short hair grows on almost every part
+of the body. On the top of the head it grows long and thick. When
+boys become men, it also grows long upon their faces. The skin pours
+out a kind of oil to keep the hair soft and glossy.
+
+[Illustration: =A hair (x200).=
+
+  _a_ the surface of the skin.
+  _b_ a hair.
+  _c_ an oil gland.
+  _d_ a muscle to make the hair stand on end.
+  _e_ and _g_, the growing cells of the hair.
+  _f_ fat in the skin.]
+
+=127. Care of the hair.=--The hair may become dirty like any other
+part of the body. Brushing it takes out a great deal of dirt, but you
+should also wash it once a week.
+
+The oil in the skin ought to be enough for the hair. Hair oils do not
+do the hair any good. If you wet the hair too often, you may make it
+stiff and take away its gloss. It is best to comb the hair dry. Brush
+it so as to spread the oil of the skin. Hair dyes are poisonous, and
+ought not to be used.
+
+=128. The sweat or perspiration.=--The scales of epithelium dip into
+the skin and there line tiny tubes. The tubes form the _sweat_, or
+_perspiration_, out of the blood. The tubes are too fine to be seen,
+but they are upon almost every part of the body. They take the ashes
+or other waste matter or poisons from the blood and wash them out of
+the tubes with the perspiration. So the perspiration has two uses.
+First, it takes heat away from the body (see Sec. 108). Second, it
+gets rid of the waste matters or ashes of the body. It has very little
+of these at any one time, but in a day it gets rid of a great deal.
+
+=129. The kidneys.=--The kidneys are close to the backbone, below the
+heart. They are made of tiny tubes much like the sweat tubes in the
+skin. The tubes take ashes and other waste matters from the blood, also
+a great deal of water. They also take away poisons and disease germs
+when we are sick. The kidneys take away about as much water as the skin,
+but they get rid of very much more poisons and waste matters than the
+skin does. If our kidneys should stop their work, we should soon die.
+
+=130. Need of bathing.=--When the perspiration dries from the skin, it
+leaves the waste and poisons behind. We cannot always see the dried
+matters, but they always have an unpleasant odor. We should bathe
+often enough to keep our body from having an unpleasant smell. We
+should wash the whole body with soap and hot water at least once a
+week in winter and more often than that in summer.
+
+Another reason for bathing is to wash disease germs from the body.
+Most dirt has disease germs in it. Disease germs also float in the
+dust of the air and stick to our skin when we go into a dusty room. If
+our skin is dirty, some of the germs may be carried into our flesh
+when our skin is pricked, or scratched, or cut. We sometimes catch
+boils, or erysipelas, or lockjaw, from very little wounds in a dirty
+skin. Cleanliness of our skin helps to keep us from catching diseases.
+
+=131. Cold baths.=--Sometimes we bathe when we are clean so as to get
+refreshed. If we bathe in cold water, we feel cold at first. In a
+little while we feel warm again. Then we feel stronger, and refreshed
+for work. If we stay in the bath too long, we become cold again and
+feel weak. When boys go in swimming, they ought to come out before
+they begin to feel cold.
+
+It is a good plan to take a cold bath every morning when you get up,
+even if you use only a wash-bowl with a little water. It will take
+only a few minutes, but will keep you clean and make you feel more
+like doing your day's work.
+
+=132. A fair skin.=--We must wash often, to make the skin fair and
+smooth. Use enough good soap to keep the skin clean.
+
+If you eat as you should, and digest the food well, your skin will
+have the least amount of waste to give off. Then it will look well. A
+bad looking skin is due to bad food and to bad digestion. If you do
+not digest your food well, you cannot have a fair skin.
+
+Face paint and powder make the skin look worse, for they hinder
+perspiration. Nothing of that sort will do the skin any good. You must
+eat as you should, and you must keep clean. Then your skin will be
+clear.
+
+=133. Washing clothes.=--Our clothes rub off a great deal of the
+perspiration and waste. They become soiled. A great deal of dirt also
+gets upon the sheets of our beds. Our clothes need to be washed as
+well as our bodies when they are soiled. Air and the sun as well as
+water destroy the waste of the body. Our clothes need to be aired at
+night, and the bed and bedroom should be aired through the day.
+
+=134. Slops.=--After water has been used to wash our body or our
+clothes it is dirty and is not fit to be used again. It must not be
+thrown where it can run into a well. If a person has typhoid fever or
+cholera or other catching disease, the water may carry germs of the
+disease to the well, and so other persons may get it. Slops from the
+house should not be poured out at the back door, but they should be
+carried away from the house. In cities the slops are poured into large
+pipes and tunnels underground. These pipes are called _sewers_. They
+empty outside the city.
+
+=135. Alcohol and the skin.=--Alcohol interferes with digestion and
+causes biliousness. This makes the skin rough and pimply. A drinker
+seldom has a clear skin.
+
+Alcohol causes the arteries of the face to become enlarged. Then the
+face is red. A red nose is one of the signs of drinking. When a person
+uses strong drink he is often uncleanly. He does not care for the bad
+looks of his clothes and skin, and so he lets them stay dirty. This
+harms the skin and makes it look bad. The dirt also poisons the skin
+and may itself be a cause of sickness.
+
+Because alcohol poisons the whole body and often produces kidney
+diseases, the drinker is apt to catch other diseases. Drinkers are the
+first to catch such diseases as smallpox and yellow fever. Where there
+are great numbers of cases, the drinkers are the first and often the
+only persons to die. This is because their skin and kidneys have been
+harmed by the alcohol and cannot throw off the poisons of the disease.
+Any kind of sickness will be worse in a drinker. Surgeons do not like
+to operate on drinkers, for their wounds do not heal so quickly as in
+other people.
+
+When there is too little air, a fire burns slower, and makes a blacker
+smoke and more ashes. Alcohol takes some air from the cells of the
+body. So they burn with smoke and ashes of the wrong kind. The skin
+has to work harder to get rid of these, and sometimes it cannot do it
+well. Then the body is poisoned. The alcohol is burned and cannot
+poison the body any more. But it causes the body to make poisons, and
+so it is to blame. The poisons do great harm to the skin and kidneys.
+Alcohol causes more kidney disease than all other things put together.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Little tubes in the skin are always giving off ashes and waste
+          matters in the perspiration.
+
+     2. Perspiration dries on the skin. So the skin must be washed
+          often.
+
+     3. The kidneys get rid of more water and waste matter than the
+          skin does.
+
+     4. Perspiration also gets upon the clothes and bed sheets. These
+          must be washed too.
+
+     5. Dirty water from washing should be thrown out where it cannot
+          run into a well.
+
+     6. The skin is thick and strong and keeps the body from being hurt.
+
+     7. The skin is covered with a layer of scales. The scales have no
+          feeling.
+
+     8. The scales form the nails on the ends of the fingers.
+
+     9. The scales also form the hair.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE NERVES, SPINAL CORD, AND BRAIN
+
+
+=136. Need of nerves.=--The cells of the mouth, stomach, and intestine
+digest food; the cells of the liver change the food to blood; the
+cells of the heart pump the blood to feed all the cells of the body;
+the red blood cells carry air for the cells to breathe; and the cells
+of the skin and kidneys carry away the waste of the rest of the cells.
+Each set of cells works for all the rest. If the cells of the body
+were only tied together, each one would do as it pleased, and no two
+would work together. But something tells each cell of the body to work
+with the others. The cells all obey the mind. A tiny thread goes to
+each cell of the body. Each thread is a _nerve_. The mind and the
+cells signal to each other over the nerves. By means of the nerves the
+mind makes the cells work together.
+
+[Illustration: =A nerve thread (x400).=
+
+  _a_ central conducting fiber.
+  _b_ covering of fat.]
+
+[Illustration: =A thin slice for the end of a cut nerve (x200).=
+
+  _a_ nerve thread.
+  _b_ connective tissue binding the threads into a cord.]
+
+=137. Nerve messages.=--The nerve threads run in bundles and form
+nerves large enough to be seen. The mind uses the nerves to tell the
+cells to do work. It tells the muscles to move the arms and legs. It
+tells the heart to beat and stomach to pour out gastric juice; and it
+tells each of the cells to eat.
+
+The cells also send word over the nerves to the mind. They tell the
+mind when they are touching anything, and whether it is hard, or
+smooth, or hot, and many other things about it. The cells also tell
+the mind if they need more food, or are tired.
+
+The nerves are always carrying messages to and from the cells. The
+cells depend upon these messages to tell them when and how to work. If
+the nerve of any part of the body is hurt or cut, we cannot feel with
+the part or move it, and its cells do not act in the right way. We do
+not feel the nerves while they are carrying the messages. We wish the
+cells of the arm to work, and they work, but we do not feel the
+message as it goes from the mind to the cells of the arm.
+
+[Illustration: =A thin slice from the spinal cord with the cells and
+nerves magnified 200 diameters.=
+
+  _a_ cells in the gray matter.
+  _b_ fibers in the gray matter.
+  _c_ nerve threads in the white matter.]
+
+=138. The spinal cord.=--The nerves start inside the backbone. The
+backbone is hollow. It has a soft, white cord inside, as thick as the
+little finger. Part of the mind lives in this cord. The cord is called
+the _spinal cord_. Some of the nerves start from cells of the spinal
+cord. These cells send word to the muscles to move and to all the
+cells of the body to eat and grow. They also send word to the arteries
+to carry the right amount of blood to the cells.
+
+From the nerves the spinal cord gets word when something hurts any
+part of the body. You may put your finger on a sharp pin. The spinal
+cord feels the prick, and quickly sends word to snatch the finger
+away. So the finger is taken away before you really feel the prick.
+When some one sticks a pin into you, you cannot help jumping. This is
+because the spinal cord sends word for you to jump away from the pin
+before it can harm you much. Thus the spinal cord keeps the body from
+being hurt. It acts while we are asleep as well as when we are awake.
+
+=139. Need of a spinal cord.=--We do not feel the spinal cord acting,
+and we cannot keep it from acting. It tells the cells when to eat and
+grow, and it tells the heart and arteries how much blood to send to
+each cell. If we had to think about feeding an arm or a leg, we should
+sometimes forget it, but the spinal cord keeps doing it without our
+thinking of it. We put food into the body, and the spinal cord tells
+the cells to use it. If it stops acting for an instant, the cells stop
+work and we die. We cannot change its action by any amount of thinking.
+
+[Illustration: =Regions of the head and action of the different parts
+of the brain.=]
+
+=140. The brain.=--The nerves of the body go to the brain as well as
+to the spinal cord. The brain lies in the top of the head. A hard
+cover of bone keeps it from getting hurt. It is a soft white mass, and
+weighs about three pounds. Its outside is made of cells, while its
+inside is the very beginning of the nerves of the body.
+
+=141. The mind.=--The mind is the real man. It is the thinking part of
+himself. It lives in the body and works by means of the cells of the
+brain. If these cells are hurt or killed, the body seems to have no
+mind, but yet it may keep on living. If all the mind leaves the body,
+the body is dead.
+
+By means of the mind we feel, and know, and think. The mind uses each
+part of the brain for only one kind of work.
+
+=142. The senses.=--The cells of the body send word to the brain over
+the nerves. The eye tells of sight, the ear of sounds, the nose of
+odors, the mouth of tastes, and the skin of feelings. All these
+messages go to the back part of the brain. They tell the mind of the
+news outside of the body. We get all our knowledge in this way. The
+cells also tell of their need of food and drink by means of the
+feelings of hunger and thirst.
+
+=143. Motion.=--The mind in the cells of the top part of the head
+sends the orders for moving the different parts of the body. When we
+wish to run, the mind in the top of our head sends an order over our
+nerves to our legs, and they carry the body where we wish. If the top
+part of your brain is hurt, as by a blow, it cannot send orders to
+move, but you will lie stunned.
+
+=144. Memory.=--The mind lays away all its messages, and often looks
+them over again. These old messages are called _memories_. They always
+stay with the brain, and the mind can call them up at any time. Our
+memories make our knowledge.
+
+Every act of the mind leaves some mark on the memory. We may not be
+able to bring it back when we want to, but it will come back some
+time. Every bad word and evil deed will tend to come back and make us
+bad again. Every good work and word will leave its memory and make us
+better. We ought to fill our minds with good memories.
+
+=145. Thinking.=--The brain also thinks. Thinking is different from
+feeling and from moving, but we can think about our feelings and about
+our movements. The brain just back of the forehead does all our
+thinking. A dog has only a little forehead, and cannot think much. But
+the rest of its brain is large, for it can see and hear and run as
+well as a man. A baby can see and hear and move, but it cannot think
+until it is taught how. Boys and girls go to school to learn to think.
+Thinking is work, just as truly as running is work. At school, no one
+can learn to think without working. Looking at things and hearing some
+one talk about them will not make you a strong-minded man, but
+thinking about these things will. Boys and girls should study and
+think, as well as look around and listen.
+
+=146. How thought rules the body.=--We are always feeling and moving.
+We often do these things without trying, but we must make ourselves
+think. We can make our bodies move, or keep still, and we can keep
+from too much feeling. Our thoughts direct our natural desires to move
+and feel. In an animal, the feelings and movements direct the
+thoughts. When men let their feelings rule their thoughts, they are
+like animals. When the thoughts control the feelings and acts, we are
+men. If you get angry and cry, when you hurt your finger, then you are
+like an animal; but if you think about it and control your feelings,
+you are behaving like a strong and noble man. The thought part of the
+brain ought to rule all the rest.
+
+=147. Sleep.=--Most of the brain does its work without our knowing it,
+but we know when we think. The thinking part of the brain gets tired,
+like any other part of the body. When it stops work, we are asleep.
+
+We must give the brain a rest in sleep, just as we must rest an arm or
+a leg. We ought to give it regular rest. Every night we ought to go to
+bed early. Then we shall be ready to get up early and shall feel like
+working. Boys and girls need nine or ten hours' sleep each day. When
+they are grown, they need seven or eight hours' sleep each day.
+
+The spinal cord and some parts of the brain must always stay awake to
+make the cells of the body eat and grow. When we are asleep, they must
+be wide awake, and must repair the worn-out parts. They do not seem to
+rest at all. If they rested for any length of time, then the lungs,
+heart, stomach and all other parts of the body would stop work, and we
+should die. But they really rest a part of the time. Like the heart,
+they act for a second, and then stop for a second. They seem to act
+all the time, but in all they rest half the time.
+
+=148. Worry.=--The mind can do a great deal of work, if it gets good
+sleep. If a person gets enough sleep and rest, he cannot harm his mind
+by hard work. Sometimes the mind is troubled and worried over a danger
+or a loss. Then it cannot rest, but soon wears itself out. Worry is
+far more tiresome than hard work. By an effort, we can keep from
+worrying. It never does us good to worry, and we ought to keep from it.
+
+=149. Nervousness.=--The thoughts are able to rule all the rest of the
+mind. They can keep us from feeling ill-tempered when we cannot have
+our own way. Sometimes a little unpleasant feeling makes us very
+unhappy, and keeps us from thinking about our work. A little noise or
+pain keeps some children from study, while others can bear a great
+deal without being disturbed by it. Some persons jump at a little
+noise, and are afraid of a tiny bug or mouse. This is because their
+feelings rule their thoughts. Such persons are called _nervous_.
+
+A nervous person is very uncomfortable and makes others so too. Yet
+any one can get over the habit of being nervous, if he will try. You
+ought not to laugh at a nervous person if he is afraid of some little
+thing while you are not. You should help him to get over his
+nervousness and to become brave.
+
+=150. Fear.=--Some persons are always brave. In danger they calmly
+stop to think, and then know how to save themselves. A timid person
+does not think, but rushes where his feelings lead. When a crowd is
+in danger, all will rush to do one thing. All will run for a door, and
+perhaps tread on one another. Then some one will surely be hurt. At a
+fire, or in any other danger, you should always stop to think how to
+act. If you rush with the crowd, you may be hurt. You will be more
+likely to be safe, if you stay away from them. Then, if help comes,
+you will be able to receive it. Besides, if you are cool and brave,
+you will help others around you to be brave too.
+
+=151. Fire drill.=--In schools the children are taught how to go out
+of the building when there is a fire. A bell is struck when the
+children do not expect it. Then every child must leave his seat at
+once and march out of the building. The bell is struck every few days.
+Then, when the bell really sounds for a fire, the children know how to
+march out quickly, and so they learn to be brave.
+
+By training we can learn to be brave at all times. We fear many
+harmless things, and in many cases do not fear real dangers. We are
+liable to be hurt at any time. We are more liable to be hurt by a
+horse when we are out driving than we are by the dark. Yet we do not
+fear the horse, while some do fear the dark. We ought to learn to
+think, so as to control our fear.
+
+Some are afraid of the dark, some are frightened by ghost stories,
+and others expect to see a wild animal jump from behind every bush. No
+one fears these things unless he has been told about them. We ought to
+be careful not to tell children of these things. We ought to teach
+them to control their fear.
+
+=152. Habit.=--After we have thought about a thing a few times, its
+hold on our memory becomes strong, and leads us to think about it
+often. When we have done a thing a few times, we are likely to do it
+again without knowing it. We call this doing things over again
+_habit_. When we once form a habit, we find it very hard to break. We
+can form habits of doing right or of doing wrong. We can get into the
+habit of swearing or of drinking by doing these things a few times.
+Then we shall do these things when we do not want to. When a drinker
+begins, he does not expect to keep on drinking. But his habit makes
+him drink, and he cannot help it. We should be careful not to do bad
+things, for we easily form the habit of doing them.
+
+=153. Good habits.=--We can form habits of doing right. We can speak
+kindly and be generous. Then we shall do these things as easily as
+others get cross. After a person has tried to do good a few times, he
+will find it much easier to do good. Then he will speak kindly and
+give generously just as easily as others get angry and keep their good
+things to themselves.
+
+=154. Alcohol takes away thought.=--Alcohol affects and weakens the
+cells of the brain sooner than it does those of any other part of the
+body. It first makes the thought cells weak. Then a person does not
+think how he acts. He lights his pipe in the barn and throws the match
+in the hay. He drives his horse on a run through a crowded street. He
+swears and uses bad language. He gets angry at little things and wants
+to fight. He seems to think of himself, and of no one else. He is
+happy, for he does not think of the bad effects of the drink. He has a
+good time, and does not care for its cost. He likes to drink, because
+it makes him feel happy.
+
+=155. Alcohol spoils motion.=--Some cells of the brain cause the arms
+and legs, and all other parts of the body, to move. Alcohol next makes
+these weak. Then a person cannot move his legs right, but he staggers
+when he walks. He cannot carry a full cup to his lips. His hands
+tremble, and he cannot take care of himself. He is now really drunk.
+
+=156. Alcohol takes away feeling.=--After a man is drunk, he loses the
+sense of feeling. He does not feel cuts and blows. Because he does
+not feel tired, he feels very strong. He often sees two things for
+one, and hears strange noises. The whole brain at last gets weak, and
+cannot act. Then the drinker lies down in a drunken sleep, and cannot
+be waked up. Some die in this state.
+
+=157. Insanity.=--When the brain is misused by alcohol for some time,
+it cannot get over it. Then the person becomes insane. Drink sends
+more persons to the insane asylum than all other causes put together.
+
+=158. Delirium tremens.=--If a drinker gets hurt, or becomes sick, he
+sometimes has terrible dreams. In them he sees dirty and savage
+animals coming to harm him. These dreams seem very real to him, and he
+cries out in his fright. This is called _delirium tremens_. A person
+is liable to die from it.
+
+=159. Alcohol harms a drinker's children.=--The children of drinkers
+are apt to be weak in body and mind. A drinker hurts his children even
+more than he hurts himself. They are liable to catch diseases, and are
+often cross and nervous, or weak-minded. It is a terrible thing for a
+man to make his children weak and nervous.
+
+=160. Other bad things about drink.=--There are many other terrible
+things about drink, besides the harm it does a man's body. Many a man
+has made himself drunk so as to steal or kill. No man can drink long
+without becoming a worse man for it. Men will not trust him, and he
+loses the respect of his friends.
+
+Making strong drink takes thousands of men away from good work. They
+might work at building houses, or raising grain, or teaching school.
+As it is, their work is wasted.
+
+A great deal of money is wasted on strong drink. All the mines of the
+world cannot produce enough gold and silver to pay the drink bill. The
+people of the United States pay more for strong drink than for bread.
+
+The price of two or three drinks a day would amount to enough, in ten
+years, to buy a small home.
+
+The cost of strong drink is made much greater if we count the cost of
+jails and insane asylums. Over one half of all crimes and cases of
+insanity are caused by strong drink.
+
+We must also add the misery and suffering of most children of drunken
+fathers. This loss cannot be counted in money. Numbers of children
+become truants from school and learn theft and falsehoods from lack of
+a father's care. When all the cost is counted, nothing will be found
+so expensive as strong drink.
+
+On the other hand, what do people get for their money and suffering?
+They get only a little pleasure, and then they are ashamed of it. Men
+use strong drink only because they like it more than they dislike its
+bad effects.
+
+Since drink does a great deal of harm, with no good to any one, it is
+right to make laws to control its sale.
+
+=161. How tobacco affects the brain.=--Some men smoke to make
+themselves think, and some to keep themselves from thinking. Now,
+smoking cannot do both things. It really makes the brain less able to
+think, for it weakens the whole body. A school-boy's brain will surely
+be harmed if he uses tobacco at all.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The mind makes all the cells of the body work together.
+
+     2. Tiny nerve threads carry messages from the mind to the cells.
+
+     3. Most of the nerves begin at the spinal cord in the backbone.
+
+     4. The mind in the spinal cord tells the cells to eat and grow.
+          It tells the arteries how much blood to carry to the cells.
+
+     5. The cells tell the spinal cord if they need food, or if
+          something suddenly hurts them. The spinal cord sends word to
+          snatch the part from danger.
+
+     6. Nerves carry to the brain news of sight, sound, odor, taste,
+          and touch.
+
+     7. The brain sends word to the muscles to move the arms, the
+          legs, and the rest of the body.
+
+     8. The brain thinks.
+
+     9. The brain stores up all its messages; these make memory and
+          knowledge.
+
+     10. The thought part of the brain can control the feelings and
+          the movements of the body.
+
+     11. Alcohol is more harmful to the brain than to any other part
+          of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE SENSES
+
+
+=162.= A man has five ways of knowing about things outside of the
+body. He can feel, see, hear, smell, and taste.
+
+=163. Feeling.=--Nerves go to nearly every cell in the body. They
+carry news to the brain when anything touches them. The news produces
+a feeling. Feelings are of three kinds:--
+
+_First_, when anything touches the cells without harming them, we feel
+a _touch_. We feel a touch by nerves in the skin. Those in the ends of
+the fingers and tongue can feel the best. Those upon the back give but
+little feeling.
+
+Touch tells whether anything is hard, or rough, or round, or square,
+or has other qualities and shapes.
+
+_Second_, when anything touches the bare nerves or hurts the cells, we
+feel a _pain_. We can feel a pain anywhere in the body. Pain tells us if
+we are being harmed. If we had no feeling of pain, we might be killed
+before we could know of our danger. Pain warns us away from danger.
+
+_Third_, we can feel _heat_ and _cold_. Anything very hot or very
+cold, however, makes only a pain and gives no feeling either of cold
+or of heat.
+
+=164. Sight.=--We see with our eyes. An eye is a hollow ball. In its
+front is a clear window. Behind the window is a round curtain with a
+round hole in its middle. When we speak of the color of the eye, we
+mean the color of this curtain. Light passes through the hole in the
+curtain and falls upon some nerves in the back of the eyeballs. There
+it forms a picture like a photograph. The nerves carry this picture to
+the brain, and we see it.
+
+[Illustration: =The human eye.=
+
+  _a_ bony case of the eye.
+  _b_ muscle to move the eye.
+  _c_ and _d_ coverings of the eye.
+  _e_ lining or seeing part of the eye.
+  _f_ eyelid.
+  _g_ colored curtain or iris.
+  _h_ and _i_ clear windows of the eye.]
+
+=165. Movements of the eyes.=--We can turn our eyes so as to look in any
+direction. Sometimes a person has one eye turned sidewise. Such a person
+is cross-eyed, and sees well out of only one eye at a time. Glasses may
+help the eyes, but sometimes a surgeon has to cut a tiny muscle.
+
+=166. Coverings of the eyes.=--The eyeballs lie in a bony case, upon a
+soft bed of fat. In front each is covered with two lids. We can shut
+the lids to keep out dust and insects. When we are sleepy, they come
+together and cover the eyes. Little hairs at their edges help to keep
+out the dust.
+
+Sometimes a little dirt gets under the lids. Then the eye smarts or
+itches, and we want to rub it; but this may grind the dirt in deeper.
+Then you should get some one else to lift your eyelid and pick out the
+dust with a soft handkerchief. If you cannot get help, lift the lid by
+the eyelashes; blow your nose hard, and the tears may wash the dirt
+away.
+
+Dust and disease germs may get into our eyes and make them sore and
+red. You should bathe your eyes well every time you wash your face.
+You should use a clean towel, for a dirty one may carry disease germs
+to your eyes. Some forms of sore eyes are catching. If any one has
+sore eyes, no one else should use his towels or handkerchiefs.
+
+=167. Tears.=--Clear salt water is always running over the eyes and
+down a tube into the nose. The use of this water is to bathe the eyes
+and keep them clean. It sometimes runs over the lids in drops called
+_tears_.
+
+=168. How to use the eyes.=--If using your eyes makes them painful or
+gives you a headache, you are straining your eyes. Facing a bright
+light strains the eyes. Shade your eyes while you study. A cap may be
+used as a shade if you cannot get anything else. Never try to look at
+the sun or a very bright light. You should have the light at one side
+or behind you. The light should be steady. Reading in a dim light will
+harm the eyes.
+
+=169. Near sight.=--If you cannot read without holding your book less
+than a foot from your eyes, you are nearsighted, and should wear
+glasses all the time. If you do this, your eyes may be strong, and you
+may be able to see well.
+
+=170. Far sight.=--If you cannot read without holding your book at
+arm's length, you are farsighted and need glasses. Most old persons
+are farsighted.
+
+=171. Alcohol and the eyes.=--Alcohol makes the eyes red. It weakens the
+eyes and may produce blindness. A drunken person often sees double.
+
+=172. Tobacco= causes dimness of sight and sometimes produces blindness.
+
+=173. Hearing.=--We hear with the ears. Sound is made by waves in the
+air. The part of the ear on the outside of the head catches the air
+waves and throws them inside the ear. These air waves strike against a
+little drum. Three little bones then carry the waves on to nerves
+farther inside the head. Animals can turn their ears and catch sound
+from any direction.
+
+[Illustration: =Diagram of the ear.=
+
+  _a_ outer ear.
+  _b_ drum head.
+  _c_ _d_ and _e_ bones to carry sound to inner ear.
+  _f_ _g_ and _h_ inner ear.
+  _i_ tube to the mouth.
+  _j_ middle ear.]
+
+=174. Ear wax.=--Wax is formed just inside the ear. It keeps flies and
+insects from crawling into the ear. Boys in swimming sometimes get
+cold water into their ears. This may make them have an earache.
+
+=175. How the throat affects the ear.=--An air tube runs from the
+inside of the ear to the mouth. Sometimes when you blow your nose, you
+blow air into the ear. This makes you partly deaf and you hear a
+roaring in your ears.
+
+Sometimes when you have a cold in your throat, this little tube is
+stopped. Then your ear may ache and may even discharge matter. This
+may make you somewhat deaf. Earache and deafness are most often due to
+a cold in the throat and a stoppage of this tube.
+
+Many little boys and girls are deaf and do not know it. They cannot
+hear the teacher well, and sometimes the teacher thinks they are bad
+or careless because they do not answer.
+
+=176. Care of the ears.=--Very loud noises may harm the ear and make
+you deaf. When you expect a very loud noise, put your fingers in your
+ears to shut out the sound.
+
+Boxing the ears may break their tiny drums and make you deaf.
+
+Do not get cold water in your ear. This may cause an earache and make
+you deaf. If you get water in your ear while you are in swimming, turn
+your head to one side and shake it. This will get the water out.
+
+Do not put cotton or anything else into your ears.
+
+=177. Smell.=--We smell with the nose. Some things give out a vapor to
+the air. When we draw the air into the nose, this vapor touches the
+nerves, and we perceive a smell. The nerves are high up in the nose.
+In order to perceive smell clearly, we sniff the air far up the nose.
+
+=178. Use of smell.=--Bad air and spoiled food smell bad. A bad smell
+is the sign of something spoiled. The sense of smell tells us when
+food or air is unfit for use. Some people try to hide a bad smell with
+perfumery. To do this only makes the danger greater, for then the
+smell does not tell us of the danger of food or air.
+
+Some animals can smell much better than a man. A dog will smell the
+track of a wild animal hours after it is made. Savages can smell much
+better than civilized men.
+
+=179. Taste.=--We taste with the tongue. Dry food has no taste, but it
+must first dissolve in the mouth. Spoiled food tastes bad. Bad-tasting
+food is not fit to eat. Taste tells us whether food is good or bad.
+
+We can learn to like the taste of harmful things. At first no one
+likes tobacco or strong drink, but the liking is formed the more one
+uses these. We ought to be careful not to begin to use such things.
+
+_Alcohol_ and _tobacco_ burn the mouth and harm the taste. Food does
+not taste so good and we may eat spoiled food and not know it.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. We can feel in every part of the body, but mostly in the ends
+          of the fingers.
+
+     2. Light makes a picture upon the nerves inside of the eye.
+
+     3. If the eyes ache, the light should be softened or the position
+          of the book or work changed, or else the eyes should be
+          rested.
+
+     4. Sound in the air goes into the ear and strikes against a drum.
+          Bones then carry the sound to the ear nerves.
+
+     5. Air snuffed up the nose gives the sense of smell. Smell tells
+          us if the air or food is fit for use.
+
+     6. Taste tells us whether food is fit for use. Men can learn to
+          like the taste of wrong things like tobacco or alcohol.
+
+[Illustration: =The Human Skeleton, showing position of bones.=]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+BONES AND JOINTS
+
+
+=180.= Bones make the body stiff and strong, and give it shape. Long
+bones reach through the arms and legs, and little bones reach down the
+fingers and toes. Rounded plates of bone form the head, and a pile of
+bony rings makes up the backbone. Each bone is built to fit exactly
+into its own place and to do its own work. In all there are over two
+hundred bones in the body. They form one seventh of its weight.
+
+=181. Form of bones.=--A bone is not like a solid piece of timber, but
+is hollow like the frame of a bicycle. This makes it strong and light.
+At its ends a bone is like a hard sponge covered with a firm shell.
+This makes it too strong to be easily crushed, and keeps it light.
+
+A bone grows like any other part of the body. It is made of living cells
+like woven threads. Lime is mixed among the cells, and makes them stiff
+like starch among the threads of a linen collar. Blood tubes go through
+every part of the bone so as to feed the cells. The living cells form
+one third of the bone, while the lime forms two thirds.
+
+=182. Broken bones.=--Bones are very hard, and yet they can bend a
+little without breaking. Most of them are curved a little, and so they
+will spring instead of breaking when they are pressed hard. But
+sometimes they break. Then a person must wear a splint and bandage to
+keep the bones in place until they grow together again. The living
+cells will mend a bone in about a month.
+
+An old person's bones are more tender than a child's, and will not
+spring much without breaking. An old man is afraid of falling and
+breaking his bones, while a child falls a dozen times a day without
+danger.
+
+The bones of some children bend too easily. When they stand, the bones
+of their legs bend a little. After a while they grow in the crooked
+shape, and the child is bow-legged.
+
+=183. Joints.=--Some bones are hinged upon each other. A bone hinge is a
+_joint_. The rings of the backbone are held together by very tough pads
+of flesh. Each pad lets the backbone bend only a little, but altogether
+they let us bend our backs in any direction. These pads are like rubber
+springs in a wagon, and keep our bodies from being jarred too much.
+
+The finger and toe joints, the wrists and ankles, the elbows and the
+knees, bend back and forth like a hinge. Tough bands of flesh bind the
+bones together. The ends of the bones are rounded and smooth. They fit
+together and make perfect hinges. The joints are oiled by a fluid like
+the white of an egg. In old people this fluid sometimes dries up. Then
+the joints become stiff, and creak like a squeaking hinge.
+
+[Illustration: =Hinge joint of the elbow.=
+
+  1 humerus
+  2 ulna]
+
+The shoulders and hips can be moved in every direction. The upper ends
+of the arm and leg bones are round like half a ball. They fit into cups
+on the shoulder and hip bones. They are very smooth, and are oiled like
+the hinge joints. The joints are made to work very smoothly and easily.
+
+=184. Bones out of joint.=--When the ends of bones are torn away from
+each other, the bone is out of joint. Then the bone cannot be moved
+without great pain. It should be put back in place at once and kept
+there by splints and bandages. A person is less liable to have his
+joints out of place than he is to have his bones broken.
+
+=185. Sprains.=--Sometimes a joint is turned too much. This stretches
+the flesh around the joint, and makes it very tender and painful. This
+is a _sprain_. When you sprain a joint, you should put it in hot water
+for an hour or two. Then keep it still for a few days.
+
+=186. Why bones and joints grow wrong.=--While bones and joints are
+growing they can be made to take any shape we please. They cannot be
+bent all at once, but if we hold them in one way much of the time,
+they will keep that shape. Some boys and girls sit with their backs
+bent forward and lean against the desk as if they were too lazy to sit
+up. When they grow up, they will be bent and round-shouldered. You
+should sit and stand straight. Then you will grow tall and straight
+and strong. A soldier has square shoulders and walks erect because he
+is drilled until his bones and joints grow in the proper shape. As you
+stand straight with your feet together, your two big toes, your two
+ankles, and your two knees should touch each other.
+
+If you wear tight shoes and press the toes out of shape, they will
+soon grow so. Nearly every one's feet are out of shape from wearing
+short, pointed shoes. Your toes should be straight and not cramped by
+the shoe. If you wear narrow shoes, you may harm your feet. It is
+better to have one's feet useful, even if they are large, than to make
+them small and useless.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Bones make the body stiff, and give it form.
+
+     2. Some bones are long, some round, and some flat. All are hard
+          and springy.
+
+     3. Some bones are hinged together. The hinge is a joint.
+
+     4. The ends of bones in joints are rounded and smooth, and are
+          oiled with a liquid like the white of an egg.
+
+     5. Some bones are bound together by springy pads, as in the
+          backbone.
+
+     6. Bones can be broken. They will grow together again themselves.
+
+     7. Joints can be put out of place; then we must put them back.
+
+     8. If joints or bones are kept in wrong positions they will grow
+          into bad shapes. Tight shoes deform the feet.
+
+[Illustration: =The muscular system.=]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MUSCLES
+
+
+=187. Shape of muscles.=--Bones are covered with muscles. Muscles give
+shape to the body, and move it about. One half of the body consists of
+muscles. These are arranged in bundles, and each causes a bone to make
+one motion. There are over four hundred separate bundles of muscle in
+the body.
+
+One end of a muscle is large and round and is fast to a bone. The
+other end tapers to a strong string or tendon. The tendon passes over
+a joint, and becomes fast to another bone. You can easily feel the
+tendons in the wrist and behind the knee.
+
+[Illustration: =Muscle cells, cut across (x200).=
+
+  _a_ muscle cell.
+  _b_ connective tissue binding the cells together.]
+
+A muscle is made of tiny strings. You can pick them apart until they
+are too fine to be seen with the eye. Each string is a living muscle
+cell. It is the largest kind of cell in the body. You can see the fine
+strings in cooked meat.
+
+[Illustration: =A thin slice of a voluntary muscle, cut lengthwise
+(x100).=
+
+  _a_ muscle cell.
+  _b_ capillaries surrounding the cells.
+  _c_ connective tissue binding the cells together.]
+
+=188. How muscles act.=--A nerve runs from the brain, and touches
+every cell of the muscle. When we wish to move, the brain sends an
+order down the nerve. Then each muscle cell makes itself thicker and
+shorter. This pulls its ends together, and bends the joint. We can
+make muscle cells move when we wish to, but we cannot make any other
+kind of cell move. We make all our movements by means of our muscles.
+
+=189. Where you can see muscles.=--In a butcher's shop you can see lean
+meat. This is the animal's muscle. White and tough flesh divides the
+tender red meat into bundles. Each red bundle is a muscle. You will see
+how the muscle tapers to a string or tendon. The butcher often hangs up
+the meat by the tendons. You can see the muscles and tendons in a
+chicken's leg or wing when it is being dressed for dinner.
+
+Roll up your sleeve to see your own muscles. Shut your hand tight. You
+will see little rolls under your skin, just below the elbow. Each roll
+is a muscle. You can feel them get hard when you shut your hand. You
+can feel their tendons as they cross the wrist.
+
+Open your hand wide. You can see and feel the tendons of the fingers
+upon the back of the hand. These tendons come from muscles on the back
+of the arm. You can feel the bundles of these muscles when they open
+the fingers. There are no muscles in the fingers, but all are in the
+hand or arm. You cannot open your hand so strongly as you can close it.
+
+=190. Strength of muscle.=--By using a muscle you can make it grow
+larger and stronger. If you do not use your muscles they will be small
+and weak. Children ought to use their muscles in some way, but if they
+use them too much, they will be tired out. Then they will grow weaker
+instead of stronger. Lifting heavy weights, or running long distances,
+tires out the muscles, and makes them weaker. Small boys sometimes try
+to lift as much as the big boys. This may do their muscles great harm.
+
+=191. Round shoulders.=--The muscles hold up the back and head, and
+keep us straight when we sit or stand. A lazy boy will not use his
+muscles to hold himself up, but will lean against something. He will
+let his shoulders fall, and will sit down in a heap. Sometimes he is
+made to wear shoulder braces to keep his shoulders back. This gives
+the muscles nothing to do, and so they grow weaker than ever. The best
+thing to do for round shoulders is to make the boy sit and stand
+straight, like a soldier. Then he will use his muscles until they are
+strong enough to hold his shoulders back.
+
+=192. How exercise makes the body healthy.=--When you use your
+muscles, you become warmer. Your face will be red, for the heart sends
+more blood to the working muscle cells. You will be short of breath,
+for the cells need more air. You will eat more, for your food is used
+up. Your muscles are like an engine. They get their power from burning
+food in their own cells. When they work they need to use more food and
+air. So working a muscle makes us eat more and breathe deeper. The
+blood flows faster, and we feel better all over. The muscle itself
+grows much larger and stronger.
+
+If we sit still all day, the fires in our bodies burn low and get
+clogged with ashes. We feel dull and sleepy. If we run about for a few
+minutes, we shall breathe deeply. The fires will burn brighter. Our
+brains will be clearer, and we shall feel like work again. Boys and
+girls need to use their muscles when they go to school. Games and play
+will make you get your lessons sooner.
+
+=193. How to use the muscles.=--You should use your muscles to make
+yourself healthy, and not for the sake of growing strong. Some very
+strong men are not well, and some men with small muscles are very
+healthy. Some boys have strong muscles because their fathers had
+strong muscles before them. Strength of muscle does not make a man.
+
+You ought to have healthy muscles. Then your whole bodies will be
+healthy, and you can do a great deal of work. You ought to learn how
+to use your muscles rather than how to make them strong. An awkward
+and bashful boy may be very strong, but he cannot use his muscles. A
+boy is graceful because he can use them.
+
+The best way to use your muscles is in doing something useful. You can
+help your mother in the house and your father at the barn. You can run
+errands. You can learn to use carpenter's tools or to plant a garden.
+Then you will get exercise and not know it. You will also be learning
+something useful.
+
+Play is also needed. Work gets tiresome, and you will not want to use
+your muscles. Play is bad when it takes you from your work or when you
+hurt yourself trying to beat somebody.
+
+=194. Alcohol and the muscles.=--Men use alcohol to make themselves
+strong. It dulls their weak feelings, and then they think themselves
+strong. They are really weaker. The alcohol hinders digestion and
+keeps food from the cells. Then the fires in the body burn low, and
+there is little strength.
+
+Alcohol sometimes causes muscle cells to change to fat. This weakens
+the muscles.
+
+Men sometimes have to do hard work in cold countries; and at other
+times they must make long marches across hot deserts. Neither the
+Eskimos in the cold north, nor the Arabs in the hot desert, use strong
+drink. Alcohol does not help a man in either place. It really weakens
+the body. The government used to give out liquor to its soldiers; but
+soldiers can do more work and have better health without liquor and it
+is no longer given out.
+
+A few years ago men were ashamed to refuse to drink. Even when a new
+church building was raised, rum was bought by the church and given to
+the workmen. Farmers used to give their men a jug of rum when they
+went to work. Farm hands would not work without it.
+
+Now all this has changed. Men do not want drinkers to work for them. A
+railroad company will discharge a man at once if he is known to drink
+at all. A man can now refuse to drink anywhere and men will not think
+any less of him.
+
+=195. Tobacco= poisons the muscle cells and makes them weak. At first
+it makes boys too sick to move. It always poisons the cells even if
+they do not feel sick.
+
+=196. A long life.=--A man's body is built to last eighty years, but
+only a few live so long. If you are careful in your eating and
+drinking, if you breathe pure air, and if you use your muscles, your
+body will be healthy and will last the eighty years and more. All
+through your life you will be strong and able to do good work.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. Muscles cover the bones and move the body.
+
+     2. Muscle is lean meat. It is made of bundles of cells like
+          strings. Nerves from the brain touch each cell.
+
+     3. Each muscle is fast to a bone. It becomes a small string or
+          tendon at the other end. The tendon crosses a joint and is
+          fast to another bone.
+
+     4. When we wish to move, the brain sends an order to the muscle
+          cells to make themselves thicker and shorter and so bend the
+          joint.
+
+     5. You can feel the muscles and tendons in the arm and wrist.
+
+     6. Muscle work makes us breathe deeper, and eat more food. It
+          makes the blood flow faster. So it makes our whole bodies
+          more healthy.
+
+     7. Every one ought to use his muscles some part of the day.
+
+     8. Alcohol and tobacco lessen the strength of the muscles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+DISEASE GERMS
+
+
+=197. Catching diseases.=--Our body may get out of order like a
+machine. Some parts of it may be cut, or broken, or worn out, or hurt
+in other ways. Then we are sick until it is made whole again. Sickness
+always means that a part of the body is out of order.
+
+Some kinds of sickness are like a fire. A small bit of something from
+a sick person may start a sickness in us, just as a spark may set a
+house on fire. Then we may give the sickness to others, just as a fire
+may spread to other houses. If a person has measles, we may catch the
+measles if we go near him; but if a person has a toothache, we cannot
+catch the toothache from him. So we may catch some kinds of diseases,
+but we cannot catch other kinds.
+
+=198. Bacteria and germs.=--Every kind of catching sickness is caused
+by tiny living things growing in our flesh and blood. Some of them are
+tiny animals. Most of them are plants, and are called _bacteria_ or
+_microbes_. A common name for all of them is _germs_.
+
+The word germ means nearly the same as the word seed. Bacteria are so
+small that we cannot see them unless we look at them through a strong
+microscope. Then they look like little dots and lines (p. 54). A
+million of them could lie on a pin point; but if they have a chance,
+they may grow in numbers, so that in two days they would fill a pint
+measure.
+
+Very many kinds of bacteria and other germs are found nearly
+everywhere. They are in the soil and in water, and some float in the
+air as dust. When they fall on dead things, they cause _decay_ or
+_rotting_. When we can fruit, we kill the germs by boiling the fruit
+and the cans. Then we close the cans tightly so that no new germs can
+get into them. The fruit will then keep fresh for years.
+
+Decay is nearly always a good thing, for by it dead bodies and waste
+substances are destroyed and given back to the ground, where plants
+feed upon them. Many plants would not grow if they could not feed upon
+decaying things. So most bacteria and other germs are useful to us.
+But some kinds of germs will grow only in our bodies, and these kinds
+are the cause of most of our sickness.
+
+=199. Germs of sickness.=--We catch a sickness by taking a few of the
+germs of the sickness into our flesh. There they grow quickly, like
+weed seeds in the ground, and form crops of new germs within a few
+hours. After a few days the germs become millions in number, and crowd
+the cells of our flesh, just as weeds may crowd a potato plant (p. 54).
+
+Disease germs in the body also form poisons, just as some weeds in a
+field form poisons. The poisons make us sick, just as if we had
+swallowed the leaves of a poisonous weed.
+
+=200. Fever.=--If a sickness is caused by disease germs, the body is
+nearly always too warm. Then we say that the sick person has a
+_fever_. Almost the only cause for a fever is disease germs growing in
+the body. We can make a person have any kind of fever by planting a
+few of the germs of the fever in the right part of his body.
+
+We are made sick by the germs of fevers more often than by all other
+causes put together. Here is a list of common diseases caused by fever
+germs:--colds and sore throats, most stomach aches, blood poisoning in
+wounds, boils and pimples, tuberculosis, whooping cough, measles,
+chicken pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, smallpox, and
+malaria.
+
+Which of these kinds of sickness have you had? What sickness have you
+had besides these?
+
+=201. Sickness and Dirt.=--Disease germs leave the body of a sick person
+in three ways: first, through the skin, second, through the kidneys and
+intestines, and third, through the nose and throat. In these same ways
+our body gives off its waste matters. If we did not take anything from
+another person's body into our own body we should not catch fevers.
+
+Whatever a feverish person soils may contain disease germs. When a
+person has only a slight fever he often keeps at work, and then he may
+scatter disease germs wherever he goes. So disease germs are likely to
+be found wherever there is dirt or filth. Cleanliness means good
+health as well as good looks.
+
+=202. Disease germs in the skin.=--Disease germs may often be found in
+sores and pimples on the skin, but they will not leave anybody's flesh
+and blood through sound and healthy skin. If our skin is smooth and
+fair, there will be few disease germs on it unless we rub against
+something dirty. A dirty skin nearly always contains disease germs.
+Washing and bathing our body will take disease germs from our skin and
+help us to keep well.
+
+=203. Disease germs in slops.=--A great many disease germs leave the
+body through the intestine and kidneys, and may be found in the slops
+and waste water of our houses. Slops are dangerous to health, for they
+may run into a well, or spring, or river, and so carry disease germs
+into our drinking water (p. 27). Also, house flies may light on the
+pails or puddles and carry the germs to our food. In these ways we
+catch typhoid fever, stomach aches, and other diseases of the
+intestines. All slops and waste matters from the body should be put
+where they cannot reach our drinking water, and where flies cannot
+crawl over them (p. 80).
+
+=204. Disease germs from the nose and throat.=--If a person is sick with
+a fever, many of the germs are likely to be found in his nose and
+throat. Thousands of them are driven out with every drop of saliva and
+phlegm when he blows his nose, or spits, coughs, or sneezes, or talks.
+If he puts anything into his mouth, it will be covered with germs. More
+diseases are spread from the nose and mouth than in any other way, for
+we are always doing something to spread bits of saliva and phlegm.
+
+=205. Spitting.=--Colds and consumption and other forms of sickness
+are often spread by sick persons spitting on the floor or pavement.
+The germs become dried and are blown away as dust. For this reason
+dust from the streets of cities and in crowded halls is often the
+cause of sickness. In many places spitting on a floor or pavement is
+strictly forbidden by law.
+
+=206. Putting things in the mouth.=--Many persons have the habit of
+sucking their fingers, or of touching a pencil to the tongue when they
+write or think, or of wetting their fingers with their lips when they
+turn the leaves of a book. In all these ways we may give a disease to
+others or may take a disease from some one else.
+
+=207. Public drinking cup.=--When you touch your lips to a cup, you
+leave some saliva and cells from your mouth on the cup. If a cup is
+used by a number of persons, some one is almost sure to leave germs of
+sickness on it, and others are likely to take them into their own
+mouths when they drink. So a public drinking cup is a dangerous thing.
+Each school child should have his own cup. Public drinking fountains
+should be so made that we may drink by putting our lips to a stream of
+running water.
+
+[Illustration: =A safe drinking fountain.=
+
+A stream of water gushes up from the middle of the cup.]
+
+[Illustration: =An unsafe drinking place.=
+
+Photograph taken in the basement of a schoolhouse.]
+
+=208. Sweeping.=--Dusty air in a room is dangerous to health, for
+disease germs are likely to be found in it. We can get rid of dust by
+keeping our floors swept clean. After sweeping we should wipe the dust
+from the tables and furniture. A feather duster or dry cloth will only
+stir up the dust and make it float in the air again. We should use
+either a damp cloth, or a dry duster made of tufts of wool, so that
+the dust will stick to the duster.
+
+[Illustration: =House fly, magnified.=
+
+The hairs on its body and legs catch dirt and disease germs.]
+
+=209. Foul air.=--If we live in a closed room, the air soon becomes
+foul and dusty, and is likely to have disease germs in it. Foul air is
+one of the greatest of the causes of sickness. We should change the
+air of a room often so as to keep it fresh and free from dust and
+disease germs (pp. 65-67).
+
+=210. House flies.=--House flies come from garbage heaps and filth of
+all sorts. So they carry disease germs on their bodies. They light on
+our food and on our faces, and so they often make us sick. They are
+often the cause of typhoid fever, stomach aches, and stomach sickness
+in babies.
+
+[Illustration: =Life history of house flies.=]
+
+Flies are hatched in manure piles and garbage heaps. At first they
+look like white worms, and are called _maggots_. Every maggot is a
+young fly. We can get rid of flies by cleaning up every garbage heap
+and manure pile.
+
+[Illustration: =Young mosquitoes hanging head downward in water.=]
+
+=211. Mosquitoes.=--Mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow fever from
+sick persons to the well. If there were no mosquitoes, there would be
+no malaria or yellow fever.
+
+Mosquitoes are hatched in water, and the young are called _wigglers_.
+We may often see them in rain barrels. We may get rid of mosquitoes by
+emptying all rain barrels and pails and cans of dirty water, at least
+once a week, and by drying up swamps and marshes.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. We catch a fever by taking disease germs into the body.
+
+     2. Disease germs cannot be seen without a strong microscope.
+
+     3. The germs may be found in dust and dirt.
+
+     4. Slops from our houses are often full of the germs.
+
+     5. You may take germs into your body by putting pencils and other
+          things into your mouth, and by drinking from a public
+          drinking cup.
+
+     6. Spitting on the floor or pavement may scatter disease germs.
+
+     7. House flies and mosquitoes often spread diseases.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PREVENTING SICKNESS
+
+
+=212. How our body kills disease germs.=--We take disease germs into
+the body in three ways: first, through the mouth, second, through the
+nose, and third, through the skin. So we should watch the purity of
+our food, drink, and air, and should be careful about putting things
+into the mouth, and about the cleanliness of the skin. We often take a
+few disease germs into the body without catching a disease. This is
+because the white cells of our blood fight the germs and kill them (p.
+53). If the body is hurt or weakened, the white blood cells may also
+be weakened so that they cannot kill the germs. We should take good
+care of the body so that every part of it may do its work well. We
+need not be able to run fast, or to lift heavy weights, but the best
+sign that every part of the body is in good order is to feel bright
+and wide-awake. Then our white blood cells will also be in good order
+and able to fight disease germs.
+
+=213. Catching cold.=--When we catch a disease, we often say that we
+have caught cold. We used to think that cold air and dampness were
+almost the only causes of taking cold, and this is the reason why we
+called many kinds of sickness by the name of colds. Now we know that
+we catch cold by taking disease germs into the body. The germs will
+not be able to grow unless the body is weakened in some way, as by
+cold and dampness. Yet if we are wet and cold, we shall not catch cold
+unless we take disease germs into the body. We do not get the germs
+from the outdoor air, for very few germs are there. We get them from
+the foul air of our houses when we come in to warm and dry ourselves.
+If the air of our houses were always as clean and pure as the outdoor
+air, we should hardly ever have colds.
+
+We can safely let the cold air blow on us if we are out of doors, but
+if we sit in a house, a small draft sometimes seems to make us take
+cold. This is because there are likely to be many disease germs in the
+house and few out of doors.
+
+Other things besides cold air and dampness may weaken the body, and so
+help us to take cold. If germs of colds are in a warm room, we may sit
+there and take cold even if we are not wet or chilled at all. The body
+may be weakened by poor food, wrong eating, or overwork, so that
+disease germs will easily grow in it. We take as many colds from these
+causes as from cold air and dampness.
+
+=214. Kinds of colds.=--A person takes most of the germs of colds
+through his nose and mouth. If they grow only in his nose, we say that
+he has a cold in his head. If they grow in his throat, he has a sore
+throat, or tonsillitis. If they reach as far as the upper part of his
+windpipe, he is hoarse, or has a cough, or the croup. If the germs are
+planted in his lungs, he may have bronchitis or pneumonia. All these
+kinds of sickness often spread from one person to another. If one person
+in a family has a cold, others in the family often catch cold from him.
+
+=215. Diseases like colds.=--Diphtheria, tuberculosis, whooping cough,
+and measles all begin like a common cold and often look like a cold
+during the whole sickness. Colds do not turn into any of these
+diseases, for each of them comes from its own germ, just as corn comes
+only from seed corn.
+
+=216. Curing a cold.=--If you have a cold, you ought to stay at home
+and rest, or lie in bed. Then your white blood cells can gain strength
+to fight the disease germs. You ought to have plenty of fresh air in
+your room. You ought not to eat much food for a few days, so that your
+stomach and intestine and liver can use all their strength in throwing
+off the poisons of the germs. But you ought to drink plenty of water,
+so as to help wash away the poisons from your body.
+
+=217. Keeping colds from spreading.=--You should keep away from other
+persons while you have a cold, or other catching disease, so as to
+keep from spreading the sickness. You ought not to go visiting, or go
+to school, or to church, or to other meeting places. When you cough or
+sneeze, you should hold a handkerchief to your mouth, so as to keep
+from blowing disease germs from your throat and nose. You ought to
+sleep in a bed by yourself, so that no one may take the disease germs
+from your bedclothes. No one else should use your towel, or
+handkerchief, or knife, or fork, or spoon, or dish, until they have
+been washed in hot water, so as to kill the disease germs on them.
+
+=218. Keeping from catching cold.=--You can keep yourself from
+catching cold by keeping your body strong and in good order. You
+should keep your clothes dry, eat good food, breathe pure air, get
+good rest and sleep, and keep your body, your clothes, and your house
+clean. You should also keep disease germs out of your body. You should
+not form a habit of putting your fingers or a pencil to your mouth (p.
+127). You should keep your nose, your throat, and your mouth clean.
+
+=219. Cleanliness of the nose.=--The inside of the nose is wet with a
+slippery liquid. If you have a cold, the liquid is thick and stops
+your nose, and is called _phlegm_. The liquid catches and holds dust
+and disease germs, and keeps them from going into the windpipe. It
+also kills many of the disease germs.
+
+You should always carry a handkerchief and use it so as to blow the
+germs out of your nose. You should have a clean handkerchief every day.
+
+[Illustration: =Photograph of model of the nose and throat.=
+
+_A._ tonsil; _B._ adenoids; _C._ opening of Eustachian tube.]
+
+=220. Adenoids and large tonsils.=--Sometimes children have large
+tonsils growing in the back of the throat, or soft bunches of flesh
+called _adenoids_ back of the nose. These children cannot breathe well
+through the nose, but must breathe through the mouth. Then they take
+dust and disease germs deep into the body, and so take colds and other
+sickness easily. If a child has adenoids or large tonsils, an
+operation should be done to take them out.
+
+=221. Cleanliness of the mouth.=--We often breathe dust and disease
+germs into the mouth or snuff them into the throat from the nose. Then
+they are caught between the teeth and in the folds of the cheeks and
+throat. There they may grow, and finally go deeper into the body and
+make us sick. A dirty mouth is very often the cause of colds and other
+sickness.
+
+We should keep our mouths clean by brushing our teeth with a
+toothbrush two or three times a day. We should also rub the toothbrush
+over the tongue and around the back part of the throat so as to clean
+the germs from every part of the mouth. Each child should have a
+toothbrush of his own, and should use it every day.
+
+=222. Contagious diseases.=--Diphtheria, whooping cough, measles,
+scarlet fever, and smallpox are all dangerous kinds of sickness, and
+spread with great ease. The germs may float in the air, and we may
+take them into our bodies if we go into a room where any one has the
+sickness. So we call these diseases _contagious_. If a person has one
+of these diseases, he should be made to stay in a house or room by
+himself until he is well. Keeping the sick away from well persons is
+called _quarantine_. When the sickness is cured, the sick room and
+everything in it should be cleaned and washed so as to kill the germs.
+
+=223. Board of health.=--There is a board of health in every city and
+town. The men on the board show persons how to keep diseases from
+spreading, and make them obey the rules of health. Everybody in a town
+should help the board of health in every possible way.
+
+
+WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
+
+     1. The white blood cells of our body kill disease germs.
+
+     2. We catch cold by taking disease germs into our body.
+
+     3. The germs of colds are not often found in the air out of
+          doors. They are often found in the foul air of houses.
+
+     4. If a person has a cold, he should keep away from other
+          persons, so as to keep from spreading the sickness.
+
+     5. Cleansing the nose helps us to keep from catching cold.
+
+     6. Cleansing the teeth and the inside of the mouth removes many
+          disease germs.
+
+     7. Adenoids and large tonsils should be taken from the throat by
+          an operation.
+
+     8. If a person has a dangerous contagious disease, he should be
+          quarantined.
+
+     9. Boards of health have charge of the prevention of contagious
+          diseases.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abdomen, 60.
+
+  Adam's apple, 68.
+
+  Adenoids, 136.
+
+  Air, 59, 65, 129.
+
+  Albumin, 10, 17, 18, 49.
+
+  Alcohol, 38.
+
+  Alcohol and arteries, 56.
+              biliousness, 46.
+              bitters, 46.
+              blood, 55.
+              brain, 95.
+              breathing, 70.
+              burning, 69.
+              catching cold, 71.
+              character, 97.
+              cooking, 47.
+              delirium tremens, 96.
+              digestion, 46.
+              eyes, 103.
+              feeling, 95.
+              habit, 44.
+              heart, 56.
+              heat, 72.
+              heredity, 96.
+              insanity, 96.
+              Jamaica ginger, 47.
+              kidneys, 81.
+              liver, 46.
+              lungs, 70.
+              medicine, 47.
+              money waste, 97.
+              motion, 95.
+              muscles, 119.
+              sickness, 82.
+              skin, 81.
+              stomach, 45.
+              strength, 56, 120.
+              strong drink, 40.
+              suffering, 97.
+              taste, 107.
+              thirst, 44.
+              thought, 95.
+
+  Alcohol, use of, 39.
+
+  Ameba, 7, 52.
+
+  Appetite, 27.
+
+  Arteries, 51, 55.
+
+  Ashes, 12, 62, 78.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Bacteria, 123.
+
+  Bathing, 78, 126.
+
+  Beer, 43.
+
+  Bile, 18.
+
+  Biliousness, 20.
+
+  Bitters, 46.
+
+  Bleeding, 49, 52.
+
+  Blood, 13, 19, 49, 61.
+
+  Board of Health, 137.
+
+  Bones, 109.
+
+  Bowels, 18.
+
+  Bowlegs, 110.
+
+  Brain, 88.
+
+  Brandy, 44.
+
+  Bread, 24, 38.
+
+  Breathing, 59, 60, 67.
+
+  Broken bones, 110.
+
+  Burning, 61, 118.
+
+  Butter, 23.
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cake, 24, 29.
+
+  Candy, 29.
+
+  Canning fruit, 37, 124.
+
+  Capillaries, 51, 61.
+
+  Catching cold, 54, 65, 72, 125, 132.
+
+  Cells, 8.
+
+  Cells, blood tubes of, 51.
+         breathing of, 61.
+         burning of, 62.
+         composition of, 11.
+         food of, 13, 55.
+         messages of, 85, 100.
+
+  Cells of blood, 49, 132.
+           bone, 109.
+           brain, 88.
+           epithelium, 76.
+           muscle, 115.
+           skin, 75.
+           spinal cord, 86.
+           yeast plant, 38.
+
+  Cheese, 23.
+
+  Chest, 60.
+
+  Chewing, 14.
+
+  Chewing gum, 34.
+
+  Chewing tobacco, 33.
+
+  Cider, 42.
+
+  Cigarettes, 34.
+
+  Cigars, 34.
+
+  Clams, 24.
+
+  Clot, 49.
+
+  Clothes, 63.
+
+  Coated tongue, 20.
+
+  Coffee, 27.
+
+  Cold, feelings of, 101.
+
+  Colds, 54, 65, 72, 125, 132.
+
+  Connective tissue, 9.
+
+  Contagious diseases, 137.
+
+  Cooking, 13.
+
+  Cotton, 63.
+
+  Cream, 23.
+
+  Cross-eyes, 102.
+
+  Cuts, 53.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Deafness, 105.
+
+  Decay, 124.
+
+  Delirium tremens, 96.
+
+  Diaphragm, 60.
+
+  Digestion, 13.
+
+  Diphtheria, 53, 134, 137.
+
+  Dirt, 126.
+
+  Dirt in eye, 102.
+
+  Disease germs, 29, 53, 65, 72, 81, 123.
+
+  Distillation, 43.
+
+  Drinking cup, 128.
+
+
+  E
+
+  Ear, 104.
+
+  Ear wax, 104.
+
+  Eating, 20.
+
+  Egg, 23.
+
+  Epidermis, 76.
+
+  Epithelium, 75.
+
+  Eustachian tube, 105, 136.
+
+  Exercise, 118.
+
+  Eye, 101.
+
+  Eyeball, 101.
+
+  Eyelids, 102.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Far sight, 103.
+
+  Fat, 11, 18, 25, 49, 92.
+
+  Fear, 92.
+
+  Feeling, 100.
+
+  Fermentation, 37.
+
+  Fever, 125.
+
+  Fire drill, 93.
+
+  Fish, 24.
+
+  Flannel, 63.
+
+  Flies, 130.
+
+  Food, 12, 13, 19, 23.
+
+  Fresh air, 67, 129.
+
+  Fruit, 25.
+
+  Fur, 64.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gastric juice, 17.
+
+  Gelatine, 11.
+
+  Germs, 29, 53, 65, 72, 81, 123.
+
+  Gizzard, 14.
+
+  Good habits, 94.
+
+  Grain, 24.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Habit, 94, 127.
+
+  Hair, 76.
+
+  Hair dyes, 77.
+
+  Hair oil, 77.
+
+  Handkerchief, 135, 136.
+
+  Healing, 53.
+
+  Hearing, 104.
+
+  Heart, 50.
+
+  Heart beat, 50, 55.
+
+  Heat, 62, 101.
+
+  Heating houses, 65.
+
+  House flies, 129.
+
+  Hunger, 29.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Intemperance, 29.
+
+  Intestine, 18.
+
+  Iron, 12.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jamaica ginger, 47.
+
+  Joints, 110.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kidneys, 62, 78.
+
+  Knowledge, 89.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lead, 27.
+
+  Life, 12.
+
+  Lime, 12.
+
+  Linen, 64.
+
+  Liver, 18, 19.
+
+  Lungs, 60.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Maggots, 130.
+
+  Malaria, 130.
+
+  Matter, 54.
+
+  Meal, 24.
+
+  Measles, 134, 137.
+
+  Meat, 24, 116.
+
+  Memory, 89.
+
+  Microbes, 123.
+
+  Microscope, 8.
+
+  Milk, 23.
+
+  Mind, 9, 84, 88.
+
+  Minerals, 11, 19, 49.
+
+  Mosquitoes, 130.
+
+  Motion, 88.
+
+  Motor nerves, 85.
+
+  Mouth, 14, 127, 137.
+
+  Muscles, 115.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nails, 76.
+
+  Near sight, 103.
+
+  Nerve messages, 85.
+
+  Nerves, 84, 116.
+
+  Nervousness, 92.
+
+  Nicotine, 31.
+
+  Night air, 67.
+
+  Nose, 127, 135.
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oatmeal, 24.
+
+  Oysters, 24.
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pain, 100.
+
+  Pancakes, 24.
+
+  Pancreatic juice, 18.
+
+  Pencils, 127, 135.
+
+  Perspiration, 78.
+
+  Pie, 29.
+
+  Pneumonia, 134.
+
+  Poisons, 19.
+
+  Potash, 12.
+
+  Potatoes, 25.
+
+  Public drinking cup, 128.
+
+  Pulse, 51.
+
+  Pus, 54.
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quarantine, 137.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Red blood cells, 49, 54, 61.
+
+  Reflex action, 86.
+
+  Root beer, 43.
+
+  Round shoulders, 112, 117.
+
+  Rubbers, 64.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saliva, 14.
+
+  Salt, 12, 26.
+
+  Scarlet fever, 137.
+
+  Senses, 88, 100.
+
+  Sensory nerves, 85.
+
+  Sewers, 81.
+
+  Sick room, 66.
+
+  Sight, 101.
+
+  Skin, 63, 75, 126.
+
+  Sleep, 90.
+
+  Slops, 80, 126.
+
+  Smallpox, 137.
+
+  Smell, 106.
+
+  Smoke, 62.
+
+  Smoking, 34.
+
+  Snuff, 33.
+
+  Soda, 12.
+
+  Spinal cord, 86.
+
+  Spitting, 32, 127.
+
+  Sprains, 112.
+
+  Starch, 11, 14, 18, 25.
+
+  Steam engine, 62.
+
+  Stockings, 64.
+
+  Stomach, 17.
+
+  Strength, 117.
+
+  Strong drink, 40.
+
+  Sugar, 11, 14, 18, 25, 28, 38, 42, 49.
+
+  Swallowing, 15.
+
+  Sweat, 63, 78.
+
+  Sweeping, 129.
+
+  Sweetbread, 18.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Taste, 28, 106.
+
+  Tea, 27.
+
+  Tears, 102.
+
+  Teeth, 14, 137.
+
+  Tendon, 115.
+
+  Thinking, 89.
+
+  Tight shoes, 112.
+
+  Tobacco, 31.
+
+  Tobacco and brain, 98.
+              breathing, 72.
+              chewing, 33.
+              children, 33.
+              digestion, 33.
+              eyes, 104.
+              habit, 34.
+              heart, 57.
+              muscle, 121.
+              strength, 32.
+              taste, 107.
+              teeth, 32.
+
+  Tongue, 15.
+
+  Tonsils, 134, 136.
+
+  Toothpick, 15.
+
+  Touch, 100.
+
+  Tuberculosis, 134.
+
+  Typhoid fever, 53, 127.
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vegetables, 25.
+
+  Veins, 52.
+
+  Ventilation, 65, 129.
+
+  Vinegar, 39.
+
+  Voice, 68.
+
+
+  W
+
+  Warmth, feeling of, 63.
+
+  Washing clothes, 80.
+
+  Waste of body, 75, 78.
+
+  Water, 10, 19, 26, 49, 127.
+
+  Wells, 26, 81.
+
+  Whisky, 44, 71.
+
+  White blood cells, 49, 53, 132.
+
+  Whooping cough, 134, 137.
+
+  Wigglers, 131.
+
+  Windpipe, 15, 59.
+
+  Wine, 42.
+
+  Wool, 63.
+
+  Words, 68.
+
+  Working of fruit, 37.
+
+  Worry, 91.
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yeast, 24, 38, 42.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+   Pg 137 Added period after "223" in "223 Board of health".
+
+   Pg 141 Replaced a comma with a period after "101" in "Eye, 101".
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY***
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #32251 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32251)
author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:57:17 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:57:17 -0700
commit	c24273c5fc9ba7b8d09d1458deca03c2f759fcc8 (patch)
tree	553101422b4cffab15261af7127b1da0b7450976