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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fundamental Principles of Old and New
+World Civilizations by Zelia Nuttall
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations
+
+Author: Zelia Nuttall
+
+Release Date: April 20, 2010 [Ebook #32066]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OLD AND NEW WORLD CIVILIZATIONS***
+
+
+
+
+
+                        The Fundamental Principles
+
+                                    Of
+
+                     Old and New World Civilizations
+
+A Comparative Research Based on a Study of the Ancient Mexican Religious,
+                  Sociological, and Calendrical Systems.
+
+                                    By
+
+                              Zelia Nuttall
+
+ Honorary Special Assistant of the Peabody Museum; Fellow of the American
+ Association for the Advancement of Science; Member of the Philosophical
+Society, Philadelphia; Honorary Member of the Archaeological Association,
+    Univ. of Pennsylvania; Corresponding Member of the Antiquarian and
+  Numismatic Society of Philadelphia; of the Anthropological Society of
+  Washington; of the Societa Italiana d'Antropologia; of the Societe de
+Geographie de Geneve; of the Sociedad Cientifico "Antonio Alzate," Mexico;
+              and of the Societe des Americanistes de Paris.
+
+                  Archaeological and Ethnological Papers
+
+                                  Of The
+
+                              Peabody Museum
+
+                            Harvard University
+
+                                 Vol. II.
+
+                             Cambridge, Mass.
+
+          Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology.
+
+                               March, 1901.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Editorial Note.
+Author's Preface.
+The Fundamental Principles Of Old And New World Civilizations.
+Appendix I. Comparative Table of some Quechua, Nahuatl and Maya Words.
+Appendix II. A Prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers.
+Appendix III. Comparative Lists of Words.
+Index.
+Note.
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+EDITORIAL NOTE.
+
+
+The author of this volume explains in her preface how she came to be led
+beyond her special field of research into a comparative study of the early
+civilizations of the Old World; and how she traced the origin of the
+swastika, in Mexico, to an astronomical source and, in all countries
+alike, found its use as a sacred symbol accompanied by evidences of a
+certain phase of culture based on pole-star worship, and the recognition
+of the fixed laws of nature, which found expression in the ideal of
+celestial kingdoms or states organized on a set numerical plan and
+regulated by the apparent revolutions of circumpolar constellations.
+
+The results of the author's researches seem to justify her summary of
+conclusions; but she distinctly states that she does not wish to propound
+any theory. She invites further study and discussion by Orientalists and
+Americanists before drawing final conclusions from the facts she has
+gathered. The publication of this paper will open anew the consideration
+of pre-Columbian visits to the New World, shown, as many have believed, by
+identities too many and too close to be considered as mere resemblances or
+as the natural results of independent intellectual development.
+
+The illustrations are nearly all from drawings by the author. The
+analytical Index has been prepared by Miss Mead. It will be seen, by the
+numbering at the bottom of each page, that it was at first intended to
+include this paper in Volume I of the Archaeological and Ethnological
+Papers of the Museum; but the addition of the text relating to the Old
+World made too bulky a volume, and it is therefore issued as Volume II of
+the series.
+
+To Mrs. Nuttall for the gift of her work, the results of years of
+research, and to the several generous friends who have provided the means
+for publishing this volume, the editor expresses his gratitude in behalf
+of the Museum.
+
+F. W. PUTNAM,
+Curator of the Peabody Museum.
+Harvard University,
+March 1, 1901.
+
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+In February, 1898, while engaged upon the translation and commentary of
+the anonymous Hispano Mexican MS. of the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale
+Library, of Florence, my interest was suddenly and unexpectedly diverted
+from my self-imposed task by the circumstances described in the opening
+pages of the present publication.
+
+Laying my work aside, as I then supposed, for a few days only, I seized
+the new thread of investigation with a keen and enthusiastic interest,
+little knowing that it, in turn, was not only to hold me fast for nearly
+three years, but was to lead me out of my original field of research, into
+distant, and to me, hitherto untrodden realms, in close pursuit of facts
+relating to the oldest forms of religion, social organization, and
+symbolism.
+
+The first portion of the present publication was planned as a short
+monograph of forty-one pages, treating of the origin of the native
+swastika or cross symbols, and was written in July, 1898, its outcome
+being the unforeseen conclusion that the cosmical conceptions of the
+ancient Mexicans were identical with those of the Zunis. I next traced the
+same fundamental set of ideas in Yucatan, Central America and Peru and
+formed the wish to add this investigation to the preceding. The result has
+been the portion of the work extending from page 41, paragraph 2, to page
+284, which was printed in 1899.
+
+Having once launched into a course of comparative research, the deep
+interest I have always taken in the question of Asiatic contact led me to
+carry my investigation of the same subject into China. It then seemed
+impossible not to extend researches from Eastern to Western Asia, and from
+Asia Minor to Egypt, Greece, Rome and Western Europe. It is in this
+unpremeditated way that the scope of the present investigation enlarged
+itself of its own accord, for the simple reason that the most interesting
+and precious facts fell into my way as I advanced and all I had to do was
+to pick them up and add them to my collection of evidence.
+
+One serious disadvantage, arising from the circumstance that the present
+investigation has been in press for nearly three years, is my inability to
+make any alteration, amendment, or addition, in the earlier portions,
+which stand as written at different times. It is a matter of regret to me
+that I was not acquainted with O'Neil's "Night of the Gods" and Hewitt's
+"Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times," at an earlier stage of my
+investigation, as through them my publication would have been enriched by
+many valuable additions which I could have incorporated in the body of my
+work without unduly sacrificing its unity of form.
+
+In the line of Maya investigation notable advances have been made since I
+wrote (on page 221), about the "septenary set of signs" described by Mr.
+A. P. Maudslay in 1886, and about the inscription on the tablet of the
+Temple of the Cross at Palenque (pp. 237-39). Since that time an important
+publication on the Tablet of the Cross, to which I should have liked to
+refer, has been issued by the much esteemed Nestor of Maya investigations,
+Herr Geheimrath Dr. Foerstemann. My attention has also been drawn by the
+best versed of American students of the Maya Codices, Mr. Charles P.
+Bowditch, to the fact that Mr. Maudslay now recognizes the general
+recurrence of an eighth sign in combination with the septenary group,
+causing this to consist of an initial glyph, followed by seven instead of
+six signs. Referring the reader to pp. 221 and 222, I point out that the
+employment of an initial glyph, representing the synopsis of a whole,
+followed by seven signs, appears even more strongly to corroborate my view
+that the inhabitants of Copan were acquainted with the septenary, cosmical
+division I have traced.
+
+My fellow archaeologists will understand the disadvantage of issuing an
+investigation partly written a few years previously, and will realize
+that, had I, at the outset, been in possession of all the facts I have
+since learned, the present work would have been very differently planned
+and executed. On the other hand, as it partakes somewhat of the nature of
+a log-book, the reader is able to follow closely my blundering course, and
+will recognize and appreciate some of its perils and difficulties. It
+being, unfortunately, impossible to re-write the book. I shall have to be
+resigned to incur some criticism and blame for omissions, which could have
+been averted. I shall, however, be content if my prolonged study of
+ancient Mexican archaeology and the present research open out new lines of
+investigation, and conclusively prove that primitive cross-symbols and the
+swastika are universally accompanied by vestiges of a certain set of
+cosmical conceptions and schemes of organization, which can be traced back
+to an original pole-star worship. I can but think that the material I have
+collected will also lead to a recognition that the role of the Phoenicians,
+as intermediaries of ancient civilization, was greater than has been
+supposed, and that it is imperative that future research be devoted to a
+fresh study and examination of those indications which appear to show that
+America must have been intermittently colonized by the intermediation of
+Mediterranean seafarers.
+
+To me the most interesting result of the present investigation is the fact
+that, having once started on an unpremeditated course of study, I found an
+unsuspected wealth of material and finally attained one main, totally
+undreamed-of conclusion, concerning the law governing the evolution of
+religion and civilization. This leads me to think that, as I groped in
+darkness, searching for light, I unwittingly struck the true key-note of
+that great universal theme which humanity, with a growing perception of
+existing, universal harmony, has ever been striving to seize and
+incorporate into their lives. The fact that many of the transcriptions of
+the original harmony have been and are discordant, and that they
+temporarily obscure, instead of rendering, its sublime grandeur, unity and
+noble simplicity, appears as the inevitable result of the mental activity,
+ingenuity and creative imagination to which mankind also owes its
+intellectual and spiritual progress.
+
+In conclusion I regret my inability to express adequately my grateful
+appreciation of the unfailing loyalty of those true friends, in particular
+Prof. F. W. Putnam, who, trusting in the earnestness of my purpose and
+endeavor, have constantly encouraged and cheered me as they patiently
+awaited the long-delayed completion of my work.
+
+Z. N.
+CAMBRIDGE, MASS.,
+DECEMBER 31, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OLD AND NEW WORLD CIVILIZATIONS.
+
+
+One evening, in February, 1898, I left my desk and, stepping to the
+window, looked out at Polaris and the circumpolar region of the sky, with
+a newly awakened and eager interest.
+
+For thirteen years I had been studying and collecting material with the
+hope of obtaining some understanding of the calendar, religion and
+cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans, but had hitherto purposely refrained
+from formulating or expressing any conclusions on the latter subjects
+having felt unable to extract a clear and satisfactory understanding of
+the native beliefs from the chaotic mass of accumulated data under which
+they lay like the ruin of an ancient temple. Though frequently
+discouraged, I had, however, never ceased to pursue my research and to
+note carefully the slightest indication or suggestion which might prove of
+ultimate value. Becoming utterly absorbed in the collection of such notes,
+I found no time to publish anything during the past four years, though
+realizing, with regret, that those interested in my work might be
+disappointed at my delay in issuing the papers announced, in 1894, as
+speedily forthcoming. Slowly but steadily, however, I was gaining ground.
+Various excursions along new lines of research increased my experience
+and, in crossing and re-crossing the field of ancient Mexico, I frequently
+had occasion to observe certain familiar landmarks, from a new point of
+view, and illuminated by rays of fresh light proceeding from recently
+acquired sources. It was remarkable how often facts, which had seemed so
+hopelessly complicated, finally appeared to be quite simple and
+comprehensible. This was noticeably the case with the Aztec deities which,
+for years, had seemed to me as numberless. After closely studying their
+respective symbols, attributes and names, during several consecutive
+months, and subjecting them to a final minute analysis, I found that their
+number dwindled in a remarkable way and also verified the truth of the
+statement made by the anonymous author of the Biblioteca Nazionale
+manuscript which I was editing, that the Mexicans painted one and the same
+god under a different aspect "with different colours," according to the
+various names they gave him in each instance.
+
+It was particularly interesting to find that, in assuming that certain
+names designated different native deities, the early Spanish writers had
+committed a mistake as great as though someone, reading the litany of the
+Virgin in a Catholic prayer-book, for the first time, inferred that it was
+a series of invocations addressed to distinct divinities, amongst whom
+figured the "morning star," a "mirror of justice," and a "mystical rose,"
+etc. An examination of the texts of several native prayers preserved,
+established that the Mexicans addressed their prayers to a supreme Creator
+and ruler, whom they termed "invisible, incomprehensible and impalpable,"
+and revered as "the father and mother of all." Some of their so-called
+idols were, after all, either attempts to represent in objective form, the
+attributes of the divine power, the forces of nature, the elements, etc.,
+or rebus figures. As these "gods" or "idols" are enumerated farther on and
+are exhaustively treated in my commentary of the Biblioteca Nazionale
+manuscript, now in press, it suffices for my present purpose merely to
+mention here that the most mysterious figure of Mexican cosmogony,
+Tezcatlipoca, whose symbolical name literally means "shining mirror,"
+proved to be identical with Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the underworld,
+whose title may also be interpreted as "the ruler or regent of the North,"
+since Mictlampa is the name of this cardinal point.
+
+The Codex Fuenleal (Anales del Museo Nacional, Mexico, tomo II, p. 88)
+preserves an important myth relating how Tezcatlipoca, after having been
+the sun, was cast down from this supreme position by Huitzilopochtli,
+"descended to the water," but had arisen again in the shape of an ocelot,
+and transformed himself into the constellation of Ursa Major.
+
+According to Sahagun the native name of this star-group was Citlal-Colotl
+or "star scorpion." Reference to Nahuatl dictionaries revealed that this
+insect had doubtlessly been named colotl on account of its habit of
+recurving its tail when enraged.
+
+The Nahuatl verb coloa means, to bend over or twist something, the
+adjective coltic is applied to something bent over or recurved. The noun
+colotli, which is almost identical with colotl, means "the cross-beams,
+the mounting, branch or handle of a cross" ("armadura de manga de cruz."
+See Molina's dictionary).
+
+The above facts show that the idea underlying the name for Ursa Major is
+primarily that of "something bent over or recurved." It is obvious that
+the form of the constellation answers to this description. It is,
+moreover, extremely significant to find, in the Maya language also, a
+certain resemblance between the words for scorpion and for a cross. This,
+in Maya, is zin-che and that for a scorpion is zin-au. The above data
+justify the induction that the native conception of a cross was connected
+with the idea of its arms being bent over or recurved, as in the Mexican
+calendar-swastika.
+
+It is important to find the scorpion figured as one of several symbols of
+Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, in his sculptured effigy preserved
+at the National Museum of Mexico (fig. 19).
+
+It is more significant that the verb coloa, besides meaning "to bend over
+or twist something," also expressed the action "of describing or
+performing a circle by walking around something." Now this is precisely
+what Tezcatlipoca (the Ursa Major) is represented as doing on page 77 of
+the B.N. manuscript, since he figures there, surrounded by a circle of
+footsteps. I could but note that this fact showed that the name of Colotl,
+applied to the constellation, was not incompatible with its identification
+with Tezcatlipoca. Once my attention had been drawn to the action of
+walking, performed by this god, I naturally considered, with fresh
+interest, the peculiar fact that he is usually represented with one foot
+only. The circumstances under which he had been deprived of this member
+are set forth in several of the Codices wherein we see that, after he
+"descended to the water," he had an encounter with an alligator, who had
+viciously bitten off his foot and carried it away. (See Fejervary Codex,
+pp. 3 and 74. Vatican, II, p. 74.) Pictures representing Tezcatlipoca,
+after this event, display the broken end of the tibia exposed and the
+transverse section of the bone forming a ring, usually painted either
+white or red. Special pains seem to have been taken to accentuate the
+hollowness of the bone ring, since its centre is usually painted blue, the
+symbolical color of air, and conventionalized puffs of breath or air are
+shown as issuing from it (fig. 1). In some cases, as on the sculptured
+monolith called "the Stone of Tizoc," these symbols of breath, issuing
+from the broken tibia, are figured in such a way that modern writers,
+ignoring what they were meant to represent, were led to identify them as
+some animal's tail attached to the foot of the deity. The hollow circle
+and puffs of air, constantly associated with the god, frequently figure as
+his ear ornament when his broken tibia is concealed (fig. 2, no. 3).
+Besides certain fanciful interpretations which have been given to this
+symbol, it has been explained as being a hieroglyph conveying the name
+Tezcatlipoca, and consisting of an obsidian mirror=tezcatl, and
+smoke=poctli. A possible objection to this assertion might be that in
+Mexican pictography, the mirror is invariably represented as jet-black, in
+a white or red frame. In the Codex Telleriano Remensis, a combination of
+symbols (of water, fire and a serpent) are figured as issuing from the
+base of the bone (fig. 1, nos. 5, 6). Having taken particular pains to
+collect all representations of the footless god, I was specially
+interested in one (Fejervary, p. 1) in which he is figured as standing on
+the cross-shaped symbol ollin, the accepted meaning of which is Four
+Movements. The most remarkable and puzzling picture I found, however, is
+that (fig. 1, no. 2) in which the jaws of a tecpatl, the symbol of the
+North, are represented as holding one of Tezcatlipoca's ankles in a tight
+grip and practically fastening him thus to the centre of a diagonal cross.
+In this and other pictures (Codex Fejervary, 41, 43 and 96) it is obvious
+that the artists had endeavored to convey the idea of a person permanently
+attached to one spot by one foot. The only form of locomotion possible to
+him would be to describe a circle by hobbling on one foot around the
+other, which would serve as an axis or pivot. The association of this
+peculiarity with the symbols of the North impressed me deeply and
+involuntarily caused me to think of a title bestowed in the Codex Fuenleal
+upon the supreme divinity, namely, "The Wheel of the Winds;" as well as of
+an expression employed by Tezozomoc (Cronica, p. 574). Referring to the
+constellations revered by the natives, he mentions "the North and its
+wheel."
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                 Figure 1
+
+
+Realizing that some definite and important meaning must underlie the
+remarkable representations of Tezcatlipoca, I resorted to all possible
+means to gain an understanding of them. Referring to Nahuatl dictionaries,
+I found a variety of synonymous names for a person who limped or was lame
+or maimed. Amongst them was Popoztequi from poztequi, the verb, "to break
+a leg." Other names were xopuztequi, xotemol and Icxipuztequi
+(icxitl=foot). The latter name happened to be familiar to me, for the
+commentator of the Vatican Codex, Padre Rios, gives it as the name of a
+god and translates it as "the lame devil." He records it immediately after
+Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, and designates it as the name of
+one of the four principal and primitive gods of the Mexicans.
+
+The commentator of the Telleriano-Remensis Codex, moreover, records that
+these four gods were "said to have been stars and had fallen from the
+heavens. At the present time there are stars in the firmament named after
+them" (Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 132 and 162).
+
+Other synonymous terms for lame persons were icxinecuiltic and
+xonecuiltic. Tzimpuztequi, on the other hand, besides meaning lame, also
+signified something crooked, bent or incurvated. The second name furnished
+me with an important clue, for Sahagun distinctly records that the native
+name for the constellation Ursa Minor was Xonecuilli and that it was
+figured as an S (Historia, 1. VII, cap. 3). Besides, the Academia MS. of
+his monumental work contains the native drawing of this star-group
+reproduced as fig. 16, no. 1. He also states that S-shaped loaves of bread
+named xonecuilli were made at a certain festival in honor of this
+constellation, while the B.N. MS. records that a peculiar recurved weapon,
+figured in the hands of deities, was named xonequitl (fig. 16, nos. 2 and
+3).
+
+The above data furnished me with indisputable evidence of the existence,
+in ancient Mexico, of a species of star cult connected with the
+circumpolar constellations and with Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the North,
+the central figure of the native cosmogony. It was puzzling to find this
+god connected not only with the Ursa Major but also with Ursa Minor, but
+an indication suggesting a possible explanation or reconciliation of these
+apparent inconsistencies is furnished by the descriptions of the strange
+ritual performance, which was annually repeated at the festival
+Tlacaxipehualiztli and was evidently the dramatization of a sacred myth.
+
+As an illustration and a description of this rite are contained in the
+B.N. MS. and the subject is fully treated in my commentary, I shall but
+allude here to its salient features. It represented a mortal combat
+between a prisoner, attached by a short piece of cord to the centre of a
+large circular stone, and five warriors, who fought him singly. The fifth,
+who was masked as an ocelot and always obtained victory in the unequal
+contest, fought with his left hand, being "left-handed," a peculiarity
+ascribed to Huitzilopochtli. It was he who subsequently wore the skin of
+the flayed victim, an action which obviously symbolized a metamorphosis.
+One point is obvious: this drama exhibits the victor as a warrior who was
+able to circumscribe the stone freely and was masked as an
+ocelot--Tezcatlipoca--the Ursa Major, but was endowed, at the same time,
+with the left-handedness identified with Huitzilopochtli. This mythical
+personage vanquishes and actually wears the skin of the man attached to
+the stone; becomes his embodiment, in point of fact, and obtains the
+supremacy for which he had fought so desperately. In the light shed by the
+Codex Fuenleal, before cited, it was easy to see that the entire
+performance dramatized the mythical combat between Tezcatlipoca and
+Huitzilopochtli for the position of the ruling power, in the heavens--the
+sun. At the same time it was decidedly puzzling to find celestial
+supremacy personified by a man, firmly fastened to one spot, the centre of
+a stone circle. It was impossible not to perceive the identity of thought
+underlying the representation of this prisoner and the pictures of
+Tezcatlipoca, the one-footed or lame god--Xonecuilli the Ursa Minor. It was
+moreover of extreme interest to note the existence of traditional records,
+preserved in the native myths, of changes in the relative positions of
+celestial bodies and of the Ursa Major in particular.
+
+Whilst dwelling upon the striking analogy existing between the
+representations of Tezcatlipoca held fast by the symbol of the North and
+the prisoner attached to what is described either as "a temalacatl, stone
+whorl" or "an image of the sun," my gaze fell on a small model of the
+calendar-stone of Mexico, hanging above my desk, and rested on the symbol
+Ollin in its centre. The learned director of the National Museum of
+Mexico, Senor Troncoso (Anales del Museo Nacional, vol. II), had expressed
+his view that this symbol was an actual figurative representation of the
+annual apparent movements of the sun, and recorded its positions at the
+solstitial and equinoctial periods. I had, moreover, submitted a drawing
+of this same figure to the eminent English astronomer, Prof. Norman
+Lockyer, and he had corroborated this view and established its
+correctness. On the other hand, I had long noted that the _Ollin_ was
+usually figured with an eye, the symbol for star, in its centre (fig. 2,
+nos. 1, 3), and had also paid particular attention to the fact that the
+Mexicans had conceived the ideas of two suns, a young day sun and an
+ancient night or black sun. In the B. N. MS., on the mantas worn at their
+respective festivals, the day sun is depicted in a somewhat fanciful
+manner, in blue and red on a white field. The black sun is, however,
+represented in classical style, so to speak, as on the sculptured
+calendar-stone, with four larger and four smaller V-shaped rays issuing
+from it. In this connection it is well to recall here that the Mexicans
+had no specific name for the sun, beyond _Tonatiuh_, which merely means
+"that which sheds light" and could equally apply to the stars. In the
+picture-writings the image of the sun was employed to convey the word
+_Teotl_. But we find that this word, assumed to be equivalent to their
+"Dios" by the Spaniards, was also a reverential title bestowed upon
+chieftains and superiors and was constantly employed in the composition of
+words to signify something divine, supremely beautiful, etc. Whilst I was
+pondering on the possibility that the symbol _Ollin_ might have
+represented the movements of the luminaries of night as well as the orb of
+day, my attention became fixed upon the four numerals in each of the ends
+of the symbol and I was struck by a certain resemblance between their
+positions and those of the four stars which form the body of the bear in
+the constellation of Ursa Major. It was then that it occurred to me, as
+mentioned in the opening sentence of this introduction, to look at the
+familiar constellations, with a view to verifying the resemblance noted
+above. As my gaze sought "the pointers" in Ursa Major, and then
+mechanically turned to Polaris, I thought of some passages I had recently
+re-read, in Professor Lockyer's Dawn of Astronomy, realizing that his
+observations, dealing with the latitude 26 deg. (taking Thebes as representing
+Egypt), could equally apply to Mexico as this country stretches from
+latitude 15 deg. to 31 deg..
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                 Figure 2
+
+
+"The moment primitive man began to observe anything, he must have taken
+note of the stars, and as soon as he began to talk about them he must have
+started by defining, in some way or other, the particular star he
+meant.... Observers would first consider the brightest stars and separate
+them from the dimmer ones; they would then discuss the stars which never
+set (the circumpolar constellations) and separate them from those which
+did rise and set. Then they would naturally, in a northern clime, choose
+out the constellation of the Great Bear or Orion, and for small groups,
+the Pleiades (_op. cit._ p. 132).... A few years' observation would have
+appeared to demonstrate the absolute changelessness of the places of the
+rising and setting of the same stars. It is true that this result would
+have been found to be erroneous when a long period of time had elapsed and
+when observation became more accurate, but for hundreds of years the stars
+would certainly appear to represent fixity, while the movements of the
+sun, moon and planets would seem to be bound by no law ... would appear
+erratic, so long as the order of their movements was not known."
+
+The reflection that Ursa Major was probably the first constellation which
+made any deep impression upon the mind of prehistoric man in America, as
+elsewhere, lent an additional interest to the star-group, as I
+concentrated my mind upon its form and endeavored to imagine it in four
+equidistant positions, corresponding to the numerals in the symbol _Ollin_
+of the calendar-stone of Mexico (fig. 2, no. 2).
+
+I succeeded in obtaining, in succession, mental images of the
+constellation in four opposite positions. This effort led to an unforeseen
+result which surprised me. In a flash of mental vision I perceived a
+quadrupled image of the entire constellation, standing out in
+scintillating brilliancy from the intense darkness of the wintry sky (fig.
+3, no. 3). At the same moment I saw that it bore the semblance of a
+symmetrical swastika of giant proportions. This fact, so unexpectedly
+realized, gave rise to such an absorbing train of new ideas and
+interpretations of the data I had accumulated, that I left my window, on
+that memorable night, with a growing perception of the deep and powerful
+influence the prolonged observation of Polaris and the circumpolar
+constellations would naturally have exerted upon the mind of primitive
+man. Deeply impressed with the striking resemblance between the composite
+image of Polaris, Ursa Major, and certain forms of the swastika, I started
+on a fresh line of investigation, and devoted myself to the study of
+primitive astronomy and its influence upon the intellectual development of
+mankind in general and the American races in particular. After having
+worked, during thirteen years, without any preconceived ideas about the
+ancient Mexican civilization and without formulating any general
+conclusion concerning it, I saw all the knowledge I had slowly acquired
+fall into rank and file and organize itself into a simple and harmonious
+whole.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                 Figure 3
+
+
+Realizing this I perceived how, with the origin of the swastika, I had
+found the origin of the set of primeval ideas which had governed the human
+race from its infancy and which, in Mexican and Central American
+civilizations, ultimately developed into their ingenious system of
+government and social organization.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+  Plate I. Chart of the Polar Constellations. I: Just After Sunset. II:
+                   Midnight.  III: Just Before Sunrise.
+
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                 Plate II. Various Forms of the Swastika.
+
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                 Figure 4
+
+
+The sequel to the above episode was that, with the aid of my movable
+star-chart, I made the following notes of the apparent positions of the
+circumpolar constellations at the times of sunrise, midnight and sunset,
+choosing the periods of the solstices and equinoxes in order to obtain an
+exact division of the year (pl. I). Whilst studying these I realized that
+the midnight position was the only stable one, since the actual visibility
+of the constellations before dawn and after dusk would be subject to
+considerable variation, according to seasons, latitudes and atmospherical
+conditions. Having noted these positions, I next combined them separately,
+obtaining the remarkable results given in fig. 4. The combined midnight
+positions of the Ursa Major or Minor, at the four divisions of the year,
+yielded symmetrical swastikas, the forms of which were identical with the
+different types of swastika or cross-symbols (the normal, ogee and volute,
+etc.), which have come down to us from remote antiquity and are reproduced
+here for comparison (pl. II, _a-f_). Reflection showed me that such
+composite pictures of the Ursa constellations constituted an exact record
+of their annual rotation, and afforded a perfect sign for the period of a
+year. I moreover perceived how the association of rotatory motion with the
+advance of time, and its division into fixed periods or cycles, would be
+the natural outcome of the recognition of the annual rotation of the
+star-groups.
+
+The Calendar-Swastika, or cross of ancient Mexico (pl. II, _g_)
+constitutes an absolute proof of the native association of the
+cross-symbol with the ideas of rotatory motion and the progress of time,
+and furnishes an indication that, in an analogous manner, the swastika may
+have been primarily and generally employed by primitive races, as a sign
+for a year or cycle. A close scrutiny of the respective forms of the
+crosses yielded by Ursae Major and Minor shows that the normal swastika and
+suavastika may be explained as the separate representations of the two
+constellations--the angular break in the outline of Ursa Major suggesting
+the direction of the bend to the right of the arms of the normal swastika,
+whilst the form of Ursa Minor obviously suggests the bend to the left
+which is characteristic of the suavastika.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                 Figure 5
+
+
+My growing conviction that the Bear constellations had furnished the
+archetype of the different forms of swastika and cross-symbols, found
+subsequent support when I referred to the map showing the geographical
+distribution of the ancient symbol published by Prof. Thomas Wilson in his
+valuable and comprehensive monograph on the subject,(1) to which I am
+indebted for much information and several illustrations (pl. II, _a-f_,
+etc.). The map, reproduced here (fig. 5), proves that, with two
+exceptions, which can be attributed to a migration southward, the
+employment of the swastika has been confined to the northern hemisphere,
+_i. e._, precisely to that portion of our globe from which the circumpolar
+constellations are visible.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+    Figure 6. Star-Map, Representing The Precessional Movement Of The
+Celestial Pole From The Year 4000 B.C. To The Year 2000 A.D. (_From Piazzi
+                                 Smyth_.)
+
+
+The interesting possibility of being able to determine, approximately, the
+date in the world's history when the swastika began to be employed as a
+symbol, next occurred to me. Piazzi Smyth's star-map, discussed and
+reproduced in Professor Lockyer's work already cited (fig. 6), illustrates
+the changes of direction of the earth's axis in space, which gives rise to
+what is called the precession of the equinoxes and has a cycle of
+something like 25,000 or 26,000 years. Reference to this star-map (fig. 6)
+proved that the observations, leading to the adoption of the swastika as a
+symbol, could not possibly have been made until after Ursa Major had
+become circumpolar, about 4,000 B.C. At that period, when Draconis was the
+pole-star, the circle described about it by Ursa Major was considerably
+closer than it is at present. The accompanying illustrations (fig. 7),
+subject to correction, demonstrate the relative distance of the
+constellation about 2,770 B.C., 1,800 B.C., and 2,000 A.D., and show how
+much more strikingly impressive the polar region of the heavens was in
+remote antiquity.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 7.
+
+
+Let us now briefly review some of the ideas which would naturally suggest
+themselves to the mind of the primitive observer, after he had recognized
+the apparent immovability of the polar-star, concentrated his attention
+upon this feature, and contrasted it with the varying motions of all other
+celestial bodies in general and with the rotation of the circumpolar
+star-groups in particular.
+
+This recognition would lead to his gradually learning to utilize Polaris
+as a means of ascertaining direction. His appreciation of valuable
+guidance rendered in perilous wanderings would develop feelings of trust,
+dependence and gratitude towards the one changeless star which permanently
+rendered valuable services and under whose guidance difficult and
+essential nocturnal expeditions could be safely undertaken. Superiority
+and, eventually, extensive supernatural power would more and more be
+attributed to it, as knowledge was gained of the laws of motion from which
+it alone seemed to be exempt. This exemption would cause it to be viewed
+as superior to all other heavenly bodies and even to the sun, and it is
+easy to see how this idea, becoming predominant, might cause the cult of
+the pole-star to disestablish an organized sun-cult amongst some tribes.
+Historical evidence, to which I shall revert more fully proves, indeed,
+that a native American ruler and reformer actually employed the following
+reasoning in order to convert his council and people from the worship of
+the sun to that of a superior divinity which could have been no other but
+Polaris: "It is not possible that the sun should be the God who created
+all things, for if so he would sometimes rest and light up the whole world
+from one spot. Thus it cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who
+directs him and this truly is the true Creator."
+
+These words shed a whole flood of light upon primitive religious ideas at
+an early stage of development. They prove that the association of repose
+and immovability with the supreme power signified a radical change of
+thought, based upon prolonged astronomical observation, and indicated
+intellectual advancement. Attempts to render the new idea objective, to
+express it and impress it upon the multitude, would naturally end in the
+production of images of the supernatural power, representing or typifying
+immovability, changelessness, strength combined with absolute repose.
+
+It is thus rendered evident what a deep significance may be embodied in
+the rudest images of supernatural beings in attitudes of repose, since a
+prolonged course of astronomical observation and reasoning may have
+preceded their production.
+
+Simultaneously with the recognition of Polaris as an immutable centre of
+axial energy, the rotatory movement of Ursa Major must have excited
+interest and observation. It was inevitable that star-gazers should
+gradually recognize a constant agreement between certain positions of Ursa
+Major and Cassiopeia after dusk for instance, and the annual recurrence of
+rain, verdure and bountiful food-supplies.
+
+The members of a tribe who, more observant than others, had learned to
+associate certain positions of these constellations with the seasons and,
+as a consequence, were able to decide when expeditions to distant
+localities, in quest of game or fruit, might be successfully undertaken,
+would naturally assume leadership and command obedience and respect.
+
+The sense of responsibility, superiority and, possibly, rivalry would act
+upon such individuals as a powerful incentive to further observation and
+thought and it is evident that, as their mental faculties expanded and one
+generation transmitted its store of accumulated knowledge to the next, a
+regular caste of astronomer-leaders would develop, with a tendency to
+conceal the secrets of their power from the ignorant majority. A broken
+line, carved on a rock by one of these primitive observers, would have
+constituted a valuable secret note of the position of Ursa Major on a
+memorable occasion and would be looked upon as a mystic or magical sign by
+the uninitiated. A series of such inscriptions might represent the store
+of astronomical knowledge accumulated by several generations of observers,
+and it is interesting to recognize that such astronomical records as these
+were probably the first which men were impelled to perpetuate in a lasting
+form; since it was absolutely necessary that they should be permanently
+available for reference at prolonged intervals of time. What is more, the
+mere fact of being obliged to refer to these inscriptions would cause the
+astronomers to reside permanently in one locality. The habit of consulting
+the prophet or oracle before undertaking important steps, involving the
+welfare of the tribe, would gradually cause the rocks or cavern in which
+he resided to be invested with a certain sacredness.
+
+It is thus evident that the first men, who rudely scratched the outline of
+Ursa Major or Minor on a rock, took what was probably one of the most
+momentous steps in the history of the human race, and it is easy to see
+how a variety of combinations of circumstances would have led many men, in
+widely-separated localities and at different periods of the world's
+history, to perform precisely the same action. In some cases, under
+favorable surroundings, the rudimentary attempt would mark the starting
+point for a long line of patient observation and study, which would
+inevitably lead to the creation of centres of intellectual growth, to the
+association of the different positions of the constellation with the
+seasons and culminate in the habitual employment of a swastika as the sign
+for a year, or cycle of time.(2)
+
+The idea of rotation, associated with calendar signs and periods, finds
+its most striking and convincing exemplification in the following
+description of the ancient Mexican game "of those who fly," translated
+from Clavigero (op. et ed. cit. p. 236). This performance, which furnished
+a diversion to the Spaniards after the Conquest, had evidently been,
+originally, connected with religious ideas. "The Indians selected a tall,
+stout and straight tree, and, lopping off its branches, planted it firmly
+in the centre of the great square" (which was always situated in the
+centre of the city and had four roads leading to it from the four
+quarters). "On the summit they placed a large cylinder of wood, the shape
+of which was compared by the Spaniards to that of a mortar. Four strong
+ropes hung from this and supported a square frame composed of four wooden
+beams. Four other ropes were fastened by one end to the pole itself and
+wound around it thirteen times. Their loose ends were passed through holes
+in the middle of each beam and hung from these. Four Indians, masked as
+eagles or other birds, ascended the pole singly, by means of certain loops
+of cord, and mounting on the cylinder they performed in this perilous
+position a few dance-like movements. Each man then attached himself to the
+loose end of one of the hanging ropes, and then, with a violent jerk and
+at the same moment, the four men cast themselves into space from their
+positions on the beams. This simultaneous movement caused the frame and
+cylinder to revolve and uncoil the ropes to which the men were fastened
+and these descended to the ground after performing a series of widening
+circles in the air. Meanwhile a fifth individual, who had mounted the
+wooden cylinder after the others, stood on this as it revolved, beating a
+small drum with one hand, whilst he held a banner aloft with the other."
+Whilst it is obvious that this peculiar and dangerous performance clearly
+symbolized axial rotation, typified by the revolving pivot and the four
+men in aerial motion, its full meaning and intention are only made clear
+by the following explanation recorded by Clavigero. "The essential point
+in this game was to calculate so exactly the height of the pole and the
+length of the ropes, that the men should describe precisely thirteen
+circles each before reaching the ground, so as to represent the cycle (of
+4x13=)52 years."
+
+This passage constitutes absolute proof that the Mexican Calendar system
+was intimately associated with axial rotation and ideas such as could only
+have been derived from observation of Polaris and of the circumpolar
+constellations. The game itself was a beautiful and well-conceived
+illustration of the flight of time, typified by the aerial circles
+performed by the men masked as birds, and of its methodical division into
+fixed periods.
+
+Leaving the subject of the calendar for the present we must revert to my
+tables recording the apparent annual and nocturnal axial rotation of the
+circumpolar constellations.
+
+Whilst studying these the reflection naturally arose, that the people who
+observed Ursa Major must have paid equal attention to Cassiopeia and
+noticed that these constellations ever occupied opposite positions to each
+other as they circled around the pole. Dwelling on the fact that in
+ancient Mexico Ursa Major was associated with an ocelot, I remembered the
+many representations in which an ocelot is represented as confronting an
+eagle, usually in mortal combat. Mexican war-chiefs were classed into two
+equally honorable grades, designated as the "ocelots and the quauhtlis,
+_i. e._, eagles." The constellation of Cassiopeia presents to me, a marked
+resemblance to the image of a bird with outspread wings, whose head is
+turned toward Polaris. The fact that when this star-group seems to be
+above, Ursa Major seems to be below, and _vice versa_, would obviously
+suggest the idea of an eternal combat between two adversaries who
+alternately succumbed and resuscitated. It was interesting on reasoning
+further, to note that once the above idea had taken root it must have been
+impossible not to associate in course of time, the quadruped and the bird
+with the elements to which they seemed to pertain, and gradually to
+conceive the idea of an everlasting antagonism between the powers of the
+sky and of the earth, or light and darkness, and other opposites which
+suggested themselves naturally, or were artificially created, by the
+fertile mind of man. In this connection it should be observed that the
+mythical adversary of Tezcatlipoca, the ocelot, designated as Ursa Major,
+is Huitzilopochtli, whose idol, in the Great Temple of Mexico, represented
+him masked as a hummingbird (see Atlas Duran). The special reason why this
+bird became associated with the god is explained by the following passage
+in Gomara (Histoire generale des Indes. Paris, 1584, chap. 96, p. 190):
+"This bird died, or rather fell asleep in the month of October and
+remained attached by its feet to a twig. It awakened again in April when
+the flowers blossomed. For this reason, in the language of the country it
+is named Huitzitzilin, the resuscitated." We therefore see that whilst it
+is stated in the myth that the ocelot arose again after having been cast
+down from the sky by Huitzilopochtli, the very name of the latter
+betokened that the bird-god had also only just "resuscitated" from a
+presumably similar defeat.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 8.
+
+
+As one and the same object may suggest several resemblances at the same
+time or consecutively, and thus give rise to a group of associations
+around a single figure, I venture to point out that the zigzag form of
+Cassiopeia may well have been compared to forked lightning and caused the
+idea of lightning and thunder to become indissolubly connected with the
+conception of a great celestial bird. Again there is the possibility that
+the same star-group may have more strikingly suggested, to other people,
+the idea of the winding body of a serpent describing a perpetual circle
+around a central star. In Mexico, as elsewhere, we find the serpent
+closely associated with the idea of time. It is represented as encircling
+the calendar wheel published by Clavigero (fig. 8). Four loops, formed of
+its body, mark the four divisions of the year. Twin serpents, whose heads
+and tails almost meet, are sculptured around the famous calendar-stone of
+Mexico. Four serpents whose bent bodies form a large swastika and whose
+heads are directed towards a central figure, are represented in the Codex
+Borgia in association with calendar-signs (fig. 9, _cf._ Fejervary, p.
+24). I shall have occasion to refer in detail to Mexican serpent-symbolism
+further on.
+
+Meanwhile I would submit the interesting results obtained on combining the
+positions apparently assumed by the circumpolar constellations during a
+single night. The tables exhibit four composite groups representing the
+positions at the solstitial and equinoctial periods (fig. 10).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 9.
+
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 10.
+
+
+The night of the winter solstice, the longest of the year, yielded alone a
+symmetrical figure. It resembled the well-known triskelion, the
+companion-symbol of  the swastika (figs. 10 and 11). Just as this had
+proved to be the most natural of year symbols, so the triskelion revealed
+itself as a natural sign of the winter solstice, the period recognized and
+celebrated by most inhabitants of the northern hemisphere as the
+turning-point of the year. In a climate like that of Mexico and Central
+America, however, where the year divided itself naturally into a dry and a
+rainy season, it is evident that the winter solstice would be less
+observed and that the ardently-desired recurrence of the rainy season,
+after a long and trying period of drought, should be regarded as the
+annual event of utmost importance. Indeed, if carefully looked into, the
+entire religious cult of these people seems to express but one great
+struggling cry to the God of Nature for life-giving rain, and a hymn of
+thanksgiving for the annual, precious, but uncertain gift of water.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 11.
+
+
+To these supplicants the winter solstice betokened little or nothing and
+it is not surprising to find no proofs of the employment of the triskelion
+as a sacred symbol in ancient Mexico. On the other hand, it has been
+traced by Mr. Willoughby on pottery from Arkansas, and in Scandinavia,
+where the circumpolar constellations have doubtlessly been observed from
+remote times, and the winter solstice has ever been hailed as the herald
+of coming spring, the triskelion is often found associated with the
+swastika.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 12.
+
+
+I am indebted to Prof. Thomas Wilson's work already cited for the two
+following illustrations of objects exhibiting this association. The first
+is a spearhead found in Brandenburg, Germany (fig. 12). The second is a
+bronze brooch from Scandinavia, to which I shall presently revert (fig.
+13). It exhibits, besides the triskelion, swastika and circle, the
+S-shaped figure which was, as I shall show further on, the sign actually
+employed by the ancient Mexicans and Mayas as the image of the
+constellation Ursa Minor, whose outline it indeed effectually reproduces.
+
+Before referring to the Mexican and Maya representations of the
+star-group, I would next demonstrate that the sacred numbers of Mexico,
+and of other countries situated in the northern hemisphere, coincide
+exactly with the number of stars in the circumpolar constellations
+themselves and in simple combinations of the same.
+
+Ursa Major and Ursa Minor each contains seven stars, and the number seven
+is the most widely-spread sacred number. Ancient traditions record that
+the race inhabiting Mexico consisted of seven tribes who traced their
+separate origins to seven caves, situated in the north. In memory of
+these, at the time of the Conquest, there were seven places of sacrifice
+in the city of Mexico. I shall recur to the number seven further on, in
+discussing the native social organization, and now direct attention to the
+five stars of Cassiopeia and to the fact that the combination of the stars
+in this constellation with Polaris and Ursa Major yields the number
+thirteen. This result is specially interesting since the entire
+Calendar-system of Mexico and Yucatan is based on the combination of the
+numerals 13+7=20, the latter again being 4x5.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 13.
+
+
+On the other hand the same number, 13, is also obtained by the combination
+of the Ursae star-groups with Polaris. The number 5 is constantly yielded
+by Cassiopeia and the four-fold repetitions of the groups supply the
+suggestion of the number 4. The combination of Ursa Minor and Cassiopeia
+yields 12. The accompanying figure exhibits swastikas composed of Ursa
+Minor accompanied by Ursa Major and Cassiopeia separated and combined
+(fig. 14). I next direct attention to the peculiar difference in the
+numerical values of the Ursae swastikas.
+
+In the first, the central star, surrounded by four repetitions of the
+seven-star constellation, yielded a total of twenty-nine stars--4x5+9.
+Further combinations will be seen by a glance at the Ursa Major swastika
+(fig. 4). The analysis of the Ursa Minor swastika is not so simple and
+occasions a certain perplexity.
+
+When I had first combined the four positions of this constellation, I had,
+naturally, and without further thought, figured Polaris but once, as the
+fixed centre, whereas I had repeated the other stars of the compact group
+four times. It was not until I began to count the stars in the swastika
+that I realized how I had, unconsciously, made one central star stand for
+four, and thus deprived the composite group of the numerical value of
+three stars. On the other hand, if I repeated the entire constellation
+four times, I obtained a swastika with four repetitions of Polaris in the
+middle. In this way, however, Polaris became displaced, and the idea of a
+fixed centre was entirely lost. A third possible method of composing the
+swastika was to allow one central star for each cross-arm. But this gave
+two central stars, each of which would represent two stars. Unless
+enclosed in a circle and considered as a central group by themselves, the
+four and the two repetitions of Polaris could not convey the idea of a
+pivot or fixed centre. The three respective numerical values obtained from
+these experimental combinations were 4x6+1=25, 4x7=28, and finally 2x13 or
+4x6+2=26. In each swastika the central star forcibly stood for and
+represented two or four (fig. 15).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 14.
+
+
+In the triskelions the same perplexity arose: if Polaris was repeated, the
+idea of a fixed centre was lost (fig. 15); if figured singly, it
+nevertheless necessarily and inevitably stood as an embodiment of three
+stars. Reasoning from my own experience, I could but perceive, in the
+foregoing facts, a fruitful and constant source of mental suggestions, the
+natural outcome of which would be the association of the central star with
+an enhanced numerical value, and a familiarity with the idea of one star
+being an embodiment of two, three or four.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 15.
+
+
+As the evolution of religious thought and symbolism progressed, this idea
+would obviously lead to the conception of a single being uniting several
+natures in his person. In this connection it is certainly extremely
+interesting to find the serpent associated with the Calendar in Mexico and
+Yucatan, its Nahuatl name being homonymous for twin, _i. e._ two, and the
+Maya for serpent, _can_ or _cam_, being homonymous for the number four.
+The serpent was, therefore, in both countries the most suggestive and
+appropriate symbol which could possibly have been employed in pictography,
+to convey the idea of dual or quadruple natures embodied in a single
+figure.(3) Added to this the circumstance that, to the native mind, the
+serpent, upon merely shedding its skin, lived again, we can understand why
+the ancient Mexicans not only employed it as a symbol of an eternal
+renewal or continuation of time and of life, but also combined it with the
+idea of fecundity and reproductiveness. In Yucatan where the Maya for
+serpent, _can_, is almost homonymous with _caan_=sky or heaven and the
+adjective _caanlil_=celestial, divine, the idea of a divine or celestial
+serpent would naturally suggest itself. It is therefore not surprising to
+find, in both countries, the name of _serpent_ bestowed as a title upon a
+supreme, celestial embodiment of the forces of nature and its image
+employed to express this association in objective form. In Yucatan one of
+the surnames of Itzamna, the supreme divinity, was Canil, a name clearly
+related to _caanlil_=divine and _can_=serpent.
+
+In Mexico the duality and generative force implied by the word "coatl" are
+clearly recognizable in the native invocations addressed to "Our lord
+Quetzalcoatl the Creator and Maker or Former, who dwells in heaven and is
+the lord of the earth [Tlaltecuhtli]; who is our celestial father and
+mother, great lord and great lady, whose title is Ome-Tecuhtli [literally,
+two-lord=twin lord] and Ome-Cihuatl [literally, two-lady=twin lady"]
+(Sahagun, book VI, chaps. 25, 32 and 34).
+
+The following data will suffice to render it quite clear that the Mexicans
+and Mayas employed the serpent as an expressive symbol merely, signifying
+the generative force of the Creator to whom alone they rendered homage. It
+is no less an authority than Friar Bartholomew de las Casas who maintained
+that "in many parts of the [American] Continent, the natives had a
+particular knowledge of the true God; they believed that He created the
+Universe and was its Lord and governed it. And it was to Him they
+addressed their sacrifices, their cult and homage, in their
+necessities..." (Historia Apologetica, chap. 121).
+
+Friar Bartholomew specially adds that this was the case in Mexico
+according to the authority of Spanish missionaries and no one can doubt
+that this was the case when they read that in the native invocations,
+preserved by Sahagun, the supreme divinity is described as "invisible and
+intangible, like the air, like the darkness of night," or as the "lord who
+is always present in all places, who is [as impenetrable as] an abyss, who
+is named the wind [air or breath] and the night." "All things obey him,
+the order of the universe depends upon his will--he is the creator,
+sustainer, the omnipotent and omniscient." He is termed "the father and
+mother of all," "the great god and the great goddess," "our lord and
+protector who is most powerful and most humane,"--"our lord in whose power
+it is to bestow all contentment, sweetness, happiness, wealth and
+prosperity, because thou alone art the lord of all things." One prayer
+concludes thus: "Live and reign forever in all peace and repose thou who
+art our lord, our shelter, our comfort, who art most kind, most bountiful,
+invisible and impalpable!" (Sahagun, book VI, on the rhetoric, moral
+philosophy and theology of the Mexicans, chaps. 1-40). It is related that,
+in gratitude for the birth of a son, the ruler of Texcoco, Nezahual-coyotl
+erected a temple to the Unknown God.... It consisted of nine stories, to
+symbolize the nine heavens. The exterior of the tenth, which formed the
+top of the nine other stories, was painted black with stars. Its interior
+was encrusted with gold, precious stones and feathers and held "the said
+god, who was unknown, unseen, shapeless and formless" (Ixtlilxochitl,
+Historia Chichimeca ed. Chavero, p. 227; see also p. 244). A passage in
+Sahagun (book VI, chap. VII) states that "the invisible and imageless god
+of the Chichimecs was named Yoalli-ehecatl [literally, night-air or wind],
+which means the invisible and impalpable god ... by whose virtue all live,
+who directs by merely exerting his wisdom and will." In the Codex Fuenleal
+(chap. 1) the remarkable title of "wheel of the winds=Yahualliehecatl," is
+recorded as "another name for Quetzalcoatl." This undeniably proves that
+the Mexicans not only figured the Deity by the image of a serpent but also
+thought of him as a wheel which obviously symbolized centrical force,
+rotation, lordship over the four quarters, _i. e._, universal rulership.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 16.
+
+
+Returning from these ideas of later development to the primitive source of
+their suggestion, let us now examine the native picture of Xonecuilli,
+Ursa Minor, preserved in the unpublished Academia MS. of Sahagun's
+Historia, in Madrid (fig. 16, no. 1). It is an exact representation of the
+star-group. The fact that the seven stars are figured of the same size in
+accurate relation to each other, either proves that the eyesight of the
+native astronomers was extremely keen and their atmosphere remarkably
+clear, or that possibly, the minor stars of the group were more brilliant
+in ancient times, than they are now. Astronomers tell us, for instance,
+that as late as the seventeenth century the star in the body of Ursa Major
+nearest to the tail, was as bright as the others, while it is now of the
+fourth magnitude only.
+
+It must be admitted that the shape of the constellation resembles an S. An
+SS sign is mentioned by Sahagun (Historia, book VIII, chap. 8) as
+occurring frequently, as a symbolical design on native textile fabrics. It
+figures as such, in the black garments of the female consort of
+Mictlantecuhtli in the Vienna Codex, pp. 23 and 33. He denounces it as
+suspect and hints that it was intimately connected with the ancient
+religion.
+
+S-shaped sacred cakes, called Xonecuilli, were made during the feast of
+Macuilxochitl=five flowers, and are figured (fig. 16, no. 2) in the B. N.
+MS. (p. 69) with a four-cornered cross-shaped cake of a peculiar form
+(fig. 20, III), which is found associated with five dots or circles in the
+Codices and also with the Tecpatl-symbol of the North (fig. 20, I and II).
+
+A recurved staff, which is held in the hand of a deity in the B. N. MS. is
+designated in the text as a _xonoquitl_ (fig. 16, no. 3). Amongst the
+insignia of the "gods," sent as presents by Montezuma to Cortes upon his
+landing at Vera Cruz, were three such recurved "sceptres," the
+descriptions of which I have collated and translated in my paper on the
+Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans (Peabody Museum Papers,
+vol. 1, no. 3, Cambridge, 1891, p. 22). In this work I presented my
+reasons for concluding that these recurved sceptres were ceremonial forms
+of the atlatl. I now perceive that they were endowed with deeper
+significance and meaning. The Nahuatl text of Sahagun's Laurentian MS. of
+the Historia de la Conquista (lib. XII, chap. IV) records the name of one
+of these staffs as "hecaxonecuilli," literally "the curved or bent over,
+air or wind," and describes it as made of "bent or curved wood, inlaid
+with stars formed of white jade=chalchihuite." This passage authorizes the
+conclusion that four representations in the B. N. MS. of black recurved
+sceptres, exhibiting a series of white dots, are also heca-xonoquitl,
+inlaid with stars, and that all of these are none other but conventional
+representations of the constellation Xonecuilli, the Ursa Minor. In each
+case the deity, carrying the star-image, also displays the ecacozcatl the
+"jewel of the wind," the well-known symbol of the wind-god. In one of
+these pictures (p. 50) he not only bears in his hand the star-image, but
+also exhibits a star-group on his head-dress, consisting of a
+central-star, on a dark ground, surrounded by a blue ring. Attached to
+this against a dark ground, six other stars are depicted, making seven in
+all. In connection with this star-group it is interesting to note that the
+hieroglyph, designated by Fra Diego de Landa as "the character with which
+the Mayas began their count of days or calendar and named Hun-Imix,"
+furnishes a case of an identical though inverted group (Relacion de las
+Cosas de Yucatan, ed. B. de Bourbourg, p. 237). Enclosed in a black ring,
+the glyph displays, above, a large black dot with six smaller ones grouped
+in a semicircle about it, and below, four perpendicular bars.
+
+Subject to correction, I am inclined to interpret this glyph as a hieratic
+sign for the constellation Ursa Minor and its four movements, and to
+consider it as furnishing a valuable proof of the origin of the Maya
+Calendar.
+
+The seemingly inappropriate procedure of figuring shining stars by black
+dots actually furnishes the strongest proof that a star group is thus
+represented; for, in the Maya language, "ek" is a homonym for star and
+black, and a black spot was, in consequence, the most expressive sign for
+a star. This fact affords a valuable explanation of the reason why the
+ocelot, whose skin is spotted with black, was employed as the figure of
+the nocturnal sky, and clearly proves that the Mexicans adopted this
+symbol and its meaning from the Mayas.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 17.
+
+
+We will now revert to the S-shaped sign. Its association with images of
+star is further exemplified in Mexican Codices. It occurs on the wall of a
+temple, in combination with symbols for stars and the North-Mictlan, which
+consist in this case, of skulls and cross-bones (fig. 17, II).
+
+In the Dresden Codex, of Maya origin, there is an extremely important page
+on which the S-sign occurs in connection with twin deities, besides rain
+and cross symbols (fig. 17, I). A careful examination of the group shows
+that one of the seated figures is accompanied by a downpour of water
+(painted blue in the original), besides the S-symbol which is also
+repeated above the head of his companion. Higher up, on the same page, the
+S occurs again in a group of glyphs alongside of twin-seated figures.
+These, as well as the single-seated form beneath them, have an eye or a
+large black spot surmounted by dots instead of a head (Vocabulaire de
+l'ecriture hieratique de Yucatan, p. 38). Monsieur Leon de Rosny has
+identified this figure, which also occurs in the Codex Troano, as the
+image of the supreme divinity of the Mayas, of whom more anon, one of
+whose titles was Kin-ich-ahau, literally Sun-eye lord.
+
+A similar sign consisting of the lower half of a human body seated, with a
+large eye on its knees is repeated several times in the Borgian Codex.
+This form is also figured as seated in a temple, without the eye-star, but
+three stars are on the roof and the S-sign is on the lower wall of the
+building (Borgian Codex, p. 16).
+
+The above facts demonstrate that, in both MSS. derived from different
+sources, the same association of ideas is expressed.(4) The S sign appears
+in connection with twin- or single-seated forms, surmounted by a symbol
+for star. It is unnecessary for me to lay further stress upon the obvious
+facts: that the only celestial body which could possibly have been
+associated with a seated form, suggesting repose, was Polaris. It is,
+moreover, only by assuming that the sign of the seated star represents the
+stationary pole-star that its combination in the Codices with the
+S-sign--Xonecuilli--Ursa Minor, can be understood. I likewise draw attention
+to the possibility that the S, or single representation of the
+constellation, may well have been employed as a sign for the summer
+solstice, since, in some localities, during the shortest night of the
+year, Ursa Minor may have been visible in one position only. Assuming that
+the triskelion was the sign for the winter solstice we should thus have
+natural signs for the two nights marking the turning-points of light and
+darkness in the year.
+
+Reverting to fig. 17, I, from the Codex Dresdenis, I draw attention that
+it furnishes definite proof that the Mayas associated the idea of the
+immovable seated star with twin deities and that they connected the
+S-symbol with cross and rain symbols. A striking combination of the latter
+symbols is represented under the principal seated figures. It consists of
+a diagonal cross traversed perpendicularly by a band of blue water.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 18.
+
+
+Further Maya cross-symbols should be cursorily examined here, viz: fig.
+18, I, II, III, VI, VII and VIII. They will be found to consist of
+variations of two fundamental types, often figured alongside of each other
+and enclosed in a square, or circle. One type consists of two diagonally
+crossed bars, plain or representing cross bones (I). A rectilinear cross
+with interlaced circle (II) is also found. The other type exhibits a small
+cross, square, circle or dot in the centre of the square with a circle in
+each corner. In some cases these are united by a series of dots to the
+central circle and thus form a diagonal cross (VI and VIII) which is
+sometimes figured as contained in a flower with four petals, such as is
+also found in Mexican symbolism. The diagonal, dotted cross is frequently
+combined with four pairs of black bars, placed in the middle of each side
+of the square, pointing towards the centre. Similar pairs of black bars
+are figured in the B. N. MS. (p. 3) on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli, with
+stars, around one of his symbols, a spider. They likewise recur on two of
+several sacrificial papers on p. 69, amongst which one exhibits a diagonal
+cross, another the S-sign, while others display realistic drawings of
+stars with six or eight points.
+
+The pairs of bars figure in the hieroglyph designated by Maya scholars as
+the sign for _Kin_, the sun, which may be seen in the centre of large
+diagonal cross-symbols in fig. 18, VII, VIII, from the Dresden Codex: The
+cross, of fig. 18, VII, is composed of two bones and two arrowpoints, a
+particularly interesting combination considering that in the Maya a bone
+is _bak_, an arrow is _kab-cheil_ and the name given to the gods of the
+four quarters "the sustainers of the world," is _Bakab_. It cannot be
+denied that the phonetic elements of this name occur in the words for
+bones and arrows which form the cross, symbolic of the four quarters. In
+fig. 18, VIII, the cross may be composed of four bones, but of this I am
+not certain. In both cases, however, the crosses rest on a curious double
+and parti-colored symbol and are associated with serpent signs, in which
+the open jaws and teeth are prominent features. It is noteworthy that
+while "can" or "cam" is the Maya for serpent, the word "camach" means jaw.
+The figure consisting of the upper jaw only of a serpent, in the left hand
+corner of the band above, fig. 18, VIII, proves, therefore, to be a
+cursive phonetic sign for serpent.
+
+The parti-colored symbol combined with the cross obviously signifies a
+duality, such as light and darkness, the Above and the Below and a series
+of dualities--possibly the two divisions of the year, the dry and rainy
+seasons. In Mexico we are authorized by documentary evidence, to give a
+wider and deeper interpretation to the symbol of duality, for it can be
+absolutely proven that the Mexican philosophers divided the heavens into
+two imaginary portions, and respectively identified these with the male
+and female principles.
+
+In Nahuatl the West was designated as Cihuatlampa, "the place or part of
+the women." The souls of the women who had earned immortality were
+supposed to dwell there, whilst the souls of the men resided in the East.
+In the appendix to book III of Sahagun's Historia, it is described how,
+according to the native belief, the souls of the male warriors hailed the
+daily appearance of the sun above the eastern horizon, and escorted it to
+Nepantla, the zenith. Here the souls of the women awaited it and assumed
+the duty of escorting the sun to the western horizon, the symbol for which
+was calli=the house. The above passage indicates that the native
+philosophers imagined across the middle of the sky a line of demarcation,
+separating the portions of the heaven respectively allotted to the male
+and female souls. For four years after death these souls retained their
+human form, and then, after passing through nine successive heavens,
+entered into the celestial paradise where they assumed the forms of
+different kinds of butterflies and humming-birds. The names of these are
+enumerated in the Nahuatl text of Sahagun's Laurentian MS. (book III).(5)
+The symbolism of the humming-bird has already been explained by a passage
+cited from Gomara's Historia. In this connection it is extremely
+interesting to find the humming-bird represented in the B. N. MS., as
+sucking honey from a flower, which is attached by a cord, covered with
+bird's down, to a bone, the symbol of death.
+
+This peculiar but expressive group of symbols figures only on the
+head-dresses of deities wearing certain other symbols, amongst which we
+find the Eca-cozcatl and Eca-xonequilli the image of Ursa Minor, already
+described.
+
+The merest indication of the association of a circumpolar constellation
+with the idea of death (disappearance) and resurrection (re-appearance) is
+of special interest, since the ancient Mexicans located the Underworld,
+the "place of the dead," in the North. Reflection showed, however, that
+such an association could only have suggested itself to the minds of
+star-observers living in southern latitudes, approximate to the equator,
+or in localities where the northern horizon was more or less shut off from
+view by intervening mountains. In such places Polaris would appear
+comparatively close to the boundary-line of the northern sky so that the
+Ursa constellations and Cassiopeia would be invisible to the local
+astronomers at midnight during that period of the year when one or the
+other of the star-groups seemingly stretched between Polaris and the
+northern horizon. A glance at plate I shows that, at the present time, it
+is about the period of the autumnal equinox that Ursa Minor would be
+invisible at midnight, in such localities, while Ursa Major would
+gradually disappear from view towards midnight, during a certain number of
+nights, according to latitude and locality, between the autumnal equinox
+and the winter solstice whilst Cassiopeia would seem to hover above the
+horizon. The total or partial alternate periodical disappearance of the
+two most familiar star-groups in the extreme North and their re-appearance
+after sometimes regular intervals of time could but have made a profound
+impression upon primitive astronomers and thinkers. Whilst the mere
+periodical reversal of the positions of Cassiopeia and Ursa Major
+suggested alternate victory and defeat, the actual though brief and
+partial disappearance of either star-group must have appeared to be a
+descent into an under-ground space, associated with darkness and death,
+followed by a resurrection. In his Cronica, Tezozomoc records, besides
+Mictlan (the land of the dead), another name for the underworld,
+Opochcal-ocan, literally, the place of the house to the left. This
+appellation can only be understood when it is realized that, in a
+sufficiently southern latitude, an observer, watching the setting of a
+circumpolar constellation below the horizon, would always see it disappear
+to his left and subsequently rise to his right. It is evident that in time
+this fact would give rise to the association of the left with the
+underworld, the lower region, and the right with the region above. The
+native idea of a dwelling in the underworld is further demonstrated by the
+bestowal of the symbol _calli_=house, upon the western horizon below which
+all heavenly bodies were seen to disappear. A definite connection between
+the West and one half of the North being thus established, it would
+naturally result that a corresponding union of the South and East would be
+thought of in time, and that these quarters would become associated with
+the rising of celestial bodies, _i. e._, with light, the Above, while the
+opposite quarters became identified with their setting, _i. e._, with
+darkness, the Below.
+
+Pausing to review the foregoing conclusions, which I have shown to be the
+natural and inevitable result of simple but prolonged astronomical
+studies, observation and plain reasoning, we see that they led to a
+conception of the Cosmos as divided into seven parts, _i. e._, the fixed
+Centre, the pivot, primarily suggested by Polaris who was regarded as the
+creative, generative and ruling power of the universe; the Four Quarters,
+seemingly ruled by the central force and associated with the elements; the
+Above and the Below, suggested by the rising and setting of celestial
+bodies and associated with light and darkness, sky and earth, etc., etc.
+
+Many of my readers will doubtless recognize at once that the above
+organization of the Cosmos into the Centre or Middle, the Above and the
+Below, and the Four Quarters, is precisely that which the Zuni priests
+taught Mr. Frank Cushing, when they initiated him into their secret
+beliefs. Other explorers have recorded the same conception amongst
+different native American tribes and with these proofs that this set of
+ideas is still held on our Continent at the present time, I point out the
+fact that the Maya figures (fig. 18, VII and VIII, from the Dresden Codex)
+become perfectly intelligible only when interpreted as representing the
+Centre, the Four Quarters, the Above and the Below, the latter figured by
+the dark and light halves of the dual sign. Furthermore, I can demonstrate
+that this fundamental set of elementary, abstract ideas, furnishing the
+first principles of organization, is plainly visible under the surface of
+the ancient Mexican civilization and can be traced not only in Yucatan and
+Central America, but also in Peru. In these countries, as I shall show, it
+assumed an absolute dominion over the minds of the native sages, directly
+suggesting the forms of government and social organization existing at the
+time of the Conquest and faintly surviving to the present day. It entirely
+controlled the development of aboriginal religious cult and philosophical
+speculations and pervaded not only the native architecture and decorative
+art, but also all superstitious rites and ceremonies, and entered into the
+very games and pastimes of the people.
+
+The following table presents the bare outline of the scheme of
+organization exposed in the preceding text. In making it I have, after due
+consideration, definitely adopted the assignment of the Mexican symbols
+and colors to the cardinal points given by Friar Duran in the
+Calendar-swastika contained in his atlas and reproduced (pl. II, _g_).
+
+
+    Each of these is North; West; South; then East.
+    Symbols: Tecpatl, Flint; Calli, House; Acatl, Cane; Tochtli,
+    Rabbit.
+    Colors: Red; Yellow; Blue; Green.
+    Elements: Fire; Earth; Air; Water.
+    Warmth; Darkness; Breath; Rain.
+
+    Together, North and West are The Below, the "female" region.
+    TEZCATLIPOCA=MICTLANTECUHTLI.
+
+    South and East are The Above, the "male" region, HUITZILOPOCHTLI.
+
+    Combined, they are The Centre.
+    The dual, generative, ruling and directive Force.
+    QUETZALCOATL.
+    The Divine Twin.
+
+
+Before proceeding to examine more closely the great edifice of human
+thought which was reared, in the course of centuries, on the ground plan
+designated above, we must retrace our steps and consider what a deep
+impression the gradual realization of the changes in the relative
+positions of Polaris and certain familiar star-groups must have produced
+upon those who were the first to realize them. Transporting ourselves back
+to the gray dawn of civilization, let us endeavor to understand the
+position of the native priest astronomers who, having received and
+transmitted a set of religious and cosmical ideas, based on the assumption
+of the absolute and eternal immutability of the centre of the heaven,
+Polaris, gradually became aware that it also was subject to change,
+evidently obeyed an unseen higher power and that the ancient order of
+things, recorded by their predecessors, had actually passed away.
+
+It is obvious that, in all centres of astronomical observation and
+intellectual culture, a complete revolution of fundamental doctrine or
+thought must have taken place. A period of painful misgivings and doubt
+must have been passed through, during which an earnest and anxious
+observation of all celestial bodies must have seemed imperative and
+obligatory. Under such circumstances astronomy must have made great
+strides and astronomical observation become the foremost and highest duty
+of the intellectual leaders of the native races. Pyramids and temples
+would be built for the purpose of verifying and recording the positions of
+sun, moon, planets and stars, and the orientation of these buildings would
+be carefully planned accordingly. Before obtaining glimpses of the great
+evolution of religious thought which progressed on our Continent in olden
+times, it is well to realize, by means of Piazzi Smyth's map (fig. 6) that
+the world ceased to possess a brilliantly conspicuous, absolutely
+immovable pole-star for a prolonged period of time, stretching somewhere
+between 500 B.C. and 1200 A.D.
+
+The ancient native chronicles record that under "divine" leadership great
+migrations of tribes took place within this period, the purpose of which
+was to find a locality which fulfilled certain ardently-desired conditions
+connected with religious cult.
+
+From various centres of civilization in Mexico and Central America we also
+hear different accounts of how, at different times, small bands of earnest
+men, under a leader of superior intelligence, bent on a peaceable but
+unexplained errand, arrived from distant regions and departed for an
+unknown goal, after delaying just long enough to teach social organization
+and impart a higher civilization to the tribes encountered on their
+passage.
+
+These preserved the memory of the _title_ of the leader, in their
+different languages and he became the culture-hero of their tribe. The
+fact that, in each case, these sages taught the ignorant tribes the
+division of time and instituted the calendar, proves that they were
+skilled in astronomy.
+
+From a sentence uttered by Montezuma to the native astronomers whom he
+termed "the Sons of the Night," we learn that it was their custom "to
+climb mountains" so as "to study the stars." When one considers the full
+import of the problems which had to be faced by these ancient sages, who
+earnestly endeavored to account for the great changes which had taken
+place in the heavens, within the memory of man, it seems natural to
+suppose that many an expedition was undertaken for the purpose of
+acquiring further astronomical knowledge, of finding, perhaps, the
+immovable star which had been revered in past ages by the ancestors of the
+native race.
+
+The cult of Polaris may well have made such expeditions assume the aspect
+of an imperative religious duty and sacred pilgrimage. As all expeditions
+across Mexico and Central America would necessarily be limited by the
+oceans and be fruitless as far as Polaris was concerned, it is obvious
+that the line of exploration which would be ultimately adopted, would run
+from south to north and _vice versa_. A small band of enthusiasts, setting
+forth under the leadership of some of the most advanced thinkers of the
+time, would undoubtedly have been prepared to devote their entire lives to
+the object in view. As long as a single member of such an expedition
+existed, he would be a powerful and active agent in spreading the
+fundamental set of ideas derived from the observation of Polaris. In lapse
+of time, by transmission, its influence might travel to a region too
+remote perhaps for direct contact to have taken place.
+
+If I have indulged in the foregoing line of conjecture and surmise, it is
+because it is my purpose also to demonstrate, by absolute proof, that the
+dominion of the above set of ideas extended over Yucatan, Honduras,
+Guatemala and even reached Peru, where its influence is distinctly
+visible.
+
+It also extended far to the north in prehistoric times, for certain carved
+shell-gorgets which have been found in prehistoric graves in Illinois,
+Missouri and Tennessee exhibit emblems which have definite meanings in the
+Maya language, spoken in Yucatan.
+
+In order to maintain this assertion I must make a slight digression from
+the main subject and revert to the myth already cited, recording the
+casting down from heaven of Tezcatlipoca who arose and ascended again in
+the form of an ocelot. There are interesting native pictures of this
+combat and the fall of the ocelot in the Vatican Codex II, p. 34, the
+Fejervary Codex, p. 56, and others equally important, representing the
+fall or descent of an eagle from the sky, to which I shall revert.
+
+It is moreover recorded by Mendieta (p. 82) that Tezcatlipoca likewise
+descended or let himself down from the sky by a spider's thread, and in
+the Bodleian MS. (p. 12) there are two curious pictures one of an ocelot
+and a cobweb, the other of an ocelot, descending head foremost from stars.
+The same incident is also pictured in the Vienna Codex (p. 9) where the
+ocelot, attached by the tail, is connected by a cord with star-emblems.
+
+There are two facts of special interest in regard to the above descent of
+Tezcatlipoca by a spider's thread. The first is that the title
+Tzontemoc="he who descends head foremost" is recorded in the Codex
+Fuenleal immediately after the name Mictlantecuhtli. The second is that
+the spider is figured on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli in the B. N. MS. and
+is sculptured in the centre, above his forehead, in his sculptured image,
+identified as such by Senor Sanchez (Anales del Museo Nacional III, p.
+299) and reproduced here (fig. 19). It represents "the lord of the North
+or Underworld" descending, head foremost, with a tecpatl or flint knife
+issuing from his mouth and with outspread limbs, the outlines of which are
+almost lost under the multitude of symbols which are grouped around him.
+These symbols are carefully analyzed in my commentary on the B. N. MS. in
+which I also describe other known carved representations of the same
+conception and point out analogous pictures in the Maya Codices. The
+position of the limbs of the descending figure is best understood by a
+glance at fig. 20, II, from the Dresden Codex. It represents a bar with
+cross symbols from which a human body is descending. The feet rest on dual
+symbols, about which more could be written than the scope of the present
+paper allows. A tecpatl or flint knife, attached to the body by a double
+bow with ends, may be seen between the dual symbols, and its presence is
+of utmost importance since it proves that the Mayas also associated the
+flint with the same figure. Instead of a head the body exhibits a sort of
+equidistant cross with four circles. Strange to say, the only analogous
+cross-figures I have been able to find in all the Codices are those
+reproduced in fig. 20, I, III, and IV. The latter exhibits a curious,
+conventionalized flower growing on the top of a pyramid. Its stem and
+leaves are painted brown and are spotted, resembling the skin of an
+ocelot. As there is a Mexican flower, the Tigridia, of which the native
+name was ocelo-xochitl, it may be that it is this which is thus
+represented. Fig. 20, III, from the B. N. MS., figures as a sacred cake,
+alongside of the S-shaped xonecuilli breads which were made in honor of
+Ursa Minor at a certain feast. Finally, fig. 20, I, represents a certain
+kind of ceremonial staff which is inserted between the two peaks of a
+mountain--a favorite method employed by the native scribes, to convey the
+idea that the object figured was in the exact centre. This kind of staff
+occurs frequently in certain Codices, sometimes being carried by a high
+priest. It invariably exhibits a flower-like figure with five circles and
+is surmounted by a tecpatl or flint knife. Without pausing to discuss the
+subject fully I merely point out here that, collectively, these symbols
+explain each other and convey the idea of the Centre and the Four Quarters
+evidently associated with the tecpatl, the symbol of the north, and the
+ocelot and xonecuilli=Ursa Minor. It is particularly interesting to note
+that the outspread human body is made to serve as a sort of cross-symbol.
+A careful study of the conventional representation of the face of "the
+lord of the North," in fig. 19, gives the impression that it was also used
+to convey the idea of duality, or the union of two in one. The upper half
+of the face exhibits a numeral on either cheek under the eyes, seeming to
+convey the idea of dualities. The two circular ear ornaments, united by a
+band above the head, and the two nostrils united in one nose, seem to
+convey the idea of the union of the dualities, whilst the lower half of
+the face, which is rendered strikingly different to the upper, by being in
+higher relief and marked with perpendicular lines, exhibits a mouth from
+which a flint knife, with symbolical eye and fangs carved on it, is
+hanging like a tongue. I have already shown that the flint knife was
+regarded as the sacred producer of the "vital spark." I may add here that
+I have also found, in the Codices, tecpatl-symbols on which the curved
+symbol of air or breath was figured. To my idea the sculptured face is
+meant to symbolize the dual creator, the dispenser of the spark and breath
+of life, whilst the human skull on his back betokens that he is also the
+giver of death. Though unable to enter fully into the subject here, I
+would nevertheless state that I can produce further data to prove that the
+human face was frequently employed for a symbolical purpose by the native
+American races who were evidently entirely under the dominion of the idea
+of duality, of the Above and Below and the life-producing union of both.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 19.
+
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 20.
+
+
+The question why the spider, named "tocatl" in Nahuatl, should have been
+adopted as the chief symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, occupied me much until I
+found the clue to its significance in the Maya language. In this the word
+for North is _Aman_ and the name for "the spider whose bite is mortal," is
+_Am_. This striking fact may be interpreted as a positive proof that the
+spider-symbol, employed by the Mexicans, must have originated in Yucatan,
+from the mere homonymy of two Maya words.
+
+On the other hand shell-gorgets exhibiting the effigy of a spider, and
+obviously intended to be worn with its head turned downwards, have not
+only been found in Illinois but also in Tennessee and Missouri. On the
+gorgets from the latter States a cross is carved on the body of the spider
+(fig. 22, _a_). As certain spiders exhibit cross-markings, it is, of
+course, possible that it was chosen as a cross-symbol for this reason
+only, in some localities, just as the butterfly was evidently adopted in
+Mexico, as an apt image of the Centre and the Four Quarters on account of
+its shape and its possession of four wings. The conventionalized figure of
+a butterfly, with a star on its body and four balls, painted with the
+colors of the quarters, was a sacred symbol which is minutely described by
+Sahagun and is figured on a manta in the B. N. MS. A glance at its
+reproduction (fig. 21, no. 13) shows how the form of the insect has been
+conventionalized so as to resemble the ollin (no. 12) and other Mexican
+cross-symbols (nos. 2, 4, 11, 14 etc.). The eye or star in its centre,
+like that in the ollin, and circle (no. 4), signify Polaris; the
+conventionalized head and antennae are obviously made to convey the idea of
+"two in one," of the Above and Below united in the Centre.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 21.
+
+
+I venture to suggest that the dragon-fly was employed as a cross-symbol in
+an analogous manner, on the Algonquin garment preserved at the Riksmuseum,
+Stockholm, and described by Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe in his admirable study on
+American art (Amerikansk Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1896, p. 30). As I shall
+revert to it later on, I now draw special attention to the circumstance
+that instead of the cross, on a spider-gorget from Tennessee, there is a
+round hole which, when the shell-disc is held aloft, lets a ray of light
+shine through and furnishes an apt presentation of a star. This and the
+cross furnish analogies to the Mexican and Maya symbols of Polaris which
+are too obvious to need to be emphasized. Nor do these gorgets alone
+furnish an undeniable indication that an identical symbolism extended from
+Yucatan to Illinois. Other gorgets, also figured in Mr. Wm. H. Holmes'
+monograph "Art in Shell," several of which are in the Peabody Museum, from
+the stone graves in Tennessee, exhibit variously carved representations of
+a serpent. In all specimens the identical idea is carried out: the eye of
+the serpent forms the centre of the design on the disc and four circles on
+the body of the reptile, or four solid bars, interrupting a hollow line
+encircling the central motif, emphasized a division of the disc into four
+equal parts. The idea of the Serpent in repose, the Centre and the Four
+Quarters is thoroughly carried out and the true meaning of the design is
+only appreciated by the light of the Maya and Mexican symbolism which has
+already been so fully discussed.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 22.
+
+
+The third Tennessee gorget reproduced here (fig. 22, _c_), from Mr.
+Holmes' work, exhibits a combination of numerals which is particularly
+interesting if confronted with the sacred numbers of the Mexicans and
+Mayas. From a central circle three curved lines issue in a fashion
+resembling those on fig. 21, no. 2, but the fact that the circular band
+exhibits seven double circles and the outer edge is divided into thirteen
+parts, is of special moment. Still another design, on a shell-gorget from
+Tennessee, not only exhibits the peculiarity, pointed out by Mr. Holmes,
+of a square with loops, resembling certain figures in Mexican Codices, but
+also other significant details which I shall point out (fig. 22, _b_). The
+cross in the centre occupies the centre of a star with eight rays and the
+four birds' heads at the sides of the square illustrate rotation from
+right to left. I am inclined to view in this gorget an emblem of Polaris
+with Cassiopeia in rotation around it, figured as a bird, but whether this
+is the case or not it must be conceded that it is indeed remarkable to
+find a set of symbols, consisting of the spider, the cross, the serpent
+and the bird, carved on prehistoric gorgets found in the United States
+whilst the deep meaning of these identical symbols is furnished by Maya
+and Mexican records. I venture to remark here that no more expressive and
+appropriate ornament than these shell-gorgets could have been designed, or
+worn by the ancient Maya or Mexican priests, prophets and leaders who, in
+a remote past, had guided themselves by the light of Polaris and
+instituted its cult as the basis of their native religion.
+
+On realizing the above-mentioned identity of symbolism, it is impossible
+not to conclude that the prehistoric race which inhabited certain parts of
+the United States was under the dominion of the same ideas as were the
+Mexicans and Mayas. The indications point, in fact, to the probability
+that the origin of the employment of the spider-symbol originated in
+Yucatan, and if this be admitted then there is no reason to deny the
+possibility that the serpent-symbol came from there also, since the Maya
+language suggests an affinity between the serpent, _can_, and the
+sky=_caan_, and the numeral 4=_can_. I refrain, for the present, from
+expressing any final conclusion on this subject, which will doubtless
+afford ample food for reflection and argument to all interested in the
+important problem as to where the cradle of ancient American civilization
+was situated. But these symbolic gorgets go far towards substantiating
+Professor Putnam's oft-expressed conclusions that the ancient peoples of
+the central and southern portions of the United States were, to a certain
+extent, offshoots of the ancient Mexicans.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 23.
+
+
+Before abandoning the subject of native symbolism and star-emblems I
+should like to present, as a curiosity, with an appeal to specialists to
+enlighten me as to the astronomical knowledge of the Eskimos, an Eskimo
+drawing from Professor Wilson's instructive and useful monograph. It is
+said to represent a "flock of birds," but so closely resembles Cassiopeia
+and Polaris that I am tempted to view it as an indication that the Eskimos
+may also have associated the idea of a celestial bird, or birds, wheeling
+around a central point, with the constellation and the pole-star (fig.
+23). Having once ventured so far afield, I cannot refrain from presenting
+here an interesting set of aboriginal star-symbols, reproduced from
+Professor Wilson's comprehensive work (fig. 24), each composed of a cross
+combined, with a single exception, with a circle. I draw attention to the
+striking resemblance of some of these signs to those painted on the finely
+decorated pottery found on the hacienda of Don Jose Luna, in Nicaragua,
+and described by J. F. Brandsford, M.D. (Archaeological Researches in
+Nicaragua, Smithsonian Inst., 1881, p. 30, B), and suggest that, in both
+localities, the symbol may be a rudimentary swastika, and represent
+Polaris and circumpolar rotation.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+Plate III. 1. Shell gorget, Missouri. 2, 5-14. Pottery vessels, Arkansas.
+    3, 4, 15-17, 19-28. Pottery vessels, Missouri. 18. Pottery vessel,
+ Kentucky. 6. National Museum. 3, 16, 17, 21, 24, 25. St. Louis Academy.
+   All others Peabody Museum. Willoughby, "Pottery from the Mississippi
+       Valley." Journal of American Folk-lore, January-March, 1897.
+
+
+In conclusion I refer the reader to Mr. C. C. Willoughby's valuable and
+most interesting "Analysis of the decorations upon pottery from the
+Mississippi Valley" (Journal Amer. Folk-lore, vol. X, 1897), in which he
+figures the remarkable specimens preserved in the Peabody Museum,
+Cambridge, the designs on which, as he states, "are mostly of symbolic
+origin and have been in use among various tribes within the historic
+period from the Great Lakes to Mexico." With the kind permission of the
+editor of the Journal, I reproduce some of Mr. Willoughby's illustrations
+on Plate III.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+    Figure 24. Crosses And Circles Representing Star Symbols, Arizona.
+
+
+Returning to consider the probable result of the gradual diffusion of
+star-cult owing to natural causes and of the consequent divergence from
+the idea of the Centre, which had so deeply influenced the minds of
+primitive men during many centuries, with earnest, and extended
+astronomical observation, keeping pace with the development of the idea of
+the Above and Below, it is obvious that the utmost attention would be next
+given to the conspicuous star groups and planets which are visible at
+certain times and then seem to have departed or descended into the under
+world. Any one who has read the interesting communications by Herr Richard
+Andree (Globus. bd. LXIV, nr. 22), On the relation of the Pleiades to the
+beginning of the year amongst primitive people, followed by a note by Herr
+Karl von den Steinen on the same subject, will realize that
+widely-separated tribes of men, by dint of simple observation, knew the
+exact length of the periodical appearance and disappearance of this star
+group and regulated their year accordingly. Herr Andree cites, for
+instance, that "in the Society islands, the year was divided into two
+portions, the first of which was named Matari-i-inia=the Pleiades above.
+It began and lasted during the time when these constellations were visible
+close to the horizon after sunset. The second period, named
+Matarii-i-raro=the Pleiades below, began and lasted for the time during
+which the star-group was invisible after sunset" (W. Ellis, Polynesian
+Researches, vol. II, p. 419, London 1829). That the ancient Mexicans had
+likewise observed the Pleiades and been deeply impressed by them is proven
+by the well-known fact that the ceremony of the kindling of the sacred
+fire, which betokened the commencement of a new cycle, was performed "when
+the Pleiades attained the zenith at midnight precisely." In my complete
+monograph in the ancient Mexican calendar-system it will be my endeavor to
+present all the data I have collected concerning the degree of elementary
+astronomical knowledge attained by the native astronomers. I shall,
+therefore, content myself with pointing out here that besides the
+foregoing testimony about the Pleiades, the native name for which was the
+miec=the many, or the tianquiztli=the marketplace, there are records
+proving that the cult of the planet Venus was a firmly established feature
+of the native religion at the time of the Conquest. Sahagun records that
+the Nahuatl names for this planet were citlalpul or hueycitlallin both
+signifying "the great star." "In the great temple of Mexico an edifice
+named ilhuicatitlan [literally, the land of the sky] consisted of a great,
+high column, on which the morning star was painted.... Captives were
+sacrificed in front of this column annually, at the period when the star
+re-appeared" (_op. cit._ appendix to book II).
+
+With regard to the connection of the Pleiades with the beginning of the
+Mexican cycle, it is interesting to note Herr Andree's statements that the
+most intimate connection of the star-group with the thoughts of primitive
+people, would naturally take place in such localities where its periodical
+movements coincided with the changes of season, wind and weather which
+affected agriculture. A survey of the data presented by Herr Andree shows
+that the cult of the Pleiades attained its greatest development amongst
+tribes inhabiting a southerly latitude. It was in South America, indeed,
+that the Peruvians, alongside of their highly developed sun-cult, rendered
+homage and offered sacrifices to the Pleiades. In Mexico, the cult of the
+Pleiades appears as intimately associated with that of the sun and to have
+assumed importance only in historical and comparatively recent times,
+probably when the periodicity of the sun's movements had been taught or
+recognized and the sign _ollin_, which is an exact presentation of the
+annual course of the sun, had been invented and adopted as a symbol. I
+have already pointed out that this sign occurs on the calendar-stone, for
+instance, which has a human face in its centre, bearing two numerals on
+the forehead and obviously symbolizing the union of two in one. In other
+instances the centre displays the eye, or star symbol and conveys the
+suggestion that the "four movements" of the circumpolar constellations
+were thereby symbolized. It may be that, in ancient Mexico, the two
+symbols, respectively referring to the movements of the sun and of the
+circumpolar star-groups, were emblematic of the two different cults or
+religions which existed alongside of each other. The first, the cult of
+the Above, of the Blue Sky, was directed towards the sun and the planets
+and stars intimately associated with sunrise and sunset, amongst them the
+Pleiades. The cult of the Below, of the Nocturnal Heaven, was directed
+towards the moon, Polaris and the circumpolar constellations--also to the
+stars and planets during the period of their disappearance and possibly in
+the same way to the enigmatical "Black Sun," figured in the B. N. MS.
+which may have been the sun during its nightly stay in the House of the
+Underworld, whose door was in the west. In order to obtain an idea of the
+immense proportions ultimately assumed by these two diverging cults and
+the enormous influence they exerted upon the entire native civilization,
+it will be necessary to examine the form of the social organization in
+Montezuma's time.
+
+In order to comprehend this, however, it is first necessary to study
+carefully the myths relating to its origin. Torquemada (lib. VI, chap. 41)
+cites the authority of Friar Andreas de Olmos for the following native
+account of the creation of man, which was differently recounted to him in
+each province. He states that the majority of the natives, however, agreed
+that "there was in heaven a god named 'Shining Star' (Citlal-Tonac) and a
+goddess named 'She of the starry skirt' (Citlal-Cue), who gave birth to a
+flint knife (Tecpatl). Their other children, startled at this, cast the
+flint down from the sky. It fell to earth at the place named 'Seven caves'
+and 'produced 1,600 gods and goddesses,' " a figure of speech which
+evidently expressed the idea that, in coming in forcible contact with the
+soil the flint gave forth sparks innumerable which conveyed vitality to
+numberless beings. It is evidently the same idea of "life sparks" being
+called into existence by the union of heaven and earth which underlies the
+Texcocan version of the creation of man recorded as follows by Torquemada
+(_op. et loc. cit._). "The sun ... shot an arrow towards the land of
+Acolma near the boundary of Texcoco. This made a hole in the ground whence
+issued the first man...."
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 25.
+
+
+The illustrated version of the above myths, given in the Vatican Codex I,
+designates the celestial progenitor of human life as Quetzalcoatl, also
+named Tonaca-Tecuhtli=the lord of our subsistence, Chicome-xochitl="Seven
+roses or flowers" and Citlalla-Tonalla="The Milky Way," literally, The
+shining stars. The dual divinity is figured (fig. 25, no. 4) as two
+persons with the shaft of an arrow over each of their heads and with the
+symbol Tecpatl=flint, between them as the issue of their union. In the
+Borgian Codex (fig. 25, no. 1), a barbed arrowpoint, instead of the
+Tecpatl, figures between the celestial parents. Their union is symbolized
+by a covering, the shape of which, in further representations (fig. 25,
+nos. 3 and 5) in the same MS., offers resemblance to the tau-shaped
+windows which are such a common feature in Maya and also in Pueblo
+architecture (fig. 25, no. 2_b_). The preceding data, which could be
+amplified, seem to show that the natives associated the tau-shape not
+merely with the idea of the Male and Female principles, but also with the
+Above and the Below, or Heaven (air and water) and Earth (earth and fire).
+I shall have occasion, further on, to refer again to the symbolism of the
+native tau.
+
+The above illustrations, however, definitely prove that the flint knife
+and the arrow (with a flint point, presumably), were indiscriminately
+designated as the medium by means of which the spark of life was created
+and imparted to earth-born beings.
+
+It will be proved further that, at the period of the Conquest, the arrow
+was revered as an image of life-producing force in Yucatan and Mexico. The
+flint knife cased in wrappings was called "the son" of Cihuacoatl, the
+earth-mother, and was regarded as her special symbol. It is significant,
+therefore, to find that it was the emblem of office of one of the two high
+priests, who alone employed it, as a sacrificial knife, in performing his
+awful duty of immolating human victims.
+
+The fact that the cane-shaft of an arrow figures above the head of the
+celestial couple in the Vatican Codex is particularly interesting because
+the name Ome-Acatl=Two-Cane, is given as the name of a divinity by Sahagun
+(book I, chap. 15) and that the ceremony of kindling the New Fire, at the
+commencement of a cycle of years was also associated with the calendar
+sign Ome-Acatl (Sahagun, book VII, chap. 10).
+
+At a certain festival images of Omacatl were manufactured and carried by
+the devout to their houses in order to receive from them "blessings and
+multiplication of possessions" (Sahagun, book II, chap. 19).
+
+I draw attention to the fact that life is supposed to have proceeded from
+the union of stellar divinities, that the Tecpatl and flint are the
+well-known symbols for the North and Fire and that the Vatican commentator
+identifies the celestial parent as "Seven-Flowers." What is more, Duran
+(vol. I, pp. 8 and 9) relates that the native race was organized into
+seven separate tribes and that these "claimed to have come out of 'seven
+caves' (Chicom-oztoc) which were situated in Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan 'a
+land of which all men know that it is in the North.' " Now Teo-Culhuacan
+is composed of the word Teotl, which designated the stars, the sun, the
+gods and, by extension, something divine or celestial. Culhua (_cf._
+Coloa) means something bent over or recurved, or the action of describing
+a circle by moving around something, and _can_ means "the place of" in
+Nahuatl. This locality is represented in the picture-writings by a strange
+and impossible mountain with a recurved summit (fig. 26, no. 1). Aztlan
+literally means "the land of whiteness, brightness, light." In Duran's
+Atlas the seven caves are represented as containing men and women--the
+progenitors of the seven tribes. The order in which these are described,
+in the Mexican myth, as having issued from the caves, is instructive and
+sheds light upon the provenance and purpose of the tradition. It
+represents the Mexicans as the superior predestined race who remained in
+their cave the "longest, by divine command," their "god having promised
+them this land." The tradition relates that six tribes reached and settled
+down in the central plateau of Mexico, 302 years before the Aztecs
+arrived, under the leadership of Huitzilopochtli an oracular divinity,
+whose commandments were transmitted to the people by four priests (Duran,
+chap. II).
+
+In my opinion it is impossible to study the above and supplementary data
+without realizing that the native race assigned its origin to a dual
+star-divinity, associated with the Tecpatl, the symbol for the North and
+for Fire. The peculiarity that the divinity is designated as
+Seven-flowers, and that there were seven tribes, indicates that the native
+idea was that each tribe came from one of the seven stars in Ursa Major or
+Minor. The Aztecs seem to have claimed for themselves the descent from the
+superior star, the central one, and to have thus justified or supported
+their ultimate establishment of a central government which ruled over the
+other six tribes.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 26.
+
+
+The assumption that the native race claimed descent from the Ursa Major or
+Minor constellation is further supported by the fact that the shape of the
+mythical recurved mountain and the name Aztlan=land of light or brightness
+are simultaneously explained, as well as the number of caves and tribes.
+It does not seem to be a mere coincidence that in two totally different
+Codices (the Selden MS. p. 7, Kingsborough, vol. 1, and the B. N. MS., p.
+70) a sacred dance is represented as executed by seven individuals who
+move around a central seated personage. In the latter MS. the seated
+figure wears a head-dress surmounted by flint knives and his face is
+painted _red_ the color assigned to the North. Moreover the dance is
+taking place before an image of Mictlan-Tecuhtli, the lord of the North,
+whose raiment is strewn with cross-symbols. Referring to other native
+dances we find that the most sacred of all dances was performed at the
+festival of the god of fire by priests only, who, smeared with black paint
+to typify darkness and night, carried two torches in each hand and first
+sat, then slowly moved, in a circle, around the "divine brazier," and
+finally cast their torches into it (Duran II, p. 174). This, probably the
+most ancient of sacred dances, must have been extremely impressive and
+significative to those who witnessed it, at night-time, from the base of
+the pyramid and heard the distant solemn chant of the dancers. To watchers
+from afar, the fire and the lighted torches revolving around must have
+seemed like a great central star with other stars wheeling about it.
+
+Further on, it will be shown that the earliest form under which the Deity
+was revered was that of fire and the foregoing description fully explains
+why it was first chosen as the most fitting image of the central immovable
+star. It has already been shown that, in the popular game of "the flyers,"
+a high pole surmounted by one man served as the pivot for the
+circumvolation of the four performers, who "acted" the "flight of time."
+The idea of an extended rule, proceeding from a central dual force, was,
+however, carried out on a grand scale in the most solemn of all public
+dances named the Mitotiliztli. Duran (II, p. 85) states that as many as
+"8,600 persons danced in a wheel in the courtyard of the Great Temple,
+which had four doorways, facing the cardinal points and opening out on to
+the four principal high roads leading to the capital. The doorways were
+respectively named after the four principal gods and were spoken of as
+'the doorway of such and such a god.' "
+
+Clavigero, to whose work (Historia, ed. Mora, Mexico, 1844, p. 234) I
+refer the reader for further details, describes the dances at the time of
+the Conquest as having been most beautiful, and relates that the natives
+were exercised in these, from their childhood, by the priests. This
+authority also relates that the Mitotiliztli was performed by hundreds of
+dancers at certain solemn festivals, in the great central square of the
+city or in the courtyard of the temple, and gives the following
+description:
+
+The centre of the space was occupied by two individuals (designated
+elsewhere as high priests) who beat measure on sacred drums of two kinds.
+One, the large huehuetl, emitted an extremely loud, deep tone, which could
+be heard for miles and was usually employed in the temples as a means of
+summoning to worship, etc. The second, the teponaztle, was a small
+portable wooden drum which was usually worn suspended from the neck by the
+leader in warfare and emitted the shrill piercing note he employed as a
+signal. The chieftains (each of which personified a god) surrounded the
+two musicians, forming several concentric circles, close to each other. At
+a certain distance from the outer one of these, the persons of an inferior
+class were placed in circles and these were separated by another interval
+of space, from the outermost circles, composed of young men and boys. The
+illustration given by Clavigero records the order and disposition of this
+sacred dance, which represented a kind of wheel, the centre of which was
+occupied by the instruments and their players. The spokes of the wheel
+were as many as there were chieftains in the innermost circle. All moved
+in a circle while dancing and strictly adhered to their respective
+positions. Those who were nearest the centre, the chieftains and elders,
+moved slowly, with gravity, having a smaller circle to perform. The
+dancers forming the outer circles were, however, forced to move with
+extreme rapidity, so as to preserve the straight line radiating from the
+centre and headed by the chieftains. The measure of the dance and of the
+chorus chanted by the participants was beaten by the drums and the
+musicians asserted their absolute control of the great moving wheel of
+human beings, by alternately quickening or slackening the measure. The
+perfect harmony of the dance, which successive sets of dancers kept going
+for eight or more hours, was only disturbed occasionally by certain
+individuals who pushed their way through the lines of dancers and amused
+these by indulging in all sorts of buffoonery. No one, on reading the
+above description of the most ancient and sacred of native dances can fail
+to recognize that it was an actual representation of axial rotation and
+that no more effective method of rendering the apparent differences in the
+degrees of velocity in the movements of the circumpolar and equatorial
+stars, could possibly have been devised. The fact that this dance was a
+most solemn and sacred rite, whose performance was obligatory to the
+entire population, indicates that it constituted an act of general
+obedience and homage and a public acknowledgment of the absolute dominion
+of a central dual, ruling power.
+
+It is particularly interesting that, in this dance, the latter is
+represented by two individuals who respectively employ the sacred drum of
+the priesthood, and that used by war chieftains only (the one instrument
+emitting a low and the other a high tone); for the culture hero of the
+Tzendals, Votan, who, with the aid of his followers, taught this tribe the
+civil laws of government and the religious ceremonials, was entitled "the
+Master of the sacred Drum." (See Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 214.)
+
+Reverting to the organization of the native race into seven tribes and the
+wandering of the seventh and principal division, under the leadership of
+Huitzilopochtli: according to Tezozomoc (Cronica, p. 23), Huitzilopochtli
+was accompanied by "a woman who was called his sister and was carried by
+four men. She was a powerful sorceress, possessed the power of assuming
+the shape of an eagle, had made herself greatly feared and caused herself
+to be adored as a goddess." Indignant at her arrogance the priests
+counselled a course which was adopted by the Mexicans. The woman and her
+family were left behind at Malinalco where they settled and populated a
+town, whilst the other portion of the tribe, under strictly masculine
+rule, advanced towards Tula where they established themselves. "This was
+the second division which had taken place, amongst the Mexicans or Aztecs
+... and when they reached Tula they found their number greatly
+diminished." This same incident is related with greater detail by
+Torquemada (vol. I, chap. II) from which we learn what a great animosity
+was felt against the woman. On one occasion, which I shall not pause to
+describe, two war chiefs menaced her. The "talk" she gave them in return
+is so remarkable that it deserves to be quoted in full; for it affords a
+deep insight into the native mode of expression, teaches us the titles of
+the woman and shows that her position was undoubtedly one of powerful
+authority.
+
+"I am Quilaztli, your sister and of your tribe ... you know this and yet
+you think that the dispute or difference you have with me is like an
+ordinary one, such as you might wage with any ordinary base woman, who
+possessed little spirit or courage. If you indulge in this thought you are
+deceiving yourselves, for I am valiant and manly and my titles will oblige
+you to acknowledge this. For besides the ordinary name of Quilaztli, by
+which you know me, I also possess four titles, by which I know myself: the
+first of these is Cihuacoatl=the Woman-serpent (or twin); the second is
+Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle-woman; the third is Yao-Cihuatl=the Woman-warrior
+and the fourth is Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, the Woman of the Underworld. From the
+properties or qualities conveyed by these titles you can appreciate who I
+am; what power I yield and what harm I can do you and if you want to test
+the truth of this, here is my challenge!"
+
+"The two brave captains, undaunted by the arrogant words by which she
+attempted to terrify them, responded: 'If you are as valiant as you
+describe yourself to be, we are not less so; but you are a woman and it is
+not meet that it should be said of us that we took up arms against women;'
+and without speaking further they left her, much affronted that a woman
+should challenge and defy them. And they kept silence about this
+occurrence so that their people should not know of it." Senor Alfredo
+Chavero (appendix, p. 125, to Duran's Historia, Mexico, 1880), commenting
+upon this passage, says: "It is impossible to doubt that this tradition
+refers to an important event in the history of the Aztec tribe.... I think
+it contains the record of a religious struggle."
+
+The full significance of the narrative will become clear, I think, when
+the following points are dwelt upon. One thing is certain: here is a
+historical personage, a woman, who was termed _the sister_ of
+Huitzilopochtli, who evidently exerted a high authority and whose titles
+were actually the names of the highest female divinity. Sahagun (book VI,
+chap. 37) states that Quilaztli, a goddess, the same as Cihuacoatl, was
+the mother of all and was also named Tonant-zin="our mother." What is more
+significant still is that, in all historical records antedating the
+Conquest, a man bearing the feminine title of Cihuacoatl=serpent woman, is
+distinctly and repeatedly mentioned as the coadjutor of the Mexican ruler.
+Mr. Ad. Bandelier, in his careful study "On the social organization and
+mode of government of the Ancient Mexicans" (Twelfth Annual Report of the
+Peabody Museum of Am. Arch, and Ethn., Cambridge, 1879) to which I refer
+the reader, discusses the relative positions of Montezuma and the
+Cihuacoatl and states: "there is no doubt about their _equality_ of rank
+though their duties were somewhat different" (p. 665). This equality is
+illustrated by the records that both rulers shared the same privileges
+regarding dress. Thus they alone wore sandals and the Cihuacoatl is termed
+"the second or double of the king, his coadjutor" (Duran, chap. XXXII, p.
+255 and Tezozomoc, chap. XL, p. 66). The latter author, however, gives the
+full "sacred title" as Tlil-Potonqui Cihuacoatl, literally, "the
+black-powdered woman-serpent" and we thus learn that, whilst Montezuma's
+garments were habitually blue like Huitzilopochtli, his coadjutor, like
+Tezcatlipoca, was associated with black. It is well known that some of the
+Mexican priests always smeared their bodies with black, which was
+therefore their special mark.
+
+To my idea the foregoing data, with circumstantial evidence too diffuse to
+be conveniently produced, clearly indicate that at one time, in the early
+history of the Aztec race, it had been governed jointly by a male and a
+female ruler on a footing of perfect equality, the one being the living
+representative of the Above or masculine elements and the other
+personifying the Below or feminine elements. The fact that Cihuacoatl is
+named "the sister" of Huitzilopochtli shows that the female ruler was not
+necessarily his wife, although she was his coadjutor in her own right.
+Both rulers were respectively served by four persons presumably of their
+respective sex. Besides these Duran (chap. 3) records that "there were
+also other seven teotls=lords, who were much reverenced on account of the
+seven caves out of which the seven tribes had come."
+
+We thus perceive that at one time the chief authority was vested in a man
+and a woman, his sister, who enjoyed a perfect equality. Four persons
+administered the government of each ruler and each of the seven tribes had
+"its honoured representative." For how long this organization had existed
+it is impossible to tell. Dissension arose and division supervened, but to
+the time of the Conquest the identical form of government was in force
+with the remarkable difference that the title and office of the
+Cihuacoatl, originally held by a woman, were held by a man, whom I do not
+hesitate to identify as one of the two "supreme pontiffs," whose emblem of
+office was the flint knife, the offspring of Cihuacoatl, the earth-mother.
+
+Historical evidence shows that this alteration had not been made without
+bloodshed and renewed difficulties. Thus it is related that, long after
+the Mexicans had separated from the sister of Huitzilopochtli and her
+adherents, they were induced to "ask the daughter of the ruler of
+Culhuacan to become the Queen of the Mexicans and mother of their god. She
+conformed with their request but was subsequently killed by her subjects,
+who flayed her body and dressed a youth in her skin [a figure of native
+speech which symbolized his assumption of her office]. Under this form she
+was revered as a goddess, was named our grandmother and 'the mother of the
+god,' etc." These and the following details, taken from well-known
+authentic native sources, are attractively rendered in the "Newe Welt und
+Amerikanische Historien" (Johann Ludwig Gottfriedt. Frankfurt-a.-M., 1613,
+pp. 54 and 55).
+
+Again, after the Mexicans had been settled at Tenochtitlan for some time,
+they desired to make an alliance with the King of Culhuacan and therefore
+"chose to nominate, as their ruler, Acamapichtli, who was the son of a
+Mexican chieftain by a daughter of the Culhuacan ruler" and evidently
+lived with the latter. For it is related that, on giving his consent, the
+king of Culhuacan stated that if only a _woman_ (of his family) had been
+nominated he would have refused (to trust her to the Mexicans). The
+farewell words he addressed to Acamapichtli are worthy of quotation: "Go
+my son, serve thy god, be his representative. Rule the creatures of the
+god by whom we live; the god of day, of the night and of the winds. Go and
+be the lord of the water and land owned by the Mexicans."
+
+As it is subsequently stated that Acamapichtli _and his queen_ were
+received at Tenochtitlan with great honors, it would seem as though the
+Mexicans who, from some deeply-rooted religious idea, considered it
+essential to have a female ruler of the line of the king of Culhuacan,
+obtained their desire only by accepting a male member of her family as a
+protection and safeguard for her sacred person. It may be that for the
+reasons of safety and preservation the female ruler, who was the living
+representative of the Cihuacoatl, gradually retired into absolute
+seclusion whilst a man of her kin assumed, in public, her title and
+prerogatives.
+
+Unless it is assumed that this was the case, it seems impossible to
+explain why Acamapichtli is designated in the Codex Mendoza (Kingsborough,
+vol. I, pl. II) as having begun to rule in the year I Tecpatl or flint
+(approximately corresponding to A.D. 1364) with the title of
+"Woman-serpent"=Cihuacoatl. From this date the title seems always to have
+been borne by a man. When human sacrifices had become a prominent feature
+of the native cult and it became a duty of the Cihuacoatl to perform the
+bloody rite, it is obvious that it became impossible for a woman to fill
+the position.
+
+We obtain, however, glimpses of the shadowy form of an invisible and
+venerable female ruler who is at the head of the "House of Women," watches
+over the welfare of the women of the tribe and officiates as a priestess,
+with her assistants, at births, baptisms and marriages. In order to
+account for the obscurity which surrounds her, it should be noticed that
+the mere fact that the ideas of darkness and seclusion became indelibly
+associated with the female sex, would naturally and inevitably cause women
+to be housed up, veiled and condemned to comparative inaction and
+immobility. A primitive stage in the growth of the above idea is shown in
+the case of the Huaxtecas, the women of which tribe wore abundant covering
+whilst the men, on religious principle, wore none. A careful study of the
+conditions surrounding the Cihuacoatl or high priest shows that he also
+conformed to the exigencies of his position when he acted as the
+representative of the hidden forces of Nature, of the female principle. He
+and the entire priesthood smeared their bodies with black, cultivated long
+hair, and wore, during the performance of certain religious ceremonies, a
+wide and long garment reaching to the ground. It is noticeable that the
+designs on the garments of the priests, in the B. N. MS., are invariably
+executed in red and yellow, the symbolical colors of the north and west,
+combined with black the symbol of the union of both, the Below. In this
+connection it is noteworthy that in Mexican pictography the faces of women
+are usually painted yellow--the color of the West=the female region. The
+association of darkness, concealment and secrecy, with the female
+principle, is exemplified by the fact that a building in the enclosure of
+the Great Temple of Mexico, named the "house of darkness," was dedicated
+to the earth-mother=Cihuacoatl (Sahagun, appendix to book II). Other
+temples of hers are described as being cave-like, underground, dark, with
+a single low entrance, the door of which was sometimes sculptured in the
+form of the great open jaws of a serpent. Only priests were allowed to
+penetrate into these mysterious chambers where sacred and secret rites
+were performed and a sacred fire was also kept burning in an adjoining
+chamber. Evidence, which I shall produce further on, establishes that the
+high-priest Cihuacoatl dwelt, at times, in a house named "place of
+darkness" and annually sacrificed a human victim in honor of the lord of
+the underworld, in an edifice called "the navel of the earth."
+
+The religious cult of one-half of the Mexican hierarchy was distinctly
+nocturnal. The chief duties of certain priests were astronomical
+observation and the supervision of the sacred fire, which was kept
+perpetually burning on the summit of each temple-crowned pyramid, in what
+was termed "the sacred or divine brazier" of sculptured stone. Two priests
+jointly watched by night and day and received and transmitted to the
+flames the incense offerings of the devout. The temple fires were
+extinguished only at the expiration of a cycle of fifty-two years and were
+then rekindled by the high priest at midnight precisely, with impressive
+solemnity.
+
+In ancient Mexico, it should however be observed, although the logical
+association of women with the hidden forces of nature, the underworld and
+the Below, had exerted a certain influence over her practical existence,
+it had not yet given rise to the idea of her inferiority as compared to
+man, the associate of the Heaven, the Above, the visible and active forces
+of nature. The native sages did not identify her so intimately with the
+earth as to deny her the possession of a soul--the celestial spark. On the
+other hand it is curious to note that the Nahuatl word for wife is
+Cihua-tlan-tli and for husband is Te-o-quichtli. Is it possible that the
+particle _tlan_ in the first and _Teo_ in the second may have contributed
+to strengthen the association of the woman with earth=tlalli (tlan=land
+of) and the man with Teotl, the sun, something divine and celestial? In
+course of time it doubtlessly would have transpired, in Mexico as
+elsewhere, that the set of primitive ideas which, during untold centuries,
+imposed upon women seclusion, obscurity and inactivity and thus hindered
+her development of strength of body and mind, would have directly induced
+an inferiority. This has been subsequently proclaimed, as we know, in many
+countries, as a direct proof of her lower nature and of her affinity with
+the element earth. The assumed and actual inferiority of woman may
+therefore be regarded as the logical, inevitable but artificial result of
+primordial classification and association. Suggested by the same natural
+phenomena which were visible to all inhabitants of the same latitudes,
+these ideas occurred to all people at a certain stage of their development
+and exerted a dominating influence over the subsequent growth of their
+intelligence. It is but now, that, unconsciously, mankind is beginning to
+emerge from the leading strings of its infancy, which became an iron
+bondage to its prolonged childhood. In Mexico, at the period of the
+Conquest, the absolute equality of the male and female principles was
+theoretically maintained. At the same time it is possible to discern
+certain agencies at work which were tending to connect the Below, the
+female principle, with harm and evil. From time immemorial it had been the
+custom of the Chichimecs, who, according to Sahagun (book XII, chap. 12,
+par. 5), inhabited an extremely poor and barren region of Mexico, to
+sacrifice the first animal killed in a hunting expedition and to offer it
+to "the Sun whom they called father and to the earth their mother." They
+severed its head and raised this as though offering it to the sun. They
+_then tilled the earth where the blood had been spilt_ and left the animal
+which had been sacrificed, on the spot (Ixtlilxochitl, Historia Chichimeca
+chap. VI and Relaciones p. 335). This passage, establishing the
+cultivation of the soil where the blood had been spilt, sheds a flood of
+light on the origin of the offerings of human blood and the sacrifices of
+human life, which were such a prominent and hideous feature of the Aztec
+religion.
+
+At the beginning of the sixteenth century, instead of the blood being
+spilt directly upon the earth, to insure and increase the fruitfulness of
+the soil, a human being was stretched across a conical stone which became
+thus the image of the earth-mother, his heart was extracted and offered to
+the sun, the Above, and his blood was then smeared on the mouth of certain
+idols representing the Below. In the B. N. MS. an interesting illustration
+and account are given of an idol of the earth-mother who is figured as
+standing on a pedestal adorned with skulls and cross-bones with
+outstretched tongue which signified, "that she always had great thirst for
+human blood" and "never refused sacrifices offered to her."
+
+Two priests are likewise pictured in the act of offering bowls containing
+human blood to the idol and a third, mounted on a ladder, is pouring the
+contents of another bowl over its head. It is obvious how the constant
+associations of the earth-mother with sanguinary sacrifices and
+bloodthirstiness would, in time, give rise to the idea of a hostile,
+maleficent power, linked with darkness and devouring fire, who, under the
+aspect of the serpent-woman, waged an eternal warfare on the human race
+and clamored for victims and bloody sacrifices. The natural sequence to
+the above associations is that in ancient Mexico the powers exerting fatal
+influence upon the human race are all represented as female, viz.: the
+Cihuacoatl or woman-serpent, the Ciuapipiltin and the Tzit-zime, etc.
+These and various other personifications of the female principle are
+described in detail in my notes and commentary to the B. N. MS.
+
+After considering the foregoing data it seems impossible not to conclude
+that it must have taken centuries of time for the idea of duality, or of
+the Above and Below to have taken such a deep hold upon the native mind
+and to have produced such a growth of symbolism and association in so many
+ramifications of thought. Let us endeavor to obtain a further insight into
+the native mode of thought by carefully studying some significant details
+concerning the social organization of the Mexicans from the time of
+Acamapichtli to that of Montezuma and the influences it had been subjected
+to gradually. This, the first ruler, unquestionably ruled as the
+Cihuacoatl, a name which means either Woman-serpent or Female-twin. This
+fact in itself testifies to an epoch-making change in the organization of
+the Mexican government, in the making of which a concession was made to a
+previously existing order of things, by the retention of the female title
+by a male ruler.
+
+Having carefully studied the question for many years, I have long
+considered it proven that when the Mexicans settled in the valley of
+Mexico they came under a series of influences emanating from an ancient
+and highly cultured centre of civilization situated in the south, which
+had followed, during untold centuries, the same lines of primitive thought
+which have been stated. This question of contact and influence from an
+older civilization is so important and the material I have collected on
+the subject is so extensive and complex, that it cannot be adequately
+treated here. Further on I shall discuss at length certain historical data
+throwing light on ancient contact and influences. Meanwhile I may as well
+state here that, having carefully weighed all testimony, I accept as amply
+proven and well supported, the testimony of Las Casas, Torquemada,
+Mendieta and others, who record that the Mexican culture-hero Quetzalcoatl
+was an actual person who had come to Mexico from Yucatan twice and had
+finally returned thither, leaving a small colony of his vassals behind him
+whose influence upon the religious and social organization and symbolism
+of the tribes, inhabiting the central plateau, can be plainly discerned.
+Montezuma himself, in his famous speech to Cortes, which the latter
+carefully reported to the Emperor Charles V, states that: "we [the Mexican
+rulers] were brought here by a lord, whose vassals all of our predecessors
+were, and who returned from here to his native land. He afterwards came
+here again, after a long time, during which many of his followers who had
+remained, had married native women of this land, raised large families and
+founded towns in which they dwelt. He wished to take them away from here
+with him, but they did not want to go, nor would they receive or adopt him
+as their ruler, and so he departed. Hut we have always thought that his
+descendants would surely come to subjugate this country and claim us as
+their vassals...." (Historia de Nueva Espana. Hernan Cortes, ed.
+Lorenzana, p. 81; see also p. 96). I do not see how it is possible to
+construe such plain, unadorned statements of simple, common-place facts
+into the assumption that Montezuma was recounting a mythical account of
+the disappearance of the Light-god from the sky, as upheld by some modern
+writers, who interpret the whole episode as a sun-myth or legend.
+
+I have already shown that the meaning of the ocelot-skin and the spider,
+employed as symbols by the Mexicans, is apparent only when studied by
+means of the Maya language of Yucatan, the land whence the culture-hero is
+said to have come by the foregoing authorities. I will add here that in
+the Maya chronicles, it is stated that the culture-hero had ruled in
+Chichen-Itza, the first part of which name, _Chichen_, means _red_. In
+Mexican records it is described that he departed by water from the Mexican
+coast and travelled directly east, bound for Tlapallan--a name which means
+_red_-land. I draw attention to the fact that any one sailing from the
+mouth of the Panuco river, for instance, in a straight line towards the
+east, would inevitably land on the coast of Yucatan, not far from the
+modern Merida and the ancient ruins of Chichen-Itza.
+
+I shall also produce evidence, further on, to show that the meaning of the
+much-discussed name of the culture-hero's home, Tullan, is also furnished
+by the Maya language. From more than one source, we learn, moreover, that
+there were several Tullans on the American continent. The conception of
+_Twin-brothers_ as the personification of the Above and Below had been
+adopted in Yucatan and it is to the influence emanating from that source
+that I attribute the movement made in Mexico, to substitute male
+twin-rulers in the place of the man and woman, who had previously and
+jointly ruled the ancient Mexicans.
+
+Let us now analyze the Maya title Kukulcan, of which Quetzalcoatl is the
+Mexican equivalent. As already stated, the word _can_ means serpent and
+the numeral 4 and is almost homonymous with the word for sky or
+heaven=_caan_. The image of a serpent, therefore, directly suggested and
+expressed the idea of something quadruple incorporated in one celestial
+being and appropriately symbolized the divine ruler of the four quarters.
+In the word Kukulcan the noun _can_ is qualified by the prefix _kukul_. In
+the compiled Maya dictionary published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (appendix
+to de Landa's Relacion) the adjective _ku_ or _kul_ is given as "divine or
+holy." Kukulcan may therefore be analyzed as "the divine serpent" or the
+"Divine Four." When Maya sculptors or scribes began to represent this
+symbol of the divinity they must have searched for some object, easy to
+depict, the sound of whose name resembled that of ku or kul. The Maya
+adjective "feathered" being _kukum_, the artists evidently devised the
+plan of representing, as an effigy of the divinity, a serpent decorated
+with feathers and to this simple attempt at representing the "divine
+serpent" in sculpture or pictography is due, in my opinion, the origin of
+the "feathered serpent" effigies found in Yucatan and Mexico, which have
+so puzzled archaeologists.
+
+Of Kukulcan, the culture-hero of the Mayas, it is recounted that he had
+been one of four brothers who originally ruled at Chichen-Itza, over four
+tribes. "These brothers chose no wives but lived chastely and ruled
+righteously, until, at a certain time, one died or departed and two began
+to act unjustly and were put to death. The one remaining was Kukulcan. He
+appeased the strife which his brothers' acts had aroused, directed the
+minds of the people to the arts of peace and caused to be built various
+edifices. After he had completed his work at Chichen-Itza he founded the
+great city of Mayapan, destined to be the capital of the confederacy of
+the Mayas." (See Brinton, Hero-myths, p. 162.) Friar Diego de Landa
+relates that the current opinion amongst the Indians of Yucatan was that
+this ruler had gone to Mexico where, after his return (departure?) he was
+named Cezalcouatl and revered as one of their gods (Relacion, ed. Brasseur
+de Bourbourg, p. 36). Before analyzing the Nahuatl rendering of Kukulcan's
+name I would point out the noteworthy coincidence that, during his reign
+at Chichen-Itza and Mayapan, he practically united in his person and
+assumed the offices formerly fulfilled by four rulers, of which he had
+been only one.
+
+I would, moreover, draw attention to the remarkable, sculptured columns
+which support the main portal of the main pyramid-temple called El
+Castillo at Chichen-Itza. These represent gigantic feathered serpents and
+are figured on pl. XIV of Mr. Wm. Holmes' most instructive and useful
+"Archaeological Studies," Part I, "Monuments of Yucatan." The feathers
+carved on the massive columns are evidently the precious tail feathers of
+the quetzal, which have the peculiarity of exhibiting, according to the
+way the light falls upon them, blue, red, yellow and green
+colors--precisely those assigned to the four quarters by the Mexicans and
+for all we know to the contrary, by the Mayas. Whether this feather was
+chosen for this peculiarity or for its beauty only, as that with which to
+deck the effigy of the divinity, can, of course, only be conjectured. In
+Mexico numberless effigies of feathered serpents exist. The resemblance of
+the sound of the Nahuatl words: feather=ihuitl, and heaven or
+sky=ilhui-catl, should be recorded here as a possible reason for the
+association of feathers with the serpent and as a means of conveying the
+idea of its divinity. It should also be noted that quetzal, the name of
+the most precious feathers the natives possessed, resembles in sound, the
+second part of the Nahuatl words for flame=tle-cuecal-lotl, or for "tongue
+of fire"=tle-cuecal-nenepilli. That the feathered serpent was an image of
+the divinity is finally proven, I think, by the following passage from
+Sahagun which establishes that the earliest form, under which the divinity
+was revered by the Mexicans, was that of fire: "Of all the gods the [most]
+ancient one is the God of Fire, who dwells in the midst of flowers, in an
+abode surrounded by four walls and _is covered with shining feathers like
+wings_" (_op. cit._ book VI, chap. IV). It is thus shown that whilst the
+word ihuitl=feather suggested something divine, the word quetzal, besides
+being the name of a particular kind of feather, conveyed the idea of
+something resplendent or shining [like fire]. The name for serpent, coatl,
+signified twin; thus there is a profound analogy between the Maya and
+Mexican symbol, pointing, however, to the Yucatan form as the most
+ancient.
+
+Let us see how the name Quetzal-coatl occurs in Mexico. It is given as the
+name of the "supreme god whose substance was as invisible and intangible
+as air," but who was also revered as the god of fire. The constant
+reference to air in connection with the supreme divinity caused him to be
+also adored as the god of air and of the four winds. On the other hand,
+the divine title of Quetzal-coatl was carried by the culture-hero whose
+personality has been discussed and who was a Yucatec ruler and high
+priest. Sahagun (_op. cit._ book III, chap. IX) informs us that
+"Quequet-zalcoa," the plural form of the word Quetzalcoatl, was employed
+to designate "_the high priests_ (elsewhere designated as the 'supreme
+pontiffs') _who were the successors of Quetzalcoatl_." He also states that
+"the high priest of the temple was [the representative of] the god
+Quetzalcoatl" (book I, chap. 5). "The priest who was most perfect in his
+conduct and in wisdom was elected to be high priest and assumed the name
+of Quetzalcoatl.... There were two such high priests equal in rank and
+honours.... One of these, the Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, was in the
+service of Huitzilopochtli." Without pausing here to analyze this title
+since it will be discussed in detail in another publication I will only
+repeat that, after years of careful research, I have obtained the
+certainty that the foregoing title and office were those held by Montezuma
+at the time of the Conquest. What is more, I can produce ample evidence to
+prove that he was the living personification of Huitzilopochtli one of the
+"divine twins" and of the Above. He was not the first Mexican ruler who
+had filled this exalted role, for it is recorded that Axayacatl, one of
+Acamapichtli's successors, had represented, in life, "our god
+Huitzilopochtli." After his death his effigy "was first covered with a
+fine robe representing Huitzilopochtli; over this was hung the dress of
+Tlaloc ... the next garment was that of Youalahua [=the lord of the wheel]
+and the fourth was that of Quetzalcoatl" (Duran, vol. I, chap. 39, pp. 304
+and 306).
+
+Let us now see how Montezuma's personification of Huitzilopochtli was
+carried out by his life and his surroundings. According to Bernal Diaz, an
+eye-witness, when the great Montezuma came forth in state to meet Cortes,
+he was conveyed on a sumptuous litter, being thus raised above the
+earth.(6) When he descended from this and walked, the golden soles of his
+sandals prevented his feet from coming into direct contact with the
+ground; he was supported, _i. e._ partially held up, by his four principal
+lords, and a baldachin adorned with light greenish-blue feathers, gold,
+pearls and jade representing the xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl="the verdant or blue
+sky" (which was, by the way, a title of Huitzilopochtli), was carried over
+his head. Other lords preceded him, "sweeping the ground and spreading
+blankets upon it so that he should not tread upon the earth. All of these
+lords did not dare to think of raising their eyes to look at his face--only
+the four lords, his cousins, who supported him, possessed this privilege"
+(Bernal Diaz, Historia Verdadera de la Conquista. Madrid, 1632, p. 65). A
+feature, the origin of which can be directly traced back to the
+association of the star-god, Polaris, with repose and immovability, was
+that Montezuma, like his predecessors, was the only person privileged to
+sit on state occasions, on a throne or raised seat with a high back and
+rest whilst all other individuals stood or moved about him.
+
+From several sources we know that Montezuma habitually wore blue or white
+attire, which sometimes was of open network. He employed gold, precious
+blue and green feathers, turquoise, pearls and emeralds for his personal
+ornaments. His diadem with a high point in front, was incrusted with
+turquoise or was made of burnished gold. He sometimes wore a crown made of
+featherwork, with a bird's head of gold above his forehead. His emblem was
+the sun, the orb of day, and he presided over its cult which had developed
+itself simultaneously with the cult of the Above, a feature of which was
+the offering of "birds, butterflies and flowers." Sometimes he wore,
+"attached to his sandals, small wings, named tzi-coyolli, resembling the
+wing of a bird. These produced a sound like that of tiny gold bells when
+he walked" (Tezozomoc, Cronica, p. 594).
+
+It must be admitted, on reading the foregoing descriptions gleaned from
+Sahagun's Historia, that it would be impossible to carry out, more
+perfectly and completely, the idea that Montezuma was the earthly
+representative of the Upper regions, the blue heaven. By pushing symbolism
+so far that he actually wore wings on his feet and avoided contact with
+the ground, it is not surprising that Montezuma's adversaries, amongst
+neighboring tribes, should accuse him of exacting divine honors for his
+own person. At the same time there is no doubt that his own subjects
+revered him merely as a temporary representative and mouth-piece of the
+impersonal dual divinity. This idea is clearly conveyed by some native
+harangues, to which I refer the reader, and from which I extract the
+following passages:
+
+After his election, the ruler is solemnly addressed by one of the chief
+lords who says to him: "Oh! our humane, pious and beloved lord, who
+deserves to be more highly esteemed than all precious stones and feathers,
+you are here present because our sovereign god has placed thee [above us]
+as our lord.... You possess the seat and throne which was given [to your
+predecessors] by our lord god" ... "you are the image of our lord god and
+represent his person. He reposes in you and he employs you like a flute
+through which he speaks and he hears with your ears.... Oh, lord king! God
+sees what the persons do who rule over his domains and when they err in
+their office he laughs at them, but in silence, for he is god, and is
+omnipotent and can mock at whom he will. For he holds all of us in the
+palm of his hand and rocks us about, and we are like balls or round globes
+in his hands and we go rolling from one side to the other and make him
+laugh, and he serves himself of us as we go moving about on the palm of
+his hand!"
+
+"Although thou art our neighbour and friend and son and brother, we are no
+more thy equals, nor do we consider you as a man, for now you have the
+person, the image, the conversation and the communion of our lord god. He
+speaks inside of you and instructs you and lets himself be heard through
+your mouth--his tongue is your tongue, and your face is his face ... he has
+adorned you with his authority and has given you fangs and claws so that
+you should be feared and reverenced ..." (Sahagun, book VI, chap. 10).
+
+The foregoing figure of speech in which fangs and claws are alluded to as
+symbols of fear-inspiring power affords as valuable an insight into the
+native modes of thought and expression as do the similes employed in the
+following address to the newly-elected ruler by the spokesman of his
+vassals.
+
+"Oh lord! may you live many years to fill your office prosperously; submit
+your shoulders to the very heavy and troublesome load; extend your wings
+and breast as a shelter to your subjects whom you have to carry as a load.
+Oh, lord! let your town and vassals enter under your shadow, for you are
+[unto them] like the tree named puchotl or aueuetl, which casts a great
+circle or wheel of shade, under which many are gathered in shelter" (_op.
+cit._ book VI, chap. II).
+
+The admonition also addressed to the ruler, "Never to laugh and joke again
+as he had done previously to his election, and to assume the heart of an
+old, grave and severe man," explains the true significance of the name of
+Montezuma or Mo-tecuh-zoma; which was an honorific title literally
+meaning, "our angry or wrathy [looking] lord."
+
+Whilst the above data establish beyond a doubt that the Mexican
+Quetzalcoatl was regarded as the visible representative of the celestial
+ruler of the universe and that divine honors were voluntarily accorded to
+him, it is interesting to read Montezuma's explanation to Cortes
+concerning this question. The latter writes: "seated on a raised seat
+Montezuma discoursed as follows: ... 'I know that you have been told by my
+enemies that I am, or have made myself a god.'... Raising his robes he
+showed me his body saying: 'Here you see that I am made of flesh and bone,
+like yourself or like any one, and that I am mortal and tangible.'
+Grasping his arms and his body with his hands he continued: 'see how they
+have like to you.' "... (Historia, Hernan Cortes, ed. Lorenzana, p. 82).
+Better than all dissertations, the above words convey an idea of the naif
+simplicity of the man who uttered them.
+
+Referring the reader to Mr. Ad. Bandelier's study, "On the social
+organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans," for further
+details concerning the duties respectively filled by Montezuma and his
+coadjutor, I shall only explain here the conclusion I have reached that
+the former was the high priest of the cult of the sun and heaven, the
+visible ruler, the war lord, and the administrator of justice. As stated
+in a native harangue: "the supreme lord is like unto the heart of the
+population ... he is aided by two senators in all concerning the
+administration of the government: one of these was a 'pilli' and was named
+tlaca-tecuhtli; the other was a warrior and was entitled tlacoch-tecuhtli.
+Two other chieftains aided the supreme lord in the militia: one, entitled
+tlaca-teccatl, was a 'pilli' and warrior; the other, named
+tlacoch-calcatl, was not a 'pilli.' Such is the government or
+administration of the republic ... and these four officers did not occupy
+these positions by inheritance but by election" (Sahagun, book VI, chap.
+20).
+
+The following account of the republic of Tlaxcalla throws further light
+upon the form of government which prevailed throughout Mexico and Central
+America at the period of the Conquest. "The Captains of Tlaxcalla, each of
+whom had his just portion or number of soldiers ... divided their soldiers
+into four Battails, the one to Tepeticpac, another to Oco-telulco, the
+third to Tizatlan and the fourth to Quiahuiztlan, that is to say, the men
+of the Mountains, the men of the Limepits, the men of the Pinetrees, and
+the Watermen; all these four sorts of men did make the body of the
+Commonwealth of Tlaxcallan, and commanded both in Peace and War ... The
+General of all the whole army was called Xico-tencatl, who was of the
+Limepits ... the Lieutenant General was Maxix-catzin...." (A new survey of
+the West-Indies ... Thomas Gage, London, 1655, p. 31). In Mexico we find
+that the four executive officers were the chiefs or representatives of the
+four quarters of the City of Mexico. In each of these quarters there was a
+place where periodical offerings were made in reverence of one of the
+signs: acatl, tecpatl, callii and tochtli, which were the symbols of the
+cardinal-points, the elements, and served as day and year signs in the
+calendar (Sahagun, book II, chap. 26).
+
+An interesting indication that the entire dominion of Mexico was also
+divided into four equal quarters, the rule administration of which was
+attended to by four lords, inhabiting towns situated within a
+comparatively short distance from the capital, is furnished by Bernal Diaz
+(_op. cit._ p. 65). He relates that the four lords who supported Montezuma
+when he walked in state to meet Cortes were the lords of Texcoco,
+Iztapalapa, Tacuba and Coyoacan. These towns, which were minor centres of
+government, were respectively situated at unequal distances to the
+northeast, southeast, northwest and southwest of the capital.
+
+These facts and the knowledge that "all lords, in life, represented a god"
+justify the inference that, just as Montezuma represented the central
+power of the Above or Heaven, the four lords who accompanied him were the
+personified rulers of the four quarters, associated with the elements. In
+ancient Mexico and Maya records the gods of the four quarters, also named
+"the four principal and most ancient Gods" are designated as "the
+sustainers of the Heaven" and it cannot be denied that, on the solemn
+occasion described, the four lords actually fulfilled the symbolical
+office of supporting Montezuma, the personification of the Heaven. This
+striking illustration is but one of a number I could cite in proof of the
+deeply ingrained mental habit of the native sages to introduce, into every
+detail of their life, the symbolism of the Centre, the Above and Below and
+the Four Quarters. I shall but mention here that it can be proven how, in
+their respective cities the lords of the cardinal points were central
+rulers who, in turn, directed the administration of the government by
+means of four dignitaries. Each of these was also the embodiment of a
+divine attribute or principle, "All noblemen did represent idols and
+carried the name of one" (Acosta, Naturall and Morall Historie, lib. 5, p.
+349).
+
+Each wore a special kind of symbolical costume and was the ruler or
+"advocate," as he is termed, of a distinct class of people. "For to each
+kind or class of persons they gave a Teotl [=God or Lord] as an advocate.
+When a person died and was about to be buried, they clothed him with the
+diverse Insignia of the god to whom he belonged" (Mendieta lib. II, chap.
+40). It being established that each of the four year-symbols, acatl,
+tecpatl, calli and tochtli, ruled four minor symbols, it seems evident
+that, just as the four lords of the cardinal-points would correspond to
+the above symbols, each of the minor lords and the category of people they
+represented would also be associated with the minor symbols. The obvious
+result of this classification would be the division of the entire
+population of the commonwealth into 4x5=20 categories of people, grouped
+under twenty local and four central governments, whose representatives in
+turn were under the rule of the supreme central dual powers. Having thus
+sketched, in a brief and preliminary way, the expansion of the idea of
+dividing all things into four parts, the bud of which was the swastika,
+let us examine the Mexican application of the idea of duality, pausing
+first to review the data relating to the Cihuacoatl, the personification
+of the Earth, the Below and the coadjutor of Montezuma.
+
+Nothing has been definitely recorded about his personality, for he seems
+to have lived in absolute seclusion during the first occupation of Mexico
+by the Spaniards. He is frequently alluded to, however, and Cortes,
+Herrera, Torquemada and others, inform us that he had acted as Montezuma's
+substitute and led the native troops against the Spaniards. It is
+interesting to find that after the Conquest Cortes appointed him as
+governor of the City of Mexico. "I gave him the charge of re-peopling the
+capital and in order to invest him with greater authority, I reinstated
+him in the same position, that of Cihuacoatl, which he had held in the
+time of Montezuma" (Carta Cuarta, Veytia I, p. 110).
+
+Quite indirectly, it is possible to learn what sort of military equipment
+had been adopted by the Cihuacoatl when he acted as war-chief. Amongst
+certain presents, which were sent by Cortes to Charles V and are minutely
+described in vol. XII of the "Documentas ineditas del Archivio de Indias,"
+p. 347, there are several suits of armor, which could only have been
+appropriately worn by the "woman serpent." One suit consisted of a
+"corselet with plates of gold and with woman's breasts" and a skirt with
+blue bands. Another suit, instead of the breasts, exhibited a great wound
+in the chest, like that of a person who had been sacrificed. In another
+list (by Diego de Soto, p. 349) a shield is described "which displayed a
+sacrificed man, in gold, with a gaping wound in his breast, from which
+blood was streaming...." It is obvious that the first of these suits of
+armor conveyed figuratively the name and the second the office of the
+Cihuacoatl of whom Duran speaks as follows:
+
+"He whose office it was to perform the rite of killing [the victim] was
+revered as the supreme pontiff and his name or title and pontifical robes
+varied according to the different periods [of the year] and the ceremonies
+which he had to perform. On the present occasion his title was Topiltzin,
+one of the names of the great lord ... (Quetzalcoatl) and he appeared
+carrying a large flint knife in his hand ..." (_op. cit._, chap. LXXXI).
+The following passage shows definitely that Montezuma's coadjutor, his
+Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, had an equal share of divine honors accorded
+to him. "The head priest of the temple, named Quetzalcoatl, never came out
+of the temple or entered into any house whatever, because he was very
+venerable and very grave and was esteemed as a god. He only went into the
+royal palace" (Sahagun, book VI, chap. 39). The same authority designates
+the second "divine twin" as the Tlalocan-tlamacazqui or,
+Tlalocan-tlenamacac and states that he served the Tlalocan-tecuhtli.
+
+Before proceeding further, let us pause and inquire into the reason why
+the name Tlaloc, which is formed of tlalli=earth and is defined by Duran,
+for instance, as meaning "an underground passage or a great cave" (_op.
+cit._, chap. 84), should be the well-known title of the "god of rain." The
+explanation is to be found in the text of the Vatican Codex, A.
+Kingsborough, V, p. 190. This teaches us that the last syllable of the
+name Tlaloc does not represent oc=inside of, but stands for octli, the
+name of the native wine now known as pulque, which is obtained from the
+agave plant. Tlaloc thus meant "earth-wine" and "by this metaphor they
+wanted to express that just as the fumes of wine make mankind gay and
+happy, so the earth when saturated with water, is gay and fresh and
+produces its fruits and cereals." By the light of this explanation we see
+that the titles conferred upon Montezuma's coadjutor were literally "the
+priest or lord, or dealer-of-fire in the place of the earth-wine." "The
+clouds, rain, thunder and lightning were attributed to the lord Tlaloc who
+had many tlalocs and priests under him, who cultivated all foods necessary
+for the body, such as maize, beans, etc., and sent the rains so that the
+earth should give birth to all of its products. During their festival in
+springtime the priests went through the streets dancing and singing and
+carrying a shoot of green maize in one hand and a pot with a handle in the
+other. In this way they went asking for the [ceremonial] boiled maize and
+all fanners gave them some" ... (Sahagun, book VI, chap. 5).
+
+The above and many scattered allusions throw light upon the group of ideas
+associated with the Cihuacoatl and clearly indicate what were his duties.
+To him devolved the care of the earth and his one thought was to secure
+abundance of rain and of crops. In order to ensure the proper cultivation
+of the ground, he had, under him, innumerable agents, who strictly
+superintended the cultivation of all food-plants, the irrigation of barren
+lauds, etc. These agents, who also resorted to ceremonial usages in order
+to bring rain or avert hail-storms and other disasters, were collectively
+named "the 400 pulque or octli-gods"--an appellation which developed into
+tochtli-gods, when the rabbit (=tochtli) had become the pictograph
+habitually employed to convey the sound of the word octli, and had been
+adopted as the symbol of the earth and of prolific reproduction in
+connection with this. The latter idea is born out of the female title,
+that of the earth-mother, who "always brought forth twins." The Cihuacoatl
+thus stands out as the representative of the bountiful mother-earth and as
+the lord of agriculture, one of whose duties was the careful collection,
+storage and distribution of all food products. He presided over the cult
+of the fertility of the earth, of the nocturnal heaven, of the stars and
+moon, which were associated with the female principle and with growth in
+general. The following record proves that amongst his other duties he
+offered sacrifices to the invisible hidden powers of darkness and earth.
+"During the night, in the feast Tititl, the high priest named Tlillan
+tlenamacac [=the dealer with fire in the land of darkness=tlilli=black,
+evidently a title analogous to that of Tlill-potonqui-cihuacoatl, given by
+Tezozomoc, in Cronica, chap. 33], sacrificed a victim in honour of the god
+of the Underworld" (Sahagun, book II, appendix). In this, as on similar
+occasions, he was assisted by four priests who succeeded him in rank.
+
+Mr. Bandelier has already recognized that judicial sentences were
+ultimately referred to the "woman-serpent," who pronounced the "final
+sentence, which admitted of no appeal." There are more reasons than can
+conveniently be presented here, proving that in Mexico, as in Guatemala,
+the priest of the Below, the personification of Tezcatli-poca=Shining
+Mirror, employed an actual mirror made of polished obsidian, as an aid in
+pronouncing final judgment on criminals.
+
+The Cakchiquel procedure is described by Fuentes of Guzman, who is quoted
+by Dr. Otto Stoll in his most instructive and valuable work on the
+Ethnology of the Indian Tribes of Guatemala (Internationales Archiv fuer
+Ethnographie, band I, supplement I, 1888): "A road leads [from the ancient
+city of Guatemala] to a hill [figured with a large tree growing from it];
+on its top there is a flat circular cement floor, enclosed by a low wall.
+In the centre is a pedestal, polished and shining like glass. No one knows
+of what substance it is made. This was the tribunal or court of the
+Cakchiquel Indians, where public trials were held and where the sentences
+were executed. The judges sat in a circle on the low wall. After the
+sentence had been pronounced, it had to be confirmed or vetoed by another
+authority. Three messengers, acting as deputies of the council, went to a
+deep ravine situated to the north of the palace, where, in a sort of
+hermitage or prayer-house, there was the oracle of the devil, which was a
+black, transparent stone, like glass, but more costly than [ordinary]
+obsidian. In this stone the devil revealed to the messengers, the sentence
+to be executed. If it agreed with the judgment pronounced, this was
+immediately executed upon the central pedestal [of the hill of justice] on
+which the criminal was also tortured, at times." If nothing was seen in
+the mirror, and it gave no sign, the prisoner was pronounced free.
+
+This oracle was also consulted before wars were undertaken ... "During the
+first years of the Spanish occupation, when the bishop Marroquin heard
+about this stone, he had it cut out and consecrated it as an altar, which
+is still in use in the convent of San Francisco in the capital. It is a
+precious stone of great beauty and is half a vara long."
+
+A picture in the Vatican Codex B (p. 48) represents a temple, on the
+summit of which a large obsidian mirror is standing on its edge. Inside
+the doorway there are many small black spots, which obviously represent
+small mirrors and convey the idea that the interior walls were incrusted
+with such. These illustrations would prove that sacred edifices were
+associated with obsidian mirrors even if Sahagun did not mention, as he
+does (book II, appendix), no less than three sacred edifices in the great
+temple of Mexico, which were associated with obsidian mirrors. It is,
+moreover, stated by Duran that "in Mexico the image of the god
+Tezcatlipoca was a stone, which was very shining and black, like jet. It
+was of the same stone of which the natives make razors and knives," _i.
+e._, obsidian (Duran II, p. 98).
+
+What is more, Bernal Diaz relates that the image of Tezcatlipoca, which he
+saw beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli in the hall of the great temple of
+Mexico, had shining eyes which were made of the native mirrors=tezcatl.
+"In connection with the shining eyes" of the god it is interesting to note
+that when, as Duran states, he was represented under another form, his
+idol "carried in its hand a sort of fan made of precious feathers. These
+surmounted a circular gold disc which was very brilliant and polished like
+a mirror. This meant that, in this mirror, he saw all that went on in the
+world. In the native language they named it 'itlachiayan,' which means,
+that in which he looks or sees" (Duran, _op. cit._, vol. II, p. 99).
+
+Sahagun mentions an analogous sceptre which consisted of "a gold disc
+pierced in the centre, and surmounted by two balls, the upper and smaller
+of which supported a pointed object. This sceptre was called tlachieloni,
+which means 'that through which one looks or observes;' because with it
+one covered or hid one's face and looked through the hole in the middle of
+the gold plate." This kind of sceptre is not exclusively associated with
+Tezcatlipoca in the native picture writings, for it figures in the hand of
+Chalchiuhtlycue "the sister" of Tlaloc and of Omacatl whose attributes,
+the reeds and chalchiuite or jade beads, prove him to be also associated
+with the water. On the other hand the same sceptre is also assigned by
+Sahagun to the god of fire.
+
+A clue to the truth and significance of this emblematic sceptre is
+furnished by the fact that, in order to express the divine title
+Tlachiuale, meaning "the Maker or Lord of all creatures or of young life,"
+the native scribes were naturally obliged to employ the verb tlachia=to
+look or see, in order to convey its sound. It is obvious that they
+cleverly agreed to express this verb by picturing some object which could
+be or was looked through. They therefore adopted a sceptre with a hollow
+disc, as an emblem, which was carried by the living representative of
+certain divinities, whose entire costume was in reality a sort of rebus,
+and in the case of Tlaloc, the lord of earthwine and fertility and the
+Tlachiuale or "Creator of young life," par excellence, they once and for
+all designated his title by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings,
+accentuating thereby the action of seeing or looking. But this probably
+conveyed even more than the above title, for there is a Nahuatl noun
+tlachiuhtli, which means, "something made or formed or engendered," or
+"earth which is ploughed and sown." Then there is the verb tlachipaua
+which means, "the smile of dawn, the break of day, the clearing up of the
+weather," also the purification and cleansing, all of which were supposed
+to be under the dominion of the rain-god and of his living representatives
+on earth, the rain-priests. The seemingly conflicting fact that the
+tlachieloni sceptre was also assigned to the god of fire is explained by
+the existence of the verb tiachinoa=to burn up the fields or forests, and
+of the noun tlachi-noliztli=the act of burning up or scorching the fields
+or forests, and finally, metaphorically, tlachinoli-teuotl=war or
+battle=destruction. It is only when we thus realize all the natives could
+express by the image of an eye, looking through a circle, that we begin to
+grasp its full meaning when employed as a symbol in their picture
+writings.
+
+As to the obsidian mirror, which undoubtedly was the symbol of
+Tezcatlipoca and, consequently, must have pertained to his representative,
+the priest of the Night, we find that it played a most prominent role in
+the cult he presided over. In the first case it appears as though it was
+resorted to in Mexico as in the conquered province of Guatemala, as the
+oracle which rendered final judgment. A series of illustrations, etc., to
+be published in my final work on the Calendar System, will prove
+satisfactorily that the Mexican astronomers extensively employed black
+obsidian mirrors as an aid to astronomical observations, by means of
+reflection. Besides mirrors on the summits of temples and mountains,
+certain square columns, placed on an elevation and faced with a broad band
+of polished obsidian, are pictured in some Codices. It is obvious that the
+latter in particular, if carefully oriented, would have served as an
+admirable means of registering the periodical return of planets, stars or
+constellations to certain positions; they would then be reflected on the
+polished surface, as in a frame. In certain Codices the double, tau-shaped
+courtyard or enclosure surrounded by a high wall with battlements, which
+was employed in the daytime for the national game of ball, figures in
+combination with obsidian mirrors. I draw attention to the fact that the
+name of these courtyards was tlach-tli, which literally means the looking
+place=the observatory and that, amongst the edifices of the great temple,
+a tezca-tlachtli=obsidian-mirror-observatory, is described. I shall
+demonstrate more fully, on another occasion, that the chief purpose of
+these enclosures was to serve as astronomical observatories. Dr. Brinton,
+Senor Troncoso and other authorities have already observed that the game
+of ball itself was intended to represent the idea of the perpetual motion
+of the heavenly bodies. (See American Hero-myths, p. 119.)
+
+Returning to reexamine the divine title Tezcatlipoca we see that, when
+interpreted as "the lord of the shining obsidian mirror," it was the most
+appropriate title of the lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, which myriads of
+mirrors reflected each night, throughout the land. It is easy to see how
+the habit of referring to the Temple Minor, in order to ascertain the
+positions of the stars, would naturally lead to its being consulted more
+extensively as an oracle later on. We thus clearly perceive how the lord
+of the Night, whose priests called themselves "the sons of the Night,"
+became intimately associated with divination and how the idea of a
+definite connection between the movements of the stars or human destinies
+would, in the lapse of centuries, make a deep and indelible impression
+upon the minds of men.
+
+If the obsidian mirror was the symbol, par excellence, of Mexican star
+cult, there are evidences that the small mirror of polished pyrites was
+that of the sun-cult. The latter seems to have been employed, in some way
+or other, for the concentration of the rays of the sun required for the
+lighting of the sacred fire, at noon, on the days of the vernal equinox
+and summer solstice. As in Peru, this duty devolved upon the high priest
+of the Above or the Son of the Sun, a title which undoubtedly pertained
+also to the Mexican ruler, though not employed so ostentatiously as in
+Peru. A keen emulation, which may almost be termed an intense rivalry,
+seems to have existed between the two cults, which Sahagun even goes so
+far as to designate as two religions. From a chapter of his Historia we
+even learn that the entire population of Mexico was divided into two
+halves who respectively belonged to one or the other religion, a fact
+which naturally affected the position of the two classes of people and had
+created the native ideas, of an upper and a lower class or caste which
+will be further discussed.
+
+Sahagun's informants explained to him that, when a child was born, its
+parents, according to their class, registered it at one of the two
+educational establishments for the young and took vows to have it educated
+there as soon as it attained a suitable age. The lower class took their
+offspring to the Telpuchcalli, where they were dedicated to the service of
+the community and to warfare, _i. e._, the ruling class. "The 'Lords,
+chieftains or elders,' offered their sons to the Calmecac to be educated
+for the priesthood."
+
+It being impossible to present here in full the data showing how certain
+primitive conceptions had developed further and how some human occupations
+had become associated with the Above and others with the Below, I will but
+point out the important fact that the city of Mexico, divided into four
+quarters, each of which had five subdivisions (calpullis), actually
+consisted of two distinct parts. One of these was Mexico proper, where the
+Great Temple stood and where Montezuma and the lords resided; the other
+was Tlatelolco, where the lower classes dwelt and the merchant class
+prevailed. After a certain revolt the inhabitants of this portion of the
+city were, we are told, "degraded to the rank of women" (see Bandelier,
+_op. et loc. cit._). From this it would seem evident that their affairs or
+lawsuits were settled in the official house named the Cihua-tecpaneca,
+whilst the affairs of the nobility, residing in Mexico proper, were
+disposed of in the Tlaca-tecpaneca (see Duran, chap. 3). Knowledge of the
+prevalence of the division of the population into two parts is gained
+through a passage of Ixtl-ilxo-chitl's Historia (chap. XXXV, p. 241): "To
+Quetzalmemalitzin was given the lordship of Teotihuacan ... with the title
+of Captain-general of the dominion of the noblemen. All affairs or
+lawsuits of the lords and the nobility belonging to the towns of the
+provinces situated in the plain, were to be attended to and settled in his
+town. The same title was bestowed upon Quechaltecpantzin of Otompan, with
+the difference that he was the captain-general of the commoners and
+attended to the affairs and claims of the commoners and populace of the
+provinces in the plains."
+
+A further detail concerning the position of the ancient capital of Mexico
+should not be omitted, for it is described as follows by the English friar
+Thomas Gage, who visited it in 1625: "The situation of this city is much
+like that of Venice, but only differs in this, that Venice is built upon
+the sea-water, and Mexico upon a lake, which seeming one is indeed two;
+one part whereof is standing water, the other ebbeth and floweth according
+to the wind that bloweth. That part which standeth is wholesome, good and
+sweet, and yieldeth store of small fish. That part which ebbeth and
+floweth is a saltish bitter and pestiferous water, yielding no kind of
+fish, small or great" (p. 43). Added to other data, this detail seems to
+indicate that the geographical position of the capital had been chosen
+with utmost care and profound thought, so that, built on a dual island on
+a dual lake, it should be in itself an image or illustration of the ideas
+of organization which I have shown to have dominated the entire native
+civilization. If it be admitted, as I think is evident, that the site of
+the capital was chosen and mapped out in accordance with these ideas, then
+we undoubtedly have, in ancient Mexico, not only one of the most
+remarkable "Holy Cities" ever built by mankind, but also the most
+convincing proof of the great antiquity and high development of the
+civilization under whose influence one of the greatest capitals of ancient
+America was founded.
+
+It is impossible to read the following descriptions without recognizing
+that the identical fundamental ideas had undoubtedly determined the native
+topography of capitals situated in other parts of the continent. Beginning
+with Guatemala, which formed a part of ancient Mexico, I refer to the plan
+of the ancient capital and its description by Fuentes of Guzman, published
+by Dr. Otto Stoll in his work already cited: "A deep ditch, running from
+north to south, divided the town into two portions. One of these, situated
+to the east, was inhabited by the nobility; whilst the commoners
+(Macehuales) lived in the western division." I pause here to call
+attention to the intentional coincidence that the association of the east
+with the Above, and the west with the Below, is exemplified here,
+topographically. The plan shows that the eastern half contained, in its
+centre, a great, oblong enclosure, surrounded by a high wall. A wall,
+running from east to west, divided this enclosure into two distinct
+courtyards with wide separate entrances from the west. The northern
+courtyard, designated as the "Place of the Palace," contains several
+buildings. The southern one, named the "Place of the Temple," contains an
+edifice on a terraced mound and several others. It is noticeable that, in
+the exact middle of the central wall, there is a seemingly double,
+unfortunately indistinguishable object, or building, which marks the exact
+middle of the entire dual enclosure. It is particularly interesting that
+the East City is divided into two portions by a wall running from the
+southeast angle of the wall of the Temple courtyard to the outer wall of
+the city. The southern half, in which the "Tribunal or hill of justice is
+to be seen, is designated as containing the houses of the Ahauas or heads
+of the Calpuls." The northern half, containing many houses, lacks
+designation. The West city is likewise divided into two distinct portions
+by a broad street, enclosed by a hill wall and conducting from the western
+and only entrance to the city directly to the Place of the Temple. A deep
+trench or ditch encloses the entire city, whilst nine watch-towers, on
+small hills, are placed at equal distances around it.
+
+If this precious document clearly reveals the ground plan on which the
+native capitals were built, in accordance with the dominant idea, the
+following native map shows that the ancient dominion of Yucatan, for
+instance, was figured as an integral whole with form of a flat disc
+divided into four quarters, Ho, the modern Merida, in its centre. This
+map, copied from the native Codex Chumazel, has been published by Senor
+Crescencio Carillo of Ancona in the Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico,
+vol. II, p. 43, as showing the territorial division of Yucatan before the
+Conquest (fig. 27). According to Herrera and Diego de Landa, the unity of
+the dominion was destroyed about two centuries before the Conquest by the
+destruction of the capital, Mayapan. The land then remained divided
+amongst many independent chiefs or Bacabs. Senor Carillo renders the Maya
+descriptive text written under the map, as follows: "Here is Mani. The
+beginning of the land, or its entrance, is Campeche. The extremity of the
+wing of the land is Calkini; the (chun) place where the wing grows or
+begins, is Izamal. The half of the wing is Zaci; the tip of the wing is
+Cumkal. The head of the land is the city, the capital Ho."
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 27.
+
+
+The foregoing text shows that, notwithstanding the circular shape in which
+it is figured, the dominion was evidently thought of as in the form of a
+bird, the head of which was the capital.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 28.
+
+
+This figure of speech seems to have been prevalent in Mexico also and to
+be conveyed by the representation, in the Vienna Codex, of a double
+tau-shape to which the head, wings and claw, and tail of a quetzal are
+attached (fig. 28, no. 8). As I shall have occasion to demonstrate further
+on, the double tau signifies the Above and the Below and their union
+forming an integral whole. The following Nahuatl terms explain by
+themselves the symbolism of the bird-figure: cuitlapilli=the tail of an
+animal or bird, atlapalli=the wings of a bird, or the leaves of a tree,
+cuitlapalli atlapalli=vassals, the populace or lower classes, the
+laborers.
+
+These words furnish irrefutable evidence that the lower class was
+familiarly known in Mexico as "the wings and the tail" of the commonwealth
+or state, or the leaves "on the trees" of the tribe. Sahagun states, on
+the other hand, that the Mexicans employed the metaphor of "a bird with
+wings and a tail" to designate a lord, governor or ruler. He also records
+that the terms hair, nails, a thorn, a spine, beard and eyelashes, were
+used to signify "someone who was noble, generous or of the lineage of the
+lords." Such metaphors as these may well cause us to despair at arriving
+at a complete understanding of the native imagery and symbolism. The
+symbolism of the bird's claw yet remains to be looked into. The Nahuatl
+for the same is xo-maxaltic, xo-tzayanqui or cho-cholli.
+
+In one of the ancient Mexican harangues, previously quoted, it is said of
+the supreme ruler that he had been given "fangs and nails" in order to
+inspire fear and reverence. Scattered evidence and the fact that in the
+Codex Mendoza the decorated claws of an eagle, for instance, appear as a
+military device on the shields of certain war chiefs, seem to indicate
+that the warriors were spoken of, metaphorically, as "the claws or nails"
+of the state. The following passage finally proves that the tlachtli or
+courtyard the shape of which was a double tau, as in fig. 28, no. 8, was
+regarded by the Mexicans as an image of the state itself. In another
+native harangue it was said of the newly-elected ruler: "He is now placed
+or put into the Tlachtli, he has been invested with the leathern gloves,
+so that he can govern and throw back the ball to the one who throws it to
+him in the game. For the business of governing very much resembles this
+game and the game of dice" (Sahagun, book VI, chap. xiii). The latter game
+alluded to, the patolli, was played on a mat in the shape of a cross,
+marked off with divisions, with stone markers, the moves of which were
+decided by the numbers obtained on casting the dice, which consisted of
+beans with marks on them. It is interesting to find that the word pat-olli
+seems to be connected with the verb pat-cayotia=to be substituted in the
+place of another, or to succeed another in office or dignity. The above
+comparison of the game to the business of governing indicates that a
+feature of the government was a methodical succession or rotation in
+office or dignity, a point to which I draw special attention, as I shall
+refer to it later.
+
+The evidence that the Mexicans regarded the form of the courtyard, named
+tlachtli, as that of the state itself is noteworthy. On the other hand,
+the native map contained in the Codex Mendoza, p. 1, shows us that they
+figured their territory as a square, surrounded by water and divided into
+four equal parts by diagonal cross-streams or canals. As in the Maya map
+the centre of this is occupied by the well-known hieroglyph or rebus of
+Te-noch-ti-tlan, the ancient capital, which consisted of Mexico and
+Tlatelolco. In three of the four triangular divisions, two chieftains are
+figured, whilst in one there are four, the complete number of chieftains
+thus being ten. The incontrovertible evidence that the dominion of the
+Mexicans, as well as that of the Mayas, was figured and regarded as an
+integral whole has seemed to me to be of extreme importance, because it
+points to a fresh interpretation of the much-discussed meaning of the name
+Tullan, "the glorious centre of culture where the high priest
+Quetzalcoatl, had dwelt and whence he had been driven by the wiles of his
+enemies. It is a place that we hear of in the oldest myths and legends of
+many and different races. Not only the Aztecs, but the Mayas of Yucatan
+and the Kiches and Cakchiquels of Guatemala, bewailed in woful songs, the
+loss of that beautiful land and counted its destruction as the common
+starting-point in their annals.... According to the ancient Cakchiquel
+legends, however, ... 'there were four Tullans, as the ancient men have
+told us.' The most venerable traditions of the Maya race claimed for them
+a migration from Tullan in Zuyva."... "When it happened to me," says Friar
+Duran, "to ask a [Mexican] Indian who cut this pass through the mountains
+or who opened that spring of water or who built that old ruin? the answer
+was: The Tultecs, the disciples of Papa," _i. e._, Quetzalcoatl. (See
+Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.) Considering that the identity of
+Tullan has not yet been satisfactorily established, that several Tullans
+are said to have existed and that a small town, about a dozen leagues to
+the northeast of Mexico, is named Tullan-tzinco=little Tullan, I should
+like to direct the attention of Americanists to the following Maya words:
+Tul-um=fortification, edifice, wall and enclosure. Tula-cal, Tuliz,
+adjectives=whole, entire, undivided, integral. Tul-ul, adjective=general,
+universal. Tul-tic, verb=to belong, to correspond to something. Tul=all
+around or full. Tul=in composition, to have abundance. Tulnah=to be too
+full, to overflow, to proceed, to issue, abound, high-tide. Tulaan=past
+participle of tul.
+
+I am of opinion that, after carefully examining the foregoing words and
+their meanings, we must admit that an intelligible and satisfactory
+derivation and signification of the much-discussed Tula of the Mexicans,
+which has been vainly sought in the Nahuatl language, are obtained if we
+connect it with the Maya words for fortress, or stronghold, an enclosed
+place, an integral whole, an overflowing source of abundance and plenty.
+If we do this, then the problematic term Tolteca, given by Mexicans to the
+superior people from whom they had derived their culture and knowledge,
+means nothing more than such persons who had belonged (Maya verb tultic)
+or were members of a highly cultured commonwealth or ancient centre of
+civilization, such as had flourished during countless centuries, in
+Yucatan and the present Chiapas, Honduras and Guatemala.
+
+Reserving this subject for future, more detailed, discussion, I point out
+that the name Ho, given to the capital, which is designated in the map as
+the "head of the land," is obviously derived from the Maya hol, hool, or
+hoot, which means not only head but also chieftain. The circumstance that
+a single word, Ho, conveyed the triple meaning of a capital, a chieftain
+and a head, is particularly noteworthy, as it affords not only important
+clues to native symbolism, which I shall trace later on, but also shows
+that the presence of the syllable Ho or O, in certain native names of
+localities, may possibly indicate that it was a capital, the residence of
+a chieftain. Further light is shed upon the following native association
+of ideas when the following words are studied. The ancient Maya name for a
+pyramid or artificial mound was ho-m and the pyramidal elevations on which
+temples or palaces were built were designated as ho-mul or o-mul (see
+Vocabulary, Brasseur de Bourbourg). The title Holpop was moreover that of
+the "chieftain of the mat," whose prerogative it was to sit on a mat and
+to beat the sacred drum during the public dances or ritual performances
+(Cogolludo). The ancient word for vase, vessel or cup in general was
+ho-och, whilst o-och meant food or maintenance (Arte de la lengua Maya,
+Fray Beltram de Santa Rosa, ed. Espinosa, Merida, 1859). If the foregoing
+data be summarized we find that the word ho, the ancient name of the head
+of the land, which is figured in its centre, is not only homonymous with
+capital and chieftain, but also with pyramid, vase or receptacle and
+maintenance, and finally with the numeral 5, also "ho." We shall see that
+the identical ideas were similarly associated in ancient Mexico.
+
+Referring once more to the ancient map of Yucatan and to the peculiarity
+that the head of the figurative bird, the capital, Ho, is supposed to
+occupy the centre of the state, I point out nos. 1 and 5 (fig. 28) from
+the Bodleian and Selden MSS. as somewhat analogous representations of a
+central capital or chief, and nos. 3 and 6 as possibly being images of a
+territorial subdivision of the state, resembling a spider's web. In an
+unpublished Mexican MS., which has been recently brought to light, the
+middle of the concentric circles is painted blue and suggests the idea of
+a system of distribution or irrigation, proceeding from a central supply
+of water and radiating in all directions. An accentuation of centrality is
+brought into relief in fig. 28, no. 6, where the spider's web is placed in
+the middle, between the two peaks of a mountain. In no. 2 a small
+quadruple sign, which frequently occurs in the Vienna Codex, always
+painted in the colors of the four quarters and united by a cross-band
+across the centre (no. 4). also figures between two peaks, above two feet,
+the significance of which I do not venture to determine. A remarkable
+circular disc resembling the Maya map, and also divided into four parts by
+cross lines, but exhibiting footsteps denoting rotation, is represented in
+the entrance of a temple, in the Vienna Codex (fig. 28, no. 7). These
+figures will be referred to again further on.
+
+Let us now bestow attention upon the names of the Mexican capital and
+first note that the edifice of the Great Temple, in which the Cihuacoatl
+performed an annual ceremony already mentioned, was called tlal-xic-co,
+literally "in the navel of the earth or land" (from tlalli=earth, land or
+country, xictli=navel and co=in) (Sahagun, book II, appendix). Besides
+this edifice there was, in the middle of the lagoon of Chalco, an island,
+which, to this day, bears the name of Xico=in the navel or centre. This
+indicates the curious circumstance that the edifice and island had
+apparently been regarded as forming "ideal centres," and shows that the
+name of Mexico itself may have been associated with the same conception
+being, as it was, the central seat of government. Gomara states that "the
+city was divided into two halves or parts, one named Tlal-telolco=small
+island (literally, 'in the earth-mound') and the other named Mexico, which
+means 'something which flows,' " (Histoire Generalle des Indes, Paris,
+1634, chap. 38). The Nahuatl word alluded to can be no other than the verb
+memeya which, according to Molina, signifies "water, or something liquid
+which issues or flows in many directions." I have already pointed out that
+the Maya words to express water which rises and overflows, high tide and,
+by extension, abundance and plenty, are tul, tulnah and, finally, tulaan,
+past participle of tul. If the particle "me" conveyed the above idea, its
+combination with xico would cause the name Mexico to be replete with
+significance and to mean "the figurative centre whence all maintenance
+proceeded and flowed in all directions, throughout the land."
+
+The Borgian Codex furnishes representations of identical meaning. On page
+4 a human body, the centre of which forms a large red disc, is stretched
+across the double tau-shaped tlachtli which obviously represents the four
+quarters, being painted with their four symbolic colors. It is
+particularly noteworthy that the limbs of the central figure are
+represented as wearing the green skin of a lizard, while its face is
+enclosed in the open jaws of the reptile. It should also be noted here
+that whilst the Nahuatl names are cuetz-palin and topitzin, the Maya term
+for lizard is mech or ix-mech. On the same page a similar, but smaller,
+figure is depicted on a background representing the nocturnal heaven. On
+the following page the figure of a dead woman is stretched on a red disc
+whilst a priest is drilling the fire-stick into a circular symbol, with
+four balls, which is the well-known symbol for chalchiuitl=jade. As the
+name of the female water goddess is Chalchiutlycue, this detail is
+significant and will be referred to later on. It is noteworthy that on
+both pages 5 and 6 the performance of the above rite is accompanied by the
+image of the goddess of the earth and underworld, represented with a
+death's head, and with her hair strewn with stars. Her body is that of a
+green lizard, and she carries ears and blossoms of maize and holds a blue
+garment on which the chalchihuitl symbol figures.
+
+In connection with representatives of the human form outstretched in
+sacrifice, on whose body the rite of kindling the sacred fire or of
+extracting the heart is being performed, it seems evident that, under the
+dominion of the fundamental ideas I have been discussing, the native sages
+regarded and utilized the human form as an image of the Middle and Four
+Quarters. It is well known that the number 20 was termed "one count" and
+connected with the number of fingers and toes, distributed equally on his
+four extremities. The human victim thus formed a living swastika or cross
+and became not only the consecrated image of the supreme, creative,
+central divinity who controlled the Four Quarters, but also an image of
+the central government with its supreme ruler; whilst the four chiefs of
+the Quarters were symbolized by the four limbs. Each of these terminated
+in a symbolized group consisting of a hand, maitl, with a thumb (=touey
+mapilli or vei mapilli, literally, the great finger, or our great finger)
+and four fingers (mapilli); or of a great toe, touei xopil or topec-xopil
+(literally, our great toe, or our lord toe) and of four toes=xopilli.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 29.
+
+
+The above association of ideas was doubtlessly accentuated by the fact
+that the word pilli means a nobleman, a chieftain; thence he terms
+pilconetl=the son of a nobleman and pilhua=he who has sons (pil in this
+case meaning son and hua=possessor of). This latter fact could have been
+very aptly conveyed in the picture-writings by employing fingers to
+express the sound "pilli." The number of sons a chieftain had could thus
+be easily expressed by his exhibiting a corresponding number of fingers. I
+shall revert to this possibility presently, and now referring to fig. 29,
+no. 2, direct attention to the obvious intention to express the idea that
+the fire produced was distributed to the four quarters by means of the
+figures, painted in symbolical colors, three of which are visible. Another
+picture in the same Codex represents four similar figures springing
+towards the cardinal points from a source or fountain of water, whilst a
+priest above a triangular cloak(7) holds a pair of weapons (?) in his
+hands (fig. 29, no. 1). If carefully studied, these groups seem to
+corroborate the derivation of the name Mexico, given above. What is more,
+the first group affords an explanation of the meaning and purpose of three
+strange recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, which have been
+respectively found in Mexico, Tlaxcala and Chichen-Itza and are now
+preserved at the National Museum in Mexico. They furnish the most
+convincing proof that an identical cult and symbolism had existed in these
+widely-separated localities. The conclusion I have previously expressed,
+that an actual connection had been established between Chichen-Itza and
+Mexico by the Maya high priest Kukulcan, or Quetzalcoatl, is thus
+corroborated by undeniable evidence, which will be supplemented later on.
+
+The three monoliths have been described and illustrated in the Anales del
+Museo Nacional, Mexico, vol. 1, p. 270, by the late Senor Jesus Sanchez,
+and are here reproduced. The statue exhumed at Chichen-Itza by Dr. Le
+Plongeon (pl. IV, fig. 1) closely resembles that found at Tlaxcalla in
+Mexico (pl. III, fig. 2). Dr. Brinton, who erroneously describes the
+Chichen-Itza statue as representing "a sleeping god," points out the
+extremely important fact that there was a divinity worshipped in Yucatan
+called Cum-ahau, "the lord of the vase," who is designated in a MS.
+dictionary as "Lucifer (the lord of the underworld) the principal native
+divinity." He adds there is good ground to suppose that this lord of the
+vase ... was the god of fertility common to the Maya and Mexican cult
+(Hero-Myths, p. 165). Considering that the great market-place in the
+capital was actually the centre to which the entire product of the land
+was periodically carried from its remotest confines, was there classified,
+exchanged or distributed far and wide, the comparison to a central flowing
+source of maintenance was most appropriate.
+
+That some particular spot in or near the city should have gradually
+assumed importance and sanctity as marking the exact centre of the
+metropolis, _i. e._, of the integral whole of the Mexican "empire" is but
+natural and it is not surprising to find that solemn rites were performed
+on this spot. In one of the chronicles to which I shall revert, it is
+stated that the New Fire was at times kindled on the prostrate body of a
+slave, and this curious statement is corroborated by a picture in the
+Borgian Codex, showing a priest producing fire from a circular vessel
+placed on the body of a victim beneath whom a face enclosed in the open
+jaws of a reptile, is visible (fig. 29).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Plate IV.
+
+
+Dr. Le Plongeon, to whom much credit is due for its discovery, identified
+the Chichen-Itza statue, for reasons not fully explained, as a portrait of
+Chac-Mool, or Lord Tiger, and relates that it was found at a depth of
+eight metres, not far from the base of the Great Pyramid Temple. A statue
+of a standing tiger, with a human head and a shallow depression in its
+back, was also found near the same spot. I have seen other sculptured
+figures of human beings holding a vase, as at the hacienda near
+Xochicalco, Mexico, and of tigers, with circular depressions on their
+backs, and hope to be able to reproduce their photographs on another
+occasion.
+
+The most elaborately sculptured recumbent statue is undoubtedly that which
+was found in or near the city of Mexico (pl. IV, fig. 3). The under
+surface of its base (pl. IV, fig. 5) is entirely covered with zigzag water
+lines and representations of roots of plants, figured as in the Codices;
+shells, one kind of which is the well-known symbol of parturition, and
+frogs which are intimately associated with water symbolism. On the hair of
+the statue a flower-like ornament is carved (pl. IV, fig. 4) in connection
+with which it should be noted that the Nahuatl for flower is xochitl,
+pronounced hoochitl, resembling the Maya hooch=vase. The small groups of
+five dots forming a border around the circular vessel are noteworthy, as
+they are likewise sculptured on the calendar-stone. The characteristic
+scrolls about the eyes of the figure show that it personates tlaloc, or
+earth-wine. The fertility of the earth, caused by rain, is symbolized by
+the wreath of ears of corn and reeds (Nahuatl, _tollin_) which is
+sculptured around the base of this, one of the most remarkable of ancient
+American monuments.
+
+Senor Sanchez cites Torquemada (Monarquia Indiana, vol. II, p. 52) as the
+only authority who mentions a recumbent image or idol and relates that,
+"in the city of Tula, there was preserved in the great temple, an image of
+Quetzalcoatl ... he was figured as lying down, as though going to
+sleep.... Out of reverence the image was covered with mantles or
+cloths.... They said that when sterile women made offerings or sacrifices
+to the god Quetzalcoatl, he immediately caused them to become
+pregnant...." He was the god of the Winds which he sent to sweep or clear
+the way for the tlaloques="the earth-wine" gods.
+
+Senor Sanchez also quotes Gama, who, basing himself upon Torquemada's
+authority, maintains that Tezcatzon-catl, the principal rain or octli-god,
+was figured as lying in an intoxicated condition, holding a vase of pulque
+in his hands. To the above data I add the description by Bernal Diaz, of a
+"figure in sculpture" he saw on the summit of the great temple of Mexico:
+"It was half man and half lizard (lagarto), was encrusted with precious
+stones and one-half of it was covered with cloths. They said that half of
+it was full of all the kinds of seeds that were produced in the entire
+land, and told [me] that it was the god of sown land, of seeds and fruits.
+I do not remember his name...." (Historia Verdadera, p. 71). It may be as
+well to note, that the Nahuatl names for lizard, cuetz-palin and topitzin,
+approximately convey the sound of the first syllables of the name of the
+culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, and of the title "topiltzin" bestowed upon him.
+It must, of course, remain a matter of conjecture whether the lizard was
+possibly employed in the above case as a pictograph, to express the sound
+of its name. One thing seems certain, that the Tula image of Quetzalcoatl,
+to which divinity barren women directed their invocations, and the statue
+described by Bernal Diaz as that "of the god of seeds, fruits and
+cultivated land," were undoubtedly analogous to the sculptured recumbent
+figure found in Mexico, and exhibiting the symbols of Tlaloc, or
+earth-wine, of maize, and of parturition. Bernal Diaz further relates that
+the said image was kept on the uppermost terrace of the Great Temple, in
+one of five "concavities surrounded by barbacans or low walls the
+wood-work of which was very richly carved" (_op. et loc. cit._).
+
+The inference to be drawn from the foregoing data is that the Mexicans and
+the Mayas habitually kept, on the summit of their principal temple, in
+their centres of government, a statue holding a circular vessel and
+figuratively representing the "navel or centre of the land." The group of
+ideas already traced in the Maya ho=capital, hom=pyramid, ho-och=vessel,
+o-och=maintenance, ho=5, thus proves to be completely carried out, for, on
+this consecrated spot, which emblematized the source whence all life
+proceeded, sacred emblematic rites were performed, the purpose of which
+was to typify the union, in the centre, of the four elements requisite for
+the productiveness of the earth.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 30.
+
+
+The ground plan of the Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen-Itza, which was
+built, according to tradition, by the high priest Quetzalcoatl, carries
+out the idea of the middle and of the four quarters in so obvious a manner
+that it may safely be assumed that it represented the supposed centre of a
+dominion (fig. 30). Referring the reader to the interesting description of
+this remarkable edifice in Mr. William Holmes' valuable work already
+cited, I note that round temples, dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, are recorded
+to have also existed in Mexico. It seems probable that, at certain
+festivals, the living representatives of the Above and Below performed
+certain sacred rites on the summit of one of these circular edifices. It
+is obvious that such rites could only have been fitly performed by the
+cooeperation of both twin rulers or Quequetzalcoas, each of whom
+personified two elements. The appropriate season for such rites would be
+that when the necessity of insuring a successful harvest would seem most
+urgent. It is a recorded fact that the most solemn festivals of the year
+were held between the vernal equinox, on which date the ritual year began,
+and the fall of the first rain which usually occurs about the middle of
+May. It is extremely significant that at this precise period the festival
+toxcatl took place (_cf._ Maya thoaxol or thoxol=distribution, giving each
+one a little, and o-och=food or maintenance) during which Tezcatlipoca and
+Huitzilopochtli were jointly honored. During this festival the "sacred
+dough," named tzoalli, was a prominent feature of the ritual and it was
+undoubtedly associated with the idea of the life-giving union of the four
+elements, the Above and Below, or the male and female principles.
+
+It can, moreover, be directly connected with the recumbent statues
+representing the centre; for, whilst Bernal Diaz recorded that the statue
+on the summit of the Great Temple held a collection of all the seeds of
+the land, Cortes, in his descriptive letter, gives us an important detail
+which evidently applied to the identical statue. He relates that "the
+bodies of the idols are made of a dough consisting of all the kinds of
+seeds and vegetables that these people ate. These are ground, mixed with
+each other and then moistened with the blood of the hearts of human
+victims ..." (_op. cit._ p. 105). Sahagun relates that an image of the
+earth goddess, under the title of Seven-serpents or twins, was made of
+this sacred dough and that offerings of all kinds of maize, beans, etc.,
+were made before it "because she is the author and giver of all these
+things which sustain the life of the people" (book II, 4). It is well
+known that the dough images were broken into small pieces and these were
+distributed to the priests and people, who partook of the substance after
+having prepared themselves by fasting, for the sacred rite. I draw
+attention to the fact that the above sacred substance is but the natural
+outcome of the primitive notion already mentioned, which led the hunters
+to spill blood upon the earth, to obtain its increased fruitfulness. An
+insight having been thus obtained of the origin of blood sacrifices in
+ancient America, it is possible to understand the meaning of certain
+representations showing the performance of ritual blood-offerings.
+
+On the well-known bas-relief preserved in the National Museum of Mexico,
+and illustrated in the Anales (vol. I, p. 63), the two historical rulers
+of ancient Mexico, who figure as Quequetzalcoas, or divine twins, in
+exactly the same costume, are sculptured with blood flowing from their
+shins and in the act of piercing their ears with a sharp bone instrument.
+Two streams of blood descend from these and meet before falling into the
+open jaws figured beneath an altar, on which two conventionalized flowers
+appear. The two rows of teeth=tlantli, convey the sound of the affix
+tlan=land of, or tlalli=earth. But the most remarkable and striking
+instance of the group of ideas we have been studying is found on p. 62 of
+the Borgian Codex. On a background formed by a pool of water, there is a
+group which represents the "earth-mother" lying on a band of lizard-skin,
+with two maize plants issuing from her body and growing into a large
+two-branched tree, in the centre of which is a flint-knife or tecpatl. A
+bird stands on its summit and its branches terminate in maize plants. Its
+growth is being furthered by the two streams of blood which proceed from
+two human figures, standing at each side of the tree. One is painted black
+and evidently represents the Lord of the Below; the other is painted
+blue-green and represents the Lord of the Above. The blood-sacrifice they
+are jointly offering is that mentioned in the "Lyfe of the Indians," as
+performed in order to obtain generation. Unquestionably this symbolical
+group would have been equally intelligible to Mayas or Mexicans, since the
+ideas it expressed were held in common by both people.
+
+Before proceeding further it is necessary to state that after the native
+philosophers had, for an indefinite period of time, been satisfied with
+the artificial division of all things into four quarters, corresponding to
+the cardinal points and elements, the idea of the Above and Below
+gradually grew in importance, whilst prolonged thought and observation
+disclosed that the above classification demanded revision. On carefully
+investigating the attributes of the principal ancient Mexican deities or
+personifications of the elements we see that the native thinkers had found
+themselves obliged to make a distinction between the different forms of
+each element, having realized, for instance, that water not only fell to
+earth from the heaven, but also issued from the depths of the earth in the
+form of springs or fountains, and formed rivers and lakes. The final
+conclusions they reached in this instance are best explained by the fact
+that the name of the god Tlaloc means earth-wine or rain only, and that
+his sister "Chalchiuhtlycue" appears as the personification of wells,
+springs, rivers and lakes. It is evident that the classification of the
+ocean or sea must have given rise to much serious thought. We know how the
+problem was solved by the fact that the Nahuatl name for the ocean is
+"ilhuica-atl"=heaven-water. Accordingly, the rain and the ocean pertained
+to the heaven, the Above and male principle, whilst the wells, springs,
+rivers, etc., belonged to the earth, the Below, the female principle.
+
+As in this case, so it was with the other elements, each of which was
+finally personified by a male deity and his female counterpart, which, in
+some cases, tended to represent its distinctive and beneficent properties.
+As these deities are separately treated in my commentary of the "Lyfe of
+the Indians" and lack of space forbids my discussing them here, I shall
+but mention that the ultimate native systematization of the elements, each
+of which was thought of as an attribute only of supreme and central
+divinity, corresponds exactly to that held by the Zunis of to-day and set
+forth in the following account given by Mr. Frank H. Cushing and quoted in
+Dr. Brinton's "Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico" (p. 8). In
+quoting it I draw special attention to the numerical divisions given, as
+this is absolutely essential for the understanding of the statements I
+shall make, further on, concerning the origin of the native
+Calendar-systems.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 31.
+
+
+"In the ceremonies of the Zunis the complete terrestrial sphere is
+symbolized by pointing or blowing the smoke to the four cardinal points,
+to the zenith and nadir, the individual himself making the seventh number.
+When the celestial is also symbolized, only the six directions are added
+to this seven, because the individual remains the same, so that the number
+typifying the universe, terrestrial and celestial, becomes 13. When, on
+the other hand, in their ceremonies, the rite requires the officiant to
+typify the supra- and intra-terrestrial spheres, that is, the upper and
+lower worlds [the Above and the Below], the same number 13 results, as it
+is held that in each the sun stands for the individual, being in turn the
+day sun and night sun, the light and dark sun, but ever the same and
+therefore counts but once."
+
+After having gained this knowledge of native speculative philosophy, let
+us penetrate still further into their modes of thinking by studying, first
+of all, a series of symbols of the earth-mother taken from one of the most
+valuable of Mexican MSS., the Vienna Codex (fig. 31). In these the idea of
+the vase, bowl or receptacle and of the serpent predominates. It is
+instructive of native thought to find the vase represented as containing a
+child (no. 1), an agave plant (no. 7), a fire, denoting warmth (no. 3), a
+flower (no. 12), and a bunch of hair, the numerical symbol for
+multiplicity=the number 400 (no. 5). In no. 2, the hollow between two
+recurved peaks conveys the idea of a central vase; a band with eyes rests
+upon the peaks and denotes the heaven. No. 4 shows a double vase, enclosed
+in a similar representation of the nocturnal heaven--the idea to be
+conveyed being evidently that of a receptacle hidden in darkness. No. 9
+displays an open jaw, two claws, a human heart and a stream of blood
+issuing from it. Nos. 10 and 11 present different shapes of the serpent's
+jaw, the symbol of the earth.
+
+The double-headed serpent forming a vase containing a flower (no. 12) is
+particularly interesting because the flower=xoch-itl in Nahuatl, seems to
+suggest an intentional likeness to the Maya word for "vase, vessel or cup
+in general," ho-och (Arte de la lengua Maya, Fray Pedro Beltran de Santa
+Rosa, ed. Espinosa, Merida, 1859) as well as hoch or o-och="food and
+maintenance." The symbolical vase-like opening in the core of the agave
+plant, (no. 8) is such as is made to this day, in order to collect the
+juice, which, when fermented, constitutes the sacred wine of the ancient
+Mexicans, octli, now better known as pulque.(8) As will be shown the
+Mexicans considered this as "the drink of life." Its use was rigidly
+regulated and supervised by the "octli-lords" or "rain-priests" who
+distributed it at certain dances, in order to induce a state of mild
+intoxication amongst the participants.
+
+As in the case of the Zunis and Tarahumari Indians of the present day,
+referred to by W J McGee, in his valuable and instructive article on "The
+beginning of Marriage" (the American Anthropologist, vol. IX, no. 11, p.
+371), "certain ceremonials typifying the fecundity of the earth and of the
+leading people thereof" were performed by the ancient Mexicans. These
+public ceremonials had also been "apparently developed to the end that the
+tribes and peoples might be encouraged to increase and multiply and
+possess the fecund earth." They took place at the period of the year when
+the heaven and earth were also supposed to unite, _i. e._, at the
+beginning of the rainy season. During this the ordinary out-door
+occupations of the agriculturist and hunter were forcibly interrupted and
+the regular and periodical transportations of produce and tribute to the
+capital became impossible, owing to torrential rain, swollen rivers and
+impassable roads. This period of enforced shelter and confinement indoors
+seems to have become the definite mating season of the aborigines. At the
+same time the union of the sexes had obviously assumed a sort of
+consecration since it was intimately associated with the cosmical,
+philosophical and religious ideas and coincided with what was regarded as
+the annual union of the elements or of the Above and Below, the heaven and
+earth.
+
+At that period of its history, when the Aztec race was jointly governed by
+a priest, personifying the heaven and a priestess, "his wife and sister,"
+who personified the earth, some form of sacred marriage rite must have
+been annually performed. The consecrated character of their union must
+have naturally caused their offspring to be regarded as of a holy and
+almost divine origin. It is easy to realize, therefore, how, in ancient
+Mexico, the artificial idea of "superior birth" came into existence, how a
+family or caste of rulers gradually developed, the members of which were
+entitled "teotl"=divine, whilst the men were regarded as "the sons of
+Heaven" and the women "the daughters of Earth." It is obvious from this
+that the periodical union of the sexes, accompanied as it was, by sacred
+dances and the distribution of sacred wine, must have gradually assumed a
+semi-religious character, whilst the ritual nuptials of the "divine"
+rulers, typifying, as it obviously did, the grand and impressive
+phenomenon of the rainy season, must have caused this marriage to assume
+the character of a hallowed rite and surrounded it with the most elevated
+and intense religious sentiments of which the native mind was capable.
+
+After this recognition of the diverging influences which guided the
+development of primitive marriage institutions, we will return to the
+rain-priests or "octli-lords," of whom it is repeatedly stated that there
+were four hundred, a number corresponding to an assignment of 100 or 5x20
+to each of the four provinces or divisions of the commonwealth. Their
+emblem was the sacred vase or receptacle and in the "Lyfe of the Indians"
+this will be seen figured on their mantas and shields (no. 6_a_). A small
+gold plate, of the same shape, is represented as worn by these "lords,"
+attached to the nose (no. 6_b_); and, in the same MS., the symbolical
+ornament is also carried by the "sister of Tlaloc." It was evidently worn,
+like similar ornaments in other countries, hanging from the septum of the
+nose, and seems to have indicated a consecration of the breath as the
+substance of life. As an inference, merely based on an insight gained into
+the native modes of thought, I suggest that the explanation for the
+adoption of this ornament may have been the religious idea that the breath
+of life, dividing itself as it issues through the nostrils and uniting
+when inhaled, appeared to the native thinkers as a marvellous illustration
+of unity and duality, both ideas having constantly been present in their
+minds.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 32.
+
+
+In the Vienna Codex there is a remarkable picture of the earth-vase
+resting on a slab with five divisions. A profusion of puffs or breaths of
+air or vapor issue from it and, branching off in two directions, form what
+is like the conventional tree of life, also met with in Maya bas-reliefs
+and documents. At the extremities of the branches which turn downwards, a
+serpent's eye is visible and a forked-tongue issues above the middle (fig.
+32, no. 1). The intention to express an exuberant vitality and growth
+issuing from the symbolical vase in the centre of the earth, seems
+obvious. This idea is still more clearly conveyed, however, in two
+symbolic pictures on pp. 21 and 29 of the Codex Borgia, which are
+reproduced as nos. 1 and 4 in fig. 1 of this publication. The first
+represents the vase overflowing with water and containing a flint-knife,
+the generator of the vital spark. The central group is surrounded by water
+and by sun-rays and obviously symbolizes the union of air, light and
+water, constituting the Above, with the flint the emblem of the
+earth-mother and of Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the Under-world. Fig. 1, no.
+4, represents the vase overflowing with a liquid, which is designated as
+being the sacred octli or earth-wine by the presence of the rabbit, which
+expresses the sound of its name=tochtli. This rebus is surrounded by the
+nocturnal heaven strewn with stars and the reference to the union of rain
+or earth-wine with earth and darkness is evident. It has been generally
+assumed that these images of the vase, containing the rabbit or
+flint-knife, represented the moon. As the latter was intimately associated
+with the cult of night, of the earth-mother and ideas of growth, it is not
+impossible that by an extension of symbolism, this was the case, but only
+in the same way as the sun was the emblem of the cult of the Above. On the
+other hand the native drawings of the moon in Sahagun's Academia MS.
+represent it as a crescent with a human profile on the inner side, and in
+a specimen preserved at the Trocadero Museum, Paris, it is similarly
+carved in rock crystal.
+
+Before proceeding to investigate the symbol further, I would point out the
+general resemblance of the vase, especially as a conventionalized
+serpent's jaw, to the "horse-shoe" shape of the problematical stone
+"yokes" which have been so thoroughly studied by Dr. Hermann Strebel of
+Hamburg (Studien ueber Steinjoche aus Mexico and Mittel-Amerika.
+Internationales Archiv, bd. III, 1890). Mr. Francis Parry has advanced a
+view concerning the meaning of these curious "sacred stones."(9) This is
+somewhat corroborated, as will be shown, by my recent studies, which seem
+to indicate pretty clearly that these symbolical objects pertained to the
+cult of the earth-mother. A fact of unquestionable importance, cited by
+Mr. Parry, is the certified existence and use, amongst southern
+Californian Indians of the present day, of a rudely worked stone of the
+same shape, in a native religious rite. The owner of one of these stones,
+Mr. Horatio Rust, a pioneer resident of Pasadena, southern California,
+exhibited it in the Anthropological Section of the World's Columbian
+Exposition, at Chicago, 1893, and informed me how he had observed that,
+occasionally, a native assembly took place at a certain spot on a mountain
+side, during which invocations and offerings were made. He ascertained
+that the ceremony on one occasion was the equivalent of the puberty-dances
+of similar California tribes. Having visited and examined the spot after
+one of these celebrations, in which six young girls, decorated with
+garlands of flowers, were the chief participants, he found the "sacred
+stone," concealed and surrounded by offerings of corn, meal and pieces of
+money. The version published by Mr. Parry is slightly different to this
+account, which was given me by Mr. Rust himself.
+
+In order fully to appreciate the close analogy between the Californian
+ceremonial offering of maize and meal to the emblematic stone and the
+ancient Mexican ritual offerings of seeds to an idol, holding a bowl or
+vase, it is necessary to read the following data. At the same time I would
+like to mention here that amongst the Hupa Indians of California, who have
+been termed "the Romans of Northern California by reason of their valour
+and far reaching dominions," we find that "flakes or knives of obsidian or
+jasper, sometimes measuring 15 inches or more in length, are employed for
+sacred purposes and are carried aloft in the hand in certain ceremonial
+dances, wrapped with skin or cloth. Such knives are esteemed so sacred
+that the Indians would on no account part with them, and Mr. Stephen
+Powers found that they could not be purchased at any price."(10)
+
+It is scarcely necessary to recall here that the flint-knife was a
+well-known ancient Mexican emblem, nor to point out the importance of the
+conclusion that two well-defined symbols which played an important role in
+the Mexican and Mayan cult of the Below and of the Earth-mother, are
+actually found in use amongst Californian Indians at the present day.
+
+A whole flood of light is thrown upon native symbolism, however, by the
+information obtained from the Zuni Indians by Mr. F. H. Cushing. The
+following passage, from their Creation myth, affords the most positive
+confirmation of the foregoing conclusion, that the bowl or vase was the
+native emblem of the earth-mother. The Zuni speaker said: "Is not the bowl
+the emblem of the Earth, our Mother? For from her we draw both food and
+drink, just as the babe draws nourishment from the breast of its mother.
+And round, as is the rim of the bowl, so is the horizon...."(11)
+Interesting as this explanation of the native symbolism undoubtedly is, it
+becomes most important when its full significance is realized and we
+recognize that originally earthenware bowls themselves were looked upon as
+sacred emblems formed indeed out of the material of the earth itself. This
+fact places the invention and manufacture of earthen vessels in an
+entirely new light and enables us to conjecture and understand why, quite
+apart from their utility, so much care and decoration were lavished upon
+them and why, indeed, they were constantly buried with the dead. They
+obviously served as sacred emblems of the earth-mother, to whose care the
+dead body was confided, and originally the intention probably was to
+propitiate her by the beauty of the sacred vessels, which, to be
+symbolical of her bounty, necessarily contained food and drink.
+
+Without pausing to discuss how easily this custom would have gradually
+given birth to the belief that the food and drink thus offered were
+intended for the use of the dead body itself, or its soul, I would point
+out that, in the absence of clay vessels, a stone, rough or worked, would
+have also served as an appropriate emblem of the earth-mother, being as it
+were, of her own substance. It is well known that in ancient Mexico this
+custom prevailed. There we also find that the bowl- or vase-shaped grave
+was employed, with a deeply religious and symbolical meaning. This is
+clearly revealed by a native drawing in the "Lyfe of the Indians,"
+representing a native burial. The deceased, represented by his skull only,
+has been placed in a deep hole, figured as a large inverted horse-shoe,
+painted brown and covered with small "horse-shoe" marks. The same
+religious symbolism which led to the adoption of a definite form of
+sepulchre, typifying the element earth, would evidently account for the
+adoption for burial purposes, of large clay vessels into which the remains
+of the dead were placed. In some localities these clay burial urns were,
+as we know, made large enough to contain the dead body itself. The
+difficulty of manufacturing these would naturally have led to the general
+adoption of cremation, simply as a means of reducing the remains so that
+they could repose in the sacred image of the earth. Cremation would,
+moreover, be a rite full of meaning since, to the native mind, earth was
+inseparable from its twin element fire, and both together constituted the
+"Below."
+
+It is significant to find, however, that the ashes of Montezuma's
+predecessors had not been finally consigned to the earth. In strict
+accordance with their association with the Heaven and Above, their remains
+were never allowed to come in contact with the earth, but were usually
+preserved inside of a hollow wooden effigy of the deceased, which was
+dressed in his insignia and placed in a high tower, built for the express
+purpose. Cortes states that there were "forty very high towers" in the
+enclosure of the Great Temple of Mexico and that "all of these were
+sepulchres of the lords" (Historia de Nueva-Espana, ed. Lorenzana, pp. 105
+and 106). Whilst it is evident that the remains of all lords and priests
+of heaven should thus be assigned a place of rest high above the earth, it
+is equally intelligible that the bodies of the lords and priests of the
+Below and all women should be consigned to the interior of the earth and
+by preference in caves. The Codex Fejervary contains an interesting
+picture of the tied-up body of a woman, recognizable as such from the
+head-dress and her instrument of labor, the metlatl, on which the maize is
+ground. The mummy rests inside of a flat effigy of a serpent's head, which
+seems to be carved in wood or stone and closely resembles fig. 31, no. 11.
+It is worth considering whether the carved stone-yokes may not have served
+in connection with the funeral rites of the consorts of rulers or high
+priestesses or priests of the Below.
+
+If investigations of the vase or earth symbols are extended to countries
+lying south of Mexico, traces of the existence of an analogous cult are
+observable. There undoubtedly exists a striking resemblance between the
+form of the characteristic and peculiar stone "seats" which have been
+found in such numbers in Ecuador, to the vase, fig. 31, no. 3, for
+instance. The employment of these symbolical stones as a consecrated
+central altar or, possibly, as the throne of the living representative of
+the earth-mother, would have harmonized with the native ideas which have
+been traced on the preceding pages.
+
+It was also extremely interesting to me to find the identical symbol in
+the Maya day-sign Caban, which has been identified by Dr. Schellhas and
+Geheimrath Foerstemann as a symbol of the earth and is figured on p. 99 of
+Dr. Brinton's Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics. In the sign Caban, the
+horse-shoe mark is accompanied by a series of dots which seem to indicate
+liquid trickling from the receptacle and permeating the soil, an idea
+which is strictly analogous to the much more elaborate Mexican images of
+the vase full of rain or "earth-wine," fig. 1, nos. 1 and 4, which, in
+cursive form, was employed as the emblem of the pulque, or octli lords,
+the priests of the earth. It is strikingly significant to find that in the
+Maya Codices the drops issuing from the horse-shoe are sometimes figured
+as trickling into the mouths of "divinities" whose faces also exhibit
+images of the sacred vase, analogous to that of the Mexican "octli-lords."
+
+These Maya divinities have been designated by Dr. Schellhas as god L,
+whose face is painted black and under whose eye a vase is painted, a
+peculiarity termed by Maya authorities "an ornamented eye" and which may
+be seen in fig. 33, iv; (2) as god M, "a second black god," whose eye is
+likewise enclosed in a vase and whose hieroglyph is a vase on a black
+ground; and (3) as god C, of whom I shall subsequently speak in detail.
+(See Brinton's Primer, pp. 122 and 124.) In the case of god L, the two
+horse-shoe marks from which drops are falling into the mouth of the god,
+are surmounted by the glyph imix, to which I shall revert.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 33.
+
+
+The horse-shoe mark with drops likewise occurs in the design resembling
+the akbal glyph, which has been interpreted as connected with akab=night.
+It also occurs, in Maya Codices, on bands exhibiting cross-symbols,
+sometimes in an inverted position and hanging from above and sometimes
+standing on two of the three mounds which are a feature of these
+interesting glyphs. Postponing a detailed discussion of these, I will but
+emphasize here that, in the Maya Codices the vase, cursively drawn as a
+"horse-shoe" mark, is proved to be intimately connected with the ideas of
+liquid falling from above, and constituting the drink of divinities and
+symbols associated with the sacred vase, night and darkness, all
+attributes of the Below. We shall next demonstrate that it was alternately
+placed, on the Maya Caban glyph, with a curious sign consisting of a
+pea-shaped black dot, to which a curved and wavy line is attached. This is
+always figured as issuing from above the dot, then extending downwards and
+half around it and terminating in a descending, undulating line.
+
+I submit the following to the consideration of Maya specialists: It seems
+to me that this sign presents an extremely realistic drawing of the seed
+of a monocotyledonous plant, such as the maize or Indian corn, in its
+first stage of germination, when the radicle, having issued from the apex,
+turns downwards in characteristic fashion and penetrates into the earth.
+Besides the realism of the native drawing there can be no doubt that the
+image of a sprouting maize-seed is the most expressive and appropriate
+accompaniment to the symbol of fertilizing rain, on an earth-symbol, and I
+am unable to understand how Drs. Cyrus Thomas, Seler, Schellhas and
+Brinton could have overlooked the realism in this image of a sprouting
+seed, and concluded that it was a portrayal of "fermented liquor trickling
+downward," a "nose-ornament," or a "twisted lock of hair," "a cork-screw
+curl." The latter interpretation was made by Dr. Schellhas because he
+found the sign in connection with female figures in the Codices, which
+undoubtedly is a fact of extreme interest, as it furnishes a valuable
+proof that the Mayas associated the earth with the female principle.
+
+Dr. Schellhas, however, records his observation that the sign caban occurs
+as a symbol of fruit-bearing earth, in the Codex Troano, as it is figured
+with leaves of maize (p. 33) or with climbing plants issuing from it and
+winding themselves around a pole (p. 32). Geheimrath Foerstemann connects
+the day-name caban with "cab" to which Perez, in his dictionary, attaches
+the meaning of "earth, world and soil" (Die Tages goetter der Mayas.
+Globus, vol. LXXIII, no. 9) and adds that the hieroglyph decidedly
+designates the earth. At the same time he interprets what I regard as the
+maize-grain and its radicle, as possibly representing a bird in its flight
+upwards, and he merely describes the accompanying inverted horse-shoe with
+dots, without attaching any positive meaning to it. It must be added that
+Dr. Foerstemann himself states that he is not satisfied with his own
+interpretation of these two symbols, the first of which, the seed and
+radicle, likewise occurs in the day-sign cib, to which I shall recur.
+
+If any doubt remains as to the signification of the day-sign cab, I think
+it will be dispelled when it is shown that the name cab, or caban is
+obviously related to the adjective, adverb and preposition cabal or
+cablil, which signifies low, below, on the earth, in, beneath and under.
+The frequent association of the cab glyph with the image of a bee, as in
+the Codex Troano, is partially explained by the fact that the Maya word
+for honey is cab, for honey-bee is yikil-cab. It affords at all events, an
+instance, in Maya hieroglyphic writing, of a method of duplicating the
+sound of a word analogous to that which I detected in Mexican pictography,
+and named complementary signs in my communication on the subject,
+published as an appendix to my essay on Ancient Mexican Shields
+(Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie, Leyden, 1892). On the other hand
+the day name and sign cib, on which the sprouting grain is also figured,
+seems to be related to the verb cibah=to will, to occur, to happen, to
+take place. The allusion contained in both glyphs is obviously the same
+and signifies, in the first place, the hidden process of germination which
+takes place under the surface of the soil, and is associated with the idea
+of the female principle in Nature.
+
+The seed and radicle, horse-shoe and rain-drops, are also distinguishable
+on a vessel on page 35 of the Dresden Codex and on a small three-legged
+vase, which is figured by Doctor Brinton (Primer, 118) as the day sign
+ch'en. This vase is surmounted by two in-curving projections and offers a
+close analogy to a sacred vase with superstructure (fig. 33, II) from
+which projects a peculiar open and double receptacle, into which a priest
+is sowing small seeds. The interior of this bowl is represented as hollow,
+and containing what I shall show further on to be a native symbol for
+Earth: three little mounds. On another bowl, in front of this one, a bird
+is sitting and presumably hatching. In another portion of the same MS. a
+similar bowl is figured containing three seed fruits and capsules,
+resembling pomegranates or poppy-heads (fig. 33, III).
+
+The tree next to which the first two symbolical bowls are placed deserves
+to be carefully studied, for the trunk is crowned by four stems bearing
+single leaves and is encircled by a serpent, _can_, the homonym for the
+numeral four=kan. A fringed mantle and a scroll hang from the coils of the
+serpent's body, two footsteps are painted on the scroll and, pointing
+downwards, express "descent," as do also the falling drops of liquid on
+the stems of the tree which grows from a peculiar glyph with subdivisions,
+which has points of resemblance with the glyph under the footless divinity
+(fig. 33, I). An obsidian mirror, with cross bars, is painted in front of
+the latter, which displays the same descending footsteps on its mantle.
+The head and eyes of a snail, the symbol of parturition, are above its
+face and a wreath of flowers crowns its head. Tedious as such a minute
+analysis may seem, it is nevertheless necessary, in order to gain a
+perception of the extent to which symbolism was practised in the picture
+writings found in the Maya MSS., accompanied by the cursive calculiform
+glyphs. It seems that, in no. II, we have a presentation of the Maya "tree
+of life," and that scrolls, on which descending footsteps are depicted,
+are intended to convey the meaning that life is descending from Above into
+the egg and seeds by virtue or decree of the celestial power. It should be
+noted here that the phenomenon of a living bird issuing from the hard and
+inanimate egg-shell had made as deep an impression upon the ancient
+philosophers in Mexico as elsewhere, and that the power "to form the
+chicken in the shell" was deemed one of the most marvellous attributes of
+"the divine Moulder or Former," as is further set forth in the "Lyfe of
+the Indians."
+
+The foregoing illustrations establish, at all events, that the Mayas, like
+the Mexicans, associated the sacred vase with seeds and germination. The
+vase, illustrated by Doctor Brinton, exhibits the seed and radicle; and
+this is also found on the symbol for earth, which, in the Cortesian Codex,
+is associated with the image of a serpent, possibly the equivalent of the
+Mexican Cihuacoatl, or female serpent.
+
+If, after mustering this close array of analogies, we next examine the
+glyph cib, we find that it exhibits the seed and radicle in the centre of
+a square, three sides of which are decorated with what Doctor Brinton has
+termed the "pottery decoration(?)." This consists of short lines, such as
+are employed in Mexican pictography, in the well-known sign for tlalli, or
+land, which is usually surrounded on three sides by a fringe, presumably
+symbolizing plants and grass, a "fringe" of vegetation and verdure. In the
+glyph cib, already referred to, I am inclined to see but a cursive
+rendering of the same idea, with the seed and radicle in the centre and
+the fringed border barely indicated by a few short lines. The same border
+is found repeated on three sides of the head of a frequently recurring
+personage whom Doctor Schellhas designates as "God C, of the Ornamented
+face." In his extremely valuable work, Die Goettergestalten der
+Mayahandschriften, this careful investigator records the various
+combinations in which this God C occurs in the Codices and impartially
+weighs the possibilities of its meaning. Geheimrath Foerstemann has made
+the important observation that the figure of God C occurs in combination
+with the day-sign, chuen, of the Maya calendar, which coincides with the
+Mexican day-sign azomatli=monkey.
+
+I am unable to agree with my venerable friend in identifying God C, with
+Polaris. As Doctor Schellhas rightly observes, the fact that God C is
+found in combination with the signs of all the four quarters disproves an
+identification with Polaris. What is more, God C is frequently represented
+as receiving in his mouth drops of liquid falling from a cursive vase
+placed above his head--a detail which clearly connects him with earth and
+the "earth-wine." In the Mexican MSS. we find the monkey intimately
+connected with the octli or earth-wine gods as, for instance, in the "Lyfe
+of the Indians." I therefore reserve a more detailed discussion of this
+subject for my notes on this MS. and return to the glyphs caban and kan or
+can.
+
+Just as it has been shown that the first may signify cabal=the Below, so
+it is evident that the second is connected with the preposition and adverb
+canal, signifying "above, on top of, on high." Dr. Brinton sees in the kan
+symbol a presentation of a polished stone, or shell pendant, or bead, and
+cites the Maya dictionary of Motul which gives kan as the name for "beads
+or stones which served the Indians as money and neck ornaments." In
+connection with this important statement I revert to the carved
+shell-gorgets which have been found in the mounds and ancient graves in
+the Mississippi valley and exhibit Maya influence. The greater number of
+these exhibit a carved serpent (which in Maya is _kan_) in their centres
+and this fact affords a clue to the possible origin of the Maya name for a
+neck ornament given in the Motul dictionary. It is undeniable that all
+evidence unites in proving that the ancient peoples of the Mississippi
+valley were in traffic, if not more intimately connected, with a
+Maya-speaking people and came under the influence of the ideas and
+symbolism current in Yucatan.
+
+Returning to the employment of the glyph kan in Maya Codices, for more
+reasons than I am able to enumerate here, I conclude it served as an
+indicative of the Above or Heaven. It is a curious fact that the Maya word
+for cord is kaan, whilst the name for sky is caan. I cannot but think,
+therefore, that a carved pendant with a serpent effigy=a kan, worn on a
+cord=kaan, must have been associated by the Mayas with the Heaven or
+sky=caan, and that this linguistic coincidence must have been a strong
+factor in the development of the symbolism attached to the glyph can or
+kan.
+
+An interesting fact, which I shall demonstrate by a large series of
+illustration from native Codices in a chapter of my forthcoming work on
+the ancient Calendar System, will show that in their hieratic writings,
+the ancient Mexican scribes represented the nocturnal heaven or sky as a
+circle composed of a cord, to which stars were attached, whilst the centre
+of the circle exhibited one or four stars. In my opinion the origin and
+explanation of the association of the cord with stars are clearly
+traceable to the above mentioned fact that in the Maya tongue the word for
+cord, kaan, closely resembles the sound of the word caan=sky. The presence
+of the cord in the Mexican symbols is, therefore, another indication of
+their Maya origin. A proof that the Mayas also employed the cord as a
+symbol of the sky, or heaven, is furnished by the much-discussed
+lentil-shaped stone altar found at Copan, a small outline of which is
+represented in fig. 21, no. 1. In order fully to understand the meaning
+expressed by this stone, it is necessary to bear in mind how indissolubly
+the idea of something circular was associated by the Mayas and Mexicans
+with their conception of the vault of heaven resting on the horizon, and
+of the Above, consisting of the two fluid elements, air and water.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to refer again here to more than one authority
+for the statement that the temples of the air (of the Above) were
+circular, and the reason given by the natives for this was that "just as
+the air circulates around the vault of the heaven, so its temple had to be
+of a round shape."(12) As a contrast to this conception, the influence of
+which is also obvious in the form of the round temples and towers of the
+ruined cities of Central America, I would cite the allusions to the solid
+earth contained in the sacred books of the Mayas, the Popol Vuh, as being
+"the quadrated earth, four-cornered, four-sided, four-bordered." These
+data establish the important fact, to which I shall recur, that the native
+philosophers associated the Above, composed of air and water, with the
+rounded, and the Below, composed of fire and water, with the angular form.
+
+The Copan stone altar exhibits the circular form and is surrounded by a
+sculptured cord which conveys the sound of its name kaan or caan=heaven.
+On it a cup-shaped depression=ho-och, marks the sacred centre of the
+heaven, the counterpart to the terrestrial bowl whence all life-giving
+force proceeded. Two curved lines diverge from this and divide the vaulted
+circle into two parts. The curve in the lines may be interpreted as
+conveying motion or rotation whilst the division of the sky may have been
+intended to signify the eastern or male and the western or female portion
+of the heaven, the whole being an abstract image of central rulership and
+of a dual principle incorporating the four elements. It is obvious that
+the meaning intended to be conveyed might also include the duality of the
+Heaven or Above, composed of the union of the elements air and water. By
+painting the stone in two or four colors either of these meanings could
+have been expressed. In either case it will be recognized, however, that
+much as Dr. Ernest Hamy's deductions concerning this altar have been
+criticised, the learned director of the Trocadero Museum, Paris, was
+undoubtedly right in recognizing that the stone is a cosmical symbol,
+intended to convey the idea of a two-fold division and analogous to the
+Chinese tae-keih which it resembles, with the difference that the Copan
+sign is more complex exhibiting, as it does, a central bowl-shaped
+depression. A glimpse at the other symbols in fig. 21 will show that the
+identical idea is expressed in the Mexican signs exhibiting a central
+circle, usually accompanied by a four-fold division.
+
+An analogous attempt to express the same native idea is recognizable in
+the peculiar mushroom-shaped stone figures, represented by a number of
+examples at the Central American exposition recently held at
+Guatemala,(13) and recently described by the distinguished geologist and
+ethnologist, Dr. Carl Sapper. The specimens had been collected in San
+Salvador and Guatemala and "resemble great stone mushrooms" inasmuch as
+each consists of three well-defined parts, a square pedestal from the
+midst of which rises an almost cylindrical "stem" supporting a large
+circular solid top, flat underneath and rounded above. The cylindrical
+support is carved in the rough semblance of a human form, which, in some
+instances, has rays issuing from its head.
+
+An acquaintance with the fundamental ideas of native cosmogony enables us
+to recognize that the square stone base typifies the solid part of the
+universe, the Below, whilst the vaulted circle above typifies the heaven,
+the Above. The figure standing between both is evidently an image of a
+central lord and ruler, and the entire image is in accord with the native
+mode of thought as set forth in Mr. Frank H. Cushing's report already
+cited and in the symbols which have been figured.
+
+After reading Mr. Cushing's account of the native American philosophy,
+preserved to the present day by the Zunis, it is impossible not to realize
+how clearly the mushroom-images materialize the identical ideas which
+constitute, indeed, the keynote of native thought and can be traced in
+each centre of ancient American civilization. I am inclined to think that
+these stone images were, originally, painted with the colors assigned to
+the four quarters, which would render the symbolism more apparent. The
+existence of these images in a restricted area of territory, seems,
+moreover, to indicate that they had been invented there, possibly under
+the influence of a religious and political creed with particular reference
+to the union, in a single individual, of the power and attributes of the
+Above and Below--an idea which strongly contrasts with Mexico and Yucatan,
+where the idea of duality prevailed to such an extent that, by creating
+two distinct religions and governments, it ultimately led to the
+disintegration of the greatest of native empires and its fall, from which
+it was only rallying at the time of the Conquest. It is also possible that
+the Guatemala images are the expression of the reversion to a more ancient
+form of philosophy or government when it had been realized that dual
+government led to dissensions and disintegration. At all events the rude
+mushroom figures testify that the conception of a single celestial or
+terrestrial ruler of the Above and the Below filled the minds of their
+makers at a time, the exact date of which it would be of utmost importance
+to determine, if this were only possible. It is also interesting to note
+the curious analogy presented by these figures to the well-known statement
+by Confucius that, "the sage is united to Heaven and Earth so as to form a
+triad, consisting of Heaven, Earth and Man."
+
+The association of the round form and of the peak with the Above and of
+the square and bowl with the Below can be also detected in the form of
+native American architecture, as exemplified, for instance, by the
+contrasting shapes of two temples figured on page 75, of the Borgian Codex
+(fig. 34) which were obviously dedicated to the two prevailing cults. One
+of these is surmounted by a tau-shaped thatched roof with a flat top and
+turned-down ends. The dedication of this temple to Night or star-cult is
+conveyed in this case, by the sign for star on a black ground inserted in
+the roof.(14)
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 34.
+
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 35.
+
+
+The opposite temple exhibits a roof which rests on a black architrave and
+offers a general resemblance to an inverted tau. It rises in a tapering
+form and ends in a cone-shaped ornament. The existence and significance of
+these two forms of temple-roofs might escape notice did the same not recur
+in two high caps or mitres figured in the Vienna Codex and obviously
+intended for the respective use of the Lords of the Above and of the Below
+at a religious ceremonial (fig. 35). The first of these ends in a high
+peak, the extremity of which is represented as capped with snow, in the
+same conventional manner employed in figuring snow-mountains. An extremely
+significant feature of this cap is its exhibition of a curved and rounded
+pattern only on its border. The second mitre ends in a horizontal line; it
+exhibits an angular pattern and two flaps hang down from it, which, as
+they naturally concealed the ears of the wearer, seem to have been
+symbolical of something hidden, and, perhaps, of silence and secrecy. A
+third mitre is figured on the same page, which seems to unite the
+characteristics of both forms and is surmounted by a young maize-shoot,
+proceeding from a vase.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 36.
+
+
+The association of the Above with a peak or point is further illustrated
+by a well-known peaked diadem always painted blue which was the symbol of
+the visible ruler (fig. 36, no. 5). A peak also occurs on military shields
+accompanied by four bars (fig. 36, no. 3) and presents an analogy to no. 4
+from the "Lyfe of the Indians." The latter is given as the symbol of a
+sacred festival which I have demonstrated in a previous publication to
+have coincided with the vernal equinox.(15) For further reasons which I
+shall present in my calendar monograph, I infer that we have in this
+drawing a most valuable image of the gnomon and dial employed by the Sun
+priests for the observation of the equinoxes and solstices. The human
+victim who was attached to the centre of the circular stone during the
+same festival is usually represented with the same cone or point and eight
+appendages on his head (fig. 36, no. 2). Owing to the circumstance that
+this peaked head-dress, or cone, was sometimes employed by the scribes for
+its phonetic value, as in fig. 36, no. 1, from the Codex Mendoza, in which
+instance it is figured on a mountain and is usually painted blue, we know
+positively that its name was Yope or Yopi--a valuable point since a temple
+and a sort of monastery in the courtyard of the Great Temple of Mexico
+were both named Yopico (Sahagun). At the same time it should be noted that
+the Maya name for "a mitre," the symbol of a divine ruler, is Yop-at. In
+the Mexican ollin-signs a cone or ascending point is usually placed above
+and opposite to a symbol consisting of a ring or loop. These evidently
+signify the Above and Below, and in this connection it is worth noticing
+that archaeologists have long puzzled over the curious forms of the two
+kinds of prehistoric stone objects which have most frequently been found
+in the island of Porto Rico. The first of these consists of an elongated
+stone, the centre of which rises in the shape of a cone, whilst the ends
+are respectively carved in the rough semblance of a head and of feet. The
+second form, which has frequently been found in caves, consists of a large
+stone ring, and is popularly termed "a stone collar." I am inclined to
+regard the latter as being analogous to the "stone yokes" of ancient
+Mexico and to infer that the aborigines of Porto Rico practised a form of
+the same cult. It should be borne in mind that the high conical stone, on
+which the human victims were sacrificed, was a salient feature in an
+ancient Mexican temple and that its form must have had some symbolical
+meaning. The foregoing data indicate that it probably was emblematic of
+the Above and Centre and was therefore regarded as the fitting place of
+sacrifice to the Sun and Heaven, whilst offerings to the Earth were most
+appropriately made in circular openings recalling the rim of the bowl and
+the round line of the horizon. It will be seen further on that the cone
+recurs in native architecture and that its use as a symbol, in the course
+of time, culminated in the pyramid.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 37.
+
+
+Let us return to it in its rudimentary stage, as a perpendicular line
+arising from a medium level, forming an inverted tau. The widespread
+employment amongst American peoples of the inverted and upright tau-shape
+as emblems of the Above and Below is abundantly proven and doubtlessly
+arose as naturally as "the Chinese characters Shang=Above, employed as a
+symbol for Heaven, and Lea=Below or Beneath, employed as a symbol for
+Earth. These are formed, in the one case, by placing a man (represented by
+a vertical line) above the medium level (represented by a horizontal line)
+and in the other below it" (Encyclopedia Britannica, art. China) fig. 37.
+Another equally graphic presentation of the analogous thought is furnished
+by the familiar Egyptian sign which exhibits a loop or something rounded
+and hollow above and a perpendicular line beneath the medium level. It is
+well known that the tau occurs in Scandinavia and is popularly named
+Thor's hammer (fig. 38). Merely as a curious analogy I point out that in
+fig. 25, no. 2, from the Vienna Codex, we have an American instance of a
+tau-shaped object held in the hand in a ceremonial rite.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 38.
+
+
+The late and lamented Baron Gustav Nordenskjoeld observed that the
+entrances to the ruined estufas of the ancient cliff-dwellers of Colorado
+were in the shape of an upright tau and it is well known that this is also
+the case amongst the Pueblo Indians of the present day. By means of a
+photograph taken by Dr. A. Warburg of Berlin, whilst witnessing the
+Humis-katshina dance of the Moqui Indians at Oraibi, in May, 1896, I am
+able to affirm that the native dancers wear masks and high head-ornaments,
+partly of wood, on which reversed and upright tau-symbols are painted, the
+first in a light and the second in a dark color. As the name of the
+ceremonial dance was explained to Dr. Warburg as signifying "helping the
+sprouting or growing maize," and celebrated the advent of the rainy
+season, it is obvious that the two forms of tau which were displayed in
+alternate order on the heads of the dancers in the procession symbolized
+the juxtaposition of the Above and Below, of Heaven and Earth.
+
+In the ruined temples of Central America, windows in the shape of upright
+and reversed taus also occur. The following series of architectural
+openings (fig. 39) are copied from Mr. Alfred P. Maudslay's invaluable and
+splendid work, which has not, as yet, met with the recognition it so
+richly deserves.(16) They display besides the tau-shape (_g_ and _h_)
+other forms, the symbolism of which has been discussed. There are
+cross-shaped (_e_), square, round and oval windows (_d_, _j_, _b_ and
+_i_), the square obviously symbolical of the Earth and the round of the
+Heaven. Besides these there are openings in the form of a truncated cone
+(_a_ and _c_) and others ending in a narrow point (_k_). A striking form
+which recalls the Moorish arch and is shown in _f_, may, perhaps, be
+looked upon as an attempt to express the idea of a union of the Above and
+Below.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 39.
+
+
+In connection with these architectural features it is interesting to study
+their names in the native languages. The Nahuatl names for windows are
+singularly expressive of their uses: tlachialoyan=the watching place or
+look-out; puchquiauatl=the smoke opening; tlanexillotl=a word which
+literally means light and splendor, and to which the following words are
+related: tlanextia, verb=to shine, shed light and radiance;
+tlanextilla=something revealed, made manifest, found or discovered, newly
+invented or formed (brought to light); tlanexcayotiliztli=figure,
+signification or example; tlanexcayotilli=something figured or
+significative.
+
+The meaning of the Maya name for window, ciznebna, is not clear, whilst
+that for door, chi, is the same as for mouth, opening or entrance. At the
+same time it is evident that, as in Mexico and elsewhere, the window
+openings in the Maya temples must have been associated with the idea of
+light, and the symbolical forms given to these besides their positions
+lead to the inference that they were actually regarded as mystic framed
+images, so to speak, of the supreme, invisible deity, through which, the
+light of day and the darkness of night alternately revealed themselves to
+those inside the sacred buildings. A careful study of the positions and
+orientations of these openings may yet prove that they also served for
+astronomical observation. The walls being usually pierced above reach,
+nothing but the sky could have been watched through them. But besides
+these, the interiors of Maya ruins contain interesting examples of mural
+openings and recesses which seem to have been carefully planned so that
+they should appear dark even in daytime and, in more than one case, these
+display the form of the upright tau, the symbol of darkness and the
+Below.(17)
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 40.
+
+
+It does not seem to have been generally recognized that the alternate
+contraposition of upright and reversed taus produces the best known and
+most widely spread primitive border-design, usually known as the Greek
+fret (fig. 40, no. 6). A plain demonstration of this is, oddly enough,
+visible on the two side-projections of the Scandinavian brooch (fig. 13)
+all symbols on which, I venture to assert, would have been perfectly
+intelligible and full of meaning to an ancient Mexican. The evolution of
+the fret, on the American continent, can be studied on the beautiful
+wooden clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, figured in Dr. Hjalmar
+Stolpes' valuable work already referred to. As striking instances his fig.
+8, pl. 1, figs. 3_a_ and 3_c_, pl. XIII, and figs. 1_a_ and 1_b_, pl. V,
+should be examined. The latter instance is extremely instructive as it not
+only exhibits single taus of two forms, but the same in different
+positions, as well as two double-headed figures joined in one, which
+illustrate the native association already discussed, of duality and of the
+curved lines as the opposite of the rectangular and both respectively
+figuring the Above and Below.
+
+It is impossible to study the decorations on these South American clubs
+without becoming convinced that their makers shared the same ideas as the
+ancient Mexicans. They offer, indeed, a whole set of variations on the
+native theme and idea of Heaven and Earth. Two instances (fig. 5_a_, pl.
+IX, and 6_a_, pl. XI) in which the union of two figures produces a third,
+or a single one produces two, elucidate the meaning sometimes expressed by
+the designs. In the round or spiral forms, which are most frequently
+accompanied by a zigzag border, I am inclined to see a presentation of air
+and water, corresponding to the Mexican symbols of the Above.
+
+As lack of space forbids my making here a more extended comparison of the
+native symbols, I shall but point out how the tau, in juxtaposition and
+contraposition painted in two colors, produces fig. 40, no. 3. The picture
+from the Codex Mendoza of a native tlachtli, the form of which is
+represented by two taus in contraposition, is partly painted black. The
+same division of a single tau into two parts, colored differently,
+transforms no. 3 into no. 4 and shows that a single tau could have been
+employed cursively to symbolize union. 2 and 7 are but variants of 3 and
+4. If, instead of angles, curved lines be given to the taus, the first
+half of fig. 5 is the result. When spaces between the incurving hooks and
+the border are filled out with color, the familiar design on the second
+half of 5 results. With exception of the latter, the South American clubs
+exhibit each of the above forms, as well as no. 8. It will be shown later
+that these also occur in ancient Peru.
+
+The foregoing examples of the employment of taus in upright and reversed
+positions is, however, by no means exhaustive. Fig. 41 teaches that the
+familiar checker-board or tartan design, symbolically employed in ancient
+Mexico, was the simple result of taus in contraposition, the square spaces
+thus found being alternately filled with black and brown or gray. The
+symbolism of this design only becomes evident when all the combinations in
+which it occurs have been carefully studied. It is represented in the
+Codices in the doorways and arches of certain sacred edifices which are
+shown to be estufas or temaz-calli by further illustrations which I could
+not reproduce here, but which exhibit even the steam escaping from the
+building and other unmistakable features.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 41.
+
+
+Sahagun has recorded how these semi-sacred edifices were specially
+consecrated to the "Mother of the gods and of us all, whose curative and
+life-giving power was exerted in the temazcalli, also named xochicalli,
+the place where she sees secret things, rectifies what has been deranged
+in human bodies, fructifies young and tender things, ... and where she
+aids and cures...." It was customary for pregnant women to resort to these
+baths under the care of the medicine-woman who exhorted her patient on
+entering, with the words: "Enter into it, my daughter, enter into the
+bosom of our Mother whose name is Yoalticitl ... warm thyself in the bath,
+which is the house of flowers of our god ..." (Historia, book VI, chap.
+XXVII).
+
+The Vienna Codex contains, besides pictures of temples (fig. 41, _a_ and
+_b_), two instances which elucidate the meaning of the design; _c_ of the
+same figure displays the conventional symbol for land, fringed on three
+sides. Enclosed in this and seen, in profile, is a stratum of
+checker-board design, above which is a sheet of water; d displays a
+conventionally drawn mountain, inside of which is the symbolical vase
+filled with the design. From this steam or smoke ascends through the soil
+of the mountain, and forces its way through the surface, above which we
+see two recurved puffs of smoke and a young blossoming maize shoot,
+conventionally drawn, such as may be seen worn by priestesses, as a
+symbolical head decoration, on page 11 of the Vienna Codex. The seated
+figure of a priest is represented as sheltering its growth with his
+outspread mantle. On his back he displays a symbol, composed of two rolls
+united by a crossband, which is met with in Maya and Mexican Codices. In
+the latter the four projecting ends are usually painted with the colors of
+the four quarters. As these are figured as united into a single sign, it
+seems evident that this symbolized a union of the four elements deemed
+necessary for the production of life by the ancient native philosophers.
+
+The foregoing illustrations, to which more could be added, clearly
+establish that the checkered design was associated with the symbols of
+earth, heat and water. It obviously expressed the idea embodied in the
+Nahuatl word xotlac=the heated earth; literally, glowing embers, also
+budding and opening flowers. It was emblematic of the fall of the rain or
+earth-wine upon the heated soil. In the temazcalli the same life-producing
+union of the elements took place and aided human growth and health. It
+would seem as though the appellation xoch-i-calli, bestowed upon the
+sweat-house by the native medicine-woman, expressed the same train of
+thought. Moreover, it is noteworthy, that the sound of the first part of
+this name and of xo-tlac recurs in the Maya word for vase in general,
+ho-och. The checker-board design would naturally have been employed in
+connection with the festivals, associated with esoteric rites, which were
+held in celebration of the union of the Heaven and Earth at the
+commencement of the rainy season. It would, naturally, therefore, have
+been used as a decoration on the drinking vessels employed in the
+distribution of fermented drinks for vivifying and curative purposes. It
+is met with on Peruvian drinking bowls, as proven by several examples in
+the Royal Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, for instance.
+
+It is curious to note as an interesting analogy that the same checkered
+design frequently adorns the ancient Egyptian drinking bowls represented
+in the hieroglyphic writings. I have also observed it in some ancient
+Greek drinking vessels, preserved at the Imperial Hermitage Museum at St.
+Petersburg, where it decorated the bowl itself or the garments of
+Bacchantes figured thereupon. It is also met with in ancient Peruvian
+textile fabrics, in black and white, as on one figure vase in the Berlin
+Museum, and, needless to remark, it is a Scotch clan tartan. Its adoption
+as the basis for chess-boards of ancient Egypt seems to indicate that
+there it also signified the Above and Below and that the game was thought
+of as an exemplification of the eternal contest between the powers of
+Heaven and Earth, light and darkness, etc. We look to specialists for
+information as to the origin, meaning and employment in Egypt and Greece
+of this primitive and almost universal design.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 42.
+
+
+In ancient Mexico and possibly Peru, it obviously pertained to a set of
+ideas which, in some communities, might easily have degenerated and led to
+the institution of rites and ideas such as were prevalent in the Maya
+colony which had established itself at the mouth of the Panuco river, on
+the coast of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz, and from which the Huaxtecans of
+the present day descend. It is interesting to note that the name of the
+capital founded by the colonists, who seem to have emigrated owing to
+well-founded religious persecution, was Tuch-pan, a word which signifies
+in the Maya tongue "the umbilicus," qualified by pan, meaning "that which
+is above or excels," etc., but which was expressed in Nahuatl
+picture-writings by a rabbit=tochtli and a banner=pantli.
+
+The opposite of the checkered or xotlac design, was the native water and
+air pattern which has been pointed out as encircling the mitre of the Lord
+of the Above or Heaven. It likewise figures in native pictures on the
+mantles of some of Montezuma's predecessors. The history of its origin and
+development is best learned from the following native illustrations. Fig.
+42, nos. 1 and 2, represents sea-waves, the Maya name for which, by the
+way, is kukul-yaam, which admits of the interpretation "divine-water" or,
+if we connect kukul with the Mexican coliuhqui, "twisted or bent water." A
+representation of water, as figured on a mantle in the "Lyfe of the
+Indians," conveys the idea of water moved by the action of the wind, the
+blank curve reminding one also of the curves so often associated by native
+artists with serpents' heads, and with the wind and rain-gods. The
+well-known symbol of the air-god is accompanied, as already shown (fig.
+26), by an ornament which forms a solid frame for a hollow curve
+constituting an air-image. In the following image an analogous ear
+ornament is figured and it is surrounded by puffs of air or wind,
+conventionally drawn (fig. 43).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 43.
+
+
+Whilst the foregoing illustrations amply prove that the natives associated
+the curved and rounded form with water as moved by air, it must be noticed
+that in Mexico and Yucatan, as well as in Brazil and Guiana, plain water
+was figured by a series of parallel zigzag or undulated lines. For these
+reasons I infer that the symbolical design, representing actual waves,
+always expressed the union of air and water, and was therefore emblematic
+of the cult of the upper elements, or the Above. It is unfortunate that,
+in Mexico, no vestiges remain of the circular temples which were
+particularly dedicated to Quetzalcoatl=the divine twin or lord of the twin
+upper elements=air and water. Doubtlessly they were appropriately
+decorated with horizontal bands exhibiting the sacred design. The ruined
+condition of Central American round temples scarcely justifies the hope
+that such a verification can be made. At the same time the round temple on
+a square base, with its peculiar ground plan, was, of itself, an image of
+the Above and of central rule extending to the four quarters (fig. 30, p.
+97). That the air and water design was actually employed in America as a
+frieze on sacred edifices is proven, however, by more than one
+illustration in the Vienna Codex and other native MSS. (fig. 35, _c_). We
+also see the design decorating the painted drinking bowls named xicalli
+which were employed in the distribution of the sacred pulque or octli at
+certain religious festivals. As the Mexican name given to the design
+itself is xical-coliuhqui, it seems as though it was most popularly known
+as the "twisted or winding pattern" of the sacred drinking vessels.
+
+Having originated, as I have shown, from the simplest observation of the
+action of air upon a surface of water, it is but natural that the same
+design should have independently originated in several localities. It is,
+nevertheless, worth mentioning here that the dome of one of the most
+beautiful of ancient Greek remains, the choragic monument of Lysicrates,
+or lantern of Demosthenes at Athens, is surrounded by a band or fascia,
+cut into the water design. It is evident that, seen against the sky, this
+graphically represented the curling waves of water "on summer seas," and
+this was evidently the most primitive method of employing this form of
+symbolical decoration which is more familiar when executed in solid
+masonry stucco, as a frieze.
+
+The identical process of development may be observed in Mexican
+architecture. In the Vienna and other native Codices, countless temples
+are depicted as surmounted with fasciae cut into rectangular designs in
+such a manner that the blank space left between each solid projection
+figures its inverted image in the air (fig. 35, _a_-_d_). In these open
+fasciae an intention to symbolize the solid or Earth, and the fluid or
+Heaven, is discernible, whilst the step-like projections seem to express
+or convey the idea of ascent and descent, perhaps the ascent of human
+supplication and the descent of the much-prayed-for rain. From the other
+examples of temple decorations (fig. 35, _f_ and _h_) it is evident that,
+in solid friezes, a light and a dark color were employed in the same
+designs, to convey the same idea.
+
+Evidence proving that the emblems on the roofs of the temples were replete
+with meaning is furnished by several representations of roofs, on which
+rows of upstretched hands or of human hearts are depicted. My horror at
+these seemingly ghastly emblems vanished as soon as I ascertained their
+actual meaning from a passage in Sahagun's Historia. Describing a certain
+sacred dance he records that "on the white garments of the girls who took
+part in it, hands and hearts were painted, signifying that they lifted
+their hearts and hands to heaven, praying for rain." Not only does this
+explain the symbolism of the hands on the temples but also the native
+custom observed, by modern pilgrims in Mexico and Yucatan, of painting
+uplifted hands on the outer walls of sanctuaries as an act of piety and
+devotion.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 44.
+
+
+The hideous necklaces of alternate hands and hearts which encircle the
+neck of a great monolithic idol in the city of Mexico and of an image in
+the "Lyfe of the Indians" are thus also proven to be the touching though
+uncouth and child-like expression of a devout prayer. Having gained this
+insight into the deep significance of native emblems it is interesting to
+study the peculiar breast-ornament which is the emblem of Xiuhtecuhtli,
+literally "the azure lord," or the lord of the year or of fire and of the
+Cihuacoatl or woman-serpent. It consists of an oblong plaque, the narrow
+ends of which are cut out so as to simulate two air pyramids with steps.
+The name of this symbolical ornament is recorded by Sahagun as
+xiuh-tetelli, literally the turquoise or grass-green pyramid. It is
+invariably painted blue and displays a round plate of burnished gold in
+its centre. For more reasons than I can pause to relate here, it can be
+shown that the plaque probably symbolized the Above, the blue sky, water
+and air, whilst the gold plate was an image of the central divinity. The
+sides of the square stool on which the god is seated are also cut out so
+as to convey the idea that he is resting above terraced air-pyramids (fig.
+44). His shield is surrounded by a cord and contains a cross-symbol with
+lines conveying the idea of rotation and four circles. The banner above
+the shield named pantli conveys the sound of the word pan=above, whilst
+his conical ear-ornament symbolizes the Centre and Above. These details
+are noteworthy because I am about to point out the striking analogy
+between a Zuni idol or fetish and the ancient Mexican pictures of the lord
+of fire and the lord of the north or the underworld=Tezcatlipoca.
+
+This Zuni idol was sent to the Royal Ethnographical Museum at Berlin as
+part of a representative collection by Mr. Frank H. Cushing and has been
+figured and described in the publications of the Museum, with notes by Dr.
+E. Seler.(18) It represents the Zuni god Aetchialaetopa whose attributes are
+stone knives, who is the patron of the secret society, "Small fire" and
+who is identified with a great star. His fetish represents him as standing
+on the centre of a cross, formed of four beams placed vertically and
+perforated with step-like perforations. The ends are cut out like those of
+Xiuhtecuhtli's blue emblem. Two parallel bars, the upper one of which is
+painted blue, the color of heaven, and the lower painted green, the color
+of the earth, convey the ever-present native idea of the Above and Below.
+The arms of the cross are painted red with yellow ends which, according to
+Mr. Cushing, represent the light emanating, in four directions, from the
+star. The arms are distinctly associated with the cardinal points and each
+supports the effigies of a mountain lion and a bird--typifying, evidently,
+as in Mexico, the Above and Below. This cross, with the figure standing on
+its centre, is suspended from above and, during a certain ceremony, it is
+set into rapid gyratory motion, from left to right by the officiating high
+priest.
+
+It is impossible not to see, in this fetish, a swastika in substantial
+form and in actual rotation; whilst the figure of the god, decorated with
+stone knives, moves as on a pivot in the centre, presenting exactly the
+same idea as in the Mexican image of the god held in the centre of a
+cross-symbol by the jaws of a tecpatl or flint knife. It is unnecessary to
+mention again here that the only star in the heaven, which could possibly
+have been regarded as a centre of rotation, is Polaris; but I should like
+to draw attention to the fact that bunches of feathers are attached to the
+extremities of the cross-beams and to the summit of the terraced
+head-dress of the fetish and recall the circumstance that, amongst the
+Mexicans and Mayas, the names for feather were almost identical with those
+for heaven or something celestial and divine.
+
+As the Zuni god is said to be standing on his red star (an mo-yaetchun
+thlana) and figures as a centre of rotation, I look upon this fetish as
+affording most striking confirmation of my conclusions concerning the
+origin of the swastika and cross symbols. If it is certain that, at the
+present day, the Zunis associate this star-god with Sirius and their cross
+symbol with the morning star, then it is quite obvious that they have lost
+the original meaning of the rotating-star fetish, which could never have
+been suggested by either of these or, indeed, by any other heavenly body
+but Polaris. I regret that space does not permit me to consider here, more
+fully, other close analogies between ancient Mexican and modern Zuni
+religious ceremonies, etc., besides those which have been so well
+described by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes.
+
+I cannot omit to note here for further reference that the national war
+gods of the Zunis are the twin-brothers Ahaiiuta, the elder, whose altars
+were situated _to the right_ or south and west of Zuni, and Matsailema,
+the younger, whose altars stood _to the left_ or north and east of the
+village. The secret society of the warriors and priests of the bow
+dedicated their cult to these brothers, whose counterparts we have already
+studied in Mexico and Yucatan.
+
+Returning to the primitive designs which expressed the union of the Above
+and Below, I point out an interesting example from the "Lyfe of the
+Indians," which likewise symbolizes the four quarters, and their
+subdivision and their relation to the whole (fig. 32, no. 3). A somewhat
+analogous design, from Peru, presents an outline resembling a swastika
+(fig. 40, no. 9) which, when filled in with alternate colors, yields fig.
+40, no. 1, in which the idea of the Above and Below preponderates. Another
+example of an analogous employment of a light and dark color is furnished
+by a shield in the Codex Mendoza, shown in fig. 1, no. 1, alongside of an
+interesting image which gives us an insight into the depths of meaning
+contained in the dualistic native designs. It consists of a disk, one-half
+of which represents the starry heaven and the other the sun, resting on a
+parti-colored support (no. 8). It is evident that day and night are thus
+symbolized, and it is reasonable to infer that in some centres of thought
+especially the ideas of light and darkness should have become associated
+with the two different forms of cult the followers of which would be
+respectively designated as the children of light and the children of
+darkness. By means of a light and a dark color numberless variations of
+the one theme were indeed obtained. In the native Codices, in textile
+fabrics and on pottery, there are also numerous examples of an extremely
+simple design consisting of a single zigzag line running between two
+parallel lines and dividing the intervening space into two fields, the
+lower of which is filled out with black and the other with some light
+color. The dark upright and light inverted peaks were evidently employed
+as familiar and favorite emblems of earth and heaven.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 45.
+
+
+I am inclined to see in the serrated summit of the remarkable edifice,
+known as the House of Doves at Uxmal, a rendering of the same symbolism on
+a gigantic scale (fig. 45). It cannot but be recognized, moreover, that a
+high edifice presenting a regular series of cones, and extending from east
+to west, would have afforded an excellent means of registering the varying
+positions of heavenly bodies. To observers looking towards it from the
+north or south, at judiciously chosen distances, the entire span of the
+sky would have seemed divided into eight equal parts, seen as inverted air
+pyramids between nine sections which rise in steps and terminate in
+points, each gable being perforated with thirty window-like openings,
+arranged in seven horizontal rows. The purpose of these gable-like piles
+has been a riddle to the archaeologists, who have visited Uxmal. Dr. Wm.
+H. Holmes, from whose valuable works I cite the above descriptions,
+expresses his wonder at "the great building, bearing upon its roof a
+colossal masonry comb, built at an enormous expenditure of time and labor
+... which seemed to have been built exclusively for the purpose of
+embellishing the building and holding aloft its sculptured ornaments"
+(Ancient cities of Mexico, pl. I, p. 95).
+
+I venture to maintain that this remarkable edifice not only afforded
+facilities for astronomical observation but constituted in itself a great
+prayer for rain wrought in stone and addressed to the Lord of Heaven by a
+devout people. In corroboration of this inference, besides the foregoing
+data, I point out that to this day the Pueblo Indians associate the step
+pyramid form with beneficent rain and even give this shape to the edges of
+the sacred bowls which are carried in the ceremonial dances by the
+"rain-makers." According to Mr. Cushing the Zunis compare the rim of such
+bowls to the line of the "horizon, terraced with mountains, whence rise
+the clouds." He was likewise informed that the terrace form represents
+"the ancient sacred place of the spaces," an expression which, though
+somewhat vague, seems to corroborate my view of the Uxmal building. The
+Zuni statement that the terrace form figured mountains leads to the
+subject of so-called "mountain worship." In ancient Mexico, at the
+approach of the rainy season, religious ceremonies are performed in honor
+of the mountains which were looked upon as active agents in the production
+of rain, because they attracted and gathered the clouds around their
+summits. The tops of mountains were thus regarded as the sacred place
+where the sky and heaven met and produced the showers which vivified the
+earth. Pilgrimages and offerings to mountain summits formed a part of the
+duties of the Mexican priesthood, but in the cities the pyramid temple
+served as a convenient substitute for the mountain.
+
+The close association of the terrace form with rain and water symbolism is
+certainly exemplified in the Mexican design on a temple roof (fig. 35,
+_e_). The most remarkable application of the dualistic designs is,
+however, met with in Peru where, according to Wiener, the irrigation
+canals which carried water to the maize fields were laid out so as to form
+pattern bands like fig. 40, nos. 4 and 7, for instance. It is evident that
+this system of irrigation must have been an extremely effective and
+practical one, but that it had been probably adopted from superstitious
+motives as an illustration of the vivifying union of the celestial shower
+with the seed-laden soil. The assumption that the ancient Peruvians shared
+the same ideas as the Mexicans and Mayas will be found justified by the
+following data.
+
+It is now my intention to give a brief and bare outline sketch of the
+Peruvian civilization, by means of a series of quotations from the best
+authorities.(19) Incomplete though this must necessarily be, it will,
+nevertheless, establish, beyond a doubt, that the founders of the great
+Inca empire were under the dominion of the same set of ideas which I have
+been tracing throughout the American continent. The lucid records of the
+Peruvian chronicles and the purity with which the system had been
+maintained by the Incas, enable us to recognize and appreciate its
+manifold perfections as a mode of primitive government.
+
+The best authorities agree that the inhabitants of the country, now known
+as Peru, lived in barbarism until civilization was introduced amongst them
+by the Incas. One tradition designates an island in the Titicaca lake,
+another Tiahuanaco, as the place where, "after the deluge," a man or deity
+appeared, divided the land into four parts and distributed these to four
+brothers, amongst whom was Manco Capac, to whom was assigned the province
+to the north. Each brother had a sister who was also his wife. Manco Capac
+and his sister and wife Mama-Ocllo or, according to other authorities, the
+third Inca Lloque Yupanqui and his consort, founded Cuzco, also given as
+Kosko or Kuska, a name which, according to Garcilaso de la Vega signifies
+"navel of the earth" and was bestowed "because the newly-founded capital
+was to be the centre and point of all." The city was divided into two
+parts: Hanan Cuzco=the Above, which was ruled over by the Inca, and Hurin
+Cuzco=the Below, which was governed by his wife and sister, who bore the
+honorific title of Coya=queen and Mamanchic=our mother. The inhabitants
+consequently became separated into two categories: the upper lineage and
+the lower lineage, Hanan-ayllu and Hurin-ayllo. At the same time this
+division was not made so "that those of one-half should have an advantage
+over the other ... the command was that only one difference and
+acknowledgment of superiority was to be conceded to the inhabitants of the
+upper town. They were to be respected and looked upon as the first born
+and elder brothers, whilst the dwellers in the lower town were to be
+regarded as younger or second brothers. They were to rank as the right arm
+and the left arm in all offices or places where precedence was necessary.
+The same division was subsequently carried out in all the towns, great or
+small, throughout the country, their inhabitants being constantly classed
+into upper and lower lineages or classes." The empire itself was named
+Tauantin-suyu, signifying the four in one, or the empire, which was
+divided into four provinces: Anti-suyu=East; Cunti-suyu=West, on the road
+to which were two famous brooks of water named the silver serpents,
+Collquemachachuay; Chincha-suyu=North; Colla-suyu=South. It is recorded
+that the Coya or queen went to the Colla-suyu or South and taught the
+women the art of weaving, of planting maize and of preparing it for food.
+In connection with the name of female rule=Coya, and the South=Colla-suyu
+it is interesting to note that the name for granary was Coll-cana. Padre
+Arriaga (quoted by Rivero and Tschudi, p. 163) describes a remarkable
+monument which shows that the West was also associated with the female
+ruler. "The monolithic statue [magnificently sculptured and placed on a
+sepulchral eminence near Hilavi] represented two monstrous figures
+standing back to back. One, representing a man, faced to the East; the
+other, with a woman's face, looked towards the West.(20) Serpents were
+represented as crawling up the figures and these stood on other reptiles
+resembling frogs. In front of each of these idols there was a square slab
+of stone which seemed to have served as an altar."
+
+With the dual division of the population the seeds of dissension were sown
+in Peru as elsewhere. At a certain festival the youths of the upper
+lineage encountered those of the lower lineage in trials of strength and
+prowess, which sometimes resulted in violence. A certain feeling of
+rivalry and opposition must have been thus fostered. Two forms of cult
+prevailed: the Inca lords and warriors were associated with the cult of
+the Above of which the emblems were golden images of the Creator and of
+the Sun, "the lord of day," to whose power rain and thunder were
+attributed. The silver huaca or image of the moon, called Quilla in
+Quechua and Pacsa in the Colla dialect, was in the figure of a woman and
+was kept under the charge of women, the reason for this being "that the
+moon was a woman." During the festival Situa, one day was dedicated to the
+Creator, the Sun and Thunder and another to "the Moon and Earth, when the
+accustomed sacrifices and prayers were offered up." We thus clearly
+distinguish a cult of the Heaven and Day presided over by the Inca and a
+cult of Earth and Night, whose high priestess was the Coya. She, moreover,
+had charge of the embalmed bodies of her predecessors, which were regarded
+as sacred and were solemnly carried forth in certain festivals, whilst the
+bodies of the defunct Incas were guarded by their successor. The emblems
+of both cults were, however, preserved in a single Great Temple, whose
+principal doorway looked to the north, a fact of special importance in
+connection with what follows.
+
+All authorities, indeed, designate the north as the quarter whence the
+foreign culture-heroes came to Peru. "The Incas had a knowledge of the
+Creator from the first," but it was not until the time of the Inca
+Yupanqui that the ignorant sun-worship of the primitive inhabitants of the
+country was superseded by a firmly established new and superior religion.
+
+"Inca Yupanqui appears to have been the first to order and settle
+ceremonies and religions. He it was who established the twelve months of
+the year, giving a name to each and ordaining the ceremonies that were to
+be observed in each. For although his ancestors used months and years
+counted by the quippus, yet they were never previously regulated until the
+time of this Lord. He was of such clear understanding that he reflected
+upon the respect and reverence shown by his ancestors to the Sun who
+worshipped it as a God. He observed that it never had any rest and that it
+daily journeyed round the earth; and he said to those of his council that
+_it was not possible that the Sun could be the God who created all things,
+for if he was he would not permit a small cloud to obscure his splendour;
+and that if he was creator of all things he would sometimes rest and light
+up the whole world from one spot. Thus it cannot be otherwise but that
+there is someone who directs him and this is the Pacha-Yachachi, the
+Creator_, literally, the Teacher of the World." His predecessors had
+ordered an oval plate of fine gold which was to serve as an image of the
+Creator of heaven and earth, and, in order to convey this meaning it was
+placed between images of the sun and moon; a proof that the latter were
+employed as symbols of heaven and earth.
+
+Inca Yupanqui, however, also caused a statue of the Creator to be made of
+fine gold and of the size of a boy of ten years of age in order to convey
+the idea of his eternal youth. "It was in the shape of a man standing up,
+the right arm raised and the hand almost closed, the fingers and thumb
+raised as one who was giving an order." The second gold statue he had
+made, a personification of the sun "which was dressed like the Inca and
+wore all his insignia," shows he claimed to be and constituted himself as
+the visible representative and Lord of the Above. The silver female statue
+of the Moon doubtlessly exhibited, in the same manner, the insignia of the
+Coya. Inca Yupanqui also ordered the houses and temple of Quisuar-cancha
+to be built and, at this spot, Sir Clements Markham observed an ancient
+wall, with serpents carved upon it. The name signifies, literally, "the
+place of the Quisuar tree," and will be again referred to further on.
+Without pausing to discuss the subject at length let us examine further
+the scheme of government, etc., introduced by the Incas, the most striking
+feature of which was the systematical classification of the people, their
+assignment to specified dwelling places and the distribution of labor
+according to prescription.
+
+The key to the entire gigantic system was the conception of a central
+immutable supreme power which directed all visible and invisible
+manifestations and which sent forth and re-absorbed all energy. In Cuzco
+and in the Inca Empire we have a minutely described instance of the
+application, to terrestrial government, of the laws of fixed order,
+harmony, periodicity and rotation learned by earnest and patient observers
+of the northern heaven, during countless centuries of time. The centre of
+Cuzco consisted of a great square whence four roads radiated to the
+cardinal points. In the centre of this stood a gold vase from which a
+fountain flowed. The Spaniards also found in Cuzco a large,
+beautifully-polished stone-cross which evidently symbolized, as in Mexico,
+the four quarters and must have been appropriately placed in the square.
+Garcilaso de la Vega states that the capital formed an actual image of the
+whole empire, "for it was divided into four quarters and an extremely
+ancient law rendered it obligatory that representatives of each province
+and of each class of population should reside there in homes, the location
+of which precisely corresponded to the geographical position of their
+respective provinces. Each lineage was thus represented and occupied
+separate dwellings, assigned to them by the governors of the quarters. All
+persons were obliged to adhere to the customs of their forefathers and
+also wear the costumes of their ayllus or tribes (Cieza de Leon, Cronica
+chap. XCIII). For the Incas had decreed that the dresses worn by the
+members of each tribe should be different, so that the people might be
+distinguished from each other as, down to that time, there had been no
+means of knowing to what locality or tribe an Indian belonged."... In
+order to avoid confusion the modes of wearing the hair were rigidly
+prescribed and the bands worn on the head by the vassals had to be black
+or of a single color only. The higher in rank a person was the more his
+costume resembled that of the Inca, without, however, approaching it in
+length and richness. "Thus, even in an assemblage of 100,000 persons it
+was easy to recognize individuals of each tribe and of each rank by the
+signs they wore on their heads."...
+
+"It was obligatory that each should permanently live in the province he
+belonged to. Each province, each tribe and, in many parts each village,
+had its own language which was different from that of its neighbors. Those
+who understood each other by speaking the same language considered
+themselves as related to each other and were friends and confederates....
+The Incas employed a private language of their own which none but members
+of the royal lineage presumed or dared to learn." Garcilaso de la Vega,
+who claimed royal descent, stated that unfortunately no records remained
+to enable one to form an idea of what the Inca language was like.
+
+The autocratic, though peaceable way in which the novel scheme of
+government was imposed upon the inhabitants of Peru by the foreign
+chieftains is best proven by the following passages from the Rites and
+Laws of the Incas (p. 77) and Garcilaso de la Vega (pp. 9 and 10). "With a
+view that each tribe should be clearly distinguishable and after assigning
+a different costume to each they were ordered to choose their respective
+pacariscas, a word meaning, literally, their birth and origin. They were
+told to choose for themselves whence they were descended and whence they
+came, and as the Indians were generally very dull and stupid, some chose
+to assign their origin to a lake, others to a spring, others a rock,
+others a hill or ravine. But every lineage chose some object for its
+pacarisca. Some tribes [subsequently] adored eagles because they boasted
+to have descended from them ... others adored fountains, rivers, the
+earth, which they call Mother, or air, fire, ... snow-mountains, maize,
+the sea, named mother-sea."
+
+According to Garcilaso de la Vega "the Peruvian tribes subsequently
+invented an infinity of fables concerning the origin of their different
+ancestors.... An Indian does not consider himself honorable unless he can
+trace his descent from a river, fountain, lake or the sea, or from some
+wild beast like the bear, puma, ocelot, eagle, etc." An example of a
+certain amount of vain-glory was indeed set by the diplomatic Inca himself
+who claimed, for himself and lineage, descent from the Sun and reserved
+burnished gold ornaments for his particular use. His successors
+subsequently built a temple of the Sun at Cuzco and set up its image made
+of gold and precious stones. Around this, the royal "pacarisca," they
+placed the mummies of all the dead Incas. In another room there was an
+image of "the moon, with a woman's face," and about it were the mummies of
+the royal women. From this we learn that the latter assigned their origin
+to the moon and that it was their pacarisca or huaca. As an illustration
+of the way in which creation-myths are sometimes evolved from actual
+occurrences, it is interesting to study another account of the mode in
+which tribal regulations were introduced into Peru. Owing, most probably,
+to the fact that one of the titles given to the Creator was "the Teacher,"
+we find Molina attributing to the Creator himself the establishment of the
+tribal system and the assignment of totems and different costumes to each
+group or family. If we read his account and, with Garcilaso de la Vega and
+others, attribute to the Incas the introduction of civilization into Peru,
+we recognize the practical good sense with which they accomplished the
+rather difficult task of obliging each tribe to wear a different costume.
+"In Tiahuanaco ... he made one of each nation of clay and painted [these]
+with the dresses that each one was to wear. Those who were to wear their
+hair, with hair; and those who were to be shorn, with hair cut ... when he
+had finished making the nations and painting the said figures of clay, he
+gave life and soul to each one, as well man as woman ... each nation then
+went to the place to which he ordered it to go."
+
+I confess that, until I studied the above record in full, I had very vague
+ideas about the huacas or "idols" of the Peruvians. But when I found it
+stated, further on, that "each tribe wore the dress with which their huaca
+is invested," I began to realize what huacas might originally have been.
+It would seem that on assigning a different costume and distinctive name
+to each tribe, the founder of the new colony gave each chief as a model, a
+different clay doll, painted with the distinctive marks he and his people
+were to adopt. This figure would naturally have been kept for reference
+and treated as something sacred. On certain official occasions it would be
+produced as a means of identification or proof that the prescribed
+costumes had been strictly adhered to. To this practical and sensible plan
+the origin of the so-called tribal and household idols of the Peruvians
+and of the Mexicans can doubtlessly be assigned. Invented as an aid in the
+establishment of tribal-names and dress-regulations and intimately
+connected with the entire system of government, these huacas gradually
+became the representative of the ancestor of the clan, its "canting" arms
+and its sacred palladium. We are told that after the tribes had chosen
+their various ancestors or origins, such as caves, hills, fountains, etc.,
+they settled in the land and multiplied. Then, on account of having
+"issued or descended from stated localities, the people made huacas and
+places of worship of these, in memory of the origin of their lineage....
+The huacas they use are in different shapes.... Some say the first of
+their lineages were turned into falcons, condors and other animals or
+birds" (Molina ed. Hakluyt, p. 5). A certain form of ancestor-cult was
+thus evolved in a natural manner. "Idolatrous rites increased and people
+devoted themselves to the worship of huacas ... each village had its
+huaca. The cult assumed such proportions under Ccapac Yupanqui that he
+exclaimed: 'How many false gods are there in the land, to my sorrow and
+the misfortune of my vassals! When shall we see these evils remedied?' "
+
+At the same time we find that clay or wooden figures continued to be
+employed evidently as a method of keeping an accurate register of the
+population. In the capital, one building held duplicates of all the huacas
+throughout the land. When a new province was conquered the Inca carried
+its principal huaca to Cuzco. One or more living representatives of the
+conquered tribe, wearing its characteristic dress, were obliged to reside
+in the capital. In ancient Mexico these "living images of the gods" are
+one of the most striking features of the native civilization and have been
+persistently misunderstood, especially by modern authorities. As these
+"living gods" are specially treated in the "Lyfe of the Indians," I shall
+merely point out here that small clay portraits or effigies of persons
+were made in Mexico at certain stages of an individual's life and also
+after his death. These seem to have been employed for statistical
+purposes.
+
+In Mexico and Peru large numbers of small images were preserved in each
+household and were under the charge of its chief or "older brother," who
+was obliged to guard and render account of them. Of course the Spanish
+conquerors took it for granted that all of these were idols and, in their
+ignorance, destroyed them unmercifully. Once the native system of tribal
+organization is understood, it becomes evident that an accurate register
+of all members of a tribe was of utmost importance. By means of a group of
+more or less skillfully-modelled figures or heads the size of a family
+could be ascertained at a glance by the government recorder. In the light
+of this recognition it seems more than probable that the immense numbers
+of small clay heads of various kinds, found in the "street of the dead" at
+the base of the great pyramids of Teotihuacan, and elsewhere, indicate
+that, in these localities, a periodical and official registration of
+deaths was carefully carried on. This assumption is fully corroborated by
+the conclusions I reached, in 1886, after making a minute study of a large
+number of terra-cotta heads(21) and ascertaining that numbers of them were
+portraits of dead persons. The above inference is, moreover, confirmed by
+the name of Teotihuacan, which means, literally, "the place of the lords
+or masters of the teotle." The term teotl was given to the head of a
+tribe, who constituted the living image of the tribal ancestor. When he
+died he himself became one of the tribal ancestors and all dead lords were
+termed teotle.
+
+The foregoing data enlighten us as to the practical value of a sternly
+enforced system of division and differentiation for the control of the
+population, and of clay images of persons for statistical purposes. We
+have seen that, during many centuries, the energy of the rulers was
+directed towards making groups of people as distinct and different from
+each other as possible. They were rigidly kept apart and, in all
+assemblages, they occupied separate positions, in a fixed order of
+relation to each other. "All the people of Cuzco came out according to
+their tribes and lineages ... and assembling in the great square ... sat
+down on their benches, each man according to the rank he held, the
+Hanan-Cuzco on one side and the Hurin-Cuzco on the other" (Molina ed.
+Hakluyt, p. 26). Beside this dual division of the entire population, under
+the separate rulerships of the Inca and Coya, who were linked together,
+however, in a sacred and indissoluble union and respectively represented
+Heaven and Earth, let us study the executive administration of the
+religious and civil governments.
+
+Two sets, each consisting of four rulers, next in rank to the Inca and
+Coya, are described: Each quarter or Suyu was ruled over by a "viceroy,"
+or "Inca governor," entitled tucuyricoc="he who sees all," or Capac. In
+the days of the Inca Huayna Capac the names of the four "viceroys" are
+recorded as having been Capac=Achachic, Capac=Larico, Capac=Yochi,
+Capac=Hualcaya. These were obviously members of the Inca family and next
+in rank to the Inca, who presided as supreme pontiff over the religious
+government. The civil and tribal administration was executed by four
+Curacas, each of which had charge of 10,000 persons belonging to the
+ayllus=tribes or lineages. The titles of these four Curacas are recorded
+as: Hunu-Camayu or Camayoc, Huaronca-Camayu or Camayoc, Pachaca-Camayu or
+Camayoc, Chunca-Camayu or Camayoc. As their titles show, they were the
+chief accountants or recorders of statistics, which were recorded by means
+of the quippus. Under them, in regular order there were officers, who
+respectively had charge of 500, 100, 50 or 10 individuals. In the latter
+instance it is expressly stated that it was always one man out of the ten
+who governed and rendered account of the remaining nine. The four chief
+recorders dwelt in Cuzco but "left it every year and returned in February
+to make their report ... bringing with them the tribute of the whole
+empire. They also reported upon the administration every year recording
+the births and deaths that had occurred among men and flocks, the yield of
+crops and all other details, with great minuteness" (Polo de Ondegardo).
+
+From the recorded details of organization we learn that the governmental
+scheme introduced by the Incas was based on the assumption that the
+standard population of the empire should number 40,000 individuals under
+the civil rulership of 4 recorders, 40 first-grade officers, 400
+second-grade officers, 4,000 third-grade officers--each of the last being
+responsible for nine individuals besides himself. It is noteworthy that
+the three grades of officers correspond to the threefold division of the
+entire produce of the land, between the Inca, the Huaca and the Ayllu,
+equivalent to the religious government, the civil government and the
+people--to the Above, Below and Middle. The minimal division of people into
+groups of ten of which one was the governmental representative
+corresponds, moreover, to the classification into the following ten
+categories, according to their ages:
+
+1. Mosoc-aparic: baby, "newly begun," "just born."
+2. Saya-huarma: child, "standing boy," age 2-6.
+3  Macta-puric: "child that can walk," age 6-8.
+4. Itanta-requisic: "bread-receiver," boy about 8.
+5. Pucllac-huarma: "playing boy," age 8-16.
+6. Cuca-pallac: "Coca pickers," age 16-20.
+7. Yma-huayna: "as a youth," light service,  age 20-25.
+8. Puric: "able-bodied," tribute and service, age 25-50.
+9. Chaupi-rucca: elderly, light service, age 50-60.
+10. Punuc-rucca: dotage, no work, 60 upwards.(22)
+
+Although for statistical purposes, exact registers of each of these groups
+were annually made by the recorders, it is evident that the purics or
+"able-bodied" men constituted the most important portion of the
+population. They naturally fell into two groups consisting of the nobility
+and commoners, but scattered evidence amply provides that they were
+strictly classified according to the special service or tribute they
+rendered to the government. The best produce of each province was brought
+to Cuzco.
+
+The inhabitants of each region were specially trained to render certain
+services or to excel in particular industries--by this means each tribe
+gradually became identified with its special industry or aptitude. The
+necessity that the supply of their produce should be constant and regular,
+must have necessitated the permanent maintenance of a fixed number of
+workers at each branch of industry, a fact which would give rise to rigid
+laws controlling the liberty of the individual, forcing children to adopt
+their parents' avocations and forbidding intermarriages between persons of
+different provinces. As scattered mention is made of the following general
+classification of the male population, I venture to note them as follows,
+provisionally:
+
+Nobility: Commoners.
+
+1. lords: shepherds (of lamas),
+2. priests: hunters,
+3. warriors: farmers,
+4. civil governors: artificers.
+
+The female population was doubtlessly subdivided in an analogous manner,
+for it is expressly recorded that all marriageable girls were kept in four
+different houses. Those of the first class, qualified as "the white
+virgins," were dedicated to the service of the Creator, the Sun and the
+Inca; the second were given in marriage to the nobility; the third class
+married the Curacas or civil governors, and the last were qualified as
+"black," and pertained to the lower classes.
+
+Caste division was never lost sight of--indeed one Inca went so far as to
+order that all the people of the Below "should flatten the heads of their
+children, so that they should be long and sloping from the front." Thus
+they should ever be distinguishable from the nobility and "yield them
+obedience." Although it is not expressly stated, it may be inferred from
+actual specimens of skulls which have been found that, in some localities,
+in order to differentiate the two classes still more, members of the
+nobility strove to mould the heads of their children in a high peak, so
+that they too should perpetually bear the mark of their rank. Whether such
+a procedure would exert a correspondingly elevating or abasing influence
+upon the intellectual development of the two classes is a problem for
+anthropologists.
+
+A very simple explanation of the reason why artificial deformation of the
+skull was ever adopted, is obtainable when the all-powerful dominion of a
+certain set of ideas is recognized. Many other customs, still in practice
+amongst American tribes, are likewise explained by the arbitrary division
+of population into classes and categories. The Peruvian custom of
+bestowing one name upon a child when it was one year old and another when
+it attained maturity is the direct outcome of the classification of
+individuals by age. The ceremonial observances which accompanied the
+bestowal of these names were accompanied by a change of costume which
+constituted the official enrolment or advancement into another class. The
+existence of further systematic class-distinctions is proven by the
+description of the picturesque ceremony performed in the month of August
+at Cuzco and called "the driving out of sickness." In the centre of the
+great square around the urn of gold which typified the "central fountain"
+(precisely the idea expressed by the name of Mexico), four hundred
+warriors assembled. One hundred, representing one of the four ayllus,
+faced towards each cardinal point and subsequently ran at full speed in
+its direction, crying "Go forth all evils!"
+
+We have now traced the idea of the Above and Below, Centre and Four
+Quarters in Ancient Peru. It remains to be noted that the capital itself,
+which was to be the image of the whole empire, was primarily divided into
+two halves and four quarters, and subdivided into 4x3=12 wards the names
+of which doubtlessly corresponded with that of their inhabitants. When the
+sacred centre of the capital is added to these it is clear that the City
+of Cuzco was subdivided into as many parts as there were directions in
+space, _i. e._ 13. It exemplified, therefore, an association of 2x10=20
+categories of people classified according to ages, with thirteen
+directions in space, and a general subdivision of all classes into four
+parts. The Inca with the four Capacs and the Coya with the four Camayocs
+formed two groups of five each, which could well have been represented by
+a large central figure surrounded by four smaller ones of equal size. By
+coloring these with red, yellow, black and white, their assignment to the
+cardinal point could have been expressed. The central figure could be
+painted in four colors, for only the Inca and his lineage could wear
+many-colored garments, these being indicative that they represented the
+centre or union of the four quarters.
+
+Two important features of the system remain to be discussed: We have
+studied the minute and methodical classification of the entire population
+into distinct groups without touching upon the practical reasons why this
+was done. We have analyzed the great machinery of the Inca dominion as it
+lies broken and motionless. But endow the giant wheel with motion,
+introduce systematical rotation into its every part, regulate the
+occupations of the people by a fixed series of work-days and holidays.
+Send them forth to their work and collect the products of their labor at
+set intervals, _institute a calendar_, and you will have set the machinery
+of state in motion and realized how the classification of individuals
+according to rank, ages, and occupations was absolutely necessary in order
+to obtain a successful and harmonious result. It has already been shown
+that the institution of the calendar and establishment of twelve festival
+periods of thirty days each, in a year, succeeded the division of the
+people into groups and their assignment to fixed places of abode.
+
+"They commenced to count the year in the middle of May, a few days more or
+less, on the first day of the Moon ... in this month they held the
+festivals of the Sun" (Molina ed. Hakluyt, p. 16). I direct particular
+attention to the fact that it was the new May moon which controlled the
+beginning of the religious calendar, although the Incas observed the
+equinoxes and solstices and the cult of the Sun was under their special
+care. The twelve divisions of the year accord with the twelve wards of
+Cuzco surrounding the central enclosure which was always the place where
+the festivals were held and the people congregated.
+
+I have as yet found no account of the lesser divisions of time in Peru,
+but note that the period of thirty days consisted of six periods of five
+days each, a subdivision which would obviously accord with native habits
+of thought if associated with the six terrestrial directions in space and
+if a reunion of people and collection of produce from four quarters took
+place on every fifth day in the capital. In my special work on the
+Calendar systems of ancient America I shall be able to discuss more fully
+their intimate indissoluble relation to the regulation of labor and
+control of the food supply absolutely requisite for the great capital.
+
+The idea of rotation was carried out in a ceremony described by Molina.
+When the December moon was full, after having ploughed their fields during
+twelve days, "all persons returned to Cuzco ... the people went to a house
+called moro-uco, near the houses of the Sun and took out a very long cable
+which was kept there, woven in four colors, black, white, red and yellow,
+at the end of which was a stout ball of red wool. Everyone took hold of
+it, the men on one side, the women on the other, performing the sacred
+dance called yaquayra. When they came to the square ... they went round
+and round until they were in the shape of a spiral shell. Then they
+dropped the cable on the ground and left it coiled up like a snake. The
+people returned to their places and those who had charge of the cable took
+it back to its house." An extremely important instance of the application
+of the spiral is preserved in an illustration in the Account of the
+Antiquities of Peru by the native chronicler Salcamayhua (ed. Hakluyt, p.
+109). He relates that the Inca Huayna-Capac, when he reached the town of
+Tumipampa, "ordered water to be brought from a river by boring through a
+mountain, and making the channel enter the city by curves in this way:"
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 46.
+
+
+The illustration, reproduced here (fig. 46), exhibits an extremely
+ingenious mode of irrigation which divided the country surrounding the
+town into nine zones of land lying between currents of water. These are
+cut through by an exit canal which, at the same time, presumably supplied
+a direct water-way for traffic to and from the town. The association of
+the spiral form with irrigation would not, perhaps, seem as important and
+significant did we not know that the ancient Peruvians, as proven by
+Wiener, habitually laid out the irrigation canals in their maize-fields so
+as to form regular designs, some of which resembled those illustrated on
+fig. 40, nos. 2, 4, 6, 7, which have been shown to signify the union of
+the Above and Below, or Heaven and Earth. In the Peruvian irrigation
+canals the water supplied the light lines and the earth the dark, and when
+the small canals were full and were observed in certain lights, they must
+have resembled light blue or white patterns running through the dark
+earth. That their inventors and makers actually associated them with
+profound meaning and laid them from superstitious as well as practical
+motives is obvious; for, in Peru, as in Mexico, we find the periodical
+union of the Heaven and Earth, of rain and earth celebrated with
+ceremonial drinking of chicha, specially brewed for this period which
+seems to have been the regularly appointed time for juvenile match-making,
+by order of the Inca.
+
+"When the Inca gave women as wives they were received because it was the
+command of the Inca ... because of this it was considered that she was
+taken until death and she was received on this understanding and never
+deserted" (Molina). "When the Inca Rocca married his sister, six thousand
+people were married on the next day" (Montesinos). In the festival called
+Ccapac Raymi, maidens who had attained womanhood offered bowls of
+fermented chicha to the youths who had just been admitted to the ranks of
+the warriors.
+
+"During this festival the Priests of the Sun and of the Creator brought a
+quantity of fuel, tied together in handfuls, and dressed as a man and a
+woman ... they were offered to the Creator, the Sun and the Inca and were
+burnt in their clothes together with a sheep" (Molina).
+
+Towards the end of the same month (November), feasts were celebrated for
+the flocks of the huacas, that they might multiply; for which sacrifices
+were made throughout the kingdom. Ultimately "public solemn sacrifices
+were made to the Creator, the Sun, the Thunder and the Moon for all
+nations, that they might prosper and multiply" (Molina). A few weeks
+later, an exemption from ceremonial bondage, for three months, commenced.
+Throughout January, February and March no religious festival took place at
+Cuzco--the farmers attended to their land and the people were left at
+liberty to pursue their various avocations uninterruptedly (Molina ed.
+Hakluyt, pp. 51 and 52). I have already shown that the same exemption from
+ceremonial bondage during ninety to one hundred days of the year was
+customary in Mexico; and, in my note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar
+System, communicated to the Congress of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894
+(p. 16), I explained the reasons which had led me to infer that "the
+religious festivals were concentrated in the ritual years of 260 days,"
+which indeed forms a unit, consisting of a complete set of combinations of
+the numbers 13 and 20.
+
+In Dr. Franz Boas' admirable monograph on the Social Organization and
+secret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (Washington, 1897, p. 418), it is
+shown that at the present day the clan system is only in force during one
+division of the year. "At the beginning of the winter ceremonial the
+social system is completely changed. The period when the class system is
+in force is called ba-xus. The period of the winter ceremonial is
+designated as 'the secrets,' 'making the heart good,' also 'brought down
+from Above.' The Indians express this alternating of seasons by saying
+that in summer the ba-xus is on top, the secrets below, and _vice versa_
+in winter. During this time the place of the clans is taken by a number of
+secret societies: the spirits who had appeared to mythical ancestors give
+new names to the men to whom they appear, but these names are only in use
+during the time when the spirits dwell amongst the Indians, _i. e._, in
+the winter." Therefore from the moment when the spirits are supposed to be
+present, all the summer names are dropped and the members of the nobility
+take their winter names. The winter ceremonial societies are arranged in
+two principal groups; these are subdivided into 2x10=20 groups according
+to age and sex.
+
+Dr. Boas distinguishes "three classes of tribal names and of clan names,
+viz., such as are collective forms of the names of the ancestors, names
+taken from the region inhabited by the tribe or clan and names of
+honour.... Each clan derives its origin from a mythical ancestor ... the
+present system of tribes and clans is of recent growth ... their numbers
+have undergone considerable changes in historical times." A careful study
+of the material presented by Dr. Boas shows, however, that the
+ground-plans of the entire social fabric reared by the Kwakiutl Indians
+closely resembles that on which the stately Maya, Mexican and Peruvian
+civilizations were reared.
+
+Returning to Peru, it is particularly noteworthy that the above mentioned
+solemn sacrifices to the Creator, the Sun and Thunder, and Moon and Earth,
+held in November, were thus offered to them jointly in one consecrated
+place, whereas, at other seasons, the cult was performed separately and on
+different days, before the emblems of the Above and Below.
+
+Notwithstanding the moderation and tolerance which seem to have been
+characteristic of the Inca government, and the apparent equality and
+accord of the two cults, the heads of which were the Inca and Coya, we
+find evidences of discord in the historical records. The Inca empire had
+scarcely been established for more than a few centuries(23) when we
+discern signs of a serious rebellion under the leadership of the
+Chuchi-capac, the chief of the Southern province or Colla-suyu, pertaining
+to the Below. From the taunts he uttered in the presence of the Inca on a
+festive occasion and which have been recorded verbally by Salcamayhua, it
+is clear that the chief of the Collas asserted that he (and the people of
+his province) actually practised sun-cult although "his throne was of
+silver;" that is to say, notwithstanding the fact that moon-cult pertained
+to the quarter to which he was assigned, namely, to the Below. He
+justifies his departure from moon-cult by taunting the Inca that he, in
+turn, did not adhere strictly to sun-cult but worshipped the impersonal
+Creator. This struggle between the ancient native sun-cult and star-cult
+and this religious dissension, the reason for which is apparent, initiated
+the long period of internal strife and warfare which ultimately made the
+Spanish Conquest such an easy matter.
+
+During the course of these wars the Peruvian Inca, on one occasion,
+avenged himself for a supposed insult by having drums made of the skins of
+some of the enemies' messengers and by sending back others of these
+"dressed as women," that is to say degraded from their positions as
+warriors or noblemen to the ranks of the commoners. A similar degradation,
+inflicted upon the Tlatelolcan rebels by the Mexicans has already been
+mentioned and can only be fully understood when the class-system is
+recognized.
+
+From this and analogous instances it is evident that, admirable as the
+scheme of government seems to have been as a means of laying the
+foundations of civilization, and of teaching primitive people agriculture,
+stability, law and order, yet the very features which rendered it so
+efficient at first became, eventually, the cause of its gradual
+disintegration, as soon as a certain degree of culture prosperity was
+attained by the community. One mode of avoiding the evils of
+over-population and of ridding the capital of its restless, and
+enterprising or troublesome members, was the system of Mitimaes or
+colonists. This merits particular attention, because it formed an integral
+part of the marvellous and widespread scheme of organization we have been
+studying, and therefore helps to an understanding of the customary means
+by which civilization was spread in past ages throughout the American
+continent.
+
+As the population of Cuzco increased and greater food supplies were found
+necessary, the Incas extended their dominions by a series of conquests.
+"As soon as they had made themselves lords of a province they left
+Mitimaes or settlers there, who caused the natives to live in communities"
+and established a small centre of local government on the pattern of
+Cuzco. Mitimaes or colonists were also sent, from different provinces, to
+live on the frontiers, bordering on hostile countries, so as to aid in
+defending them against the enemies. The establishment of colonies in
+distant districts was therefore a tried and familiar custom of those who
+possessed the wonderful governmental plan we have been studying.
+
+I have shown that the greater the prosperity of a civilized community
+organized on this plan, the more imperative the necessity of founding new
+colonies would sometimes become. The urgent need of greater food supplies
+would lead to the sending out of expeditions for the purpose of surveying
+the surrounding country and ascertaining the quality of its produce. In
+his MS. Noticia, Padre Oliva speaks of an exploring party which was sent
+out by the ancestor of the Incas with the injunction to return in a year.
+After a few years had passed and none of the party returned, a second
+expedition was sent out in search of the first and this led to the final
+establishment of the Inca dominion in a promising region. Sahagun recounts
+how a Maya colony was established at Panuco; Montezuma himself related to
+Cortes that he and his lineage were descendants of colonists from distant
+parts; traditions of culture-heroes who established civilization amongst
+them abound amongst Central American tribes; finally, Peru is shown to
+have been civilized by rulers who carried out, systematically, a
+ready-made plan in a comparatively short time. Whence did all these
+culture-heroes emanate, carrying the identical method and system into
+widely separated districts and establishing centres of civilization in the
+richest and most fertile parts of the American Continent?
+
+Documentary evidence certainly justifies the inference that the
+civilization of Peru itself was due to just such a deliberately executed
+plan of colonization, which gradually extended southwards and ultimately
+took root and flourished in the most favorably situated locality.
+
+Leonce Angrand, who cites Acosta, Montesinos, Garcia, Boturini, Valera,
+Garcilaso de la Vega, Gomara, Balboa, Paz Soldan, d'Orbigny, Zarate, Cieza
+de Leon, Torquemada, Herrera, Velasco, Rivero and Tschudi, Gibbon,
+Stevenson, Castelnau, Desjardins, Villavicencio, Roman and others, unites
+their testimony in the following sentence: "It is therefore solely towards
+the North, in the elevated mountainous region, that researches should be
+directed [in order to ascertain the origin of the Peruvian civilization].
+As soon as this is done innumerable proofs appear of the residence, in
+extremely ancient times, of people who can scarcely belong to other races
+than those who founded Cuzco and Tiahuanaco. It is therefore, from the
+North that these hardy pioneers of humanity came, from distant
+civilizations, and it is certainly by going northwards that one must look
+for traces of one or the other current of civilization. The inexhaustible
+force of expansion of the Inca Empire extended to the North as well as in
+other directions."
+
+Angrand also mentions a line "of prehistoric ruins which extend northwards
+from Peru and display the essentially characteristic outlines of the
+Mexican Teocallis or temples."(24)
+
+Garcilaso de la Vega, citing Padre Blas Valera, goes so far as to state
+that the race, which introduced human sacrifices and ritualistic
+cannibalism into Peru, "had come from the region of Mexico, peopled the
+regions of Panama and the Isthmus of Darien and all those great mountains
+which extend between Peru and the new kingdom of Granada" (the present
+Nicaragua).(25)
+
+According to Padre Anello Oliva, whose manuscript notes on Peru are
+preserved in the British Museum Library, the immediate ancestors of the
+Incas were colonists who came from unknown parts either by land or by sea,
+and settled at Caracas (Atlantic coast), whence they gradually spread
+southwards. As his authority for this statement, he cites original
+manuscripts which had been placed in his hands by a Spanish missionary of
+high standing. Among these was a relation by a Quipucamayoc or "accountant
+by means of quippus," named Catari, who had been a chronicler of the
+Incas. His forefathers had occupied the same post and had handed down the
+above record as having been related to them by their predecessors.
+
+This account does not disagree with that of Salcamayhua who states that
+"all the nations of the empire had come from beyond Potosi, in four or
+five armies, arrayed for war and settled in the districts as they
+advanced."
+
+Whatever opinions may be held of the relative reliability of the Spanish
+chroniclers one thing is certain: that not one ventures the statement that
+the Inca civilization was gradually evolved by the native race of Peru and
+that all agree in assigning its introduction to an alien race of rulers
+who came from the North, and gradually united the scattered indigenous
+tribes together under a central government. Americanists will doubtless
+agree with me in stating that, until the past history, antiquities and
+languages of all tribes inhabiting South and Central America have been
+exhaustively studied, no absolutely satisfactory conclusion can be formed
+as to when and how civilization was carried to Peru.
+
+On the other hand, even in the present preliminary stage of investigation,
+there are certain undeniable facts which, if brought to notice at this
+early date, may prove of inestimable value in directing future research.
+One of these facts will doubtless appear to many as strange and
+inexplicable but as noteworthy as it appears to me.
+
+In Cristoval de Molina's account of the fables and rites of the Incas(26)
+already cited, a fable is related concerning the Inca Yupanqui, the
+Conqueror, who extended the domain of the Peruvian empire and instituted
+the worship of a creator who, unlike the sun, could rest and light up the
+world from one spot.
+
+"They say that, before he succeeded [to rulership], he went one day to
+visit his father Uiracocha Inca, who was at Sacsahuana, five leagues from
+Cuzco. As he came up to a fountain called Susur-puquio, he saw a piece of
+crystal fall into it, within which he beheld the figure of an Indian in
+the following shape:
+
+"Out of the back of his head there issued three very brilliant rays like
+those of the Sun. Serpents were twined around his arms, and on his head
+there was the llautu or royal fringe worn across the forehead of the Inca.
+His ears were bored and he wore the same earpieces as the Inca, besides
+being dressed like him. The head of a lion came out from between his legs
+and on his shoulders was another lion whose legs appeared to join over the
+shoulders of the man. A sort of serpent also twined over the shoulders.
+
+"On seeing this figure the Inca Yupanqui fled, but the figure of the
+apparition called him by his name from within the fountain saying, 'Come
+hither, my son, and fear not, for I am the Sun, thy father. Thou shalt
+conquer many nations: therefore be careful to pay great reverence to me
+and remember me in thy sacrifices.' The apparition then vanished, while
+the piece of crystal remained. The Inca took care of it and they say that
+he afterwards saw everything he wanted in it. As soon as he was Lord he
+ordered a statue of the Sun to be made as nearly as possible resembling
+the figure he had seen in the crystal. He gave orders to the heads of the
+provinces in all the lands he had conquered, that they should make grand
+temples, richly endowed, and he commanded all his subjects to adore and
+reverence the new Deity, as they had heretofore worshipped the Creator....
+It is related that all his conquests were made in the name of the Sun, his
+Father, and of the Creator. This Inca also commanded all the nations they
+conquered to hold their huacas in great veneration...."
+
+It is a startling but undeniable fact that one of the beautiful
+bas-reliefs found at Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa near the western coast of
+Guatemala, about 1,200 miles to the north of the latitude of Cuzco,
+answers in a most striking manner to the description given of Inca
+Yupanqui's vision.(27)
+
+Amongst the thirteen sculptured slabs discovered at Santa Lucia, there are
+six entire slabs and the fragment of another which are of almost uniform
+size and may be ranked among the finest examples of aboriginal art which
+have as yet been found on the American Continent. They represent seven
+different renderings of the same theme. On each slab an individual wearing
+elaborate insignia is represented as standing with one arm raised and his
+head thrown back in the act of gazing upwards towards a celestial figure
+which seems to be descending towards him. The arms and heads of these
+nobly conceived figures are visible, but in each case the faces seem to
+issue from a highly ornate symbol, which is different in each one, just as
+the insignia of each individual also varies in detail. At the same time it
+is obvious that the seven slabs commemorate as it were an identical
+circumstance,--the apparition of the same divinity to seven different
+individuals, six of which are represented with the sign of speech coming
+forth from their mouths in precisely the same manner. The general
+resemblance, notwithstanding the distinct individuality of each
+bas-relief, suggests that they commemorate the visions seen under similar
+circumstances by seven distinct personages of the same rank and position.
+Involuntarily one thinks of the period of enforced fast and vigil which
+marks the attainment of manhood and is still obligatory amongst North
+American tribes, amongst whom it only ends when they have entered into
+communion with their totemic ancestor. I am inclined to view these
+commemorative tablets as commemorating an analogous rite and perpetuating
+the visions of successive members of one ruling family, or clan. The
+divinity, invariably associated with serpent symbols, seems to be
+Quetzalcoatl, the divine twin or serpent, exhibiting in some cases the
+emblem of the Sun, but evidently revealing itself to each personage under
+a slightly different form.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 47.
+
+
+The accompanying drawing (fig. 47) of one of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs,
+reproduced from Dr. Habel's work, will suffice to establish its
+resemblance to Padre Oliva's description of the apparition seen by the
+youthful Inca Yupanqui. After a careful comparison of the text to the
+sculptured bas-relief, it must be admitted that a more graphic and
+impressive illustration of the episode can scarcely be imagined. Its lower
+portion displays a youthful figure, looking upwards and exhibiting a
+necklace, the circular ear-pieces and royal fringe or llautu of the Incas.
+From his shoulders hangs the skin of a puma or lion with its head
+downwards. Molina relates that lion-skins with the heads were specially
+prepared for the ceremonial when youths were admitted into the ranks of
+knighthood, the last rite of which was the piercing of their ears and the
+enlargement of the orifice made.(28)
+
+The youth wears a singular head-dress, or diadem, consisting of what
+appears to be an eye with conventionally drawn upper lid, surmounted by
+three pointed rays, behind which some long wavy feathers are visible.(29)
+
+The celestial apparition to which the youthful figure is looking up,
+likewise exhibits the same necklace, pieces, and royal fringe of the
+Incas. Indistinctly though some of the details are given, it seems as
+though intertwined serpents encircled its head and possibly its neck. The
+head of the vision is surmounted by an enlarged rendering of the
+conventionally drawn eyelid and three pointed rays which form the diadem
+of the youthful knight. The face of the vision occupies, however, the
+place of the eye on the diadem. In this connection it is interesting to
+note that in the Nahuatl language, which, as (_op. et loc. cit._) proven
+by Buschmann, was spoken in Guatemala where the bas-relief was found, the
+word ixtli designates face, whilst ixtololotli signifies eye. Situated
+between the right elbow of the celestial figure and the diadem of the
+youth, there is a diminutive reproduction of the eye, eyelid and three
+rays, with the addition that what appear like two (or three?) drops of
+water or two eyes descend from it towards a square symbol which resembles
+the Mexican sign for tlalli=earth, whilst the eye symbol is closely
+analogous to a well-known Mexican sign which has been interpreted as a
+star, and has, but not as yet satisfactorily, been identified with the
+planet Venus. Without pausing to study this sign as it appears in ancient
+Mexico I point out that the position and mode of representation of the
+upper figure in the bas-relief sufficiently show that it is an image of a
+celestial being or vision in the act of receiving the supplication of a
+youth who is wearing divine insignia. There being a possibility that some
+of these accessories may be somewhat indistinct in the original bas-relief
+now preserved at the Royal Ethnographical Museum at Berlin, I do not
+venture to draw special attention to the possibility of further points of
+resemblance between the Peruvian tradition and this Guatemalan sculpture.
+
+At the same time I shall not omit allusion to the wavy figure winding
+upwards from the waist of the supplicant, which recurs in four out of the
+seven slabs. It may yet prove to answer to the description of "a sort of
+serpent," which is recorded as twining over the shoulders of the vision
+who was "dressed like the Inca." The lion's head which appears in the
+drawing to cover the left hand of the supplicant and the fact that his
+left foot only, in some cases, wears a sandal, are important and
+interesting features to which I shall revert further on.
+
+Without attempting to offer any explanation of the truly remarkable fact
+that a bas-relief exhumed in Guatemala should so strikingly agree with a
+description preserved in a Peruvian tradition, I shall merely point out a
+second similar though much less remarkable case of agreement.
+
+Padre Oliva records two instances in which a "royal eagle" figures in
+connection with members of the Inca dynasty. One of these relates to the
+ancestors of Manco Capac, the reputed founder of Cuzco. His
+great-grandmother, being abandoned by her husband, attempted to sacrifice
+her young son to Pachacamac. A royal eagle descended, carried him away in
+his talons and set him down in an island off the Pacific coast, named
+Guayan, "because it was covered with willows." Oliva explains this
+tradition as a fanciful way of recording the fact that the youth's life
+was probably endangered, and that he had fled and taken refuge on an
+island. At the age of twenty-one he made his way back to the continent on
+a raft, but was seized by hostile people. His life was, however, saved by
+the daughter of a chieftain who returned with him to the island. Her name
+is given as Ciguar, a word strangely like the Nahuatl Cihuatl=woman. She
+bore him a son who was named Atau (_cf._ Ahau and Ahua=Maya and Mexican
+words for lord or chief), who was, in time, the father of Manco Capac, the
+reputed founder of civilization in Peru. When the latter was a child "an
+eagle approached him and never left him." In view of these traditions it
+is interesting to note that, on two of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs figured
+by Habel and reproduced by Mr. Hermann Strebel in pl. II, fig. 13, of his
+extremely useful and comprehensive monograph on the bas-reliefs of Santa
+Lucia, an eagle is represented in connection with a figure wearing divine
+insignia.
+
+On one of the seven analogous slabs representing a personage addressing a
+supplication to a celestial apparition, a large eagle or vulture is
+actually sculptured behind the supplicant, being, as it were, his
+individual totem (Strebel, Pl. II, fig. 5).
+
+A drawing of a part of another slab (Strebel, Pl. II, fig. 13) displays an
+eagle or vulture holding in his beak the body of a bearded personage who
+wears a neck ornament and circular ear pieces, and from whose head two
+serpents hang. This last detail associates him with the celestial figure
+which usually displays knotted serpents on or above its head, suggesting
+its connection with Quetzalcoatl, the divine title of the Supreme Being
+and also of the supreme rulers of the Mexicans. It is curious to find in
+Peru a tradition recording that, when "the Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui
+undertook the conquest of the Antisuyus with 100,000 men, their Huaca sent
+forth fire and stopped the passage with a fierce serpent which destroyed
+many people. The Inca raised his eyes to heaven and prayed for help with
+great sorrow, and a furious eagle descended, and seizing the head of the
+serpent raised it on high, and then hurled it to the ground. In memory of
+this miracle the Inca ordered a snake to be carved in stone on the wall of
+a terrace in this province, which was called Aucapirca." When divested of
+all fanciful details, the foregoing Peruvian traditions seem to show that
+the eagle was the totem of one or more of the Incas and that the serpent
+was the totem of a tribe which was conquered by the Incas. It is likewise
+recorded by Padre Oliva that the Inca named Mayta Capac Amaru ordered his
+shield to be painted with weapons and a serpent=Amaru, "because he had
+killed one in the Andes and therefore took it for his surname."
+
+It is impossible for any Mexicanist to read the foregoing texts without
+recalling that, in the City of Mexico, there is an unexplained bas-relief
+which was put up by the Spaniards after the Conquest but evidently figures
+a native tradition. It represents an eagle bearing in his talons a
+personage, wearing a diadem, beneath whom is a group of native
+weapons.(30) The arms of Mexico representing an eagle holding a serpent in
+its talons and resting on a cactus, is too well known to require comment
+and recalls the Peruvian tradition of the eagle of the Incas conquering
+the serpent-totem of a hostile people.
+
+Striking as these undeniable resemblances undoubtedly are, they would not,
+by themselves, justify the immediate conclusion that an actual direct
+connection existed between the Peruvian traditions and the Guatemalan and
+Mexican bas-reliefs which almost seem to illustrate the same or analogous
+incidents. At the same time they prove that, besides their scheme of
+government, the Incas had certain myths or traditions in common with the
+civilized tribes inhabiting Central America.
+
+It is well to bear in mind that the situations of Cuzco in Peru and Santa
+Lucia in Guatemala are both adjacent to the Pacific coast with an
+intervening distance of about 27-1/2 degrees of latitude. But 15 degrees,
+however, lie between the northern boundary of modern Peru and the southern
+boundary of Nicaragua where, as proven by Buschmann, innumerable names of
+localities in the Nahuatl language testify to its ancient occupation by a
+Nahuatl-speaking race.
+
+It is noteworthy that this eminent philologist observed how the name
+employed to designate the bamboo bed of the Cacique Agateite, in
+Nicaragua, "barbacoa," was the same as that of the wooden bed or litter
+used by the Inca in Peru (_op. cit._ p. 756). Buschmann likewise
+identified the word galpon=great hall or house. He also expressed the
+opinion that "the Quechua word _pampa_ resembles the Mexican _amilpampa
+ehecatl_=the south wind, but the Mexican is formed by the affixes pan and
+pa and the Quechua substantive means an even, open plain. At the same time
+this meaning and form could be derived from the Mexican affixes"
+(Buschmann, Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen III, 7, p. 627).
+
+Following this precedent I have ventured to search for further
+resemblances between Nahuatl and Quechua words, and one of the remarkable
+results I obtained was the discovery that the well-known Quechua name for
+colonists=Mitimaes, the meaning of which, in Quechua, is not forthcoming,
+seems to be connected in sound and meaning with the Nahuatl Ce-mitime=sons
+of one mother (Molina's dictionary). It is superfluous to point out how
+appropriate this designation would have been for the colonists who
+invariably founded fresh centres of civilization on the plan of the
+central metropolis. A brief comparative table, the result of an
+investigation which lays no claim to be more than a rudimentary attempt,
+is published as an appendix to this paper, with the hope that it may
+stimulate philologists to supersede it by exhaustive studies of the
+subject. A careful examination of the table tends to prove that certain
+Nahuatl, Quechua and Maya words had a common origin and shows that a
+closer connection existed between the Nahuatl and Quechua languages than
+between Nahuatl and Maya or the Quechua and Maya.
+
+I shall have occasion to refer to several of the words I have tabulated.
+At present I would draw attention to an analogy which bears directly on
+the subject of this paper and is of utmost interest and importance. If
+carefully studied it will be seen that the title "Pacha Yachachic,"
+applied in Peru to the Creator, proves to be allied in sound and meaning
+to the Mexican title Yaca-tecuhtli, "the lord who guides or governs."
+According to Sahagun, this was "the god of the traders or
+traveller-merchants." He had five divine brothers and one sister, each of
+which was separately worshipped by some travellers, whilst others, on
+their safe return from distant and dangerous expeditions, offered
+sacrifices to the whole group collectively. I leave it to each reader to
+make his own inference as to whether this celestial "traveller's guide"
+with his six brethren can have been other than Polaris and Ursa Minor. The
+difference in the magnitudes of this constellation would naturally give
+rise to the idea of a group composed of individuals of different ages and
+sizes; the "little sister" probably being the smaller of the four
+intermediate stars of the constellation and suggesting tales of adventures
+relating to the mythical sister of six brothers.
+
+It is superfluous to emphasize how natural it would have been to offer a
+thanksgiving to the "traveller's star" on returning from a distant voyage,
+but I will point out that for coast navigation between Guatemala and
+Nicaragua and Peru, the adoption of Polaris as a guide was and is a matter
+of course. It is well to bear in mind that we are dealing here with
+navigation north and south, along a sheltered coast, for a distance not
+exceeding that of the coast-line between Gibraltar and Hamburg. An
+instructive example of primitive navigation, under analogous
+circumstances, has been communicated to me, from personal observation, by
+Commander Barber of the United States Navy.
+
+Native traders, who navigate north and south in small crafts along the
+coast between Ceylon and Karashee, still use, at the present day, an
+extremely primitive method of estimating latitude, which is entirely based
+upon observations of the pole-star. Their contrivance consists of a piece
+of wood four inches square, through which a hole is bored and a piece of
+cord, with knots at intervals, is passed. The square is held at arm's
+length and the end of the cord is held to the point of the navigator's
+nose in a horizontal line, the height being so adjusted that the pole-star
+is observed in contact with the upper edge of the piece of wood. There are
+as many knots in the cords as there are ports habitually visited, and
+according to the length of the cord required for the observation of
+Polaris in the said position, the mariner knows to which port he is
+opposite.
+
+According to Sir Clements B. Markham,(31) the original inhabitants of the
+Peruvian coast fished in boats made of inflated sealskins. It is well
+known that the coast-tribes of Mexico and Central America employed boats
+of various kinds and some of great size. The Mexican tradition relates
+that the culture hero Quetzalcoatl departed in a craft he had constructed
+and which is designated as a coatlapechtli=coa=coatl=serpent or twin,
+tlapechtli=raft. It is open to conjecture whether this construction, "in
+which he sat himself as in a boat," may be regarded as a sort of double or
+twin raft, or a boat made of serpent or seal (?) skin. In order to form
+any opinion, the name for seal in the Nahuatl and other languages spoken
+by the coast tribes should first be ascertained and compared with the
+native names for serpent.
+
+The Maya colonists who founded the colony on the Mexican coast, and are
+known as the Huaxtecans, are described as having transported themselves
+thither by boats from Yucatan. In the native Codices and in the sculptured
+bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, there are, moreover, illustrations of
+navigation by boats. As dependent upon Polaris as their East Indian
+colleagues of to-day, it is but natural that the ancient Mexican traders
+by land or sea expressed their gratitude by offerings to Polaris and Ursa
+Minor.
+
+Let us now return to Peru and examine whether there is any proof that the
+"Teacher or Guide of the World," the Supreme Being of the Incas, was
+identical with the "Lord who guides" revered by the Mexican navigators.
+
+I have already demonstrated that in ancient America the native scheme of
+religion and government was but the natural outcome of certain ideas
+suggested by the observation of Polaris and the circumpolar
+constellations. I have likewise quoted the remarkable qualification of a
+supreme divinity made by Inca Yupanqui, who raised a temple in Cuzco to
+the Creator who, superior to the sun, could rest and light the world from
+one spot. It is an extremely important and significant fact that the
+principal doorway of this temple opened to the north,(32) and that the
+"true Creator" is alluded to as an invisible power, the knowledge of which
+was transmitted by the Incas from father to son. Thus Salcamayhua records
+that on one occasion the young Inca Ccapac Yupanqui exclaimed "I now feel
+that there is another Creator of all things [than that worshipped in the
+Andes], as my father Mayta Ccapas Inca has indeed told me."(33)
+Considering that in the latitude of Cuzco, situated as it is 14 deg. below the
+equator, Polaris is invisible, the conditions thus recorded as existing in
+Peru are exactly those which might be expected to exist if a religion
+founded on pole-star worship had been carried southward to a region in
+which the star itself was invisible. The orientation of the temple would
+designate the north as the sacred region and the star-god would become an
+invisible power whose very existence would have become traditional and
+necessarily be accepted on faith by native-born Peruvians and converted
+sun- and moon-worshippers.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that a descendant of the Incas has furnished us
+with actual proof that the Supreme Creator revered at Cuzco was not only
+associated with a star, but also with the figure of a cross, each branch
+of which terminated in a star. We are indebted to the native chronicler
+Salcamayhua for some extremely curious drawings, which are reproduced here
+from his account of the Antiquities of Peru.(34) In treating of the
+primitive astronomy in America in my special paper on the native calendar,
+I shall refer to these in greater detail. For my present purpose it
+suffices to designate the following figures.
+
+Salcamayhua records that the founder of the Peruvian Empire, Manco Capac,
+ordered the smiths to make a flat plate of fine gold, of oval shape, which
+was set up as an image of the Creator (_op. cit._ p. 76). The Inca Mayta
+Ccapac, "who despised all created things, including the sun and moon," and
+"ordered his people to pay no honour to them," caused the plate to be
+renewed which his "great grandfather had put up, fixing it afresh in the
+place where it had been before. He rebuilt the 'house of gold' and they
+say that he caused things to be placed round the plate, which I have
+shown, that it may be seen what these heathens thought." The central
+figure on this plate consists of the oval image of the Creator, fig. 48,
+_c_. Close to its right are images designated by the text as representing
+the sun and morning star. To the left are the moon and the evening star.
+Above the oval and touching it, is a group of five stars forming a cross,
+with one star in the centre. Below it is a cross figure formed by lines
+uniting four stars. In this case, instead of being in the middle, the
+fifth star is attached to the lower edge of the oval, which is designated
+as "the image of Uiracocha Pacha-Yachachic, the teacher of the World."
+Outside of the plate is what appears to be an attempt to explain more
+clearly the relative positions of the group of five stars to the oval
+plate (fig. 48, _a_). It represents the oval and one star in the centre of
+a cross formed by four stars. The question naturally suggests itself
+whether the group of five stars forming a cross may not represent the
+Southern Cross, popularly called the pole-star of the south and which
+consists of four principal stars, one of which is of the first and two of
+the second magnitude. This possibility opens out a new field of inquiry,
+and calls for the statement of the following facts, which I quote from
+Amedee Guillemin's Handbook of Popular Astronomy, edited by J. Norman
+Lockyer and revised by Richard A. Proctor.(35)
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 48.
+
+
+"In [our] enumeration of the circumpolar constellations of the South, we
+have said nothing of the stars situated at the Pole itself. The reason is
+simple; there are none deserving mention, and with the exception of one
+star in Hydrae, none approach the third magnitude. There is not then, in
+the southern sky, any star analogous to Polaris in the northern heavens."
+M. Guillemin proceeds to explain, however, that this poverty of the polar
+regions is singularly compensated for by the stars of the equatorial zone.
+It seems more than probable that primitive astronomers or their
+descendants, who had been reared in a knowledge of the northern Polaris
+and of the periodical motion of the circumpolar constellations, should
+continue their observations in whatever latitude they found themselves. It
+seems possible that they may have observed the Southern Cross and
+recognized its closeness to the pivot or centre of rotation; but from
+personal experience and observation I can vouch for the fact that this
+constellation could never have produced upon primitive man the powerful
+impression caused by Ursa Major and Cassiopeia revolving around Polaris.
+It is, of course, impossible to conclude to what extent the ancient
+Peruvians revered the Southern Cross. It suffices for the present to
+establish the incontrovertible facts that the image of the motionless
+Creator, set up by the Incas, was associated with stars and with the cross
+and that the door of the Cuzco Temple, where this image was kept, faced
+the north, the direction whence, according to native traditions, the
+culture-heroes had come to Peru.
+
+The following data furnish further important proof that certain peculiar
+ideas, symbols and metaphors were held in common by the civilizations of
+Peru, Central America and Mexico. Returning to the bas-relief (fig. 47), I
+recur to an interesting feature, which I have already pointed out, namely,
+that the left arm of the personage terminates in a tiger's or puma's head.
+In connection with this peculiarity it is interesting to note that the
+native historian Ixtlilxochitl cites his illustrious ancestor and
+namesake, the Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, as addressing his
+young son Nezalhualcoyotl as "my dearly beloved son, tiger's arm."(36) As
+the young prince is referred to in the same chapter as "the boy Acolmiztli
+[=tiger's arm] Nezalhualcoyotl," it is obvious that the metaphor
+constituted a title preceding the actual name. It was Nezalhual-coyotl who
+instituted the worship of Tloquenahuaque, the true Creator, and
+discountenanced human sacrifices.
+
+If the other analogous Santa Lucia slabs be also examined it will be seen
+that although the positions of the bodies and arms vary, and the form of
+the head is different in each instance, it is invariably the left arm that
+terminates in the individual emblem. This sort of consecration of the left
+hand seems particularly significant for the following reason: Padre Anello
+Oliva records that the Inca Yupanqui, the founder of Cuzco and the same
+whose vision agrees so strangely with the bas-relief, was surnamed
+Lloque=the left-handed,(37) and was noted for having visited the whole
+empire three times. His reign was long and prosperous, and he left a
+record as a conqueror and builder. He likewise sent his son Mayta-Capac to
+visit the whole empire, accompanied by sages and councillors. I recall
+here it was Yupanqui who proclaimed to the sun-worshippers of Peru, the
+existence and superiority of an immutable Creator.
+
+I have already shown how, in Peru, it was a dictum that the upper division
+of the empire was to bear the same ideal relation to the lower as that of
+an elder brother to a younger or a right hand to the left. It is,
+therefore, possible to infer that, on ceremonial occasions when it is
+recorded that the Hanan Cuzco and Hurin Cuzco people were stationed at
+either side of the Inca, the Hanan or chieftains constituting the nobility
+were to his right and the Hurin people or lower class, to his left.
+
+It is truly remarkable that it is a passage in the Annals of the
+Cakchiquels, the people now inhabiting the region of Guatemala where the
+Santa Lucia bas-reliefs were found, that contains the clearest statement
+regarding the division of a tribe into two classes and the relative
+positions assigned to each of these, according to ceremonial usage. The
+passage relates: "We, the 13 divisions of warriors, and the seven tribes
+... we came to the enclosure of Tulan, and coming, gave our tribute. The
+seven tribes were drawn up in order on the left of Tulan. On the right
+hand, were arranged the warriors. Firstly, the tribute was taken from the
+seven tribes, next from the warriors."(38)
+
+Buschmann has recorded the interesting fact that, in Nahuatl, the right
+hand is designated as "the good, clever or wise"=yec-maitl or mayectli,
+also ma-imatca or ma-nematca (from yectli=good and imati=to be clever or
+wise). Molina's dictionary furnishes us with the following Nahuatl names
+for the left hand, etc.
+
+Opoch maitl, Opuch maitl, Opuch maye: left hand.
+Opochiuia=v. to do something with the left hand.
+Topuchcopa, the left, at the left hand, or side.
+
+In Mexico the totemic lord of the chase was named Opochtli. The
+much-discussed name Huitzil-opochtli is considered by some to signify "the
+left-handed humming-bird."
+
+The foregoing proves that in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico a caste-division
+was associated with left-handedness and that the expression "left-handed"
+was employed as an honorific or distinctive title. It is obvious that
+before reaching the point when the left hand would be invested by a
+distinctive mark, as in the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs, the above ideas must
+have been prevalent for a very long time.
+
+I have already pointed out that a striking similarity of ideas survives
+amongst the Zuni Indians of to-day.
+
+As to the native tiger's head (puma or ocelot?) we find that it is the
+chief symbol of the central human figure on the great monolithic doorway
+of Tiahuanaco, Peru, a fact which testifies to a further community of
+thought.
+
+This central figure exhibits two tigers' heads on each shoulder and six
+around its head, disposed as rays and interspersed with what resemble
+drops of water. The transverse ornament carved on the breast exhibits four
+divisions, each of which terminates with a tiger's head. Four similar
+heads, looking upwards, are on the central decoration beneath the figure
+and the broad band at the base terminates in two large tigers' heads. What
+is more, on the fragment of a finely carved hollow stone object, which is
+preserved at the British Museum and was found at Tiahuanaco by Mr. Richard
+Inwards, there are the finest representations of the swastika which have
+as yet been found on the American Continent, and each of its branches
+terminates in a tiger's head, resembling those sculptured on the
+monolithic doorway. The fragment consists of the half of what seems to me
+to have been the top or handle of a staff or sceptre. I am indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. C. H. Read of the British Museum, for a rubbing of the
+carved fragment and for the permission to reproduce it here (fig. 49). The
+central swastika is angular and its form recalls that of the Mexican
+Calendar swastika (fig. 9). At each side of it are portions of what
+originally were two rounded swastikas, which also terminate in tigers'
+heads. These and the size of the fragment seem to justify the inference
+that another square swastika was originally sculptured on the opposite
+side, making two rounded and two square swastikas in all.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 49.
+
+
+It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this fragment, for
+it proves to us that in Tiahuanaco, the swastika was a sacred symbol. Its
+association with the puma or ocelot, links it to the central figure on the
+monolithic doorway and, possibly, connects this with the Mexican
+identification of the ocelot with the Ursa Major, with "the lord who walks
+around," or the lord of the underworld, Tezcatlipoca. The two forms of
+swastika seem to testify that, in Tiahuanaco also, the idea of the Above
+and Below prevailed and that the angular form symbolized the subdivision
+of the earth and the rounded one that of the heavens. The rows of
+personages sculptured on the doorway at each side of and facing the
+central figure seem to indicate that this commemorates an establishment of
+tribal organization.
+
+The distribution of the sculptured figures is as follows:
+
+8 figures=2x4 }                Central { 8 figures
+8 figures=2x4 } 6x4                    { 8 figures
+8 figures=2x4 }                figure. { 8 figures.
+
+The figures on the upper row to the right and left, making sixteen in all,
+are all alike--so are the sixteen figures on the second and the sixteen on
+the third rows.
+
+Without attempting to describe all the insignia which characterize the
+figures on each of the three rows, I refer the reader to the magnificent
+plates contained in Drs. Stuebel and Uhle's monumental work on the Ruins of
+Tiahuanaco, and merely note that each figure in the uppermost row exhibits
+a bird's head in front of its head-dress. All figures in the second row
+are completely masked as condors. In the third row a tiger's head
+decorates each head-dress. It is curious to find that whilst the birds'
+and tigers' heads designate their wearers as heads or chieftains, these
+emblems strikingly coincide with the classification of the highest Mexican
+warriors into two divisions, known as "the ocelots and the eagles." If
+attention is bestowed upon the number of emblems or figures and their
+distribution it will be seen, in the first case, that the central figure
+exhibits on his person twelve tigers' heads in all, _i. e._, six on his
+head, two on each arm and two on his breast-plate. Sixteen chieftains
+exhibit the same emblem and the carved fragment with the swastika appears
+to have originally exhibited sixteen tigers' heads, distributed into
+homogeneous groups of four.
+
+It cannot be denied that the forty-eight figures on the doorway are first
+divided into two groups of twenty-four by being placed to the right and
+left of the central figure. Each division of twenty-four is grouped as
+3x8, which is also 6x4, and yielding a total of 12x4 or 4x12 figures.
+
+Curiously enough the number 12 coincides not only with the number of heads
+exhibited by the central figure, but the entire bas-relief offers a
+certain agreement with the numerical divisions of Cuzco which I have
+summarized as having been divided into two halves and four quarters and
+subdivided into 12 wards, the names of which doubtlessly corresponded with
+those of their inhabitants. Personally I am inclined to consider that the
+purpose of the Tiahuanaco bas-relief was to establish a certain tribal
+organization and impose certain distinctive insignia upon each tribe. The
+inference that each sculptured figure was differentiated from the other by
+being painted in various colors is justified by Molina's account, already
+cited, that "in Tiahuanaco the 'Creator' had his chief abode, hence the
+superb edifices in that place, on which edifices were painted many dresses
+of Indians ... thus each nation uses the dress with which they invest
+their huaca and they say that the first that was born [in Tiahuanaco] was
+there turned into stones, others say that the first of their lineages were
+turned into falcons, condors and other animals and birds."
+
+It is with deference, however, that I submit my conclusion and refer the
+question to the supreme authority of Drs. Stuebel and Uhle and Mr.
+Bandelier, whose attainments and exhaustive researches in the region of
+Tiahuanaco qualify them to utter a final judgment upon this interesting
+subject. According to Dr. Max Uhle the civilization established at
+Tiahuanaco antedates that of the Incas. It may yet be proven that whilst
+Tiahuanaco was settled in remote times by colonists from the North, the
+Inca civilization was due to a later migration. It certainly appears that,
+in Tiahuanaco and Cuzco, the identical fundamental scheme of government
+and organization prevailed.
+
+I shall yet have occasion to point out that in Mexico and Yucatan and
+Central America there are also monuments exhibiting multiples of 12 and 4
+and also 16 chieftains. Meanwhile it is worth while to note here briefly,
+some analogies to Mexican and Maya antiquities found in Peru.
+
+I am much indebted to Sir Clements D. Markham, the President of the Royal
+Geographical Society, for the kind permission to reproduce here a hasty
+drawing he made, in 1853, of a gold plaque (size 5-8/10 inches) found in
+Cuzco (fig. 50). It was then in Lima, being the property of the President
+of Peru, General Echerrique. This curious relic exhibits the image of a
+monstrous face surrounded by a band with subdivisions containing various
+signs. The plaque was looked upon by its owner as a Calendar, but Sir
+Clements Markham, after studying its subdivisions with a view of
+ascertaining their agreement with the twelve divisions of the Peruvian
+year, preferred to let his notes on the subject remain unpublished, not
+having come to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject. I am permitted,
+however, to state that Sir Clements Markham specially noted the
+resemblance of a sign, which is represented on the cheeks of the central
+figure and recurs four times on the encircling band, to the well-known
+Maya glyph ahau=chief, lord.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 50.
+
+
+It is, indeed, a cursive representation of a human head and moreover
+resembles those figured on the garment of a gigantic red sandstone statue
+found at Ak-Kapana and figured in Stuebel and Uhle's Tiahuanaco. On this
+garment the heads alternate with squares and form a close design. This
+resemblance between the conventional faces on this archaic statue and
+those on the gold plaque has made me attach more importance to the latter
+and at all events regard it as preserving ancient native symbolism. In
+connection with these I wish to point out that the plaque itself offers a
+certain resemblance to well-known Mexican calendars, the centre of which
+usually exhibits a face which is surrounded by a band with day or month
+signs. It is remarkable that above each eye there are four dots,
+especially as the Quechua word for eye=naui is homonymous with the Nahuatl
+numeral four=nahui, and this is so constantly associated with an eye in
+the Mexican sign Nahui ollin=four movements (_cf._ fig. 2). As strange a
+coincidence as this is furnished by the mark on the forehead of the image,
+not because the latter resembles the sect mark of the Vishnu worshippers,
+but because it offers a marked analogy to the Mexican Acatl sign which is
+frequently carved or painted as a cane standing in a square receptacle
+with recurved ends. I am strongly tempted to interpret this symbol
+according to the native mode of thought, as signifying the centre, the
+union of the Above and Below and to regard the upper part of the face
+itself as a representation of the Above, the heaven, with its two eyes
+(the Moon and Sun), whilst the lower part and teeth, as in Mexico,
+signified the Below, the earth and underworld. By means of the head on
+each cheek and the number four over each eye, the dual and quadruple
+rulerships of the empire could well have been expressed. Postponing a more
+thorough study of the gold plaque, I merely note here that it exhibits
+curious analogies not only to Maya but also to Mexican symbolism.
+
+Another instance of the same kind is furnished by a possibly modern but
+curious small silver pendant of unquestionably native workmanship. It is
+preserved at the Ethnographical Museum at Vienna and is figured in the
+Report of the International Congress of Americanists which was held at
+Berlin in 1888 (pl. 1, fig. 4, p. 96). Reputed to be from Cuzco, it
+represents a figure of the sun surrounded by eight straight and
+intermediate undulating rays. Two serpents are figured beneath the sun;
+their bodies extend across the pendant and their heads with open jaws
+almost meet in the centre. A figure, wearing a peculiar head-dress, is
+kneeling in worship beneath the symbols, which undoubtedly recall the
+Mexican mode of representing two serpents meeting, as on the Calendar
+Stone of Mexico, for instance.
+
+As I am tracing analogies at present, I should like to ask the reader to
+compare the symbols figured and designated by Salcamayhua as that of the
+earth (see his fig. _c_, pl. LXVI) with the sacred vase from the Maya MS.
+(his fig. II, pl. LIX) and the form of the Peruvian symbol for the sea
+(his fig. _e_, pl. LXVI) with the peculiar Mexican shell ornament (fig. 1,
+no. 10). Insufficient though the above analogies may seem in themselves,
+they are valuable in conjunction with the other data presented and
+strengthen the conclusion that the same symbolism prevailed in Peru as in
+Central America, Yucatan and Mexico.
+
+Let us now rapidly journey northwards from Peru to these countries and
+briefly record the traces of the existence of the same ideas and
+quadruplicate form of government which we may encounter en route. In the
+elevated plains of Bogota we find positive proof that the Muyscas held the
+same ideas as their southern and northern neighbors. Their culture hero,
+Bochica or Ida-can-zas, was the personification of the Above and of its
+symbol, the Sun, whilst his wife was Chia, a name suspiciously like
+Quilla, the Quechua for moon. He was high-priest and ruler but counselled
+the Muyscas to elect one of themselves, a chief named Hunc-Ahua, to be
+their Za-que or civil ruler. Ida-can-zas instituted the Calendar and
+taught the Muyscas to appoint four chiefs of tribes whose names or titles
+are recorded as Gameza, Busbanca, Pesca and Toca. The institution of a
+dual government is indicated by the record that the high-priest dwelt at
+the sacred town Aura-ca and the Za-que at Tunja.
+
+It is extremely curious to notice that Ida-can-zas, in Bogota, did
+precisely what Cortes found it expedient to do after the Conquest of
+Mexico. The latter assumed the supreme rulership over the nobility, became
+the "lord of Heaven" and instituted a native chieftain, bearing a female
+title, as his coadjutor, the lord of the earth, and the ruler of the
+people of the lower class.
+
+It may be worth making the passing remark that the title of the Muysca
+culture-hero contains the word "can" and thus recalls the Maya Kukulcan
+and that the title Za-que offers a certain resemblance to the Maya title
+Chac, whilst the name Hunc-ahua seems strangely similar to Hun-ahau which
+in Maya would signify "one lord." It is for Muysca scholars to enlighten
+us as to the derivation and meaning of the above titles and name.
+
+Regretting the lack of time and documents which have prevented me from
+obtaining further data I now return to Guatemala and the vicinity of the
+Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. Referring to the introduction to their Annals(39)
+we learn that the Cakchiquel tribe was but one of four allied nations,
+each of which had its capital, named Tecpan, as follows:
+
+Nations: Capitals.
+Cakchiquel: Tecpan Quauhtemallan,
+Quiche: Utatlan,
+Tzutuhil: Atitlan,
+Akahal: Tezolotlan.
+
+According to Mr. A. P. Maudslay's authoritative statement, these nations
+were engaged in warfare against each other at the time of the Conquest.
+Tezolotlan was termed the "tierra de guerra" the land of war, and the
+precise locality of its tecpan or former capital has not been traced,
+although it seems to have been close to Rabinal or in the valley of that
+name.
+
+It is well known that, under the rulership of Tizoc, the Mexicans extended
+their conquests into Guatemala. Buschmann has, moreover, proven that the
+foregoing names of the capitals, of what were at one time four provinces,
+are pure Nahuatl, which fact establishes the existence of Nahua supremacy
+in these regions.
+
+It is curious to find that one of the Santa Lucia slabs seems to
+commemorate the existence of a central rulership and that of the four
+quarters. It is reproduced in Mr. Strebel's publication already cited and
+represents a central personage holding a head and a tecpatl, whilst four
+lesser personages, each carrying a head, are figured as walking away in
+four opposed directions. As, according to native symbolism, the head is
+the symbol for chieftain this slab seems to commemorate the establishment
+and at all events testifies to the existence in Guatemala of the scheme of
+government now so familiar.
+
+In their Annals, the Cakchiquels record, as I have already shown, that
+they carried their tribute to "the enclosure of Tulan," a designation
+which supports my inference, previously maintained, that Tulan was derived
+from the Maya tulum,=a fortification, an enclosed place or that which is
+entire, whole, etc., and applied always to the metropolis of a state.
+
+An ancient Cakchiquel legend relates, moreover, that, according to the
+"ancient men," there had been four Tulans: one in the east, one in the
+north, one in the west and one "where the god dwells." This would
+obviously have been situated towards the south in order to accord with the
+general scheme. I cannot but think that this record testifies to the
+existence of an extremely ancient state which starting from one metropolis
+had gradually developed into four great Tullans, to one of which the four
+tecpans of Guatemala pertained. The fact that the Spaniards found the four
+nations living close together, with capitals or tecpans bearing Nahuatl
+names and in constant warfare with each other, seems to indicate the
+destruction of their own ancient metropolis or Tullan by their Mexican
+conquerors and the consequent disintegration of their former
+government.(40)
+
+The Mendoza Codex teaches us that when the Mexicans conquered a land they
+first burnt and utterly destroyed the teocallis situated in the heart of
+its central capital. They razed this to the ground, and carried off to
+their own metropolis the totemic images of the rulers of the tribe. The
+barbarous institution of human sacrifice, which was only practised to a
+great extent by the Mexicans when the necessity to obtain more plentiful
+food supplies for their rapidly increasing population forced them to
+become a nation of warriors and conquerors, seems indeed to have been
+adopted as a fear-inspiring, symbolical rite commemorating the conquest
+and destruction of an integral government.
+
+The victim, usually a chieftain taken prisoner in warfare and clad with
+his insignia and the raiment of his people, was stretched on the stone of
+sacrifice and, figuratively speaking, represented his country and its four
+quarters. The tearing out of his heart by the high-priest, armed with the
+tecpatl, the emblem of supreme authority, signified the destruction of the
+independent life of his tribe as much as did the burning of the teocalli,
+and of its capital. It would seem as though the horrible custom of
+annually sacrificing one or more representatives of each conquered tribe,
+had been adopted as a means of upholding the assumed authority, inspiring
+awe and terror and impressing the realization of conquest and utter
+subjection. It is known that sometimes a member of a conquered tribe
+voluntarily offered himself as a victim in order to release his people
+from their obligation, and thus earned for himself immortality.
+
+An insight into the native association of ideas is afforded by Sahagun's
+note that the lord or chieftain was "the heart of his Pueblo," which means
+town as well as population. The death of the sacrificed chief, therefore,
+actually conveyed the idea of the destruction of the tribal government to
+his vanquished subjects. It remains to be seen whether the subsequent
+partition of portions of his dead body amongst the priesthood and their
+ritual cannibalism did not signify the absorption of the conquered
+population into the communal life of their victors. The preservation of
+the victim's skull on the Tzompantli, as a register of the conquest of a
+chieftain, would also be the logical outcome of the native line of thought
+and symbolism.
+
+At the risk of making a somewhat lengthy digression I will again refer
+here to a point I have already touched upon, namely, the Mexican
+employment of the human figure as an allegorical image of their Empire or
+State, the idea being that the four limbs represented its four
+governmental and territorial divisions and that these were governed by the
+head=the lord of the Above or heaven, and the heart=the lord of the Below
+or earth. A careful study of the native Codices has shown me that such was
+the native allegory which indeed can be further traced. The territory of a
+state reproduced the organization of the human body with its four limbs,
+each of these terminating in minor groups of five.
+
+According to the same set of ideas the cursive image of a state could be
+conveyed by a main group of five dots, situated in the centre of four
+minor similar groups. Cross-lines expressing the partition into four
+quarters would complete such a graphic and cursive presentation of the
+scheme and not only signify its territorial but also its governmental
+features. It is noteworthy that, in Nahuatl as in the Quechua, the title
+for minor chief is homonymous with the word for fingers.
+
+The Nahuatl pilli is a title for a chieftain or lord and also signifies
+child and fingers or toes. A finger is ma-pilli, the prefix ma, from
+maitl=hand, designating the fingers as the children of the hand. The thumb
+is qualified by the prefix uei=great.
+
+Having gained a recognition of the above facts it is not difficult to
+understand the meaning of certain sceptres in the form of an open hand
+which occur as symbols of authority borne by chieftains in the native
+Codices.(41) I know of one important instance, indeed, where an arm with
+an open hand is represented as standing upright in the centre of a circle
+divided into sections and zones (similar to fig. 28, nos. 1, 3, 5, and 6).
+
+The above mentioned examples, which I shall illustrate later, have led me
+to infer that whilst the arm symbolized one of the four divisions of the
+State, the hand symbolized its capital, the thumb its central ruler and
+the fingers his four officers or pilli, the rulers of the four quarters of
+the minor seat of government. In another publication I shall produce
+illustrations showing that the foot was also employed as an emblem of rule
+and that Mexico, Yucatan and Central America furnish us with actual proofs
+that the hands and the feet respectively symbolized the upper and lower
+divisions of the State.
+
+It is thus curious to compare the name for thumb=uei-ma-pilli and the name
+Uei-mac (literally, great hand) which Sahagun gives as that of the
+"temporal" coadjutor of the Mexican culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, as well as
+the term, our toe=totecxopilli with the well-known title Totec=our chief
+or lord. In Yucatan the word for hand=kab is, as I shall demonstrate
+further on, actually incorporated in the title of the lords of the four
+quarters=Bakab. I am almost inclined to find a trace of a similar
+association in the Quechua word for fingers=pallca and the title palla
+bestowed upon noble women.
+
+I have already mentioned in the preceding pages that the natural basis of
+the all-pervading native numerical division into 4x5=20 was the finger and
+toe count. The following table exhibits the general custom to designate 20
+as one man or one count.(42)
+
+Word for Man.                          Word for 20.
+Nahuatl.      tlacatl.                cem-poualli=one count.
+Quiche     }
+and        }  uinay=one man.                uinay=  "    "
+Cakchiquel }
+Tzendal.      hun-uinic=one man.        hun-uinic=  "    "
+Maya.         uinic.                      hun-kal=  "    "
+
+In the latter case the affix kal seems to be derived from the same source
+as the verb kal=to close up or fasten something, and to signify something
+complete or finished. At the same time the Maya uinal is the Maya name for
+the twenty calendar-signs, and the same association is demonstrated as
+existing in Mexico by the well-known picture in the Vatican Codex I (p.
+75), which represents a man surrounded by the twenty Mexican
+calendar-signs.
+
+As I shall treat of the same subject more fully in another publication, I
+shall but briefly touch upon the intimate connection there existed between
+these calendar-signs and the twenty classes into which the population was
+strictly divided. It is known that an individual received the name of the
+day on which he was born and it is possible to prove that this determined
+his position in the commonwealth, his class and his future occupation.
+Each child was formally registered by the priestly statisticians at birth,
+and at about the age of six, when his name was sometimes changed, he
+entered one of the two educational establishments where he was brought up
+by the State, under the absolute control of the priesthood and rulers. It
+can be gleaned that one of the chief cares of the latter was to maintain
+the same average number of individuals in the distinct classes, to which
+the various forms of labor were allotted and who became in time identified
+with these. In order to keep the machinery of state in perfect adjustment,
+individuals had sometimes to be transferred from the class into which they
+were born, to another. In some cases this seems to have been arbitrarily
+ordered by the authorities, but the latter appear to have guided
+themselves by the position of the parents and to have established the
+custom that an individual might alternatively be transferred into the
+paternal or maternal class, but not into any other. As each class was,
+moreover, divided into an upper and lower one, it was possible for each
+person to elevate himself from the lower to the higher by individual merit
+or to incur abasement, for unworthy conduct, and being, as we have already
+seen, "reduced to the official rank of women."
+
+The direct outcome of such a form of organization was stringent laws
+governing marriage, it being expedient that certain classes only should
+intermarry, not only to avoid complications but also to ensure a certain
+degree of cooeperation conducive to the prosperity of the State. In the
+tribal laws still existing amongst the native tribes of North America, I
+see the logical survivals of an ancient scheme of organization.
+
+After gaining the above recognition of some of the actual duties of the
+priest-rulers of ancient Mexico, it is possible to understand the meaning
+of the native sentence, noted by Sahagun, that the native games of patolli
+and tlachtli constituted a practice in "the art of government." From this
+it is clear that the former, played by two individuals with dice and
+markers upon a mat in the shape of a cross, and symbolical of the Four
+Quarters, was originally invented by the priest-rulers for an eminently
+practical purpose. The mat being an image of the quadruple state and its
+subdivisions, it was possible to make it serve as a register-board
+exhibiting the distribution of the population, the number of individuals
+in each class and its death and birth rates. We are informed that when
+parents, according to the inflexible law, carried their newborn child to
+the priest, he consulted his books full of day-signs and foretold what its
+future was to be.
+
+A proof that it was the positions of the stars which determined the season
+and furnished the means of fixing a date, is furnished by the fact that
+the stars were also "consulted" and believed to exert an influence upon
+the destiny of the child.
+
+The implicit faith in the predictions of the priests and in the absolute
+influence of the position of the heavenly bodies and the date of its birth
+upon the individual indicates that the parents were kept in ignorance as
+to the workings of the machinery of state and that the priesthood were
+reverenced for their power of prophecy. The belief that they could
+personally exercise a favorable influence over the destiny of the child
+seems also to have been encouraged in the parents, since an offering of
+gifts at the period of registration was customary. After the Conquest,
+when the native government had been completely broken up, and the enforced
+registration of birth and the prediction of the priest had utterly lost
+their original significance, native parents still consulted the surviving
+members of the priest-rulers; and these ancient statisticians, in order to
+gain a livelihood, continued to consult their books and uttered
+predictions as of yore, although their power to control their fulfilment
+had vanished forever. Ancient Mexico thus furnishes us with an interesting
+and instructive explanation of the origin of divinatory practices,
+prognostication at birth, etc. It shows us that, under the ancient form of
+established government, the sign of the date of a child's birth actually
+did control his future destiny, while it was unquestionably in the power
+of the priesthood, not only to predict his future, but also to exert a
+favorable or unfavorable influence upon it.
+
+The above facts help us to understand the origin not only of divination,
+propitiation and the belief in the influence of day-signs, but also of the
+native games which became popular after the Conquest, when their original
+use and meaning had become obsolete.
+
+Deferring further discussion of this interesting matter I will but draw
+attention to Mr. Stewart Culin's important study of "American Indian
+Games,"(43) which clearly establishes their "interrelation" and at the
+same time proves that they were based, as first distinctly insisted upon
+by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, on the central idea and that of the four
+quarters of the world. Mr. Culin has gone so far as to fix the place of
+origin of the "platter or dice class of games which he has found recorded
+as existing among some 61 American tribes, in the arid region of the
+southwestern United States and Northern or Central Mexico," and to
+conceive that "in ancient Mexico we find traces of its highest
+development."
+
+I place the utmost value upon Mr. Culin's painstaking and conscientious
+researches and regard them as strongly corroborating my views exposed in
+the preceding pages. His identification of the pictured diagram in the
+Fejervary Codex, as the counting circuit of the Four Quarters, with a
+presiding god in the middle, as in Zuni, does credit to his perspicacity.
+I agree with him in considering that this chart could have been employed
+after the Conquest for a game or for divination, but trust that, upon
+perusal of this paper, he will admit that primarily the Fejervary diagram
+expressed the native scheme of government and the calendar, which was no
+other than a means of ruling the classes by binding each of these to a
+special day and totemic sign. Each of the twenty classes or clans had its
+day, known by a particular sign which was also its totemic mark. As the
+day-signs recurred periodically, the chief or head of each clan became its
+living representative, assumed a totemistic costume and became the "living
+image of the ancestral teotl," or god of his people, of whose activity he
+rendered account to the central government. It is significant that the
+common native title for lords or chieftains was "tlatoque," literally,
+"the speakers," and that they were closely designated as the spokesmen of
+his people, who habitually kept silence in his presence.
+
+The fact that the names and signs of the days are identical with the
+totemic tribal distinctions imposed for governmental reasons, is one which
+I shall proceed to demonstrate more fully. Meanwhile attention is now
+drawn to the chapter on the 7-day period in Dr. Daniel G. Brinton's
+"Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico," in which he surmises that
+the tribal divisions of the Cakchiquels "were drawn from the numbers of
+the Calendar."
+
+According to the native records the institution of the Calendar was
+simultaneous with that of tribal organization and a minute study of both
+features reveals that it could not have been otherwise.
+
+From the dawn of their history the Cakchiquels, as I have already shown,
+were divided into thirteen divisions of warriors (Khob, constituting the
+upper class) and seven tribes (Amag, constituting the lower class). A
+totem and a day being assigned to each division and tribe, they were, once
+and for all time, placed in a definite position towards each other and
+towards the state, and the order in which their chieftains were to sit in
+general council, and to assume or perform certain duties, was thus
+instituted. The 20-day period thus constituted a "complete count" and
+synopsis of the "thirteen divisions of warriors and seven tribes," but it
+also fulfilled other not less important purposes.
+
+The day-signs were so ordered that the first, eleventh and sixteenth were
+major signs employed to designate the years, and identified with the four
+quarters, elements and their respective colors. The 20-day period,
+consisting as it also did of 4 major signs and of 4x4=16 minor signs, was
+as closely linked to the idea of the Four Quarters as it was to the Above
+and Below, represented by the 13+7 division. It is therefore evident that
+a simultaneous reckoning of periods consisting of 5, 7, 13, and 20 days
+was ingeniously combined. I shall show in my special treatise how "the
+lords of the Night" employed in their astronomical calendar, 9-night and
+9-moon periods for purposes of their own and how these also served to
+carry out certain ideas of organization, controlling persons. Although it
+embodied the results of long-standing primitive astronomical observation
+and accorded with the seasons and movements of the celestial bodies, the
+native Calendar was primarily a governmental institution, designed to
+control the actions of human beings and bring their communal life in
+accord with the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies.
+
+In my Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, communicated to the
+International Congress of Americanists at Stockholm, in 1894, I stated
+certain historical and astronomical facts which showed that the New Cycle,
+which began in 1507 with the year Acatl, had commenced on March 14th three
+days after the vernal equinox and that this delay had obviously been
+intentional, in order to wait for the new moon, which fell on March 13th
+at 11.40 A. M., and the planet Venus, "which was possibly visible both as
+morning and evening star between March 14th and 18th." The above facts,
+which have remained unchallenged since their publication, afford an
+insight into the astronomical attainments of the sun-priests and moon and
+star-priests and show an evident desire to begin a new era at a favorable
+time, when there was a conjunction of the heavenly bodies. Thus the terms
+of office of the lords of the Above and Below were entered upon and the
+machinery of state set into motion, in unison with striking celestial
+phenomena. It is impossible not to realize how great must be the antiquity
+of a system which, evolving from the rudimentary, ceremonial division of a
+tribe into seven parts, as a consequence of its primitive observation of
+the Septentriones, developed into a great and complex government dominated
+and pervaded by the abstract conceptions of the seven-fold divisions of
+the Above, Below, Middle and Four Quarters.
+
+Deferring further comment I will proceed to demonstrate the practical
+value, for governmental purposes, of the classification of a community
+into twenty divisions with as many representative heads, their
+localizations at given points of the compass, and association with a
+calendar-sign and day, and will only refer to what I have already
+published in my Note on the Calendar, namely, how, by means of the
+combination of 13 numerals with the 20 signs, a unit of 260 days was
+obtained, and how each sign was combined but once with the same number,
+and a perfect system of rotation of periods, regulating office, labor,
+etc., was instituted. It is not possible for me to enlarge here upon the
+features and merits of the system which I do not hesitate to term one of
+the most admirable and perfect achievements of the human intellect. My
+present purpose is to lay stress upon the fact that, in Mexico, the major
+calendar-signs were borne as titles by the rulers of the four quarters who
+presided in rotation over a year--the name of this and of their title being
+always in correspondence.
+
+Nezahualcoyotl, the lord of Tezcoco, is recorded as possessing the title
+Ome Tochtli=2 Rabbit, and would obviously have presided over the calendar
+periods of that name. This inference is undoubtedly corroborated by Nunez
+de la Vega's following statement, quoted by Boturini:(44)
+
+"Instead of the Mexican signs Acatl, Tecpatl, Calli and Tochtli, the
+Tzendals, inhabiting Chiapas, employed in their Calendar the names of four
+of their chieftains: Votan, Lambat, Been and Chinax.... They also figured
+a man named Coslahuntax, as seated in a chair...." Boturini remarks that
+this person should more correctly be named Imos or Max and was "the head
+of the 20 lords who were the symbols of the 20 days of the Calendar. Being
+the principal and initial sign, Coslahuntax represented in himself the
+period of thirteen days." As Dr. Brinton rightly notes(45) the name of the
+personage should be Oxlaghun tax, literally signifying "the thirteen
+divisions or parts."
+
+We thus see that, whilst the names of the chiefs of the four quarters
+constituted the four major calendar-signs, one supreme lord embodied the
+attributes or "powers" of the 13 divisions of warriors and principal
+division. Thus the 13 divisions seem to have been regarded as 12 plus an
+all-embracing 1.
+
+Nunez de la Vega continues: "In the representations of their calendar they
+painted seven black persons, corresponding to the seven days of their
+reckoning." Boturini adds: these seven black men were no other than the
+principal priest-rulers of this nation.... "They held in great veneration
+the 'lord of the black men,' who was entitled Yal-ahua." Boturini comments
+on this utterance and explains that the latter was no other than the
+high-priest.
+
+I point out the evident identity of Yal-ahua to the Mexican
+Yoal-tecuhtli=the lord of the Night, one of the titles given to Polaris
+and to his earthly representative, the high priest of the Earth and
+nocturnal cult. As already explained this personage bore in Mexico the
+female title, Cihuacoatl=Woman-serpent; but we also find this name for the
+earth-mother alternating with Chicome-coatl=literally, seven serpents. In
+Beltran de la Rosa's "Arte Maya" we find the word "Ahaucchapat,"
+translated as "Serpent with seven heads" and are thus led to infer that
+the Mexicans and Mayas had conceived the image of a "serpent with seven
+heads" as an allegory of the seven tribal divisions united in one body and
+bestowed this title to the representative of the Earth-cult, the high
+priest of the Below. It follows that, just as the number 13 resolves
+itself into 12+1, so the mystic number 7 proves to have been considered as
+6+1, precisely what might be expected as the natural sequence of the
+derivation of the number from a circumpolar constellation, consisting of
+seven stars, one of which was Polaris. Nunez de la Vega and Boturini's
+testimony teaches us that the Tzendals were organized into twenty
+divisions and that thirteen of these were embodied in one chief, while the
+seven others, associated with black, were personified by the high priest.
+The information that one individual was thus believed to unite in his
+person the attributes of several classes and that the lords of the four
+quarters and each of the twenty divisions bore names which were also
+calendar-signs, gain in value when it is realized that, in the opinion of
+Drs. Schellhas and Brinton, the invention of the native Calendar system
+may probably be assigned to the ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, where the
+Tzendals now dwell.(46) In treating of the ruins of Palenque situated in
+this region, I shall again refer to the Tzendals.
+
+Meanwhile, let us examine the Cakchiquel tradition about Cucumatz, the
+sorcerer chief of the Quiches, since it also treats of the 7-day period.
+We are told that he "ascended to heaven for seven days and descended into
+the under world for seven days and then assumed, in rotation, four
+different animal forms during as many periods of seven days."
+
+It is impossible not to recognize from this that, like the Zunis of
+to-day, the Quiches "symbolized the terrestrial sphere by referring to the
+four cardinal points, to the zenith and nadir, the individual himself
+making the seventh number," and that Cucumatz, who was evidently the high
+priest and head of the seven tribes, assumed the totemistic attributes of
+each of these, in rotation, for periods of seven days each. In this case
+we have an interesting and suggestive variant of the scheme and it
+suggests the possibility that, possibly actuated by ambition, Cucumatz had
+grasped and united in his person the prerogatives of the chiefs or heads
+of each tribe. On the other hand, it may be that it was the original
+custom for the high priest to be a sort of animated calendar sign in
+unison with the separate chiefs of each tribe, who represented, in
+rotation, the totemistic ancestors of their people.
+
+Having shown how the lords of the Four Quarters were indissolubly linked
+to the four major calendar-signs which also symbolized the elements, let
+us examine the data establishing that the capital of each of the four
+provinces was named a tecpan. From Duran I have already quoted that in the
+Mexican metropolis there were two tecpans or official houses in which the
+affairs of the government were attended to and councils held. It is
+significant that one of these was named "the tecpan of men" and the other
+"the tecpan of women." Whilst the metropolis, the seat of the dual
+government, thus had its two tecpans which were presided over by the two
+supreme rulers, we have learned from other sources of the four tecpans in
+Guatemala and that Texcoco, near the city of Mexico, was also termed a
+tecpan and that its ruler bore as a title one of the four major
+calendar-signs. These facts explain his position and the reason why the
+"lord of Texcoco" was one of four lords who supported Montezuma when he
+met Cortes in full state. A careful investigation of the derivation and
+true significance of the word tecpan yields interesting results.
+Cen-tecpan-tli means, a count of twenty persons; the verb tecpana
+signifies, "to establish something in concerted order; to establish order
+amongst people." The verb tecpancapoa means, to count something in regular
+order.
+
+The Maya verb tepal=to govern or reign, or to be "one who mediates,"
+appears to be allied to the above Nahuatl words and it is not unlikely
+that the employment of the flint-knife or tecpatl as an emblem of office
+had been suggested by the fact that its Nahuatl name resembles, in sound,
+the above words formed with tecpan, and also the Maya verb tepal. It thus
+constituted a bilingual rebus, expressing the sense=to govern, to rule, to
+regulate, etc., and, employed as the symbol of the North and Polaris, it
+conveyed the idea that the latter was not only the producer of life but
+the regulator of the Universe.
+
+From the fact that a tecpan constituted a minor integral whole and
+comprised the rule over twenty classes of people, we see that whilst the
+four provincial tecpans were in themselves miniature reproductions of the
+metropolis, they but filled the same position in relation to this as the
+four limbs to the body of a man or quadruped. A final proof of how
+completely this analogy was recognized by the native rulers is furnished
+by the Maya titles which embody the word kab=arm and hand.
+
+It has already been mentioned in the preceding pages that the rulers of
+the four quarters were entitled Ba-cab and that in the Dresden Codex an
+image of the four quarters was figured by four bones. The word for bone
+being bac and for arm being kab, it is obvious that the arm-bone or
+humerus would furnish a rebus, expressing the title of the four Bacabs--a
+conclusion which throws light upon the signification of the cross-bones of
+native pictography and also of the incised and decorated human arm and leg
+bones which have been found in Mexico and Yucatan.
+
+At the same time the word kab also recurs in the title Ah-Cuch-Cab which
+signifies "the ruler or chief of a town or place," Cuchil being the name
+of the latter. Both of these words so closely resemble cuxabal and cuxtal,
+the word for "life," that it is not impossible that the native mind often
+associated the town as a centre of life, and thought of their chief as one
+whose symbol was a "life-dispensing hand." In order to grasp the full
+significance of the symbol of the hand in Maya sculptured and written
+records it is necessary to bear these facts in mind.
+
+In 1895 Mr. Teobert Maler unearthed in the centre of the public square at
+"El Seibal," Guatemala, a sculptured stela exhibiting the figures of a
+chieftain over whose head an open hand was carved. It is impossible not to
+interpret this as a mark that the chieftain had once been the ruler of a
+town and that this, in turn, was one of four minor capitals belonging to a
+central metropolis. A hand, enclosed in quadrangular lines and represented
+on the garment of a chieftain, was found by Dr. Le Plongeon at Uxmal, and
+I believe that this should be interpreted in the same manner.
+
+In my essay on Ancient Mexican Shields (Internationales Archiv fuer
+Ethnographie, band V, 1892) I reproduced two interesting instances of the
+employment, as the name-sign of a ruler in native pictography, of a hand
+on the palm of which an eye is depicted. The effigy of a hand, the sacred
+Kab-ul, which was kept in a place in Yucatan to which people from all
+quarters resorted regularly in great numbers, resolves itself into the
+symbol of an ancient capital to which great high-roads led from the
+cardinal points. But important as this capital may have been, its
+connection with the hand-symbol proves that it was originally one of four
+minor centres and formed but a part of a greater whole. It would
+correspond to the image, in one of the native Codices, of a subdivided
+circle with an arm and hand standing in its middle, and its Bacab would
+undoubtedly have carried a sceptre in the shape of an open hand, such as
+depicted in the Codices as a staff of office.
+
+While we thus find the human figure distinctly associated with the lords
+of the four quarters of the Above we find the four lords of the Below,
+entitled Chac, symbolized by the quadruped figure of the native
+jaguar=chacoh, associated with the color red=chac and with rain, storms,
+thunder and lightning, all of which phenomena were, singly and
+collectively, termed Chac.
+
+If ever there has been an instance where language or the resemblance in
+sound of certain words has caused certain symbols to amalgamate with a
+name or title, it is surely this, and light is thereby thrown upon the
+development of symbolism and associations of thought amongst primitive
+people.
+
+The Chacs of Yucatan were identical with the Tlalocs, the octli or rain
+lords of Mexico, whose function, as votaries of earth-cult, was the
+regulation of agriculture, irrigation and the collection and distribution
+of all products of the soil. It is interesting to trace that, in other
+regions of Yucatan, presumably where no chacohs or jaguars existed, the
+minor rulers of provinces seem to have been termed ocelots=Balam, a title
+found associated with Maya rulership.
+
+With the foregoing data in mind it is easy to grasp the meaning of the
+talon of a beast of prey, employed as an emblem of rank or office in the
+native Codices or bas-reliefs and to perceive that this was the symbol of
+a Chac or Balam, one of the four lords of the earth or Below, just as the
+hand was that of the lords of the Above. The complete image of the dual
+State is thus shown to have consisted at one time of an ideal group
+consisting of a man with a beast of prey, a jaguar or ocelot. In Mexico we
+have the man-bird and the man-ocelot respectively representing the rulers
+of the two great divisions of the State.
+
+At Chichen-Itza and elsewhere in Yucatan sculptured figures of ocelots
+supporting circular vessels have been found and there are interesting
+instances of the combination of the human figure with ocelot=Balam
+attributes. One monolithic figure, discovered at Chichen-Itza by Mr. A. P.
+Maudslay, and belonging to the category of the recumbent statues bearing
+circular vase-like receptacles, already described, exhibits a human head
+and form, whilst the body is covered with a spotted skin. In the
+sculptured image of Mictlan-tecuhtli (fig. 19) a human head is accompanied
+by limbs of equal length-terminating in wild beasts' talons. The positions
+of the limbs are better understood when compared with the following
+illustration, to which I shall revert (fig. 51). Meanwhile, I shall merely
+remark that in both of these curious bas-reliefs we seem to have images of
+the quadruple terrestrial and celestial governments. Fig. 51, which is a
+corrected drawing of one of those contained in Leon y Gama's "Descripcion
+de las dos Piedras," furnishes an interesting example, in accord with the
+image of Mictlantecuhtli, of the employment of the group of five as a
+symbol of the centre and four quarters, and exhibits four limbs associated
+with four heads (the quarters and their chiefs), while the hands hold two
+other heads, symbolical of the dual rulers of the State.
+
+Two facts which throw an interesting light upon the growth of native
+symbolism are worth mentioning here. As a symbol on the head of
+Mictlan-tecuhtli, the lord of the North, two representations of a
+centipede are distinguishable. In Nahuatl the name of this is
+"centzonmaye," literally, four hundred hands. It can thus be seen that the
+idea of one body with a multitude of hands had occurred to the native
+philosophers as a suitable allegory for their conception of a central
+celestial and terrestrial rule which guided the activity of innumerable
+appointed hands and dispensed, through these, not only life and favors but
+also death or chastisement.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 51.
+
+
+Before proceeding farther we must consider tree-symbolism in ancient
+America. According to Molina the Inca Yupanqui (surnamed the left-handed)
+ordered the temple of Quisuar-cancha to be made: quisuar=a tree, the
+_Buddleia Incana_, cancha=place of. Salcamayhua (_op. cit._, p. 77), who
+attributes the building of this temple to Manco Capac, states that these
+two trees, which were in the temple, "typified his father and mother ...
+and he ordered that they should be adorned with roots of gold and silver
+and with golden fruit. Hence they were called Ccurichachac Collquechachac
+Tampu Yracan, which means that the two trees typified his parents, that
+the Incas proceeded from them like fruit from the trees, and that the two
+trees were as the roots and stems of the Incas. All these things were
+executed to record their greatness." This passage is of utmost value, for
+it conveys to us not only that the Incas kept a record of their male and
+female ancestry and respectively associated the male and female elements
+with gold and silver, but also establishes the important point that the
+tree was employed as an emblem of the life and growth of a lineage or
+race.
+
+This fact is particularly interesting if collated with the Mexican
+tree-symbols. In the Fejervary diagram (fig. 52), we find a different kind
+of tree and two totemic figures assigned to each quarter, which indicates
+that the inhabitants of each of the four provinces were regarded as of a
+distinct race. The top of each tree spreads itself into two branches and,
+with one exception, each of these bears three blossoms or leaves denoting,
+it would seem, the division of a tribe into 2x3=6 parts.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                Figure 52. Copy of p. 44, Fejervary Codex.
+
+
+The majority of tree-symbols, however, exhibit a quadruplicate division as
+in fig. 53, nos. 1, 4 and 7. At the same time it is impossible not to
+recognize that each example renders in a graphic manner the organization
+of a tribe. In nos. 2 and 8, for instance, we find that each of the four
+branches was again subdivided, yielding eight subdivisions instead of
+four. In no. 3, we have quadruple branches, a pair of recurved spikes with
+buds and a central bud, the idea of duality repeating itself in the trunk
+of the tree, one-half of which above ground is white, whilst the other
+below ground is dark. The obvious allusion is to the Above and Below and
+this idea is further symbolized by the head of the coatl=serpent or twin.
+In this figure there is a hint of the existence of an idea I have found
+expressed in other cases, namely, that a mystic line of demarcation
+existed at the base of a tree, which separated its upward from its
+downward growth. This was the seat of the life of the tree, which sent its
+trunk and crown heavenwards and its roots and rootlets earthwards. The
+fact that the juice of the agave or maguey was collected from the core of
+the plant seems to be at the bottom of its adoption as the sacred and
+ceremonial "drink of life," which was, subsequently, carefully prepared
+and fermented. The idea that a tree enclosed male and female elements
+seems to have been also a strong one and would, in course of time,
+doubtlessly have led to the conception of superhuman beings in human form,
+dwelling in trees. What is more, the adoption by each tribe of a
+particular sort of tree, a custom amply proven, would naturally lead to a
+species of tree-cult or veneration which, amongst the uninitiated, might
+lead to a form of worship of the tree itself.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 53.
+
+
+The ceremonial presentation of single leaves of the same kinds as those
+represented on the trees, as in fig. 53, no. 6, proves that underlying
+these picture-writings there is far more meaning than has heretofore been
+suspected or recognized. It is not possible for me to present here all the
+material I have collected on this subject which will be set forth in a
+future monograph. I will, however, direct attention to the peculiar
+treatment in fig. 53, no. 1, of the tree trunk which is enlarged and forms
+a quadriform figure. In no. 4, the trunk enlarges to the shape of a head;
+in no. 2 the tree grows from a human head and two young shoots issue from
+each side of the trunk, seemingly indicating a fresh growth in tribal
+life. In no. 5, we have an example of a human figure lying at the base of
+a tree and a fifth leaf growing in the centre of the treetop. Directing
+attention to the evident care taken in representing an equal number of
+branches pointing upwards and downwards I would cite here an extremely
+interesting representation of a tree in the Borgian Codex. In this case
+the trunk issues from a conventionally drawn heart, figured in the centre
+of the symbol for sky or heaven. As the Nahuatl for heart is yul-lotl,
+from the verb yuli=to live, to resuscitate, the idea is distinctly
+conveyed that the tree was that of life=yuli and proceeded from the
+celestial centre of life, Polaris or the Heart of Heaven, a native title
+for the Supreme Being.(47)
+
+In the Telleriano-Remensis MS., a "tree of Paradise," so termed in the
+text, is figured, and there are, in other Codices, various examples of
+trees encircled with serpents, where it is obvious that this combination
+was made in order to express, phonetically, that a celestial tree was
+intended, the word kan=serpent, being made to express kaan=heaven. A
+celestial tree, situated at the pole and bearing in some cases seven and
+in others five blossoms, was frequently depicted and its symbolism is
+obvious. In my commentary on the Hispano-Mexican MS. "The Lyfe of the
+Indians," the "Gods," "Five Flowers," and "Seven Flowers," will be treated
+in detail.
+
+From Sahagun and Olmos we learn that the Mexicans employed the image of a
+tree, metaphorically, to signify a lord, governor, progenitor, first
+ancestor. Relations are designated as "issuing from one trunk." A branch
+is literally termed "the arm of the tree," kab-che. Two kinds of trees,
+the Puchutl and Aueuetl, signified, metaphorically, "a father, mother,
+lord, captain or governor who were, or are, like shade-giving, sheltering
+trees" (Olmos).
+
+The above metaphors explain the frequent association of a head, the symbol
+of a chief or lord, with the tree symbols. It is noteworthy that in
+Nahuatl, the name for head=quaitl, is singularly like quauitl=tree, and
+also recalls the word for serpent=coatl, facts which may have somewhat
+guided the choice and association of these symbols. The native metaphors
+recorded by Olmos, moquauhtia=an honored person or lord who has vassals or
+dependents, and atlapalli=literally, leaf=a person of the lower class, a
+worker, initiate us still further into the meaning of the native symbolism
+and prove the antiquity of this, since the designation of a chief as a
+tree and a vassal as a leaf was in current use. The presentation of the
+tree issuing from a heart=yul-lotl is moreover, in perfect keeping with
+native thought, since the chieftain or lord was entitled "the heart, or
+life of the town or population."
+
+The meaning of the bird, which is represented as perched on each of the
+four trees in the Fejervary diagram, is likewise explained by the
+metaphors recorded by Olmos who states that, "a son or child or a much
+beloved lord or chieftain was compared to a beautiful and precious bird,
+such as the Quetzal, the Roseate Spoonbill, the Blue-bird, etc., etc."
+Surmounting the tribal trees in the diagram, the birds therefore typify
+the lords of the four provinces and this is corroborated by the fact that
+each different bird is figured again in the corner-loops in combination
+with the symbols of the cardinal points. The association of the symbols
+for lord or chief=the head, and the precious bird with the tribal tree
+also explains the frequent representation, in the native Codices, of one
+or two serpents entwined around the tree, since the serpent was the symbol
+in Mexico of the dual rulers or high-priests of the Above and Below. There
+is ample proof, which shall be presented in full in my monograph on this
+subject, that the above metaphorical images were as intelligible to the
+Mayas and other tribes, as to the Mexicans themselves, for the identical
+metaphors and imagery were in widespread general use. The following data
+will corroborate this statement.
+
+A Maya native drawing, copied by Cogolludo in 1640 from the MS. of the
+Chilan Balam or Sacred Book of Man, which relates the history of the
+Mayas, has been recently reproduced in Dr. Daniel G. Brinton's Primer of
+Maya Hieroglyphics, p. 47. It displays a rectangular stone slab like a
+table, on the centre of which rests a circular bowl, the symbol, as I have
+shown, of the earth and centre. Growing from this is a spreading tree.
+
+It is a curious and undeniable fact that the Maya name for table is mayac,
+and that the dictionaries contain the words mayac-tun, stone-table, and
+mayac-che, wooden, literally, tree-table. Familiarity with the native
+modes of rebus-writing leads to the inference that this picture of a tree
+and table, expressing the sounds mayac-che, actually signified the tree of
+the Mayas and therefore figured in the book relating their history. Bishop
+Landa records that the Mayas believed in a beautiful celestial tree,
+resembling the ceiba and named yax-che, literally, green tree, under whose
+shade they would repose in after-life. Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg surmises
+that this tree was the same as the beautiful shade tree which grows in
+Yucatan and Mexico and is named, in the latter country,
+tonacaz-quahuital=tree of our subsistence, _i. e._, life.
+
+A Maya name for the "tree of life," ua-hom-che, next claims our
+attention.(48) A valuable old manuscript dictionary of the Maya language,
+quoted by Dr. Brinton, records that the word uah means "a certain kind of
+life." The word _hom_ is an ancient term for an artificial elevation,
+mound or pyramid, hence _homul_, the pyramid on which a temple was built.
+Combined with che, tree, the word seems to signify "the elevated or high
+tree of life," the idea of the celestial tree "on high," being possibly
+intended. In connection with this it is interesting to reexamine fig. 20,
+IV, which represents a flat pyramid from which grows a four-petalled
+flower on a stalk with two leaves, the symbolism of which is apparent.
+
+I am inclined to connect another native name translated in the
+dictionaries by "cross"=zin-che with zihil=to be born, to commence,
+zihnal=original, primitive, and zian=origin, generation, ancestry, and to
+interpret it "the tree of ancestral or tribal life." On the other hand,
+there is the adjective zinil=mighty, great, and the meaning of zin-che may
+merely mean "the mighty tree." In treating of the "cross tablet" of
+Palenque in the following pages, reference will be made to Dr. Brinton's
+identification of the "cross" as a tree and tree symbolism referred to
+again. Although unable to produce here all the data I have collected on
+the subject, I think that the foregoing prove that the Peruvians, Mexicans
+and Mayas, employed the four-branched tree as an image of the organization
+and growth of their communal life, and utilized it in pictography as a
+means of recording changes of organization and statistics of increase or
+decrease of population. The Maya word for "one generation of men," uinay,
+literally meaning "one growth," seems to reveal that each generation was
+popularly thought of as one growth of leaves on the tree of state--a simile
+which is worthy of note.
+
+One more point remains to be considered in reference to the organization
+of the population into four parts, each of which consisted of four minor
+parts and so on; namely, the employment of color as a means of
+differentiation.
+
+In Peru each person wore on the head a twisted cord, of the color of its
+quarter, whilst the Inca alone wore these colors combined, in the band
+which encircled his brow, as a sign that, in his person he united the
+rulership over the four provinces. Molina records the colors of these as
+red, yellow, white and black. In the titles of the Maya Bacabs, or lords
+of the provinces, as given by Landa, the words for yellow, red, white and
+black, are found to be incorporated and prove to be identical with the
+arrangement in Peru. In Mexico, on the other hand, we find red, yellow,
+green and blue as the colors of the Four Quarters, white and black being
+assigned to the Above and Below. All colors combined are to be found
+united in symbols of the Centre and it is known that the use of
+centzon-tilmatli and quachtli=mantles of four hundred colors=multicolored
+were supplied as tributes to the capital, for the use of a privileged
+caste. A somewhat similar arrangement to the Mexican is that of the Zunis
+at the present time. According to Mr. Cushing, they assign yellow, blue,
+red and white to the cardinal points, speckled and black to the
+Above=zenith and Below=nadir, and "all colours to the Middle or Centre."
+
+In Peru, Mexico and Yucatan I have found scattered notices proving that
+individuals habitually painted their bodies with their respective colors.
+The Mexican "lords of the night" smeared themselves with black. A passage
+in Sahagun (book I, chap. V) speaks of the whitening of the "face, arms,
+hands and legs with 'ticatl' "=chalk, as though this were a habit of the
+"noblewomen." In the Codices some women are, in fact, represented with
+white faces, whilst those of the majority are painted yellow and it is
+known that yellow ochre was employed in reality. I have, in preparation, a
+brief, illustrated monograph showing the various modes of painting the
+face represented in the native pictorial records. In these, men painted
+red are of frequent occurrence, and it is known that the "red man" owed
+his appellation to the custom of using red pigment on his body.
+
+Let us now briefly consider some of the results which inevitably followed
+the establishment of two diverging cults which were the outcome of the
+primitive recognition of duality and the artificial association of sex
+with Heaven and Earth, Day and Night, etc. On pp. 60-62 I have cited
+evidence showing that at one time in the past history of the Aztecs,
+serious differences arose between the male and female rulers, and led to a
+separation of the tribe and the establishment of two distinct centres of
+government.
+
+The native languages furnish strong indications that, in ordinary tribal
+life, the separation of the sexes must have been generally enforced from
+remote antiquity and that male and female communities existed in various
+portions of the continent. It is well known that, to this day, the Nahuatl
+tongue spoken by the men is different from that spoken by the women, and
+that the same duality of language prevails among other American tribes.
+When the male and female portions of the native states separated and
+founded separate capitals it is obvious that each would have still further
+cultivated a separate language and that the institution of two distinct
+cults would have accentuated their differences and given a fresh impetus
+to their development. As will be shown, the Maya chronicles reveal that,
+in Yucatan, the nocturnal cult of the female principle degenerated into
+such abominations that the incensed population actually rose in revolt,
+murdered the high-priests and scattered their votaries.
+
+It was obviously owing to a recognition of the degradation attendant upon
+the abuse of intoxicating drinks, which had played such a role in the cult
+of the earth-mother, that such stern laws were enforced in Mexico, at the
+time of the Conquest, restricting and regulating the use of pulque. This
+was distributed by the priests at certain festivals only. These and other
+rigid measures evidently dictated by a spirit of reform, as well as the
+close union of both cults, seem to have efficiently maintained a certain
+equilibrium. At the same time two different moral standards were thus
+inevitably evolved by the votaries of both cults and naturally profoundly
+affected the position of woman. The dangers and evils attendant upon the
+earth-cult became irretrievably associated with the female sex and the
+votaries of Heaven naturally came to regard woman as a source of
+temptation and degradation. In ancient Mexico and Peru the celibacy of the
+sun-priests and of a certain number of noblewomen, "the Virgins of the
+Sun," was enforced; thus, whilst the position of woman was being lowered
+in one caste by an artificial set of ideas, it was raised in the other by
+an equally fictitious association with the Above, which led, however, to
+her real elevation of mind and character and finally enforced a
+recognition of her individuality. The consecration of her person, which
+caused her to assume a position commanding universal homage, relieved her
+from heavy labor but caused her to be guarded and protected. She was thus
+condemned to a still greater seclusion, the primary object of which was to
+remove her from possible contact with members of the lower earthly caste.
+For, whilst ceremonial usage even required that the male members of the
+upper caste should associate in certain symbolical rites with the chief
+women of the lower order, it was a crime and a desecration for a man of
+the latter caste to approach a woman of the nobility. These could only
+marry in their own caste or remain celibate and were kept aloof from all
+debasing influences, inside of protecting walls.
+
+Reflection shows that such conditions would inevitably lead to the
+formation of a nobility whose ideal was celibacy and whose "Virgins of the
+Sun," by virtue of their consecration, ranked highest amongst the women of
+the "celestial caste." Those who married did so in their own caste, led a
+life of seclusion and always maintained a position of superiority over all
+women of the "earthly caste." The latter, on the other hand, had the
+prerogative of being the representatives of their caste, since the cult of
+the earth-mother necessitated a female representative, high-priestesses
+and also female chiefs in their own rights. We know that, in ancient
+Mexico, an independent gynocracy had been founded at one time. From
+certain native manuscripts and monuments we have positive evidence that a
+number of independent female chieftains ruled over minor communities and
+represented them officially, their rank and insignia being equal to that
+of the chiefs of male communities. At the same time, from the standpoint
+of the "upper caste," the position and moral code of these "votaries of
+the earth," were always viewed as inferior.
+
+Another factor also exerted a marked and growing influence upon the
+relative positions of the two classes of women. The enforced seclusion of
+the noblewomen rendering out-door occupations or work impossible, it
+became necessary to relegate such to members of the lower caste who
+gradually constituted a class of domestic slaves, dedicated to the service
+of the nobility. In ancient Mexico, as a punishment for various crimes,
+such as murder, theft, etc., an individual, even of the upper class, was
+reduced to slavery as a punishment for his crime. The ranks of slaves were
+also recruited from prisoners of war. On the other hand, the laws
+regulating slavery were just and mild, the children of slaves were born
+free and various modes of regaining freedom were afforded to those held in
+bondage as an expiation for crime. The introduction of slaves
+necessitating, as it did, their classification with the lower class, now
+associated servitude with the female division of the community, and the
+idea arose that women and the lower class existed for the benefit of the
+male element of the state and a favored minority of consecrated women.
+
+If slavery and bondage came to be regarded on the one hand as a just
+punishment for crime, the idea of liberty shone as an incentive to good
+conduct. An eloquent proof of the high estimate in which personal freedom
+was regarded by the ancient Mexicans, is furnished by the Nahuatl word,
+recorded by Olmos, for "free man"=xoxouhqui-yollotl, literally, "fresh or
+green heart." This expression is of particular interest because it
+explains a strange mortuary custom which consisted in placing a piece of
+jade, chal-chihuitl, or precious green stone, in the mouth of a noble
+person, after death, saying that it was "his heart." In the case of the
+lower class a stone of little value, named texaxoctli, was employed. In
+ancient Mexico, therefore, the presence of jade or any green stone, in a
+grave, proved that the body was that of a free member of the upper caste.
+It is evident that the employment of this significant emblem was suggested
+by the Nahuatl word for "freeman," and constituted a sort of rebus
+expressing this title or rank.
+
+In the Peabody Museum there are several specimens of jade celts, collected
+by Dr. Earl Flint in Nicaragua, which had been cut into two or more
+pieces. Professor Putnam had the satisfaction of discovering that these
+pieces from different graves fitted together. His inference that the stone
+must have been rare and highly prized, probably from some motive connected
+with native ritual, is fully supported by the explanation afforded by the
+existence of the Nahuatl word. It is evident that, in order to provide a
+dead kinsman with the mark of his rank, a living chief would gladly have
+divided his own celt of jade, if, for some reason or other, no other green
+stone was forthcoming at the time of burial.
+
+Let us now rapidly enumerate a few facts which prove that not only burial
+customs but also social organization and numerical divisions were carried
+northward from the southern cradle of ancient American civilization. I
+shall make two statements only, hoping that competent authorities on North
+American tribal organization, and amongst them, my esteemed friend and
+colleague, Miss Alice C. Fletcher, will supply a number of authoritative
+reports on these matters.
+
+Referring to the writings of Horatio Hale, whose comparatively recent loss
+will long be deeply felt by all students of aboriginal history and
+languages, I quote the following sentences from his interesting pamphlet
+on "Four Huron Wampum records," published, with notes and addenda by Prof.
+E. B. Tylor of Oxford, in 1897.
+
+"The surviving members of the Huron nation, even in its present broken,
+dispersed and half extinct condition, still retain the memory of their
+ancient claim to the headship of all the aboriginal tribes of America
+north of Mexico.... The Hurons or Wendat, as they should be properly
+styled, belonged to the important group or linguistic stock, commonly
+known, from its principal branch, as the Iroquoian family and which
+includes, besides the Huron and Iroquois nations, the Attiwendaronks, the
+Eries, Andastes, Tuscaroras and Cherokees, all once independent and
+powerful nations." (I draw attention to the detail that these nations were
+seven in number.) Gallatin, in his "Synopsis of the Indian tribes,"
+notices the remarkable fact that while the "Five Nations" or Iroquois
+proper were found by Champlain, on his arrival in Canada, to be engaged in
+deadly warfare with all the Algonquian tribes within their reach, the
+Hurons, another Iroquoian nation, were the head and principal support of
+the Algonquian confederacy. In the "Fall of Hochelaga," Horatio Hale sets
+forth the reasons which led to the division of the Hurons and Iroquois,
+who had formerly dwelt together in friendly unison. The latter, retreating
+to the south and augmented by other refugees, became the "Five Confederate
+Nations."
+
+The "kingdom of Hochelaga," as Cartier styles it, comprised, besides the
+fortified city of that name, the important town of Stadacone (commonly
+known to its people as Canada or "the town") and eight or nine other towns
+along the great river. According to their tradition the name of their
+leader, Sut-staw-ra-tse, had been kept up by descent for seven or eight
+hundred years.
+
+"Towards the conclusion of a long and deadly warfare between the Iroquois
+confederates and Canada as well as the Hurons a remarkable change had
+taken place in their character; a change which recalls that which is
+believed to have been developed in the character of the Spartans under the
+institutions of Lycurgus, and the similar change which is known to have
+appeared in the character of the Arabians under the influence of
+Mohammedan precepts. A great reformer had arisen in the person of the
+Onondaga chief, Hiawatha, who, imbued with an overmastering idea, had
+inspired his people with a spirit of self-sacrifice, which stopped at no
+obstacle in the determination of carrying into effect their teacher's
+sublime purpose. This purpose was the establishment of universal peace....
+The Tionontate or Tobacco Nation seem to have made an alliance with the
+Huron nation....
+
+"Eight clans or gentes composed the Huron people and were found in
+different proportions in all the tribes. These clans, called by the
+Algonquians 'totems,' all bore the names of certain animals, with which
+the Indians held themselves to be mythologically connected--the bear, wolf,
+deer, porcupine, snake, hawk, large tortoise and small tortoise. Each clan
+was more numerous in some towns than in others, as it was natural that
+near kindreds should cluster together.
+
+"The five Iroquois nations also had eight clans.... The Iroquois league is
+spoken of in their Book of Rites as kanasta-tsi-koma, 'the great
+framework' and the large, bent frame-poles of their council-house, the
+exact original shape of which is not known, were named kan-asta."
+
+An examination of the signs woven in the famous wampum belts of the Hurons
+and Iroquois reveals some curious facts.
+
+One of these treaty belts, described by Horatio Hale, commemorates an
+alliance formed between four nations. It exhibits four squares (fig. 54,
+_a_) "which indicate, in the Indian hieroglyphic system, either towns or
+tribes with their territory."(49) This mode of representing a nation is of
+utmost interest, not only because it coincides with the Maya conception of
+"the quadrated" earth but because it also reveals that, in North America,
+the Indians associated a tribal organization with a quadriform. What is
+more, an older belt, which is unfortunately incomplete, exhibits a central
+oval (fig. 54, _b_) between a bird and a quadruped and three crosses with
+a circle uniting their branches. The cross and circle, being a native
+symbol for "an integral state," as definitely proven by the Maya map,
+justifies the suggestion that this symbol on the wampum belt may have had
+the significance of "nation" and central government. It is remarkable that
+the Iroquois central capital, Ho-che-laga, can be analyzed in the Maya
+tongue, as meaning five=_ho_, tree=_che_ or _hoch_=vase (symbol of centre)
+whilst the terminal _laga_ might possibly be a form of _lacan_=banner, an
+object so frequently associated with names of towns in Mexico, where it
+yields the sound pan and means on or above something.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 54.
+
+
+It will be interesting and important to learn what "Hochelaga" means in
+the Iroquois language. The resemblance between the Maya and Iroquois
+symbols for nation and tribal territory and of the names for capital might
+even be overlooked and treated as a coincidence merely, if the Iroquois
+name for the confederacy, kan-asta-tsik-o-ma did not also begin with the
+word kan, the Maya for four and for serpent. The same particle recurs in
+the Iroquois name for the town=can-ada, a word which, in Maya, would
+describe a metropolis divided into four quarters.
+
+The question naturally suggests itself whether the affix can, frequently
+met with in Mexico combined with names of localities, was not of Maya
+origin and expressed also a centre of quadruple government. It occurs in
+the Nahuatl name for metropolis to-tec-ua can and in Teoti-hua can, for
+instance. The Nahuatl scholars have rendered its meaning as "place of."
+
+Mr. Hale tells us that, amongst the "Five Nations," the tradition exists
+that the confederacy was originally divided into "seven tribes," each of
+which was composed of 2x4=8 gentes or clans. Another wampum belt he
+figures exhibits a heart between 2x2=4 squares, a symbol which would be
+interpreted by a Mexican or Maya as well as by a Huron or Iroquois, as
+meaning "four nations, one heart," the latter being as common a symbol for
+union of rule or government or for chieftain, as a "head."
+
+Combined with other testimony it seems impossible to evade the question
+whether in remote times the Iroquois and Hurons had not shared in some way
+or other the civilization of the Mayas. If so the ancient
+earthwork-builders of the Ohio valley, who are authoritatively regarded as
+of southern origin by Professor Putnam, and whose art exhibits a strong
+resemblance to that of the Mayas, seem to constitute the missing link
+between the northeastern and the southeastern tribes. It is curious to
+find that the terminal che, which occurs in the name Quiche and which
+signifies in Maya, tree, and, by extension, tribe, is preserved in the
+names of the Nat-che-z tribe still inhabiting the Mississippi valley. It
+is also present in Coman-che, Apa-che, etc.
+
+It is to be hoped that, before long, authorities who have made special
+studies of the above tribes will make searching comparisons of their
+languages, social organization and symbolism with that of the Mayas, in
+particular, it seeming evident that the coast communication along the gulf
+of Mexico, from Yucatan to the mouth of the Mississippi river, was not
+only easy but was favored by sea-currents.
+
+It is interesting to note that if we now proceed to the southwest of the
+United States and study the Pueblo people, we seem to find not only more
+distinctly marked affinities between their customs, etc., and those of the
+Mexicans, but also traces of similarity with certain Maya symbols.
+
+In several important publications Dr. J. Walter Fewkes has made the
+valuable observation that there are marked "resemblances between a
+ceremony practised [at the time of the Conquest] in the heart of Mexico
+and one still kept up in Arizona," and states that these "lead one to look
+for likenesses in symbolism, especially that pertaining to the
+mythological Snake among the two peoples." He continues as follows: "From
+the speculative side it seems probable that there is an intimate
+resemblance between some of the ceremonials, the symbolism and
+mythological systems of the Indians of Tusayan and those of the more
+cultured stocks of Central America.... The facts here recorded look as if
+the Hopi practise a ceremonial form of worship with strong affinities to
+the Nahuatl and Maya.... I have not yet seen enough evidence to convince
+me that the Hopi derived their cult and ceremonials from the Zunians or
+from any other single people. It is probably composite. I am not sure that
+portions of it were not brought up from the far south, perhaps from the
+Salado and Gila by the Bat-kin-ya-muh='Water people,' whose legendary
+history is quite strong that they came from the south."(50)
+
+Dr. Fewkes frankly states that he "knows next to nothing of the symbolic
+characters of the Mexican deities ..." and quotes Mr. Bandelier's opinion
+that "there are traces or tracks of the same mythological system and
+symbolism amongst the Indians of the southwestern United States and the
+aborigines of Central America."
+
+Under the leadership of Mr. Frank H. Cushing let us now enter into the
+life and thoughts of the modern Zunis. After having traced certain ideas
+in Mexico and Peru, it is possible to recognize them again when we find
+them in Mr. Cushing's valuable work, from which I shall quote somewhat at
+length, referring the reader, however, to the original, for a fuller
+realization of existing resemblances.(51)
+
+The Zuni creation-myth relates how the light of the Sun-father and a
+foam-cap on the sea, caused the Earth-mother to give birth to
+twin-brothers, Uanam Achi Piah-_koa_, "the Beloved Twain who descended."
+The first was Uanam Ehkona=the beloved Preceder, the second Uanam Yaluna,
+the beloved Follower; they were twin-brothers of light, yet elder and
+younger, the right and left, like to question and answer in deciding and
+doing.... The Sun-father gave them the thunderbolts of the four quarters,
+two apiece.... On their cloud-shield, even as a spider in her web
+descendeth, they descended into the underworld ... (p. 381).
+
+Pausing here for a moment, we note the curious fact that in the Zuni name
+for the twins we find _koa_, resembling the Nahuatl coatl=twin or serpent;
+that the name of one brother Ehk-ona recalls the Mexican ec-atl=air, wind
+or breath, and the Maya ik=air, wind, breath, courage, spirit. The
+allotment of two quarters to each and the image of a spider employed to
+express their descent from heaven have counterparts in Nahuatl lore.
+
+The "Twain" ... guided men upwards to become the fathers of six kinds of
+men (yellow or tawny, grey, red, white, mingled and black).... The nation
+divided itself into the winter or Macaw and the summer or Raven people....
+"The Twain beloved gathered in council for the naming and selection of man
+groups and creature kinds, spaces and things. They determined that the
+creatures and things of summer and the southern space pertained to the
+southern people or children of the producing Earth-mother; and those of
+the winter and northern space to the winter people or children of the
+Forcing or Quickening Sky-father."
+
+It is impossible to do more than refer the reader to Mr. Cushing's account
+of the origin of totem clans and creature-kinds which bears such an
+affinity to the Peruvian, and obviously arose for the same practical
+reason, to serve as distinction marks for identification and
+classification. "At first ... there were four bands of priest-keepers of
+the mysteries: the Shiwana-kwe=priesthood of the priest-people;
+Sa'niah'-ya-kwe=priesthood of the Hunt; Ach-iahya-kwe=great Knife people;
+Newe-kwe=keepers of the magic medicines." Out of these four divisions "all
+societies were formed, both that of the Middle and the twain for each of
+all six regions, constituting the tabooed and sacred 13." In another
+passage account is given of the marriage of a brother and sister, which
+produced twelve children, the first of which, Hlamon, was man and woman
+combined--the 12 thus constituting in reality 13.
+
+One of the most interesting portions of the Zuni narrative is one which
+elucidates the motive which led to the migration of peoples in ancient
+America. We are told how generations of the forefathers of the Zunis
+wandered about in search of the stable middle of the earth, on which they
+wished to found their sacred city. The tribe divided; the winter-clan
+journeyed to the northeast and the summer-clan to the southwest, a reunion
+of the people took place, and a council was held for the determination of
+the true Middle.... According to a myth the Sun-father requested the
+water-skate to determine the Middle. This mythical monster lifted himself
+up, stretched out and then settled downward, calling out: "Where my heart
+and navel rest beneath them mark ye the spot and then build ye a town of
+the midmost, for there shall be the midmost of the Earth-mother, even the
+navel.... And when he descended squatting, his belly rested over the plain
+and valley of Zuni and when he drew in his finger-legs, lo! there were the
+trail roads leading out and in like the stays of a spider's net, into and
+forth from the place he had covered."
+
+Pausing to point out that fig. 28, reproduced from Mexican Codices, shows
+curious topographical drawings resembling a spider's net, I will not
+recount the many disappointments of the wanderers, who were evidently
+driven away from several places of settlement by earthquakes, but will
+refer to the Zuni custom of "annually testing the stability of the Middle
+in middle time ... when the sun reached the middle between winter and
+summer ... a shell was laid by the sacred fire of the north.... When
+during solemn chanting no trembling of the earth ensued, the priests cast
+new fire and ... dwelt happily feeling sure that their sacred things were
+resting in the stable middle of the world."
+
+At the beginning of this paper I referred to the powerful hold that the
+realization of the fixity of the pole star would naturally have exerted
+upon the mind of primitive man, and I can produce no more striking
+illustration of this and of my view that the idea of central government
+and organization had been suggested by Polaris, than this account of the
+earnest and prolonged search of these ancient people for the stable centre
+of the earth, on which to found a permanent centre of terrestrial rule or
+the plan of the celestial government. At the same time it seems to me that
+the longing for a stable and fixed residence would naturally have been
+most intense amongst people who had experienced terrible earthquakes and
+been driven out of their original abodes by their repeated destruction. It
+is unnecessary to mention the well-known fact that whilst earthquakes
+prevail throughout North and Central America, the most impressive trace of
+catastrophes of the kind are connected with the gigantic volcanoes of
+Central Mexico and Guatemala.
+
+With a sympathetic insight into the disasters which seem to have driven
+the wandering tribes from one region to another and filled them with a
+passionate yearning for a centre of rest, let us now learn from Mr.
+Cushing how they planned their metropolis and organized themselves, when
+they had found the long-looked-for goal, in the Zuni valley and "settling
+there, built seven great cities therein.
+
+"All their subtribes and lesser tribes were distinctively related to and
+ruled from a central tribe and town through priest chiefs representatives
+of each of these, sitting under supreme council or septuarchy of the
+'Master priests of the house' in the central town itself, much as were the
+divisions and cities of the great Inca dominion in South America
+represented at and ruled from Cuzco, the central city and power of them
+all.
+
+"Zuni is divided, not always clearly to the eye, but very clearly in the
+estimation of the people themselves, into seven parts, corresponding not
+perhaps in arrangement topographically, but in scheme to their
+subdivisions of the worlds or world-quarters of this world. Thus one
+division of the town is supposed to be related to the north and to be
+centred in its kiva or estufa which may or may not be at its centre;
+another division represents the west, another the south, another the east;
+yet another the upper world and another the lower world; while a final
+division represents the middle or mother and synthetic combination of the
+all in the world.
+
+"By reference to the early Spanish history of the pueblos, it may be seen
+that when discovered the Ashiwis or Zunis were living in seven quite
+widely separated towns the celebrated seven cities of Cibola and that this
+theoretic subdivision of the only one of these towns now remaining is in
+some manner a survival of the original subdivision of the tribes into
+seven into as many towns. It is evident that in both cases, however, the
+arrangement was and is, if we may call it such, a mythic organization;
+hence my use of the term of mytho-sociologic organization of the tribe. At
+all events this is the key to their sociology as well as to their mythic
+conception of space and universe.
+
+"... There were nineteen clans, grouped in threes, to correspond to the
+mythic subdivision. Three to north, west, south, east, Upper, Lower. The
+_single_ clan of Macaw is midmost or of middle and also as the all
+containing and mother clan of the entire tribe, for in it is 'the seed of
+the priesthood of houses' supposed to be preserved.(52)
+
+"Finally, as produced from all the clans and as representative alike of
+all the clans and through a tribal septuarchy of all the regions and
+divisions of the midmost and, finally, as representative of all the cult
+societies above mentioned, is the Kaka or A'kaka-kwe or Mythic Dance drama
+people or organization.
+
+"It may be seen of these mytho-sociologic organizations that they are a
+system within a system and that it contains systems within systems all
+founded on the classification according to the six-fold division of things
+and in turn the six-fold division of each of these divisions of things ...
+The tribal division made up of the clans of the north take precedence
+ceremonially, occupying the position of elder brother or the oldest
+ancestor. The west is the younger brother to this and the south of the
+west, the east of south, etc.... while the middle is supposed to be a
+representative being, the heart and name of all of the brothers of the
+regions, the first and last, as well as elder and younger.
+
+"To such an extent indeed, is this tendency to classify according to the
+number of the six regions with its seventh synthesis of them all (the
+latter sometimes apparent, sometimes non-appearing) that not only are the
+subdivisions of the societies also again subdivided according to this
+arrangement, but each clan is subdivided, both according to the six-fold
+arrangement and according to the subsidiary relations of the six parts of
+its totem....
+
+"In each clan is to be found a set of names, called the names of
+childhood. These names are more of titles than of cognomens. They are
+determined upon by sociological divinistic modes and are bestowed in
+childhood as the 'verity names' or titles of the children to whom given.
+But the body of names relating to any one totem, for instance, to one of
+the beast totems, will not be the name of the totem-beast itself but will
+be the names of both of the totems and its various conditions and of the
+various parts of the totem or of its functions, or of its attributes,
+actual or mythical.
+
+"Now these parts or functions, or attributes of the parts or functions,
+are subdivided also in a six-fold manner, so that the name relating to one
+member of the totem, for example, like the right leg or arm of the animal
+thereof, would correspond to the north and would be the first in honor in
+a clan (not itself of the northern group); then the name relating to
+another member, say the left leg and its powers, etc., would pertain to
+the west and would be second in honor, ... the right foot, pertaining to
+the south, would be third in honor, ... the tail to the lower regions and
+be sixth in honor; while the heart and navel and centre of the being would
+be first as well as last in honor.... In addressing each other the word
+symbol for elder or younger is always used.
+
+"With such a system of arrangement as all this maybe seen to be, with such
+a facile device for symbolizing the arrangement (not only according to the
+number of regions, and their subdivisions in their relative succession and
+the succession of their elements and seasons, but also in the colors
+attributed to them) and, finally, with such an arrangement of names,
+correspondingly classified and of terms of relation significant of rank
+rather than of consanguineal connection, mistake in the order of a
+ceremonial, a procession or a council is simply impossible and the people
+employing these devices may be said to have written and to be writing
+their statutes and laws in all their daily relationship and utterances."
+
+If this precious exposition of the Zuni social organization teaches us
+more about native method and system than all of the writings of the
+Spanish chroniclers put together, there is one important point which,
+strangely enough, is not touched upon, namely, the regulation of time. All
+information concerning native astronomy, and the subdivision of the years,
+the festival periods and the names of days, seems to have been withheld
+from Mr. Cushing by the Zuni priesthood, if we are to assume that they
+possess a calendar.
+
+In Mexico, as I have already set forth, the calendar system is bound up in
+the scheme of social organization and it is impossible to separate them. I
+cannot but think that it must be the same with the Zunis but that, as in
+ancient Mexico, only the priesthood were acquainted with the existence of
+a systematic calendar, and kept it a profound secret from the multitude,
+although the entire communal life and activities of the people were guided
+accordingly by their rulers, who had arranged a suitable time for all
+things, at proper seasons.
+
+Having obtained through Mr. Cushing invaluable material for the making of
+a composite image of the ancient American civilization let us now proceed
+to Yucatan, bearing in mind the native mode of thought and master-passion
+for systematization.
+
+A careful perusal of Cogolludo and Landa's work affords such interesting
+glimpses into the past history of the inhabitants of the Yucatan
+peninsula, that they merit presentation in a separate publication. Suffice
+it for the present to refer more fully to a few leading facts which will
+be found to illustrate the development of the ancient civilization in the
+preceding pages.
+
+The native opinion already cited was that a great chief or lord, named
+Kukulcan, reigned at Chichen-Itza, Yucatan, whilst this was occupied by
+the Itza tribe, which was driven from it in about 270 A.D. by the
+Tutul-xius who were entitled "holy men." Their name justifies Brasseur de
+Bourbourg's inference that the conquerors may have been a Nahuatl tribe
+whose name was that of the much-prized blue-bird, Xiuh-tototl.
+
+At the same time the fact that the Maya word for supreme lord and Master
+(also applied to the divinity) is _Ciu-mil_ seems to indicate that there
+may be a deeper origin and that the Xiuh-tototl may have only been a rebus
+employed by the Mexicans to convey the sound of a Maya title, possibly
+"Kukul-Ciu," if the above title "holy men" is to be regarded as a
+translation of Tutul-xiu.
+
+"Kukulcan had no wife or children and was venerated in Yucatan as a god
+because he was a great republican, as was shown by the order he instituted
+in Yucatan after the death of the native rulers. He went to Mexico whence
+he returned. He was there named Quetzalcoatl and was venerated by the
+Mexicans as one of their gods." When he had entered into treaty with the
+native chiefs inhabiting the country, they agreed to join him in founding
+and peopling a city which was named Mayapan, but was also known by the
+natives as Ichpa, meaning "inside of the circles."(53) "They proceeded,
+indeed, to build a circular walled enclosure with two entrances only. In
+its centre, the principal temple was erected and it was circular, with
+four doors opening to the cardinal points, like one which had been built
+by Kukulcan at Chichen-Itza. The walled circle also contained other sacred
+edifices and houses intended to be inhabited by the lords only, who
+divided up the entire land amongst themselves. Towns were assigned to each
+according to the antiquity of his lineage and personal distinction.
+Kukulcan lived in this town for some years with these lords and leaving
+them in amity and peace returned to Mexico by the same way as on his
+visit, lingering on the way in order to build a quadriform temple on an
+island off the coast."
+
+I know of no more instructive account of aboriginal history than this
+simple native record preserved by Landa, which so clearly reveals amongst
+other details that the Mexican culture-hero was an actual personage, a
+Maya high-priest who had been a ruler at Chichen-Itza. In this connection
+it is interesting to collate another chapter of Landa's work in which he
+reports what the oldest Indians narrated to him about Chichen-Itza, of
+which I give the following somewhat abbreviated translation: Three
+brothers came there in olden times from the west and having assembled
+together a large number of people, ruled them for some years with much
+justice and peace.(54) They paid great honor to their god and built many
+beautiful edifices.... They lived without wives in purity and virtue and
+as long as they did this they were esteemed and obeyed by all. In course
+of time one of them possibly died, but is said by the Indians to have gone
+out of the country. Whatever may have been the cause of his absence the
+remaining rulers immediately began to show partiality and to institute
+such licentious and abominable customs that they were finally execrated by
+the people who rebelled and killed them, and then disbanded and abandoned
+the capital, "although this was most beautiful and was surrounded by
+fertile provinces."(55)
+
+The principal edifice at Chichen-Itza was a pyramid temple which had four
+stairways facing the cardinal points. It contained a circular temple which
+was named after the builder Kukulcan and had four doorways opening to the
+four quarters of heaven.
+
+If I have dwelt again upon Kukulcan=Quetzalcoatl, it is because, between
+the writers who interpret the records concerning him as a sun or star-myth
+and those who identify him as the abstract deity whose name he bore as a
+title only, or as St. Thomas or a mythical Norseman, ancient America is
+being deprived of its most remarkable historical personage.
+
+Collated with the Maya traditional records, the Mexican accounts agree and
+supply missing evidence. Whilst the Mayas state that their ruler and
+legislator went to Mexico and even record his Mexican name, Montezuma
+informs Cortes that "his ancestors had been conducted to Mexico by a
+ruler, Quetzalcoatl, whose vassals they were and who having established
+them in a colony returned to his native land. Later on he returned and
+wished them to leave with him but they chose to remain, having married
+women of the country, raised families and built towns. Nor would they
+institute him again as their lord, so he went away again toward the east,
+whence he had come." It seems nearly proven that Kukulcan was one of the
+three rulers who came to Yucatan from the east. The Mexican tradition that
+he was driven into exile by his enemies, the followers of Tezcatlipoca,
+the lord of the Below, appears to be corroborated by the Maya record that,
+after his restraining presence had been removed, they committed such
+excesses that the indignant population arose and murdered their two rulers
+at Chichen-Itza. Quetzalcoatl's continued efforts to assemble scattered
+tribes, to organize them peacefully under central governments, to found
+capitals and erect in the centre of these quadriform pyramids and circular
+temples, prove how completely he was possessed by the idea of spreading
+the well-known scheme of civilization. His very name in Maya signified
+"the divine Four" and this more profound signification was hidden under
+the image of the "feathered serpent" employed as a rebus to express the
+title of the supreme Being and the high-priest, his earthly
+representative.
+
+The Mexican records state that the culture-hero's white robes were covered
+with red crosses, and that he set up cross-emblems. Evidence showing how
+completely this builder and founder of cities carried out the idea of the
+Four Quarters, in the temples he erected in Mexico, is preserved by the
+record that for prayer, penitence and fasting, he prepared four rooms
+which he occupied in rotation. These were respectively decorated in blue,
+green, red and yellow, by means of precious stones, feather-work and gold.
+As these were the colors assigned to the Four Quarters their symbolism and
+meaning are obvious, and it may be inferred that the same method of
+decorating the sides of buildings or doorways, with these four colors, may
+have been carried out in square sacred edifices oriented to the cardinal
+points.
+
+It is curious to detect the quadruplicate idea in the title Holcan given
+to certain war-chiefs. This name signifies, literally, "the head of four,"
+but could be expressed by the rebus of a "serpent's head," which would
+obviously have been employed in pictography to express the title and rank.
+The existence of the title "Four-head," or "the head of four," obviously
+relates to the rulership of the Four Quarters, united in one person; and
+in this connection the Tiahuanaco swastika (fig. 48), terminating in four
+pumas' heads, seems to gain in significance as the expressive symbol of a
+central ruler. The recorded custom to cover the body of the Mexican ruler
+with the raiment of the "four principal gods," proves the prevalence of
+analogous symbolism.
+
+From the following data we gain an interesting view of the events which
+transpired in former times in the Yucatan peninsula. Resuming Landa's
+account we see that, after Kuculcan had departed for Mexico, the lords of
+Mayapan decided to confer supreme rulership upon the Cocomes, this being
+the most ancient and the wealthiest lineage and its chief being
+distinguished for bravery. They then decided that the inner circle should
+hold only the temples and houses for the lords and high-priest. In
+connection with this it is well to insert here how Landa states, in
+another passage, that there were "twelve priests or lords at Mayapan,"
+which with the high-priest constituted the sacred 13. "Outside the wall
+they built houses where each lord kept some servitors and where his people
+or vassals could resort when they came on business to the town. Each of
+these houses had its steward, entitled Caluac, who bore a staff of office
+and he kept an account with the towns and with their local rulers. The
+Caluac always went to his lord's house, saw what he required and obtained
+from the vassals all he needed in the way of provisions, clothing, etc."
+(_op. cit._, pp. 34-44).
+
+The chronicle goes on to relate how the lords of the inner circle devoted
+their time to the affairs of government, the regulation of the calendar
+and the study of writing, medicine, and the sciences.(56)
+
+It seems significant that, throughout Central America, two ruined cities
+of about equal size are usually found in comparatively close proximity to
+each other, and seemingly pertaining to the same culture. Thus we have
+Quirigua, in the valley of the Motagua river, and Copan its sister-city,
+situated at a distance of about twenty-five miles, but nearly 1,800 feet
+above it, in the wooded hills. Between Palenque and Menche (Lorillard
+City) there are about fifty miles, whilst Tikal and Ixkun are forty miles
+apart. In Yucatan, as we have learned from Bishop Landa's "Relacion,"
+there were Mayapan and Zilan, and as the latter name also signified
+"embroidery" it looks as though it had been a noted centre of female
+industry.
+
+Then, after a lapse of years, "a large number of tribes, with their lords,
+came to Yucatan from the south." Bishop Landa conjectures that, although
+his informants did not know this for certain, "these tribes must have come
+from Chiapas, many words and the conjugation of some verbs being the same
+in Yucatan as in Chiapas where there existed great signs showing that
+ancient capitals had been devastated and abandoned," possibly by
+earthquakes, famine, disease or warfare. It has been surmised that the
+venerable Bishop alluded, in this sentence, to the ruins of Palenque in
+Chiapas.
+
+Although not mentioned by Cogolludo or Lizana it is accepted that the
+new-comers were the Tutul-xius. According to an ancient Maya chronicle,
+"at a date corresponding to 401 A.D., the four Tutul-xius had fled from
+the house of Nonoual, to the west of Zuiva and came from the land of
+Tulapan. Four eras passed before they reached the peninsula of Yucatan
+named Chac-noui-tan under their chieftain, Holon-Chan-Tepeuh," a name
+which is equally intelligible in Maya, Tzendal and Nahuatl and means
+Head-Serpent and "lord of the mountain," according to Brasseur de
+Bourbourg, who states that the latter was a sovereign title amongst the
+Quiches.
+
+Landa relates that, after wandering about Yucatan for forty years
+(possibly in search of the stable centre) these tribes settled near
+Mayapan, subjected themselves to its laws and lived in peaceful friendship
+with the Cocomes. The new-comers brought with them the atlatl or
+spear-thrower which is minutely described but is evidently regarded as a
+weapon of the chase.(57) The chronicle goes on to narrate that the Cocom
+governor, having become ambitious for riches, entered into a treaty with
+Mexican warriors who were garrisoned at Tabasco and Xicalango by the
+Mexican ruler and induced them to come to Mayapan and to aid him in
+oppressing the native lords. The latter and the Tutul-xius rebelled
+against this action and, having observed the Mexicans and become experts
+in the art of using their bow and arrow, lance, hatchet, shield and other
+defensive armor, they "ceased to admire and fear the Mexicans and began to
+make little of them, and in this condition they remained for some years."
+
+A lapse of years passed and another Cocom chief formed a fresh league with
+the Tabasco people. More Mexican warriors came to Mayapan and supported
+him in tyrannizing and making slaves of the lower class. Then the Tutulxiu
+lords assembled and decided to murder the Cocom ruler. Having done so they
+also killed all his sons with the exception of one who was absent; burnt
+their houses and seized their plantations of cocoa and other fruits,
+saying that these compensated for what had been stolen from them. The
+differences which subsequently arose between the Cocome and the Xius
+people resulted in the final destruction and abandonment of Mayapan after
+an occupation of more than five hundred years, both tribes returning to
+their countries.
+
+"The lords who destroyed Mayapan (about 120 years before the Conquest)
+carried away with them their books of science.... The son of the Cocom
+lord, who being absent had escaped death, returned and gathered his
+relations and vassals together and founded a capital.... Many towns were
+built by them in the hills and many families descended from these Cocomes.
+These lords of Mayapan did not revenge themselves upon the Mexican
+warriors but generously exonerated them from blame because they were
+strangers and had been persuaded to come into the land by its former
+ruler. They allowed them to remain unmolested in the country and to found
+a city on condition that they kept to themselves and married in their own
+tribe only. These Mexicans decided to settle in Yucatan and peopled the
+province of Can-ul which was assigned to them and they continued to live
+there until the second invasion of the Spaniards."
+
+At Chichen-Itza, situated at about twenty-three leagues from the ancient
+site of Mayapan, there exists substantial evidence of the existence of
+these Aztec warriors, with indications that they pertained to the Mexican
+warrior-caste of the ocelots or tigers. It is a recognized fact that the
+remarkable bas-reliefs, which still cover the walls of the "temple of the
+tigers" at Chichen-Itza, are strikingly Aztec in every detail. The exact
+counterparts of the Atlatls, they hold, are visible on the so-called
+"Stone of Tizoc" in the city of Mexico. Sculptured on the wall opposite
+the entrance of the temple there are about thirty-six war-chiefs grouped
+in three parallel rows of twelve each, the majority of whom are apparently
+rendering some form of homage to a seated personage surrounded by rays,
+while others are having an encounter with a monstrous serpent. On the side
+walls and slanting roofs more warriors are figured, many accompanied by a
+rebus or hieroglyph which evidently records, in Mexican style, individual
+names. The total number of sculptured warriors seems to have been about
+one hundred. If each of these represented, as may be supposed, a "count of
+men," it is evident that a large force of Aztec soldiers must have lived
+in Yucatan at one time.
+
+Other interesting monuments at Chichen-Itza deserve a passing mention. Mr.
+Teobert Maler (Yukatekische Forschungen, Globus, 1895, p. 284) relates
+that there are two pyramid-temples in the terraces of which the remains of
+great stone tables have been found. He states that one of these tables was
+originally supported by two rows of seven sculptured caryatids and by a
+central row of plain columns with flat, square tops. Traces of paint
+showed that the figures had been painted, that a yellow-brown color had
+predominated, but that all ornaments or accessories were either blue or
+green. The caryatids exhibited a variety of costume and of size and each
+showed a marked individuality. The second table standing in a larger
+temple, was originally painted red and supported by twenty-four caryatid
+figures which resemble each other closely, show no individuality and which
+seem to have been disposed in two rows of twelve each. Mr. Maler infers
+from this that, being more highly conventionalized, they were of a later
+date than the previous examples. If it were not for the circumstance that
+both tables had the same number of supports their numeral 24 might pass
+unobserved. As it is, I shall recur to it on mentioning other monuments
+with figures yielding the same number and disposed, in one case, as 6x4.
+In connection with these stone tables I recall the fact that, in the Maya
+language, they were called Mayac-tun.
+
+Mr. W. H. Holmes (_op. cit._, p. 134) tells us that in one case the
+continuous table had been formed by a series of limestone tablets
+averaging three feet square and five or six inches thick, each slab having
+been supported by two of the dwarfish figures which stand with both hands
+aloft, giving a broad surface of support. He ascertained that "these slabs
+were wonderfully resonant and when struck lightly with a hammer or stone,
+give out tones closely resembling those of a deeply resonant bell, and the
+echoes awakened in the silent forest are exceedingly impressive." Mr.
+Holmes' account of these resonant stone tables is of particular value to
+me because it throws an interesting light upon the following Maya words: I
+have already stated that the native name for table is Mayac, and that a
+stone table is Mayac-tun. The word _tun_, however, not only signifies
+stone, but also sound and noise. From this it would seem that stone tables
+such as Mr. Holmes describes were made expressly for the purpose of
+emitting sound and employed like the huehuetl or wooden drums of the
+ancient Mexicans to summon the people to the temple and to guide the
+sacred dances.
+
+The existence of the word tun-kul, which is either "stone-bowl" or
+"sound-bowl," seems likewise to indicate that hollow stone vessels were
+used at one time as gongs. At the present day the Mayas name the small
+wooden drum of the Mexicans a "tunkul," whereas its Nahuatl name is
+"te-ponaxtli," the prefix of which, curiously enough, seems also to be
+connected with tetl=stone. A curious light is shed upon the possible use
+of some of the many stone vessels found in Mexico and Yucatan by the above
+linguistic evidence.
+
+In conclusion I quote Mr. Maler's authority for two points concerning
+Chichen-Itza which are not generally known. First, that its name should be
+pronounced "Tsitsen-itsa," and, second, that he saw there no less than
+five recumbent statues, holding circular vessels. Each of these figures
+exhibits the same form of breast-plate as the Le Plongeon example now at
+the National Museum of Mexico (pl. IV, fig. 1). Mr. Maler states that it
+seems to have been the tribal mark of the Cocomes, the whilom rulers at
+Chichen-Itza; but it is interesting to note the general resemblance of
+this ornament to the blue plaque worn by the Mexican "Blue Lord," the Lord
+of the Year and of Fire, "Xiuhtecuhtli," who is also usually represented
+with a Xiuh-tototl or "blue-bird" on the front of his head-dress.
+
+These facts seem to indicate that the characteristic breast-plate, instead
+of being a mark of the Cocomes, may have been that of the Tutul-Xius, and
+that this title has some connection with that of Xiuh-tecuhtli, the
+Mexican "Lord of Fire." It has been already set forth in the preceding
+pages that the sacred fire was kindled in the stone vase held by the
+recumbent figures, a fact indicating that the identical form of cult was
+practised in Mexico and at Chichen-Itza. This identity is satisfactorily
+accounted for and explained if we accept the simple native records of the
+invitation extended to Mexican warriors by a Maya chieftain and their
+subsequent permanent residence in Yucatan.
+
+The limitations of my subject do not allow me to do more than mention two
+other important ruined cities of Yucatan, Izamal and Uxmal. I will however
+note that, judging from the illustrations I have seen, Uxmal seems to be
+the "Serpent-city" of America, par excellence, its buildings exhibiting
+the most elaborate and profuse employment of the serpent for symbolical
+decoration. One inference from this might be that the serpent was the
+totemic animal of the ancient builders of this city. The foregoing rapid
+review of the native chronicles of Yucatan shows that even the foundation
+of Mayapan was comparatively recent; that the peninsula had, in turn,
+harbored powerful tribes who had drifted thence from the southwest and
+Mexican warriors whose aid had been sought by consecutive rulers of
+Chichen-Itza. We see that Yucatan was the meeting ground for Maya- and
+Nahuatl-speaking people and that the tendency was to leave the peninsula
+in search of a more favorable soil and climate as soon as opportunity was
+afforded.
+
+Since the cradle of the Maya civilization is evidently not to be looked
+for in Yucatan, let us follow the clue afforded by the native traditions,
+transport ourselves to some of the most important ruined cities of Central
+America and endeavor to wrest from their monuments some knowledge of the
+social organization of their ancient inhabitants. In order to institute
+this search under the most favorable circumstances, I ventured to apply
+for guidance to Mr. A. P. Maudslay who has made a more thorough, prolonged
+and extensive study and exploration of these ruined cities than any other
+person. Upon my request to formulate his opinion as to the respective
+antiquity and chief characteristics of the most noted sites, this
+distinguished explorer has most kindly authorized me to publish the
+following note.
+
+"But for a brief note in Nature (28th April, 1892), I have never
+classified the ruins or attempted to give proofs of differences in age of
+the monuments, but roughly you may safely class them as follows: I am
+inclined to look on the Motagua river group as the oldest. The Yucatan
+group is certainly the youngest. Of course there are many other smaller
+differences between the groups and much overlapping. Whichever group may
+be the oldest the art is there already advanced and the decoration has
+taken forms which must have occupied many kinds of workers to
+conventionalize from natural objects."
+
+1. On Motagua River, Quirigua, Copan. Large monolithic stelae and altars
+with figures and inscriptions carved on all four sides in rather high
+relief, some groups pictographic. No weapons of war portrayed in the
+sculpture.
+
+2. On Usumacinto River, Menche, Tinamit, Palenque, Ixkun. Stelae are
+usually flat slabs carved with figures and inscriptions in low relief on
+one side only. External ornament of the buildings usually moulded in
+stucco. War-like weapons but very scarce.
+
+3. Tikal. Intermediate between Nos. 2 and 4, but somewhat different and
+distinct from either.
+
+4. Yucatan. Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, etc. Stelae very few in number and poorly
+carved. Inscriptions carved in stone are very scarce. Inscriptions were
+probably _painted_ on the walls of the temples. External ornament of
+buildings formed by a mosaic of cut stones somewhat resembling Zapotec or
+Aztec style. Every man portrayed as a warrior [on the bas-reliefs].
+
+By means of the magnificent set of casts which Mr. A. P. Maudslay has
+generously presented to the South Kensington Museum, London, and with the
+aid of his monumental and splendidly illustrated work on the Archaeology
+of Central America, which has been appearing as a part of the Biologia
+Centrali-Americana, edited by Messrs. Godman and Salvin, I have been able
+to verify the following facts which will be found to throw light on the
+purpose and meaning of some of the ancient monuments.
+
+Before examining the great, elaborately carved stelae which are
+characteristic of Quirigua and Copan, let us search the native chronicles
+for some clue explanatory of the purpose for which they were erected.
+
+Bishop Landa has transmitted to us some details about the destroyed
+metropolis of Mayapan given to him by Yucatec informants who stated that
+"in the central square of that city there still were 7 or 8 stones, about
+ten feet high, rounded on one side and well sculptured, which exhibit
+several rows of the native characters, but were so worn that they had
+become illegible. It is supposed, however, that they are the record of the
+foundation and destruction of that capital. Similar, but higher monuments,
+are at Zilan, a town on the coast. Interrogated as to the meaning of these
+monoliths the natives answered: It had been or was customary to erect
+similar stones at intervals of 20 years which was the number by which they
+counted their eras." Bishop Landa subsequently remarks that "this
+statement is not consistent," for, according to this "there should be many
+more such stones in existence, and none exist in any other pueblo but
+Mayapan and Zilan."(58)
+
+Disagreeing with the venerable Bishop, I find in the above statements the
+most valuable indications of the former existence of two centres of
+culture in Yucatan. There is a curious affinity between the name Zilan
+(pronounced Dzilan) and Chilan given as "the title of a priestly office
+which consisted of a juridistic astrology and divination," by Landa. There
+may even be a connection between zilan and zian=origin, commencement;
+zihnal=original and primitive, which may be worthy of consideration in
+association with the well-known statement, quoted by Dr. Brinton, that
+"the most venerable traditions of the Maya race claimed for them a
+migration from Tollan in Zu-iva--thence we all came forth together, there
+was the common parent of our race; thence came we from amongst the Yagui
+men, whose god is Yolcuatl Quetzalcoatl." Dr. Brinton adds that "this
+Tollan is certainly none other than the abode of Quetzalcoatl named in an
+Aztec manuscript as 'Zivena Uitzcatl.' " Vague as any conjecture must
+necessarily be, I cannot but deem it of utmost importance that systematic
+excavations be made, some day, at Zilan, for the purpose of bringing to
+light the stelae referred to by the native informants of Bishop Landa.
+
+According to Brasseur de Bourbourg "Zilan, situated at about 20-1/2 leagues
+from Merida belonged to the Cheles people.(59) It is the seaport of Izamal
+and contains the ruins of one of the greatest pyramids or artificial
+mounds (omul) in Yucatan," a fact which corroborates the view that it was
+an ancient important capital. The northern coast of Yucatan is extremely
+remarkable for it is divided from the Gulf of Mexico by a continuous strip
+of land between which and the mainland there is a narrow channel of water.
+There are two openings only in this zone of land which afford a passage
+into the navigable channel. One of these openings is situated almost
+opposite to Zilan and is known as the Boca de Zilan. At a short distance
+to the east there is a second such "boca" opposite to the mouth of the Rio
+Lagartos, which is a large estuary and the only river on the northern
+coast of Yucatan.(60)
+
+Let us now transport ourselves, mentally, south of the peninsula to
+Honduras and, leaving the coast, ascend the Motagua valley to the ruins of
+Quirigua and Copan,(61) which have impressed Mr. Maudslay as being of
+great antiquity. Before examining such of these monuments as seem to yield
+the testimony we are seeking, let us again recall Landa's record that the
+Mayas erected stelae as memorials of each 20-year period. To this statement
+should be added, at full length, Cogolludo's record that "the Mayas
+employed eras of 20 years and lesser periods of 4 years.(62) The first of
+these four years was assigned to the east and was named Cuch-haab; the
+second, Hiix, to the west; the third, Cavac, to the south and the fourth
+Muluc, to the north, and this served as a 'Dominical letter.' When five of
+these four-year periods had passed, which form twenty years, they called
+it a Katun and placed one sculptured stone over another sculptured stone
+and fixed them with lime and sand [mortar] to the walls of their temples
+and houses of the priests."(63)
+
+The term katun is closely linked to the said employment of memorial
+stones, for tun is the Maya for stone and ka seems to stand for kal or
+kaal=20. The word hun-kaal=20, means literally, "one complete count," or
+"a count which is closed," since the verb kaal means to close, shut, or
+fasten something. According to the above a katun literally means "the 20
+(year) stone;" but we know that, by extension, it designated the era
+itself as well as war and battle. Thus we find the verb katun-tal=to
+fight.
+
+Cogolludo continues: "In a town named Tixuala-tun, which signifies 'the
+place where they place one stone above another,' they say that they kept
+their archive, containing records of all events.... In current speech
+katun signified era and when a person wished to say he was sixty years of
+age, he used the expression to have three eras of years or three stones.
+For seventy they said three and a half stones or four less one-half stone.
+From this it may be seen that they were not too barbarous, for it is said
+that [by this system] they were able to keep such exact records that they
+not only certified an event but also the month and day on which it took
+place."
+
+By referring to Maya and Spanish dictionaries we gain supplementary
+valuable information about native memorial stones. We find the name
+amaytun given as that of "a square stone on which the ancient Indians used
+to carve the 20 years of the period ahau-katun, because the four remaining
+years which completed the epoch, were placed underneath, so as to form a
+sort of pedestal which was called, for this reason, lath oc katun or chek
+oc katun. By extension, painted representations [of the epoch] were also
+named amaytun." The dictionary further informs us that amayte was the name
+for the first twenty years of the ahau katun, which were carved on the
+square stone and we see that amayte also means "something square or with
+corners" and is formed of amay=corner.
+
+Equipped with the foregoing knowledge of the sort of memorial it was
+customary for the Mayas to erect, let us now see whether the ruins of
+Copan furnish any monuments which would answer to the description and
+purpose of "amay-tes" and "ka-tuns." Referring the reader to parts I-III
+of Mr. A. P. Maudslay's work already cited, I draw special attention to
+the following stelae and altars which are so admirably figured therein.
+
+Stela F, which stands at the east side of the Great Plaza at Copan and
+faces west, is in a particularly bad state of preservation. It exhibits a
+standing figure on one side whose head is surmounted by an indescribable
+combination of a mask, a seated figure and much elaborate feather-work. A
+noteworthy feature, which recurs on other stelae in Copan and Quirigua, is
+an appendage which appears like an artificial beard attached to the chin
+of the personage. At the sides of the stela serpents' heads alternate with
+diminutive grotesque figures. On the back, or east side of the stela, two
+cords are represented which appear to have been brought over from the
+front and which are tied together so as to form five open loops, in each
+of which, as in a frame, there is a group consisting of four calculiform
+glyphs. The cord, which is knotted together at the base of the stela,
+appears to pass around it. It is impossible not to recognize that this
+representation of twenty glyphs, as divided into five groups of four,
+exactly agrees with Cogolludo's records that the Mayas employed 20-year
+and 4-year eras and that when five of the 4-year periods had passed they
+called it a ka-tun, and made a carved memorial of it. As Landa tells us
+that they erected stelae to commemorate the 20-year period, the inference
+to which the Copan Stela F leads us is that it is a katun and that the
+twenty glyphs carved on it are year-signs. Examination, however, shows
+that, whereas the Maya Calendar had but four year-signs which would
+naturally be bound to repeat themselves in each group of four years, no
+two glyphs on the Stela F are alike. It is obvious, therefore, that the
+glyphs are not the four calendar year-signs and reflection shows, indeed,
+that it would have been quite superfluous to carve these repeatedly on a
+stela. As each year-sign was identified with a cardinal point and an
+element and was permanently associated with a particular color, the mere
+employment of the latter would suffice to convey this association of
+ideas. What is more, the relative positions of the four glyphs composing
+each group would also indicate the four year-signs and thus the sculptor
+of the stela would have been at liberty to record by the shape of his
+glyphs any fact he chose to connect with each year of the era. A curious
+linguistic fact must also be taken into consideration: The Maya name for
+the four year-signs was Ah-cuch-haab and the title for a chief or ruler of
+a town was Ah-cuch-cab. The mere presence on the stela, of the figure of
+the ruler, would suffice to convey the certainty that the count of the
+four year-signs was understood to be present. On Stelae F and M, each of
+which displays twenty glyphs and one sculptured personage, the latter is
+particularly characterized by being associated with head-dresses and
+emblems consisting of elaborate conventionalized plumed serpents' heads.
+The inference naturally is that the serpent symbolism, which recurs in
+some form or other on every stela effigy, expresses or conveys that the
+rank and title of the personage were that of a Kukul-can, the high-priest
+ruler who impersonated the "Divine Four," or of some lord=Ahau, who was
+also "ruler of the four regions."
+
+It must be recognized that a stone stela, on which is sculptured the image
+of a lord and a count of 20, answers exactly to the memorial stone named
+Ahau-ka-tun, literally, lord, 20 stone, and it is easy to see how the
+period or era of twenty-four years should come to be called by the name of
+the stone which commemorated it, and each era to be differentiated by
+being designated by the personal name of the ruler who held office during
+its course. The result would be practically the same as the allusion to a
+particular reign in a nation's history, with the seeming difference that
+all ancient American rulers and their subordinates held fixed terms of
+office, coinciding with the various periods of the calendar.
+
+The inscriptions on the foregoing stelae are made of glyphs of a uniform
+character. Other stelae at Copan display the interesting set of 6+1=7 signs
+which recur on so many Central American monuments and strikingly coincide
+in number with the all-pervading division into six parts plus the middle
+and synopsis of all. Of this "septenary set of signs," six are uniform in
+size and character whilst the first is more elaborate and important in
+every respect and, as I shall set forth by a series of illustrations in
+another publication, actually does symbolize the union of the Above and
+Below. It is to Mr. Maudslay that we owe the recognition of the existence
+of this septenary set of glyphs, which he announced as follows to the
+Royal Geographical Society in 1886:
+
+"A number of Central American inscriptions are headed by what I shall call
+an initial scroll (the style of which is permanent throughout many
+variations) and begin with the same formula, usually extending through six
+squares of hieroglyphic writing, the sixth square, or sometimes the latter
+half of the sixth square, being a human face, usually in profile, enclosed
+in a frame or cartouche" (Proceedings, p. 583).
+
+The septenary group occurs on Stelae A, B, C, E, I, P. It is curious to
+find that the initial sign is sometimes, as on two sides of Stela P,
+followed not by 6 glyphs only, but by 4x6=24 glyphs. On the east side of
+Stela P, it is succeeded by 22 glyphs and a carved design which seems to
+indicate the beginning or end of the count. On Stela I the initial is also
+followed by 4x6=24 glyphs, and on Stela A by 12 double (=24) glyphs on
+side 1, whilst side 2 displays 13 and side 3, 2x13=26. On Stela B two
+sides exhibit 13 glyphs each and the back 2+ the initial. On two sides of
+Stela C the initial is followed by 2x7=14 glyphs. It cannot be denied that
+the foregoing stelae collectively yield counts of 4x5, 7, 13, 20 and 24,
+which undoubtedly coincide with the well-known numerical organization and
+prove that this dominated the people who erected them.
+
+The certainty that the ancient inhabitants of Copan associated the idea of
+a central ruler with quadruple power is afforded by a remarkable
+bas-relief which Mr. Maudslay has kindly allowed me to reproduce here
+(fig. 55), from a drawing made by Miss Annie Hunter.(64)
+
+This carved slab, the size of which is 5' by 4' 6", was found in four
+pieces in the western court of the main structure of Copan and according
+to Mr. Maudslay's opinion, "formed part of the exterior ornament of temple
+11 or the slope on which it stood." It undoubtedly claims a minute
+examination, as it strikingly illustrates how the native ideas, I have
+been setting forth in the preceding pages, were originally suggested by
+the observation of Polaris. Seated cross-legged, and resting on the centre
+of the foliated swastika, is the figure of a personage whose titles are
+clearly discernible.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 55.
+
+
+He is designated as a ruler, not only by his attitude of repose, but by
+the fact that he wears a breast ornament in the form of a face or head (of
+the sun) and holds in his hand (_i. e._ governs) a vase or bowl (see p.
+72). Those show him to be the chief or head of all and the Cum-ahau, or
+lord of the sacred vase or bowl (see p. 93). As the latter contains what
+appears to be a variant of the glyph ik and the word ik signifies breath,
+air and wind, by extension life, we realize that he is designated as the
+lord of breath and life. The glyph which covers his face bears a native
+cross-symbol and this, as well as the cruciform figure, the centre of
+which he occupies, conveys the idea of quadruplicate power. The double and
+bent arms of the cross-symbol strikingly resemble the conventionalized
+puffs of breath or air which are so frequently depicted in Mexican
+Codices, as issuing from the mouths of speakers. Almost identical
+representations of curved puffs are figured as issuing from open serpents'
+jaws in a bas-relief at Palenque, of which more anon.
+
+Mr. Maudslay has pointed out that on stelae from Copan and Quirigua a
+profusion of analogous curved signs occurs also in connection with
+serpents' heads. A special feature of the curved puffs of breath on the
+Copan "swastika," as it has been named, are small seed-like balls which
+are distributed in detached groups of threes along their inner and outer
+edges, and are usually accompanied by what resembles the small calyx of a
+flower, making four small objects in all. These balls, which also recur in
+the Palenque symbol, forcibly recall a passage of the Zuni creation myth
+recounted by Mr. Cushing.
+
+It relates that, at a certain stage of the creation, "the most perfect of
+all priests and fathers named Yanauluha ... brought up from the
+underworld, the water of the inner ocean and the seeds of life production"
+... Subsequently, on a feathered staff he carried, "appeared 4 round
+things, seeds of moving beings, mere eggs they were; two blue like the sky
+and two red like the flesh of the earth-mother."...
+
+I cannot but think that these words from a purely native source explain
+the Copan sculpture more correctly than any inference that could be made,
+and authorize the explanation that the central figure represents the "four
+times lord," or "lord of the four winds," titles which were applied in
+Mexico to Quetzalcoatl and Xiuhtecuhtli. At the same time the bas-relief
+teaches us that "the four winds" had a deeper meaning than has been
+realized, for it represents life-giving breath carrying with it the seeds
+of the four vital elements, emanating from the central lord of life,
+spreading to the four quarters and dividing itself so as to disseminate
+vitality throughout the universe. The title Kukulcan=the Divine Four, also
+serpent, proves to be even more expressive of this conception of a central
+divinity than the Mexican Divine Twin, or serpent. I am therefore inclined
+to consider that it originated with a Maya-speaking people, to whom, more
+graphically than to any one else, this bas-relief would have served, as a
+joint image of the star-god, the heart of heaven, named Hura-kan; of the
+terrestrial lord Ah-cuch-cab, the heart or life of the State; of the
+State, with its hun-kaal or one count of twenty subdivisions of people and
+its quadruple head and body and, finally, of the native cosmology.
+
+The Copan swastika enables us to come to another interesting conclusion.
+It is a refined representation of the set of thoughts suggested by
+Polaris, the idea of a stable centre being graphically rendered. Movement
+in four directions is also symbolized. As, in the latitude of Copan, Ursa
+Minor is the only circumpolar constellation which could have been observed
+in four opposite positions, it is obvious that Ursa Minor with Polaris
+must have constituted the Maya Celestial Heart or Life=cuxabal. The
+following points remain to be discussed in connection with the Copan
+swastika.
+
+1. To be complete and in keeping with native modes of representation it
+must have originally been painted with the symbolical colors of the Four
+Quarters.
+
+2. It is on a wooden club from Brazil or Guiana that, strange to say, I
+find a cross symbol with bifurcated branches, which most closely resembles
+the Copan type. Directing the readers to the illustration of this club as
+fig. 8, pl. XV, in Dr. Stolpe's work already cited, I would ask them to
+examine also his fig. 7, with a design expressing dual and quadruple
+divisions; fig. 9_b_, with circles containing cross lines; 9_a_, with what
+resembles somewhat a Maltese cross but also conveys duality; fig. 11_b_
+with a cross in a scalloped circle and a curious disc between four signs,
+with a band of alternate black and white squares and its reverse 11_a_,
+with triangles, to which I shall revert; and figs. 10_c_ and _d_, each
+with a mound from which a tree is growing. Though tempted to refer to many
+other symbols I shall limit myself to pointing out that his fig. 1, pl.
+XIV, exhibits a group of five circles in a circle which strikingly recall
+the Mexican examples and the Maya ho=5. As each of the foregoing symbols
+is intelligible and belongs to a group of ideas which I have shown to have
+been general throughout America, but to have necessarily originated in the
+northern hemisphere, it seems pretty clear that they must have gradually
+found their way to Brazil and Guiana from the north by means of coast
+navigation and traffic.
+
+3. Concerning the bowl in the hand of the figure occupying the middle of
+the swastika a few remarks should be added to those already given on pp.
+72 and 93.
+
+Formed of clay the bowl was an expressive symbol of the earth. Placed in
+elevated positions on the terraces of the temples, and filled by the first
+annual showers which fell upon the parched earth, the bowl of celestial
+water naturally became invested with peculiar sanctity, and was gradually
+regarded as containing particular life-giving qualities. One use to which
+bowls full of water were put, in ancient Mexico, seems to explain further
+the ideas associated with them. It is well known that bowls of water were
+used at night for divination purposes, just as were black obsidian
+mirrors. This seems to prove that the latter were a subsequent invention
+which was adopted because it permanently afforded a surface for purposes
+of reflection.
+
+In the native Maya chronicles the reflection of a star upon the trembling
+and moving surface of the water, is given as the image of the Creator and
+Former, the Heart of Heaven, and it was believed that the divine essence
+of life was thus conveyed to earth by light shining on and into the
+waters. It is well known that it was customary for the priests of the
+Great Temple of Mexico to bathe at midnight after fasting, in a sacred
+pool so deep that the water appeared to be black. This
+artificially-produced peculiarity would have rendered its surface
+particularly useful for the observation and registration of the movements
+of stars by their reflections.
+
+Thomas Gage quaintly tells us, moreover, that at the consecration of a
+certain idol "made of all kinds of seeds that grow in the country ... a
+certain vessell of water was blessed with many words and ceremonies, and
+that water was preserved very religiously at the foot of the Altar for to
+consecrate the King when he was crowned and also to blesse any Captain
+Generall, when he should be elected for the Warres, with only giving him a
+draught of that water" (_op. cit._, p. 53). It is well known that infants
+also underwent a form of baptism.
+
+The preceding and other evidence, which is scarcely required, enables us
+to realize the full significance which the symbol of a bowl surmounted by
+the glyph ik=life, breath, soul, was intended to express and convey.
+
+The collection of rain-water in vessels, exposed so as to receive the
+reflection of the one immovable star-god, was doubtlessly employed as a
+test of the stability of the Middle of the Earth by many generations of
+priest-astronomers. The sanctity attached to this water, as having
+absorbed the divine essence of light and the attribution of life-giving
+properties to it, was but the natural sequence of such star-observation.
+As the title "the lord of the vase or bowl"=Cum-ahau, indicates, the
+supreme priest of Heaven alone seems to have attended to all rites
+concerning the sacred bowl and the distribution of its celestial
+life-giving contents. The symbolical decoration of many native bowls will
+be found to corroborate this view of their employment and of the virtue
+attributed to their contents.
+
+By this time I trust that my readers will realize with me that, at Copan,
+the native set of ideas had long taken deep root and flourished. We have
+seen that the identical numerical divisions of time and tribes and the
+same symbolism prevailed as have been traced in Peru, Guatemala, Mexico,
+Yucatan, Zuni, etc. The following monuments will still further establish
+this kinship of thought. Copan contains two stone slabs which answer to
+the description of an amay-tun, inasmuch as they are square and appear to
+be memorial stones. Let us see whether some clue to their purpose can be
+obtained from the carvings upon them.
+
+On each of the four sides of altar K four personages are carved, all
+seeming to be of equal rank. Of these 4x4=16 chieftains, eight wear a
+breast ornament in the form of a double serpent, whilst the remaining
+eight wear a somewhat plainer kind. On the west side the two central
+figures face each other and two diminutive glyphs are carved in the space
+between them. The most striking feature about the representation of these
+personages is, that each of them is seated, cross-legged, on a different
+composite glyph; some of these exhibit animal forms. This is a fact of
+utmost importance, for it definitely connects distinct personalities,
+obviously chieftains with composite glyphs, some composite parts of which
+are obviously totemic. On the upper surface of this monolith there are
+6x6=36 single glyphs, which yield 9 groups of 4. If these 9x4 be added to
+the 4x4 glyphs on which the chieftains are respectively seated, we obtain
+13 groups of 4, equivalent to 52. It is superfluous to repeat that there
+are fifty-two years in the Mexican cycle and that just as this square
+altar has 16 figures carved around it, the great monolithic Stone of Tizoc
+in the City of Mexico has 16 groups. In the latter case each group is
+accompanied by the name of a tribe and its capital. It looks very much as
+though the glyphs on which the chieftains on Altar K are seated also
+express tribal names.
+
+A careful study of the other square monolith at Copan, known as the
+Alligator altar, will enable us to form a better estimate of the probable
+meaning of glyphs, employed as seats by chieftains. The Alligator altar
+takes its name from the sculptured animal which is stretched over its
+upper surface. Human figures are represented as connected with the
+different parts of the animal's body, in a way which forcibly recalls Mr.
+Cushing's explanation of how the various members of a tribe were
+associated with a part only of their totemic animal and bore the name of
+this part as their title of honor, according to a strict order of
+precedence.
+
+According to Mr. Maudslay's description: "Upon the upper surface of the
+monument are two apparently human figures seated upon the arms of the
+alligator. Both figures are much weather worn; each has what appears to be
+a glyph in its hand, which is outstretched toward the alligator's head.
+Between the alligator's arms and legs four human figures are seated in
+similar positions, two on each side of the body. These figures have large
+mask head-dresses and carry offerings in their hands. There are two
+figures on the north side of the monument, one on either side of the tail
+of the alligator; each is seated on a glyph. The figures are human, but in
+place of a human head each figure is surmounted by a glyph. Each figure
+holds a glyph with the numeral ten attached to it in its outstretched
+hand."
+
+Since the above partial description of the altar was written, Mr. Maudslay
+has found that one of the above glyphs is "Mol" and the other "Zip," and
+has identified the glyph used as a head for each figure as the day-sign
+Cabal. This fact is of particular interest as the meaning of this sign
+seems to be connected with Caban=the Below, and the two figures with Cabal
+heads are sculptured at each side of the alligator's tail which is the
+part of least honor, not only according to Zuni etiquette, but also
+according to Mexican ideas, the word for tail being employed,
+metaphorically, for vassals.
+
+To this description I would add that a careful study of the cast of this
+monument in the South Kensington Museum, and of the illustrations in Mr.
+Maudslay's work reveals that, of the four figures on the west side, one
+only has a human head, whilst two have human bodies with animal heads and
+one a semi-human face and the body of a bird. Of the four figures on the
+east side, the first represents a man seated on a glyph, the second a
+human body with an animal head and the third and fourth semi-animal, bird
+and human figures. Amongst the recognizable animal forms represented, we
+distinguish an ocelot, an unmistakable alligator's head and the head of a
+monster with huge jaw and serrated teeth which strongly resembles the
+Mexican sign Cipactli, a nondescript "marine monster." One detail is
+worthy of special notice: the left hand of one of the figures on the east
+side terminates in a serpent's head, in a fashion recalling that of the
+Santa Lucia bas-reliefs.
+
+The following resume will make the distribution of the figures and glyphs
+on the altar quite clear. Top: outstretched alligator body, whose legs and
+claws are sculptured over the corners of the altar. On each shoulder 1
+figure with glyph=2. On each knee 2 figures=4, making a total of 6 figures
+on the top. On east and west sides respectively, 4 figures; on north side
+2 figures, on the south side 4 figures on composite glyphs=14. The total
+number of figures on top and sides is 20, each of which is intimately
+associated with a glyph. Under the snout of the alligator, on the south
+side, there are 2x4=8 glyphs.
+
+When carefully analyzed we ultimately find that the surface of the altar
+exhibits in the first case two chieftains of equal rank, but respectively
+seated on the right and left forelegs of the tribal totem. To my idea this
+demonstrates that the dual rulership, such as existed elsewhere, prevailed
+at Copan, and that two lords of the alligator tribe were entitled the
+right and left forelegs or "arms" of the animal totem. It should be noted
+here that the Maya name for alligator is chiuan or ain. The dictionaries
+contain also the following names for the same or allied species:
+Sea-lizard, alligator (?), ixbaan; lizard in general=ix-mech, or mech,
+ix-be-bech, ixzeluoh and ix-tulub. Obviously occupying positions of less
+honor there are 2x2=4 chiefs of equal rank but seated, respectively, on
+the right and left hind legs of the totem. These again are evidently
+equivalent to the four sub-rulers of Mexico and Yucatan, the Maya Bacabs
+or Chacs.
+
+Lastly, the twenty different figures, connected with particular glyphs,
+are equivalent to the division of the tribe into as many portions, minus
+the head. The eight glyphs associated with this added to the twelve
+glyph-figures, complete the numeric organization into twenty. From this
+monument, the sides of which were probably painted, originally, in four
+colors, it would seem that the alligator clan, ruled by two chiefs and
+four lesser rulers, was organized into twelve divisions of people and
+eight classes of another kind. A circular tablet at Quirigua, which I
+shall describe further on, exhibits a subdivision into 2x6=12+5+3=20.
+
+It is not necessary to emphasize how remarkably the Copan altar conforms
+to the Zuni method of clan-organization. It suffices for my present
+purpose merely to establish the community of thought which existed
+throughout, but which found its highest artistic expression and
+development in Central America.
+
+There are several other smaller carved monoliths, one of which usually
+lies in front of a stela. For this reason they have been popularly named
+"altars," just as the stelae have been called "idols." The majority of
+these "altars" contradict this appellation by their utterly unsuitable
+shapes and profuse carvings on their upper, often irregular, rounded
+surfaces. Some of these monoliths consist of a monstrous head, the shape
+of which is almost lost under an indescribable mass of ornamentation. In
+some cases, however, they recall the semblance of the large glyphs on
+which chieftains are represented as seated on the carved sides of the
+square monoliths just described. So strongly do some of these resemble
+certain forms, that I venture to express my belief that, on ceremonial
+occasions, these carved heads may have served as the seats or stools of
+honor for chieftains of the rank of those portrayed on the bas-reliefs.
+The Maya word tem, the plural form for which is tetem, seems to be
+applicable to such totemistic carved stones. It is translated as stone
+altar, seat or bench (_cf._ Nahuatl word te-tl=stone). Other minor
+monoliths are carved with glyphs. "Altar G," illustrated in Mr. Maudslay's
+work, exhibits four glyphs only--an interesting number, replete with
+significance to the native mind.
+
+The number 24 occurs on Altar R on which the glyphs are disposed as
+2x4=8+2x8=24. The number 24 recurs on the top of Altar U, where the glyphs
+are disposed in 3 rows of 8 each. At the same time the back of this altar
+exhibits 5x10=50 and its sides 2x2=4 glyphs, which may possibly constitute
+separate records. In the majority of foregoing cases the glyphs are single
+and comparatively simple. On Altar S, however, we have double and
+quadruple glyphs, the latter obviously being a highly developed cursive
+method of recording facts, rendered possible by the minute classification
+of all things in the State into definite divisions with fixed
+relationships to each other.
+
+Having lingered so long in Copan we can but glance at Quirigua and note
+its most remarkable features. This ruined city lies on Motagua river,
+1,800 feet below and at about a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles
+from Copan. It is now subjected to almost annual inundations from the
+river and its situation in marshy surroundings renders it extremely
+unhealthy. It may have been partly on this account that the neighboring
+capital of Copan was founded in an elevated and salubrious position.
+
+An interesting fact has been pointed out to me by Mr. Maudslay, namely,
+that the ground plan of both groups of ruins is almost exactly the same,
+Copan being only somewhat the larger of the two. This identity proves that
+the same distinct scheme of orientation was carried out in both places and
+that importance was undoubtedly attached to the relative positions of the
+pyramid-temples, courts and buildings.(65) A proof that two distinct
+castes of rulers existed and were respectively associated with the
+northern and southern regions of the capital is furnished by a
+circumstance communicated to me by Mr. Maudslay. In Copan, as well as at
+Quirigua, some of the individuals sculptured on the stelae are beardless,
+whilst others have beards which seem to be sometimes artificial. These
+stelae usually stood at the sides of the great courts, and at the bases of
+the pyramid-temples. Mr. Maudslay has observed that in both places, all of
+the bearded effigies are situated to the north of the beardless ones. The
+first, for instance, occupy the northern and the second the southern side
+of a court; their respective positions being clearly intentional since it
+recurs in both cases. This circumstance furnishes additional proof that,
+in these capitals as elsewhere, the same great primary division into the
+Above and Below prevailed and shows that the representative rulers of
+these two castes respectively wore beards or none.
+
+The beard, as an insignia of rank, occurs in several Mexican MSS. and
+careful observation shows that it is most frequently represented as worn
+by a high-priest, usually painted black and sometimes wearing the skin of
+an ocelot. It is found associated with advanced age and with red, the
+color of the north, a fact which coincides with the position assigned to
+bearded effigies at Copan and Quirigua. In Mexican Codices the culture
+hero, Quetzalcoatl, is figured with a beard, and tradition records that
+this was his distinctive feature. Images of Quetzalcoatl=the air-god,
+represent him with a beard, and the calendar-sign Ehecatl=wind, is
+composed of an elongated mouth and chin to which a beard is attached.
+
+Several of the monuments at Quirigua are the largest of the kind which
+have been found on the American continent. Stelae E and F are twenty-two
+and twenty-five feet high respectively, and both exhibit two human
+effigies standing back to back. In point of fact, with a few exceptions,
+amongst which are female effigies, the majority of stelae at Quirigua are
+double, namely, A, C, D, E, F, K, in Mr. Maudslay's work, part XI. I
+cannot but regard this as a proof that in a peaceful, flourishing and
+long-established state, the dual form of government maintained itself
+successfully for an extended period of time. On Stela E is one of the most
+remarkable ancient American portrait-statues that has yet been discovered.
+It portrays a man with noble and strongly marked features, an aquiline
+nose and a narrow chin beard, like a goatee.
+
+The Maya dictionaries supply us with the clue to the meaning attached to
+the beard in pictorial art. The word for beard is meex and for "bearded
+man," ah-meex, or ah-meexnal, if the beard was long. On the other hand,
+ah-mek-tancal is the Maya name for "governor and ruler of people or of a
+town," and ah-mektanpixan means high priest. The first two syllables of
+these titles, being identical with the word for a "bearded man," seem to
+explain the reason for the association of rank with a beard, and _vice
+versa_. Added to preceding data it aids in forming the conclusion that the
+bearded personages on the stelae were "high-priests or rulers of people and
+of towns," that the beard or goatee was the mark of supreme rank and that
+artificial ones were sometimes worn.
+
+The beardless effigies, on the other hand, obviously represent individuals
+belonging to a different caste; and the fact that stelae exist at Copan and
+Quirigua on which two figures are carved, back to back, proves that the
+assignment of the effigies of the two types to separate sides of the
+courts was preceded by a time when a closer unity prevailed between the
+dual rulers. The existence of stelae with female figures proves that here,
+as well as in Mexico and Peru, there had been a period when "the Below and
+the cult of the Earth-mother were presided over by a woman."
+
+On each side of the great Stela F is carved the initial followed by 6x6=36
+glyphs, which fact seems to indicate that six glyphs pertained to each of
+the six regions and recorded facts relating thereunto. On the sides of
+Stela F, each initial is followed by 34 glyphs only, the count being
+shorter than that of Stela E by 2x2=4. One side of Stela C exhibits the
+initial followed by 2x13 glyphs grouped in parallel lines, then a
+horizontal band with 4 glyphs; the other side the initial followed by
+4x6=24 and a group of 4 glyphs. Stela D is particularly remarkable on
+account of the six squares of pictorial glyphs which follow the "Initial"
+which, in this case, exhibits the head and body of a jaguar in its centre.
+I refer to Mr. Maudslay's interesting conclusion that these pictorial
+glyphs preceded, in date, the more cursive method of representing the
+initial series. In consequence of this jaguar initial, Stela A becomes
+particularly noticeable, because one of the personages upon it has a
+beard, whilst the other is masked as an ocelot or jaguar.
+
+A vivid sense of the actuality of the bond that existed between the
+ancient dwellers at Copan and Quirigua, their totemic animals and symbolic
+coloring, is obtained on reading Mr. Maudslay's following description of
+the excavation of mound 4 at Copan (Report Proceedings Geographical
+Society, 1886, p. 578).... "The excavation was then continued ... when
+more traces of [human] bones were found mixed with red powder and sand....
+Continuing the excavation ... a skeleton of a jaguar was found lying under
+a layer of charcoal ... the teeth and part of the skeleton had been
+painted red. At about 100 yards to the south of this mound I shortly
+afterwards opened another ... mound ... and found a few small fragments of
+human bones, two small stone axes and portions of another jaguar's
+skeleton and some dog's teeth, showing that the interment of animals was
+not a matter of chance."
+
+If we add this to the accumulation of evidence I have presented, showing
+that in Mexico and Yucatan the ocelot was associated with the north, the
+color red, the underworld, the nocturnal cult and with bearded priests, we
+must admit that there is hope that, some day, we may be as familiar with
+the life and customs of the ancient Americans as we are now with those of
+the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.
+
+Strange animal effigies in stone have been found at Quirigua: one (B)
+somewhat resembles a dragon and exhibits complex glyphs; another (G) has
+been named an armadillo and has 2x8=16 glyphs carved on its lower and
+2x20=40 on its upper sides.
+
+A circular slab deserves special mention: in its centre is a seated
+figure. Forming a band around the edge, to the right of the figure are 6
+glyphs and 6 others are to his left=12 in all. Above him to his left are 5
+and to his left are 3 glyphs. This peculiar distribution of 20 glyphs is
+of peculiar interest.
+
+The crowning glory of Quirigua, however, is the gigantic block of stone,
+completely covered with intricate carvings and glyphs, which is known as
+the "Great Turtle," and of which splendid casts, made from Mr. Maudslay's
+moulds, are now exhibited in the South Kensington Museum, London, and in
+the American Museum of Natural History, New York. Of the many features of
+this remarkable monument, which can be studied in Mr. Maudslay's
+forthcoming part XI of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, the seated figure,
+occupying a prominent place and obviously representing the central ruler,
+deserves special mention. In his right hand he holds a peculiar sceptre
+similar to that held by the personage on Stela E. His left hand is
+concealed under a carved face, a detail which recalls the Santa Lucia
+bas-reliefs.
+
+Palenque and its group of sister cities now claim our notice. Of the
+latter Men-che particularly arrests our attention on account of its name,
+the second part of which means tree and by extension, tribe. The word
+_men_ is of particular interest, for it is not only the name of a dog in
+the Maya Calendar but signifies precisely the same as the Mexican word
+toltecatl, namely, master-builder, artificer or artisan, an adept in
+manufacture. The habitual form of employing the word would be ah-men,
+meaning he who is a master builder, etc.; while men-ah or men-yah
+signifies work or production of manual labor. The first part of the
+Nahuatl word aman-teca, signifying artisan, artificer, seems to be a
+corrupt rendering of the Maya ah-men. That Men-che, which is also known as
+Lorillard City, was a centre of the highest development of
+native-sculpture and art seems proven by the truly admirable and
+exquisitely fine workmanship of the bas-reliefs obtained there by Mr.
+Maudslay, and now exhibited at the British Museum. In execution and finish
+they undoubtedly surpass any specimens of ancient American art I have ever
+seen.
+
+A search for the possible derivation of the word men leads to mehen, the
+name for "sons or nephews in the male line," mehen-ob, the descendants,
+mehen-tzilaan=genealogy and parentage (a word which sheds some light on
+the meaning of the ancient capital Tzilan in Yucatan). Mehen is also
+employed as meaning something little, small or minute.
+
+From the above data it may be inferred that Men-che may have originally
+signified "the tree or tribe of the sons or nephews in the male line," and
+that these people may have so identified themselves with the arts of
+building and working in precious metals and stone, etc., that their title
+was used as a designation for these industries. It is certainly remarkable
+that, situated at an easy distance on the same river Usumacinto, there is
+the great ruined city of Palenque(66) (pronounced by the natives
+Pa-lem-ke) which seems also to have originally terminated in che=tree or
+tribe and to be derived from palil, pal or palal=vassal, servant, subject,
+also small child. Let us see how far the monuments of Palenque justify and
+support this translation of its name.
+
+Referring the reader to Mr. Maudslay's Biologia, and to Mr. Holmes'
+Archaeological Studies, Pt. II, and other well-known works on the ruins of
+Palenque, I shall confine myself to a cursory examination of the four
+principal isolated pyramid-temples, known, respectively, as the temples of
+the Inscriptions, of the Sun, of the Cross and of the Cross No. 2.
+Although the orientation of these edifices is not accurate they may be
+roughly said to face the cardinal points as follows:--
+
+The temple "of the Inscriptions" faces the north, that "of the Sun" the
+east, whilst the temple "of the Cross" faces the south and that "of Cross
+2," the west. Dr. Brinton has already shown that the well-known symbol on
+the famous "Tablet of the Cross" is not a cross, but the conventional
+symbol for "tree" of the type I have illustrated in the preceding fig. 53.
+As Cross No. 2 unquestionably belongs to the same category, it results
+that these two temples would be more correctly designated as "of the Tree"
+and that they furnish us with an interesting parallel of the Peruvian
+quisuar can-cha, or "place of the tree," where the Inca erected two trees
+which typified his father and mother and were "as the root and stems of
+the Incas." The Palenque "trees," moreover, closely resemble those on the
+Mexican Fejervary chart (fig. 52) inasmuch as, in each case, the tree is
+surmounted by a bird and is flanked by two human figures.
+
+It has already been shown in the preceding pages that in ancient America
+the tree was generally employed as a symbol for tribe and that the Maya
+word for tree=che occurs as an affix signifying tribe or people not only
+in Qui-che, Man-che (the latter a tribe inhabiting the region of Menche
+and Palenque) etc., but also in the names of tribes inhabiting the
+southern regions of North America.
+
+Assuming, therefore, upon convincing and substantial evidence which will
+be further corroborated, that the "Tablet of the Cross" represents a tree,
+the symbol of tribal life, the next step is to interpret the bird perched
+upon it and generally acknowledged to be a quetzal (pronounced kay-tzal)
+as the totem of the tribe, which also probably expresses its name. The
+tree is represented as associated with serpent symbolism and as growing
+from a vase=ho-och placed on a monstrous head=ho-ol, the idea conveyed
+being that it flourished in the centre or middle, while the head
+signifies, as has been shown, the capital and also the chief. On the vase
+is carved a symbol to which I draw special attention, as it recurs on the
+right hand end of the carved band below the tree, is met with in Maya
+calculiform glyphs and is also frequently employed in ancient Mexico. It
+represents the corolla of a four-petalled flower which obviously
+symbolized the Four-in-One, which permeated the native civilizations.
+
+The word for "flower" being nic in Maya and xochitl (pronounced hoochitl)
+in Nahuatl, it must be admitted that the symbol of a vase with a flower
+seems to afford an instance of a bilingual rebus, as the Maya hooch is
+identical in sound to the Nahuatl xoch-itl. Even without this, however,
+the meaning of the tree and serpent, the bird, the vase, the quadripartite
+flower, and the head, would have been generally and equally intelligible
+to native tribes, being familiar symbols constantly employed in
+metaphorical speech.
+
+Mr. Maudslay has pointed out and illustrated in his work (Biologia, pl.
+92, pt. X) that the side branches of the "cross" simulate bearded
+serpents' heads, whilst their recurved upper jaws are covered with what
+resemble buds of flowers, seeds or beads. The Palenque "cross" is indeed
+characterized by being profusely decorated with "bead or seed-like
+ornaments and appendages" some of which resemble beads or seeds, figured
+in some instances, like those on the Copan swastika, the meaning of which
+seems supplied by the previously cited Zuni text. It does not appear to be
+a mere matter of chance that the following Maya words, culled from the
+dictionaries, are so closely connected: yax-che=a sort of ceiba tree, the
+emblem of celestial life of the Mayas; yax-chumil and
+yax-pa-ibe=adjectives primitive, original; adverb firstly, at the
+beginning; yaxil, verb=to make something new, to commence, begin;
+yaxil-tun=bead or pearl; yax-mehen-tzil=eldest son.
+
+According to this incontrovertible evidence we find that the sacred tree
+of life of the Mayas was designated by the word yax, signifying first,
+original, new, etc.; that the same root enters into the composition of the
+word for eldest son and finally for "bead." The latter curious agreement
+is accentuated by the well-known fact that the Mexicans employed in
+metaphorical speech the word cuzcatl=bead made of some precious stone, to
+designate "father, mother, lord, captain, governor; those who are like a
+sheltering tree to the people" (Olmos, cap. VIII). A term of particular
+endearment for a son was "gold-bead" (teocuitla-cuzcatl). Olmos moreover
+records no less than eight metaphorical designations for a "Tree, or first
+father, origin of generation, lord or governor," and appellations for
+twenty-nine "Relatives who issue from one stem or trunk."
+
+Collectively, the evidence set forth in the preceding pages identifies the
+image on the famous "Tablet of the Cross," as a symbolical representation
+of the "Tree of Life of the Eldest Sons," chiefs or nobility of a tribe,
+whose totemic bird was the quetzal.(67) Before completing the description
+of this tablet, the analogous representation of a tree on the "Temple of
+the Cross 2" should be examined. This is generally known as the foliated
+Cross and like its counterpart it issues from a vase with a quadriform
+emblem, and a monstrous head. Its branches are composed of
+conventionalized maize plants on which human heads and faces occupy the
+places of the corn-cobs whilst their hanging hair simulates the tassels of
+the ripe corn. The maize-leaves are decorated with groups of seed-like
+beads amongst which distinct representations of maize seeds are
+discernible. These form, indeed, the leading motif of the seed decorations
+and indicate that the "appendages" to the groups of seed-like beads on the
+Copan swastika were but conventionalized maize-seeds. The branches of the
+maize-tree are surmounted by a conventionally ornamented head from which
+hangs a necklace of beads with a medallion consisting of a face surrounded
+by a beaded frame. Above the head the totemic quetzal bird is repeated
+under almost precisely the same form but in a reversed position. It is
+interesting to note that the Maya name for maize is ixim, which added to
+the che=tree, yields ixim-che, a word which actually occurs as the local
+name of the ancient capital of Guatemala, named "Iximche-tecpan." To this
+curious fact should be also added that "ix" is the prefix employed to
+designate the feminine gender and that Ix-chel is "the name of the Maya
+goddess of medicine and of child-birth."
+
+An extremely interesting composite symbol is carved under the feet of the
+personage standing next to the "maize-tree," to the right of the
+spectator. It consists of the realistically carved large convolute
+sea-shell such as constituted the Mexican symbol of parturition. An almost
+grotesque human figure is represented as issuing from it and holding in
+its hand a maize plant which bends upwards and curves over the shell. Its
+leaves are drawn with maize-seeds on and amongst them, in the same
+conventional way that has been noticed on the central tree, and human
+heads again simulate the corn-cob. An acquaintance with Mexican and Zuni
+symbolism enables us to grasp the significance of this composite symbol
+which figuratively expresses the common birth and growth of the substance
+of plant and human life. The personage who stands over this symbol, facing
+the tree and the tail of the bird which surmounts it, holds a curiously
+decorated emblem in his hand, of which more anon. A small twig bearing
+three terminal leaves issues from his head. Behind him are 4 perpendicular
+columns with 17 glyphs in each; whilst a detached series, consisting of 13
+smaller glyphs, is carved in front and above him.
+
+At the opposite side of the tree, facing the almost unrecognizable head of
+the bird, a personage stands on an elaborately carved monstrous head,
+covered with a maize-plant. He is wearing a necklace and medallion like
+that on the tree itself. His head is surmounted by a high cap bearing a
+conventionalized flower-bud. A belt in the form of a serpent with open
+jaws, encircles his waist and he is holding aloft in his hands, a
+miniature, human, seated figure with folded arms, a bead necklace and an
+indescribable head-dress and masked face. His attitude indicates that, by
+offering this figure, he is performing some rite. On the other hand, a
+conventionalized sign for water seems to be issuing from the bird's head
+and descending upon the figure whilst puffs of breath and seeds issuing
+from its beak seem to be directed towards the tiny effigy of a human
+being.
+
+Reverting now to the "Tablet of the Cross I," we find precisely analogous
+figures at its sides, only in reversed positions. To the right of the
+spectator stands the priest with a tall hat surmounted by the flower-bud,
+somewhat resembling a fleur-de-lis. The small human figure he is offering
+is recumbent and is being held out so as to come in contact with the
+pendant issuing from the bird's head.
+
+The figure on the opposite side, with the head-dress and twig with three
+leaves, is facing the central tree and holding a staff which, in this case
+although combined with other emblems, clearly appears to represent a young
+maize plant, with its roots below, and growing shoot with leaves above. As
+on the other tablets there are columns of glyphs behind each figure,
+whilst the personage holding the maize-plant is associated with a detached
+group, in two portions, consisting of 10+4 glyphs, and is standing on a
+large glyph associated with a numeral.
+
+Having thus cursorily brought out some special points observable on both
+"Cross Tablets," let us now glance at the tablet in the "Temple of the
+Sun." On this we again find columns of glyphs and a personage at each side
+of a central figure. The same peculiarities and differences of costume are
+observable here as on the preceding tablets; but each personage holds a
+small, grotesque human figure with a long nose, and each stands on the
+back of a human being, that to the left of the spectator especially
+appearing to be a conquered enemy.(68)
+
+Two over-burdened-looking seated figures, one of which is clothed in a
+spotted ocelot's skin, occupy the centre and support, on their bowed
+shoulders, a curious emblem terminating in open serpents' jaws. The large
+head (of a jaguar?) is in the centre and above this issue two puffs of
+breath with seeds, forming a double recurved figure so identical in shape
+and detail to a single branch of the Copan swastika that one might imagine
+it was carved by the same hand. On this tablet, instead of a tree, the
+centre is occupied by a shield, exhibiting a face and having tufts of
+feathers at its four rounded corners. This rests on two crossed lances
+with decorated handles surmounted by large points.
+
+In this connection it is interesting and important to note that, in
+ancient Mexico, lands conquered and acquired in warfare were termed "mil
+chimalli," literally, "field of the shield," a metaphor which was also
+probably known to the Mayas.
+
+Glancing next at the "Temple of Inscriptions," the fourth of the large
+detached temples of Palenque, we find that its interior is characterized
+by the most extensive mural inscriptions found in America, consisting
+entirely of hieroglyphics. Four exterior free pillars, however, "contain
+on their outer faces, modelled in bold relief, life-sized figures of women
+holding children in their arms" (Holmes).
+
+Having brought out the particular point that, in each of the four temples
+described, adults are represented in the act of carrying or offering
+children or diminutive and strangely grotesque conventionalized effigies
+of human beings, I would note that the only analogous grotesque figures
+with long noses, I know of, are those on the sceptres held in the hand by
+the seated personage on the "Great Turtle" and by the individual carved on
+Stela E at Quirigua. It is noteworthy that the left hand of the latter
+personage holds a shield displaying a face and recalling that carved on
+the tablet of the Palenque "Temple of the Sun." Analogous grotesque
+figures also surround the personage carved on Stela F at Copan. These
+facts indicate that the Quirigua "Great Turtle," the stelae at Quirigua and
+Copan and the Palenque tablets, were erected by people sharing the same
+cult and ritual observance, one feature of which was the carrying of
+diminutive human effigies, with exaggerated and almost grotesque noses.
+
+A clue to the significance of this rite is supplied by the text of the
+Codex Telleriano-Remensis (Kingsborough, vol. V, p. 134) relating to the
+Mexican 20-day period Iz-calli, the last of the year. "It was the feast of
+Fire, because at this season the trees became warmed and began to bud. In
+it was celebrated the festival Pil-quixtia, meaning 'human life or nature
+which had always escaped destruction although the world itself had been
+destroyed several times.' "
+
+"Izcalli signifies as much as liveliness, and in this 20-day period all
+mothers lifted their children by their heads and holding them aloft called
+out, Izcalli, Izcalli, as though they said 'aviva'=live, live.... This was
+the period of production ... thanks were rendered to the nature which is
+the cause of the production.... Every four years they feasted for 8 days
+in memory of the three times that the world was destroyed. They name this
+'four times Lord,' because this escaped destruction, although all was
+destroyed. They designated the festival as that of 'renovation' and said
+that when it and the fast came to an end the bodies of men became like
+those of children. Therefore, in order to figure [or symbolize] this
+festival, adults led certain children by the hand, in the sacred dance."
+
+Slightly incoherent though this text may be, it furnishes a most valuable
+supplement to the descriptions of the same festival by other authorities.
+As this is exhaustively treated in my forthcoming text to the "Life of the
+Indians " in which all available authorities are quoted and collated, I
+shall confine myself here to some facts which bear a special relation to
+the subject of this paper. In Mexico another name for the festival period
+Izcalli, was Xilomaniztli=the birth or sprouting of the young maize.
+According to Duran, izcalli signified "the creating or bringing up" and in
+order to make the growth of children coincide with that of the young
+maize, parents, during this period, stretched the limbs and every part of
+the bodies of all infants of tender age.
+
+Another observance which was held at this time was in anticipation of the
+New Year and consisted in the raising and planting of high poles or wands
+with branches, in the courtyards of the temples and in the streets. These
+typified the new life; "the budding and rejoicing of the trees." Another
+New Year custom was that of carrying budding branches or young shoots of
+maize in the hand, on a particular day named Xiuh-Tzitzquilo, literally,
+"the taking of the year in one's hands." The explanation of this metaphor
+is given by Duran who states that "the natives consider that the year,
+with its months and days, is like a branch with its twigs and leaves."
+
+A passing mention must be moreover made of the two movable festivals
+celebrated by the Mexicans, in which they scattered broken egg-shells on
+the roads and streets as a rite of thanksgiving for "the life bestowed
+upon the chicken in the shell" by the divine power. In the image of this
+festival contained in the "Life of the Indians," the egg-shells are
+represented at the foot of a tree bearing seven blossoms; the seated
+divinity in front of this wears a bird-mask and carries a staff with a
+heart in his hand. These festivals were named respectively, seven flowers
+and one flower.
+
+Briefly summarizing the foregoing data, we find it proven that, deeply
+impressed with the wonderful renewal of life in nature, the ancient
+Mexicans rendered periodical thanksgiving for this in its various forms.
+The budding tree, the young shoots of the maize, all seedlings, the broken
+egg-shells from which the young chickens had emerged, were adopted as
+emblems of the renewal of life. The child was likewise looked upon as the
+renewal of the human race and every four years a thanksgiving festival "of
+renovation" was solemnized in which children took a special part. In my
+work on the Calendar system I shall show how far this festival "of new
+birth" coincided with astronomical phenomena. From Landa we learn that in
+the Maya months "Chen or Yax," on a day designated by the priest, a
+festival was celebrated named Ocna: "the renovation of the temple in
+honour of the Chacs, the gods of the maize-fields." This was held each
+year ... all idols and incense-burners were renewed and if necessary the
+building was rebuilt or renovated and, "in commemoration of this, an
+inscription in the native characters was fixed to the walls."
+
+Referring to other chapters of Landa's work we find that, as in Mexico,
+the Yucatec children received a "child's name" at birth which was changed
+when, having accomplished the third year, they were "reborn" and received
+a new name, _i. e._ the combined name of their father and mother. On
+attaining puberty they obtained an individual name which they preserved
+during life-time. A knowledge of the social organization of these people
+enables one to grasp the full importance and significance of these changes
+of name, which were accompanied by ritual observances and betokened the
+enrolment of the children into their respective classes and sub-classes
+and a consequent reorganization of certain departments of the State. It
+appears that in ancient times the ceremonial of the "new birth," or
+re-naming of the children, took place every four years, simultaneously
+with the thanksgiving feast for the "continuation of the human race."
+
+A careful analysis of native words and metaphors tends to show, moreover,
+that the children born within each four-year-period were collectively
+regarded as "a fresh growth upon the tribal tree." In Mexico the word for
+leaf=atlapalli, was employed as a metaphor for the lower class, whilst in
+Peru the male and female descendants of the Incas were represented by gold
+and silver fruits upon the trees of their male and female ancestry. The
+collection of such scattered scraps of testimony enables us to reconstruct
+the drift of native thought and realize that the registration of
+individuals was associated with the conception of a tribal tree bearing
+four branches and covered with blossoms, fruits and leaves which faded and
+fell but were replaced by fresh growths.
+
+We learn from Duran that so careful a record was kept of the population,
+by the Mexican priesthood, "that not even a newborn babe could escape
+detection." The reason for this strict vigilance is clear, for the welfare
+of the community and the harmonious working of the complex machinery of
+state depended upon the constant renewal of vacancies caused by deaths in
+each department of industry and government.
+
+After this excursion into the realm of native thought let us now return to
+the Palenque tablets, placed in detached temples which approximately face
+the four cardinal points. On the tablet of the "Temple of the Cross" we
+have a tribal tree with symbols of the Middle and of the Four Quarters and
+of duality. A priest with a flower on his head presents a diminutive human
+figure to the totemic bird perched on the tree. Another, with a leafy
+branch on his head-dress, holds a conventional sceptre simulating a young
+growing shoot of maize. Behind each figure are rows of glyphs and in the
+upper corner to the left of the spectator is the septenary series headed
+by the initial-sign.
+
+In the "Temple of Cross II" we have a variant of the identical
+representation in which the maize plant and the sea shell are prominent.
+If I may hazard a suggestion of the meaning of these two tablets, I should
+say that they appear to be tribal registers most probably relating to the
+increase and decrease of the male and female population in all divisions
+and classes, during a fixed period of time. Both seem to commemorate the
+"renovation" or "new growth" of the tribal tree in a mode which would have
+been as intelligible to a Mexican, for instance, as to a Maya. The fact
+that the "Temple of the Sun" and that of the "Inscriptions" obviously held
+analogous registers, points to the alternative possibilities (1) that each
+temple was destined to preserve the register of the population and social
+organization, etc., of one of the four quarters of the capital and state,
+according to years; (2) that the trees in the "Cross temples" figured the
+male and female lineages of the ruling caste, whilst the tablet in the
+"Temple of the Sun" recorded the numbers of conquered people reduced to
+slavery and the "Temple of Inscriptions" preserved the register of female
+children or of vassals; (3) that each of the four temples preserved a
+complete register of the entire state and had been erected consecutively
+at the conclusion or beginning of eras, the difference observable in the
+central motif conveying the salient feature or event marking each special
+epoch and recording, according to years, the organization of the state
+during its course.
+
+In the face of this possibility as well as the probability that each glyph
+was painted and implied a year, it is interesting to note that, including
+the initial glyph, the "Tablet of the Cross" exhibits 108 glyphs on the
+side to the left and 124 on the side to the right of the spectator=a total
+of 232; the "Tablet of the Cross II" exhibits 76 to the left and 83 to the
+right=159; and that in the "Temple of the Sun," 70 to the left, 159 to the
+right and 12 in the middle=241. The "Temple of Inscriptions" exhibits the
+initial series (see Maudslay, Biologia, pt. X, pl. 82) and entire walls
+covered with glyphs, some of which, as on the tablets enumerated above,
+are accompanied by numerals whilst others are not.
+
+In a future publication I shall submit illustrations of these monuments
+with the ripened results of my investigations concerning them. For my
+present purpose it suffices to have produced substantial proofs that the
+ancient dwellers in Palenque employed the same metaphors, the same cursive
+method of registration and held the same fundamental principles of
+organization that have been shown to underlie the civilizations of Peru,
+Guatemala, Yucatan, and Mexico and still survive amongst the Zunis and
+more northern tribes. It is obvious that, at Palenque and the neighboring
+Menche and Ixkun, an integral civilization, based on these principles, had
+existed for an incalculable length of time. Strangely enough it seems to
+form so close a link between Maya and Mexican culture that it almost seems
+justifiable to surmise that both Maya and Nahuatl languages were spoken in
+these ancient ruined cities.
+
+Proceeding mentally northwards we will not linger at the ruins of Mitla,
+the name of which seems to indicate that it had lain to the north of a
+great ancient centre of government, since Mictlan in Nahuatl and Mitnal in
+Maya both designate the region of the underworld and the north.
+
+Reaching the ultimate stage of our mental exploration of the American
+Continent we now transport ourselves to the Valley of Mexico and, on the
+site of the ancient capital of Montezuma and his coadjutor, face the three
+great monolithic monuments which are popularly known as the Calendar
+Stone, the Stone of Tizoc and Huitzilopochtli. In 1886, at the Buffalo
+Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, I
+presented a "Preliminary Note of an Analysis of the Mexican Codices and
+Graven Inscriptions," in which the opinion was advanced that the "Calendar
+Stone" was identical with the "circular elaborately carved tablets which,
+according to Padre Duran, were erected in each market-place in ancient
+Mexico, and were held in great veneration. They were frequently consulted
+and by them the market-days were regulated."
+
+"All writers concur in stating that the market was held on each fifth day,
+when all adults were obliged by law to resort to the appointed
+market-place. The entire produce and manufacture of the state were brought
+there, even from great distances, severe penalties being incurred by those
+who bartered the products of agriculture or manual labor on the highway or
+elsewhere. On the broad, straight, cemented roads which led from the four
+quarters to the heart of the capital, 'resting places' for the wayfarers
+and carriers were provided at fixed intervals. The enormous concourse of
+people, the variety of produce exhibited in the market-places of
+Montezuma's capital filled the conquerors with wonder and admiration. From
+Cortes, Bernal Diaz, Sahagun and others we learn that the market was a
+special charge of the supreme chief of Mexico; that appointed officers
+presided in state over it whilst others moved among the throng
+superintending the traffic. Standard measures were kept and rigorous
+punishment awaited those who sold by false measure or bartered stolen
+property."
+
+After making the preceding statements I advanced the opinion "that the
+periodical market-day was the most important regulator of the Mexican
+social organization and that the monolith generally known as the
+Calendar-stone was the Market-stone of the City of Mexico. It bears the
+record of fixed market days; and I venture to suggest that from these the
+formation of the Mexican Calendar system originated. The stone shows the
+existence of communal property and of an equal division of general
+contributions into certain portions...."
+
+I concluded the above communication with the statement: "Before publishing
+my final results I shall submit them to a searching and prolonged
+investigation. An examination of the originals of many of the Codices
+reproduced in Lord Kingsborough's 'Mexican Antiquities' will be necessary
+to determine important points and during the forthcoming year my line of
+researches will be in this direction." In my youthful enthusiasm and
+inexperience I little foresaw, when I wrote the above sentences, that I
+should spend thirteen years in diligent research before I felt ready to
+express my ripened conclusions concerning the Calendar-stone. Although the
+results I am about to submit are final they are necessarily incomplete,
+their full presentation with adequate illustrations being included in my
+forthcoming special work on the Social and Calendaric system of ancient
+America. For the present I have limited myself to the reproduction of the
+outline drawing of the monolith made by the late Dionysio Abadiano of
+Mexico and published in his somewhat fanciful work on this subject.(69) No
+one, however, had studied the Calendar-stone more carefully than he; and,
+besides being extremely accurate in outline, his drawing has the merit of
+including the eight deep circular holes which were drilled at regular
+intervals outside of the worked border of the stone as well as the groups
+of smaller circular and shallow depressions which Senor Abadiano
+discovered on the outer unworked portion of the monolithic block. Without
+discussing here the question whether the eight drill holes were intended
+to support a species of gnomon, as Leon y Gama first maintained, or merely
+served for the guidance of those who carved this marvel of accurate
+workmanship and symmetrical design, I shall merely point out that,
+although the group of circular depressions in the block, in the lower
+corner to the left of the spectator, offers a certain resemblance to the
+form of the constellation of Ursa Major, this may be merely the result of
+chance.
+
+Facing the problem of the meaning and purpose of the "Calendar-stone,"
+after thirteen years of assiduous study, I find that the interpretation I
+suggested in 1886, is substantially strengthened and corroborated by
+freshly accumulated evidence. The difference is that I now lay less stress
+upon the phonetic elements and values of the symbols, although, as I shall
+set forth in the special publication alluded to, no study of the monument
+can be considered complete unless these be carefully analyzed and
+understood. The one great stride in advance that I think I have made is
+the recognition that the monolith is an image of the Great Plan or Scheme
+of Organization which has been expounded in the preceding pages and which
+permeated every branch of native thought.
+
+The monument represents the high-water mark reached in the evolution of a
+set of ideas, which were suggested to primitive man by long-continued
+observation of the phenomena of Nature and by the momentous recognition of
+the
+
+
+                            "northern star,
+    Of whose true-fixed, and resting quality,
+    There is no fellow in the firmament.
+    The skies are painted with unnumber'd sparks,
+    They are all fire, and every one doth shine;
+    But there's but one in all doth hold his place."(70)
+
+
+This inscribed tablet, which constitutes one of the most important
+documents in the history of the human race, is as clearly an image of the
+nocturnal heaven as it is of a vast terrestrial state which once existed
+in the valley of Mexico, and had been established as a reproduction upon
+earth of the harmonious order and fixed laws which apparently governed the
+heavens.
+
+The monument exposes these laws, the dominion of which probably extended
+throughout the American Continent, and still faintly survive in some
+existing aboriginal communities. It not only sets forth the organization
+of state government and the subdivision of the people into classes bearing
+a fixed relation to each other, but also serves as a chart of the
+territory of the State, its capital and its four provinces, and minor
+topographical divisions. Finally, it reveals that the progress of time,
+the succession of days, years and epochs, _i. e._ the Calendar, was
+conceived as a reproduction of the wheel of sinistral revolution described
+by the circumpolar constellations around Polaris. The Septentriones served
+as an indicator, composed of stars, the motive power of which emanated
+from the central luminary. This marked not only the march of time each
+night, but also the progress of the season by the four contrapositions
+apparent in the course of a year, if observed at a fixed hour of the
+night.
+
+The twenty familiar day and year signs of the native calendar are carved
+on a band which encircles the central figure on the stone. I am now in a
+position to prove satisfactorily that these signs were not merely
+calendaric and that they equally designated four principal and 4x4=16
+minor groups of stars; four chiefs and 4x4=16 minor tribal groups or
+divisions of men.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 56.
+
+
+Merely a few indications will suffice to prove how completely and
+unmistakably the symmetrical design on the monolith (fig. 56) expounds the
+great plan which had impressed itself so deeply and indelibly upon the
+minds of the native philosophers and influenced all their thoughts and
+speculations.
+
+The head and face in the middle of the monument conveys the idea of
+duality, being masked, _i. e._ doubled-faced and bearing the number 2
+carved on its forehead. It conveyed the conception of a divine power who
+ruled heaven and earth from a changeless and fixed centre in the heaven;
+expressed the dual government of the earth by twin-rulers who dwelt in a
+central capital. It typified light and the heaven itself with its two
+eyes; the sun and moon and darkness and the earth by the mouth; whilst the
+symbols for breath issuing from both nostrils and the tongue protruding
+from the mouth denoted the power of speech, which was so indissolubly
+connected with the idea of chieftainship by the Mexicans that a title for
+the chief was "the Speaker." The central head likewise denoted a "complete
+count"=one man, and was expressive of a great era of time, embodying
+twenty epochs.
+
+As a synopsis of the whole, the following titles recorded in the
+chronicles would be applicable to the central ruler, celestial or
+terrestrial: the two lord, the divine twin; the two-lord and two lady; the
+quadruple lord, "He who looks in four directions;" the lord of the
+thirteen powers; the one lord, _i. e._ embodying a complete count=20; the
+lord of five (_i. e._ of the Middle and Four Quarters); of seven, _i. e._
+of the Middle, Above, Below, and Four Quarters; of thirteen, _i. e._ of
+the duplication or male and female or celestial and terrestrial divisions
+of the Above, Below and Four Quarters plus the Middle.
+
+Surrounding the central head are four square divisions arranged in two
+separate parts, each of which includes what appears to be in one case the
+right, and in the other the left, conventionalized claw (forepaw?) of an
+animal armed with hooked nails, such as Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the
+North, is represented with.
+
+The square compartments contain symbols of the four elements so disposed
+that air and water are appropriately associated with the hand to the right
+(=male region) and fire and earth with the hand to the left side (=the
+female region) of the central head. But this is not all, for another
+carefully devised relation between the elements likewise appears upon
+careful examination. In the middle, carved above the central face and
+between the symbols for air and fire, is the conventionalized "ray of the
+Sun," or pyramid which typifies "that which ascends or is above" the upper
+elements and the Above. As its opposite we find below, situated between
+the symbols of earth and water, a ring with a concentric circle
+representing the drop of water="that which descends." As the Moon was
+inseparably associated with water and the Below, it is doubtlessly
+included in the symbolism.
+
+One more point which will receive due attention in my monograph remains to
+be briefly noticed. As the symbol for air=east is situated to the right of
+the symbol for north, and the earth=west is to its left, it is clear that
+the central face is conceived as looking down from above upon the
+spectator. It is only when the stone is considered as placed face downward
+that the symbols assume their proper positions as regards the cardinal
+points. This reversal, which is the natural result of the association of
+the east and south with the right hand of the middle personage, suggests
+that the monolith may have been originally designed to be let into the
+flat or slanting ceiling of a building. As a parallel instance I will
+state that, some years ago, Senor Troncoso pointed out to me a fact he had
+noticed, namely, that the relative positions of the cardinal points on the
+Fejervary chart were reversed and that it must have been intended to be
+looked at from underneath.
+
+Each of the element symbols is accompanied by four numerals placed in the
+angles of the squares, with one exception, where one numeral was obviously
+dislodged from its proper position by an encroaching emblematic ornament.
+The positions of these numerals and of their square enclosures are what
+recalled to my mind the opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major in its
+annual rotation around the axis of the heaven. Just as the central face
+primarily represented Polaris, so these squares figured the four
+contrapositions of the great constellation. The peculiar, almost
+cross-shaped figure resulting from the union and association of the
+symbols of the Centre, and of the Above, Below, Right, Left=Four Quarters,
+is a well-known conventional sign, generally known as a "nahui-ollin." The
+accepted translation of this name is "four movements," from olinia,
+verb=to move, and no name could be more appropriate for a symbol which, to
+my idea, like the swastika, actually represents the movement of the most
+conspicuous of septentrional constellations to four opposite places.
+
+At the same time, as the nahui-ollin on the stone encloses symbols of the
+four elements, the union of which was believed by the native philosophers
+to be essential for the production and maintenance of life, I was led to
+observe also the fact that the words for life and heart, and the verbs to
+be alive, to live, to resuscitate, etc., are all derivatives from the root
+yuli, or yoli, which undoubtedly has a common origin with the verb
+olinia=to move. It therefore not only appears that, to the native mind,
+motion and life were indissolubly linked together, but that the name
+nahui-ollin must have signified four-fold life as well as movement. It
+likewise typified the four sides of the great pyramid which formed the
+nucleus of the capital and was crowned by two temples, respectively
+occupied by symbolical images of the "Divine Twins." It is impossible not
+to realize that, in ancient Mexico, the pyramid constituted an image of
+the entire system.
+
+Each of its sides obviously pertained to one of the four regions and was
+probably painted with its symbolical color.(71) It seems safe to assume
+that the pyramid was originally erected by the cooeperation of people from
+the four quarters of the capital and state and was possibly added to at
+fixed intervals so that it represented not only the constitution of the
+commonwealth, but testified to its age and growth. The widely-prevalent
+primitive custom that each individual should add one or more stones to a
+heap of stones, as an individual contribution, may have been carried out
+in the building of pyramids, the origin of which will be discussed further
+on.
+
+Although it is almost superfluous to do so, as by this time the set of
+associated ideas must be familiar to the reader, I shall briefly summarize
+some of the chief four-fold division or organization of which the
+nahui-ollin was the graphic symbol. It represented:
+
+1. The four elements or substances and kinds of life.
+
+2. The four regions of the heaven, each composed, in turn, of four
+sub-regions.
+
+3. The four provinces of the state, each containing four districts.
+
+4. The four quarters of the capital, each of which had four wards.
+
+Like the nahui-ollin the pyramid was an image or embodiment of the
+fundamental all-pervading principle. Both therefore equally expressed
+further meanings which I shall proceed to enumerate.
+
+5. Four stars and also four star-groups or planets which seem to have been
+associated with the cardinal points and are indicated by four discs
+exhibiting two concentric circles and four glyphs placed around them.
+Although at a disadvantage, not being able to substantiate my statement
+here, I shall mention that, amongst the above, the Pleiades and the
+planets Venus and Jupiter doubtlessly figure, the latter as two evening
+and two morning stars.
+
+6. The human lords of the four regions who respectively governed the four
+divisions of the population, who were classified as the Fire, Air, Water
+and Earth people, the identical classification being applied in turn to
+each class and so on _ad infinitum_.
+
+7. Rotation or a movement encircling the four quarters imagined as
+"quadruple motion." This was not confined to the Septentriones, for the
+ancient Mexican astronomers had recognized what they termed the "four
+movements of the Sun"--namely, its apparent rising in the east and progress
+to the north; and setting in the west and progress to the south. According
+to Leon y Gama, the first to describe the stone in 1832, the central
+"nahui ollin" portrayed the "four movements of the sun" and recorded the
+solstices and equinoxes. His opinion has since been shared by other
+writers, amongst whom I cite Senor Troncoso. According to Sir Norman
+Lockyer, moreover, the symbol does correctly and appropriately figure the
+annual course of the sun. It must be admitted that the invention of a
+figurative symbol which not only records the annual rotation of the
+circumpolar star-groups but also the annual apparent course of the sun is
+an achievement which has never been surpassed in primitive astronomy and
+merits admiration and recognition. The record of the periodical movements
+of the heavenly bodies, constitutes, at the same time naturally a register
+of the four seasons.
+
+8. Simultaneously with the division of the year into four equal parts, the
+ollin (and pyramid) typified the division of the 20-day period into four
+quarters as well as the four 13 year periods which constituted the epoch
+of fifty-two years. As the Calendar periods will be discussed in my
+monograph on the subject, I shall only mention here a fact showing how
+completely the quadruplicate idea had influenced native speculation. The
+Mexicans believed that four great eras had passed since the creation of
+the world and designated these as the earth, air, fire and water eras.
+They believed that, although humanity had always escaped utter
+annihilation, the world had been almost completely destroyed by three of
+the elements in succession at the end of three of these eras. At the time
+of the Conquest, the Mexicans supposed themselves to be living in a fourth
+age which was doomed to perish by fire.
+
+9. According to the distinguished Mexican scholar Senor Alfredo Chavero,
+the symbols in the nahui-ollin commemorated the four epochs of the world's
+history and I readily accept this as one of the many significations of the
+quadruplicate figure.
+
+Leaving the nahui-ollin for the present, let us next consider the band,
+with compartments, which encloses it and exhibits the twenty symbols
+hitherto only known as calendaric signs,--four of which were year- as well
+as day-signs, whilst sixteen were day-signs only. Their relative positions
+show that they were intended to be read from right to left.
+
+A profusion of evidence, however, exists showing that individuals bore the
+day-names as personal appellations, not only in Mexico but also in Central
+America. Amongst the Quiches for instance, members of the "Royal house of
+Cavek" are designated in the Popol Vuh, as three deer, nine dog, etc.
+
+It thus follows that the twenty signs were not merely names of years and
+days, but also designated the tribes and clans. The element-symbols which
+marked every fifth day and the years and constitute the major signs,
+likewise were the names of the four great divisions of the people, and of
+their respective chieftains. On the other hand the 4x4=16 minor signs,
+applied not only to days but to the 4x4=16 clans. At the same time the
+element names conveyed in a general way the occupation of each of the four
+divisions of people as well as their places of abode in reference to the
+capital. Accordingly, the earth people would specially attend to
+agriculture, mining, the manufacture of pottery, etc.; water people to
+irrigation, the furnishing of drinks, fishing, etc.; the fire people to
+all occupations which had to do with fire: the procuring of combustibles
+for fire and lighting, cooking, the working in metals, etc.
+
+As on the stone, the sign calli=house is in juxtaposition to the symbol
+for air, it may be inferred that the air people were the builders, the
+masons, the artificers, the Nahuatl name for which was "toltecatl." As the
+air symbol occupies the place of highest honor in reference to the central
+face, namely, above the right hand, it is evident that the builders, or
+"toltecas," were the caste which enjoyed the highest consideration. Their
+totem was the bird, the inhabitant of the air. The second rank in honor
+was held by the fire people placed to the left, above. Their totem was the
+ocelot.
+
+Without going further into details for the present, I merely point out
+that the identical division of the members of each community and
+association with the elements, etc., was carried out throughout the state.
+This method clearly established the relation and also determined the
+geographical position of each class of people in reference to the whole.
+
+The carved band on the Calendar-stone, with its twenty signs, determined
+once and for all time the exact position to be taken up in all public
+assemblages, in councils, sacred dances, and likewise controlled the
+exposition of the products of the land in the great market-place. What is
+more: each division of the people, by reason of its indissoluble union to
+one element and one region, also had its own season during which it led in
+ceremonial observances. So skilfully was the lunar ceremonial or religious
+year devised that each sign, without any distinction, ruled a period of
+thirteen days. At the same time the period fell into four divisions headed
+by the four principal or element signs.
+
+In the solar or civil year, each sign had its day, but as the computation
+of years passed by, each sign in due rotation ruled during one year. It
+was only when each sign had had an equal rule that the cycle completed
+itself, and, in turn, became a part of a greater cycle of time. To realize
+the marvellous ingenuity with which the rotation of days and consequently
+the working of the entire machinery of state was carried on, it is
+necessary to have before one's eyes, a series of reconstructive tables,
+such as I have prepared for my paper on the subject. For the present,
+however, I trust that some idea of the harmonious organization of the
+state may have been conveyed to the reader.
+
+One important feature remains for consideration. As already mentioned, one
+of the four annual midnight positions of the Bear star-groups, and
+presumably a "royal star," pertained to each cardinal-point and
+consequently to each of the four divisions of people. To this statement,
+which can be supported by substantial evidence, I must add that each of
+the sixteen minor signs likewise designated constellations, of which there
+were thus four in each region of the heaven. The twenty familiar day-signs
+thus actually constituted also the native zodiac. As the region to which
+each constellation pertains is clearly designated by the cardinal-point
+signs, their identification is merely a matter of time. Since ten of the
+signs represent animals, and these were the clan totems, it is easy to
+realize how animal forms, composed of stars, came to be traced in the
+heavens.
+
+Deferring further discussion of the native zodiac I will but point out
+what an intimate relation was thus established and maintained between
+star-groups and human beings; and how the periodical rotation and stations
+of the celestial bodies actually guided or, at all events, coincided with
+the periods of human activity in various branches.
+
+I am not, as yet, prepared to formulate a final opinion on the meaning of
+the narrow band that surrounds the zodiacal belt, which is at the same
+time the list of years and days and of tribes and clans, but shall merely
+note that it exhibits four large and four lesser rays which designate the
+quarters and half-quarters of the whole. A few words concerning the
+symbolism of these rays should find place here. In Nahuatl the ray was
+named "tona-mitl," literally "the shining arrow," "shaft of light."
+Ixtlilxochitl tells us that it was an ancient custom of his people on
+taking possession of new territory "to shoot with utmost force four
+arrows, in the directions of the four regions of the world."(72) This
+interesting passage shows us that the rays, _i. e._ arrows of light,
+carved on the stone, conveyed the idea of possession of the four regions
+and four sub-regions by the central power.
+
+Returning to an examination of the concentric band to which the rays are
+attached: It exhibits also 4x10 groups of five dots, two of which groups
+are almost concealed by star-symbols on the recurved open jaws of the
+serpents' heads which meet at the bottom of the stone. Above this band and
+placed exactly between the larger and lesser rays are single compartments
+with five-dot groups. It has been interesting to detect the reason why two
+five-dot groups were carved, as I have already pointed out, immediately
+under the central head. They evidently supply the missing groups whose
+places are filled up by the recurved upper jaws of the serpents, heads at
+the bottom of the monolith. From the care taken to preserve a visible
+record of these two groups, it is obvious that a special importance was
+attached to the recording of eight five-dot groups besides the forty in
+the band, making a total of 4x12=48 groups, or 10+2=12 to each quarter.
+
+As the Mexican name for market was macuil-tianquiztli, literally the "Five
+(day) market" and the Maya word for capital was homonymous with five=ho,
+it is evident that these five dot groups would have conveyed the idea of
+"market," market-day and possibly market-town, to a Mexican. To a
+Maya-speaking people they would have appeared to express practically the
+same thought, since all capitals, large or small, were market-places and
+absorbed and redistributed the product of quadruple provinces within the
+radius of its jurisdiction. The inference that the five-dot groups may
+have served as a topographical register of the larger and minor capitals
+existing in each quarter of the state, is substantiated by more evidence
+than can be produced here. I have moreover found indications that this
+belt may have served as a sort of moon-calendar which was also an attempt
+at an adjustment of lunar to solar periods.(73) Before, however, an
+estimate can be made of the full meaning of this belt formed by the two
+great serpents which encircle the entire monument, more time and labor
+will have to be expended.
+
+One point about the twin serpents is clear; they are represented as
+springing from a square enclosing the symbol Acatl accompanied by 13 which
+has been generally interpreted as a calendar date. It seems to me to be
+more deeply significant than a mere date, especially as it appears to
+designate the point of departure for the progressive movement of the two
+serpents whose open jaws enclose human heads in profile which together
+form one face. The upper jaws end in two recurved appendages, each
+exhibiting seven star symbols. As these obviously typify night or darkness
+and the open jaws seem to threaten to absorb or engulf the ray of the sun
+pointing downwards, it appears as though these typified a disappearance of
+light into the underworld of darkness and destruction.
+
+The symbolical surroundings of the downward ray are in striking contrast
+to its opposite, the upward ray, which reaches to the 13 Acatl sign and
+points to what appears to be the place of origin or birth of the twin
+serpents. It certainly seems that this all-embracing and enfolding twin
+pair are designed to typify the dual forces of nature under a form which
+would also express quadruplication. By what must be termed a stroke of
+genius the designer of the monolith chose to represent the forms of two
+serpents, relying upon the fact that Nahuatl-speaking people would see in
+each serpent (=coatl) a twin (=coatl). Did he not also realize that to a
+Maya each serpent (=can) would mean 4 (=can) and that the pair would
+appear to embody or express the numerals 4 and also 8?
+
+It is noteworthy that each serpent is represented with one claw and that
+these two added to those contained in the central nahui-ollin complete the
+four-limbed figure which was essentially the image of a complete count=the
+state, the nation, the era, etc. In this monument, as elsewhere, it is
+possible to follow the development of the symbolism expressed by two heads
+which form but one, twin-bodies which mean four and of four limbs which
+represent the digital count=20.
+
+Under different aspects the same theme repeats itself again and again upon
+the stone, which proves that the master minds who planned and wrought it
+destined it to be the image of a plan based on the idea of a central and
+yet all-embracing, dual, yet quadruple force or power.
+
+The preceding rapid sketch I have given of the wide-reaching significance
+of this remarkable monument will, I hope, be found to amply support and
+corroborate the view I advanced in 1886, when I pointed out that the
+"Calendar-stone" answered to the description given by Duran, of the
+"circular elaborately carved tablets which were kept in each market-place
+and were held in great veneration." I trust that it is now clear why it
+should have been frequently consulted and why the market-days were
+regulated according to the carved indications upon the surface. Engraved
+upon it were the Great Plan and its laws of organization and rotation. It
+clearly determined, once and for all, the sequence of the days; the
+relation of all classes of the population to each other and to the whole,
+and set forth not only the place each group should occupy in the
+market-place, but also the product or industry with which it was
+associated and the periods when its contributions to the commonwealth
+should be forthcoming in regular rotation. The stone was therefore not
+only the tablet but the wheel of the law of the State and it can be
+conjectured that its full interpretation was more or less beyond the
+capacity of all but an initiated minority, consisting of the elders,
+chiefs and priests.
+
+Postponing for the present further discussion of this, the most precious
+and remarkable monument which has ever been unearthed on the American
+Continent, let us briefly bestow attention upon the two other monoliths
+which may be said to be its companions and obviously belong to the same
+period and civilization. In 1886, in the preliminary note cited above, I
+advanced the view that the first of these, generally known as the
+"Sacrificial stone," was a "law-stone of a similar nature [to the
+Calendar-stone] which recorded, however, the periodical collection of
+certain tributes paid by subjugated tribes and others whose obligation it
+was to contribute to the commonwealth of Mexico." I pointed out that the
+"frieze around the stone consists of groups, placed at intervals, of the
+flint-knives (tecpatl) with conventionally carved teeth (tlantli) giving
+in combination the word 'tecpatlantli.' This occurs in Sahagun's Historia,
+as the name given to the 'lands of the tecpan or palace,' and in one of
+the native works I find designated the four channels into which the
+produce of these lands was diverted." I likewise noted that "the periods
+indicated on it differ from those on the Calendar-stone," which might more
+appropriately be designated as the ancient Mexican wheel of the law or of
+the Great Universal Plan.
+
+Thirteen years of painstaking research have only served to strengthen me
+in my interpretation of the "Sacrificial-stone." The frieze around it
+exhibits sixteen groups, each consisting of the repeated representation of
+a warrior characterized by having one foot only. In each case he is
+figured as seizing by the hair a different individual, who bows his head
+and offers the weapon he holds in his right hand to his victor. Amongst
+the sixteen subjugated personages are two women and above each are
+hieroglyphs expressing the names of well-known localities, some of which
+are mentioned in native chronicles as having been conquered in historical
+times by Mexican rulers.
+
+In my account of the Plan of the Ancient City of Mexico, I shall
+illustrate these hieroglyphs, locate the places to which they refer and
+further discuss this monument. Meanwhile I shall but state that it
+undoubtedly belongs to the same category of monuments as the tablets in
+the "Temple of the Sun" at Palenque; the bas-relief at Ixkun and that in
+the house of the "Tennis-court" at Chichen-Itza where warriors in a
+procession render homage to a seated personage, by presenting their
+spear-throwers to him in precisely the same manner as shown on the Mexican
+Tribute-Stone.
+
+The upper surface of this exhibits the same division into eight parts,
+marked by four large and four smaller rays, pointing to the quarters and
+half-quarters. Observation shows that of the sixteen localities four were
+assigned to each quarter and it is evident that the monument determined
+the time and the order in which the tribute for each was paid and
+collected at the capital. The one-footed man again graphically symbolizes
+axial rotation and conveys the idea of a central ruler who in turn seizes
+and exerts control upon 4x4 tribal chiefs. The monument establishes,
+moreover, the interesting fact that amongst the subjugated communities
+were two gynocracies, represented by women who, instead of spear-throwers,
+present their weaving shuttle to the victor.
+
+We shall next consider a monument whose uncouth and ugly form embodies a
+deep and nobly planned conception of the "divine twin," or "divine Four,"
+that so completely dominated the minds of the native philosophers.
+
+Let us now carefully examine the monolith now preserved in the National
+Museum of Mexico (fig. 57). Leon y Gama, having observed that what
+appeared to be the foundation of the statue was carved and that massive
+projections existed under its so-called arms, logically concluded that the
+original design had been to support the figure from the sides, so that its
+base was lifted from the ground and the figure upon it exposed to view
+from underneath. His inference is borne out by the carving on the base
+which belongs to the same category as the image of Mictlan-tecuhtli, and
+represents a semi-human body, of quadriform shape soaring downward.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 57.
+
+
+The centre (fig. 51) exhibits on a square the five-dot figure, and the
+square, in turn, is enclosed in a circle; the whole symbolism relating to
+the now well-worn theme of the centre and four quarters and the union of
+the earth=the square and the heaven=the circle. It clearly exhibits a
+skull attached to each limb, typifying the four quarters or the clans and
+their chiefs, whilst the hands hold the larger heads, emblematic of
+supreme dual rulership. It is interesting to find that the above carving,
+under the feet of the sculptured figure, embodies the entire meaning of
+the statue, which is but a variation of the native philosophical theme of
+"Divine Twain" or Quetzalcoatl. Two serpents' heads surmount a semi-human
+body and meeting form the semblance of two single faces turned to the
+front and back of the statue. By this ingenious device the unity, yet
+duality of the divine twin is graphically rendered and one-half of each
+countenance is represented as belonging to each serpent. These are thus
+shown to be indissolubly linked together, yet distinct. Their single, yet
+dual head has four eyes, eight fangs and two forked tongues. The figure
+and skirt composed of intertwined rattlesnakes, constitute feminine
+attributes given to the symbolical figure of the "twin-lord and
+twin-lady," the "father and mother of all." Instead of hands the arms
+terminate in serpents' heads and the huge feet in great claws.
+
+Between these, in the front and at the back, a rattlesnake's body and head
+appear. The belt consists of a large snake whose head and tail hang down
+in front, as the ends of a bow. A skull is attached to the front and
+another to the back of the belt. In the latter case it surmounts a
+fan-shaped, curiously plaited ornamental appendage partly decorated with
+feathers. Forming a sort of necklace in front are four hands, _i. e._
+4x5=20 and two conventionalized hearts. At the back there are two hands
+and two hearts and an intricate knot which fastens the necklace, the real
+meaning of which is far from what it may appear to be. It probably
+signified the same as the painted hearts and hands on ceremonial garments
+of which Sahagun tells us that "they meant that the people who wore them
+lifted their hearts and hands to the Creator to implore for rain and
+food." At the same time, the arrangement in front clearly reveals the
+sculptor's allusion to the head, two hearts, four hands and twenty
+fingers, which symbolize these familiar numerical divisions. An indication
+that this symbolical statue was probably designed and executed by the same
+master who made the circular stone of the Great Plan, is furnished by the
+calendar sign 13 Acatl, which is carved under the skull at the back of the
+figure.
+
+Deferring an investigation of the significance of this date, I shall now
+draw attention to what is to me the most interesting and important feature
+of the whole image. The view of the top of the two heads, as may be seen
+by the accompanying reproduction from a photograph (fig. 58) exhibits, at
+their line of union, a small square with diagonal cross-lines. The
+position of this symbol which resembles the top view of a pyramid and
+forms, as it were, the apex of the statue, every detail of which is deeply
+symbolical, clearly reveals the sanctity and importance attached to this
+graphic image of the Centre, the union of four in one or _vice versa_, the
+theme on which the native mind played numberless and endless variations.
+
+A reflection, again forced upon one in studying the monumental composite
+image of the dual and quadruple forces of nature, is that it must have
+been as intelligible to a Maya as to a Mexican, and conveyed the
+conception of Kukulcan to the one and Quetzalcoatl to the other. Several
+facts point, however, to the greater probability that the original
+conception of the monument must have arisen amongst Maya-speaking people.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 58.
+
+
+The divided square, simulating a pyramid and so obviously a symbol of
+four=can, carved on the head of a serpent=can, throws an interesting light
+upon the probable derivation of the affix=can, which occurs in certain
+names of localities in Mexico, and in some cases distinctly stands for
+"mountain." It is a fact which has already been cited in Senor Antonio
+Penafiel's useful work on the Geographical names of Mexico that, in the
+pictographic hieroglyphs of localities the affix can signifies a town,
+being synonymous with the _tepec_, _i. e._ tepetl, the Nahuatl name for
+mountain or town. One of many similar instances, which could be produced,
+is illustrated in his fig. XXIII, 1, where _can_ obviously stands for the
+mountain which is represented as twisted or bent over (colhua), in the
+hieroglyph for Colhuacan. The hieroglyphs for the towns Acayocan and
+Tenayocan, furnish a similar employment of the mountain to express the
+sound can. The sense of the affix _can_, meaning a town, only becomes
+clear when we interpret it as the name of the artificial mountain with
+four sides, the pyramid, which was the symbol of four=the Maya _can_, and
+was the emblem of a central capital. This is convincingly proven by the
+Codex Mendoza for instance, in which it is shown that the Mexican mode of
+recording the conquest of a tribe was to paint their hieroglyphic name and
+a picture of the destruction of the pyramid temple which had stood in the
+centre of their capital. In other words, the conquered town ceased to be a
+centre of rule--its captive chieftain was taken to the capital, where the
+horrible rite of sacrifice performed upon him and the tearing out of his
+heart likewise symbolized the destruction of the independent life of the
+tribe or integral whole he represented in his person. It was thus brought
+home to the conquered people that they had ceased to exist as an
+independent body, and the distribution of the chieftain's flesh to the
+ritualistic cannibals graphically symbolized its absorption into the great
+central state. It is necessary to emphasize here that these horrible rites
+were of comparatively recent origin and had been invented by the Mexicans
+for the purpose of intimidating their vassals, after a prolonged period of
+wars and bloodshed, which menaced the very existence of the integral
+state. The presence in Mexico of numerous names of towns, ending in can,
+seems to indicate the influence, in ancient times, of the Maya-speaking
+civilization to which the origin of the pyramid must be assigned. The
+association of the latter with the word _can_ is strikingly illustrated in
+the name of Teotihua-Can, where stand the ruins of two of the largest and
+most imposing pyramids of ancient America. The base of the larger of the
+two has been estimated at about 700 feet square, it being impossible to
+take an exact measurement owing to the mass of accumulated debris which
+covers the lower part of the structure.
+
+The base of the second pyramid measures about 475 feet square. The sides
+of both pyramids rose at an angle of about 45 degrees and were in each
+case interrupted by four terraces. This double application of a quadruple
+division merits special attention, as it produced besides the four great
+4x4 lesser sections, the sacred centre of the terraces, which crowned each
+structure. Historical tradition relates that the larger pyramid, known as
+the "Enclosure of the Sun (=Tonatiuh-I-Tzacual)," originally bore on its
+summit a colossal image of the sun, covered with plates of gold, whilst
+the other, the "Enclosure of the Moon" exhibited a similar image, covered
+with silver. The distinguished and reliable historian Orozco y Berra
+quotes this tradition adding that the soldiers of Cortes despoiled the
+images of their precious metals and that the Bishop Zumarraga ordered a
+further destruction of all monuments at Teotihuacan.
+
+The tradition which records the existence of a silver and of a gold image,
+cannot be dismissed as unfounded, because it meets with a certain amount
+of corroboration by other data. In the first case the so-called "battered
+goddess," a mutilated stone image, which was found in the courtyard at the
+base of the "Pyramid of the Moon," looks as though it may have been the
+very monument which was once plated with silver. Traces of concentric
+bands of ornamentation seem to indicate that its round face had originally
+occupied the centre of a sculptured disc, in which case this must have had
+a diameter of about twelve feet. In Peru, as already stated, a silver
+image of the moon, associated with the female sovereign, was the
+complement to the golden effigy of the sun, associated with the Inca.
+
+Even if data had not already been produced which establishes the existence
+of two religious cults in ancient Mexico, the respective symbols of which
+were the sun and the moon, the presence of two pyramids at Teotihuacan
+would suggest the existence of a division of some sort. The origin of
+these great and imposing structures is shrouded in mystery, but it is
+generally conceded that they must have been built long before the
+comparatively modern inhabitants of the valley of Mexico, the wandering
+Aztecs, had taken up their abode in the midst of the salt lagoons. The
+erection of two pyramids, however, proves that their builders had already
+practised the cult of the middle of heaven and earth, or Above and Below,
+and of the Four Quarters for so long a time, that there had been a
+separation of religions and government into two almost independent parts,
+each complete in itself. In the light of the testimony produced it is safe
+to infer that for an indefinite time the rival cults developed side by
+side until dissension and consequent disintegration followed. The Mexican
+state was the outcome of a later effort to reorganize and rebuild an
+integral whole on the ancient plan, the knowledge of which had been
+preserved and handed down. As time went on it was inevitable that the same
+causes which had caused the more ancient and greater state to crumble
+away, should be actively at work on the second.
+
+It has already been shown that two religions existed in Montezuma's time
+the respective embodiments of which were Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca.
+It is an interesting fact, related by Bernal Diaz, that the idols of both
+stood together in one tower at the summit of the great temple and were
+alike, "because they were brothers." At the same time whilst
+Tezcatlipoca's image was decorated with obsidian (=tezcatl)
+Huitzilopochtli's was encrusted with turquoises. It is curious to note how
+closely the old soldier's description of these idols answers to that of
+the great dualistic statue which has been discussed in the preceding
+pages. His account contains the following details: "In this hall were what
+resembled two altars with very richly [ornamented or carved] platforms on
+the top of the roof or ceiling. On each altar was a statue, as of a giant,
+very tall in body and very stout. The first, which represented
+Huitzilopochtli, had a very wide, deformed or monstrous face and forehead,
+and terrifying eyes ... around his neck were faces of Indians and what
+were hearts. These were of gold whilst the former were of silver inlaid
+with blue mosaic-work. The entire body was covered with mosaic-work, gold
+and beads and misshapen pearls, all fastened to it with a kind of cement
+or glue. Encircling the body were what were like huge serpents made of
+gold and mosaic.... The idol was of Tezcatlipoca, and its eyes were made
+of shining black stone [obsidian] called Tezcat. The statues were alike
+because they were said to be brothers. Tezcatlipoca was the lord of the
+Underworld ... and around his body were figures like small devils with
+tails like serpents."(74) But for the fact that Bernal Diaz mentions a
+plurality of faces in Huitzilopochtli's necklace, whereas our monument
+exhibits but one skull, in front, his description strikingly coincides
+with the monolith now existing. Considering that thirty years had elapsed
+before he wrote this description allowance must be made for this and other
+slight lapses. On the other hand, dual statues, exactly alike, but with
+differently colored ornamentation, are precisely what we should expect to
+find on the summit of the great pyramid-temple of Mexico. With our present
+knowledge and comprehension of native symbolism, moreover, we see that two
+statues, each of which figured twin-serpents, would best express the
+native idea of the dual and quadruple principles and elements. What is
+more, two dual statues, each surmounted by a square, diagonally crossed,
+like a pyramid, would correspond, in symbolism, to the two great pyramids
+of Teotihuacan and carry out, on a small scale, the idea of a dual
+government.
+
+Valuable and reliable evidence, showing to what an extent the Mexicans
+regarded their government as dual and quadruple, can be gleaned from the
+records of the presents sent by Montezuma to Cortes, under the impression
+that the bearded Spaniards were the descendants of the ancient founders of
+their civilization. The native ruler sent the complete ceremonial dress of
+the four lords of the four regions denoting by that act of homage that he
+acknowledged Cortes as his equal, _i. e._ the supreme central lord who
+united the four-fold power in his person. "He likewise sent him a large
+wheel of pure gold, covered with designs and with the image of a monster
+in its centre." Its weight was estimated at 3,800 "pesas" and it was
+considered "the finest and best of all the presents." It was accompanied
+by "a large wheel of silver," weighing forty-eight marcos. By the light of
+our present knowledge it may be that both "wheels" were images of the
+Great Plan and that whilst the gold one set forth the constitution and
+organization of the Upper division of the State and possibly conveyed the
+statistics of its members, the silver wheel was a record of the Lower
+division. The gift of these tablets must have been intended as an act of
+subservience and an acknowledgment of Cortes as the lord of the Above and
+Below, as well as of the Four Quarters. The utter lack of understanding
+for the symbolism of these gifts on the part of the recipient, can
+scarcely have escaped the notice of Montezuma's messengers and must have
+sorely puzzled their unfortunate master.
+
+The existence in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, of a dual state,
+suggests the possibility that, in some way, the pyramids of Teotihuacan
+continued to be connected with the opposite and rival cults of the Sun and
+the Nocturnal Heaven, although their origin was shrouded in the past. It
+is known that their site was venerated: besides, the name Teotihuacan,
+which Orozco y Berra translated as "the place of the masters as keepers of
+the gods" or "the place where the gods were adored," most probably really
+meant "the divine four-sided mountains or pyramids" or, possibly, "the
+sacred pyramids of the lords."
+
+Until an extensive, carefully-planned and systematical exploration has
+been carried out at Teotihuacan, it is impossible to form any definite
+conclusions concerning its past history. Cherishing the hope that such an
+exploration may yet be made during my lifetime, I shall merely make a few
+remarks concerning the ruins, which I visited many years ago. Approaching
+them from the south one enters a broad straight road, several miles in
+length and about 250 feet wide, which is bordered at each side by a series
+of irregular mounds, probably covering ruined structures. This imposing
+road leads directly into the vast courtyard which stretches across the
+base of the great pyramid of the Moon. As the City of Mexico lies to the
+south of Teotihuacan it is significant to find that this road leads from
+that direction to a vast pyramid situated at the north, which was,
+according to the ancient Mexicans, the region of the Underworld, darkness
+and death. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that the ancient
+native name which still clings to the roadway is "the path of the dead."
+The presence, moreover, of innumerable small clay heads which are,
+undoubtedly, portraits or effigies of persons represented as dead, points
+to the alternative that Teotihuacan may have been the necropolis of an
+ancient civilization or that it was, even at the time of the Conquest, the
+place where a register of deaths was kept by the priest-rulers, by means
+of small clay effigies.
+
+Considering the native idea, it seems more than probable that all matters
+pertaining to the dead should be relegated to the northern region and the
+fact that the road from the south leads to a pyramid which tradition
+associates with the moon, the symbol of the nocturnal cult of the "Below,"
+lends color to these views.
+
+There is a temptation to imagine that possibly after the adoption of two
+distinct cults of which the second pyramid seems to furnish
+incontrovertible proof, a further divergence ensued resulting in the
+ultimate abandonment of the capital by the votaries of the Sun, the male
+principle and the Above. As the native civilizations were based on such a
+plan that dissension and disorganization inevitably led to utter downfall
+and ruin, it is easy to see that a gynocracy and the cult of the earth and
+underworld should gradually become extinct. At the zenith of its power,
+however, it may safely be inferred, that Teotihuacan was a great centre
+where astronomical observation and agriculture flourished, these being the
+natural outcome of the cult of mother-earth and the nocturnal heaven.
+Whilst all conjecture must necessarily be hypothetical, it is a comfort to
+reflect that, locked in the ruins themselves, lies guarded the past
+history of Teotihuacan, which was shrouded in a mist of uncertainty even
+at the time of the Conquest.
+
+The pyramids themselves, however, openly reveal the fact, that their
+builders possessed a knowledge of the great plan, and that, at some time,
+a single central pyramid not being sufficient, two, of unequal sizes,
+arose to bear lasting testimony not only of past greatness, but of
+long-forgotten rivalry and dissension. Finally, there is one thing
+certain, namely, that the building of the pyramids at Teotihuacan must
+have been preceded by an extremely long period during which the native
+ideas, of which they were the expression and image, had developed and
+taken definite shape. If Teotihuacan yields evidence of an advanced stage
+in the history of the intellectual development of the native race, it also
+marks the beginning of the disintegration of the state of which it was the
+central capital. On the other hand, at Cholula, also situated in the high
+plateau of Mexico, to the east of its present capital stands, in ruined
+solitary grandeur, the largest pyramid on the American continent, whose
+base is twice as large as that of the pyramid of Cheops in Egypt.
+
+The name of the ancient capital of which it formed the nucleus was Tullan
+Cholollan Tlachiuhaltepec.(75) Boturini (_op. cit._ p. 113) cites an old
+native manuscript on which a picture of the pyramid of Cholula was painted
+with the note that, in ancient times, it was named Tultecatl Chalchihuatl
+On Azia Ecatepec, which he translates as "the monument or precious jade
+stone of the Toltecs, which rears itself in the region of the air." As
+eca-tepec literally means air-mountain, Boturini's translation may seem
+somewhat exaggerated; on the other hand, the Spaniards, who knew the
+Nahuatl language best, repeatedly state that its words were so replete
+with significance that it would sometimes require several Spanish
+sentences to set forth the meaning of a single native word. Boturini, who
+had exceptional opportunities for obtaining information, adds to the above
+the following translation of a Nahuatl inscription which had been written
+by the native scribe below the drawing which unfortunately is now lost.
+"Nobles and Lords: Here you have your documents, the mirror of your past,
+the history of your ancestors who, out of fear for a deluge, constructed
+this place of refuge or asylum for the possibility of the recurrence of
+such a calamity."
+
+After citing the opinions of various authors concerning the origin of the
+pyramid, Orozco y Berra concludes that "there is no certainty about its
+age, but instinctively it is supposed to be extremely ancient and to
+pertain to pre-historic times. According to my judgment the people who
+constructed it belonged to the same civilization as the builders of
+Teotihuacan and possibly were their contemporaries. Cholollan was also a
+venerated sanctuary, in which the religious idea predominated" (_op. cit._
+p. 363). "At the time of the Conquest a temple stood on the summit of the
+pyramid and contained an image of Quetzalcoatl (the Divine Twain, the
+Creator, the Father and Mother of all) as well as an aerolite, shaped like
+a frog which had fallen from heaven, wrapped in a ball of flame." In the
+Vatican MS. of Padre Rios there is another version of the tradition that
+the pyramid had been erected by giants after a deluge, which had destroyed
+everything, ... and that before it was finished, fire fell upon it causing
+the death of its builders and the abandonment of the work.
+
+Allusion has already been made, in the preceding pages, to the native
+traditions according to which, "there had been three memorable epochs in
+the history of mankind, which lasted for centuries and were abruptly
+terminated, each time by a mighty convulsion of nature. The majority of
+human beings perished in each of these, but a remnant survived and thus
+the race was preserved."
+
+The periodical festival of thanksgiving, which was still observed at the
+time of the Conquest by the native races, abundantly testifies to the
+reality of their belief in these great catastrophes and the preservation
+of their ancestors from utter extermination. It was doubtless in order to
+make their past history conform with the quadruple organization of all
+epochs of their native Calendar that the native sages assigned their
+successive destructions to the separate agencies of fire, water and air,
+in the form of violent tempests and cyclones. From descriptions contained
+in the Mexican Codex Chimalpopoca and in the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of
+the Quiches, it will be seen that the phenomena described are such as
+would naturally accompany a volcanic outbreak on a great scale.
+Considering that, in Mexico alone, there are no less than nine monster
+volcanoes, of which two are not yet extinct, and that in Guatemala, in
+historical times, whole cities have been destroyed by earthquakes and
+volcanic action, it is not at all astonishing to find traditions of great
+catastrophes amongst the inhabitants of these regions.
+
+No one can look upon the grand snow-clad peaks of the great volcanoes,
+which surround the high central plateau of Mexico, without realizing that
+mighty upheavals and disturbances, such as the world has seldom seen, must
+have attended the formation of the huge craters next to which Vesuvius
+seems but a hillock. A volcanic outbreak amongst these elevated peaks,
+which range from 15,000 to 19,000 feet above the sea-level, would
+obviously be accompanied by great inundations caused by the melting of the
+masses of snow which crown their heights. The valley of Mexico in which
+the large lagoons lie, as in a basin without an outlet, and the plains
+which surround Cholula and stretch to the base of the volcanoes must
+repeatedly have been the scene of ruin and desolation, lasting for many
+centuries. As the Abbe Bourbourg justly remarks: "The majority of the
+edifices in the City of Mexico are built of volcanic tufa, said to have
+been formed by the small volcanoes which lie at the southeast of the
+valley of Mexico. At various periods of antiquity great masses of lava
+have descended into this valley, in which one extensive ancient lava-field
+is now known as the 'Pedregal de San Augustin.' " Another great flow of
+lava has actually been traced from its apparent source, the now extinct
+volcano of Ajusco, at the south of the valley of Mexico, to Acapulco, on
+the Pacific coast.
+
+The Mexican chronicles describe as follows the destruction of the earth by
+fire: "... there came a rain of fire: all that existed was burnt and a
+rain composed of sand-stone fell. It is said that whilst the sand-stone we
+now see was being formed the tet-zontli [_i. e._ volcanic tufa], boiled
+with great noise. Then the red mountains also lifted themselves up ... the
+sun consumed itself [was darkened], all houses were destroyed and all the
+lords or chiefs perished...."
+
+The same author relates how, after the repeated destruction by water,
+obscurity reigned for twenty-five years. This cataclysm is also described
+in the sacred book of the Quiches as follows: "Then ... the waters became
+swollen by the mere will of the Heart of Heaven and there came a great
+inundation from above and descended upon the people ... they were deluged
+and then a thick resinous substance fell from the sky. The face of the
+earth was obscured and a dark rain commenced and fell during the day and
+during the night ... there was great sound of fire overhead. Then the
+people ran pushing each other and filled with despair: they endeavoured to
+mount upon the houses and these, falling in, threw them again to earth.
+They wished to climb the trees, but these swayed and cast the people from
+them; they tried to enter caves, but these shut themselves before
+them...." It was after this universal ruin and destruction that, according
+to native tradition, the pyramid of Cholula was erected, as a place of
+refuge for the remnant of the native race which had escaped destruction
+and returned to the scene of desolation, lured by the richness of the
+fertile soil, just as the Italian peasants return to their vineyards on
+Vesuvius after each eruption. All things considered there seems to be no
+ground for rejecting the native tradition which affirms that the great
+pyramid of Cholula was erected as a place of refuge from inundations,
+especially as no more plausible explanation of the origin of the pyramid
+can be imagined. Any primitive people, inhabiting fertile plains which
+abounded in game and fish, and food-plants, but were exposed to frequent
+inundations, could not fail to recognize the advantages of an elevated
+piece of ground as a place of safety. It is easy to imagine the
+intermediate stages in the transition from this simple recognition to the
+final determination to build a compact, high and spacious elevation,
+within the reach of all inhabitants of a settlement, on which these could
+not only find refuge from the dangers of floods and volcanic disturbances,
+but also store their harvest, and possibly some form of raft or boat which
+they might employ as a last means of escape.
+
+Irrefutable proof that the maize had been cultivated from remote antiquity
+in this region, and had even become identified with it, is furnished by
+the fact that the name of the small republic of Tlaxcalla, which lies in
+the neighboring foot-hills, signifies bread, and that its hieroglyphic
+sign consists of two hands holding a tortilla, or maize-cake.
+
+It is well known that botanists have not yet succeeded in identifying,
+amongst the native grasses of America, the ancestor of the cultivated
+maize-plant. They assert, however, that the development of what is now the
+world's largest cereal, from a wild native species, must have required
+incalculable time.
+
+It must be admitted that no factor could possibly have more speedily
+impressed upon primitive men the benefits of concerted action and of
+organization and communal life than the occasional recurrence of a great
+and imminent peril which was shared by all alike, and for which there was
+but one visible means of escape. It is equally clear that, once a
+concerted and united undertaking had been determined upon, some sort of
+plan and organization must have naturally evolved itself. The mere
+building of such a gigantic structure as the pyramid of Cholula, which may
+well have absorbed the energies of several generations of men, or, at all
+events that of innumerable workmen, could well have been an abiding and
+most powerful factor in establishing their social organization. Its
+erection must indeed have marked an epoch in the lives of the inhabitants
+of this region, because, during many years it created a bond of common
+interest which, of itself, might well have laid the foundation of a
+permanent communal life, in which responsibility and labor were equally
+distributed. The mere necessity to expend an equal amount of material and
+labor upon the building of each side of the pyramid, would naturally lead
+to the formation of pathways traced by the feet of the carriers of earth
+and stone from different directions, and ultimately to a division of the
+workers into four bands, each associated with a different cardinal point.
+Practice would demand that each band should be under leadership, and be
+divided into those who collected and carried material, and those who
+placed it in position, at each side of the pyramid. The necessity for
+general supervision and directorship, extending over the four bands of
+workers alike, would, of itself, create central rulership upon which would
+devolve the duty of enforcing an equal division of labor, which would
+create, in turn, some form of systematic routine and rotation. It can thus
+be understood how, by slow degrees, each side of the pyramid would become
+permanently identified with a cardinal point; and associated with a
+division of workmen under its leader and a fixed period of time. It may
+likewise be seen how a separate caste would slowly develop itself,
+consisting of the trained architects and builders, the descendants of the
+first organizers of human labor, and systematical rulers of men.(76)
+
+It may thus be seen how the realization of frequent danger, the necessity
+to provide an escape and insure the safety of the race, aided by
+experience, might lead to the conception of a vast pyramid, the mere
+building of which would create and establish the fundamental principles of
+organization and government.
+
+The simultaneous development of the ideas suggested by Polaris would
+inevitably lead to a comparison and association of the terrestrial centre
+of communal activity with the polar axis, and to the conception of an
+earthly government in which human affairs were adjusted so as to be in
+seeming harmony with the movements of celestial bodies. The blending of
+the conclusions attained by the astronomer-priests, and the practical
+system adopted by the master builders, could not fail ultimately to cause
+the pyramid to appear as the sacred visible sign or image of the single,
+central power and quadruple government which extended its rule throughout
+heaven and earth. I venture to point out that, if carefully analyzed, the
+pyramid seems to be but a later development of precisely the same ideas
+which are expressed by the swastika.
+
+Pausing now to review preceding data we find it demonstrated that the
+geographical position of Tullan Cholollan and its pyramid designates it as
+an ancient seat of civilization where the native scheme of organization
+may have evolved itself, and the source whence the native traditions
+concerning successive destructive cataclysms and convulsions of nature may
+have spread.
+
+What is more, the peculiar conditions existing at Tullan Cholollan,
+situated in the heart of a volcanic region, would amply explain the
+traditional destruction and abandonment of the most ancient centre of
+native civilization and the spread throughout the continent of the
+identical scheme of government, etc., it being most natural that each band
+of fugitives, on finding what appeared to be a favorably situated region,
+should settle there and carry out the inherited plan of organization,
+etc., which would naturally become slightly modified under altered
+conditions. Fresh colonies on the pattern of the ruined metropolis and
+integral state would successively be founded far and wide and as examples
+of such I venture to designate Tulantzinco, literally the title Tullan,
+and possibly Teotihuacan, where the native civilization seems to have
+undergone its more advanced stages of evolution, and to have risen in
+power, developed divergent cults with separate languages (the Maya and the
+Nahuatl) and instituted the two religions and dual rulership which
+eventually led to dissension and the dissolution of the integral state at
+a period anterior to historical times.
+
+The assumption that the most ancient centre of native civilization lay in
+a volcanic region affords a plausible explanation of how an inordinate
+value would naturally be placed on stability, _per se_, and the feelings
+of veneration for Polaris and a passionate longing for a place of
+terrestrial and celestial rest would become strongly developed. Indeed, it
+is only possible to understand the reason why various American tribes
+wandered about in ardent and earnest search for the stable middle of the
+earth, when it is assumed that they must have been driven from their
+former place of residence by volcanic disturbances which made a firm piece
+of ground under foot seem to be the most desirable of all earthly
+benefits. I venture to assert that this search and the ideal of stability
+would not have been suggested so forcibly to people who had never
+experienced a long succession of more or less terrible earthquakes.
+
+Although widely different opinions concerning the identification of the
+ancient Tullan are held by American archaeologists they will all
+doubtlessly admit that at Cholollan we have, in the first case, a locality
+to which the natives assign the name of Tollan, and a pyramid, the largest
+on the American continent, which testifies that, in prehistoric times,
+this place was inhabited for a prolonged period, by a numerous and
+organized community.
+
+The fertility of the surrounding plains now known as the Campina de Puebla
+and the ancient name of Tlaxcalla yield evidence that, from time
+immemorial, this district was associated with maize cultivation.
+
+The vicinity of the giant volcanoes of Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl and
+Orizaba(77) sufficiently demonstrate that they must repeatedly have been
+the scene of violent disturbances which would fully account for the
+tradition of successive cataclysms which destroyed a vast state and almost
+annihilated the native race.
+
+The foregoing unassailable facts undoubtedly justify the conclusion that
+the giant pyramid of Cholula marks the site of the great and ancient
+Tollan whose destruction was the theme of the plaintive native songs of
+lamentation even at the time of the Spanish Conquest. That the natives
+have ever regarded Cholula as a place of particular sanctity is shown by
+the following statement by Fray Geronimo Roman y Zamorra (1569-1575)
+(Republicas de Indias, ed. Suarez, Madrid, 1888): "It was Colola or
+Cholola, which was the ancient metropolis or head of all the native
+religion, so much so that all the great chiefs or lords had their own
+chapels and dwelling houses there because they used to perform pilgrimages
+to its great temple this being the most revered [in the _land_]."
+
+It is also reasonable to infer that the region of the high plateau and
+valley of Mexico, possibly before the formation of the great lagoons, was
+the cradle of ancient American civilization, where, during countless
+centuries, the native race literally and figuratively cultivated its own
+maize and simultaneously developed the set of ideas which formed the basis
+of its intellectual evolution.
+
+In this connection it is interesting to reflect that, as clearly shown by
+ceremonial usages which existed throughout our continent and survive to
+the present day amongst the Pueblo Indians, it is to the fostering care,
+forethought and labor of countless generations of women, the "Corn Maidens
+and Mothers," that America owes the priceless legacy of a food-plant which
+has already sustained untold millions of lives. Thus, whilst the ancient
+"Daughters of the Earth" have given their country a gift which will last
+for all time, the pyramids, temples and cities, reared by the "Sons of
+Heaven," have fallen into ruin, and the great edifice of human thought
+that they reared, their complex social organization, government and
+calendar now lie superseded under the dust of time.
+
+At this point of investigation the question naturally arises, Whence came
+the founders of the native civilization, who established themselves and
+peopled the central region of Mexico and doubtlessly dwelt there for a
+prolonged period prior to the first of the traditional cataclysms which
+nearly proved destructive to their race?
+
+It is obvious that, before this interesting question can be satisfactorily
+discussed, a minute analysis and investigation should be made of all other
+ancient civilizations of the world in which the swastika was employed as a
+sacred symbol. A comparative research on such a scale could only be
+effectively carried out with the active cooeperation of orientalists,
+archaeologists and philologists in all departments of research. Taking, as
+an index, the presence in old centres of civilization of the most ancient
+sacred symbol of the world, the swastika, the aim of the joint
+investigation should be to trace how far it was accompanied, in each
+country, by pole-star worship and the set of ideas, symbols and words to
+which it is so indissolubly linked in ancient America and China. By this
+means only can a final conclusion be reached as to whether this symbol
+spread over the earth from one original centre of civilization, or whether
+it suggested itself to primitive observers of Septentriones in various
+localities and at different times, as the natural outcome of
+star-observation. If the swastika and the septentrional set of ideas
+spread from one centre then we should expect to find them accompanied by
+traces of a common language. I shall have contributed my share to the
+joint investigation when, in addition to the preceding data, I present the
+following list of Maya and Mexican names intimately associated with the
+native symbols and set of ideas. In presenting them I once more draw
+attention to the resemblance of sound in words which obviously influenced
+the choice of certain symbols just as, for instance, loose-skinned oranges
+are now given as presents at New Year in China, because their native name
+has exactly the same sound as the word meaning "good fortune." The use,
+especially on porcelain, of the bat=fuh, to signify "happiness," also fuh,
+and of the sonorous stone "King" to emblematize "prosperity,"(78) are
+other instances which shed much light upon the origin of primitive
+symbolism in China and elsewhere.
+
+Symbols And Names Connected With Middle Or Centre.
+
+_Maya._
+
+Ho, or Ti-hoo=name of ancient capital of Yucatan.
+
+Ho-m, or ho-mul=artificial mound or pyramid.
+
+Ho-mtanil=belly.
+
+Ho-bnel=entrails.
+
+Ho=five, symbolized by hand=kab, also by five-dot group.
+
+Ci-hom=sacred tree, the leaves of which were scattered in the temple
+court-yard at the baptism of children (Landa).
+
+Ho-l=head (symbol).
+
+Ho-och=vase in general.
+
+Cuxabel=heart or life, _cf._ ah-cuch-cab=heart of the state, title of lord
+or chieftain.
+
+Nic, or nic-te=flower, usually represented as consisting of five parts,
+_i. e._, the centre and four petals.
+
+Tem=the square altar.
+
+Names Of Symbols Connected With Four Quarters, Above And Below.
+
+_Maya._
+
+Can=four, serpent.
+
+{Caan=sky, cord.
+{Canalil=adj. grandeur, elevation.
+{Canal=on top of, on; also yellow.
+{Canal-cun-zaal=to exalt, elevate, aggrandize, praise.
+{Cananil=necessity, need.
+{Canaan=adj. necessary, needed.
+
+Che=tree.
+
+Zin-che=cross, literally tree of life or of power.
+
+Zin-il=powerful, _cf._ zihnal=original, primitive.
+
+Zihzabal=creation.
+
+Zian=the beginning, origin, generation.
+
+Zihil=to commence, or be born.
+
+Zinan=scorpion, symbol.
+
+Name And Symbol Of North.
+
+_Maya._
+
+Am=spider.
+
+Aman=the north.
+
+Star-Names.
+
+_Maya._
+
+Ek=star, black.
+
+Ek-chuah=name of the patron divinity of travellers and traders, _i. e._,
+the pole-star.
+
+_cf._ Ikal, native word adopted by Spanish missionaries to denote "a
+spirit."
+
+I have already pointed out how a minute comparison of the equivalent
+Mexican symbols and their names shows that the latter often seem to be
+mere translations from the Maya and that the same identity of sound does
+not always exist between the Nahuatl symbol, its name and true
+significance. On the other hand in the much-used Mexican symbol for the
+centre and four quarters, the flower, pronounced ho-chitl, but written
+xo-chitl, the archaic Maya syllable ho, so intimately connected with the
+centre, recurs. It also appears in the name of the constellation Ursa
+Minor, xo-necuilli, in the word xoch-ayotl=tortoise, employed as a symbol,
+and in the name xolotl=something double or dual, sometimes employed as a
+synonym of coatl=twin, serpent. The hand=maitl was employed to express the
+numeral five=macuilli. It is particularly interesting to note that in
+order to express the word tlachi-ual-tepetl or "artificial mound" (the
+Maya hom) in Nahuatl, the scribes had to paint a mountain surmounted by an
+eye, a symbol also employed to designate stars=the eyes of night. The
+Nahuatl for tree=quahuitl is almost homonymous with quaitl=head and both
+were employed as symbols of the centre.
+
+The following Nahuatl words claim special attention. The first is teotl,
+which was adopted as the equivalent of the Greek Theos by the Spanish
+missionaries, but which appears to have been originally used in the sense
+of a "Divinity," or "divine lord," and was also applied to all lords or
+rulers. The second is the verb yoli or yolinia=to live and yollotl=heart.
+A special interest attaches itself, however, to the noun yauatl=circle and
+the verb yaualoa=to go around in a circle many times, because there is
+good ground for identifying, as the Ursa Major, the star-god mentioned as
+Youal-tecuhtli by Sahagun. As youalli means night, the title literally
+signifies "the lord of the night," while yaual=tecuhtli would mean the
+lord of the circle or wheel, the most appropriate name for Ursa Major. The
+actual representation, in the "Lyfe of the Indians," of the "Lord of
+Night," within a wheel or circle composed of his own footsteps, so
+strikingly corroborates this view, that further comment appears
+unnecessary (fig. 59).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 59.
+
+
+In conclusion the exact meaning of the most important native symbols is
+here recapitulated so as to facilitate comparative research.
+
+THE SWASTIKA OR CROSS
+
+the most ancient of primitive symbols was primarily a graphic
+representation of the annual rotation of the Septentriones around Polaris.
+It thus constituted not only an image of the most impressive of celestial
+phenomena but also a year-symbol. The most highly-developed forms of the
+swastika found in Mexico are associated with calendar-signs. In Mexico and
+in the Ohio Valley it is linked with the serpent, to the symbolism of
+which reference should be made. In Copan the cross symbol is associated
+with the image of a figure in repose, occupying the Middle, and four puffs
+of breath or air, laden with life-seeds, emanating from this.
+
+Considering that the cross ultimately became the symbol of the union of
+the four elements or two principles of nature in one and that the
+production of life-producing rain was attributed to the union of heaven
+and earth, it is evident why the Cozumel cross was described to its
+Spanish discoverers, by the natives, as a symbol of the "rain-god."
+
+THE SACRED FIRE
+
+which was kept perpetually burning on the summit of the pyramid was the
+graphic and appropriate image of the central light of heaven that most
+naturally suggested itself to the native mind. Its origin was attributed
+to supernatural agency and it was under the special care of the
+priesthood. A deeply symbolical meaning was obviously attached to the
+ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire by means of the reed fire-drill
+which was held perpendicularly and inserted into a horizontally-placed
+piece of dry wood. A noteworthy resemblance to a tau-shaped figure was
+thus formed, which is interesting in connection with the fact that the
+ceremony of kindling the sacred fire was undoubtedly regarded by the
+ancient Mexicans as emblematical of the productive and life-giving union
+of the dual principles of nature. The acatl or reedstalk, inserted into
+the vase-like symbol of the earth, such as is carved on the centre of the
+upper edge of the calendar-stone, is but another hieratic form of the same
+symbolism.
+
+The annual re-distribution of the sacred fire to the entire population, a
+fresh gift from heaven obtained by the mediation of the high-priest, was
+particularly impressive and emphasized the idea of all fire and light and
+life proceeding from a common centre.
+
+It is noticeable that the reed or acatl is also intimately associated with
+the east, the masculine or life-giving region. The Maya name for
+tortoise=ac, is a curious homonym of the Nahuatl word ac-atl.
+
+THE SERPENT
+
+emblematizes and expresses the sound of quadruple power in Maya and
+duality in Nahuatl. It was employed as an image or embodiment in a single
+form of the two principles of nature or the four elements. It was usually
+accompanied by the adjective heavenly or divine and symbolized
+reproduction, being the union of the masculine or heavenly and feminine or
+earthly principles. In this connection it should be noted that the numeral
+two in Nahuatl is ome, and in Maya, ca. A native mode of expressing
+duality, by means of two horn-like projections on the heads of allegorical
+personages, is exemplified in fig. 29, p. 92.
+
+THE TREE
+
+was the emblem of life, of hidden and visible growth which extended
+downward into the earth and upward into heaven and sent forth its four
+branches towards the cardinal points. It typified tribal life because its
+various parts were identified with the different members of the community
+and, metaphorically, the lord was spoken of as the trunk or main stem; the
+minor chiefs as branches and twigs; the men or vassals as leaves; the
+maidens as flowers, and the women as fruit, etc. The name "atlapalli" was,
+for instance, the current Nahuatl appellation for vassals.
+
+As the conventionalized trees in the native picture-writings are usually
+figured with four equal branches they formed an appropriate image of the
+living state, and of all directions in space. The "tree of life" thus
+formed a swastika or cross and both symbols were indissolubly linked
+together. The names of two trees, considered particularly sacred by the
+Mayas, were the ci-hom and the yax-che, a sort of ceiba which was termed
+"the tree of celestial life" (Landa).
+
+THE HUMAN FACE
+
+was an image of the duality and unity of nature. The upper half of the
+face symbolized heaven with its two eyes, the sun and moon. The mouth and
+teeth, the Nahuatl name for which=tlan-tli was homonymous with the affix
+tlan=land or earth=tlalli, emblematized earth, darkness and the Below. The
+nose with its two nostrils emblematized inhalation and exhalation. The
+sanctity attached to this mystic union of two streams of breath led to the
+consecration of the nose by the wearing of a symbolical ornament attached
+to it.
+
+THE HUMAN FORM
+
+expressed "a complete count" and was employed as an image of the entire
+constitution, and of the calendar system; each part of the government
+administration and calendar sign being identified with one of the twenty
+digits, four limbs, body and head of the human form.
+
+THE QUADRUPED
+
+usually the ocelot, or puma, was the symbol of the government of the Below
+and nocturnal cult of the earth as opposed to
+
+THE BIRD OR EAGLE
+
+which typified the upper state and diurnal cult of Heaven. Chiefs, who
+united dual powers in their persons, wore, as an emblem, the serpent, or a
+combination of ocelot-skin and feather ornaments.
+
+THE HAND
+
+expressed _per se_, in Maya, the numeral ho=five, which was also the name
+of a state which invariably consisted of the central capital and four
+provinces. As such it was carried as an emblem of power by the central
+ruler, as may be seen in the native codices. The thumb being regarded as
+the principal or ruling finger, the chief lord was metaphorically spoken
+of as the thumb, whilst the minor lords were entitled fingers=pilli.
+
+THE PYRAMID AND SACRED MOUNTAIN
+
+was primarily an artificial elevation destined to be a place of refuge in
+times of inundation; the pyramid ultimately symbolized: (1) the sacred
+stable centre of the world and the Four Quarters; (2) central power and
+its four manifestations or elements. The great pyramid of the ancient City
+of Mexico which was crowned by two chapels, respectively containing
+symbolical images of the two principles of nature, is a striking
+illustration of the employment of the pyramid to express the dual centre
+(the Above and Below, etc.) and the quadruple organization of all things
+which was expressed not only by the four sides of the structure but by its
+four superposed terraces. The fact recorded by Friar Duran, that the
+flight of steps which led to the summit of the pyramid on its eastern side
+consisted of 365 steps, and that the annual ceremony of ascending these,
+performed by a consecrated individual, "signified the course of the sun in
+a year," indicates that the pyramid was also associated with the idea of
+the quadruplicate division of time which pervaded the entire calendar
+system.
+
+It should also be borne in mind that in ancient Mexico the summits of high
+mountains were regarded as sacred, "because it was there that Heaven and
+Earth met and generated fructifying showers." As religious cult developed,
+the rites performed on the summit of the pyramid or artificial mound were
+for the purpose of evoking rain and the renewal of life upon earth, and
+symbolized the union of heaven and earth. To the native mind the pyramid
+thus represented the consecrated meeting-place of heaven and earth, the
+Above and Below, the masculine and feminine elements, the "divine twins,"
+as well as universal, all-pervading, quadruplicate organization. The
+massive pyramid likewise typified, in an impressive manner, the main idea
+connected with the Middle: that of stability, immutability, quietude and
+repose, combined with power.
+
+In some localities a remarkable rock or massive block of stone was adopted
+as the mark of the sacred centre and became the altar on which offerings
+or sacrifices were made, or the throne on which the terrestrial central
+ruler seated himself on ceremonial occasions and assumed an attitude of
+absolute repose. It is interesting to collate the Nahuatl words Te-otl,
+divinity or divine lord, with te-tl=stone and the Maya te-m=stone seat or
+altar, of which many carved examples exist in the ruined Central American
+cities, and to observe that principal personages, such as are represented
+on the carved altars and in the middle of the Copan swastika, are
+represented as seated cross-legged, as though this attitude were specially
+indicative of repose on the stable centre of the four quarters. As the
+natives usually squat or sit on their heels, the cross-legged attitude is
+particularly noteworthy in connection with the omnipresent set of ideas.
+
+THE BOWL OR VASE
+
+was the emblem of earth, the receptacle of fructifying showers, and of the
+terrestrial centre. Filled with rain-water, on the surface of which the
+radiance of a star--the pole-star--reflected itself, the bowl was supposed
+to typify the union of heaven and earth by means of the divine essence of
+light and life, proceeding from the "Heart of Heaven."
+
+THE FLOWER
+
+was another symbol of the earth and of the state and its divisions. It
+occurs as a composite flower consisting of a yellow centre surrounded by
+multicolored petals. The usual form is of a flower with four equal petals,
+bearing a circle or dot in the centre and one on each petal, the Middle
+and Four Quarters being thus expressed.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+A closing allusion should be briefly made to the native association of the
+square with the earth and the circle with the heaven and to the influence
+exerted by these ideas combined with those of light and darkness upon
+primitive architecture and symbolical ornamental designs.
+
+Pointing out that all of the above symbols are but variations on the
+fundamental theme of the "Middle, Four Quarters, Above and Below," I also
+emphasize the fact that, in ancient America, language powerfully
+influenced the choice of symbols, as may be particularly seen in the case
+of the serpent, the Nahuatl and Maya names for which are homonymous with
+duality and quadruplicity.
+
+The origin and meaning of the ancient American symbols of the cross, the
+serpent, the tree, etc., are clearly apparent. It remains to be seen how
+far this is the case in other countries where the identical symbols were
+or are employed, and it is to my fellow archaeologists that I look for
+final authoritative statements on this important subject, in their special
+lines of research.
+
+Meanwhile I shall present some facts which are accessible to the general
+reader and suffice for the purpose of my present investigation.
+
+CHINA.
+
+Pole-star worship and determination of time by Ursa Major existed in China
+from remote antiquity. The Chinese name for the pole-star is
+Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of the Heaven. In
+China "the pole-star, round which the entire firmament appears to turn,
+ought to be considered as the Sovereign of the Heavens, and as the most
+venerated divinity" (G. Schlegel, Uranographie Chinoise, p. 524). The
+sacred central forbidden enclosure, at Peking, contains a temple of the
+North Star God. In the description of the imperial worship held at the
+winter and summer solstices, in James Edkins' Religion in China (London,
+1878, p. 24) it is stated: "On the second terrace of the east side, the
+tablet of the Sun is placed, and also that of _the Great Bear_, the five
+of the 28 constellations and one for all the other stars." The following
+passage shows the origin of the Chinese year:
+
+1. "The months and seasons are determined by the revolution of Ursa Major
+(the Chinese name for which is Pek-tao the 'Seven Directors'). The tail of
+the constellation pointing to the east at nightfall announces the arrival
+of spring; pointing to the south the arrival of summer; pointing to the
+west the arrival of autumn and pointing to the north the arrival of
+winter. This means of calculating the seasons becomes more intelligible
+when it is remembered that in ancient times the Bear was much nearer the
+north pole than now and revolved around it like the hand of a clock"
+(Prof. Rob. K. Douglass, China. London, 1887, p. 418). The Chinese zodiac
+is represented with the pole-star and circumpolar constellations in the
+centre (Astronomy of the Chinese, Ancient China, W. H. Medhurst, Shanghae,
+1846).
+
+2. The determination and designation of six directions in space. In
+Chinese the six ho or ki designate the limits of space, the zenith, nadir
+and four quarters (Mayer's Manual, pp. 306, 312 and 321). "The term Liu-ho
+also applies to the six pairs of cyclical signs and means 'Universe,' that
+is, Heaven and Earth [being Above and Below] and the Four Quarters."(79)
+
+The syllable ho also occurs in the following words which deserve to be
+collated with the Maya list: Ho=river, hu=lake. C-ho-o=master, _cf._ Maya
+hol=head. Ho-o=resident, _cf._ Maya ho=capital. Sho-o=tree, _cf._ Maya
+ci-hom=tree. Pih-sho-o=cypress. Kwo=country, _cf._ mouth, symbol for land
+or below. Kow=mouth, etc. Chow=name of ancient metropolis.
+
+3. The conception of the Above and Below=duality. The zenith is naturally
+associated with heaven and the nadir with earth. Heaven is father and
+earth is mother. Heaven is figured by a circle and earth by a square. "The
+marriage of Heaven and Earth produces all things." The association of
+heaven with the male and earth with the female principles is shown by (1)
+the injunction: "Thou shalt honor thy father as the heaven and thy mother
+as the earth." (2) In Pekin, the Emperor, termed "the Son of Heaven,"
+inhabits the "Palace of Heaven" whilst the Empress inhabits the "Palace of
+Earth's repose." The sun is male and the "Temple of the Sun" is situated
+to the east. The moon is female and the "Temple of the Moon" is situated
+to the west in the sacred enclosure at Pekin. The emblematic color of the
+heaven is naturally azure; of the sun, red; of the earth, yellow; and of
+the moon, white. It is thus evident that the cult of heaven and earth is
+indissolubly linked to that of the Yang and Yin, the male and the female
+principle, and that in China the following chains of association
+concerning duality were formed:
+
+Zenith.                Nadir.
+Above.                 Below.
+Tien=Heaven.           Tec=Earth.
+Father.                Mother.
+Yang.                  Yin.
+Color: Azure.          Yellow.
+Emblem: Sun.           Moon.
+East=place of          West, place of
+rising.                setting.
+Light.                 Darkness.
+Day.                   Night.
+Personification: the   The Earth-Mother.
+Shang-ti=
+Emperor=Above, The     The Empress=Below?
+Lord of Heaven or
+Universe.
+Earthly                The Empress? or
+representative: the    Sombre Emperor?
+Light Emperor.
+
+An interesting addition to this dual list is the view of a modern
+Chinaman, that the Yang and Yin principles refer to positive and negative
+electricity! (Legge). A striking result of the association of woman with
+the nadir and earth is the fact that in Thibet, according to Rockhill,
+woman is designated as Smanba or Manba: "low creature."
+
+THE MIDDLE AND FOUR QUARTERS.
+
+It is well known that the Chinese designate their empire as the "Middle
+Kingdom." Another native name for China is "Chung-ho-a," which I find
+translated as "the Flower of the Middle." The empire is likewise
+designated as "the Four Seas"=ssu-hai and "the Four Mountains," and it was
+actually divided by the emperor Yaou or Yao (B.C. 2357) into four
+provinces converging at the capital, the central enclosure of which was
+considered as the centre of heaven and earth. It is extremely significant
+that, in this central enclosure there is a temple, consecrated to the god
+of the north star=The Imperial Ruler of Heaven, whereas altars only are
+dedicated to the sun and moon respectively. The existence in the central
+enclosure, or the "Carnation prohibited city," of the Temple of Earth's
+Repose, reveals that the idea of stability was associated with this
+terrestrial centre. The fact that the Empress and the female portion of
+the Imperial family resided in the "Palace of Earth's Repose" affords an
+explanation of the possible origin of deforming the feet of noble women,
+this being a means of enforcing comparative repose upon them, in keeping
+with the symbolism of their surroundings.
+
+The most striking structure in this sacred enclosure is "an artificial
+mound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, having five summits,
+crowned with as many temples. Its height allows the spectator to overlook
+the whole city, whilst, too, it is itself a conspicuous object from every
+direction." This sacred mound or pyramid actually marks the centre of the
+empire. From the surrounding walls of the sacred city four roads diverge
+towards the cardinal points, dividing the capital into four quarters. Each
+province was ruled by an official and both province and ruler seem to have
+been anciently designated by the term Mountain=Yo or Kan. A superior
+official, entitled the "President of the Four Mountains" is mentioned as
+the counsellor of Emperor Yaou in the Shu King. One name for mountain is
+yo, another is kan, a word which resembles k'an=water and kwan=earth,
+which forms the name of the earth mother=Kwan-yin. Without drawing any
+hasty conclusions, I merely note the curious fact that the title "the
+President of the Four Mountains," must sometimes have been rendered as Kan
+and as Yo, and that a variant the name of "four seas" may well have been
+"four _ho_" or lakes or rivers. The title kan, meaning mountain or
+eminence, and the idea of four rivers flowing from a common centre or
+spring, may well have developed themselves among Chinese-speaking people.
+It may be an odd coincidence only that the word kan=mountain, should be so
+intimately connected with the numeral four in the Chinese title; while it
+is a synonym for four in the Maya, it is also found employed in the
+honorific Maya title Kukul-kan=the divine Kan, and as a synonym for
+mountain in certain names of localities in the valley of Mexico. An
+interesting but little known fact is that the peak of the mighty Kulkun
+mountain in China is designated as the "King of Mountains, the summit of
+the earth, the supporter of heaven and the axis which touches the pole"
+(Meyer's Conversations-Lexikon).
+
+I should much like to know whether the name kul-kun is a variant of
+kul-kan, and literally signifies "divine mountain." In this case it would
+strangely resemble the Maya Kukulkan and the Nahuatl Cul-hua-can, the name
+of the fabulous recurved mountain of Aztec tradition. Feeling that I am
+here treading upon extremely dangerous ground I shall abandon further
+comparisons and conclusions to philologists and Chinese scholars and
+merely conclude by stating the certain facts, that in Chinese and Maya
+alike the syllable _ho_ seems to be associated with the Middle; while
+_can_ is connected with four-fold division. I may perhaps venture to add
+that, in Chinese, Maya and Nahuatl alike, the particles te and ti seem
+closely connected with Heaven; while the Chinese kwan=earth, offers a
+certain resemblance to the Nahuatl affix tlan, meaning land, and kan,
+sometimes used for mountain.
+
+Since the Chow Dynasty, the empire was spoken of as having five instead of
+four mountains, which leads to the inference that reference was thus made
+to the central metropolis also, the most sacred feature of which was its
+central artificial mountain or pyramid. It is obvious that the empire was
+governed from the central chief capital and from minor capitals situated
+in the four provinces and built on the pattern of Peking. In an extremely
+interesting and clever paper(80) Mr. James Wickersham has recently
+remarked that "the arrangement of cities after the cardinal-points plan
+was the rule not only in America but in China" and gives the following
+quotations: "Mukden, the metropolis and ancient capital of Manchuria, was
+a walled city like Peking. Main streets ran across the city from gate to
+gate, with narrow roads, called Hu-ting, intersecting them. The palace of
+the early Manchu sovereigns occupies the centre" (The Middle Kingdom,
+Williams, vol. I, pp. 192-198). The Manchurian city of Kirin is also
+divided into four quarters: "Two great streets cross each other at right
+angles, one of them running far out into the river on the west supported
+by piles." Peune, another large city, is similarly divided. "It consists
+of two main streets with the chief market [place] at their crossing. This
+plan is the rule in the cities of northern China; the large cities are
+walled and divided by cross streets emerging from the city gates at the
+cardinal points" (Coxe's Russia, pp. 316-17). The relation of the central
+seat of government to its provinces is thus recorded in the Canon of
+Shun.(81) "In five years there was one tour of inspection (performed by
+the emperor) and four appearances at court of the nobles. They set forth a
+report of their government in words. This was clearly tested by their
+works. They received chariots and robes according to their services."
+
+The order of rotation in which the emperor visited in one year the capital
+of each quarter, returning after each absence to the metropolis, is given
+as follows: "In the second month the tour was to the east. In the fifth
+month ... to the south. In the eighth month ... to the west. In the
+eleventh month ... to the north." During the next year the nobles of the
+eastern province made their appearance at court, and the south, west and
+north provinces followed in turn, it being noticeable that, in each case,
+the circle started at the east, the place of rising.
+
+The institution of the calendar by the Emperor Yaou is described at length
+in the Shu King.(82) Confucius said of this remarkable personage, "Heaven
+alone is great, but Yaou is able to imitate Heaven."
+
+The Emperor Yaou "... harmonized the various states of the empire and the
+black-haired people, oh! how they were reformed by this cordial agreement.
+He commanded He and Ho (officers superintending the calendar and
+astronomical instruments) in reverent accordance with the motions of the
+expansive heavens, to arrange by numbers and represent the revolutions of
+the sun and moon and stars with the lunar mansions and then respectfully
+communicate to the people the seasons adapted for labor. He then
+separately directed He's younger brother to reside at Yu-e (the modern
+Tang-chow in Shan-tung), called the Orient Valley, where he might
+respectfully hail the rising sun, adjust and arrange the eastern (and
+vernal) undertakings and notice the equalization of days and whether the
+star (culminating at nightfall) was the middle constellation of the bird,
+in order to hit the centre of mid-spring; he might also observe whether
+the people began to disperse abroad and whether birds and beasts were
+beginning to pair. He commanded He's third brother to reside at the
+southern border (the region of Cochin-China) and adjust and arrange the
+southern or summer transformation and respectfully notice the extreme
+limit of the shadow when the days attain their utmost length and the star
+in the zenith that is denominated Fire (heart of Scorpio, culminated on
+eve of summer solstice), in order to fix the exact period of mid-summer,
+when the people disperse themselves more widely and the birds and beasts
+begin to moult and cast their skins. He then distinctly commanded Ho's
+youngest brother to dwell in the west, at a place called the Dark Valley,
+where he might respectfully attend the setting sun and equalize and adjust
+the western (or autumnal) completions, notice the equalizations of the
+nights and see whether the culminating star was Emptiness (Beta in
+Aquarius, which culminated at autumnal equinox which was the period at the
+centre of the dark principle in nature) in order to adjust the mid-autumn,
+when the people would be more at ease and the birds and beasts would be
+sleek and plump. He further directed Ho's third brother to dwell at the
+northern region, called the dismal city, where he might properly examine
+the reiterations and alterations and see whether, when the days were
+shortest, the culminating star was Pleiades (this culminates in the
+evening at winter solstice, which is the extreme of dark principle in
+nature and midnight seat of that principle) in order to adjust midwinter,
+when the people would remain at home and the birds and beasts get their
+down and hair. Thus careful was the sage in reverently observing heaven
+and labouring diligently for the people, in order that his plans might not
+contradict the designs of heaven nor the government miss the proper season
+for human labour." It is further said that "the bright influence (of
+Yaou's qualities) was felt through the four quarters (of the land) and
+reached to (heaven) above and (earth) beneath" (Shu King, book I, p. 32).
+Legge cites Pritchard's (Savilian Professor, Oxford University) chart as a
+proof of the correctness of the chronology which places Yaou in the 24th
+century B.C. The precession of the equinoxes was not known in China until
+more than 2,500 years after the time assigned to Yaou.
+
+Pausing to renew the foregoing data, it is with particular satisfaction
+that I point out how clearly they reveal the basis and origin of the
+"Quadriform Constitution" and idea of central government. In China the
+pole star is designated as the Imperial Ruler of Heaven and a temple to
+the God of the North Star stands in the sacred enclosure which marks the
+centre of the empire. The opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major at
+nightfall divide the year into four quarters and this quadruplicate
+division caused by rotation, assuming absolute dominion over the native
+mind, is applied to heaven and earth and pervades every detail of civil
+and religious government, as in ancient America.
+
+Forced to recognize that the primitive inhabitants of China and America
+derived their first principles of organization from the identical
+light-giving source, a fact which also indicates a community of race and
+of place of origin, let us now review some data which prove that the two
+civilizations must have been separated and isolated from each other at an
+extremely remote period of time.
+
+Certain conceptions, common to all primitive people, were shared by the
+Chinese and Mexicans, one of these being the belief that the earth was
+flat and square. The name for a year in ancient Mexican was xiuitl,
+literally, grass, and this was represented in the picture writings by a
+bunch of young blades of some sort of grass, possibly maize-shoots. "The
+earliest written Chinese character for a year represented a stalk of
+wheat.... In the ancient work entitled the San Fun, part of which was
+probably written in the 23d century B.C., there is evidence that among
+some of the aboriginal tribes of China the year, as among the Egyptians
+and some of the people of India, was divided into three periods, known as
+the grass-springing, tree-reigning and tree-decaying periods. Under the
+higher culture of the Chinese these divisions disappeared and the twelve
+months became the recognized parts of the year" (Douglas, China, pp. 269
+and 310). Amongst the Mexican month-names there are also some which allude
+to such regularly recurring and impressive natural phenomena as the
+sprouting of trees and the appearance of verdure or springing of the
+maize, etc.
+
+An indication as to what was the most ancient and primitive method of
+rotation employed seems afforded by the Chinese description how, for
+governmental purposes, the five-year period was adopted, one year
+pertaining to the emperor or central ruler and the following four to the
+quarters of the empire. An analogous employment of a quinary period as a
+means of obtaining a rotation of contribution from the four quarters of
+the empire to its metropolis, identified with the first day, is
+discernible in the Mexican institution of the macuil-tianquiztli, or
+five-day market, by which means the entire year was divided into five-day
+groups.
+
+A study of the ancient Chinese calendar furnishes, moreover, an indication
+of the way in which the numeral 12 came to be recognized and adopted by
+primitive people. It is obvious that the early astronomers, having
+determined the length of the year by observing Ursa Major at nightfall,
+recognized that, during the period required for its annual complete
+revolution around the pole star, there regularly appeared twelve new
+moons. In China, at a remote period, a division of the year into "months
+was adopted, the early names of which have, according to the author of the
+earliest Chinese dictionary, the Urhye, been lost." "The modern Chinese
+year is lunar in its divisions, though regulated by the sun in so far that
+New Year's day is made to fall on the first new moon after the sun enters
+Aquarius and varies between 21st January and 19th of February" (Douglas,
+_op. cit._ p. 258). It would seem as though some fresh impulse, or
+institution of moon-cult, had influenced Shun, Yaou's successor, to
+reorganize the empire, which had been simply divided into quarters, and
+subdivide it into 4x3=12 districts.
+
+Another interesting evolution of a numerical system, the origin of which
+can be traced to the four positions and seven stars of Ursa Major, is
+discernible in the Chinese zodiac. This, the earliest division of the
+ecliptic in China, consists of "28 lunar mansions, which are grouped
+together in four classes of seven each, assigned to the four quarters of
+heaven" (Legge, vol. III, p. 24, Introduction to Shu-King). It is to the
+observation of precisely the same impressive phenomena that the universal
+adoption of the numbers 12, 4 and 7 may safely be attributed. The further
+division, by Emperor Yu, of the Chinese Empire into five domains or zones,
+finds an interesting parallelism in Mexico and Central America.
+
+Mr. Wickersham describes Yu's division in the following concise manner:
+"The Imperial domain extended five hundred le in every direction from the
+capital, north, south, east and west, and was therefore one thousand le
+square, with its sides facing the cardinal points; the domain of the
+Nobles was an additional territory five hundred le broad on each of the
+four sides; the Peace-securing domain was then added, beyond which came
+the domain of Restraint, and at the greatest extremity the Wild domain. By
+this arrangement, the sacred center, the capital where the 'Son of Heaven'
+resided, was completely surrounded by loyal officials and subjects; the
+most loyal were nearest the center while at the farthest extremity were
+the wild and dangerous tribes and criminals undergoing the greater
+banishment. By this square method of disposing of the population, the
+quiet and orderly members of society were required to reside near the
+capital, while the turbulent were placed toward the outer limits, serving
+to free the center from turmoil and to act as a barrier to the inroads of
+outside barbarians."
+
+Among the Zunis and Mexicans the spider's web is met with as an image of
+the division of their territory into quarters, half-quarters and
+concentric circles.
+
+In Peru a record exists of a system of irrigation by which means the
+territory surrounding the capital was divided into alternate zones of land
+and water. Mexico and Central America furnish records too scattered to be
+compiled here, showing that somewhat as in China, the territory of the
+state was divided into the domains of the rulers, the lords, the people,
+and the territory of war.
+
+After having duly considered some salient points of fundamental agreement
+which are to be found underlying the widely different later growths of the
+Chinese and ancient American systems, let us now examine and analyze some
+of the most remarkable points of divergence.
+
+The following tables, placed in juxtaposition, afford an opportunity of
+recognizing the striking and significant fact that, whereas the Mexicans
+and Zunis classified air, water, fire and earth as "elements," the Chinese
+ignored air and identified wood and metal as their fourth and fifth
+elements.
+
+             Mexico.           Zuni.             China.
+_North_.     Red, Fire.        Yellow, Air.      Black, Water.
+_West_.      Yellow, Earth.    Blue, Water.      White, Metal.
+_South_.     Blue, Air.        Red, Fire.        Red, Fire.
+_East_.      Green, Water.     White, Earth.     Blue, Wood.
+_Middle_.    Many colors.      Middle, All       Yellow, Earth.
+                               colors.
+
+A deep-seated analogy may, however, be traced between the Chinese
+assignment of "wood" to the Middle and the Maya-Mexican employment of the
+tree as a symbol of life proceeding from the centre, stretching above and
+below and spreading its branches to the four quarters. It remains to be
+seen how far the Chinese assignment of "wood" to the Middle approached the
+American tree-symbolism.
+
+The marked differentiation in the assignment of colors to the cardinal
+points in the above comparative table leads to the conclusion that their
+choice had been arbitrary and was possibly influenced by local
+environment, the possibility of obtaining certain pigments in given
+directions, or by language, the names of certain colors or elements
+resembling in sound those of the cardinal points, etc.(83)
+
+After studying the above comparative lists it becomes clear that, whilst
+the fundamental principle of the system was identical, the mode of
+carrying it out was different in China and America, a fact which indicates
+independence and isolation at the period when elements and colors, etc.,
+were chosen and assigned to the directions in space. An analogous instance
+of divergence is shown in the following assignment of parts of the body to
+the cardinal points:
+
+CHINESE.
+
+North        Kidneys.
+West         Lungs.
+South        Heart.
+East         Liver.
+Middle       Stomach.
+Zenith       ----
+Nadir        ----
+
+Although it differs in detail, an analogous association of various parts
+of the body with the directions in space and the twenty calendar-signs,
+may be seen in a Mexican Codex. In this case, however, it is clear that
+the origin of this assignment was the natural association between the
+"complete finger-and-toe count=a complete man=20=with the 20 or complete
+count of the day signs." I have already produced evidences showing that
+the human figure was employed in primitive times to represent "a complete
+count, or 20 years." When chieftains were elected for a term of twenty
+years and their names were given to their period of office, the
+full-length portrait of the chief was sculptured on a stela and he thus
+represented, primarily, "a complete count," an epoch (see p. 221).
+Portraiture and accompanying inscriptions were obviously later
+developments, but the primitive employment of the human form as a means of
+expressing a fixed number, is one that claims consideration and will
+undoubtedly lead to a wider comprehension of the significance of the human
+form in aboriginal archaic sculpture. The curious conventionalized
+representations of Mictlantecuhtli, in which the body and limbs almost
+simulate a swastika, have already been discussed, as well as the inference
+that they symbolized Polaris and the four positions of Ursa Major=the
+Middle and Four Quarters.
+
+The most striking confirmation of this inference is furnished by Mr.
+Cushing's account that the Zunis associated the directions in space with
+the imaginary form of a quadruped as follows:
+
+ZUNI.
+
+North        Right fore
+             foot.
+West         Left fore foot.
+South        Right hind leg.
+East         Left hind leg.
+Middle       Heart.
+Zenith       Head.
+Nadir        Tail.
+
+It is obvious from this that, to a Zuni, the State and its subdivisions
+appear under the allegorical form of a quadruped and I have traced the
+identical mode of thought in Mexico and Central America(84) where, owing
+to linguistic associations, an ocelot is in some instances employed as a
+symbol for a State whilst in others the form of an eagle was adopted for
+the same purpose (see Appendix I).
+
+To sum up: in ancient America the human form was employed to represent
+quadripartite division and the complete finger-and-toe count=20, and as
+such became emblematic of the quadriform plan of universal application.
+Owing to a variety of circumstances and suggestions arising from language,
+the figure of a quadruped=ocelot was adopted as a symbol of the State by
+some tribes and the form of an eagle by others, the inference being that
+the ocelot was identified with the cult of the earth and night and the
+eagle with the cult of heaven and day. While the ocelot and eagle occur in
+the codices as representative of two distinct classes or divisions of the
+State, there are some interesting and suggestive representations, to which
+I shall revert, of figures combining the form and claws of an ocelot with
+the wings and head of a bird, evidently symbolical of a union of the Above
+and Below, or Heaven and Earth.
+
+Having furnished the explanation that ancient America affords of the
+origin of the primitive employment of the human body, the quadruped and
+bird in allegory and the assignment of their various parts to points in
+space, it is to Chinese scholars that I appeal for enlightenment as to the
+origin and development of the same idea in China. To me one point of
+difference between the Chinese and American list is very striking. In
+America although the navel was also regarded as a symbol, the heart,
+associated with the Middle, had obviously been recognized as the centre or
+seat of life, and the tearing out of the heart had become the salient
+feature in human sacrifices. In China the stomach is assigned to the
+Middle, and death by disembowelling was customary.
+
+An analysis of the Chinese and Mexican numerical systems likewise proves
+that their ultimate development was strikingly different, although it is
+easy to recognize how both might have arisen from the same source. Thus
+whilst the Mexican and Central American calendar (and social organization)
+is based on the combination of 20 characters with 13 numerals, the Chinese
+"took two sets of 12 and 10 characters respectively and combined them."
+The outcome of the combination of 20 with 13 affords a marked contrast to
+that of 12 with 10. In the Mexican calendar, as I have shown, there were
+fixed periods of 5 days (associated with the Middle and Four Quarters) and
+of 20 days, the latter being "one complete count" of days, based on the
+primitive finger-and-toe count. In the Mexican social organization there
+were 4 principal and 16 minor clans of people, known by 20 signs. Each of
+these in turn was subdivided into 13 categories associated with the
+directions in space. By mentioning a sign and a numeral, up to 13, the
+exact subdivision of a clan was clearly designated while the direction of
+its residence, as regards the capital, was likewise conveyed. A day was
+associated with each of these 20 clans and their respective 13
+subdivisions, and the unit of time produced by the combination of the 20
+day-signs and 13 numerals was the period of 260 days, which held 4x65 days
+and was approximately equivalent to nine lunations and to the period of
+human gestation. The 260-day period, as will be more clearly shown in my
+monograph on the Mexican Calendar System, constituted the religious year
+of the "Sons or Lords of Night" in their cult of the Moon, the Nocturnal
+Heaven, Earth and the Female principle.
+
+Simultaneously with this lunar calendar, in which each moon had a
+different name, a civil or solar calendar was employed consisting of 365
+days, divided into 17 periods of 20 and 1 period of 25 days. These years
+bore the names of four different signs in rotation combined with 13
+numerals.(85) The cycles, thus produced, consisted of 4x13=52 years, 20,
+or a "complete count" of which, produced the great cycle of 1040 years.
+
+Totally different from this numerical system is that of the Chinese, who
+"divided the year into 12 months of 29 and 30 days each and as these
+periods represent with sufficient exactness the lunar month, it follows
+that the new moon falls on the 1st of every month and that on the 15th the
+moon is at its full. The month is thus associated with the moon and is
+called by the same name and written with the same hieroglyphic.... The
+Chinese also divide the year by seasons and recognize 8 main divisions and
+16 subsidiary ones, which correspond to the days on which the sun enters
+the 1st and 15th degrees of a zodiacal sign ..." (Douglas, China, p. 269).
+Whilst it is customary in China for years to be designated at times by the
+Neen-haou or title of an emperor and an event to be alluded to as having
+occurred in such or such a year of a certain ruler's reign, the mode of
+computing years is by reckoning by sexagenary cycles. According to native
+historians this system was introduced by the emperor Hwang-te in the year
+2637 B.C. which was the first year of the first cycle, and it has
+continued in use until the present day. In this system a group of ten
+characters, termed the "celestial stems" and associated with the male
+principle, is combined with a group of twelve characters, named the
+"terrestrial branches" and associated with the female principle. An
+unbroken series of sixty-year cycles have thus been formed, in the
+seventy-sixth of which the Chinese are now living. According to Biot, the
+calendar instituted by Hwang-te was a day-count only, and year-cycles were
+not in use until after the Christian era, having been introduced from
+India.
+
+There are indications which will be more fully discussed further on,
+showing that the primitive day-count consisted of the seven-day period,
+each day being consecrated to one of the seven bright stars of Ursa Major,
+called the "Seven Regulators."
+
+It is well known that Taouism was founded by Laou-tsze, who was a
+contemporary of Confucius and thus "lived in the sixth century before
+Christ, a hundred years later than Buddha and a hundred years earlier than
+Socrates. A mystery hangs over Laou-tsze's history ... and there is the
+possibility that he was a foreigner, or perhaps a member of an aboriginal
+frontier tribe" (Legge).
+
+The Shoo-king, the national book of history edited by Confucius, enables
+us to follow the development of the state religion and government, the
+basis of which was Heaven and its imperial ruler, the pole-star. The
+almost mythical emperor Yaou, whose reign began in B.C. 2357, "imitated
+Heaven, harmonized the various states of the empire and divided it into
+four quarters." His successor, Shun, extended its organization, but it was
+Yue, the third ruler, in the thirteenth year of his reign (B.C. 1121), who,
+acknowledging his ignorance of them "went to inquire of Ke-tsze" about
+"the great plan of the 9 classifications and the arrangement of the
+invariable principles." It is also stated in the Shoo-King, that it was
+"Heaven [who] gave to Yue the great plan and the 9 classifications, so that
+the invariable principles were arranged, consisting of the 5 elements, the
+8 regulations, and the 5 arrangers."
+
+In China the day is divided into periods equivalent to 120 minutes=2
+hours. "In speaking of these periods, however, the practice which was
+originally introduced into China by the Mongols, of substituting for the
+twelve stems, the names of the twelve animals which are supposed to be
+symbolical of them, is commonly adopted. Thus the 1st period, that between
+11 P. M. and 1 A. M., is known as the Rat, period 2 as the Ox, 3 Tiger, 4
+Hare, 5 Dragon, 6 Serpent, 7 Horse, 8 Sheep, 9 Monkey, 10 Cock, 11 Dog, 12
+Boar. The night is divided into five watches, each of two hours
+duration...." (Douglas, China, p. 296).
+
+The ancient Mexican priest-astronomers marked three divisions of the night
+by burning incense in honor of certain stars, after dusk, at midnight and
+at break of day.
+
+The mention of the introduction into China of the Mongolian
+hour-computation leads to a consideration of the origin of what is known
+as the Chinese civilization. It is, of course, impossible to do more here
+than touch upon the various and opposite views held on this important
+question by leading European and Chinese scholars. On the one hand, "the
+existence of the Chinese civilization in the east of Asia, separated from
+early centres by the whole width of Asia and intervening trackless
+deserts, has seemed a problem to many students and led to the conclusion
+of its sporadic growth, an idea which is fostered by Chinese historians."
+(See Douglas on Chinese Culture and Civilization, 1890.) On the other
+hand, it is maintained that the Chinese entered China from Tartary and
+were emigrants from Babylonia who abandoned their country when Nakhunte,
+king of Susiana, conquered Babylon in 2295 B.C.
+
+According to Legge, the Chinese came through central Asia about 2200 B.C.
+and founded colonies on the banks of the Yellow river and its tributaries.
+These colonists founded a Middle Kingdom in China, a federation of states
+with a chief supreme ruler, on the pattern of Babylonia. They introduced
+the art of writing and established a calendar with a year of 360 days and
+an intercalary month.
+
+It is stated that the names of the five planets of the Chinese, besides
+the Sun and Moon, were called by the same names as in Babylon. (See Edkins
+_op. cit._, also The old Babylonian characters and their derivatives,
+Terrien de Lacouperie, Babylonian and Oriental Record, March, 1888.) Some
+authorities are inclined to consider Chinese astronomy as derived from the
+Chaldean; whilst others have instituted comparisons between it and the
+Hindoo system. The results of the latter line of investigation are set
+forth by J. F. Davis in the following passage of his work on the Chinese
+(London, 1836, vol. II., p. 304): "A comparison between the ancient system
+of the Chinese and of Hindoo astronomy is rendered somewhat perplexing by
+the fact that, while there are some points of resemblance there are others
+in which they essentially differ. Both of them have twenty-eight lunar
+mansions and a cycle of sixty years, but a careful observation detects
+some important distinctions: the Hindoo cycle is a cycle of Jupiter while
+that of the Chinese is a solar cycle, and the twenty-eight constellations
+of the Hindoos are nearly all of them equal divisions of the great circle,
+consisting of about 13 deg. each, while the Chinese constellations are
+extremely unequal, varying from 30 deg. to less than 1 deg.. The author's father,
+in conjunction with Sir William Jones and Messrs. Colebrook and Bentley,
+proved that the Hindoo astronomy did not go farther than the calculation
+of eclipses and some other changes with the rules and tables for
+performing the same. Besides their lunar zodiac of twenty-eight mansions,
+the Hindoos (unlike the Chinese) have the solar, including twelve signs
+perfectly identical with ours, and demonstrating, in that respect, a
+common origin."
+
+As we know from Herodotus, the Egyptians had a week of seven days and it
+is remarkable that the Hindoos had anciently the same, the planetary names
+being given to the days in exactly the same order as among ourselves,
+except that Friday was the first. The Chinese reckon five planets to the
+exclusion of the sun and moon, but they give the name of one of their
+twenty-eight lunar mansions successively to each day of the year in a
+perpetual rotation, without regard to the moon's changes; so that the same
+four out of the twenty-eight invariably fall on our Sundays and
+constitute, as it were, perpetual _Sunday letters_. A native Chinese first
+remarked this odd fact to the author, and on examination it proved
+perfectly correct.
+
+To the above it may be well to add the following comparison between the
+Chinese, Tibetan and Indian systems: "The Tibetans received astronomical
+science from India and China ... the Chinese taught them the science of
+divination. Both systems are based upon a unit of sixty years, differing,
+however, in modes of denominating years. In these cycles of sixty years,
+when numbered according to the Indian principle, each year has a
+particular name; but in the Chinese method the names used in the Chinese
+duodecimal cycle are used five times, coupled with the five elements or
+their respective colors, each of the latter introduced in the series twice
+in immediate succession" (Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Thibet, p. 27).
+According to Humboldt, "the Tzihichen, or public calculators of Lhassa
+take pride in the fact that years of the same name only return about every
+two centuries. They combine 15 signs: five masculine, five feminine and
+five neuter, with twelve signs of the zodiac" (Monuments des peuples de
+l'Amerique I, p. 386).
+
+With regard to the ancient connection between China and India it is well
+to recall the well-known fact that Buddhism did not enter China from India
+until the first century of the Christian era and had a prolonged struggle
+for existence and influence in the country during several centuries.
+
+The Buddhist missionaries introduced the mode of calculating cycles of
+years into China, according to Biot, who states that the primitive
+calendar of the Chinese, instituted by Hwang-te, the first king of the
+"Flowery land," was a day-count only.
+
+Let us briefly enumerate some bare facts bearing upon the age and
+development of the state, religion and government of ancient China. In
+2697 B.C. Hwang-te (the Babylonian?) erected a temple to the honor of
+Shang-te, the deity associated with the earliest traditions of the Chinese
+race. Upon the authority of a Chinaman of the present day it is stated
+that "the word Shang-te means supreme ruler; but, as it is not lawful to
+use this name lightly, Chinamen usually name the supreme ruler by his
+residence, which is Tien=heaven" (Edkins, _op. cit._ p. 71).
+
+An extremely instructive light is thrown upon the Taouist conception of a
+supreme being or ruler, by the following episode related by Mr. Edkins in
+his "Religion in China" (p. 109). "I met [in 1872] on one occasion a
+schoolmaster from the neighborhood of Chapoo.... The inquiry was put to
+him, Who is the Lord of heaven and earth? He replied that he knew none but
+the pole-star, called in the Chinese language Teen-hwang-ta-te, the great
+imperial ruler of heaven. It was stated to him that it was a matter very
+much to be regretted that he should hold such views as this of the Supreme
+Being."
+
+In this connection and with special reference to the title Tien=heaven,
+employed by the Chinese in addressing the supreme ruler, I must quote T.
+de Lacouperie's opinion that the Akkadian name=Din-gira and symbol for
+God, the eight-pointed star, was the origin of Ti, a Chinese character
+with the same meaning and sound. Mr. C. J. Ball (The New Akkadian
+Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology) explains the Akkadian
+Din-gira as composed of di=to shine and gira=heaven and that thus the
+Accadian name for God is "the shining one of heaven," which explains why
+the ideogram is a star. According to Mr. K. Douglas (p. 171) "Mr. Ball has
+practically demonstrated that the Chinese and Akkadian are the same tongue
+and that everywhere in China we are reminded of that great centre of
+civilization in Babylonia."
+
+An investigation of the Taouist religion reveals that it consists chiefly
+of star-worship, stars being deemed "divine." "Among the liturgical works
+used by the priests of Taou, one of the commonest consists of prayers to
+Tow-moo, a female divinity supposed to reside in the Great Bear. A part of
+the same constellation is worshipped as a male spirit under the name of
+Kwei-sing" (Edkins).
+
+A name closely resembling the latter in sound, Tseih-ching, and meaning
+the "Seven Regulators" is now applied to the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus,
+Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In ancient times, however, according to native
+authorities, "this term was used to designate the seven bright stars of
+Ursa Major which subsequently, by an astrological device, were associated
+with the seven planets; so, that, by metonymy, the latter became the
+established meaning."(86)
+
+The association of the term "Regulators" with Septentriones is
+particularly interesting because the seven-day period has been employed in
+China from time immemorial, the seventh day being invariably marked by the
+ancient character mih, which means "quiet, secret or silent." In the
+modern Chinese almanacs and astrological works "the mih days are marked by
+the four constellations which correspond among the seven planets to the
+principal one among them, the Sun" (_cf._ Wylie, On the Knowledge of a
+weekly Sabbath in China, _op. cit._ p. 86). I am strongly tempted to refer
+the origin of the Chinese mih or quiet day, on which rest was generally
+observed, to that remote period of time when, to primitive observers, one
+of the stars in Ursa Major would have appeared more closely associated
+with immovability and nearer the polar axis than its companions (see pp.
+20 and 21).
+
+If we pause here to review the preceding data we are particularly struck
+at the unanimity of evidence establishing that even the most ancient form
+of civilization and religion was not indigenous to China, but was carried
+there by colonists from distant parts, presumably from Babylonia. The
+latter conclusion finds a strong support in the undeniable fact that
+during subsequent centuries a steady stream of emigration has carried
+colonists of different nationalities into the heart of China.
+
+Buddhism entered China from India in the first century of the Christian
+era. Alexander Wylie tells us that "according to the testimony of one of
+the stone tablets in the synagogue at Kai-fung foo, the Israelites first
+entered China during the Han dynasty" and we are further told in the
+letters of the Jesuits that "they came during the reign of Ming-ti (A.D.
+58-75) from Si-yih, _i. e._ the western regions. It appears by all that
+can be gathered from them that this western country is Persia and that
+they came by Khorasan and Samarcand. They have many Persian words in their
+language and they long preserved a great intercourse with that country"
+(The Israelites in China, Wylie's Chinese Researches, Shanghai, 1897).
+
+Some other interesting facts related by Wylie deserve mention here. In
+translating the name of Jehovah into Chinese, the Israelites in China, to
+the present day, say Teen, "just as the scholars of China do when they
+explain their term Shang-te." We thus observe a growing practice in
+western Asia, among the Hebrews, of designating Jehovah as the God of
+Heaven and sometimes as Heaven. In Chinese history distinct mention is
+made of a foreign sect distinguished as the "worshippers of Heaven,"
+spoken of as existing in China at the beginning of the sixth century.
+Wylie has surmised that the Hebrews were thus designated and remarks "that
+this name, as the designation of a foreign sect, is the more remarkable
+inasmuch as the state ritual of China has designated the Supreme by the
+name of Heaven, from the earliest times down to the present day."
+
+It is a curious reflection that it may possibly have been due to a gross
+misconception of the Hebrew religion on the part of the Chinese and a
+supposed identity of worship that caused the Israelites to be treated with
+such tolerance and hospitality in China that their colony situated in the
+heart of the country still exists to the present day. It is, in fact,
+related of the Dowager Empress Ling, in the first half of the sixth
+century, that she "abolished the various corrupt systems of religious
+worship, excepting that of the foreign tien-spirit." A strange insight
+into the Chinese view of the Christian religion is likewise afforded by
+the following native documents cited by Wylie: "Now Jesus, the Lord of
+Heaven, is worshipped by the Europeans. They say that this is the ancient
+religion of Ta-tsin (Syria)."
+
+The following remarkable passages occur on the famous Nestorian tablet,
+dated A.D. 781, which eulogizes the propagation of the "Illustrious
+[Christian] Religion" in China. This tablet was discovered by the Jesuit
+fathers in 1625 and, after its authenticity had been violently assailed,
+Wylie's painstaking researches have now vindicated its genuineness.(87)
+The following extracts are from the preface engraved upon it and composed
+by King-tsing, a priest of the Syrian Church: "... Our eternal, true lord
+God.... He appointed the cross as the means of determining the four
+cardinal points, he moved the original spirit and produced the two
+principles of nature; the sombre void was changed and heaven and earth
+were opened out; the sun and moon revolved and day and night commenced;
+having perfected all inferior objects, he then made the first man ... the
+illustrious and honorable Messiah, veiling his true dignity, appeared in
+the world as a man ... a bright star announced the felicitous event [of
+his birth] ... he fixed the extent of the eight boundaries.... As a seal
+[his disciples] hold the cross, whose influence is reflected in every
+direction uniting all without distinction. As they strike the wood the
+fame of their benevolence is diffused abroad; worshipping towards the east
+they hasten on the way to life and glory ... they do not keep slaves, but
+put noble and mean all on an equality; they do not amass wealth but cast
+all their property into the common stock."
+
+Referring the matter to oriental scholars for further discussion I merely
+note here the astonishing fact that in China, in the seventh century of
+our era, the supreme God of the Hebrews and Christians was spoken of as
+the God of Heaven, or Heaven, that He is credited with having created the
+two principles of nature besides heaven and earth and instituted the cross
+as "a means of determining the cardinal points."
+
+It is likewise strange to find the "Heen or Toen foreigners" credited in a
+sixteenth-century native cyclopaedia, with having introduced into China a
+system of astronomy denominated the "Four Heavens," and obviously based on
+a quadruplicate division of the Heaven similar to the division of the
+empire instituted by Yaou (Wylie, Israelites in China, _op. cit._ p. 19).
+
+The current Chinese name for Christians has been "Cross-worshippers," and
+it is odd to note that the ancient Chinese seem to have regarded the
+symbolism of the Christian cross as closely identical with that of their
+swastika, and to have concluded that the foreign "Heaven" religion rested
+on the same basis as theirs.
+
+Referring the reader to Wylie's valuable researches and Edkins' Religion
+in China for information concerning the establishment of colonies of
+Manicheans, Mohammedans and of successive Christian missions, etc., in
+China, I shall but quote the following passage from Marco Polo's travels
+(pp. 167 and 168) because it shows how the doctrine of the quadruplicate
+division of all things, celestial and terrestrial, led to a broad
+tolerance of opinion in the famous Tartar prince, Kubla Khan, who, in
+1260, at Kanbalu=Peking, honored the Christian festivals. "And he observed
+the same at the festivals of the Saracens, Jews and idolaters. Upon being
+asked his motive for this conduct, he said: 'There are four great Prophets
+who are reverenced and worshipped by the different classes of mankind. The
+Christians regard Jesus Christ as their divinity; the Saracens, Mahomet;
+the Jews, Moses; and the idolaters Sagomombarkan (Buddha) the most eminent
+amongst their idols. I do honor and show respect to all of the four, and
+invoke to my aid whichever of them is in truth supreme in heaven.' " This
+attitude of mind and that of the Chinese towards the Christian Cross can
+only be fully understood and appreciated when it is realized that their
+"imperial ruler of Heaven" was the pole-star and that the Ursa Major
+described each year the sign of a cross in the heaven which ever impressed
+upon them quadruplicate division and differentiation and the union of four
+in one. It is doubtlessly owing to the same reason that the Chinaman of
+today finds it possible to believe in, at once, the three great national
+religions which exist in China. Edkins has explained that, whereas
+"Confucianism speaks to the moral nature, Taouism is materialistic and
+Buddhism is metaphysical; thus, they are supplemental to each other and
+are able to co-exist without being mutually destructive" (_op. cit._ p.
+60). Somewhat apart from these three state religions and embodying the
+most ancient ideas and traditions of the race, exists the elaborate and
+solemn "Imperial worship," the study of which Edkins designates as
+"specially interesting because it takes us back to the early history of
+the Chinese people and introduces us to many striking points of comparison
+with the patriarchal religion of the Old Testament and with the worship of
+the kings of Nineveh, Babylon and Egypt." The same authority states that
+"the account given by Herodotus of the religion of the ancient Persians
+shows that it consisted in much the same usages as those now found in
+Chinese Imperial worship" (_op. cit._ pp. 6, 22, 18 and 30). In the
+preceding pages it has been shown that the fundamental principles of the
+primitive religions of China and America were identical, but that their
+subsequent stages of development or evolution were strikingly divergent.
+The following study of certain details connected with the "Imperial
+worship" brings out a marked differentiation in the Chinese and Mexican
+cult of heaven and earth.
+
+The altar of Heaven at Peking consists of three circular marble terraces,
+the uppermost of which is paved with eighty-one stones arranged in
+circles. It is on a round stone in the centre of these circles that the
+Emperor kneels and is considered to occupy the centre of the earth. In the
+worship of Heaven, offerings are made to the heavenly bodies, the Sun,
+Moon, the Pole-star, Great Bear, five planets and twenty-eight
+constellations. The worship at the altar of Earth consists of offerings to
+the mountains, rivers and seas.
+
+This arrangement is strikingly unlike that of the ancient Mexicans, who
+associated the sun only with the Above, the male principle and the blue
+heaven, and worshipped the nocturnal heaven, the moon and stars, with the
+earth, darkness and the female principle.
+
+It is interesting to note the marked effect, produced by the two different
+modes of classification, upon the subsequent development of the state
+religions of China and Mexico. In the latter country where the contrast of
+light and darkness and of the duality of nature seems to have been most
+powerfully felt, the gradual institution, on a footing of equality of a
+diurnal masculine and nocturnal feminine cult or of a separate sun and
+moon worship, led to the formation of two equally powerful castes of
+priest-astronomers who devised their respective calendars and cults and
+ultimately stood in open rivalry and antagonism towards each other, as
+children of heaven and light: sun worshippers; and children of earth and
+darkness: moon worshippers. In China, as the cult of earth was subordinate
+from the first and all heavenly bodies were included in the worship of
+Heaven, there was no opportunity for any rivalry to develop in the
+superior caste of astronomers who jointly ruled, instituted their calendar
+and altered it under influences emanating from India.
+
+Heaven and Earth were jointly worshipped at the same altar until A.D.
+1531, when it was decreed that there should be separate altars and that
+the worship of Earth should be separately conducted (Edkins). At the same
+time, while the Emperor acts as the high-priest of Heaven, we find
+associated with him, from remote antiquity, the Empress, the
+representative of the Earth-mother.
+
+The fact that the roll of Chinese emperors records heavenly and earthly,
+light and sombre, emperors, and that empresses have repeatedly occupied
+the throne, seems to indicate that, in remote antiquity, a male and a
+female line of rulers, personifying the dual principles of nature,
+alternately assumed prominence in power. This natural outgrowth of the
+cult of heaven and earth, which has its parallel in Mexico, seems to
+afford an explanation of the usurpation and retention of power exercised
+by the present Empress of China, who is probably ruling in her own right,
+as the representative of the earth or dark principle. As such she is the
+exact equivalent to the ancient Mexican Cihua-coatl, or "Woman-serpent;"
+and modern China supplies us with an episode in the development of the
+fundamental set of ideas it holds in common with ancient America, closely
+resembling the historical dissension which led in ancient Mexico to a
+separation of the two cults and the establishment of two separate
+governments, under their respective male and female rulers.
+
+Although the difference in primitive Chinese and Mexican definitions of
+heaven and earth worship is evidently accountable for this fact, it is
+nevertheless interesting to note that it was in A.D. 1531 only that the
+Chinese cult of heaven and earth separated and the process of
+disintegration began to be set into activity. From an evolutionary point
+of view, the imperial religion of China stands to-day at a far less
+advanced stage of development than the prehistoric Mexican state religion.
+This circumstance might be passed over without comment did it not
+strikingly coincide with the undeniable fact that the essentially
+inorganic and monosyllabic Chinese language stands far lower in the scale
+of linguistic development than the incorporative and polysynthetic
+American languages, the most perfected types of which are the Maya and the
+beautiful and refined Nahuatl which abounds in delicate metaphors and
+formulas of exquisite politeness, indicative of the high degree of culture
+and antiquity of the native race.
+
+If the preceding comparative study of the Chinese and ancient Mexican
+civilizations be briefly summarized, the result is as follows: Both
+civilizations alike rest on a foundation of pole-star worship and the set
+of ideas which naturally proceed from this _i. e._, central impartial
+power extending in constant rotation to the four quarters, figured by the
+swastika, and the recognition of the all-pervading duality of nature.
+These primitive concepts and their inevitable outgrowths, which might
+naturally occur to human beings of the same grade of intellect in similar
+conditions and circumstances and be most powerfully impressed upon the
+mind of man in circumpolar latitudes beside a few resemblances in names,
+which I shall proceed to point out, are nearly all that the Chinese and
+ancient Mexicans may be safely said to have had in common. At a date
+obviously anterior to 2356 B.C., when they were formulated, the Chinese
+had made definitions of heaven and earth and of the five elements which
+radically differ from those of the ancient Mexicans and Mayas.
+
+The Chinese numerical system or calendar, though equally based on
+rotation, and known to have been modified by contact with India, is
+essentially different from the American. When carefully compared it must
+be acknowledged that the Mexican is by far the more complex and highly
+developed, and the same may be said of the social organization, which was
+controlled by the calendar. A comparison between the Chinese and American
+languages in general proves, moreover, that they differ not only in sound,
+but in form and in grade of development, the Chinese being the lower in
+the scale. To the above divergences we must add the fact that each people
+evolved distinct national customs and costumes, foods and drinks,
+industries, arts and forms of architecture, so markedly characteristic as
+to be clearly distinguishable.
+
+In conclusion a few words about the swastika in China (ouan). Its Chinese
+name is wan, which signifies "ten thousand," or "all," also "many," a
+great number. At the time of the Empress Wu (A.D. 684-704) the swastika in
+a circle signified "the sun;" half a swastika in the circle "the moon,"
+and the plain circle "the star." Deferring comment I emphasize here the
+fact that the word wan resembles kwan=equal earth or land, and that it
+signifies an entity composed of ten thousand parts. A proof that the wan
+was also associated with the idea of time is given by the modern use of
+the Chinese swastika to signify "long life," "many years," _i. e._, a
+complete life, a complete cycle of years.
+
+A prolonged study of the most ancient civilization of America, which
+centred in Mexico and Central America and thence spread northward and
+southward, has so deeply convinced me of its great antiquity, isolation
+and prolonged period of independent evolution that, when Asiatic origin
+and influence are discussed, I am tempted to take the national food-plant
+of America, the maize, and, placing it beside the rice-plant of China,
+invite comparisons to be made between them.
+
+JAPAN.
+
+It is a curious fact that, although it is recognized that the junks which
+have been repeatedly driven by storms upon the Pacific coast have
+generally been Japanese, no searching comparison between the culture of
+ancient America and that of Japan has as yet been published; although it
+is believed by many that it may have been to the occupants of the wrecked
+junks that the American race owed its civilization. The curious idea seems
+to prevail among some writers, that purely Chinese influence was conveyed
+by Japanese fishermen and sailors to the dwellers on American soil. It
+does not seem to be sufficiently recognized that the differences between
+Japanese and Chinese civilizations are as great as that between their
+different languages and writings, and that direct influence derived from
+Japan, for many centuries back would have left traces so characteristic as
+to be easily distinguished from the effects of direct influence from
+China.
+
+In the third century of the Christian era the Japanese empire was founded
+on a plan derived from Corea and soon became known to the Chinese and
+dwellers on the main land as Dschi-Poennkwo, or Zipanco, the "land of the
+east, or of the rising sun." The Japanese themselves, however, regarded
+their empire as the "great centre of the world," _i. e._ a "Middle
+Kingdom." The mythical birthplace of the Japanese race and the cradle of
+its civilization is said to have been the island of the Congealed Drop,
+which was formerly at the North Pole, but subsequently removed to its
+present position. How this happened is not told.(88)
+
+The most superficial examination shows that the fundamental scheme of the
+Japanese empire was the same as that of China and other Asiatic countries.
+Its centre was the island Hon-shiu, Hondo or Nippon, on which was situated
+the ancient Fu or capital, named Yedo; the modern Tokio in the vicinity of
+Fusiyama, the sacred mountain and reputed centre of the world. The entire
+land or Han was originally divided into five provinces collectively named
+the Go-kinai (the word go like the Maya ho, signifying five), the
+territorial divisions and presumably consisting of four quarters and the
+capital. Light is thrown upon the extent of this quinary organization by
+the fact that, in ancient Japan, time was divided into five-day periods,
+by official days of rest, which fell on the 1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st,
+and 26th days of each month. The computation of time by cycles, which will
+be treated further in a separate monograph, also prevailed in Japan, as
+might be expected, since this method was a main feature of the definite
+scheme on which the entire empire was founded.
+
+In accord with this plan the population was divided into four classes,
+consisting of the Haimin=the people; the warriors or Samurai, the Kazoku,
+literally the flower of families, the nobility. All members of the
+imperial family formed a fourth caste and above all stood the Emperor, the
+central ruler, the divine descendant of the sun-goddess Amaterasu.
+Evidences that an extension and fresh territorial division of the empire
+took place at one time seem preserved in the ancient Japanese name for
+Japan: Oya-shima=the eight islands. It is likewise related that the
+Japanese creators, Izanajo and Izanami, built, in the centre of the world,
+an octagonal palace around a central pillar, the octagonal form having
+reference to the eight holy corners or points, the "Hak-kaku," or the
+cardinal points and half cardinal points. It is impossible to overlook the
+fact that by a similar method, but by means of four larger and four
+smaller rays, the field of the Mexican calendar star is divided into eight
+equal portions. It is a well-known fact that, in 1854, Japan was
+practically governed by two rulers: the Mikado or Tenno, of divine or
+"heavenly" descent, who led so secluded an existence that he was becoming
+a shadowy and invisible ruler, and the Shogun, the civil governor, who had
+become the terrestrial ruler _par excellence_, and whose power was in the
+ascendant. This state of affairs affords a most interesting object lesson,
+teaching how ancient empires gradually become divided and disintegrated
+under dual government and under the influence of rival cults. The ancient
+state religion or "Imperial worship" of Japan, the Shinto, was becoming as
+obsolete as the worldly power of its high-priest the Mikado, next to the
+growing ascendancy of Buddhism, supported by the Shogunate. The original
+meaning of the Shinto sacred symbols appears to be lost. The mirror,
+placed on the altar, usually constituted the only visible sacred emblem.
+Another was the sword. It is claimed that the swastika came into Japan
+with Buddhism, but this is a point which demands a serious investigation
+of competent specialists. The above data, which are absurdly inadequate to
+the interest and importance of Japan, the seat of the most intellectual
+and progressive culture of Asia, are sufficient to show that in Japan,
+where the swastika is found, the quadruplicate state organization and
+fundamental plan were also carried out. My full purpose will only be
+fulfilled when the present deficient notes shall have stimulated the
+enquiry and research of students and Japanese scholars and led to the
+publication of all traces extant of the most ancient scheme of
+organization, government and calendar, as compared with those of ancient
+America.
+
+As it is maintained that the Chinese and other eastern Asiatic people did
+not originate, but received their civilization from Babylonia, or another
+ancient centre, situated in western Asia, it obviously becomes an
+imperative necessity to carry the present investigation across the Asiatic
+continent into the heart of the Euphratean valley.
+
+INDIA.
+
+Being one of the ancient centres of civilization from which the Chinese
+are said to have derived theirs, India, the country where the swastika
+abounds, first arrests our attention. In support of the assertion I have
+already advanced, that the primitive symbol is always found accompanied by
+a set of ideas almost as ancient as itself, I have pleasure in
+transcribing the following detached but instructive and suggestive
+extracts from my note-book.
+
+The fair Arya or Aryans, after about 2,000 B.C., penetrated India from the
+northwest. Arya means "those who command" or "the venerable." The name
+Hindu or Sindu was given to the Indian Aryans. Our knowledge of Hindu art
+begins in the third century B.C. and none of the present popular forms of
+Hindu religion are presumed to be earlier than the ninth century A.D. "It
+is well known that the Brahman system and faith were not developed by the
+Hindus till they had conquered the Ganges, Western and Southern India and
+there is no trace of this tradition or even of Brahma as a deity in the
+Vedas."...
+
+"The supreme god of antiquity was Indra ... next to and above whom was the
+mysterious god Varuna, the creator, who gave eternal laws which god and
+men were obliged to follow. He showed the stars their paths and gave each
+creature his qualities.... He is the sun by day and the stars at
+night".... From these statements the duality of the creator and his power
+over both light and darkness alike, stand out clearly.
+
+Another form of the supreme being was the sun god Surya, who was also
+named Savitri, the generator, Pushan=the feeder and Mithra=the light-god,
+who is called the watcher and ruler of the world and was associated with
+the wheel, which is termed "the most ancient symbol of divine power and
+dominion."(89)
+
+"In India the wheel was, moreover, connected with the title of a
+chakrayartin (from chakra=a wheel), the title meaning a supreme ruler or
+universal monarch, who ruled the four quarters of the world and on his
+coronation he had to drive his chariot or wheel to the four cardinal
+points to signify his conquest of them" (Wm. Simpson, Quarterly statement
+of Palestine Expl. Fund, 1895, p. 84). It is significant that "Mithra,"
+the god of the wheel, who was, as I shall show later on, likewise
+associated with the serpent, is represented with a chariot pulled by seven
+horses and thus to find the idea of centrifugal power, combined with the
+numeral seven and the conception of central rulership extending to the
+four quarters.
+
+While the above passages afford an interesting insight into the ancient
+significance and symbolism of the chariot, the use of which, with that of
+the throne was, originally, exclusively confined to the central supreme
+ruler, they also furnish a curious parallelism to the Chinese tours of
+inspection performed, by the emperor, to the four provinces in rotation.
+
+The general application of the quadruplicate system is moreover shown by
+the fact that, from time immemorial, the population of India has been
+divided into four great castes, and these are associated with distinctive
+colors, the Sanscrit word for color, _varna_, signifying also caste.
+According to the native myth, Brahma created the Brahmin or ruling caste
+from his mouth, the warrior caste from his arms and hands, the merchant
+and agricultural caste from his hips and the artisan or lowest caste from
+the soles of his feet. The warrior caste was named Kschatria; the people
+the yellow, or Vaicya; the original, conquered inhabitants of India were
+named the black, or Sudra. The Brahman caste was above all these.
+
+Concerning the origin of the Brahmans, it is related that "Manu was
+created ... he, in turn created ten great sages, the ancestors of the
+Brahmans. These created _seven_ other Manus or spiritual princes, the
+preservers of moral orders in the world" (Goodyear). Pointing out that the
+seven Manus evidently constituted a septarchy, let us now study the
+Brahmanistic conception of a supreme divinity. From various authorities we
+learn that, in later times "the Brahmans invented a new god, the
+impersonal Brahma, who only appears in the youngest portion of the Vedas."
+He is described as "the supreme One who alone exists really and
+absolutely," and is represented with four heads and four arms, the idea of
+four-fold power and rule being thus expressed. The proof that, at the same
+time, the idea of duality existed, is furnished by the invention of a
+female counterpart of Brahma, namely, his consort Sarawati and the later
+development of the rival religions which now exist side by side and divide
+the population of India into halves. The cult of Vishnu, associated with
+the male principle, though curiously blended with the principle of
+preservation, is obviously a parallel form of the American and Chinese
+cult of the Above or Heaven; while that of Siva, or the female principle,
+strongly mingled with the idea of destruction, forms a parallel to the
+cult of the Earth-mother and of darkness and the nocturnal heaven. Brahma
+was born of an egg and is also figured as springing from a lotus which, in
+turn rises from the navel of Vishnu or Narayana, "the Spirit moving on the
+waters."...(90)
+
+In modern Buddhism the identical fundamental ideas continue to exist in a
+slightly different form; the six directions in space are known and
+elaborately worshipped. The embodiment of central power is Buddha, seated
+cross-legged on a lotus flower. According to Birdwood, cited by Mr.
+Goodyear, "In the Hindu cosmogony the world is likened to a lotus flower,
+floating in the centre of a shallow circular vessel, which has for its
+stalk an elephant and for its pedestal a tortoise. The seven petals of the
+lotus flower represent the seven divisions of the world as known to the
+ancient Hindus and the tabular torus (_Nelumbium speciosum_) which rises
+from their centre represents Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus."
+
+In the statues of Buddha, thus associated with the centre of the world, we
+have what may be termed the highest development of the idea of stability,
+quietude and absolute repose which impressed itself upon the human mind by
+the observation of Polaris. The abstract conception of Nirvana, "the state
+in which all individuality and consciousness are lost, and life and death,
+good and evil, and every other possible antithesis disappear in absolute
+unity," appears to me to be the natural ultimate outgrowth of the
+primitive appreciation of stability and repose as the most desirable of
+conditions.
+
+An ancient American priest-astronomer, imbued with the native ideas, would
+doubtlessly see in the modern figures of Buddha a more perfect artistic
+rendition of the same conception which was expressed in the Copan
+swastika. He might remark that, in the statues of Buddha, the human form
+is intended to convey the idea of quadruple organization and that in
+certain images the primitive symbols of the centre, "the belly and navel,"
+are obviously emphasized. In the fakirs, who cultivate immobility, he
+might see people who are under the absolute dominion of the ideal of
+stability and detect the origin of this suggestion from the fact that the
+swastika position of either arms or legs is a favorite one among Hindoo
+fanatics, just as, out of devotion, many persons have swastikas painted or
+tattooed upon their limbs.
+
+It is interesting to note the peculiar result attained by the Buddhists in
+their development of the twin idea of permanence, _i. e._ immutability or
+immortality, as shown in the following quotation: "There is a remarkable
+distinction between the Buddhism of China and of Tibet. In regard to
+philosophy there is little or no difference, but in Tibet there is a
+hierarchy which exercises political power. In China this could not be. The
+Grand Lama and many other lamas in Mongolia and Tibet assume the title of
+'Living Buddha.' In him, most of all, Buddha is incarnate, as the people
+are taught to think. He never dies. When the body, in which Buddha is for
+the time incarnate, ceases to perform its functions, some infant is chosen
+by the priests, who are intrusted with the duty of selecting, to become
+the residence of Buddha until, in turn, it grows up to manhood and dies.
+No Buddhist priest in China pretends to be a 'living Buddha' or to have a
+right to the exercise of political power. In Tibet, on the other hand, the
+Grand Lama, as chief of the 'living Buddhas,' not only holds the place of
+the historical Buddha long since dead, acting as a sort of high-priest,
+but he also exercises sovereignty over the country of Tibet ruling the
+laity as well as the clergy and being only subordinate to the lord
+paramount, the Emperor of China" (Edkins, Religion in China, p. 8).
+
+"The form of the Buddhist temples exemplifies in a striking manner the
+relative positions of Buddha and the gods. Four kings of the gods are
+represented in the vestibule. Their office is to guard the door by which
+entrance is obtained to the presence of Buddha.... The central position is
+that of Buddha, who is seated on the lotus flower in the attitude of a
+teacher...." (Edkins). In this attitude an ancient American high-priest
+would see the graphic representation of one of the titles of the star-god
+Polaris, "the teacher of the world."
+
+The association of Buddha with the north and with the number seven is
+curiously shown in the mythical account that "when Buddha was born a lotus
+blossomed where he touched the ground; he stepped seven steps northward
+and a lotus marked each footfall."
+
+Distinct evidence of the ancient cult of Polaris is yielded by the Hindu
+marriage custom, which I have found described thus in Meyer's
+conversations Lexikon: "In the evening the bride and bridegroom seat
+themselves on the hide of a red ox, after making the usual offerings....
+Then the bridegroom points out the pole-star to the bride and says: 'the
+heaven is firm, also the earth; the universe is stedfast, so mayest thou
+be stedfast in our family'...." The symbolism of the act of sharing the
+ox-hide as a seat becomes apparent when it is realized that the name for
+cow or ox=go, also signifies possessions and riches, a conception which is
+traceable to a period when cattle constituted the chief and most valued
+possession of pastoral tribes. The veneration accorded in India to the cow
+is well known and travellers have frequently described the sacred statue
+of a cow, which is seven feet in height and stands next to the sacred well
+of the temple at Benares.
+
+In connection with the reference to the pole-star made by the Hindu
+bridegroom, it is noteworthy that the Sanscrit for star is stri, tara, for
+stara; Hindu sitara, tara and Bengal stara and that variants of the same
+word constitute the name for star in Latin, Greek, Gothic, Old and Anglo
+Saxon, Welsh, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Basque, in which language it
+appears as izarra, recalling the Hindu sitara and, if I may venture to say
+so, the Nahuatl word for star, citlallin.
+
+The supreme veneration and importance accorded in India to the North, from
+time immemorial, are shown by passages of the book of Manu, which
+prescribe the severe penances which were to be performed by the Brahmans
+who attained advanced age. He "is to inflict all sorts of tortures upon
+himself and when he falls ill in consequence, he is to set out to walk to
+the northwest, towards the holy mountain Meru, until his mortal frame
+breaks down and he unites himself with Brahma." It is likewise stated that
+when a Brahman king grew old and ill he was obliged to abdicate in favor
+of his son and voluntarily seek death in battle or by starvation, whilst
+wandering towards the holy mountain Meru, in the northwest. I point out
+the curious parallelism of this custom, which was carried out during
+countless centuries and determined a periodical migration towards the
+northwest of venerable sages, presumably accompanied by faithful
+followers, and the search for the stable centre of the world which caused
+the wanderings of American tribes under their chiefs.
+
+According to various encyclopaedias and general works of reference, Brahma
+is said to have made the world in two parts, _i. e._, heaven and earth;
+placed air between both and made the eight regions, fire and the eternal
+waters. The mythical mountain Meru, on the summit of which the supreme
+power is said to be enthroned in eternal majesty, is the traditional
+paradise and is supposed to lie somewhere in the northwest of the
+Himalayas. It is situated in the centre of the seven zones in which the
+earth is divided, thence its name Meru=the Middle. The association of the
+central mountain with divinity and eternal stability is further shown by
+the statement that the sun, moon and stars circled about it and that it
+supported the heaven.
+
+As the natural complement to the above, I can cite the following evidences
+of an all-pervading quadruplicate division and organization, as set forth
+in an ancient manuscript which was brought from India by Count Angelo de
+Gubernatis and exhibited in Florence in 1898, by Mr. Pulle, in an
+extremely instructive series of native maps of India: 1. In the oldest
+maps, the empire of India was represented as a disk, divided into a number
+of concentric zones, in the centre of which arose the sacred mountain. 2.
+These representations were, in several cases, accompanied by
+representations of the swastika obviously representing quadruplicate
+territorial division.
+
+On Mount Meru itself there were four lakes respectively filled with milk,
+butter, coagulated milk and sugar. Four great rivers flowed from the
+mountain towards the cardinal points, namely, the Ganges, issuing from the
+mouth of a cow, the Sita from the head of the elephant; the Bhadra from a
+tiger or lion and the Chaksu from a horse. According to Buddhistic
+mythology, the sacred mountain Meru, which constitutes the centre of the
+world, is guarded by four hero "kings of demons." Their names are as
+follows: 1. Kubera or Vaisranana, the god of wealth, who lives in the
+north, whose attributes are the lance and banner, the rat which throws
+forth jewels from its mouth. 2. Virudhaka, who rules the south, and whose
+attributes are the helmet in the form of an elephant's head, and a long
+sword. 3. Virupaksha, the guardian of the west: attributes, the jewel and
+the serpent. 4 Dhrtarashtra, the ruler of the east: attribute, the
+mandoline.
+
+An interesting parallelism is brought out by a comparison between the
+ancient Mexican mode of producing the sacred fire by means of a reed and a
+piece of wood and its symbolism of the mystic union of the two principles
+of nature, to the origin of fire as told in the Veda and the ceremonial
+mode employed in India to produce the sacred fire by means of the mystic
+arani and the pramantha. The difference between the ancient American and
+Indian apparatus should be noticed. The two arani, made of the wood of
+_Ficus religiosa_, were placed crosswise. "At their junction was a
+fossette or cup-like hole and there they placed a piece of wood upright,
+in the form of a lance (the pramantha), violent rotation of which by means
+of whipping, produced fire, as did Prometheus, the bearer of fire in
+Greece" (Bournouf, Des Sciences et Religions and Prof. Thomas Wilson, The
+Swastika, p. 777). A remarkable relation unquestionably exists between the
+two mystic arani, which, crossed, form a four-branched cross from the
+centre of which fire is produced by rotation and the almost universal
+identification of Polaris and Ursa Major, as the central source of life,
+power extending to four directions, rotation and duality underlying
+quadruplicity. In my opinion no more graphic presentation of the rotation
+of Ursa Major around Polaris, the central ruler of heaven, could have been
+devised than the cross figure from the centre of which fire was
+perpetually obtained.
+
+It is all the more significant, therefore, to find it stated that the
+ancient Aryan light-god, Mithra, was worshipped under the form of fire. I
+point out that, in a representation published by Layard in his Culte de
+Mithra and reproduced here (fig. 72, 1) from Mr. Goodyear's work, a man
+and a woman are represented as worshipping a star, the scene so strongly
+recalling the portion of the Hindu marriage ceremony where the pole-star
+is pointed out, that an identity of scene suggests itself. Returning to
+the swastika: its meaning in India appears to be forgotten; but, according
+to Professor Thomas Wilson, a follower of the Jain religion expressed the
+opinion that "the original idea was very high, but later on some persons
+thought the swastika represented only the combination of the male and
+female principles" (Thomas Wilson, On the Swastika, p. 803).
+
+To the Hindu, holding this view and also accustomed to associate the
+pole-star with the marriage rite, there must exist a curious band of union
+and identity between Polaris and the swastika, both connected with the
+combination of the male and female principles.
+
+To treat of the Hindu calendar and division of time would be to transgress
+beyond the limits of the present investigation which has already assumed
+unforeseen dimensions. As I shall discuss it in detail in my monograph on
+the ancient Mexican Calendar system, it will suffice to recall here that
+Humboldt pointed out the resemblance between the latter and the Hindu
+system, and that this has been further dwelt upon for instance in the
+article on the subject in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. In the same work of
+reference it is also stated that, "according to the conclusions of
+Delambre, the Hindoo knowledge of astronomy was greatly inferior to that
+of the Greeks, and it has been argued by Laplace, in opposition to the
+previous opinions of Bailly, that the Indian astronomy is not of the
+highest antiquity, but must have been imperfectly borrowed from the
+Greeks." I may as well state here, however, that, in India as in Mexico,
+the divisions of time were in accordance with the general scheme, and
+enabled human activity and labor to be controlled and carried out by means
+of rotation, and with strict impartial law, order and harmony.
+
+Pausing here and with a clear realization of probable omissions and
+deficiencies of material, I venture to believe that the foregoing data
+suffice to establish beyond a doubt the point which is the main object of
+the present essay, namely, that in India the swastika is found accompanied
+by the primordial set of ideas which also form the basis of the Chinese
+and ancient American civilizations. The Middle is, moreover, associated in
+India with the idea of immovability, repose and centrifugal power and
+rule, incorporated in the supreme divinity whose symbol is the wheel and
+who is represented as dual and quadruple in nature, _i. e._ with four
+hands (as two persons), and with four heads (four persons), the six
+persons thus symbolized being united in the person of the seventh, the
+synopsis of them all. The seven-day period; the seven zones of the earth;
+the seven divine footsteps towards the north; the seven councillors of the
+Brahmin king, etc., all prove that, whereas six directions in space were
+worshipped in India, they were inseparable from the sacred seventh which
+united all of them. The mythical sacred mountain Meru, the throne of the
+supreme eternal power, constituted the fixed centre of the world and
+strikingly exemplified quadruplicate division and organization, being
+associated with four lakes and four rivers; four mythical animals and four
+guardians. In consonance with this plan Brahma was endowed with four heads
+and four hands; the empire was divided into four quarters and seven zones,
+and the population into four castes identified with four colors, and
+governed by a king and seven councillors. The wheel, associated in the
+case of Mithra with the serpent, constituted the emblem of supreme
+dominion and rule which was connected with the idea of an extension to the
+four quarters. The swastika was but another expression of the same idea
+and represented also an image of the universal scheme. This sign and the
+pole-star were both associated, in the native mind, with the
+life-producing union of the male and female principles of nature and the
+sacred element fire, under which form the supreme god was anciently
+worshipped. The lotus flower symbolized the universe, its unity and
+complexity; the number of petals represented usually agreeing with the
+number of the cosmical divisions. Two points should further be briefly
+referred to: The division of time into seven-day periods coincides with
+the septenary scheme of organization resting upon the seven directions in
+space. The sacred soma tree, the hom, was an object of cult in India. The
+custom of planting a Bodhi tree wherever Buddhist missionaries established
+their doctrine indicates its association with the idea of an established
+centre. The employment of wooden sticks for the production of the sacred
+fire under which form the supreme central god was anciently worshipped,
+also connected wood and the tree with the sacred Centre. Deferring a
+discussion of the different and yet analogous way in which the fundamental
+set of ideas was worked out in America and India, I shall but mention here
+how clearly, in each case, the ultimate results can be traced back to a
+common primitive and natural origin.
+
+MESOPOTAMIA.
+
+Let us now carry our research into that region whence civilization spread
+through western Asia, and is said to have been carried to Egypt, Greece
+and Rome. It may be a surprise to many to learn that, at the present day,
+on the banks of the Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, pure and
+simple, is openly professed by the Mandaites who are reputed to be the
+descendants of the famous Magi of ancient Chaldea, and are termed Sabba or
+Sabans by the Moslems. It will be seen that these star-watchers have
+preserved intact an extremely ancient form of the archaic cult which
+contains the living germ of all primitive religions and represents an
+evolutionary stage which they must all have undergone.
+
+It is to the kindness of a friend that I owe the knowledge of an article
+on a Mandaite New Year festival which appeared in the "Standard" some
+years ago and which I reproduce in full as Appendix II. As might be
+expected, the Euphratean star-gazers, like the Chinese, determined
+midnight by the position of the Great Bear. It is interesting to find,
+moreover, that the spiritual head of the sect is entitled Gan-zivro, and
+is closely escorted by four young deacons, named sh-kan-dos, as well as by
+four priests=tarmidos, and four sub-deacons. The circumstance that the
+consecrated group of officiants consists of 12+1=13 individuals is
+particularly suggestive. Not less so are the employment of the tau-shaped
+cross and the sacrifice of a quadruped to the lord of the underworld and
+his companion (the lord of the upper world?). The ceremonial immersion in
+the starlit river is a curious parallel to the midnight bathing in the
+sacred pool attached to the ancient Mexican temple.
+
+The formulas employed in addressing the pole-star deserve special
+consideration. In the designation of the stable centre of heaven as "the
+abode of the pious hereafter and the paradise of the elect," the natural
+longings of the human race for stability, _i. e._ safety and repose, find
+an expression and in this we can detect the germ of thought whose extreme
+development, in India, produced the comparatively philosophical doctrine
+of Nirvana. The title of "Primitive Sun" enlightens us as to the original
+use of the word sun and the supreme importance accorded by the ancient
+star-gazers to the "Imperial ruler of heaven," as the Chinese term the
+pole-star. This application of the word sun will be found particularly
+interesting to those who, having found the swastika termed a "sun-symbol,"
+have naturally been led to associate it with the diurnal sun, although
+they found it difficult to understand its connection with the rotatory
+motion so clearly discernible in the form of the primitive symbol.
+
+Having ascertained that the Mandaite pole-star worship of the present day
+embodies the cult of the sacred centre and of dual principles (one of
+which is designated as the lord of the underworld) and is associated with
+quadruple organization and a form of cross, let us now make a great stride
+backwards and note some details concerning ancient Sabaean star-worship.
+
+ARABIA.
+
+In remote antiquity, star-worship prevailed throughout Arabia and one of
+its great centres was the flourishing land of Saba or Sheba, whose queen
+visited Solomon at Jerusalem. The star-cult of the Sabaeans is acknowledged
+to have resembled that of the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Mesopotamia,
+Persia and India. We are told that a certain sect amongst them "believed
+in a great cycle of time in which certain epochs of the world's history
+recurred"--an idea akin to ancient Mexican speculative philosophy. It is
+also stated that one of the chief centres of Sabaeism was the town of
+Harran in Mesopotamia and that, although surrounded by Christianity, this
+ancient form of star-worship maintained itself here until the Middle Ages.
+The possibility that the Mandaites of to-day may be the descendants of the
+ancient inhabitants of Harran is naturally suggested by this historical
+fact. A curious detail concerning monarchical succession in Sheba has been
+preserved to us. The king was kept in an enforced seclusion in his palace
+and incurred the penalty of death if he left it. His office was not
+hereditary but fell to the first son who was born amongst the nobility,
+after a king's accession to the throne. In this custom, a curious parallel
+of which is furnished by the Thibetan mode of electing the "living
+Buddha," some readers may be inclined to find an explanation for the
+massacre of the babes ordered by Herod when he learned that the wise men
+of the East, guided by a star, had designated "a young child" as the
+future "King of the Jews." It is an interesting reflection that, to many
+of his contemporaries, the establishment of the "Kingdom of Heaven,"
+announced by the Messiah, may have appeared as a movement to revive the
+most ancient form of government and to reinstate Jerusalem as the central
+metropolis of an empire, the organization of which would have resembled
+the Chinese and ancient American forms of "Middle Kingdoms," or "Celestial
+Empires."
+
+The ideal of many of these descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers
+may well have been the reversion to the primitive, pure type of single
+central, celestial and terrestrial rule which had been superseded in
+western Asia by the pernicious growth of the utterly abasing and
+demoralizing separate cults of the dual principles of nature.
+
+A curious remnant of the worship of the Earth-mother and of the stable
+centre of the world, recalling ancient American symbolism, exists in
+Arabia and merits a passing notice. "The great holy place of Jiddah, the
+principal landing place of the pilgrims to Mecca, on the eastern coast of
+the Red sea, is the singular tomb of 'our mother Eve' surrounded by the
+principal cemetery. The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the
+dimensions of the body about 200 paces long and 15 feet wide. At the head
+is a small erection where gifts are deposited and rather more than half
+way down a whitewashed dome encloses a small, dark chapel, within which is
+the black stone known as el-surrah=the navel. The grave of Eve is
+mentioned by Edrisi but, except the black stone, nothing bears any aspect
+of antiquity" (Encycl. Brit., article Jiddah).
+
+The fact that the Arabian appellation for Mecca is om-el-kora="the mother
+of cities" deserves special attention. Exactly in the centre of the city
+is the mosque enclosing the kaaba, a structure the only door of which
+opens to the north. It contains the celebrated black sacred stone and a
+trough, reputed to be of pure gold, which conducts freshly fallen rain
+water to the interior of the building and pours it upon its floor of dark
+earth. The following details are given in a recently published account by
+an anonymous visitor:
+
+"The Moslems believe that the original Kaaba was built in heaven two
+thousand years before the creation of the world and that, at the command
+of the Almighty, angels walked around it in adoration. Furthermore, they
+said that Adam built the first Kaaba on earth on its present site,
+directly under the one in heaven.... Long before the time of Mahomet, the
+Kaaba was a place of worship for the idolatrous Arabs and in it they had
+no less than 360 idols, one for each day of the Arabian year. These were
+destroyed by Mahomet...." Beside the pilgrimages to the Kaaba pious
+Mussulmans also visit the sacred granite mountains the "Arafat where Adam
+is supposed to have met Eve after a long separation."
+
+Summarized, the preceding facts clearly show that, from a remote
+antiquity, the Arabians have preserved the conception of (1) a divine,
+celestial, stable sanctuary around which "angels" walked in a circle. (2)
+A terrestrial sanctuary built by man directly beneath the heavenly one and
+associated with the period of a year, _i. e._ 360 days. (3) In the sacred
+terrestrial kaaba the mystic union of rain and earth is made to take
+place, while (4) Mount Arafat is connected with the traditional reunion of
+Adam and Eve.
+
+It is unnecessary to point out the significant association of an annual
+count of days with the stable centre and its importance as an indication
+that the ancient Arabian star-gazers originally associated the year period
+with circumpolar rotation. The analogy between the Arabian ideas
+concerning the dual principles of nature and those of other nations is
+also too marked to be easily overlooked.
+
+Nor need I emphasize how strikingly the imagery of the celestial kaaba
+suits Polaris and the circumpolar constellations. But I shall now proceed
+to point out that the word kaaba itself curiously resembles star-names
+which are given by Mr. Robert Brown in his recent valuable publication to
+which I shall revert, namely, the Akkadian name for constellation in
+general=kakkab and the Babylonian and Assyrian name for the
+pole-star=Kakkabu. In this connection and upon Professor Sayce's authority
+I cite the significant fact that the word for north and for the empire and
+capital of northern Babylonia was Akkad, and that we thus find in North
+Babylonia a great centre of government the name of which contains the
+syllables ak-ka which recur in the appellations for north and for Polaris.
+
+The following star-names, given by Mr. Robert Brown, are of utmost
+interest considering that a star in Draconis was the pole-star of 2170
+B.C. and that in general the serpent was indissolubly connected with the
+pole-star. "The constellation Drakon is Phoenician=Kanaanite in origin and
+represented primarily the nakkasch qodmun (old serpent)=the guardian of
+the stars (golden apples) which hang from the pole tree. It is called the
+crooked serpent=nakkasch in Job XXVI:13 ..." (_op. cit._, p. 29). I
+further cite Mr. Brown's authority for the fact that in Phoenicia A.D.,
+1200, the name for Ursa Major was Dubkabir and for Ursa Minor, Dub.
+
+Before returning to the Euphratean valley let us note some facts
+concerning the ancient religion of
+
+PERSIA.
+
+The swastika is found in Persia as well as a sacred mountain, the Elburl.
+The supreme divinity was the invisible Ahuramazda, the "creator of heaven
+and earth," who was associated with "eternal light" and appears to be
+identical with the ancient Aryan god of light, Mithra, the watcher and
+ruler of the world, who was worshipped under the form of fire.
+
+Mithra and Ahuramazda alike are associated with six spirits named the
+Amesha-zpenta, who are said, in the first case, to be personifications of
+the sun, moon, fire, earth, water and air, and in the second, of certain
+qualities of the supreme power, namely, law, power, goodness, piety,
+health and immortality, abstract conceptions which evidently pertain to a
+more advanced intellectual stage. The septarchy thus formed by Mithra and
+his Amesha appears to assign the Middle to him and to associate the sun
+with the day, heaven, light and the Above, the moon with the night and
+darkness and the Below, and the elements with the Four Quarters. It is
+suggestive of four-fold rule and power to find, on a bas-relief found at
+the ancient holy city Pasargada, the Persian king Cyrus represented with
+four wings and a diadem with two uraeus serpents like that of Egyptian
+kings.
+
+The most ancient Persian monarch is said to have been Haha-manis or
+Akhamanis, who was termed "the king of Anshan." Subsequent kings bore the
+title of Hakhamanisija, as for instance, Cyrus and Darius I (520-486
+B.C.). At the present day, the title Charkan is that employed to designate
+the Shah, whereas goda or khoda signifies lord, master, prince or ruler.
+
+In a bas-relief published by Spamer, whose work of reference will be
+referred to again later on, Darius is represented as standing under the
+image of Ahuramazda, the supreme deity, who, like the Assyrian god Assur,
+is figured as a king wearing the royal cap, and issuing from the centre of
+a winged ring or circlet. In Persia the god holds another ring in his hand
+(fig. 71, 1). It seems impossible to emphasize more strongly or express
+more clearly the idea that Ahuramazda was the lord of the circle and of
+the Above, the wings being emblematic of air or heaven and of motion.
+
+The signification of the symbolical representation of the supreme power
+and the adoption of fire by the founders of the ancient Parsee religion as
+the most appropriate image of their highest god, become clear when
+interpreted as the outcome of pole-star worship. Resisting the temptation
+to prolong the study of ancient Persia, let us now hasten to the reputed
+cradle of the civilization of Western Asia.
+
+BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.
+
+"The Babylonians were from the first a nation of star gazers.... The
+cuneiform character which denotes a god is the picture of a star" (Sayce
+_op. cit._). "The Babylonian and Assyrian-name for Ursa Minor was Kakkabu;
+the Hebrew, Kokhabh; and the Euphratean, Kochab, which means, '_the_ star
+_present_,' a title which reminds us of its former supreme importance as
+the pole-star.... In various Babylonian tablets we meet a star-god called
+Imina-bi=the seven-fold one."(91) Although Mr. Brown has reached no
+definite conclusion as to the identity of this star-god, I venture to
+maintain that the original "seven-fold one" could have been no other than
+Ursa Major and that this and "the ever-present star" are identical with
+what the Chinese termed "the Imperial Ruler of Heaven" and the "Seven
+Regulators." The following passages furnish ample evidence of the
+suggestive influence that "the seven-fold one" exerted upon the minds of
+the ancient Babylonian star-gazers.
+
+"The institution of the sabbath went back to the Sumerian days of
+Chaldea--the name itself is Babylonian" (Sayce, _op. cit._). "The seventh
+month (=Sept.-Oct.) in Akkadian is named Tul-ku=the holy altar.... The
+seventh month of Tasritutisri was also connected with the building of the
+tower of Babel, said to have been the special work of the 'King of the
+Holy Mound,' Sar-tuli-elli, and its erection placed in the seventh month
+at the autumnal equinox. It was a zikkuratu with seven steps, a
+circumstance connected with planetary [? stellar] symbolism. This style of
+building is reduplicated in the oldest Egyptian pyramids, _e. g._ the
+pyramid of Sakkarah, which had seven steps like the Babylonian towers.
+This circumstance, one amongst many such, supplies a most interesting
+illustration of the fact that the Egyptian civilization was mainly
+Euphratean in origin" (Robert Brown, _op. cit._).
+
+The following facts contained in Prof. Morris Jastrow's admirable hand
+book on the "Religion of Babylonia and Assyria," further establish the
+pervading influence of the number seven. "The two most famous zikkurats of
+seven stages were those in Babylon and Borsippa, opposite Babylon. The
+latter bears the significant name E-ur-imin-an-ki, _i. e._, 'the house of
+seven divisions of heaven and earth.' Two much older towers than those of
+Babylon and Borsippa bear names in which 'seven' is introduced. One of
+these is the zikkurat to Nin-girsu at Lagash, which Gudea describes as
+'the house of seven divisions of the world,' the other the tower at Uruk,
+which bore the name 'house of seven zones.' The reference in both cases
+is, as Jensen has shown, to the seven concentric zones into which the
+earth was divided by the Babylonians."
+
+In a standard German book of reference (Spamer's Illustrierte
+Weltgeschichte I Theil, Alterthum, I Theil, s. 371), I find the statement
+that the zikkurat of the temple I-zidda at Borsippa, was called "the
+temple of the seven lights of heaven and earth," which seem to have been
+symbolized also by the seven-branched candlestick of the Hebrews.
+Considering that other sacred symbols which were employed in Solomon's
+temple are believed by Professor Jastrow to be "imitations of Babylonian
+models," it seems justifiable to endeavor to trace to the same source the
+origin of the Hebrew "seven-branched candlestick," to which I shall revert
+later on. Prof. Morris Jastrow offers the suggestion that the name "seven
+directions of heaven and earth" may point to a conception of seven zones
+dividing the heavens as well as the earth, and states that the "seven
+divisions" and "seven zones" are merely terms equivalent to universe. He
+explains that the seven directions were interpreted by the Babylonian
+theologians as a reference to the seven great celestial bodies, the sun
+and moon, Ishtar, Marduk, Ninib, Nergal and Nabu. To each of these one
+story was supposed to be dedicated and the tower thus became a
+cosmological symbol. Moreover, from Herodotus' description of the seven
+concentric walls of Ecbatana, in which each wall was distinguished by a
+certain color, the conclusion has been drawn that the same colors--white,
+black, scarlet, blue, orange, silver and gold--were employed by the
+Babylonians for the stages of their towers.
+
+Professor Jastrow draws attention to the fact that the division of the
+earth into seven zones is a "conception that we encounter in India and
+Persia, and that survives in the seven 'climates' into which the world was
+divided by Greek and Arabic geographers. It seems clear that this
+interpretation of the number seven is older than the one that identified
+each story with one of the planets. Both interpretations have a scholastic
+aspect, however, and the very fact that there are two interpretations
+justifies the suspicion that neither furnishes the _real_ explanation why
+the number seven was chosen ... it is because seven was popularly sacred
+that the world was divided into seven zones and that the planets were
+fixed at seven, not _vice versa_" (p. 620).
+
+The preceding statements lead to the conclusion that, among Assyriologists
+there is no current, generally-accepted view as to the origin of the
+"sacred seven" of the Babylonians. The following details concerning the
+zikkurat and the sanctuaries of Babylon will be found to furnish evidence
+that their builders were imbued with the identical primitive set of ideas
+or seven-fold division of the cosmos that is now so familiar to the reader
+and is traceable to the observation of Polaris and Septentriones.
+
+The astronomical association and cosmological symbolism of the zikkurat
+become more and more evident when all evidence concerning it is carefully
+sifted. According to the cosmogony of the Babylonians the earth was
+pictured as a huge mountain. Khar-sag-gal-kurkura=the mountain of all
+lands, is a designation for the earth. E-kur=mountain house, another name
+for the earth, became one of the names for temple and, by extension, for
+the sacred precinct which enclosed the zikkurat and sacred edifices.(92)
+
+A plural formed of the word E-kur,=Ekurrati, was used for divinities, and
+this association of the word mountain with the name for a god is
+particularly interesting when it is also remembered that the cuneiform
+character for god is a star and that therefore either a mountain, or a
+star, signified a god in Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions. Bel, the
+supreme star god of the Babylonians, whose name literally signifies merely
+"lord or king," and under the form Ah-baal became current throughout Asia
+Minor, was, as Professor Jastrow states (_op. cit._ p. 435), actually
+identified with the polar star, and sometimes addressed as the "great
+mountain."(93)
+
+The famous temple, the E-kur of Babylonian history, is described by
+Herodotus, Strabo and other pagan authorities, as consisting of seven
+stories and being surmounted by a sanctuary which was under the charge of
+a virgin priestess and contained a couch (resting-place) for the god.(94)
+It is amply demonstrated, moreover, that the central zikkurat was regarded
+as the permanent resting and dwelling place of _the_ lord or god, par
+excellence, and in this connection it is significant that among the names
+of sanctuaries enumerated by Professor Jastrow there occur such as "the
+true or fixed house," the house of the established seat, the sacred
+dwelling, the permanent dwelling, etc.
+
+The Babylonian ideas connected with the supreme god and his temple are,
+moreover, sufficiently apparent in the prayers to Marduk, from which I
+extract the following detached passages: "Marduk, king of heaven and
+earth.... Look favorably upon the city, _O lord of rest_!... May the gods
+of heaven and earth speak to thee _O lord of rest_!... A resting-place for
+the lord of E-sagila is thy house, E-sagila, the house of thy sovereignty,
+is thy house...."
+
+The sanctuary surmounting the zikkurat, is also termed "the high place par
+excellence, or the lofty house, the high edifice, the tower of the great
+dwelling, the great palace, the house of the glorious mountain [or god]
+the house of him who gives the sceptre of the world; also the house of
+light, the house of great splendor, the house without rival, the gate of
+widespread splendor, the light of Shamash, the heart of Shamash, the life
+of the world."
+
+The idea that the "mountain house" or "high place" was the consecrated
+centre where the union of heaven and earth took place, is apparent from
+the following names: "the house of heavenly construction, the heavenly
+house, the house reaching to heaven, the point of heaven and earth, the
+link of heaven and earth, the foundation stone of heaven and earth."
+
+"Complementing," as Professor Jastrow says, "the cosmological associations
+that have been noted in connection with the zikkurat," we find the inner
+room or sanctuary of the Babylonian and Assyrian temple named Papakhu,
+from the verb pakhu=to close. It was also known as the parakhu, from
+paraku=to shut off, to lock. "Gudea describes the papakhu as 'the dark
+chamber.' Professor Jastrow states that it was regarded as an imitation of
+a cosmical 'sacred chamber,' and from his book we learn that it was
+employed as an assembly room, or council chamber by the priesthood. It was
+indeed termed 'the assembly room' the 'place of fates,' 'the court of the
+world,' 'the house of oracle,' also as the 'sacred room where the gods
+assembled in solemn council' and 'the chamber of fates' where the chief
+god sits on New Year's day and decides the fate of mankind for the ensuing
+year" (Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 423).
+
+The Babylonian and Assyrian kings were the living representatives of the
+chief god and Professor Jastrow states that "it was into the papakhu that
+the priests retired when they desired to obtain an oracle direct from the
+god.... It is particularly interesting to collate the statements 'that the
+New Year's day was the occasion of a symbolical marriage between a god and
+goddess,' and that 'the New Year's festival came to be the season most
+appropriate for approaching the oracular chamber.' " It thus appears that
+the papakhu was the sacred and secret chamber where the ancient kings and
+their councillors united to confer upon the government of the nation and
+decreed the irrevocable laws which decided the fate of individuals.
+
+"The 'decision of fates' is, in Babylonian theology, one of the chief
+functions of the gods. It constitutes the mainspring of their power. To
+decide fates is to control the arrangement of the universe--to establish
+order." The "tablets of fate" are repeatedly mentioned in the Assyrian
+epics where it is described how one god addressing another, "gives him the
+tablets of fate, hangs them on his breast and dismisses him," with the
+words: "thy command be invincible, thy order authoritative" (Jastrow, pp.
+420 and 424). It is evident that these words were supposed to convey the
+power to establish order and issue irrevocable laws.
+
+The temple of Shamash (who, like Marduk, was evidently identical with
+Bel), situated in Babylon, was termed "the house of the universal judge,"
+and it is extremely interesting to find this "god"(95) represented on a
+stone tablet found at Sippar, as seated on a low throne in the sanctuary
+or papakkhu, of the temple El-bab-bara, while in front of him on an altar
+rests what Professor Jastrow describes as "a wheel with radiant spokes."
+
+A fine illustration of this tablet which bears an inscription by the king
+Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.) being published in Spamer's standard work
+already cited, I have been able to note the interesting fact that the
+"wheel with radiant spokes" exhibits four pointed rays, directed outwards
+and forming a cruciform figure, which, by the way, it is interesting to
+compare with the Mexican Calendar stone and its four rays. Each of the
+spaces between these pointed rays is filled by a group of wavy lines which
+appears to simulate some fluid flowing from the centre, which is formed by
+a series of concentric circles. The quadruplicate peculiar partition of
+the disk assumes special importance when it is realized that, in the niche
+above the head of Shamash, a miniature production of the _disk recurs
+between the familiar conventional images of the moon and a disk containing
+eight rays or spokes_. According to Dr. Felix von Luschan (Mitth. aus der
+vorderasiat. Abth. der Kgl. Museen, Heft XI, p. 24), the inscription opens
+with the invocation to "ilu Sin, ilu Shamash u ilu Ishtar," a fact of
+double interest, because Ishtar is termed the "twin-sister of Shamash" in
+an Assyrian hymn, and because the inscription obviously identifies the
+moon as the symbol of Sin, the four-spoked wheel as that of Shamash and
+the eight-spoked wheel as that of Ishtar. As the king, in his inscriptions
+expressly states that he has restored on the tablet the image of Shamash
+according to an ancient model, for the guidance of future artists, it is
+evident that departures from the original cult of Shamash had taken place
+in his time and that he was making an attempt to reestablish it. The
+extreme antiquity of the cult of Shamash may, indeed, be inferred from the
+fact that about B.C. 1850, the king, Shamsi-ramann, bore the god's name as
+a divine title. About B.C. 1350, moreover, a temple was built to Shamash
+in Ashur.
+
+I shall treat, further on, of the evidences showing that the cult of
+Polaris gradually became a secret one known to the initiated only, while
+popular worship was directed to the sun, moon, and morning and evening
+stars, etc. Meanwhile the following passages from Professor Jastrow's
+hand-book will elucidate the Babylonian Assyrian cult of the Four
+Quarters.
+
+"The zikkurat was quadrangular in shape. The orientation of the four
+corners towards the four cardinal points was approximate. Inasmuch as the
+rulers of Babylon from a very early period call themselves 'king of the
+four regions,' it has been supposed that the quadrangular shape was chosen
+designedly."... "The title 'king of the four regions' was an old one that
+pertained to the kings of Agade.... The city of Arbela, at one time the
+seat of the cult of Ishtar, was named 'the four-god city.' " This name is
+particularly interesting when it is remembered that the Babylonian and
+Assyrian word for god and mountain was identical and that this identity
+may account for the Chinese employment of the term "four mountains," to
+express also the four provinces and their chiefs. Professor Jastrow
+informs us, in a note, that the name Arbela is, more precisely, Arba-ilu,
+signifying "city of the four-fold divinity" or "four-god" city and invites
+comparison to the Palestinian form Kiryath-arba, "four-city." He suggests
+that this name may perhaps likewise signify a city of four gods, but adds
+that it has commonly been explained as meaning four roads or four quarters
+(_op. cit._ 203).
+
+The ancient pagan authorities inform us that the ancient city of Babylon
+was laid out in the form of a perfect square, the sides of which were
+oriented to the cardinal points. A massive wall enclosed the entire city
+and the river Euphrates divided it into halves, united by a bridge, each
+half being again subdivided by the main street leading to the bridge. A
+series of streets ran parallel to the river through the city and were
+crossed at right angles by others, the result being that 625 blocks or
+squares of building were thus formed.
+
+There is positive evidence that the capital city of Lagash or Shir-pur-la
+was divided into four sections, the separate names of which were Girsu,
+Uru-alaga, Nina and Gish-Galla or Erim, the reading of the latter name
+being doubtful. The circumstance that each of these quarters had its
+"divinity" and was ruled by its earthly representative, explains the term
+"four-god city" or "four city" found associated with other capitals of
+Babylonia.
+
+The existence of a central ruler who exercised supreme authority over the
+four quarters of the capital, and by extension over the "four provinces"
+is amply proven by the title of the Babylonian kings, _i. e._, the "king
+of the four regions." An interesting oracle, addressed to king Esar-Haddon
+is found to contain the statement that "Ashur has given him the four ends
+of the earth" (Jastrow, _op. cit._ 345).
+
+Evidence that while the capital and entire state consisted of four
+quarters, the whole was also divided theoretically and practically into
+halves, is furnished by the significant fact that, from remote antiquity,
+the rulers of Babylonia also bore the title of "lord of Akkad and
+Sumer"=North and South, this term being, like that of "Four Regions," a
+general designation for the whole of Babylonia and the first being
+obviously analogous to the Egyptian royal title: "King of upper and lower
+Egypt."
+
+I can but briefly indicate here some facts which prove that this ancient
+Babylonian centre of civilization underwent precisely the same evolution
+as that I have traced in America and India.
+
+Assyriologists agree in stating that, at the beginning of Babylonian
+history, about 4,000 B.C., Akkad and Sumer, or North and South Babylonia,
+already existed and were inhabited by two distinct races of people: the
+non-Semitic Sumerians and the Semitic Akkadians or later Babylonians. In
+later times we find the region embraced by the Euphrates and Tigris
+inhabited by descendants of both races and forming the Babylonian empire
+in the south, the Assyrian empire to the northeast, while in the
+northwestern part of Mesopotamia, was the seat of various empires that
+were alternately the rivals and subjects of either Babylonia or Assyria
+(Jastrow, _op. cit._ 26).
+
+Three distinct and rival cults are indeed found associated with these
+three centres of government, and when examined by the light of our
+knowledge of a parallel process of evolution elsewhere, their origin can
+be traced back to elementary pole-star heaven and earth worship, and what
+is termed the establishment of the districts of Anu, Bel and Ea. That at
+one period these separate cults peacefully existed alongside of each other
+is indicated by the joint worship of pairs and triads of divinities who
+were personifications of central powers, of the upper and of the lower
+regions. In order to demonstrate this statement I shall briefly cite some
+references to such divinities from Professor Jastrow's hand-book, taking
+them in the order in which they are enumerated in the famous Babylonian
+version of the creation of the world, contained in the fragment known as
+the "Creation epic" which begins thus:
+
+"There was a time where Above, the heaven, was not named. Below, the
+earth, bore no name. Apsu was there from the first, the source of both
+(_i. e._, heaven and earth). And raging Tiamat, the mother of both (_i.
+e._, heaven and earth)." Apsu and Tiamat are synonymous and are
+personifications of the watery deep or abyss. "Apsu represents the male
+and Tiamat the female principle of the primaeval universe ... the embrace
+of Apsu and Tiamat became a symbol of 'sexual' union."
+
+Tiamat was popularly pictured as a huge serpent-like monster, a fact of
+utmost interest when connected with the name Nakkash, _i. e._, crooked
+serpent, bestowed upon the constellation Draconis which contained the
+pole-star of 2170 B.C. Abstaining from comment I merely establish here the
+interesting point that in ancient Babylonia the serpent is found
+distinctly associated with Polaris as well as with the dual creative
+principle. The divine pairs Lakhmu and Lakhamu and Anshar and Kishar were
+then created. By an arbitrary division of his name into An and shar, the
+deity becomes the "one that embraces all that is above." The element An is
+the same that we have in Anu and is the ideographic form for "high" and
+"heaven." Ki is the ideographic form for earth and the natural consort to
+an all-embracing upper power is a power that "embraces all that is below."
+
+It is interesting thus to ascertain that on another tablet by the side of
+these personifications of heaven and earth are enumerated a series of
+names which certainly appear to be merely variations on the names or
+titles of the divine pairs. Lakhumu and Lakhamu occur on the list, and
+Anshar and Kishar recur as Anshar-gal, "great totality of what is on
+high," and Kishar-gal, "great totality of what is below." Then there are
+En-shar and Nin-shar, "lord and mistress" and a "Father-Mother of Anu,"
+titles which furnish an interesting comparison with the list printed on
+page 42 of this investigation.
+
+Pagan authorities, cited by Professor Jastrow, relate that the first
+result of the union of Apsu and Tiamat was the production of "strange
+monsters, human beings with wings, beings with two heads, male and female,
+hybrid formations, half man, half animal, with horns of rams and horses'
+hoofs, bulls with human faces, dogs with four-fold bodies ending in fish
+tails." Seen in the light of the present investigation these accounts and
+the sculptured images of such monstrosities, many of which have been
+preserved to the present day, may be accounted for in a very simple and
+natural manner. It is obvious that, once the Babylonian theologians had
+definitely adopted the theory and creed that the universe had been created
+by the union of the Above and Below, Male and Female principle, Heaven and
+Earth, or Upper and Lower Firmament, the production of allegorical images
+personifying or symbolizing this union would inevitably follow in course
+of time. The somewhat naive but expressive combination of the form of a
+quadruped or serpent with that of a bird, and the adoption of winged
+bulls, lions and serpents, would have seemed a most appropriate rendering
+of the current idea of the dual, creative power, which might also be
+conveyed by two heads, or two horns. From Professor Jastrow's description
+of the case of a single monster, with four bodies and with attributes of
+the elements earth and water, we learn that not only the union of heaven
+and earth but also of earth and water was at times the task imposed upon
+the native artists by the fancy and imagination of minds dwelling upon the
+subject of the creative first cause. Postponing further discussion of the
+Babylonian and Assyrian symbolism of the Middle, Above and Below and Four
+Quarters or the "seven directions of Heaven and Earth," I shall now direct
+attention to the most famous triad of Babylonian cosmology which figures
+at the end of the Creation epic. It consisted of Anu, Ea and Bel(96) and
+obviously personified the Above and Below and the link or central meeting
+place of these, the earth named Esharra, "the house of fertility" or E-kur
+"the mountain house." We learn from Professor Jastrow's handbook that
+whereas Bel=the polar star (the secret god) and Nibir=the planet Jupiter
+(the later popular personification of Bel) were associated with the North,
+Ea was identified with the South (p. 435). Elsewhere we are told that Anu
+was identified with the North, Bel with the equator and Ea with the South
+(p. 460), a fact to which I shall again recur in treating of the
+territorial divisions of the state, which corresponded to the three
+divisions of the universe, the Above, Middle and Below.
+
+The following detached statements concerning Babylonian divinities drawn
+from Professor Jastrow's handbook, show with what activity the fundamental
+set of ideas was developed by the native theologians and philosophers.
+Bel-arduk became the chief god of Babylon, the title "Belu-rabu" _i. e._,
+"great lord," becoming identified with Marduk. As such he is termed "the
+king of heaven and earth" and the "lord of the four regions." His dwelling
+was on the sacred "mountain-house," the zikkurat, and is represented "with
+a crown with high horns, a symbol of dual rulership. As the supreme ruler,
+life and death are in his hands and he guides the decrees of the deities
+of the Above and Below." "The first part of the name Marduk is also used
+to designate the 'young bullock,' and it is possible that the god was
+pictured in this way." It should be remembered here, however, that on page
+89 Professor Jastrow tells us how Nannar=the one who furnishes light=the
+moon, was invoked as "the powerful bull of Anu," _i. e._, heaven. In this
+connection it is interesting to learn that in Canaan, Astarte, the goddess
+of night, was also worshipped under the form of a cow, and that in
+Phoenicia she was sometimes figured with horns, symbolizing the moon. In
+Assyria, four horns, denoting four-fold rulership, usually encircle the
+high conical cap of sovereignty, which also crowns the human heads of the
+winged bulls. It may be permissible to point out here what an appropriate
+and expressive embodiment of symbolism the winged bull appears to be; the
+form of the quadruped, combined with wings, clearly symbolizes a union of
+the Above and Below; the control over both being expressed by the human
+head which completes the allegorical figure. The high cap, with which the
+head was crowned, exhibits the form of a mound, and combined or partly
+encircled by two or sometimes four horns, obviously symbolizes dual or
+quadruple rulership. It thus appears evident that the winged bull of
+Assyria expressed, almost as clearly as the seven-staged towers of
+Babylon, the "seven directions of heaven and earth," and was as
+appropriate an allegorical image of Assur the god, as of Assur the state,
+and of the royal power which conferred upon the supreme lords of Babylonia
+and Assyria the titles: "lord of the holy mound," "lord of Akkad and
+Sumer," and "lord of the four regions."
+
+The idea that some of the Assyrian kings actually embodied seven-fold
+power, or ruled the "seven divisions," is further conveyed by curious
+groups of seven symbols, accompanied by the numeral seven, expressed by
+seven dots, which occur above their portraits on tablets which will be
+described further on. Whilst analyzing the royal titles and insignia
+represented on the stelae of Assyrian kings, I shall likewise show how
+these complete the foregoing evidence and indicate that in Babylonia and
+Assyria, the seven-fold division was applied not only to the Cosmos, but
+to the territory of the State, to its social organization, to its
+calendar; and that the seven-storied zikkurat, the winged bulls, etc., and
+indeed, the seven-branched candlestick, were apparently designed as
+expressive of the general seven-fold scheme of organization.
+
+Let us now examine some data which shed light upon the various and curious
+phases of evolution undergone by the growing and diverging cults of Heaven
+and Earth in Babylonia and Assyria. Going back to the dawn of astronomy in
+Babylonia let us note some facts which show that, as elsewhere, in
+remotest antiquity the periodical disappearance and reappearance of the
+Pleiades produced a deep impression upon the primitive star-gazers. These
+phenomena marked natural divisions of the year and the constellation
+appeared to belong alternately to the visible or upper world and to the
+invisible or lower region. A recognition that the Pleaid was _the_
+constellation at that remote period when Taurus led the year, may be
+established by the common Euphratean name by which it is said to have been
+designated: Kakkab-mul=_the_ constellation or star. The Akkadian and
+Assyrian names which had probably also originally designated Polaris
+signified that it and the Hyades were the foundation stars or
+constellations. In the Ptolemy star charts, the Pleiades are designated by
+the name Ki mah (see Robert Brown, _op. cit._ p. 57). While it appears
+that whereas the Pleiades long exerted its influence and, with Polaris and
+the circumpolar constellations, regulated and marked the primitive year,
+its cult was gradually superseded by that of morning and evening stars and
+of the sun and moon which became the emblems of the rapidly developing
+divergent cults of the diurnal and nocturnal heavens, of light and
+darkness, of the Above and Below.(97)
+
+In connection with the cult of the Pleiades I draw attention to R. G.
+Haliburton's interesting investigations on this particular subject, and to
+his publication in the Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 1895, on "Dwarf
+survivals and traditions as to pigmy races," which contains the following
+statements: "We find that the Atlas dwarfs and the Nanos predict the
+future by watching the reflection of the 'Seven Stars' in a bowl. The
+famous cup of Nestor, supposed to have been a divining cup, had two groups
+of Pleiades on its handle...." On examining the archaic designs engraved
+in the centre of the fine collection of Phoenician and Assyrian bronze
+bowls, which were found in the S. E. Palace, Nimroud, and are exhibited at
+the British Museum, I recently ascertained that they appear to be mostly
+variations on the theme of the centre and four or seven-fold division,
+some exhibiting a marked quadruplicate division, others a seven-pointed
+star surrounded by seven smaller stars. In one case a face is repeated
+four times, in opposite positions, on the central design which is
+surrounded by four large and four lesser conventionally drawn mountains.
+The head-dress with lappets which encloses each face recalls the familiar
+Egyptian form, and on two bowls images of scarabs are engraved. On one of
+these the beetle is drawn in such a way that its four legs, two of which
+turn upwards and two downwards, suggest the form of a swastika.
+
+The peculiarities of these designs and the knowledge that star-worship
+prevailed in Assyria and Phoenicia suggest the inference that the Nimroud
+Palace bowls were employed for the observation of the positions of certain
+stars which marked the seasons and regulated the calendar, by means of
+which the priest-kings controlled the working of the system of state.
+Doubtlessly the constellations originally and principally observed besides
+Polaris were the three great "seven-fold ones," _i. e._ the Ursa Major
+which marked the Four Quarters; the Pleiades which pertained to the Above
+and Below and marked the division of the year into halves, and Orion which
+also may well have appeared to be a composite image of the sacred, equal
+Four, and the central triad composed of the Above, Middle and Below.
+
+It is interesting to note that in the Euphratean and other myths the
+antagonism between sun and moon, etc., coincides with traditions of actual
+warfare between their earthly representatives and that it is the record of
+a combat between the followers of light and of darkness that seems to have
+been thus preserved. The Babylonian Creation epic teaches us that, in
+remotest antiquity, the association of light and life with the male, and
+darkness and death with the female principle had become current. A mighty
+war takes place between the female serpent Tiamat, associated with evil,
+and the male god Marduk, the champion of the gods of the upper realm,
+which ends in her overthrow. It was then that Marduk "established the
+districts or cities of Anu, Bel and Ea," identified with the North, Middle
+and South. It is remarkable that this mythical establishment of three
+cities exactly coincides with the conclusions reached by recent
+investigators as to the existence during centuries, of three rival states,
+_i. e._ Babylonia in the south and Assyria in the northeast, who, during
+centuries, were in continual warfare with each other and with a third
+disintegrated power inhabiting the northwest which was alternately rival
+or vassal. This condition of affairs, and the facts enumerated in
+Professor Jastrow's handbook, chapter II, are precisely what would
+naturally develop from the formation and adoption of three distinct cults
+and their ultimate separate establishment in as many centres of
+government. The following data will suffice to reveal some of the curious
+results obtained by the logical working out of certain associations of
+ideas and these results are the more interesting and intelligible because
+they are analogous to those I have traced elsewhere.
+
+One point deserves special note: directly opposite views, not only as to
+the relative supremacy of the Middle, Above and Below, but also as to the
+relation of the sexes to the upper and lower worlds, seem to have been
+held at different times and in different places; and this particular
+division of opinion appears to have given rise to endless dissension,
+strife and warfare, to the separation of sectarians from the main state
+and the foundation of numberless minor centres of government on the old
+plan, but with fresh forms of cult embodying a new artificial combination
+of ideas.
+
+The shifting of supremacy from one "god" to another explains moreover the
+transference of the title "Bel"=Lord, or Chief of Gods, from the
+personification of one region to another. "In remotest antiquity we find
+En-lil designated as the 'lord of the lower world' and bearing the title
+Bel. En-lil represents the unification of the various forces whose seat or
+sphere of action is among the inhabited parts of the globe, both on the
+surface and beneath, for the term 'lower world' is here used in contrast
+to the upper or heavenly world.... As 'lord of the lower world,' En-lil is
+contrasted to a god, Anu, who presides over heavenly bodies. The age of
+Sargon (3800 B.C.), in whose inscriptions En-lil already occurs, is one of
+considerable culture and there can, therefore, be no objection against the
+assumption that at this early period a theological system should have been
+evolved which gave rise to beliefs in great powers whose dominion embraces
+the 'upper' and 'lower' worlds" (Jastrow, _op. cit._ pp. 52-55).
+
+A consort, Nin-lil, a "mistress of the lower world," was assigned to
+En-lil and was known also as Belit, the feminine form of Bel, _i. e._ the
+lady _par excellence_. She too had her temple at Nippur, the age of which
+goes back, at least, to the first dynasty of Ur. She was also known as
+Nin-khar-sag, the "lady of the high or great mountain," as the "mother of
+the gods." The assignment by Sargon, of the northern gates of his palace
+to Bel, who lays foundations, and Belit, who brings fertility, affords
+evidence that the goddess was the feminine form of Polaris. In Assyria,
+Belit appears, either as the wife of Bel, as the consort of Ashur, as the
+consort of Ea, or simply as a designation for Ishtar, _i. e._ "the
+goddess," the "mistress of countries, or of mountains," in which
+connection it is interesting to note that the ideographs for country and
+mountain are identical in Assyrian.
+
+If the attributes of the goddesses of the Babylonian and Assyrian pantheon
+be carefully examined, they will be found to associate the female
+principle with fertility, abundance and with water, the source of plant
+life. Two divergent views appear to have influenced the artificial
+formation of personifications of the female principle in nature. According
+to one the goddess is termed the "lady of the deep, the mistress of the
+place where the fish dwell" (Sarpanitam-erua) and in other cases is linked
+to the lower firmament to subterraneous regions, to darkness, death,
+destructiveness and hence to evil, thus representing the complement to the
+male personification of the upper realm of daylight and the preservative
+and beneficent life-giving principles. The other tendency, which almost
+appears as a reaction or protest against the previous view, led to the
+ultimate adoption of an ideal goddess of the nocturnal heaven, who was
+"bountiful, offspring-producing, silvery bright" and was in one instance
+addressed as "the lady of shining waters," of "purification" and of
+"incantations." In the period of Hammurabi, devotion went so far as to
+cause the goddess Gula, termed the "bride of the earth," to be invoked as
+the "creator of mankind," the "great physician" and "life-giver" and "the
+one who leads the dead to a new life" (Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 175).
+
+As an interesting outcome of an adjustment of both trains of thought
+stands Ishtar-Belit=the lady _par excellence_ and consequently, the
+feminine personification of Polaris, the supreme goddess whom
+Tiglath-pileser termed "the first among the gods." She is the mild and
+gracious mother of creation, "loves the king and his priesthood," but is
+also the mighty commanding goddess of war who clothes herself in fiery
+flame, appears as a violent destroyer and sends down streams of fire upon
+her enemies. "The distinguishing position of both the Babylonian and
+Assyrian Ishtar is her independent position. Though at times brought into
+close contact with Ashur she is not regarded as the mere consort to any
+god--no mere reflection of a male deity, but ruling in her own right on a
+perfect par with the great gods of the pantheon. She is coequal in rank
+and splendor with Ashur. Her name becomes synonymous for goddess as Marduk
+becomes the synonym for god. The female deities, both foreign and native,
+came to be regarded as so many forms of Ishtar."
+
+A curious fact connected with Ishtar, which proves that she had developed
+from an original divinity, conceived as dual or bi-sexual, is that among
+Semites Ishtar appears both as a male and female deity. This seems to show
+that at a certain stage of thought Ishtar was also a centralization of
+attributes, a fact which undoubtedly explains the supreme position
+accorded to this divinity at one time as the feminine form of Polaris. The
+most striking illustration of this supremacy is furnished by the famous
+bas-relief figured by Layard ("Ninive and its remains" I, 238), which
+represents Ishtar, the mother-goddess, the female form of Assur, as seated
+on a throne which is borne on the back of a lion in the procession formed
+by the seven chief divinities of the Assyrian pantheon, six of whom are
+figured as bearded men standing on different animals. On the fine stela of
+Esarhaddon, discovered by Dr. von Luschan at Sendschirli, the goddess,
+accompanied in this case by three standing gods, is likewise represented
+as seated on a throne holding a large ring or circle in her left hand.
+
+The fact that the "All-mother, the female creator of mankind," is
+represented as the only occupant of the throne, reveals a distinct phase
+in the evolution of the Babylonian state religion, which curiously concurs
+with the supremacy of female sovereignty at Babylon, at the period of its
+greatest power under Semiramis. It may be safely assumed that it was at
+this time, when the queen represented the goddess, that the cult of the
+female principle of nature reached its highest development.
+
+At Nippur the clay images chiefly represent Bel and Belit either
+separately or in combination, but figurines of Ishtar have also been
+found, in some cases representing her as nursing a child (Jastrow, _op.
+cit._ p. 674). It is probable that the symbols of duality connected with
+Ishtar had some reference to the mystic unity and duality of the mother
+and unborn child, and suggested the installation of the goddess as the
+most appropriate personification of creative and life-giving central
+power.(98)
+
+It is as interesting to follow the complex train of thought which created
+an Ishtar as it is to realize that curious fact that, contrary to views
+held elsewhere, it was the male principle that was at one time most
+distinctly associated with earth in Babylonia-Assyria, while femininity
+was linked to the nocturnal heaven. It is probable that priesthood
+encouraged the popular adoption of Bel, the masculine Polaris, as an
+earth, sun and morning-star god, while his consort Belit became a heaven,
+moon and evening-star goddess. Doubtlessly at an early period the cult of
+Polaris and the registration of circumpolar rotation was guarded in
+secrecy by the astronomer-priests. Tempting as it is to linger among the
+gods and goddesses of the Babylonian-Assyrian pantheon and to follow the
+spread of their influence, I shall limit myself to pointing out the change
+of government that accompanied the development and establishment of
+various divergent cults.
+
+Indications that, as in China at the present day, a combined heaven and
+earth cult was practised in Babylonia-Assyria by male and female
+representatives of heaven and earth, are furnished by various detached
+pieces of information gleaned from Professor Jastrow's work. The
+priest-king was the "child" of Bel, and his living representative. As such
+he bore the divine titles of supreme lord, ruled the four regions of the
+earth, and became the representative of earth. Pagan authorities state
+that a virgin priestess officiated at times in the sanctuary of Bel and
+that there were three classes of priestesses devoted to the cult of
+Ishtar. They were called "the sacred ones" and carried out a mysterious
+ritual which had, however, originated "from naive conceptions connected
+with the worship of the goddess of fertility."
+
+The use of sacred water and of fermented intoxicating wine entered into
+the cult of the life-giving principle and Babylonia ultimately becomes
+associated with "Mystery" and "the golden cup full of abominations"
+(Revelations XVII). Large terra cotta vases or jars have been found at
+Nippur and elsewhere, standing in front of the altar, and "the depth at
+which they were found is an indication of the antiquity and stability of
+the forms of worship in Babylonian temples. It may be proper to recall
+that, in the Solomonic temple likewise, there were a series of jars that
+stood near the great altar in the court" (Jastrow, p. 653). One of the
+oldest sacred basins found in the ruins of a Babylonian temple "has a
+frieze of female figures in it, holding in their outstretched hands
+flagons from which they pour water," a fact which establishes the
+ritualistic association of female priestesses with water.
+
+The later association of Ishtar with the moon and with the evening star,
+"the leader of the heavenly procession of stars," naturally exerted an
+influence over the ceremonial rites performed by the high priestess or
+queen, the living image of the goddess. "Mythological associations appear
+to have played a part in identifying the planet Venus with the goddess....
+A widely spread nature myth, symbolizing the change of seasons, represents
+Ishtar the personification of fertility, the great mother of all that
+manifests life, as proceeding to the region of darkness and remaining
+there for some time. The disappearance of the planet Venus at certain
+seasons ... [and re-appearance] ... suggested the identification of this
+planet with Ishtar." The foregoing affords an explanation why Ishtar
+should have become identified with the west and also naturally suggests
+the probability that the cult of Ishtar gradually imposed upon its
+priestesses and its votaries of the female sex, the ceremonial observance
+of periods of retirement and seclusion, coinciding with the disappearance
+of the moon and evening star.
+
+A critical examination of the accounts preserved of the Phoenician or
+Canaanite religion reveals that it consisted of an idealistic development
+of the Ishtar cult of Assyria. The fact that, ultimately, in Phoenicia, the
+cult of the female Astarte almost superseded that of the male Baal and
+that their joint cult, introduced into Palestine, seriously rivalled the
+monotheism of the Israelites, furnishes another indication that we have to
+deal here with the same marked divergence of cults which we have seen to
+result from a common basis in ancient America. In studying the Phoenician
+conception of Astarte as recorded by various authors, one is struck by its
+comparative refinement and ideality although, as in ancient America, the
+cult of the female principle of nature was also accompanied by secret
+licentious ceremonials.
+
+In the Astarte cult of Phoenicia we have precisely what might be expected
+to have been evolved by the descendants of an ancient race of
+star-watchers who, powerfully impressed by the antithesis of light and
+darkness and having become a nation of traders and seafarers, naturally
+adopted the nocturnal heaven and guiding stars as their chief object of
+worship. It does not seem improbable that it was to the less degrading
+association of the female principle with the nocturnal heaven(99) that
+woman owed, in lapse of time, the higher position she was accorded in the
+countries directly influenced by the Phoenician civilization, and notably
+in Greece and Rome.
+
+In Phoenicia, Astarte-Ishtar became the goddess of love and marriage. In
+Babylonia-Assyria the high-priestess, the living representative of the
+goddess, who, like the planet-goddess, periodically retired into darkness
+and seclusion and led a shadowy existence, appears to have originally
+shared equal honors with the "lord of earth" and to have delivered
+oracular utterances in subterraneous chambers. Throughout Babylonia, New
+Year's Day, which coincided with the beginning of the rainy season, was
+the occasion of "the marriage of the god and the goddess" _par
+excellence_, a rite which symbolized the "meeting of Heaven and Earth."
+Circumstantial evidence seems to prove, moreover, that, as in Peru, the
+annual consecrated union of the male and female personification of heaven
+and earth was followed by the marriage of young persons throughout the
+land, a custom which furnishes another indication of the original
+existence of an annual mating season for the human race. As it was at this
+period also that the priesthood approached the papakhu, the inner
+sanctuary, also termed the "assembly-room," "chamber of the oracle" and
+"of fates," and transmitted to the people the irrevocable decrees of
+Marduk, it seems as though these ancient rulers practised a similar
+"abundance of lying and deceit for the advantage of the governed" as that
+advocated by Plato in his Republic;(100) exerted a stern control over the
+alliances formed and the number of marriages celebrated and endeavored to
+make these, as far as possible, sacred. The mere record that the Assyrian
+king Ashurbanipal claims to be the offspring of a pair of divinities
+personifying heaven and earth, appears to show that he was the offspring
+of the sacred divine union of the high priest and priestess, _i. e._ of
+divine birth. It is interesting to collate a few disconnected facts which
+appear to illustrate the natural and inevitable result of the institution
+of two cults ruled by separate representatives.
+
+Sin-Gashid, of the dynasty of Uruk, mentions a temple built for the god
+and his consort, as "the seat of their joy." At Babylon, the "mother of
+great gods" dwelt within the precincts of the temple on the east side of
+the Euphrates known as Esagila, "the lofty house." When the city of
+Babylon extended as far as to include Borsippa, the temple known as Ezida,
+"the true house," was built for Marduk=Bel. At Lagash the temple of the
+"good lady" and mother stood in one quarter known as the "brilliant town"
+while the temple of her consort stood in the other of the two most ancient
+quarters of the town. The above facts acquire double significance when
+collated with the well-known fact that the palace of Semiramis, the great
+queen of Babylon, was built on the west bank of the Euphrates, opposite to
+the ancient palace of the king. A bridge united these royal residences
+which were otherwise separated by the river.
+
+Under Semiramis, Babylonia was a nation under a single female ruler and
+this usurpation of power by a woman, accompanied as it was by the
+predominance of the originally naive cult which had unconsciously fostered
+and ministered to perversion and depravity, preceded the decadence,
+disintegration and ultimate downfall of the empire. Many centuries
+previous, the instalment of a female sovereign preceded the ruin of
+another empire in what we may assume to have been precisely the same way.
+
+Professor Sayce informs us that, "about 3800 B.C., in northern Babylonia
+and in the city of Agade or Akkad, arose the empire of
+Sargani-sarali=Sargon, and that Sargon's son, Naram-Sin, succeeded him in
+3750 B.C. and continued the conquests of his grandfather.... Naram-Sin's
+son was Bingam-sar-ali. A queen, Ellat-gula, seems to have sat upon the
+throne not much later, and with her the dynasty may have come to an end.
+At any rate the empire of Akkad is heard of no more. But it left behind it
+a profound impression in western Asia, whose art and culture became
+Babylonian" (_op. cit._).
+
+The process of disintegration, which caused the Babylonian empire to
+crumble away, was doubtlessly hastened by its division into four regions,
+each of which in latter times possessed its capital and became the centre
+of various independent forms of rival cults. During many centuries
+Babylonia was closely associated with the cult of Marduk-Bel, the "lord of
+rest;" while Shamash, another form of the central supreme lord, was the
+deity of Larsa and Sippar.
+
+At one time Ur became the headquarters for the cult of the moon-god Sin or
+Nannar. As, according to Babylonian notions, the sun does not properly
+belong to the heavens and plays an insignificant part in the calendrical
+system in comparison with the moon, sun-worship proper does not seem to
+have existed in Babylonia. At the same time it would seem as though when
+the "primitive sun"=Polaris became the hidden, secret god of the
+priest-astronomers, who determined the seasons by Ursa Major, the populace
+was taught to regard Bel as the personification of the diurnal sun and of
+the herald of day, the morning star.
+
+When it is borne in mind how, as the empire spread, new cities were
+founded on the plan of the metropolis, that each of these must therefore
+have been, in turn, governed by a pair of minor rulers, and had its own
+minor zikkurat, we can understand the various indications that exist
+showing how the ancient sacred capital of the state became the place of
+reunion for the minor "gods," who assembled there annually in the main
+sanctuary, and the fact that each minor chief necessarily required his
+dwelling place and tribal council-chamber, would account for the
+"references to zikkurats ... or special sanctuaries of some kind, which
+were erected within the sacred precinct of the main capital ..." (Jastrow,
+p. 637).
+
+When it is realized that each zikkurat was an artificial "mountain" the
+description of Babylon in Revelations XVIII becomes clearly intelligible
+and is seen to apply to the seven-fold organization of the ancient empire
+which had become the centre of the debasing earth-worship ultimately
+identified with a female goddess. "And the woman which thou sawest is that
+great city which reigneth over the kings of the earth.... I saw a woman
+sit upon a scarlet colored beast ... having seven heads.... The seven
+heads are seven _mountains_, on which the woman sitteth ... and there are
+seven kings"....
+
+Future investigation will doubtlessly furnish us with exact knowledge
+concerning the original relation of the governors of the "four regions" to
+the central ruler and of the "seven divisions" of the state to each other.
+It would be desirable to establish whether each territorial division and
+tribe bore the name of its tribal ancestor and whether these names agree
+with those of the seven chief "gods" of the pantheon, each of whom is
+associated with a celestial body, a day of the seven-day period and, as
+shown in the bas-relief already cited, with a different animal. I am
+strongly tempted to see in the latter traces of tribal totems and to
+connect the days of the week with the seven divisions of the population
+and some established form of rotation, employed for the government of the
+state, analogous to that I have found out in Ancient Mexico. With regard
+to the regulation of the calendar by certain officials, the following
+facts are important: Professor Sayce tells us that, "in Assyria, the
+high-priest was the equal of the king and the king himself was a priest
+and the adopted child of Bel." Under him were a number of grades of
+officials and officers. The land was divided into provinces whose
+"governors were selected from the highest aristocracy and who alone had
+the privilege of sharing with the king the office of limmu or eponymous
+archon after whom the year was named." This office, which finds its
+analogy in China and Central America, is more clearly explained in the
+following passage: "The Assyrians were endowed with a keen sense of
+history and had invented a system of reckoning time by means of certain
+officers called limmi, who gave their names to the year" (Sayce, _op.
+cit._ p. 255).
+
+Venturing to make a general statement, as a suggestion for future
+investigation, I should say that the ultimate result of the institution of
+two cults which were bound to grow in opposite directions, was the fall of
+the Babylonian empire under the degrading growth of perversion and
+depravity, linked to the cult of earth and night and bi-sexuality, and the
+rise of the Assyrian empire with a cult in which the ideas of light and
+darkness, night and day preponderated over those of sex. It may possibly
+have been as a reaction and protest against the prevailing rites of
+Babylonia that influenced the Assyrians in their adoption of two male
+rulers, the high-priest and the king. On the other hand, there are
+indications showing that possibly, in order to evade the ceremonial
+obligations of their position as the representative of the principle of
+fertility, several "goddesses" or female rulers of Babylonia transferred
+their seat of government, or placed the reins of government into the hands
+of a king. Thus Hammurabi tells us that he has restored the temple of the
+"lady" or "great lady" of Hallabi, a town near Sippar and that she had
+conferred upon him supreme authority over the Babylonian states, then
+engaged in fighting with each other. It is obvious that, as soon as
+concealment and mystery increasingly surrounded the cult of the female
+principle, and warfare became habitual, the power and role of the female
+ruler must have become more and more "shadowy" and finally dwindled to the
+utterance of sacred oracles in dark concealed places of retirement and
+safety. Ultimately the cult of Ishtar appears to have become absolutely
+secret and hidden and shrouded in mystery and darkness. Its priestesses
+became the most famous oracle-givers of Assyria who imparted "divine
+knowledge concealed from men." In the eighth century B.C., Arbela became
+the centre of the cult of Ishtar and "developed a special school of
+theology marked by the attempt to accord a superior position to the
+goddess. In a series of eight oracles addressed to Esarhaddon six are
+given forth by women" (Jastrow, p. 342).
+
+Inevitable as was the disintegration of the original state and religion,
+continual efforts appear to have been made even in Babylonia itself, to
+check the growth of a debasing ritual and the constant increase of the
+gods and goddesses which were installed as the rulers of each new town
+that was founded on the plan of the metropolis. Professor Jastrow tells us
+that "whenever the kings in their inscriptions mention the regular
+sacrifices, it is in almost all cases with reference to their
+re-institution of an old custom that had been allowed to fall into neglect
+(owing to the political disturbances which always affected the temples)
+and not as an innovation" ... (_op. cit._ p. 667). The tablet of Sippara,
+on which the image of Shamash is restored by the king on an ancient model,
+has already been described and on it appears the four-spoked wheel, the
+expressive symbol of a "primitive Sun." The primeval conception of a
+single, stable, changeless and central celestial power was evidently
+adhered to in ancient Babylonia by a small but faithful minority, and the
+constant growth of debasing practices and the manufacture of symbolical
+images to which reverence was paid and which were ultimately worshipped,
+awakened its constant disapproval and abhorrence. At a remote period we
+find the adherents to a stern monotheism establishing the Babylonian
+province of
+
+CANAAN.
+
+The following account of the Hebrew religion, translated from Spamer's
+work (p. 297) already cited, will be found instructive:
+
+"Originally there was no difference between the religion of the Hebrews
+and that of the neighboring tribes. The lord=Baal of Moab was named
+Kamosh, that of the Hebrews Yahwe. Yahwe was the national god, above all
+the god of battle.... Altars made of earth or unhewn stone were erected
+for him on mountains, hills or under green trees; next to the altar stood
+either a stone column (Masseba) or a sacred tree (Ashera). In the temple
+the image of Yahwe represented him in human form or, as in Dan or Bethel,
+in that of a bull. Next to Yahwe were other gods: first, Baal, the supreme
+lord of the world, who had a special temple in Jerusalem; secondly,
+Astarte, to whom Solomon built an altar near Jerusalem.
+
+"Solomon had also built altars to Kamosh, the god of the Moabites, to
+Milkom, the god of the Ammonites and in his temple other gods beside Yahwe
+were worshipped; amongst them a demi-god and a serpent of brass
+(Neshushtan) which was abolished later on by Hiskia. All of these gods,
+who were also worshipped by the neighbors of the enemies of Israel, became
+secondary to the tribal god to whom Israel owed its greatness.
+
+"Yahwe becomes the first and mightiest, and is identified with El, the
+supreme god of the Semites, whose individuality is vague. On the other
+hand 'the Baal,' the principal god of all neighboring people, especially
+of the Phoenicians, possesses a marked individuality which excludes his
+identification with other gods. He is worshipped in separate centres of
+cult and becomes the rival of Yahwe...." The rivalry and the struggle for
+religious and political supremacy between the priests, prophets and
+followers of Yahwe, the god of heaven, and Baal, the lord of earth,
+culminated in about B.C. 837, when the temple of the latter was destroyed
+and his priesthood killed.
+
+"It was not until about 750 B.C., however, that the national god Yahwe
+became the acknowledged sole god of the universe next to whom all other
+gods were as mere phantoms.... A remarkable transformation took place
+about this time in the conception of a divinity and of morality; the moral
+precepts of religion were developed and clearly formulated and the ten
+commandments promulgated. As time progressed the voices of prophets and
+priesthood became more and more loud in condemnation of the use of idols
+and symbols of divinity. Hosea especially denounced the cult of Yahwe
+under the form of a bull; Jeremias went so far as to disapprove of the
+holy ark itself which stood in the temple of Jerusalem.
+
+"Later on, when, about B.C. 621, one of the most important events in the
+history of mankind had taken place and the book of the law, the Sepher
+Hathora, was discovered by the high priest in the temple of Jerusalem,
+during its restoration, the Hebrew religion was reformed, reorganized and
+reestablished on lines which favored the development of more refined and
+elevated religious teachings. All idols and symbols were abolished. Naught
+could destroy, however, the deeply rooted idea that it was in Jerusalem
+alone, or Mount Sion, that Yahwe was to be worshipped. This was the chosen
+site to which offerings and tithes were to be carried. As the chosen
+people of Yahwe, Israel was also to be a holy nation which was to
+distinguish itself by its superior religion and morality and, in order to
+do so, was to keep itself rigidly apart and aloof from other people.
+
+"Thus this little nation cultivated and perfected the religious
+capabilities of the human race and laid the foundation for Christianity
+and the Islam."
+
+Jerusalem, the ancient capital, occupied almost the centre of Canaan and
+was founded on Mount Zion, the highest elevation in the district. From
+time immemorial Jerusalem has indeed contained a spot reputed to mark the
+centre of the world and a sacred stone is also venerated there to this day
+and is now associated, in a curious way, with the biblical account of
+Jacob's dream of a ladder reaching from earth to heaven.
+
+It was obviously as a result of their deeply ingrained ideal of central
+power that the Israelites who migrated from Ur, the seat of moon-worship,
+and wandered into Palestine, engaged in a long struggle which ended in
+their successful capture, in 1050 B.C., of Jerusalem, the sacred city,
+situated in the centre of the land. The importance of this conquest to the
+Israelites can only be rightly estimated when it is realized that, during
+countless centuries, this single branch of the Semitic race had adhered to
+the cult of the central, changeless, ever-present and light-giving guiding
+star, and gradually developed the higher conception of an invisible,
+omnipotent and omniscient God. It will be seen that, while other branches
+of their race gradually developed separate cults of the dual principles of
+nature, they had remained faithful to the primeval recognition of a single
+pole-star and, rising to a loftier conception, constituted themselves the
+champions of a pure monotheism, disconnected from the cult of heaven and
+earth or sun and moon which, associated with dual reproductive principles,
+justly became the horror and abomination of the Israelites. It is
+interesting to recall the fact that, about 908 B.C., Jezebel, the wife of
+Ahab and daughter of the king of Tyre, set up the cult of the dual
+principles of nature in Israel and, destroying the priests and prophets of
+Jehovah, built a temple to Baal and Astarte and appointed 450 priests and
+500 prophets to the respective service of these divinities. This
+historical incident furnishes a striking instance of the united cult of
+the Above and Below in direct antagonism to that of the Centre which had
+already developed into a definite and pure monotheism.(101)
+
+ASSYRIA.
+
+A study of the Assyrian symbols of royalty, which I recently had an
+opportunity of making at the British Museum, has led me to the conclusion
+that, in Assyria, during many centuries, a perfect equilibrium was
+maintained throughout the state which, by a strict cooerdination of all its
+parts, represented a harmonious entity.
+
+An observation I have made, which may be worth noting, is that Assyria
+seems to occupy, in relation to Babylonia, somewhat the same position as
+Peru to the more ancient and greater centres of culture in Mexico and
+Central America. In the latter the original ground-plan of the archaic
+civilization seems to be lost and hidden under the ruin and devastation
+caused by the growth of diverging cults. In Peru and Assyria alike we seem
+to have examples of organizations starting afresh on the old plan or
+reversions to the primitive type of civil and religious government in
+which simplicity, order, balance and harmony were again restored and
+maintained. If I may venture to hazard a general observation about the
+ancient civilizations of Western Asia I should say that, whereas the
+primeval centre of primitive pole-star worship in Babylonia had, in course
+of time, brought forth as its highest development the monotheism of the
+Israelites, and as its lowest the cults of Ishtar and Bel, it also appears
+to have given birth to a reproduction of its former self, to the Assyrian
+empire, in which the most ancient form of culture was preserved intact,
+and in time spread its influence not only to other nations but also back
+to Babylonia itself.
+
+As in Peru, it appears to have been the policy of the kings of Assyria,
+who had before them the results of an opposite course pursued at
+Babylonia, to discountenance the manufacture of symbolical images and the
+establishment of minor centres of government, the leading motive being to
+maintain the ideal of an absolute centralization of temporal and spiritual
+government and power. It is the opinion of leading Assyriologists that
+Assyria was a colony founded by Semitic Babylonians and this conclusion is
+corroborated by the view I have advanced, namely, that, as Babylonia
+degenerated and abandoned the primeval ideas which nourished the germ of
+monotheism, those who adhered to this ideal after prolonged struggles
+separated themselves from their ancient mother, and founded new colonies,
+the administration and religion of which they established according to
+their wider experience and more advanced intellectual and moral
+development. A characteristic of Assyria seems to have been the
+institution of two male rulers, the high-priest and the king and the cult
+of the diurnal and nocturnal heaven, of day and night. As these features
+are in marked contrast to the Babylonian male and female rulers and the
+cult of heaven and earth and the reproductive principles, it would seem as
+though they had developed themselves from a prolonged cult of heaven alone
+by the inhabitants of Northern Babylonia, or that they were the result of
+a reform led about by the abuses to which the Babylonian cult had led. A
+curious development worth mentioning, even out of its chronological order,
+was when the Assyrian king Esarhaddon placed his two sons as single rulers
+upon the thrones of Babylonia and Assyria. It is known that these two
+brothers ruled in peace during twenty years and that then a great
+rebellion against the Assyrian rule took place, which ended in the
+conquest and destruction of Babylonia and the death of its king, whose
+half-brother, the Assyrian ruler Asurbanipal, thus became the sole ruler
+of Assyria and Babylonia.
+
+Professor Jastrow tells us that, "as compared with Babylonia, Assyria was
+poor in the number of her temples.... The Assyrian rulers were much more
+concerned in rearing grand edifices for themselves. While the gods were
+not neglected in Assyria, one hears much more of the magnificent palaces
+erected by the kings than of temples and shrines."
+
+The above data suffice to show that the tendency of the Assyrian monarchs
+was to indulge in self-glorification and to forget what some of his
+subjects never could: that his position had originally been that of an
+earthly representative only of a higher central, celestial power. As among
+some branches of the Semitic race, the conception of a divinity became
+more and more elevated until it reached the ideal of the Yahwe, "the only
+true god who was jealous of other gods and could brook none beside him."
+To these uncompromising adherents of pure monotheism the royal titles of
+the Assyrian kings who styled themselves the rulers of the centre, of the
+four quarters of the earth and of the heavens, must indeed have appeared
+as a sacrilege.
+
+The existence of such opposite views clearly explains the ultimate
+outbreak of hatred and war between monotheistic Israel and Juda and the
+ancient empires of Western Asia which shared, with them, a remote but
+common origin.
+
+Returning to Assyria we find that this empire also, as it extended its
+four-fold capital Assur into four provinces and developed the cult of the
+high central power and the Heaven and Earth, gradually prepared in turn
+its own downfall by an inevitable process of disintegration. In time two
+great capitals grew up, situated to the northeast and northwest of the
+ancient metropolis of Assur, the original seat of the "kings of the four
+regions." These capitals were Ninive, divided into four cities, and
+Arbela, also a "four-city." The fact that the latter capital was the seat
+of Ishtar worship, further proves that, at one time, a definite separation
+of cults had also supervened in Assyria and that Assur and Ninive may at
+one time have been respectively centres of Polaris and sun worship. It is
+well known that when about B.C. 606 the great Assyrian empire was
+destroyed, it had four royal residences: Ninive, Dur-Sarrukin, Kalash and
+Assur, which were then burnt and levelled to the ground, never to be
+rebuilt.
+
+Let us now examine the emblems of "divine royalty" exhibited on the famous
+portrait stelae of Assyrian kings preserved at the British Museum which
+strikingly confirm the view I advanced that the four-spoked wheel of
+Shamash on the Sippara tablet was the ancient restored image of the
+"primitive sun" Polaris and of circumpolar rotation.
+
+The Assyrian kings on the British Museum stelae are represented as wearing
+the cross, between the signs for the moon and planet Venus, that occurs on
+the Sippara tablet. The four-spoked wheel thus explains itself as a
+"wheel-cross" and is found to have been employed in Assyria alternately
+with the plain cross; for the portrait statue of Asurnasirpal (about B.C.
+880) represents the king wearing a chain about his neck from which hangs a
+cross between the Ishtar and moon emblems, and next to a symbol
+representing the lightning bolt of Ramman. In the background, next to the
+king's head, five emblems are sculptured, three of which are identical
+with those hanging from the chain, _i. e._ the eight-rayed "sun" of
+Ishtar, the moon Sin and the lightning bolt of Ramman. The _fifth emblem_
+consists of the royal conical cap with four horns and is represented
+separately to the right while the other four symbols form a compact group.
+
+In the text Assur, Ramman, Sin, Shamash and Ishtar are invoked. As the
+symbols of Ishtar and Sin can be identified by the Sippara tablet, and the
+winged disk unquestionably pertains to Assur and the lightning bolt to
+Ramman, we find that the cap, simulating the central "holy mound" with
+four horns, must be the symbol of the remaining god Shamash. This
+inference appears to be corroborated by the circumstance that the
+_seventh_ month was sacred to Shamash and that it was in this month that
+the lord of the holy mound built the seven-staged tower of Babylon. These
+facts authorize us to formulate the conclusion that the four-spoked wheel
+of the Sippara tablet, the cross hanging to the king's chain and the
+four-horned cap which, like the "square altar with four horns," simulated
+the "holy mound," were alike symbols of Shamash, the "primitive Sun."
+
+On his portrait-stela king Shamsi-Rammanu the younger (B.C. 825-812), the
+grandson of Asurnasirpal, wears the cross only, hanging from his
+neck-chain and in the text invokes, according to Dr. von Luschan, only
+Nindar, who has been proven to be Shamash under another name or title.
+Nindar is identified in Professor Jastrow's hand-book with Ninsia, "a god
+of considerable importance, imported perhaps from some ancient site of
+Lagash" ... who "disappeared from the later pantheon." ... (_op. cit._ pp.
+90 and 91). It is interesting to find that the king, who like his ancient
+predecessor the Patesi or religious chief Shamsi-Ramman (B.C. 1850) bears
+the name of the god Shamash, wears as his only ornament the cross which so
+obviously expresses the royal title, "lord of the four regions."
+
+From Professor Jastrow (p. 107), we learn that it was customary for the
+early rulers of Babylon, at the beginning or the close of their dedicatory
+inscriptions, to parade a list of the divinities associated with the
+districts that they controlled. Gudea, for instance, enumerates eighteen
+deities, and these may be taken as indicative of the territorial extent of
+Gudea's jurisdiction. This custom affords an interesting explanation of
+the sculptured emblems of divinities and the invocations of their names on
+the above stelae and shows that Asurnasirpal and his grandson ruled four
+districts from a fifth situated in the centre, whose emblem was the mound
+with four horns or the cross, both emblems of the royal "lord of the four
+regions."
+
+Bearing this custom in mind, we next note that, on his stela at the
+British Museum, Shalmaneser II, the son of Asurnasirpal, invokes not only
+three different divinities, but also one more than his father or son. His
+invocation is to Ashur, Shamash and Ishtar and to the Babylonian triad
+Anu, Bel and Ea. The emblems of the first three divinities are the same as
+on the stelae of his father and son, _i. e._ the winged disk, the
+mound-shaped, horned cap and the eight-rayed star. To Anu, Bel and Ea
+pertain the emblematic lightning bolt and moon which are clearly visible;
+and a third, almost effaced, group which, upon examination by Mr. Pinches,
+revealed the presence of six stars or circles. Dr. von Luschan infers that
+originally the group consisted of seven circles and was the same as that
+sculptured on the stelae of Sargon (at Berlin), the bas-reliefs at
+Nahr-el-Kelb and at Bavian. On each of these the circles are grouped in
+two horizontal rows of three circles while the seventh circle stands to
+the right, in front and midway between both rows.
+
+If we assume that the lightning bolt pertained to Anu, the upper, and the
+moon, the emblem of Night, to Ea, the lower firmament, we find that the
+seven-fold group falls to the lot of Bel and seems to coincide exactly
+with the recorded fact that the famous zikkurat of Bel at Babylon, for
+instance, consisted of seven stories; and that it was known as "the house
+of the seven divisions [regions] of the world," and that Babylon actually
+was at one time a seven-fold state, with seven "mountains"=gods=earthly
+rulers.
+
+Final, positive proof that Assyria, under Sargon II and Esarhaddon, like
+ancient Babylon, was organized into seven "districts," seems to be
+furnished by the seven symbols carved on their stelae, accompanied by the
+group of seven circles which obviously expresses the same as the cuneiform
+character in the inscribed invocation, namely, the word "seven-fold-one"
+or "seven in one,"(102) which was obviously an appropriate designation for
+the empire as a whole, consisting as it did of seven tribal districts,
+associated with the seven directions in space to each of which was
+assigned a god, a mountain house, a color, an animal, a celestial body, a
+day and a symbol.
+
+An extremely suggestive juxtaposition of the numeral seven and a circle
+containing a group of five circles, resembling a flower with four petals,
+occurs on the Bavian tablet already cited, on which are also carved two
+emblems: the moon and winged disk; one compact detached group consisting
+of four altars (three surrounded by horns and one surmounted by a ram's
+head) and a second detached group consisting of a base into which four
+staffs or sceptres are inserted. These recur on the fine Sendschirli stela
+of Esarhaddon about which a few words remain to be said. It exhibits the
+numeral seven=the "seven in one" sign before the king, accompanied by four
+divinities mounted on animals, the first two being the god riding a double
+monster, and the seated goddess, both wearing the cone on the high royal
+cap. Carved close to the king's hand is the group of four staffs or
+sceptres, inserted in a horizontal base, which appear to be the emblems of
+his lordship over the four regions. Three of these are the same as on the
+Bavian relief: the first surmounted by a cone-shaped object(103) beneath
+which are two hanging ends of ribbons; the second consisting of a plain
+single staff, split so as to form two; the third surmounted by two animal
+heads, each with a single horn. The fourth sceptre on Esarhaddon's stela
+is like that represented as inserted into one of the altars on the Bavian
+stela, and terminates in a recurved ram's head. The fourth in the Bavian
+group of sceptres somewhat resembles the trident tripartite emblem which
+occurs on the Sargon stela and the Esarhaddon stela of Nahr-el-Kelb
+(_figured_ by Dr. Luschan, _op. cit._ p. 20).
+
+A fresh examination of the bas-relief of Maltaya, described by Layard and
+already alluded to, reveals a suggestive differentiation in the
+representations of the seven divinities in a row, at each end of which,
+facing the procession, stands a king. Considering that in Assyria there
+were governors, the _limmi_, who held offices of limited duration and gave
+their names to their years of office, the query naturally suggests itself
+whether the two "kings" may not also have ruled for fixed periods of seven
+years, each one of which bore the name of one of the seven divisions.
+
+It being an accepted fact that the institution of the Sabbath was of
+Chaldean and Babylonian origin, it is permissible to assign to the same
+source the institution of the seven-year period described in Leviticus
+XXV: "But the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land....
+And thou shalt number seven Sabbaths of years unto thee, seven times seven
+years; and the space of the seven sabbaths of years shall be unto thee
+forty-nine years.... And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year"....
+
+Addressing to Assyriologists an appeal for fuller knowledge concerning the
+ancient calendar periods of Babylonia-Assyria, I now revert to the Maltaya
+bas-relief and point out that, of the seven divinities, the two principal
+ones, a god and goddess, wear a form of cap encircled by horns and
+surmounted by a cone. One of these two deities is distinguished from all
+others by his larger size and by the fact that he stands on a double
+animal and heads the procession holding a recurved sceptre in his hand.
+Behind him follows the goddess Ishtar, holding a large ring in her right
+hand. Her throne, as on the Sendschirli stela, exhibits a ring surmounting
+its high back, to the side of which a group of four circles or disks are
+attached. As several centres of Ishtar cult, already mentioned, have been
+designated as fourfold cities it seems possible that the four disks
+alluded to this fact, while the ring crowning the top of the throne, and
+that she holds, constitutes one of her emblems.... However this may be,
+both monuments exhibit kings associated with the number seven and Ishtar,
+the seated goddess, associated with the number four; facts which claim
+further investigation and may lead to interesting verifications of the
+numerical systems of the Assyrians. It should be mentioned here that the
+heads of the five remaining divinities, on the Maltaya bas-relief, are
+surmounted by a wheel with spokes and that one holds a recurved sceptre,
+like that of the first, another bears the lightning bolt of Ramman, while
+three carry the same peculiar double symbol also held by Shamash on the
+Sippara tablet. It consists of a large ring like that held by Ishtar and a
+short staff possibly a fire-stick. In each case the fingers of the right
+hand of the deity clasp the middle of the staff and the ring and the
+appearance of the combined rod and circle closely resembles the upper
+portion of the Egyptian crux ansata. Professor von Luschan has, indeed,
+expressed the opinion that the ring or circle (of Ishtar) the rod and
+circle (of Shamash) and the crux ansata must have analogous meanings, a
+view I fully share and shall further support in dealing with the Egyptian
+symbol.
+
+The following data will be found to substantiate further the evidence
+produced concerning the seven-fold organization of Babylonia-Assyria. One
+of the finest bas-relief tablets at the British Museum excavated by Layard
+from the ruins of Asurnasirpal's palace at Nimroud represents in its
+centre the sacred conventionalized ashera=tree, above which is the winged
+circle, from the centre of which issues the half figure of the god Assur
+(_cf._ fig. 71, 1). To its right stand two winged figures wearing the
+conical crown with four horns, and necklaces from which hang its
+reproduction in miniature, also the cross, the symbol of Ishtar and the
+moon. To the left of the tree stand two personages, wearing the high cap
+with a flat top, central cone and hanging ends, such as are frequently
+represented as worn by the kings. The natural inference would be that the
+winged figures wearing the cap with horns represent high-priests and that
+a double hierarchy corresponding to the dual monarchy probably existed at
+one time, the result being "four lords," two celestial and two
+terrestrial, corresponding to the "four regions," two of which pertained
+to the Above or the heaven and two to the Below or earth. A curious
+indication that at one time there were four separate rulers of the four
+regions is furnished by the cap with four horns and the altar whose four
+corners terminated in horns, when they are connected with the passage in
+Revelations XVII, which refers to Babylonian symbolism and states: "And
+the ten horns that thou sawest are ten kings." Professor Jastrow states
+that "similar horns existed on the Hebrew and Phoenician altars," and that
+"if we may believe Herodotus, the great altars at Babylon were made of
+gold" (p. 652).
+
+Doubtlessly, Assyrian texts contain a fund of information yet inaccessible
+to students, concerning the constitution of the state and the
+modifications it may have undergone in course of time. An exhaustive study
+of the symbols connected with Assyrian kings at different dates, in
+connection with the text relating his conquests and foundations of
+temples, may yet reveal the occasional assumption or usurpation by a
+single individual of different degrees of power and, possibly, the
+ultimate separation and antagonism of hierarchy and monarchy.
+
+The employment in Assyria and Babylonia of the tree, as a sacred symbol,
+should next be considered, first, in relation to the other symbols to
+which great religious importance was attached. The significance of the
+zikkurat, or seven-staged tower, has already been discussed. Another
+feature was "the great basin known as 'Apsu,' the name, it will be
+recalled, for 'the deep' [_i. e._ the lower firmament]. The name indicates
+that it was a symbolical representation of the domain of Ea. The zikkurat
+itself being an attempt to reproduce the shape of the earth, the
+representation of the 'apsu' would suggest itself as a natural accessory
+to the temple. The zikkurat and the basin together would thus become the
+living symbols of the current cosmological conceptions. The comparison
+with the great 'sea' that stood in the court of Solomon's temple,
+naturally suggests itself, and there can be little doubt that the latter
+is an imitation of a Babylonian model" (Jastrow, _op. cit._ 653). It is
+evident from the above that the adoption of the sacred basin as the symbol
+of Ea would naturally be simultaneous with that of miniature "basins" and
+water bowls and jars, employed for holding the sacred water used in the
+cult of the Below. Reflection shows that, in the zikkurat, the seat of
+Bel=the image of the earth, and in the "Apsu" the watery deep and lower
+firmament of Ea, we have the sacred emblems of two deities of the
+Babylonian triad only. The emblem of Anu, the Heaven or upper firmament,
+is missing and it is naturally in the cult of Anshar=Ashur that it must be
+sought for. The following data will sufficiently show that it was the tree
+or pole and, in all probability, the fire-stick that were connected with
+the cult of An-shar="all that is above," or "on high." The resemblance of
+the name Ashur to the word for tree or pole, the "Ashera" of the
+Phoenicians and Hebrews, suggests, moreover, the probability of their
+common origin.
+
+An interesting question on which I have not, as yet, been able to obtain
+information, relates to the mode of producing fire, resorted to by the
+Babylonian-Assyrians. The element was, of course, associated with heaven,
+and the fire-god under the name of Gibil or Nusku was termed the "son of
+Anu." Shamash himself also figures as a personification of fire and it
+seems probable that, in the Babylonian temples in the centre of the square
+altar, a fire was originally kept perpetually burning as an image of
+Polaris. As great stress is laid upon the purifying effect of fire as on
+that of water in Babylonian literature, it is easy to trace the origin of
+the offering of burnt sacrifices to the idea that, cast into the sacred
+fire, they became purified and absorbed into its essence, _i. e._ accepted
+by the sacred living image of the central star-god. It seems extremely
+probable that the primitive employment of a fire-stick by the priesthood,
+for the production of "celestial fire," may have played an important role
+in causing the stick, and thence the pole and tree, to have become the
+adopted symbol of Anu. So little is known even about the origin of
+"tree-worship" itself in ancient Babylonia-Assyria that Professor Jastrow
+advances the following statement (p. 689).
+
+"On the seal cylinders there is frequently represented a pole or a
+conventionalized form of a tree, generally in connection with a design
+illustrating the worship of a deity. This symbol is clearly a survival of
+some tree worship that was once popular. The comparison with the _ashera_
+and pole worship among Phoenicians and Hebrews is fully justified and is a
+proof of the great antiquity of the symbols which, without becoming a
+formal part of the later cult, retained in some measure a hold upon the
+popular mind.
+
+" 'Ashur' became the god of Assyria as the rulers of the city of Ashur
+grew in power ... in the various changes of official residences that took
+place in the course of Assyrian history ... the god took part and his
+central seat of worship depended upon the place that the kings chose for
+their official residence ... there was always one place--the official
+residence--which formed the central spot of worship. There the god was
+supposed to dwell for the time being. One factor, perhaps, that ought to
+be taken into consideration, in accounting for this movable disposition of
+the god was that he was not symbolized exclusively by a statue.... His
+chief symbol was a standard that could be carried from place to place....
+The standard consisted of _a pole_ surrounded by a disk enclosed within
+two wings, while above the disk stood the figure of a warrior in the act
+of shooting an arrow (_cf._ fig. 65, 5).... The standard ... which was so
+made that it could be carried into the thick of the fray in order to
+assure the army of the god's presence(104) ... followed the camp
+everywhere and when the kings chose to fix upon a new place for their
+military encampment ... the standard would repose in the place selected"
+(Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 194). To one who like myself has devoted years to
+the study of the symbolism of primitive people and is familiar with the
+ancient Mexican image of the "lord of the North" standing in the centre of
+a horizontally-placed cross-figure, and with the Chichimecan custom, on
+taking possession of new territory, to shoot arrows towards the cardinal
+points, the Ashur standard suggests a single explanation, namely, that it
+was the symbol of celestial, central rulership and that the god, standing
+on a staff which could be turned and aiming his arrow towards the four
+directions in succession, was an expressive image of Polaris and
+Septentriones.
+
+Further ideas associated with the tree by the Babylonian-Assyrians are
+clear since Professor E. B. Tylor has so conclusively shown that certain
+bas-reliefs represent the act of artificially fertilizing the palm tree by
+scattering the male blossom from its cone-shaped bunch, over the female
+palm. In each case this rite is being performed by figures with human
+bodies and large wings, _i. e._ high priests of heaven, and it seems
+evident that it symbolized the mystic life-producing union of heaven and
+earth or of the male and female principles of nature which marked the
+Babylonian-Assyrian New Year's Day. Given these associations of thought,
+it is easy to see how the New Year became the festival of New Life and how
+the fertilized tree became the "tree of life," and its sculptured image a
+memorial of a new year, possibly recording some record of the actual
+marriages which took place in the state on that day. The decipherment and
+comparison of the inscriptions on such tablets, by skilled Assyriologists,
+can alone enlighten us on this point, but enough appears apparent to
+explain how the tree could have become associated in Assyria not only with
+life, but with the life and growth of the state. Moreover the tree or pole
+itself, named ashera, may well have appeared to some Euphratean people, to
+express the name Ashur sufficiently clear to become its symbol and
+"canting arms."
+
+The adoption of the shaft or pole, as a symbol of the Celestial Centre,
+may easily be explained by the fact that, stuck into the ground and
+watched from a certain position, its upper end would seem to touch Polaris
+and it thus supplied wandering star-observers with a point of fixity in
+space which, being transportable, facilitated the registration of
+circumpolar rotation. During many centuries the image of the "crooked
+serpent," Nakkasch, the constellation which could be seen each night
+winding its way around the pole, must have deeply impressed itself upon
+the minds of the primitive star gazers of the Euphratean valley, and
+conveyed suggestions of imagery, one of which may have created the
+Phoenician caduceus. At a later period when Ursa Major became circumpolar,
+the "seven lights of heaven" became in turn associated with the stable
+centre and suggested, in time, the seven-branched candlestick of the
+Hebrews which is to this day constructed with a central or principal
+holder, associated with stability. It is remarkable to note the same
+ancient fundamental association in the elevated and beautiful imagery
+employed by the descendant of ancient Euphratean star-worshippers, in
+Revelation IV, in describing his vision: "... And, behold, a throne _was
+set_ in heaven, and _one_ sat on the throne.... And there were seven lamps
+of fire burning before the throne.... And before the throne there was a
+sea of glass like unto crystal: and in the midst of the throne and round
+about the throne were four beasts...."
+
+The idea cited by Mr. Robert Brown, of the sacred pole-tree with golden
+apples guarded by the constellation Nakkasch, has already been mentioned
+and to this ancient image should be added the celestial tree of life set
+in the midst of the garden of Paradise, whence "went out a river to water
+the garden and from thence it was parted and became four heads."... It is
+as easy to see how the standard of Assur, which always marked the central
+place of worship, should have been evolved, as it is to realize why the
+fire-stick, rod or sceptre should have been adopted by monarchs as an
+emblem of central rulership, and why, finally, each centre of government
+should have adopted some specific symbol which, mounted on the staff,
+became its tribal or national emblem. It does not appear hazardous to
+designate as such the ornamented staffs already described, which are
+represented on the bas-reliefs, in groups of four, a number agreeing with
+that of the "four regions." It has already been pointed out that a group
+of four sceptres, corresponding to the royal title "lord of four regions,"
+is carved close to the hand of Esarhaddon on the fine Sendschirli tablet
+at Berlin.
+
+In Babylonia, the local deity of Girsu was entitled "the lord of the true
+sceptre," "the lord of the right-hand sceptre," a name which implies that,
+where dual rulership prevailed, a distinction was made between right-hand
+and left-hand sceptres, a point to which I shall revert later on in
+dealing with Egypt. In Northern Assyria when the cult of Nabu superseded
+that of Marduk, his temple was named "the house of the sceptre of the
+world" and Nebuchadnezzar declares that it is he "who gives the sceptre of
+sovereignty to kings to rule over the land" (Jastrow, _op. cit._ 129).
+
+Simultaneously with the staff, the cross and wheel also became emblems of
+sovereignty. It has already been shown that the cross and four-spoked
+wheel of Shamash were synonymous signs. It remains to be shown how the
+wheel was employed in Babylonia and Assyria as an emblem of royalty. The
+representation of Shamash at Sippar exhibits his wheel resting, in a
+perpendicular position, on a table. Attached to the wheel are two cords
+which are held by a "god" and his consort, who appear to be directing the
+course of the wheel. We thus see that, whereas the disk or wheel of Assur,
+the central god, revolved on its own axis, and was provided with wings,
+signifying aerial and celestial motion, the wheel of Shamash was
+associated with a "lord and lady," and the symbolism appears to express
+that they were the directors of the "wheel of the law" of terrestrial
+government. It is well known that, beside the throne, the emblem of
+permanent repose, the Assyrian monarchs also used the chariot as a royal
+prerogative.
+
+In the Gilgamesh epic the goddess Ishtar, on conferring sovereignty upon
+Gilgamesh, says: "I will place thee on a chariot of lapis-lazuli and gold,
+with wheels of gold...." On studying the Nimroud bas-reliefs in the
+British Museum I noted the fact that the trappings of the horse driven by
+king Asurnasirpal, who is represented as standing in his two-wheeled
+chariot, are decorated with crosses. It is impossible not to recognize the
+affinity of the "wheel of the law" and the "lord of the wheel" of India
+with the Assyrian symbols of Polaris and of central rulership and to
+appreciate the naive ingenuity of the idea of making the driving of the
+chariot by the king represent his control of the rotating wheels of state
+and government of the four quarters from a stable centre.(105)
+
+As another example of the Assyrian employment of the cross-symbol, the
+bas-relief at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, should be mentioned, as it
+displays a winged bird-headed human figure, whose garments are embroidered
+with crosses.
+
+King Asurnasirpal, who is alternately figured on his throne or in his
+chariot, is frequently represented as wearing on his garments and
+bracelets another familiar and expressive emblem of centralization and
+unity in diversity, the composite flower or rosette.
+
+The sacred ship or ark of the Babylonian temple remains to be discussed.
+Diodorus Seculus says that, according to Babylonian notions, "the world is
+'a boat turned upside down' and resting on the waters. The appearance in
+outline of this image presented the three divisions of the universe: the
+heavens=Anu upheld by the serpent body of Tiamat; the earth, the dwelling
+of Bel-Marduk, the 'chief of gods;' and the watery deep or 'Apsu' beneath,
+the dwelling of Ea" (Jastrow). This imagery authorizes the inference that
+the sacred ship or ark was associated with this conception of the earth as
+a boat resting on the line dividing the sky from the watery deep. It can
+readily be seen how a maritime people would be inclined to fancy that the
+celestial bodies floated in the sky on invisible boats and that a single
+one among them was apparently resting on a stable rock or mountain around
+which other stars circled perpetually. That an analogous train of thought
+should have caused the ultimate consecration of a tabernacle in the form
+of a ship, to the central deity, entitled "the great mountain," appears as
+inevitable as the idea that all life proceeded from this source. Professor
+Jastrow tells us that the early significance of the custom of carrying the
+gods in consecrated ships became lost, but that it survived in Babylonia
+and Egypt and that the ark of the Hebrews appears, similarly, to have been
+originally a ship of some kind. I am indebted to Dr. Wallis Budge for the
+interesting information that each day, in the temple of Ptah at Memphis,
+an image of the god Seker was dragged around the altar by the priests.
+
+Bringing the preceding tentative study of the ancient civilization of
+Babylonia-Assyria to a close, I venture to affirm that, imperfect as it
+is, it clearly establishes certain important points connected with the
+present investigation. It demonstrates that a primitive pole-star worship
+existed and still exists in the Euphratean valley, accompanied by the
+employment of the swastika or cross-symbol and by the identical
+fundamental set of ideas which form the basis not only of other Asiatic,
+but also of the American civilizations. The Middle is associated with
+special sanctity, fixity and supremacy of power and rule, extending in
+rotation over the Above and Below and Four Quarters. This seven-fold
+division of the universe extended throughout the entire organization of
+the state and gave rise to certain logical developments of thought and
+symbolism, analogous to those which have been traced elsewhere.
+
+Postponing further comment, investigation will next be transferred to the
+valley of the Nile, whose inhabitants, at various periods of their
+history, came closely into contact with the people of Asia Minor.
+
+EGYPT.
+
+Pausing at the entrance to a much explored domain with a fitting
+realization of being a novice and an intruder therein, I find myself
+encouraged to advance by the frank admission recently made by one of the
+leading authorities in Egyptology. In his "Notes for travellers in Egypt,"
+Dr. Wallis Budge, the Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian
+antiquities, of the British Museum, openly states that "the religion of
+the ancient Egyptians is one of the most difficult problems of Egyptology
+and though a great deal has been written about it during the last few
+years and many difficulties have been satisfactorily explained, there
+still remain unanswered a large number of questions connected with it. In
+all religious texts the reader is always assumed to have a knowledge of
+the subject treated of by the writer, and no definite statement is made on
+the subject concerning which very little, comparatively, is known by
+students of to-day" (The Nile, London, 1890, p. 71).
+
+After having traced, as I have done, throughout ancient America, China,
+India and Babylonia-Assyria, one and the same fundamental, artificial
+scheme of state organization, it was with keenest interest and a new sense
+of comprehension of the ancient Egyptian civilization that I noted certain
+facts which I shall now proceed to present.
+
+They will be found to show that ancient Egypt supplies us with the
+instance of a civilization in which the fundamental set of ideas,
+developed from primitive pole-star worship, prevailed during thousands of
+years and had reached a high stage of evolution at a period anterior to
+about B.C. 4000.
+
+TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS OF ANCIENT EGYPT.
+
+According to Dr. Wallis Budge, the ancient Egyptians called their land Bak
+or Baket, Ta-Mera and Khem or Kamt, also Ta-Nehat, "the land of the
+sycamore" and the land of "the eye of Horus." It was divided into two
+parts: Upper Egypt, Ta-res or Ta-kema="the southern land," symbolized by
+the vulture; and Lower Egypt, Ta-Meh, Mah-Ti or Meh-Ta, literally,
+"North-land," symbolized by the serpent. Two great ancient cities or
+capitals were respectively known as Annu Meht, "Annu of the North," and
+Annu Qemat, "Annu of the South." The kings of Egypt styled themselves
+Suten-Net, "King of the North and South" and Nebtaui, "lord of the two
+earths." As such the king wore the double crown made up of the tesher or
+net, the red crown of Northern or Lower Egypt and the hetet or het, the
+white crown of Southern or Upper Egypt (The Nile, p. 27).
+
+It will be shown further on that the high white and low red crowns were
+respectively worn by the king and the queen at a certain period of
+Egyptian history. It is well known that, in numerous pictorial
+representations, the Egyptian men are painted with red, but the women with
+white skins. The above facts show that there existed a curious association
+of red with the north and the male sex, and of white with the south and
+the female sex.(106)
+
+It is a familiar fact that the Egyptian hieroglyph and determinative sign
+for town, city or village consisted of a circle with four divisions. The
+usual form of this sign, the phonetic value of which is nu or nut, is
+shown as fig. 60, 1, _a_. On a bas-relief preserved at the Ashmolean
+Museum, Oxford, I noted the variant 1, _b_. It is interesting to collate
+these signs with the cross-symbols (2) which express the sound of uu, un,
+and ur, and to note that the sign for a capital in Egypt contains a
+division into four=un or ur, and that the latter word is actually the
+familiar name of the famous centre in Babylonia where cities laid out in
+the form of a square and "four-god cities" existed, and the kings were
+termed "lords of the four regions" and "kings of Sumer and Akkad," the two
+ancient divisions of the Babylonian state.
+
+It thus appears doubly significant that, in Egyptian, the word ur
+signifies "great, great one" and is also the name of a god, which is
+expressed in hieroglyphic writing by the cross, a mouth and a seated god,
+the determinative for divinity. What is more, ur-u=chiefs, ur-t=the name
+of a crown and ur-t=those who rest, all of which words show that the
+Egyptian ur was associated with the idea of divinity, greatness, crowned
+chieftainship, repose and the cross-symbol which is incorporated in nut,
+the sign for capital or city.
+
+The fact that the symbols for the two great divisions of ancient Egypt,
+the red crown of Northern or Lower Egypt, and the white crown of Southern
+or Upper Egypt, are found surmounting the sign nut (3), sufficiently shows
+that this symbol also stood for an extended capital, a state, and that
+both "lands" constituted at one time separate units or reproductions of
+the identical plan. Returning to the ancient capitals known as the "Annu
+of the North" and the "Annu of the South:" according to Dr. Wallis Budge
+the first occupied the site of Heliopolis and was identical with the city
+of On mentioned in Genesis (XLI: 45). The Annu Qemat was Hermonthis, the
+modern Menth, Armant or Erment, situated on the west bank of the Nile a
+little to the south of the ruins of Thebes. It is noteworthy that the name
+for Thebes, given in the cuneiform inscriptions and Hebrew scriptures, No
+(Ezek. XXX:4) and No-am-on (Nahum III:8), is in one case the simple
+inversion of On, the Hebrew name of Heliopolis, the Northern Annu, while
+in the second instance the name of Thebes incorporates both forms.
+
+The allusion to the "square of the city of Edfu," and to buildings laid
+out on a square ground-plan, contained in inscriptions cited by
+Brugsch,(107) also furnishes an indication, which can doubtless be
+multiplied, that, as in Babylonia, Egyptian cities were sometimes built in
+the form of a square. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, the square (slightly
+elongated) is employed to express the consonant _p_. The sign appears to
+have been cryptic and to have constituted the symbol of the god Ptah, "The
+Opener," considered as the most ancient of Egyptian gods. According to Dr.
+Wallis Budge, "the sign is the picture of a door made up of a number of
+boards fastened together by three cross-pieces at the back, and there can
+be no doubt that the word for door was connected with the verb pth=to
+open, and that it was pronounced something like ptah (compare the Hebrew
+pethah). The sound of the first letter of ptah being _p_, the phonetic
+value of the door became _p_" (First steps in Egyptian, p. 5). To the
+above I add the observation that the plain square or outline of the door,
+without indications of boards and cross-pieces, is usually employed in the
+published texts. The association of the square, representing a door with
+three cross-beams, and expressing the sound ptah is particularly
+interesting when connected with the word for earth or land=ta, and the
+method of expressing the word universe=taui, by the threefold repetition
+of the sign ta, which resembles a cross-beam (fig. 60, 5). An interesting
+association of the square with earth or land is seen in one of the signs
+for province or nome=sept or hesp, which consists of a series of squares,
+evidently representing theoretical territorial divisions and possibly a
+system of canal-irrigation. Other suggestive signs for sep consist of a
+circle containing two strokes; a circle enclosing four dots and a double
+circle (fig. 60, 4). It is interesting to find an isosceles triangle
+employed, with a slight addition, to express the word ta=land, as well as
+sept=province (fig. 60, 4 and 5), and to find on analyzing the circular
+sign for nut=sky, which is likewise the determinative for city, that it
+contains four triangles. These converge towards the centre, as do the
+triangular sides of the square pyramid, and thus the sign nut and the
+pyramid clearly appear to express a whole divided into four parts, the
+square form being connected with earth and the circle with the sky.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 60.
+
+
+A proof that the quadriform organization was extensively employed in
+ancient Egypt, is furnished by Dr. Wallis Budge's statement that each nome
+or province was divided into four parts, and had its capital or "nut." The
+inference is that each nome constituted a miniature reproduction of the
+state and that the sign nut represented its theoretical plan. On the other
+hand, the fact that the triangle constitutes one sign for the nome itself,
+indicates that, originally, the nome was identified as one of four
+divisions of the state only and that, like Babylon, Egypt must have been
+theoretically divided, not only into two main divisions, but also into
+four regions, corresponding to the
+
+North=Meh-ta, literally North land.
+West=Amen-ta, literally Hidden land.
+South=Resu.
+East=Aba.
+
+In the extracts from the Pyramid texts published by Dr. Wallis Budge
+(Pyramid of Unas, Fifth dynasty), the following invocation occurs: "O gods
+of the west, O gods of the east, O gods of the south, O gods of the north,
+four these, who embrace _the four quarters of the earth holy_." These four
+quarters are represented in hieroglyphics by the sign for land=ta,
+repeated four times, which thus express, literally, "the four lands" or
+regions. Allusion is also made in the same inscription, to the "four
+fields of heaven."(108)
+
+The four gods, termed by Egyptologists the "genii of the dead," were Amset
+or Mestha, Hapi, Tuaumutef and Kebhsenuf, and it was the custom to place
+the canopic vases representing them under the bier. The canopic vases
+were, however, also supposed to be under the protection of four sky
+goddesses, identified with the cardinal points, whose names are usually
+given as Isis, Nephthys, Neith and Serk-t(?). A particularly interesting
+instance of the employment of the cross-symbol in connection with the four
+"gods of the horizon," as they are termed, is to be found in the Book of
+the Dead, published by Lepsius and reproduced by Dr. Wallis Budge
+(Dwellers on the Nile, p. 158). The four gods in mummy form, stand in a
+line behind a table laden with offerings. A large crux decussata (St.
+Andrew's cross) is painted on the right shoulder of the foremost god, a
+fact to which I shall revert and discuss further in dealing with the
+cross-symbol and swastika in Egypt. Having traced quadruplicate
+territorial divisions and quaternions of gods, let us next present proofs
+of an organization of the population into four "races."
+
+Dr. Wallis Budge, referring to Chabas and Naville, states that "the
+Egyptians of the later empire believed that Ra-Harmachis, attacked his
+foes, who fled in all directions from before him. Those who came to the
+south became the Cushites, those who came to the north became the Amu,
+those who came to the west the Libyans and those who came to the east the
+Shasu, and thus were the four races of mankind made" (The Dwellers on the
+Nile, p. 53).
+
+The fact that the Sphinx has been designated as the image of Ra-Harmachis
+_i. e._ Heru-em-chut and of his human representative, and that the
+distribution of people to the cardinal points and the origin of four races
+of men is assigned to him, are particularly interesting and suggestive,
+especially in connection with the familiar table of nations given by
+Moses, who says "and the sons of Ham, Cush and Mizraim and Phut and
+Canaan" (Gen. X:6). Dr. Wallis Budge states that Ham or Kham is the same
+as Khem and is the name Kamt, _i. e._ black, by which the Egyptians
+generally called their land. I venture to point out that in the following
+passages the name Ham seems to be more applicable to a deity such as
+Amen-Ra or to his human representative a king, than to Egypt itself: "And
+smote all the firstborn in Egypt and the chief of their strength _in the
+tabernacles of Ham_" and again "Wondrous works _in the land of Ham_."...
+
+It is well known that Mizraim, the second name given above, was employed
+by the Hebrews as a designation for Egypt. The inhabitants of the region
+of Cush are represented on Egyptian monuments and we are told that "at the
+outset they appear to have had a religion and speech akin to that of the
+Egyptians. We find Phut most probably, in the Punt of the inscriptions,
+the land ... situated to the south of Egypt on both sides of the Red sea.
+The fourth son [of Ham], Canaan, is represented by the original
+inhabitants of Canaan, who were probably near relations of the Egyptians"
+(Wallis Budge, The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 52). While tradition and
+documentary evidence thus associates the four sons of Ham with certain
+regions and cardinal points, Egyptian monuments exhibit representations of
+people of four different colors, _i. e._ red, yellow, black and white.
+
+"The ancient Egyptians ... recognized four races of men. They themselves
+belonged to the 'Rot' or red men; the yellow men they called 'Namu'--it
+included the Asiatic races; the black men were called 'Nahsu,' and the
+white men 'Tam-hu.' The following figures (fig. 61) are copied from Nott
+and Gliddon's 'Types of Mankind,' p. 85, and were taken by them from the
+great works of Belzoni, Champollion and Lepsius" (Donelly, Atlantis, p.
+195).
+
+Pursuing our investigations of the territorial divisions of Egypt, we
+learn, from Mr. Wallis Budge, that collectively there were 42 nomes in
+Upper and Lower Egypt. This number is identical with that of the 42 gods
+represented in the Book of the Dead as being with Osiris in the hall of
+Two Truths where the dead were judged. The 42 "judges of the dead" are
+represented as seated figures, with human or animal heads, and are equally
+divided into two groups. From the "negative confession" which the deceased
+makes to his judges, we learn that each god was identified with a
+locality, some amongst them being addressed as "coming out from" such
+important cities as Heliopolis, Sais, Bubastis, etc. The inference I
+venture to make is that these 42 judges were the gods of the 42 nomes who,
+with Osiris, the chief god and the "President," formed the council of
+gods, which judged and ordered the affairs of men.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+         Figure 61. The Races Of Men According To The Egyptians.
+
+
+It is moreover natural to suppose that terrestrial administrations of
+justice must also have been executed by a supreme council of men, composed
+of the king, the living image of Osiris, and the chiefs of the 42 nomes of
+Upper and Lower Egypt, who personified, as elsewhere, the totemic divinity
+of tribe or district. Postponing further discussion of the number 42,
+associated with nomes and gods, let us examine further data concerning the
+territorial organization of ancient Egypt.
+
+Dr. Wallis Budge tells us that, "during the rule of the Greeks (B.C.
+342-332), Egypt was divided into three parts: Upper, Central and Lower
+Egypt. Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, and was called Heptanomis"
+(Nile, p. 28). The seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah and the employment of
+the signs expressing "three regions" and "four regions or lands," to
+signify the whole land or universe, prove that, long before Greek rule,
+the ancient Egyptians, like the Babylonians, employed the heptameredal
+system. Thus, according to Herodotus, "There are seven classes of
+Egyptians, and of these some are called priests, others warriors, others
+herdsmen, others swineherds, others tradesmen, others interpreters and
+lastly pilots; such are the classes of Egyptians; they take their names
+from the employments they exercise" (Euterpe II, 164). Passages from Prof.
+Flinders Petrie's History of Egypt (Vol. II, pp. 156 and 185) afford,
+moreover, instances of the conquest of a heptarchic government by an
+Egyptian king and the employment, in about B.C. 1500, of the number seven,
+as a mystic or sacred number, in a letter from a Syrian prince to the
+Egyptian king.
+
+In the record of the triumphal return of Aa-kheperu-ra, the seventh king
+of the eighteenth dynasty (B.C. 1449-1423), it is said: "His Majesty
+returned in joy of heart to his father Amen; his own hand, with his mace,
+had struck down the seven chiefs, which were of the territory of Pakhsi
+(near Aleppo)".... "Six of these enemies were hanged in front of the walls
+of Thebes; the seventh [probably the chief of chiefs], was brought to
+Nubin and was hanged on the wall of the town of Napata, to show forth for
+all time the victories of the king among all people of the negro land,
+inasmuch as he had taken possession of the nations of the south and he had
+bound the nations of the north and the ends of the whole extent of the
+earth on which the sun rises and sets, without finding any opposition,
+according to the command of his father Amen-ra of Thebes." A letter from a
+Syrian prince to Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379), opens thus: "To the king,
+my master, my god, my sun, this is said: Yatibiri, the servant, the dust
+of thy feet, at the feet of my king, my master, my god, my sun, seven
+times, and seven times more, I fall down.(109)"...
+
+While the above data suffice to establish that more than a thousand years
+before Greek rule was established in Egypt its inhabitants were familiar
+with the seven-fold scheme of organization, the following extremely
+interesting portion of Brugsch's monumental work, already cited,
+indirectly teaches much concerning the divisions of the land of Egypt. The
+ancient Egyptian astronomers regarded the nocturnal heaven as the exact
+counterpart of the land of Egypt (I, p. 176). In the inscriptions, the
+firmament is frequently considered geographically, as a region comprising
+countries surrounded by seas and traversed by rivers and canals, and
+covered with cities and houses and divided into nomes which corresponded
+to those of Egypt, excepting in point of number, there being thirty-six
+celestial nomes. According to the inscriptions and pictures in the royal
+tombs at Thebes, there was a celestial eastern sea (uat-ura abti), a
+western sea (uat-ura amentti) and a northern sea (uat-ura mahtet or
+mehtat). Special mention is made of "the waters" and land of the "northern
+place of light above the constellation of the Great Bear."
+
+The lands of Punet (Punt?), Uthenet, Kenemti and Sa-nutart-mahti, "the
+northern land of God" are designated, beside other names which correspond
+to the terrestrial geographical situation of outlying foreign countries
+known to the Egyptians. There was a celestial city, "Anu or On," whose
+eastern and western sides or places of light are frequently mentioned. The
+mention of a single Anu or On, names which are found applied to the most
+ancient capitals of the land of Egypt, is particularly noteworthy. It will
+be shown further on, upon Sir Norman Lockyer's authority, that, in the
+exact centre of the circular zodiac at Denderah, the jackal, expressing
+the name Anubis, "is located at the pole of the equator and obviously
+represents the present Little Bear." This and other data establish beyond
+a doubt that the celestial Anu, On or No, was supposed to be situated in
+Polaris and that the terrestrial capital was intended to be the
+counterpart of the apparent seat of central rule and government according
+to fixed laws and order of rotation. The idea that, after death, the human
+soul lived again in the celestial sphere is shown in the following address
+to a departed spirit contained in the Bulak papyrus cited by Brugsch: "The
+images of the gods of the Southern and Northern countries appear to thee
+in the thirty-six nomes; thou goest where they are as a perfect soul, thou
+doest what pleases thee in the heaven, thou art amongst the constellations
+of the thirty-six Beka."
+
+This word is rendered by Brugsch as the "Dekane" in German and I have been
+unable to find its exact equivalent in English. The Dekanes are alluded to
+in an inscription from the Ptolemaic period cited by Brugsch (_op. cit._
+I, p. 135) as follows: "They shine forth after the sun has set. They _run
+in a circle_, and continually release each other. They become apparent at
+sunset at hours varying with the seasons." The Dekane constellations or
+stars were those which rose at the beginning of each decade or period of
+ten days, which constituted the Egyptian "week." There were thirty-six or
+4x9 of these in the Egyptian year, at the end of which an epact of five
+days was added, each day being consecrated to one of the five chief gods.
+Deferring the discussion of the Egyptian numerical calendaric system, I
+merely point out here the obvious agreement between the number of
+celestial nomes = 36, the number of decades in the year of 360 days to
+which should be added the familiar fact that each day and decade had its
+special "god." Laying stress upon the point that in ancient Egypt we find
+thirty-six celestial, geographical districts, corresponding to the
+thirty-six decades of the year and to thirty-six gods, I take pleasure in
+pointing out how clearly the following passages of Sir Norman Lockyer's
+"Dawn of Astronomy" show that the thirty-six gods had as many human
+representatives, priests, who performed certain religious rites and homage
+in the chief temple in a fixed order of rotation. "Even at Philae in late
+times, in the temple of Osiris, there were 360 bowls for sacrifices, which
+were filled daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests. At
+Acanthus there was a perforated cask into which one of the 360 priests
+poured water from the Nile daily;" an enforced act of obedience recalling
+the punishment of the daughters of Danae. As Sir Norman Lockyer justly
+remarks "these temple ceremonials are an evidence of their antiquity and
+may be regarded as traditions preserved by the conservative priesthood."
+
+I am inclined to regard the above mentioned acts of empty homage as
+survivals of conditions strictly analogous to those which existed in
+ancient America, where each geographical district of the state was
+associated with a class of people under their representative, and a day of
+the calendar on which obligations towards the central government, such as
+the paying of tribute, had to be performed in a fixed order of rotation,
+corresponding to the annual circuit of the circumpolar constellations
+around the pole star.
+
+During centuries the most remarkable of these, Ursa Major, like the hand
+of a great celestial dial, moved by an unseen ruling power apparently
+located in Polaris, became visible after dusk and pointed towards the four
+quarters of heaven in succession, at intervals of nine decades of days. As
+in China and elsewhere at the present day, its position was referred to as
+a guide in determining time, during the night, and the seasons; and
+mankind became familiarized with the idea of a changeless inexorable law
+and order governing the universe and determining human periodical
+activities, and thus directly influencing individual lives. Added to this
+the idea of a heavenly kingdom, traversed by the celestial Nile, the Milky
+Way, and in which each familiar locality in Egypt had its counterpart, it
+is easy to follow the spread of the belief that there was a close
+connection between the stars and their terrestrial counterparts and that
+they directly influenced the destinies of individuals, each of which had
+its particular star in the sky.
+
+The following portions of the decree inscribed B.C. 238 on the famous
+trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, contain what appear to me
+to be distinct allusions to the ideal of a terrestrial kingdom, laid out
+and governed in accordance with the system and fixed laws observed as
+existing in the heavens and governing the movements of celestial bodies.
+The hieroglyphic text records the establishment of festivals "in accord
+with the existing fundamental laws upon which the heavens [the movements
+of heavenly bodies] are established."... The Greek translation of this
+passage reads: "according to the now existing order of the world
+[universe]" and the demotic version is: "in accordance with the scheme,
+upon which the heaven is established " (Brugsch, _op. cit._ I, p. 180).
+Further facts concerning celestial and terrestrial territorial divisions
+remain to be examined and discussed.
+
+A number of representations exist in which the figure of the sky-goddess,
+Nut, appears as though stretched across the vault of heaven, her feet
+resting on the earth in the east and the tips of her fingers touching the
+horizon in the west. A study of certain texts cited by Brugsch clearly
+shows that it was for very practical and sensible reasons that the
+Egyptian astronomers had adopted the plan of an imaginary human form
+stretched across the nocturnal heaven, as it enabled the position of
+constellations and stars to be definitely located. Lepsius has shown that,
+in a series of inscriptions in the tombs of Ramses VI and Ramses IX, the
+movements and positions of stars are given in connection with the parts of
+an imaginary human form in the sky. It is thus said of a star that it was
+situated: "in the middle of the breast, in the right eye, the left eye,
+the right ear, the left ear, the right arm, the left arm, the left thigh."
+
+Brugsch (_op. cit._ I, p. 187) quotes the opinion of Lepsius that the
+parts alluded to in the above inscriptions, referred to an imaginary male
+figure stretched across the firmament and viewed _en face_, and publishes
+a theoretical reconstruction of this imaginary figure. It recalls that of
+a Buddha and suggests the idea that the Egyptian schematical figure must
+have also been imagined as seated on the stable centre of the heaven.
+Egyptian astronomical texts, which I shall cite further on, appear to me
+to show distinctly that the lotus flower (the name for flower being ankh)
+was employed to express the sound ankh, which means "life" and that it
+occurs in connection with other symbols of the pole-star god.
+
+Returning to the representations of Nut stretched across the sky, it
+should be noted that this employment of the human form belongs to the same
+category as the Sphinx, which appears to have been the terrestrial
+counterpart of the celestial schematical figure. On the other hand, the
+sign nut, consisting of a circle with four divisions, like the pyramid,
+represents the successful attempt to express the same thought in abstract,
+geometrical form, such as would be intelligible to an initiated,
+intellectual minority only.
+
+It will be seen further on that I advance the view that the pyramid, being
+a miniature reproduction of the scheme of the universe, contained a sacred
+central chamber, representing the sacred Middle, and that this was
+destined to be the "house of eternal repose" for the dead king, the
+representative of the universal god.
+
+As Dr. Wallis Budge tells us: "If the deceased succeeds in passing the
+ordeal [of judgment after death] satisfactorily, he comes forth at once as
+a god (there is no place of probation), he becomes identified with Osiris,
+in whose shape his mummy is made" (The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 177).
+
+The following text, from the inscription on an amulet found on the neck of
+the mummy of a young girl, preserved at the Berlin Museum, is explained in
+the official catalogue of the museum (p. 343), as signifying that "the
+mummy was supposed to lie in the centre of the whole world:" "The sky is
+locked over the earth, the earth is locked over the beyond and the beyond
+is locked over this strong mummy-case of the departed
+Osiris-Hathor-tsen-usire...." As the "beyond" in the inscription evidently
+signifies the "underworld," the idea that the mummy case, resting on the
+earth, was being pressed upon from beneath by the underworld, and from
+above by the sky, is clearly conveyed and is in keeping with the sign for
+universe, already alluded to, which represents three regions superposed.
+The "deification" of the mummy, which is named "Osiris-Hathor," is an
+interesting instance of the idea that the mummy became the image not only
+of the goddess Hathor but also of the god Osiris, or Ptah, who is usually
+represented in the form of a mummy.
+
+A remarkable instance of a king in a pyramid being actually worshipped and
+bearing the name of Ptah, added to his own, is given by Professor Flinders
+Petrie (_op. cit._ II, p. 257). "... The figure of the king Teta, entitled
+Teta-mer-en-ptah, is placed in a triangle, which is suggestive of a
+pyramid (as Men-nefer is written with the same triangle on this naos).
+Rather than suppose a new king at this period, we should see in this the
+worship of a pyramid king, Teta, of the sixth dynasty...." The association
+of Ptah, who is regarded as perhaps the oldest of all gods of Egypt, with
+the square=ptah and the pyramid and the mummy, is of extreme interest,
+especially as Egyptian texts contain references to "a single god, who
+becomes a quaternary of gods" (Brugsch II, 408), and we therefore see that
+the idea of Four in One was a familiar one. The personification of Ptah
+usually consists of a mummy holding a sceptre, expressing strength, life
+and stability. Under the form of Osiris he usually holds the curved
+sceptre denoting dominion, beside the symbols for life, rule and power,
+and is entitled the "lord of the holy land, lord of eternity, prince of
+everlasting, the president of the gods, and the head of the corridor of
+the tomb." Considering that in all pyramids hitherto explored, the
+corridor of the tomb is directed towards Polaris, it appears obvious that
+the supreme god of "life, strength, eternity, rule and power," was a
+personification of Polaris, the stability of which was naively expressed
+by the body in mummy form symbolizing the absolute repose and immobility
+of death, combined with an animated face and the symbols of living, active
+power.
+
+As the divine land is expressly designated as the divine land of the north
+in astronomical texts and that this celestial region had its terrestrial
+counterpart, it is naturally in Lower Egypt, that the holy land of the
+north must be sought.
+
+Investigation speedily proves that the most ancient vestiges of
+civilization are situated in the neighborhood of Memphis which, under the
+kings of the fourth and the sixth dynasties, reached its height of
+splendor. It is in the land of the north, Meh-ta, that the extremely
+ancient seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah lies, and that there exists the
+area of about thirty kilometers in which eighty pyramids are concentrated,
+and which constitutes the great burial ground of countless generations of
+Egyptians of all periods. A curious detail, to which I shall refer again,
+is the affinity in sound of the name for "north land," Meh-ta, and
+mit=death or the dead, and the undeniable resemblance of both words to the
+Nahuatl, ancient Mexican mictlan=the North, or underworld, from
+mic-quiztli=death and tlan=land (_cf._ Egyptian ta=land).
+
+In Egypt, as elsewhere, the western horizon, below which sun, moon and
+stars disappeared, was naturally regarded as the entrance to the region of
+the underworld. The west being therefore designated amen-ta, "the hidden
+or concealed land or region," it is all the more significant to find the
+single entrance and exit corridor of each pyramid directed, not towards
+the west, the underworld, but towards the stable centre of the northern
+region of the sky. It would therefore seem as though the intention had
+been to establish a direct line of communication between the tomb chamber
+in the centre of the pyramid and the divine "northern land of God," the
+sacred mountain Manu and the shining celestial city Anu, lying "between
+the east and west," _i. e._ in the Middle, where the supreme star-god
+dwelt in eternal repose. An interesting proof that the longing of the
+souls of the dead tended towards the north is furnished by the common
+prayer-formula: "may my soul ... inhale the north-wind and drink from the
+stream."
+
+Before advancing further, the following authoritative statements,
+establishing the supremacy of pole-star cult in ancient Egypt, should be
+presented.
+
+According to Sir Norman Lockyer, "It seems extremely probable that the
+worship of circumpolar constellations went on in Babylonia as well as in
+Egypt in the earliest times we can get at" (_op. cit._ p. 363). "There can
+be no question that the chief ancient constellation in the North was the
+Great Bear or, as it was then pictured, the Thigh (Meskhet)" (p. 216). "In
+the exact centre of the circular zodiac of Denderah we find the jackal
+[Anubis] located at the pole of the equator: it obviously represents the
+present Little Bear" (p. 362).
+
+"With regard to Anubis, it is quite certain that the seven stars in Ursa
+Minor make a very good jackal with pendent tail, as generally represented
+by the Egyptians and that they form the nearest compact constellation to
+the pole of the ecliptic...."
+
+Sir Norman Lockyer adds that he is informed by Dr. Wallis Budge that "An
+was an old name of the sun-god," but also states, in another page of his
+work that "the worship of Anubis, as god of the dead or the night god ...
+was supreme until the time of Men-kau-ra, the builder of the third pyramid
+of Gizeh" (B.C. 3633, Brugsch; B.C. 4100, Mariette; p. 363).
+
+Pending the production of astronomical texts which amply demonstrate that
+An was a name of a god of the night sun, Polaris, the following
+establishes that, at Annu or Heliopolis, in remotest antiquity and amongst
+the pyramid builders, the cult of a northern star prevailed.
+
+"The first civilization as yet glimpsed, so far as temple building goes,
+in Northern Egypt, represented by that at Annu, or Heliopolis, was a
+civilization which combined the cult of a northern star with a
+non-equinoctial solar worship".... "I know not whether the similarity in
+the words Anu, Annu and An results merely from a coincidence, but it is
+certainly singular that the most ancient temples in Lower Egypt
+(Heliopolis and Denderah) should be called Annu or An, if there be no
+connection with the Babylonian god Anu" (Lockyer, _op. cit._ p. 321).
+
+The well-known fact that the entrance passage to the earliest pyramid
+known, that of Medum, and of all pyramids hitherto explored, has not only
+been found on the north face of the structure but is also believed to have
+oriented towards "Sut-anup," the pole-star (of the period of its
+construction), unquestionably proves that the pyramid builders assigned a
+particular importance to the north. Referring the reader to Sir Norman
+Lockyer's work for a mass of valuable and interesting information
+concerning the orientation of Egyptian temples, I merely quote the
+following statements which not only show that throughout Lower Egypt
+north-star worship existed, but also establish the interesting and
+important fact that in Upper Egypt a totally different astronomical cult
+was carried out during an unknown length of time.
+
+"It is an important fact to bear in mind that in the North of Egypt, in
+early times, the stellar temples were more particularly directed to the
+north, while south of Thebes, so far as I know, there is only one temple
+so directed" (p. 225).... "From the astronomical point of view ... there
+are distinctly two series [of temples and monuments in general], (leaving
+out of consideration the great pyramid builders at Gizeh) absolutely
+dissimilar astronomically; ... there are at least two sets [of
+temple-builders], one going _up_ the river building temples to the north
+stars, the other going down the river building temples to the south stars;
+and the two streams practically met at Thebes, or at all events they were
+both very fully represented there either together or successively."
+
+Sir Norman Lockyer proceeds to say: "The double origin of the people thus
+suggested on astronomical grounds may be the reason of the name of 'double
+country,' used especially in the titles of kings, of the employment of two
+crowns, and finally of the supposed sovereignty of Set over the north, and
+of Horus over the south divisions of the kingdom" (_op. cit._ p. 345). "In
+short, in Lower Egypt the temples are pointed to rising stars near the
+north point of the horizon, or setting north of west. In Upper Egypt we
+deal chiefly with temples directed to stars rising in the southeast, or
+setting low in the southwest. Here again we are in presence of ...
+distinct differences of astronomical thought...." (p. 341). "With regard
+to the northern stars observed rising in high amplitudes, we have found
+traces of their worship in times so remote that in all probability at Annu
+and Denderah {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} Ursae Majoris was used before it became circumpolar. We deal
+almost certainly with 5000 B.C.... _New_ temples with nearly similar
+amplitudes ... were built at later times ... it may be suggested that the
+stellar observations made in them had ultimately to do with the
+determination of the hours of the night; this seems probable, for in Nubia
+at present, time at night is thus told."
+
+"It is possible that observations of these stars [which are nearest the
+pole and move most slowly] might have been made in such a way that, at the
+beginning of the evening the particular position of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~} Draconis, for
+instance, might have been noted with regard to the pole-star; and seeing
+that the Egyptians thoroughly knew the length of the night and of the day
+in the different portions of the year, they could at once, the moment they
+had the starting-point afforded by the position of this star, practically
+use the circle of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of
+celestial clock. May not this really have been the clock with which they
+have been credited? However long or short the night, the star which was at
+first above the pole-star after it had got round so that it was on a level
+with it, would have gone through a quarter of its revolution. In low
+northern latitudes, however, the southern stars would serve better for
+this purpose, since the circle of northern circumpolar stars would be much
+restricted. Hence there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring
+southern stars. With regard both to high north and south stars, then, we
+may in both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the
+time at night. So that the worship of Set, the determination of the time
+at night by means of the northern stars, might have been little popular
+with those who at Gebel Barkal and elsewhere in the south had used the
+southern ones for the same purpose ..." (p. 344).
+
+Valuable and suggestive as these observations are, I venture to point out
+that the following texts appear to indicate very clearly that, as in China
+and Mesopotamia, in the present day, the ancient Egyptian high-priest and
+king on important public occasions simply utilized the conspicuous
+constellation of Ursa Major as a measurer of time.
+
+In the account of the ceremonial used at the laying of the foundation of
+the temple at Edfu, it is stated that the king's glance was directed to
+the Ak or "Middle" and to Meskhet=Ursa Major. A part of the full
+translation of the inscription quoted from Nissen by Sir Norman Lockyer
+(_op. cit._, pp. 176 and 179) represents the king as speaking, thus:
+"Looking to the sky and recognizing the 'ak' of the Bull's Thigh
+constellation, I establish the corners of the temple of Her Majesty." It
+is further said "With his glance directed towards the 'ak' of the Bull's
+Thigh constellation he [the king] establishes the temple house of the
+mistress of Denderak, as took place there before."
+
+Having found out, by referring to Egyptian dictionaries, that er-ak means
+"in the middle," and em-aka "in the midst or middle," while Hak was a word
+employed for "king," I suggest that these meanings afford a different and
+much more simple explanation of the "ak" mentioned in the inscription than
+that given by Sir Norman Lockyer and Duemichen. In dealing, further on,
+with the astronomical signs and names associated with the pole of the
+ecliptic, I shall, moreover, point out that the bull=ka, employed as an
+astronomical symbol of Ursa Major, may have been adopted as a cryptic sign
+for Polaris, merely because its name contained the letters of the word
+ak=the Middle. The recurrence of the same letters in Hak=king seems to
+explain also why the king of Egypt was entitled "the bull."
+
+Returning to the inscription relating to the ceremony of laying the
+foundation stone; in other texts cited by Sir Norman Lockyer we find the
+king saying: "I have grasped the wooden peg [stake] and the handle of the
+club; I hold the rope with Sesheta [his female consort]. My glance follows
+the course of the stars; my eye is on Meskhet; standing as divider of time
+by his measuring instrument" (Duemichen's version) or "mine is the part of
+time of the number of the hour-clock " (Brugsch's version). In another
+part the king says "... I let my glance enter the constellation of the
+Thigh (representing the divider of time at his measuring instrument)"
+(Duemichen's translation) or "the part of my time stands in the place of
+his hour-clock" (Brugsch's translation). Sir Norman Lockyer notes that
+"the word merech or merechet, in which Brugsch suspects hour or
+water-clock, does not occur elsewhere."
+
+Whatever differences there may be in the Brugsch and Duemichen
+translations and the interpretations of the word ak, the above texts
+establish that the Egyptian king directed his glance to "the Middle" and
+that the constellation Meskhet=Ursa Major was connected with
+time-measurement and the establishment of the four quarters of the temple.
+
+As I shall show further on, the "Sesheta," mentioned in the text as
+performing the ceremony with the king, appears to be not a "mythical
+goddess," as Sir Norman Lockyer infers, but the living "divine queen," and
+consort of the king. She is represented with the insignia of Isis, whereas
+he wears the crown of Osiris, and I note that while she holds her stake in
+her left, he holds his in his right hand. Deferring a discussion of the
+position of Egyptian queens, I point out here that, in the interesting
+description of a foundation ceremonial, preserved in an inscription
+relating to the rebuilding of a temple at Abydos, about B.C. 1380, the
+Sesheta, entitled the "mistress of the laying of the foundation stone,"
+seems to have been the chief actor, since it is she who addresses the
+king, as follows: "The hammer in my hand was of gold, as I struck the peg
+with it, and thou wast with me in thy capacity of Harpedonapt [?]. Thy
+hand held the spade during the fixing of its [the temple's] four corners
+with accuracy by the four supports of heaven" (Lockyer, p. 175).
+
+The "four supports of heaven" referred to here are obviously "the gods
+Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf," who are recorded in the Book of
+the Dead (chapter 17) as being "those which find themselves behind the
+constellation of the Thigh in the northern heaven." In an inscription in
+the kings' graves at Thebes mention is made of the "four Northern Genii
+who are the four gods of 'the follower' [obviously a circumpolar
+constellation]" (Lockyer, p. 147). They seem to be also identical with the
+"four constellations [Akhemusek] which are found in the northern heavens,"
+and the "sailors or oarsmen in the bark of Ra," mentioned in the same and
+in many other inscriptions. The four "gods" are represented with human
+bodies respectively surmounted by the head of a man, an ape, a jackal and
+a hawk and are identical with the "genii of the dead," represented on the
+canopic vases placed at the four corners of the bier. In this connection
+attention is drawn to how clearly the symbolism of the mortuary customs
+becomes apparent when it is realized that the mummy, the image of
+Ptah-Osiris, and of the pole-star god, was laid to "eternal rest" in an
+imaginary "sacred centre," obtained by naively placing the effigies of the
+gods of the cardinal points, the personifications of the "four stars of
+the northern heaven," at the corners of the bier. The same dominant
+thought which underlies the popular use of the canopic vases clearly led
+to the building of the vast pyramids which constituted the sacred "centres
+of the world" par excellence, the square base typifying the four regions
+and "corners" of the earth; the triangular sides the four divisions of the
+sky, which converge to a single Middle, associated with Polaris, the
+sacred pole or ak of the Cosmos.
+
+Returning to the subject of the measurement of time by means of the
+circumpolar constellations, it is instructive to find that the Egyptian
+determinative sign for "time" consists of a central dot with a circle
+drawn around it and to note that the only celestial body that could be
+accurately figured as occupying the centre of a circle described around it
+is the primitive sun, Polaris.
+
+The Egyptian for "time" is rek, an inversion of ker=the night, the common
+sign for which is a band, figuring the sky, from the centre of which a
+star is suspended by a thread. As the star is usually formed by two lines,
+diagonally crossed, at the end of the thread, there is a strong temptation
+to see in the hanging single star an actual representation of a cross
+symbol. It is particularly striking to find in Brugsch's work, that the
+determinative for time is actually represented, in numerous cases, as
+close to the single hanging star (fig. 62, 9). I leave it to the reader to
+form his own conclusions whether this group represents Polaris and the
+circuit of time measured by the circumpolar constellations, or whether it
+merely represents, as Brugsch states, the winter solstice, _i. e._ the day
+sun in the nocturnal sky.
+
+There exists a remarkable variant of the determinative of time, which I
+shall discuss more fully further on. Instead of a mere dot, a five-pointed
+star is distinctly figured in the centre of the circle (fig. 62, 12). This
+variant furnishes, in my opinion, convincing proof of the meaning of the
+determinative for time, which also constituted the well-known sign for
+Ra=god, and forms a part of the name of the supreme divinity of Egypt,
+Amen, or Amon or Amun Ra, the "hidden or secret god," whose name
+contradicts the current assumption that Ra signifies the diurnal sun
+merely, and that Amen-Ra was a "solar" deity.
+
+The following texts relating to the "supreme true but hidden god" amply
+demonstrate that the chief characteristic of his cult was that it was
+shrouded in secrecy and mystification. Others, which I shall quote farther
+on, allow us clearly to perceive that individuals were obliged to pass
+through a series of initiations into the meanings of cabalistic signs and
+symbols of the divinity before they attained the pure knowledge of the
+nature of the mysterious, "hidden divinity." On reading the texts of the
+famous "Book of the Dead" it has frequently occurred to me that the
+negative confession and judgment of the soul of the departed may
+originally signify the actual confession and judgment of an applicant for
+initiation into the secrets of the priesthood and the astronomical and
+theological knowledge they so rigidly guarded from the ignorant multitude.
+The highest knowledge and most profound secret they could impart was
+doubtlessly the acknowledgment and perception of the existence of a
+supreme power which governed the universe on a certain plan, which the
+rulers of the land of Egypt endeavored to apply to its organization and
+government in order to make it a celestial kingdom upon earth.
+
+The rigidly-adhered-to policy of the ruling caste was, however, the
+shrouding and concealment of their store of knowledge from the uninitiated
+and the gradual admission of select individuals to the inner chambers of
+secrecy. The following texts show that even the true name of the supreme
+divinity was wrapped in impenetrable mystery, but the assumption that we
+are dealing with a pole-star god seems to enable us to penetrate the
+obscurity of the formulae employed by the scribes to veil the true meaning
+of the texts.
+
+Beginning with the hymn published by Mr. Wallis Budge, in his useful
+handbook, "The Nile,"(110) we find Amen-Ra addressed as "King, _One_ among
+the gods, _myriad are his names, how many are they, is not known_ ... the
+lord of Law, _whose shrine is hidden, ... whose name is hidden from his
+children in his name Amen_."... In the legend of Ra and Isis (XXth
+dynasty) he is designated as "the god divine, the creator of himself, the
+creator of heaven, earth, breath of life, fire, gods, men, beasts, cattle,
+reptiles, fowl of the air, fish, king of men and gods, _in form one_, to
+whom periods are as years, _many of names, not known are they, not know
+them the gods_."(111)
+
+The mysterious supreme god is further spoken of in the hymn as ... "the
+lord of the uraeus crown, exalted of the plumes; the serpent Mehen, and the
+two uraei are the (ornaments) of his face...." Mention is likewise made of
+his lordship over the Sekti boat (which sailed from the place of rising in
+the East) and the Atet boat (which sailed to the place of setting in the
+West); he is also addressed as the "god Khepera in his boat." In many
+passages he is apparently identified with the sun, "the eye of Horus," but
+is at the same time, also addressed as Ani, the lord of the New Moon
+festival and he is termed "_the lord of all the gods_ whose appearances
+are in the horizon." His all-embracing nature is clearly conveyed by the
+passages terming him "the maker and lord of things which are below and of
+things which are above;" "of the heaven and earth." The above evidence
+suffices to show that, on the one hand, Amen-Ra is constantly referred to
+as the "One god, without a second, the knowledge of whose nature is
+concealed from men and gods, who reveals himself in innumerable forms; who
+exerts hidden control and universal dominion and is associated with
+stability and power, time and eternity." On the other hand, stress is laid
+on his dual nature: Amen-Ra is bi-sexual and self-creative; alternately
+becomes light and darkness; and the sun and moon are the eyes of his
+"hidden face," which, literally translated, yields Amen-Hra.
+
+In the hymn previously cited he is also termed the "lord of the sky, the
+establisher of all things, ... the extender of foot-steps.... _One_ in his
+times as among the gods...." He is apostrophized as "the maker of the
+gods, who hast stretched out the heavens and founded the earth," "the
+chief who makest the earth like unto himself,".... "President of the great
+cycle of the gods, _only one without his second_ ... living in Law every
+day.... O Form, _one_, creator of all things, O _one_ only, maker of
+existences ... he giveth the breath of life to (the germ) in the egg....
+Hail to thee, thou _only one_!... _He watches all people who sleep_ ...
+all people adore thee.... O thou ... _the untiring watcher_, Amsu-amen
+lord of eternity, the Maker of Law...." Another passage states: "the aten
+(disk) is thy body" (_i. e._ image or symbol). In the legend of Ra and
+Isis, quoted above, the god is made to say of himself: "I am the maker of
+the hours, the creator of days, I am the opener of the festivals of the
+year.... I am he who when he opens his eyes [_i. e._ the sun and moon]
+becometh light, when he shutteth his two eyes, becometh darkness." Brugsch
+tells us that Ra, whom he accepts as the day-sun, was addressed as the
+master of double or two-fold force, who illuminates the world with his two
+eyes and "was symbolized by two lions." Further on I shall quote facts
+establishing that the king and queen of Egypt were respectively named the
+right and left eye of Amen-Ra, were associated with sun and moon, regarded
+as the personifications of Osiris and Isis, and that these deities were
+represented in the form of uraeus serpents with human heads, and that the
+two serpents were employed as symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt. Mr. Wallis
+Budge informs us that Amen-Ra was named "bull ... in thy name of 'Amen
+bull of his mother,' and that he was entitled 'lord of the thrones of the
+two lands;' 'king of the gods;' 'maker of mortals;' 'mighty law.' " In one
+of his forms he is represented as wearing horns (an allusion to duality
+and the title of bull) and feathers (=mat=maat=law) and holding the
+emblems of stability, power, dominion and rule.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 62.
+
+
+Before demonstrating that the chief astronomical signs of the Egyptian
+zodiac partake of the nature of a rebus and express the sound of the
+various attributes and titles and some of the "myriad of names" of the
+"hidden god," contained in the preceding texts, I point out how clearly
+the conception of Amen-Ra, as shown in these hymns and invocations, is
+consistent with a pole-star origin. We have, moreover, the authoritative
+opinion of Brugsch that "the hieroglyph and name Ra did not only refer to
+the day-sun, but also designated certain brilliant stars," which he
+presumes to be the planets (_op. cit._ I, p. 79). This identification of
+the name Ra with stars involuntarily obliges one to recall the Sanscrit
+tara=star while the Chinese employment of a plain circle to designate
+"star," also finds its analogy. Let us now examine the hieroglyphic signs
+and symbols of Ra and note how intelligible they become when the god is
+identified as Polaris.
+
+The following (fig. 62) are some of the modes in which the name Ra is
+found expressed in texts published in Mr. Wallis Budge's "First steps in
+Egyptian:"
+
+Fig. 62, 1. By a dot in the centre of a circle, the determinative of
+"time."
+
+2. By the latter accompanied by the image of a seated god and the numeral
+1.
+
+3. _Idem_, partly surrounded by a serpent in motion and accompanied by the
+numeral 1.
+
+4. The serpent and circle on the head of a hawk-headed seated god.
+
+To these are added for purposes of comparison
+
+5. The circle with two uraei.
+
+6. _Idem_, to which a single uraeus and a wing are attached.
+
+7. _Idem_, with two uraei and two wings.
+
+8. _Idem_, with one wing.
+
+9. _Idem_, accompanied by the numeral one and the sign for heaven, to
+which a cross-shaped star is hanging.
+
+10. _Idem_, resting in the centre of the summit of a twin mountain.
+
+11. _Idem_, resting in the centre of a boat.
+
+12. _Idem_, with a central star instead of a dot constituting the word
+duat="lower hemisphere" (Brugsch).
+
+13. The variant of this, cited by Brugsch.
+
+14. The disk containing a single eye.
+
+My prolonged study of the ancient Mexican picture-writings having given me
+the habit of regarding each primitive symbol as a possible rebus led me to
+look up the phonetic values of the symbols combined with the Ra sign and
+to note that some of them were actually mentioned in connection with
+Amen-Ra in the texts cited above, namely: the face, the eye, the egg, the
+uraeus, the disk, the "serpent Mehen." It was a surprise to find, on simply
+referring to the glossaries, that the name for uraeus=ara and that eye=ari;
+an egg=ar (also sa, se, and suht); face=hra; each word thus containing the
+name Ra=god, in simple or inverted form (see fig. 63, 1-4). The natural
+inference was that I had obtained an insight into the method devised by
+the ingenious Egyptian priesthood, to express, in cryptic form, the name
+of the "hidden god."
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 63.
+
+
+Further glimpses of light seemed obtained when I found that, as written by
+German Egyptologists, the determinative for divinity, the banner=nutar,
+notar, netar, or neter, not only expressed the same sound as the word nut,
+but also contained the letters "r" and "a" (5). The disk=atun, aton or
+aten might also be regarded as an anagram, being the inverted form of
+nutar, minus the last letter (6). The names for wing (7) being tun, ton or
+ten, the wing attached to the disk constituted a complementary sign,
+duplicating the final syllable. At the same time, as a second name for
+wing was meh, or mah (_cf._ mat and its synonym su=feather), there seemed
+to be an explanation of the "serpent mehen" applied to Amen-Ra and the
+possibility that it signified the "winged serpent," such as is frequently
+depicted in texts published by Brugsch (8). It was obvious that the
+uraeus=ara and the wing meh, would form an ingenious anagram expressing, by
+means of the signs, a-meh-ra, the name Amen-Ra.
+
+The constantly recurring form of the Ra sign, in which the serpent is
+represented as gliding around the circle, enclosing the central point of
+fixity, naturally suggests the inference that this variant must have been
+adopted at a time when the constellation Draco, the "Old serpent," or
+"Nakkasch qodmun," was circumpolar and was equally familiar, under this
+name, to the Egyptian and Euphratean astronomers. This inference seems to
+be confirmed by the fact that, in the hymn to Amen-Ra, cited above, the
+name Nak is given to "the serpent with knives stuck in his back," who,
+according to the myth, was the demon of night and the enemy of the
+sun-god, the ruler of day. The fact that, in the temple of Amen-Ra at
+Thebes, a service was recited daily for the destruction of the serpent Nak
+by Horus, appears to indicate the growth of the idea of a combat between
+light and darkness and the dual forces of nature, which would naturally
+tend to create the thought of an antagonism existing not only between the
+sexes, but also between the two divisions of Egypt and the separate cults
+of the nocturnal heaven (Polaris and the moon) and the diurnal heaven (the
+sun).
+
+In the list of festivals, dating from the Ptolemaic period and inscribed
+in the temple at Edfu, there are mentioned: "the festival of the end or
+point of the triangle," simultaneous with that of "the serpent Nai or Na,"
+immediately followed by "the festivals of the 'tena'=[aten?], and of the
+great serpent Na," and "of the Ken=the festival of darkness, and of the
+red serpent Na" (Brugsch _op. cit._ I, p. 51). Commenting upon the above
+names I draw attention to the curious fact that in the above word ken, we
+seem to have the inversion of nak, the name of the "night-serpent" and
+that na is actually the inversion of the word an, which signifies "he who
+turns or winds himself around." I shall show further on, in astronomical
+texts, that this name is actually identified with the pole.
+
+When these facts are borne in mind the full import of the familiar
+Egyptian symbol for eternity=tet, becomes clear. It consists of the image
+of a mummy, symbolizing fixity, around which a great serpent is winding
+itself, conveying the idea of circling motion (fig. 63, 9 and 10). It is
+well known that this group symbolized eternity=tet and the sign is always
+interpreted as expressing the sound tet. If analyzed more closely,
+however, and interpreted as a rebus, it appears to yield a fund of deeper
+meaning.
+
+The serpent Na furnishes the word An=the winder or he who moves around.
+Linked to one of the names for mummy=sah, the group might be read as
+An-sah, a name which invites comparison with Anshar, the Assyrian
+pole-star god who was said to shoot arrows in all directions, _i. e._ to
+turn around, and the Akkadian title for Ursa Major, Akanna=the Lord of
+Heaven. The second name for mummy, given in Mr. Wallis Budge's Nile, is
+tut, the exact word which signifies "to engender," which explains why
+images of the creator should have been made in mummy form. The word tut
+directs attention to the name of the god Tehuti=Thoth, "the Measurer," a
+name to be weighed in connection with the fact that time was measured by
+the circumpolar constellations. It does not appear impossible that the
+word khat=corpse may also have been brought into use in the rebus and
+furnished an anagram or allusion to the ak or centre.
+
+The other well-known symbol for eternity, _i. e._ stability, is the column
+tet, representing a pillar usually consisting of four or five parts (fig.
+63, 11). It appears hitherto to have escaped attention that the Egyptian
+for hand being tet, the hand, employed as a rebus, would actually express
+the name for eternity and may well have been employed as a secret sign for
+the divine centre, eternal stability and the sacred number five,
+consisting of the Middle and the Four Quarters, symbolized by the fingers
+and thumb (fig. 63, 12). To this must be added the interesting fact that,
+in hieratic script, the hand expressed the sound "a" which means "power"
+while aa=great, aat=great and mighty, aa=mighty one. To those initiated in
+the mysteries of hieroglyphic writing the hand thus clearly constituted a
+rebus, expressing the eternal, permanent, stable, great, mighty power, one
+yet double and fourfold, the sacred five in one, the Middle and Four
+Quarters.(112)
+
+The following is a group of animal and other figures, which are repeated,
+with variations of form, combination and position, in the different
+zodiacs.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 64.
+
+
+The principal and the phonetic values of their names are figured as
+follows: the thigh=uart, khepes or maskhet; the bull, ox or cow=ka, ah,
+aua; the hawk=bak, designated as an, kher or heu=Horus; the cynocephalus
+ape and phallus=aaani and ka; the lion=mahes; the jackal (anubis) uher or
+sabi; the scorpion=tart or serkhet; the crocodile=sebek, also amsuk or
+emsuh, and seta; the vase or jar=nu (_cf._ nut); the female
+hippopotamus=tebt, shown by Dr. Gensler to have been associated with the
+name menat=nurse, she who nurses (see Brugsch I, p. 130).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                 Plate V.
+
+
+In the Edfu zodiac, the latter, whose name furnishes an anagram of
+amen=hidden, is represented with the Ra sign on her head and holds a cord
+to which the constellation of Ursa Major is attached. This is figured,
+with its seven stars, as the thigh (pl. V, 2), with the head of a bull,
+elements which furnish the phonetic values of uart, khepes or maskhet and
+aua, ka or ah, to which should be added that the Egyptian mode of saying
+"a bull"=ua en ka, literally "one of bull," the female form being "uat en
+ka" (see Wallis Budge, First steps in Egyptian).
+
+After having studied the hymns and invocations to Amen-Ra we are aware,
+not only that the "hidden god" is named "the bull," but that great stress
+is laid upon his being "One"=ua, yet double=ka. It therefore appears very
+significant to find these words incorporated in the name for Ursa
+Major=thigh, uart, and this combined with bull=ua or ka which furnishes
+the anagram ak=middle. What is more, the second name for thigh being
+khepes, this might form a rebus for the common name for (1) luminary or
+star in general=khebs or khabs, literally, lights, lamps, flames, _cf._
+seb=star; (2) kheper=life, existence, to come into existence, _cf._
+khepdes=uterus, kher khepd=the navel, khepesh=power.
+
+The fact that one title of Amen-Ra was Khepera=the creator, lends
+additional interest to the association of his secret sign, the
+hippopotamus, with the constellation Ursa Major, which he apparently holds
+and guides and which emblematizes life, _i. e._ motion--The thigh=khepes,
+scarab=kheper, fish, khepanen, crocodile=seta or sebek, which, inverted,
+yields the word khebes=star, and royal sickle=khepes, thus appear to have
+been but different modes of expressing the same meaning and the title of
+Khepera (fig. 63, 13-16). It can be readily understood why the scarab
+beetle, which encloses its egg in a ball of mud and rolls this to a safe
+hatching place, became the favorite secret sign for the "hidden god,"
+since none but the initiated would see in the beetle, holding the ball of
+earth enclosing its egg, the actual rebus of Khepera, the creator,
+expressed by the kheper; and the circle or disk, the sign of Ra,
+containing the germ of life.
+
+Returning to an examination of the signs for Ursa Major employed by the
+Egyptian astronomer scribes, we find, beside the more elaborate form given
+by Mr. Wallis Budge (pl. V, 3), the variants (4 and 5) which constantly
+recur in the texts published by Brugsch, and which reveal that the thigh,
+accompanied by a single star, constituted the essential elements of the
+sign. It is one of the curiosities of Egyptian hieroglyphics that the
+image of a star may express either seb=star, or the numeral five=tuau.
+This being the case, and the word for thigh being either khepes or uart,
+it is obvious that the thigh and star yield more than one interpretation
+from the rebus point of view, and may either be read as seb khepdes,
+seb-uart or tuau-uart--in one case containing the divine title "creator"
+and in the second a play upon the name ua=One, the favorite appellation
+given to Amen-Ra.
+
+The following star names contained in the Brugsch texts, and which have
+avowedly not been satisfactorily identified, up to the present, will speak
+for themselves and will be found to be comprehensible and appropriate only
+when identified with Polaris: Seb-uati=the lone, single, only, or sole
+star (_cf._ title "One" given to Amen-Ra); Seb-seta=the hidden star, in
+Greek texts, sebkhes, sebkhe, the sebses, anagrams of khebs, or khepdes
+(_cf._ "hidden" god). This star is found pictured in the astronomical
+texts by a turtle, the name for which is seta, sita, sit or set; in Greek
+texts cit.
+
+To me it seems clear that the turtle constituted a rebus sign for the
+"hidden star" and concealed god, and I find that another Egyptian word
+could have served equally well for the same purpose, viz., seta=the
+vulture. What is more, the following names, mentioned in the astronomical
+texts, yield the sound of the first vowel of the words seb=star and
+seta=hidden, and attention is drawn to the fact that, as the goose and
+egg, for instance, were known under several names, the secrecy of the true
+meaning of these sacred symbols was insured: goose=se, ser, sar, seb,
+smen, apt, aq; egg=se, sa, ser, sar, ar, suht; nest=ses; pool of water=se;
+heron=sent.
+
+A curious double similarity of sound exists between the name for turtle
+and one of the names for goose, inasmuch as the turtle=seta is also called
+aps, and the goose=se is named apt (fig. 63, 17-18). Another name for
+goose being aq or ak, we find that its value as a rebus must have been
+supreme, since it so perfectly expressed the word ak=middle. A proof that
+its merits were duly appreciated by the ancient scribes, is its constant
+and widespread employment in decorative art as a so-called "solar symbol,"
+in association with the circle or disk and the swastika. Through its name
+se, the goose-symbol likewise expressed the same meaning as the egg and
+the first syllable of seta=hidden; perhaps also ne-se-r=flame, the synonym
+of khebs=luminary or star (Brugsch). Through its name ak, the goose symbol
+became the synonym of all ak or ka words. Finally, through its name apt,
+it became related to the whole series of anagrams of ptah and the synonym
+of the pair of horns which express ap in hieratic script.
+
+The association of the syllable ap with the bull=uau and ka, is proven by
+the name Apis given to the living, sacred bull, under which form the
+supreme divinity was worshipped from earliest times, at or before the
+building of the pyramids at Memphis. The explanation that, just as sacred
+bull was merely a living rebus expressing by the sound of its names, the
+words "the one, the double, the middle of the central two-fold one," or
+"divine twain," fully explains why, in time, the bull itself came to be
+chosen, revered and worshipped as the living image of the "hidden god."
+
+The marks of the sacred calf Apis, described by Herodotus, appear to
+become intelligible, when translated as follows and then analyzed: "It is
+black (khem or kam) and has a square (ptah) spot of white (hetet) on the
+forehead (tehen). On the back (of the head) (makha or at) the figure of an
+eagle=vulture (seta). In the tail (peh?) double (ka) hairs (anem). On the
+tongue (nes) a beetle (kheper)."
+
+Feeling convinced that Egyptologists could find further phonetic elements
+and hidden meaning in the above material, it is with diffidence that I
+point out some of the meaning I am able to discern with the simple aid of
+"First steps in Egyptian." Besides being the image of Amen-Ra Polaris, the
+one and divine twain, the black (khem) skin (annu) of the sacred bull
+appears to contain an allusion to Egypt, known as "khem" and its central
+capital Annu, besides that to the nocturnal heaven and its shining city.
+The square ptah of white=hetet (_cf._ hetet, and chut=light) appears to
+symbolize the quadriform plan of the celestial and terrestrial kingdom and
+its position on the head (tep) between the two horns (ap) gains in
+significance when it is realized that, in astronomical texts, the square
+(designated above as hetet=white) is as frequently pictured between a pair
+of horns as the pillar=tet, that both square and pillar appear thus to
+have expressed the same sound=tet, which signifies eternity. The bird of
+prey=seta on the bull's back (makha) evidently signified the hidden=seta,
+centre, m-akh-a, further significance being lent to the syllable akh by
+the fact that it also means "to support," and that "the support of heaven"
+was a divine title contained in the hieratic texts. The double hair=anem,
+ka, appears as another mode of expressing the "hidden" ka=double or
+ak=centre. The word for tongue (nes) being the reversal of sen=two, the
+kheper=life, on the tongue, appears as an allusion to dual principles or
+powers of nature. The giving forth and drawing in of breath by the living
+Apis bull must doubtlessly have seemed, to the Egyptian priesthood,
+emblematical of the giving and taking away of breath of life, by the
+creator, Khepera, over whose emblem, on the tongue of the animal, each
+breath necessarily passed.
+
+An insight may thus be gained of the method by means of which primitive,
+naive picture-writing could have become more ingenious and intricate
+until, as actually stated in the hymns, the name of the supreme divinity
+became "hidden from his children in the name Amen" [literally=hidden], and
+a "myriad of names, how many are they is not known" had been invented by
+the scribes, to designate the King (Hak), "one among gods, in form one,
+the lord of eternity, stability and law."
+
+Before making a cursory examination of the following lists of homonyms of
+the names for bull=ah, uau and ka, I must revert to astronomical pictures
+and signs and make some statements concerning the hawk-headed human form
+found represented in the zodiacs in close association with the image of
+Ursa Major, the bull; (see pl. V, 1, from Denderah). The presence of the
+hawk=bak in the centre of the polar region, with the bull ka, assumes
+significance in connection with the word ak=middle and the name for "the
+middle of the heavens," cited by Sir Norman Lockyer; _i. e._, kabal sami,
+and all of these words are particularly interesting when it is remembered
+that the Babylonian name for north was akkad, the Akkadian title for Ursa
+Major was Akanna, while Ursa Minor was named Kakkabu in Babylonia and
+Assyria. The Arabian kaaba is recalled here.
+
+The inscriptions accompanying the zodiacs published by Brugsch (_op. cit._
+I, p. 127) designate this hawk-headed personage, who, in each case, holds
+either a spear or a plain staff, by the following names, of which I give
+Brugsch's translation, followed by my own commentary. An=he who turns or
+winds himself around. In this connection I point out that the name Na,
+given to the serpent, is the inversion of an. Kher-an=he who fights and
+turns or winds himself around. As kher is likewise the word for ring or
+circle (_cf._ Greek kirkos, Latin circus or circulus, Scand. kring), it is
+evident that the name Kher-an admits of being interpreted as "he who winds
+or turns around in a ring or circle," kher=the fighter or combatant. At
+the same time, the word kher likewise signifies ring or circle; moreover
+ker=night and rek=time. Therefore the name Neb-kher, cited by Brugsch
+(_op. cit._ I, 176), as one of those given to the god of the city of
+At-Nebes, besides signifying, as he says, the "lord of strife or
+fighting," clearly means "the lord of the circle or ring." This is
+undoubtedly one of the most appropriate of names for the god of the pole
+star and Ursa Major and is, besides, the Egyptian equivalent for the Hindu
+"lord of the wheel," the Persian "god of the ring," and the Mexican "lord
+of the circle and of the night"=Yaual or Yohual-tecuhtli. The other titles
+of the same god recorded by Brugsch are "the flame or light"=Neser, and
+"the lord of life"=Neb-ankh.
+
+I merely point out here what I shall discuss more fully later on, that, in
+the Egyptian An, "he who turns himself around," we have the counterpart,
+not only of the Assyrian An-shar (fig. 65, 5) who shoots his darts in all
+directions, but also of the "North god" of the ancient Mexicans, who,
+fully armed is held by one foot, by the sign of the North, to the centre
+of the cross, the symbol of the Four Quarters, and like the Akkadian "lord
+of heaven," Akanna, is identified with Ursa Major.
+
+I note, moreover, that, whereas the common name for hawk is bak, that
+employed by Brugsch is hru (_cf._ inversion ur=the Egyptian name for cross
+symbol) which is sometimes transcribed as hur, her or heru, hor or har=and
+translated as Horus or Ra Harmachis. An interesting image of the hawk god
+is found in another inscription in the temple of Denderah containing the
+group (pl. V, 6) consisting of a single star, the bull and hawk,
+transcribed by Brugsch as "Hru-Ka" and translated as "the bull (of) Horus"
+(_op. cit._ I, p. 7). Another interesting case of the combination of the
+bull and hawk is the hawk with a bull's head also figured by Brugsch, and
+which is obviously a variant of "hru-ka." A curious instance which seems
+to contain a reversal of these syllables is the bull, repeated in inverted
+positions, with the cross-sign=ur, a group which might well have been
+employed as a rebus expressing the sound ur-ak-ka, a combination which I
+shall discuss further on.
+
+The identity of Horus as a form of Polaris is hinted at in the following
+inscription in the temple at Denderah (pl. V, 10) which Brugsch
+translates: "Ra Horchuti (=hur-chuti) the shining Horus, the ray of light
+in the night" ... (_op. cit._ I, p. 16). The "god" is figured in mummy
+form, holding the sceptre tam (_cf._ mat=justice, truth) and the sign ankh
+(life), with the head of a hawk=bak or hru (_cf._ ur=four, and head=tep or
+tepet, also name for "chief"), the head conveying idea of four-fold
+chieftainship, surmounted by the horns=ap and circle or disk=ra.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 65.
+
+
+An extremely suggestive astronomical picture (pl. V, 13) contains the
+combination of Horus, the An, in the form of the human-headed hawk, with a
+serpent Na, the boat (uaa, am or makhen) and the circle enclosing a single
+star, duat (_cf._ ua=one). The complete group thus conveys a wealth of
+hidden meaning which is perfectly intelligible when interpreted as
+pole-star symbolism.
+
+The reader is now invited to take a preliminary look at the columns of
+signs included in figs. 66, 67, 68, some of which will be recognized as
+primitive pole-star symbols already discussed, and which will respectively
+be found to contain homonyms of ua=One and uahi=permanent; ak and
+kabal=centre, ka=double, an=he who turns and ankh=life, etc. Special
+attention is also drawn to the modes of expressing the syllable am by the
+homonyms boy or child, boat and tree (fig. 63, 20-22).
+
+Different combinations of identical phonetic elements are found in the
+following groups which prove to be but different ingenious figures
+expressing the same sounds, with more or less the same meanings: pl. V,
+15, represents the boat, whose phonetic values are given above, with a
+flower=ankh, the homonym of life, containing the names an and na, from
+which the uraeus=ara, is rising. Later on the deeper symbolism of this and
+fig. 12, pl. V, will be further discussed. In the latter, instead of the
+flower the boat contains the ara and a boy=ah or aah, whose name is the
+homonym for great, mighty, powerful, etc. Assuming that the boat expressed
+its particular name uaa=ua=one, we thus have a rendering of the
+appellation so constantly given to Amen-Ra in the hymns and invocations:
+"One, great, powerful, mighty god," accompanied by a whole series of
+secondary meaning and symbolism. In pl. V, 9, the boat containing the bull
+or cow, is accompanied by stars which reproduce Ursa Major exactly, minus
+one star, the head of the animal occupying the centre of the four stars
+forming the inverted square of "the dipper." In this case the boat seems
+to express its name makhen, incorporating ak, the name for the sacred
+centre of the sky, which is repeated in the name ka=bull, whose image,
+like that of the boat, conveys the allusion to ua=one, by their respective
+double names, aua and uaa.
+
+What appears to me to contain the most convincing proof of the identity of
+Amen-Ra with Polaris is 11, pl. V, which shows us a boat in which lies a
+mummy, above which is a row of seven stars under an oval, containing two
+eyes. The oval ring is evidently the image of Amen-Ra, who united in his
+person the dual principles of nature symbolized by sun and moon=his "two
+eyes." The symbolism of the boat and mummy has already been sufficiently
+discussed to enable the reader to discern its association with the idea of
+oneness, of stability and centrality. Further light is thrown upon the
+connection of the two eyes with the sacred centre by pl. V, 14, from the
+Book of the Dead, where the chosen place of sepulchre for the dead person,
+mentioned in the text, is the temple pyramid, the apex of which is
+rendered prominent by being painted black and suggestively occupies a
+central position between two eyes. After the periods of Greek rule in
+Egypt, the point of the pyramid must have been associated with the Greek
+words, akra=hill-top and aku=point, which recurs in the Latin name acacia,
+by which the thorny tree, originally found in Egypt, is still known. It
+can readily be seen how this tree would have been chosen as a symbol of
+the ak=middle and it is possible that its name may originally have been
+that also given to the olive tree=bak. The inscription on the famous
+obelisks erected by queen Hat-shepsut contains a special mention of the
+point of the obelisk, as being made of precious material: "two great
+obelisks of hard granite of the south, the point of each is of electrum,
+the tribute of the best quality of all countries" (Flinders Petrie,
+History of Egypt, Vol. II, p. 86).
+
+The many variants of the constellation or star termed "the divine
+triangle" or "the triangle of the god" next claim attention. An extremely
+interesting variant of this constellation represents a hawk-headed sphinx,
+next to the triangle (pl. VI, 1); 2-4 represent the common form expressing
+the name Sopedet. As Brugsch informs us, the above name was changed at a
+more recent period into Satit (6-8), which he translates as "she who
+shoots, the archeress" or "she who causes the Nile to rise." In these
+cases the written name either contains an arrow (6), the pyramid symbol
+for earth (7), or a seated figure above whose head is a single star (8). A
+rarer form of representing the same constellation is 9 and 10, the group
+being transcribed by "Satit Hont Khabsu" which Brugsch translates as
+"Sothis, the Queen of the ... stars." From the feminine terminations
+employed in the text it is clear that it is a cow which figures here in
+the boat, with a single star between its horns and it appears to me to be
+obvious that we have to deal here with the feminine form of Polaris, with
+Auset=Isis, closely related to the Assyrian "goddess of battle," Ishtar,
+the female counterpart of Ausar=Osiris, the Assyrian Anshar, or Ashur, the
+"god of battle."
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Plate VI.
+
+
+This view is confirmed by further astronomical pictures published by
+Brugsch, which appear to me not merely to signify the constellations Orion
+and Sirius as Brugsch infers, but to be hieroglyphs intended to be
+understood by the initiated only, representing two or more of the forms
+under which Amen-Ra was figured. At Edfu (pl. VI, 11) the boat=au, uaa,
+and the mummy=sah form a fair rebus for Ausar=Osiris, while the boat
+alongside of it contains the cow, a form under which Isis=Hathor was
+worshipped in Egypt during centuries. At Denderah (12) there is a cow in
+one boat=Isis; and a man in another who holds the sceptre tam, emblematic
+of power, and turns his head around, an evident allusion to the action
+an=he who turns himself around, or to sah=one who turns away. Between both
+is the hawk=bak or Hur-chuti=Horus, standing on the sceptre named aut,
+composed of the lotus flower=ankh. A variant of the same group (13) also
+symbolizing the "Above, Below and Middle," and from Denderah, represents
+Isis only in the celestial boat and Osiris standing (on earth) holding,
+beside the tam, the whip=nekhe khu, emblematic of rule. In 14, a female
+figure stands in the boat under the written name Auset=Isis and bears in
+her hand the ankh sign and the lotus flower=ankh sceptre. In the second
+boat the figure of a boy (ahi) turning (an or sah) his head, holds up the
+ankh. In 15, we seem to have an evidence of the ascendancy of Isis
+worship, for the boat contains not only the cow, under the name satit=she
+who shoots, or the archeress, but also the standing figure of the goddess,
+crowned by the disk or circle between two horns.
+
+A striking proof that the knowledge of the true, hidden meaning of the
+signs just discussed was regarded by those who possessed it as an evidence
+of an advanced stage of initiation in the mysteries of the priesthood, is
+furnished by the following text, which accompanies pl. VI, 16:
+
+In the Book of the Dead (Leyden, Papyrus, p. 16), in a chapter entitled:
+"Chapter of the knowledge of the eastern spirits, ro en rex biu abti," the
+dead person utters the following words: "I know that eastern mountainous
+region of the heaven whose south is at the sea Kharo and the north at the
+river of Ro, at the place where the day-god Ra drives around amidst
+storm-winds. I am a welcome comrade in the boat and I row without tiring
+in the bark of Ra. I know that tree of emerald green brandies amongst
+which Ra shows himself when he goes over the layer of clouds of the god
+Su. I know that gate out of which Ra issues. I know the meadow of alo,
+whose wall is of iron.... _I know the eastern spirits, namely the god
+Hur-Chuti, the calf next to this god and the god of the morning_," the
+original text of the latter sentence being: "au-a-rekh-ku-a biu abti
+Hur-chuti pu behsu kher nutar pen nutar duaut pu" (Brugsch, _op. cit._, I,
+p. 72).
+
+The evasion and caution with which the speaker alludes to his knowledge of
+the meaning of the signs, without betraying the latter, sufficiently
+indicate the obligation of absolute secrecy which bound him, and it may be
+inferred that several of the words he employed were intended to be
+misleading to an outsider just as the astronomical pictures, exposed to
+public view, were purposely made to seem to relate to the more familiar
+sun, moon and constellations, the mind being thus led away from the hidden
+but true star-god=Polaris. The circumstance that, on the body of the young
+bull in the boat, there are seven dots and above it a single star and that
+the hawk-headed seated deity behind it is crowned by the serpent circle or
+disk of Amen-Ra, sufficiently enlightens us as to the true, veiled
+significance which represents different forms of the "hidden god," of the
+group. A careful analysis of this and of the astronomical images suffices,
+however, to disclose the limited scope of the meaning of such groups, each
+one being but a different rebus containing the same phonetic elements. Let
+us now briefly indicate what appear to have been the essential components
+which all images contain and a few of the myriad of ways by which they
+were expressed.
+
+_Uahi=permanent, and Ua=One. Represented by_
+
+Fig. 66. 1. An arrow=au (_cf._ abau=to fight), an arm=a, and the numerical
+one=ua.
+
+2. The cow=ah, aua, the latter name incorporating the adjective a=mighty,
+powerful, etc.
+
+3. The thigh=uart.
+
+4. The boat=uaa.
+
+5. The numeral five=tuau.
+
+6. The throne, seat or place=auset, which constitutes the name Auset=Isis,
+the consort of Ausar=Osiris.
+
+7. The bowl=au.
+
+8 and 9. Two forms of sceptre or bent staff=au, uat, _also_ aam.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 66.
+
+
+Besides these signs, well known as sacred symbols, we find that the
+following names also contain the sacred title Ua: uatet=greenstone,
+emerald, aut=quadrupeds, au=heir, also dog, maau=rays of light, mau=lion,
+also cat. The reason why certain quadrupeds, and particularly the cow,
+lion, and the cat, should have become sacred animals in Egypt, seems to be
+satisfactorily explained by the fact that each constituted a rebus and
+could therefore be employed as an "image" of the One god. It is obvious
+that locality would necessarily influence the choice of the sacred animal
+and that while one city might adopt the cow, another would be obliged to
+adopt the cat, etc, as the living rebus. The adoption of "the heir," or
+first-born of the sacramental union of king and queen, as the living image
+of the deity, throws an unexpected light on the reason why members of the
+royal line were treated with divine honors. While persons, animals and
+objects whose names contained the divine Ua=one, would thus be chosen,
+others containing the word Ra=god, would also be adopted.
+
+_Ra=god._
+
+Of these I have already pointed out the uraeus=ara, the eye=ari, face=hra
+and egg=ar, also se or sa and suht. To these may also be added the date
+palm or dates=ben-ra; grain=nepra; the vine=aarer and grapes=aarer, each
+of which is to be found associated with sacred symbolism.
+
+The veneration accorded in different localities to the pig=re-ra and the
+horse, may thus be accounted for, especially as the name for the latter,
+het-ra, consists of het=light or fair, and ra=god, and the horse is
+actually found associated with the light-gods of antiquity and with
+so-called solar symbols and the swastika.
+
+Food for reflection is afforded by the Egyptian name for mirror, which
+literally signifies to see, or the seer=maa, of the face=hra, but which
+furnishes, as a rebus, the word maat=law, which is usually expressed by
+the feather=mat, connected with hra=_i. e._ ra=god (fig. 66, 10). The
+employment of the mirror as an image of the god of law would thus
+naturally have been suggested by its name. The presence of the eye=ari
+(_cf._ ra) in the centre of a mirror which is being worshipped, also
+suggests that in ancient Egypt the mirror was employed in the temple to
+hold the reflection of Polaris=Amen-Ra, "the untiring watcher, the lord of
+eternity and the maker of law" (see fig. 66, 11). It is obvious that the
+habitual employment, by the astronomer priests, of a mirror so placed in
+the sanctuary as to catch the reflection of the pole-star through an open
+doorway, would lead to the discovery of the movements of the sun and the
+positions it assumes during the year. The flashing of a beam of sunlight
+once a year, at the period of the summer solstice, upon the mirror which
+constantly reflected the pole-star, would naturally suggest the idea of
+"the union of the day-sun with the night-sun" and seem particularly
+impressive as it was at this period that the Nile began to rise. In
+dealing with the religious festivals held at this period more will be said
+on this subject.
+
+The word maat=law, besides being expressed by the feather=mat, could also
+have been indicated to those initiated in the mysteries of hieratic
+rebus-writing, by the lion=ma hes; the antelope=ma-het, which also
+contains the sacred attribute light=het, the synonym of khu, thus
+expresses the idea of the "light of the law." The musical instrument named
+mat may also have originally been, like the tam sceptre, a symbol of
+lawful power and conveyed an allusion to meht or maht=north. To this
+series the word am should be added, signifying child, tree and boat, each
+of which has already been treated of in connection with pole-star
+symbolism and Amen-Ra (fig. 63, 20-22).
+
+_Duality=ka=double; and the Middle=ak._
+
+The name for bull=ka (fig. 67, 1) incorporates, as has already been shown,
+not only duality and middle, but also, through its other names, the idea
+of oneness and of power. This appears to explain clearly why the bull was
+chosen as the image or rebus of Polaris and Ursa Major, which appear to
+have been regarded as a single combination of stars. The fact that in the
+hymns Amen-Ra is addressed as "the bull," constitutes a convincing
+corroboration of the identification of the "hidden god" with Polaris. A
+line of connection seems, moreover, to exist between the Egyptian kabal
+sami=the middle of heaven, the image of a bull in the centre of the
+zodiacs, and the bull of Assyria, under which image Baal was worshipped.
+
+Hieratic signs, expressing the word for middle and double appear to have
+been: the mummy which, although named sah or tut, also signified
+khat=corpse (2) and conveyed an allusion to mit=death, the homonym of
+met=north.
+
+A certain form of fish expressed the syllable kha (3). A cone-shaped
+object named khaker appears to have served as a rebus for the middle and
+double as well as night=ker and time=rek (4). In pl. VII, 12, the khaker
+figures behind the seated image of a deity with the head of a ram=ser or
+sar, holding the ankh in his hand, the whole forming a rebus for Ansar,
+and containing much meaning besides.
+
+Kha-ut (fig. 67, 5) is the name for the sacrificial offering laid on the
+utu=altar, which is shaped like the tau and symbolizes the above and below
+by its perpendicular and horizontal lines. In the centre of this is the
+bread=ta (the homonym of ta=earth, _cf._ neb-at=fire), which is remarkable
+on account of its division into four parts analogous to that of nut=city,
+a feature which justifies the inference that the word for cake=sen-nu made
+with honey=bat or net, is intended to be expressed here. A jar stands at
+each side of the cake, which is placed on edge so as to exhibit the sacred
+design upon it. It is significant that, if the jars contained wine=arp,
+milk=art, the name of the liquid constituted an anagram of ra, if
+perfume=anta was present, this furnished the syllables an and ta=earth. It
+is, of course, impossible to surmise how far such resemblances of sounds
+influenced the choice of sacred offerings.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 67.
+
+
+The kha (fig. 67, 6)=crown is particularly interesting as Amen-Ra is
+addressed as "crowned form," the lord of the ureret crown, ... beautiful
+of tiara, exalted of the white crown ... on whose brow the double crown of
+Upper and Lower Egypt is established. It appears, therefore, evident that
+the crown=kha was but another mode of expressing ka=double. At the same
+time it likewise conveyed the idea of ak=the centre and the act of
+crowning a sovereign appears as vested with deep symbolical meaning when
+it is realized that, according to the primitive modes of thought I have
+been tracing, by enclosing the head of the king in a circlet he was
+constituted the hak, regent or central chief, the living image of Ra,
+whose sign was the star or dot in the circle or ring.
+
+Ka (duality) is commonly expressed by an uplifted pair of arms; a variant
+being the whole figure of a man with raised arms (7 and 8). The fact that
+the name for phallus was also ka, explains its employment as a sacred
+symbol, recorded by Herodotus, which proves to what extremes the ancient
+rebus-writers went in their naive invention and multiplication of secret
+signs and modes of expressing the names and attributes of their "hidden
+god." The hatred and disgust conceived by the great reformer Amenophis IV,
+against all that pertained to the cult of Amen-Ra, his destruction of all
+images devised by the priesthood and adoption of a pure image of the
+supreme divinity of a plain disk or circle, with rays terminating in
+hands, are readily understood in connection with the above.
+
+Returning to our list of akh words: the akh or centre is figured by a man
+between two signs for heaven=pet, supporting the upper heaven with both
+hands; the idea ka=double or dual, being simultaneously expressed (9).
+
+The hawk=bak (10) constitutes so perfect a rebus or anagram of middle=ak
+and kabal, as well as for khab=star, that the reason why the hawk was
+chosen as an image or form of Amen-Ra is as reasonably accounted for as
+the choice of the bull. Before supporting this assertion by a series of
+convincing proofs, the following list must be studied:
+
+_An=he who turns himself around (__i. e.__ who performs a circuit=the
+circuiteer) and ankh=life._
+
+In the "First steps in Egyptian" I find the word "an" expressed by (fig.
+68, 1) a man in the act of turning around, resembling the position of the
+male deity in the boat, already discussed and represented in the
+astronomical texts (fig. 68, 2) by an eye, the form of which differs from
+that of the eye=ari; (3) by a fish, also different in form from the
+fish=kha, and particularly interesting if compared to the fish khepanen,
+figured in the kheper series, which constitutes a rebus combining the
+titles khepera=creator and an=the circuiteer; (4) by a stone=aner, also by
+hair=anem; (5) by two arms spread outwards, recalling the position of the
+front legs of quadrupeds; (6) by a spear whose shaft is inserted in a
+double stand; which sign recurs in the name of the city Annu, expressed by
+the an=spear, the vase=nu and the nut determinative for city or capital
+(7). It is extremely interesting to compare, at this point, the Greek
+polus=a pole or axis, and polis=city or capital, and to realize that, in
+Egypt and Greece alike, the names for capital are associated with the idea
+of centrifugal power and rule.
+
+The signification of all the above "an" signs becomes intensified when it
+is realized that they conveyed also the first two letters of the word
+ankh=life, which was usually expressed by the familiar symbol expressing
+the union of the dualities of nature (8).
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 68.
+
+
+Amongst the many surprises received during the course of this
+investigation, few have given me as much satisfaction and light, as the
+observation of the fact that the Egyptian name for flower, ankh (9), was
+the same as that for "life." The full significance of the lotus blossom as
+a symbol became clear to me, and my attention having been called by a
+friend to Mr. William H. Goodyear's admirable work "The Grammar of the
+Lotus," London, 1891, I was able to obtain from it the series of Egyptian
+symbols which I now present and shall proceed to interpret according to
+the method set forth in the preceding pages. The interesting observation
+was by Mr. Goodyear that "the ankh was the exact counterpart of the lotus
+as regards solar association" and in his work, on pl. LXV and elsewhere,
+this close observer publishes several instances illustrating this view. Of
+these I reproduce but two, which suffice, feeling convinced that Mr.
+Goodyear will be as interested as I was to hear that the ankh and lotus
+were homonyms of ankh=life. This fact of itself fully explains why the
+lotus flower was employed by the ancient Egyptians, as Mr. Goodyear
+states, as the "symbol of life, immortality and of renaissance and
+resurrection and of fecundity."
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 69.
+
+
+In fig. 69, 1, two (ka) fishes (khepanen or an) hold the lotus, ankh, and
+thus constitute a sacred rebus, the profound meaning of which can be
+surmised by studying the preceding pages. In 2, one (ua) fish holds the
+ankh instead of the lotus. Both signs obviously express precisely the same
+meaning with the difference that, in one case duality is expressed by two
+fishes, and in the other by the ankh symbol which emblematizes the union
+of nature's dualities.
+
+Fig. 69, 3, shows the bull, carrying the circle of Ra between its horns
+and wearing the ankh symbol hanging from its neck. The lotus replaces this
+in 4, where the circle is missing and one bull (ua en ka) expresses the
+mystic sacred words ua=One and ka=double or "the divine Twain." It is
+evident that it is only when it is assumed that pole-star worship
+constituted the basis of the natural religion of the ancient Egyptians
+that their sacred symbols become intelligible.
+
+Though a novice in Egyptology and with extremely limited works of
+reference at hand, which facts will, I trust, excuse faults and omissions,
+I perceive so much that is clear and simple in the following series of
+Egyptian sacred symbols, culled from Mr. Goodyear's work, that I am
+tempted to submit my interpretation of their meaning, thereby putting my
+view and method to a crucial test.
+
+In pl. VII, 2, we have an interesting group uniting the boat, the meaning
+of which has been discussed, a seated figure on a square pedestal, a
+column, the upper portion of which is separate and simulates the bowl or
+cup=au, the dot and circle, the sign of Amen-Ra, and a single flower. As a
+rebus, some of the words expressed are am, uaa or makhen=boat, tet=column,
+Ra=dot and circle, also seated figure, determinative of god=Ra, and ua en
+ankh=one flower. While the rebus supplies the words ua=one,
+uahi=permanent, ra=god, an=the circuiteer, ankh=life, tet=eternal, it is
+only when identified as pole-star symbolism that the group becomes
+comprehensible.
+
+Pointing out that, in the above, we have a clear case of the flower in
+association with the Ra sign and other symbols which have been discussed
+as pole-star signs, let us next examine 1, 3, 4, 6 and 8, in each of which
+one blossom=ua en ankh, constitutes the emblem for the sacred Middle, and
+openly conveys the idea of the verb an, to perform a circuit and
+ankh=life.
+
+The fact that, in 6, the flower consists of five petals, on four of which
+the genii of the four quarters stand, sufficiently proves that the flower,
+like the five-dot group, constituted a symbol of the four quarters and
+centre, the latter being figured as a pyramid-shaped petal. Interesting
+variants of this group are 5, with the four genii standing on seven of the
+nine petals of the flower, which is placed between two buds, the idea of
+centrality being thus conveyed; and 7 where an inverted triangle replaces
+the flower and reveals some of the deeper meaning attached to this symbol.
+In 1 and 3 the flower is surmounted by the hawk crowned with the Ra sign
+which, as has already been stated, symbolizes circuition around a central
+point of fixity. The names for hawk=hak (_cf._ ak and cabal=middle, also
+hak=king) and her or hur (_cf._ hru=upper, the above, and ur=four=Horus)
+reveal its appropriate use as rebus and symbol of the central "sun" god.
+In 8, instead of the Ra sign, the hawk wears the peculiar double diadem
+with a circle at its base, which is the particular attribute of the images
+of the ram-headed god Amon who is represented in no. 12, holding the ankh
+sign and accompanied by the kheper sign, composed of a circle, surmounted
+by a cone and supported by a pedestal. It is well known that the ram=ser,
+sart or sar, was the form under which the supreme divinity was worshipped
+at Thebes, the real metropolis of the whole land of Egypt, during many
+centuries.(113) The name Amon, also given as Ammon, Amoun, Hammon,
+resembles Amen closely enough to justify the identification of Amon as a
+form of Amen-Ra, the concealed god.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Plate VII.
+
+
+In this connection it is noteworthy that the ram=sar or sart conveys the
+same sound as the goose=sar or sa, the employment of which, as a pole-star
+symbol, will be discussed further on, and that the king of Egypt was
+termed "the living ram (of Amon) on earth" and "the engendering ram." From
+Mr. J. P. Mahaffy we learn that, under the Ptolemaic rule, "it seems
+likely that among the strict prescriptions for all the solemn acts of the
+king, it was directed that he should assume the insignia of the god Amon,
+his ram's horns, fleece, etc, when visiting the queen" (History of Egypt,
+London, 1899).
+
+Under the Ptolemaic dynasty, the identification of Amon with Amen-Ra
+receives support from the magnificent monumental votive ram, preserved at
+the Berlin Museum, which was dedicated by king Amenophis III, which bears
+on his head, the disk with the uraeus serpent, the familiar sign of the
+"hidden god."(114)
+
+While the diadem of Amen-Ra sufficiently identifies the hawk on the lotus
+as a form of the "hidden god," the following extracts from Mr. Goodyear's
+work will be found to confirm this and throw further light on the subject.
+"The hawk represented Ra, Horus and all solar gods...." A text at Denderah
+says: "The sun which was from the beginning rises (_i. e._ comes forth,
+appears, see Brugsch for meaning of Egyptian equivalent) like a hawk from
+the midst of its lotus bud...." At Denderah the king makes offering of the
+lotus to the sun-god Horus with the words: "I offer thee the flower which
+was in the beginning the glorious lily of the great water...." In the boat
+of the dead the soul says, "I am a pure lotus (_i. e._ life) issue of the
+field of the sun."
+
+The circumstance that, in 4, the flower is surmounted by a goose, one name
+for which being aq=ak, shows that, like the hawk, bak, it may well have
+served as a rebus for ak=the middle. An instance of the direct association
+of the sacred goose with the four quarters is given in the bas-relief at
+Medinet-Abu, described by Brugsch (_op. cit._ II, p. 297). This represents
+"Ramses III ... offering sacrifice to the god 'Khimti,' _i. e._ Pan of
+Panopolis, the Theban form of which was Amon Generator.... A white bull
+(the symbol of Pan) and four geese, which are represented as flying
+towards the cardinal points, constitute the sacrifice."
+
+The striking association of the goose with the bull=Apis, the astronomical
+symbolism of which has been shown, gains in significance when it is
+realized that another name for goose is apt and that this also constitutes
+an anagram of pta=ptah, one form of Amen-Ra. It is a curious fact that the
+third name for goose, se or sa, combined with ankh=flower, as in pl. VII,
+4, furnishes the word ankh-sa, which recalls the word An-sah obtained by
+the mummy and serpent rebus and the name of the god of Assyria, Anshar.
+
+In connection with the above Egyptian rebus, expressing the syllables ankh
+and sa, it surprised me, to find that the Sanscrit name for goose is
+hangsa, while in ancient Hindu it is hamsa and in modern Hindu hanassa. It
+is well known that in Hindu mythology the goose was "the bird of Brahma,"
+the "supreme one who alone exists really and absolutely," that the birth
+of Brahma from the lotus is frequently represented in Hindu religious art,
+and that the lotus is the attribute of the "sun-god" Surya, termed the
+"lord of the lotus, father, friend and king." What is more, the goose,
+associated with "solar" symbolism, _i. e._ with the circle and central
+dot, with the swastika, four-petalled flower and the wheel, occurs on the
+oldest monuments of Greek art; on the prehistoric bronzes and pottery of
+Italy (where the sacred geese were kept on the Capitoline at Rome); on the
+bronzes of Hallstatt, of ancient Gaul and of prehistoric Sweden. Pointing
+out that we thus obtain a whole chain of associations which link the
+syllables am and an to deities and pole-star symbolism, I next present,
+for reference, the names for the bird given in Webster's dictionary.
+
+Sanscrit, hangsa; Latin, anser, for hanser; German, gans (in Germany,
+according to Pliny, the small, white geese were called ganzoe al. gantoe
+lib. X, 22); Greek, khen; Danish, gaas; Swedish, gos; Welsh, gwydd;
+Anglo-Saxon, gos; Irish, geadh; Icelandic, gas; Slavonic, gusj and gonsj.
+Noting that in the Sanscrit, Latin, Greek and German alike, the syllable
+an or en is present in the name for goose, I return to the Egyptian
+symbols which express the words an and ankh, and, bearing the "birth of
+Brahma from a lotus" in mind, refer again to the Egyptian title Neb-ankh,
+"lord of life," which, as I point out, also signified "the lord of the
+lotus flower." Let us now briefly examine some Egyptian texts relating to
+pl. V, 12 and 15, which represent the boat (am and its synonyms) and the
+flower=ankh, associated with the boy and the serpent.
+
+In an astronomical text from Edfu, published by Brugsch, New Year's day is
+mentioned in connection with the "coming forth of the great lotus blossom
+in the form of a bud in its symbolical interpretation as the god ahi
+(literally, boy).... The count of his rulership begins from the first day
+of his rising or birth...." In another text it is said: "New Year's day,
+the sun (Ra) comes forth from a lotus flower in the great sea," and there
+are numerous allusions in other inscriptions to "the lotus blossom in the
+great waters, from which the sun-child arises in radiance towards heaven."
+The text accompanying (pl. V, 15), where a serpent rises from the lotus in
+the boat, states "the sun, uniter of the world, in Tentyra"=the New Year.
+
+In another inscription it is said: "thou risest like the sacred serpent,
+as a living spirit, in thy glorious form in the bark of the sunrise;" and
+this passage forms an interesting parallel to that already cited where the
+sun is said to rise "like a hawk from the midst of its lotus bud." Pl.
+VII, 14, exhibits a nine-petalled lotus growing from a pedestal and a head
+issuing from it. As the name for head tep (also tap or tpa, and apt _cf._
+pta), signifies chief, or beginning, we must accept this as another
+variant of the previous signs.
+
+Deferring the discussion of the so-called "birth" and cult of the diurnal
+sun, as one form of Amen-Ra, let us now rapidly survey the following
+figures copied from Mr. Goodyear's work.
+
+Pl. VII, 9. A circle encloses a group consisting of the five-petalled
+lotus between two buds and the hawk-headed sphinx, which has already been
+met with in the astronomical texts and, according to Egyptologists,
+represents Horus, the sun, "who lights the world with two eyes" and is
+addressed as "a powerful lion," "the master of double force."(115) I need
+scarcely recall here that the combination of a bird and quadruped would
+naturally symbolize air and earth, the Above and Below and that the
+hawk-headed sphinx, seated on four petals, clearly expresses the idea of
+the "lord of Heaven and Earth, the father and mother of all, the ruler of
+the Four Quarters and lord of the circle."
+
+Pl. VII, 10. The plain circle or disk, supported by two uplifted arms=ka,
+arising from (akh) the ankh sign, is another ingenious mode of expressing
+the idea of the Middle, the circle, duality and life.
+
+No. 13 constitutes as charming and ingenious a play upon the word
+ankh=life as can be imagined, and a close examination reveals its subtle,
+hidden and deep significance. It exhibits, in the first case, the ankh
+sign combined with the flower=ankh, which might, at a first glance, be
+taken as an example of purely decorative art. But the ever-present thought
+of the duality of nature manifests itself in the arrangement of the two
+flowers towards each other and enclosed in the open ring of the ankh sign,
+and it is evident that the artist took pains to draw the central petal of
+the lower blossom in the form of a triangle, below which an oblong square
+and a square may be distinguished.
+
+After the foregoing attempt to show how, even with my rudimentary and
+limited knowledge of their language, the sacred symbols of the Egyptians
+become intelligible and full of significance when studied as examples of
+pole-star symbolism and primitive rebus writing, I draw attention to the
+limited number of syllables employed in the astronomical texts; to the
+ingenuity displayed in expressing the same sound over and over again by
+means of different words possessing the same sound and to the fact I shall
+hereafter set forth, that the syllables and rebus-figures employed are
+found indissolubly linked to pole-star and sacred symbolism. Referring a
+demonstration of these conclusions to the end of the present
+investigation, I shall next discuss the forms which the cult of the
+dualities of nature seemingly assumed in ancient Egypt.
+
+As an introduction I present in fig. 70, the copy of the upper portion of
+a funeral stela preserved at Bulak and published by Perrot and Chipiez
+(AEgypten, Leipzig, 1884). It exhibits the head or face of Hathor
+surmounting the tet column and supporting, in turn, the image of a small
+house or temple, at each side of which is a peculiar projection recalling
+the circinate line issuing from the red crown of lower Egypt (see fig. 70,
+9, 10). In another Hathor stela, figured in the same work (pp. 510 and
+780), the same characteristic circinate projections recur. The image of
+the house, always represented with a single doorway, is obviously a rebus
+of the name Hathor, explained by Egyptologists as Het-heru, literally "the
+house of Horus." "Athor or Hathor of Thebes, identified with Nut, the sky
+... was the female power of nature and is often represented under the form
+of a cow, ... as a woman with a cow's head, with horns and the disk, or
+wearing a head-dress in the shape of a vulture and above it the disk and
+horns." In the familiar representation of the mask of Hathor on columns,
+the association with the cow is conveyed by large cow's ears=setem,
+projecting at each side of the face=hra.
+
+A feature generally present in the miniature doorway of the house, is a
+single erect head of a uraeus, bearing the disk or circle on its head and
+usually exhibiting a distinctly cross-shaped mark on its neck. The latter
+peculiarity is clearly shown in fig. 70, 1, which exhibits moreover a
+seated divinity at each side of the doorway, each bearing the throne or
+seat (auset) on its head, and the ankh sign on its knee. Close examination
+reveals that one of these deities is Ausar=Osiris, whose name is generally
+written by means of the throne=auset, and the eye=ari, with or without the
+determinative for god, _i. e._, the seated figure (fig. 70, 1 _a_ and 1
+_b_). Opposite to Osiris is Auset=Isis, whose name is usually written as
+in fig. 70, 1 _c_, where the auset, the egg=se, and the seated image of a
+goddess bearing a bowl=neb, on her head, may be distinguished.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 70.
+
+
+An idea of the import of fig. 70, 1, seems gained when it is remembered
+that in Egyptian the word house=pi, pir or per, was associated with the
+title of ruler, the name Pharaoh being derived from per=aa=great house.
+What is more, the word house=pir or pi, is used in astronomical texts,
+like the Arabian beth, in relation to stars, it being said of a star that
+"it ever comes forth from its house"=appears (Brugsch).
+
+The permanent image of the disk and serpent, a form of the Ra sign, in the
+doorway of the sculptured house, would thus convey the idea of the eternal
+presence of Amen-Ra, the pole-star god. The accentuation of the cross
+lines on the neck of the ara indicates, moreover, the intentional allusion
+to four-fold and two-fold force, the latter being expressed by the eyes of
+the serpent. The door=ptah, which is open, expresses the name Ptah=the
+Opener, well known as that of the "father of the gods" and a form of
+Amen-Ra.
+
+The positions assigned to Osiris and Isis, at either side of the "hidden
+god," sufficiently shows that they were intended to represent separate
+incorporations of the male and female principles which were united in
+Amen-Ra, the "divine Twain." The association of both deities with the
+throne, the eternal seat of repose, identifies both alike with Polaris. A
+monument in the Berlin Museum (no. 261) which was found in the temple of
+Isis at Ben-naga, in Nubia, and was a votive offering made by the
+Ethiopian king Netek-Amen and his consort Amen-Tari, contains the
+following formula, translated by Lepsius, which associates Isis with
+eternal enthronement. "Thou remainest, thou remainest, on thy great
+throne, O Isis, queen of Au-ker, like the sun (Ra) that lives in the
+horizon ... and thou lettest thy son Netek-Amen flourish on his
+throne...."
+
+The fact I am about to demonstrate, that the king and queen of Egypt were
+the respective, "the living images" of Osiris and Isis, proves that, as in
+ancient Peru and China, the sovereigns, who were at the same time high
+priest and priestess, were considered as the sacred embodiments of the
+dual principles of nature. As elsewhere also, a chain of associations
+became attached to each of the dualities; but in Egypt, as may be clearly
+discerned, during the lapse of centuries great transformations of thought
+took place and alternately the male and female elements seem to have been
+associated with the cults of heaven and earth, light and darkness, sun or
+moon, morning or evening stars, the southeast and the northwest.
+
+In the sacred writings the sun is usually termed "the right eye" and the
+moon "the left eye" of Ra (_cf._ hra=the (divine) face). Brugsch points
+out that, in certain inscriptions at Denderah translated by Mariette, "the
+Sothis star of Hathor-Isis is designated as 'the right eye of Ra' while
+the sun is termed the left eye."
+
+Brugsch states, moreover, that, according to Sextus Empiricus, "the
+Egyptians compared the king to the 'right eye' or the sun; while the queen
+was compared to the 'left eye' or the moon." The two eyes, often with the
+designation of "right" or "left," constitute a favorite decoration on
+funeral stelae. In some instances the image of the solar disk, with one
+wing and one serpent only, is figured as a substitute for the right eye
+(_op. cit._ II, 436, see fig. 62, 6). The established fact that the eyes
+of Ra were the equivalents of the uraei usually accompanying the circle of
+Ra, the so-called "solar disk," is further explained by the following
+data.
+
+It is well known that the two uraei on the royal diadem denote sovereignty
+over Upper and Lower Egypt. In the bas-relief published by Brugsch, the
+circle or Ra-sign is represented with two uraei, which respectively wear
+the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt (fig. 70, 7). The crowned uraei recur
+in the emblems of Upper and Lower Egypt published by Mr. Goodyear, the
+first accompanied by the lotus flower and the second by what Egyptologists
+usually identify as the papyrus, but which appears to be the ripened pod
+of the lotus (fig. 70, 9 and 10). While the two uraei thus emblematized the
+two divisions of the land of Egypt they are found as distinctly associated
+with Osiris and Isis, and their living images the king and queen, or the
+high priest and high priestess of Amen-Ra. The Berlin Museum contains
+several representations of Isis under the form of a serpent with a woman's
+head (see official catalogue, nos. 7740, 870 and 2529). Osiris is also
+represented as a serpent with the head of a bearded man.
+
+A small shrine in the form of a temple, and decorated with royal serpents,
+is preserved at the Berlin Museum (catalogue no. 8164) and contains the
+effigies of two uraei, one of which, to the left of the spectator, exhibits
+the head of Isis, the second, to the right, the features of Osiris.
+Between them stands the vase or bowl which was a constant feature of Isis
+cult.
+
+In connection with this monument it is interesting to examine an
+inscription published by Brugsch (I, p. 108) in which occur two serpents
+who are pouring liquid into a bowl placed between them and the divided
+halves of the sky-sign (fig. 70, 8). The text connects this with the New
+Year festival when the Nile began to rise "from its two sources" and the
+"union of heaven and earth" took place, which will be discussed later. The
+following temporary list briefly presents a summary of the preceding data
+which is rendered more complete by the addition of the signs and emblems
+of the festivals, when the "conjunction of sun and moon took place,"
+figured by the picture of two persons united by their respective right and
+left hands (fig. 70, 5) or by the tet column placed between two horns
+(fig. 70, 4). As may be seen by numerous examples in Brugsch (vol. II),
+the great Sed festival is figured by the image of the small sanctuary
+which existed on the flat roof of the great temple at Denderah, and
+resembled an open pavilion with four columns which is usually represented
+as containing two seats placed back to back (fig. 70, 2, 3). A small
+picture in Mr. Wallis Budge's Nile exhibits the king and queen occupying
+such a double throne, respectively, wearing the insignia and crowns of
+Osiris and Isis and holding their sceptres, as in the representations of
+the ceremony of laying the foundation of a temple, in their right and left
+hands (fig. 70, 6). The resume of the preceding material produces the
+following list:
+
+Right eye of Ra: Left eye of Ra.
+Sun: Moon.
+King: Queen.
+Osiris: Isis.
+High priest: High priestess.
+Right hand sceptre: Left hand sceptre.
+North: South.
+Red crown: White crown.
+
+The following data, gleaned from the valuable works of Prof. A. H. Sayce
+and the serial History of Egypt, written by Prof. Flinders Petrie, J. P.
+Mahaffy and J. G. Milne, furnish strong indications that, in the remotest
+past, the two divisions of the land of Egypt were respectively governed by
+a male and female sovereign; a proof that, before the time of Menes, the
+ancient empire had become disintegrated, and undergone a long period of
+intense strife and warfare. We learn from Professor Sayce of the
+probability that "the city of Nek-hen was once the capital of the south
+and that the vulture, the symbol of the south, was also the emblem of
+Nekheb, the goddess of the great fortress, the ruins of which lie opposite
+to Nekhen on the eastern bank of the Nile" (Sayce, _op. cit._ pp. 152,
+191).
+
+While the capital and the emblem of southern or Upper Egypt are thus
+directly associated with a "goddess," further data show us that the
+ancient queens of Egypt were termed "god-women or goddesses." When the New
+Empire was founded (1600-1100 B.C.) with its capital at Thebes, King Ahmes
+assumed the sovereignty of the whole of Egypt, but seems to have shared
+supreme authority with his consort Ah-mes-nefretere=divine- or god-woman,
+also termed "the high priestess of Amen." From the honors accorded to her
+and to her son Amen-hetep or Amenophis I, it must indeed be inferred that
+she possessed some inherited sovereign right to one of the ancient
+divisions of the empire.
+
+During the period of the 26th dynasty, of Sais, we find Upper Egypt
+governed by a "god-woman," Shep-en-upet, who remained in power, even after
+the land had been conquered by Psammetichus I. The latter obtained,
+however, that his daughter Nitocris was adopted as the successor to the
+"divine-woman" ruler of Thebes, and she in turn adopted the daughter of
+Psammetichus II (B.C. 594-589), whose name was Anches-nefer-eb-re. A
+tablet from the temple of Karnak, preserved at the Berlin Museum
+(catalogue no. 2112) represents this female sovereign of Thebes
+accompanied by her prime minister, and standing in the presence of the
+gods Amen and Chon.
+
+Another remarkable monument at the Berlin Museum (no. 7972) figures the
+"god-woman" Shep-en-upet, under the form of a sphinx holding a vase, and
+records that she had inherited the sovereignty of Thebes from her aunt,
+the consort of an Ethiopian king. An extremely interesting proof that the
+beard, _per se_, constituted an emblem of sovereignty, is furnished by a
+beautiful portrait statue of the "divine woman," Hat-shepset (Berlin
+Museum, no. 2299). She is figured as a sphinx and wears a beard suspended
+from her head-dress.(116) The serpent decorates her diadem. On other
+monuments this remarkable queen, who built the temple of Der-el-Bahari, is
+figured with the crown of Upper Egypt (_cf._ no. 2279, Berlin Museum). By
+good fortune the personal gold ornaments of a "divine woman," an Ethiopian
+princess, were discovered by Ferlini in the pyramid of Begerauie, enclosed
+in a plain bronze vase. These precious objects are now exhibited in the
+Berlin Museum, where I have examined them and noted with interest that the
+central ornament of two finely worked, broad gold bracelets, is a female
+figure with the royal diadem and four outstretched arms, to which wings
+are attached. This furnishes us with an instance of a queen being
+represented with four wings, in exactly the same manner as the Assyrian
+king Sargon, on the seal from the time of Sennacherib (fig. 65, 6),
+namely, as a "ruler of the four quarters," which indicates that she held
+the position of a "central ruler." As might be expected in the case of a
+queen who personified Isis, frequently represented under the form of a
+"woman-serpent," the uraeus is a favorite motif on other gold ornaments
+belonging to the Ethiopian queen.
+
+Certain passages in Prof. Flinders Petrie's History of Egypt afford a
+curious insight into the prerogatives of Egyptian queens as far back as
+about B.C. 2684. The consort of Usertesen II, the fourth king of the
+twelfth dynasty was named Nefert,of whom a grey granite statue is
+preserved at the Ghizeh Museum and represents her as seated on a throne.
+On this are the titles "The hereditary princess, the great favorite, the
+greatly praised, the beloved consort of the king, _the ruler of all
+women_, the king's daughter of his body, Nefert." Prof. Flinders Petrie
+adds: "The title ruler or princess of all women is peculiar, and suggests
+that the queen had some prerogatives of government as regards the female
+half of the population." The title in question reappears four centuries
+later in connection with Nubkhas, the queen of Sebek=Emsaup, of the 13th
+dynasty and her stele in the Louvre entitles her the "great heiress, the
+greatly favored, _the ruler of all women_, the great royal wife, united to
+the crown Nub-kha-s" (_op. cit._, vol. I, pp. 175 and 225).
+
+Between B.C. 1423-1414 queen Mutemua-arat appears as "the goddess queen"
+and "great royal wife" (Flinders Petrie _op. cit._, II, p. 174). The
+consort of Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379) the celebrated Tyi, the daughter
+of Yuaa and Thuaa, is entitled "princess of both lands," and "chief
+heiress, princess of all lands." Her successor Nefertiti is called
+"princess of south and north, lady of both lands," which titles, as Prof.
+Flinders Petrie comments, "like the titles of Tyi, imply a hereditary
+right to rule Egypt." They undoubtedly place her on a footing of equality
+with the king, which is, however, comprehensible when it is explained that
+she was the ruler of all women, while he was the ruler of all men. The
+position of the Egyptian queen would thus prove to have been analogous to
+that of the ancient Mexican Quilaztli (see pp. 61-67).
+
+The analogy is all the more striking when it is realized that the titles
+of the Mexican chieftainess were: "the Woman warrior, the Woman of the
+Underworld or Below, the Woman serpent or female twin and the Eagle
+woman," while the emblem of the Egyptian goddess-queen of the south was
+the vulture and she was the personification of Isis, represented under the
+form of a serpent, the twin of the male serpent, Osiris.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 71.
+
+
+Much food for thought is furnished by a Syrian relief sculpture from Amrit
+(published by Spamer, see fig. 71, 2), which exhibits a vulture or eagle
+with outstretched wings, in juxtaposition to a winged disk which appears
+to combine features of the Assyrian winged disk (the bird's tail and two
+appendages, see fig. 71,1) with the two uraei of the Egyptian form (fig.
+71, 3). It is striking how clear the symbolism of the latter becomes when
+interpreted (1) as the symbol of the hidden god and his male and female
+form, Osiris and Isis, accompanied by the wings symbolizing air and the
+idea that the deity was invisible and immaterial; (2) as the symbol of
+Egypt itself--an entity, a complete circle, divided into two parts, under
+two rulers. The pair of antelope horns above emphasize the fact that the
+twain were as a single pair. The combined crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt,
+the latter exhibiting a serpent's head and the first, what appears to be
+its tail, constitute the symbol of joint rulership which, in this case, is
+accompanied by the feather, the rebus expressing the words "truth and
+justice."
+
+While the Syrian bas-relief conveys the idea of two separate kingdoms, one
+conveying the idea of single rulership, by the form of an eagle; the other
+of dual rulership, by the two uraei, each of which is crowned by a small
+disk; the Egyptian symbol distinctly conveys the idea of a close union of
+two distinct parts. The historical fact that Menes succeeded in uniting
+both lands under a single crown, indicates clearly enough that the ancient
+empire had become disintegrated and that by marrying the female ruler of
+the south he had reinstated the dual government on its original primitive
+basis. That, during the period of separation and independence, a powerful
+gynocracy had been formed seems more than probable. Just as evidences are
+met with in ancient Mexico of the existence of female communities, so the
+Old World furnishes accounts, deemed fabulous, of powerful gynocracies.
+Thus we have heard of the Amazons, the fabulous race of women warriors who
+are supposed to have founded a powerful empire on the coast of the Euxine.
+
+A searching analysis of the texts translated by Brugsch, relating to the
+ceremonies performed at the New Year and famous Sed festivals, as well as
+historical facts gleaned from the works of living authorities, throw a
+light upon the position and sacred duties of the Egyptian queens during
+many centuries. The critical examination of a number of inscriptions,
+translated by Brugsch, is found to show that the queen was the high
+priestess and living image of Hathor-Isis and the personification of the
+female principle of nature, associated in Egypt with the nocturnal Heaven
+and the Above, and their symbols, the bird or vulture, the cow, the female
+serpent, the moon, the stars, and in particular Sirius-Sothis. In remotest
+historical times the goddess-queen seems to have resided in her own
+capital, a fortress. The universal necessity to insure the safety of women
+and children in times of warfare may well have originally led to the
+assignment of a separate, permanent place of residence, to the female
+portion of the population. The New Year festival, which coincided with the
+heliacal rising of Sirius (20th July, Jul. Cal.) and the overflow of the
+Nile, which suspended outdoor activity, was generally celebrated
+throughout the land as the "union of heaven and earth," or the conjunction
+of "the sun and the moon, or Sirius."
+
+It was customary that, at this period, the queen, personifying the Sothis
+star, should come forth from her retirement and, surrounded by pomp and
+majesty, meet the king in solemn state, publicly occupy her place on the
+double throne, and share in the performance of sacred religious rites. It
+is easy to see that the idea underlying the entire ceremonial was the
+harmonizing of the actions of the sacred personifications of the dual
+principles of nature with the natural phenomena, from which arose a
+strange confusion of ideas concerning the relationship between these
+consecrated individuals and the powers of nature, which culminated in the
+artificial belief that they were divinely appointed mediators between
+humanity and the supreme power.
+
+There are clear indications that the consecrated nuptials of king and
+queen marked the Sed festival which was celebrated, at the beginning of
+every fourth year, at Denderah. Brugsch tells us that the place on the
+roof of the Hathor temple, where the celebration of the Sed festival took
+place, is specially designated as "the place of the first feast" and in
+many cases this is shown to have been the small open temple, whose roof is
+supported by four columns (fig. 70, 2 and 3). In one passage it is
+expressly stated that "she, Isis-Sothis, consorts with her father, the
+sun, at 'the place of the first feast,' " represented by a picture of the
+said temple (fig. 70, 6).
+
+It is interesting to compare the following passage with the successive
+one, as they exhibit different phases of religious cult. "In solemn
+procession statues of the god Ra and of Hathor-Isis (Sothis-Sirius) were
+carried up the stairs from the interior of the temple to its roof (the
+tep-hat or head of the house) where, under the open sky or in the small
+open temple on the roof designated as Hait at Denderah, the idols were
+unveiled at a given time...." "On the morn of the New Year Isis-Sothis
+'beheld her father on the beautiful day of the birth of the disk'
+(mas-aten) or 'the birth of the sun' (mas-ra)." It is described how "the
+goddess was led upon the roof so that she might behold the rays of her
+father on his rising.... She is sometimes addressed directly, being told
+'that thou shouldst see thy father on the day of the New Year.' " In other
+texts allusion is made to the approach of Sirius to the sun on New Year's
+day: "her rays join (heter) with those of the radiant god on that
+beautiful day of the birth of the sun's disk in the morning of New Year's
+day:" or "thou consortest with thy father Ra in thy open temple, thy
+beautiful face being turned towards the south;" and elsewhere, "she comes
+on her beautiful festival of the New Year, to unite her greatness in
+heaven with that of her father; the gods are festive and the goddesses are
+full of joy when the right eye (Sirius) unites itself with the left eye
+(the sun). She rests upon her throne in the place where the disk of the
+sun can be seen and the radiant one (Isis-Sothis) combines herself with
+the radiant one (the sun)."
+
+On one of the columns of the roof-temple at Denderah, the following text
+is inscribed: "This temple of Rekhit flourishes in possession of a lion
+(mahes) and of his daughter ... of the Horus of the east and of the
+goddess Khont-abut. They assume her heavenly form on New Year's day and
+each one consorts with his neighbor." Preceding inscriptions are made more
+clear by the following detached passages translated by Brugsch, which
+merit careful study. "An inscription at Abydos makes the goddess Safkhet
+say to the king: 'thou didst appear as king upon thy throne on the feast
+hib-seb; like the god Ra at the beginning of the year.' " "The high-priest
+of Ptah at Memphis was charged with the celebration of the Sed festival,
+which was a general festival throughout the land." "The annual going of
+the Hathor of Denderah to Edfu took place in the month Epiphi." "The
+goddess Hathor-Isis of Denderah is frequently called the second female sun
+next to the sun's disk, the many colored, feathered goddess, and is
+identified with Isis-Sothis."
+
+According to an extremely ancient belief it was the goddess Hathor
+Isis-Sothis who caused the inundation of the Nile which, according to the
+inscriptions, coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius. Owing to this
+circumstance she is called, "Isis the great, the mother of god, who causes
+the Nile to overflow when she shines at the commencement of the year," or
+"the female sun who appears at the beginning of the year in the heaven as
+the divine Sothis star, the queen of the decan stars, whose rays
+illuminate the earth like those of the sun which appears in the morning.
+She is the mistress of the commencement of the year, who draws the Nile
+out of its source and thus confers life upon living human beings."
+Elsewhere she is termed "the mistress of the commencement of the year, who
+makes the Nile rise at its period." It is likewise said of her "on her
+beautiful feast of beholding her father, the heaven unites itself with the
+earth and the right eye unites itself with the left eye, at the beginning
+of the year." She is described as Isis the great, the mother of god, the
+lady of Adut in Anet, the mistress of the beginning of the year, the
+monarch of the Sema? who appears on New Year's day to usher in the new
+year. (She is) the goddess Ament (the hidden one) in Thebes, Menat (the
+nurse) in Heliopolis, Renpit (_i. e._ the year) in Memphis, the divine
+star Sothis in Elephantine, the radiant one in Apollinopolis magna, etc.
+
+In another passage Hathor-Isis is spoken of as "the goddess Mehen-net of
+the light-god and his Ar-hatef=(she who acts as pilot) in the boat sektet,
+which eternally passes through the heaven over the head of her father." On
+the north wall of the Prondos of the Denderah temple Isis-Hathor is called
+"Hathor, the lady of Anet; Isis herself; the eye of Ra; the great one of
+Tentyra; the lady of heaven; the queen of gods and goddesses; the great
+Mat ... the female sun; the first in Tentyra; the true one amongst gods;
+the young; the daughter of a young ... [?] the beauty who appears in
+heaven; the truth which regulates the world at the prow of the bark of the
+sun; the queen and mistress of awe; the mistress of goddesses, Isis, the
+great, the mother of the god."
+
+The following texts from Brugsch are explicit enough: "The temple of
+Tentyra is fitted up for a bride, and is occupied by a bride." "The temple
+of Tentyra is in bridal array and contains a bride on the beautiful
+festival of the birth of the sun." "The temple of Tentyra is fitted up for
+a bridal and is in possession of a bride on her beautiful festival of the
+birth of the sun (mas-ra)."
+
+The birth of a male or female Horus, of a young sun or moon, is alluded to
+in other texts as the "feast of the child in its cradle," and coincided
+with New Year's day. According to Brugsch, the festival of the child in
+its ses=cradle, nest, or couch, undoubtedly coincided with New Year's day,
+as is proven by the following inscription: "The bringing of the band of
+stuff to the great Isis, the mother of the god, for the obtainment of a
+happy year. Receive, receive happy years on the day of the night of the
+child in its cradle!"... It is usual to interpret the birth of the young
+child, or sun of the New Year as a mere allegory of the astronomical fact
+and it may have been thus in later times. On the other hand, historical
+data prove that the actual birth of a "child," the offspring of a royal
+sacramental marriage, did take place in the temple and that children, thus
+born, afterwards became the rulers of Egypt.
+
+"At Luqsor, ... a great temple was built by Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379)
+to 'his father Amen,' with special reference to the divine conception of
+the king.... His birth is the great subject of the temple ... and his
+mother Mut-em-ua is the prominent figure in those scenes, pointing to her
+being important as queen-mother...." Of the later king Hor-em-heb (B.C.
+1332-1328) it is inscribed: "Amen, king of the gods, dandled him ... when
+he came forth from the womb he was enveloped in reverence, the aspect of a
+god was upon him; the arm was bowed to him as a child and great and small
+did obeisance before him " (Flinders Petrie, _op. cit._ pp. 177, 190 and
+248).
+
+The small Isis temple to the east of the great temple of Hathor at
+Denderah is specially designated as the lying-in chamber, or sacred house
+of birth. An inscription dating from the Roman period, on the outer
+eastern wall of this building reads: "Life! the female Horus, the
+youthful, the daughter of a hak (regent, Brugsch), Isis, the great, the
+mother of the Ra=god, is born in Tentyra in the 'night of the child in its
+cradle,' at the west side of the temple of Hat-seses (the great temple of
+Hathor)." It is, moreover, stated that "Horus, in female form, is the
+princess, the powerful, the heiress to the throne and the daughter of an
+heir to the throne."
+
+In another inscription, on the south wall of the small temple of Isis, the
+birth of Isis is described thus: "On this beautiful day, 'of the night of
+the child in its cradle,' on the great festival during which the world is
+re-adjusted, or balanced (sekhek en ta), the bringing forth of Isis takes
+place in the interior or centre of Anet (Tentyra) by the goddess Ap, the
+great, in the chamber of Ap, in the form of a dark red female person, the
+Khnum ankh, the lovely. Her mother, Nut, exclaimed at the sight of her:
+behold, (As is) I have become a mother. Thence the origin of the name
+Isis.... The south, towards the place of rising of the sun's disk, has
+been given over to her, and the north, towards.... She is, namely, the
+mistress of both sides of Egypt, with her son Horus and her brother
+Osiris."
+
+On the east side of the wall of the terrace at Denderah a similar
+inscription reads: "Uar-kher-ta is the name of this locality. The name of
+the place of the cradle of Isis is named Adut, which is the house where
+the 'accouchement' of Nut, the goddess of heaven, takes place. It is here
+that, at the time of the 'night of the child in its cradle,' the
+god-mother is brought into the world, in the form of a dark female, named
+Khnum-ankhet, the lady of love and the queen of the gods and goddesses. On
+seeing her, her mother exclaimed: As, is _i. e._ lo, or behold, I have
+become a mother! Thence the origin of her name Isis.... She is the lady of
+the temple of Egypt with her son Horus and brother Osiris, now and forever
+into eternity." The most instructive account of the festival which has
+come under my notice is the following, contained in another inscription in
+the temple at Denderah.
+
+"The fourth day, supplementary to the year (of 360 days, _i. e._ the 364th
+day) is the beautiful day of the 'night of the child in its cradle' and is
+a great festival of preparation. During the night preceding this day there
+takes place the procession of the goddess Hathor and the divinities with
+her. The circuit of her temple is made and all is duly fulfilled according
+to the custom. Upon this follows the return to their places (chambers in
+the temple). The golden one (Nubet, the ordinary appellation of
+Hathor-Isis as the star Sothis-Sirius, Brugsch) rises, shining, above the
+brow of her progenitor, and her mysterious (literally, full of secrets)
+form is at the prow of the boat of the sun. As soon as she reaches the ak
+(centre) of her city in the presence of her Nomos, she beholds her
+dwelling with the most joyful feelings. When she enters her house her body
+is full of delight. When she has taken possession of her exalted dwelling,
+surrounded by her fellow-gods, who stand at each side of her, her soul in
+her body is full of rejoicings. When they join the rays of her father (the
+sun god) and are united to the radiance of his disk, the city Anet
+(Tentyra) is happy. Adoration is made in Adut (the lying-in chamber) and
+Pi-anet is in festive state, when it beholds the great, the powerful
+leader, she who creates the festival in the holy city on that beautiful
+day of the New Year."
+
+Elsewhere we read: "The city of Anet is in a constant exaltation when the
+goddess Isis is born in it (in the small Isis temple) in the form of a
+dark red woman, whose name is Khnum-Ankhet, the lady of love, the queen of
+goddesses and women, the bride. It is beautiful to see the shining
+appearance of the ray of light in the heaven, in the dusk, at the time
+when she is born in this city.... A flying beetle (?) is born in the sky
+in the primaeval city of Tentyra at the period of 'the night of the child
+in its cradle.' The sun shines in the heaven at dusk when her birth has
+taken place. Gods and goddesses praise the name of her majesty...."
+"Ra-Hur of Apollinopolis magna, god Sam-ta, comes forth, or arises, in the
+dawn (akhekh) when the birth takes place in 'the night of the child in its
+cradle,' on the great festival of the entire world (or the entire land).
+He shines for her majesty when she has brought forth (the child). Her
+child is in the form of a beautiful boy, who is the lord of Tentyra. The
+gods and goddesses came to her carrying the symbol of life (the ankh) and
+the sceptre of power (the tam) so as to fulfil their desire and her wish"
+(p. 103).
+
+The following extract from a papyrus which belonged to a priest of Amon,
+named Horsiesis of Thebes, of the time of Augustus, affords an extremely
+interesting insight of the mysterious ceremonial which had gradually
+developed. It is evident that the text, though apparently clear, must have
+been intelligible to the initiated only, who alone were able to understand
+the allusions to secret, sacred rites and their symbolical meaning.
+
+"Thou raisest thyself to heaven, in the region of the city Ka ... thou
+goest with the king when he goes to Thebes ... thou seest the Sktt bark on
+its arrival in the city of Thebes and the two sisters united in Pi-ubkt
+... thou seest the goddess Hathor who becomes the mother of her own
+mother(117) on the day ... of the Tx festival ... thy name is called
+amongst those of the judges on the great Hermopolis in the night of the
+festival of _he who remains __ in the middle or centre of his city_ ...
+thou seest the immovable ones united into a quatuor, in form like a young
+bull ... thou seest their wives united together in the form of the goddess
+Anthat ... thou visitest the caves of Thebes when his majesty betakes
+himself to the zone of Smu.... The mistress of heaven comes to her house
+... thou receivest a cloak from his hand ... the divine eye ... thou
+watchest at night in the chamber of birth on the day of the [lying in]
+birth of the goddess Mut....[Nut?] Thou goest in with those who go in and
+comest out with those who come out like the great Horus in his temple ...
+thou seest in her domain(?) mysterious actions performed by the
+Pastophores. No one sees, no one hears (of them) ... thou hearest the
+voice of the singer in the temple, in varied modulations ... thou
+ascendest the stairway of the eternal circle of light, thou seest the
+strong ram in its domain ... thou seest ... in his first form, Osiris, in
+the house of purification." (Brugsch, _op. cit._ II, pp. 518 and 520).
+
+A careful perusal of the preceding texts conveys an idea of the immense
+lapse of time it must have required for the state religion of Egypt to
+have developed itself and crystallized into a complicated ritual, the true
+significance of which, doubtlessly, gradually receded from view. The naive
+primitive symbolization of the union of heaven and earth by the actual
+marriage of king and queen, followed by general marriage festivities, had
+naturally created, in course of time, a distinct privileged caste rendered
+"divine" by the circumstances attending their conception and birth. Once
+in existence the maintenance and insurance of the divine line of descent
+would naturally enforce the intermarriage of its members and the
+sequestration and guarded seclusion of the royal women and the virgin
+priestesses from whose ranks the destined mothers of the divine children
+were selected.
+
+A more ancient form of symbolizing the union of heaven and earth seems to
+have been the cult of Apis, which, according to Maspero, preceded the
+building of the pyramids and could scarcely have arisen before the
+adoption of the cow or bull, ua, as the rebus of Polaris, the One=ua. A
+survival of Apis cult seems to be the allegorical sacred title "bull"
+(Osiris-Apis) bestowed upon the king, of "cow" upon the queen and "calf"
+upon their offspring, the young Horus. In later times the king was
+entitled "the ram" and wore his fleece and horns on visiting the queen. As
+a natural sequence, the fruit of their union was spoken of as "the lamb."
+According to Herodotus (II, pp. 27-29, Cary's translation), "the sacred
+Apis, or Epaphus is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving another
+offspring; and the Egyptians say that lightning descends upon the cow from
+heaven and that from thence it brings forth Apis." "The Egyptian
+magistrates said ... the god [in the form of Apis] manifested himself at
+distant intervals ... and when this manifestation took place the Egyptians
+immediately put on their richest apparel and kept festive holiday."
+
+As stated by Mr. Wallis Budge, Apis worship was established at Memphis by
+Ka-kau, the second king of the second dynasty B.C. 4100. The veneration
+accorded to the bull, cow and calf, as embodiments of the dual principles
+of nature, in separate and in single form, seems to have been accorded in
+other localities to different animal forms and to have been replaced, in
+later times, by triads, composed of a god, goddess and their offspring,
+each great centre ultimately possessing their particular triad, the living
+images of which were the high-priest, high-priestess and their "divine"
+offspring. It should be noted that a group consisting of 8+1=nine gods,
+high priests or prophets, accompanied the triad, the result being twelve
+"deities" in all, of which one=the child, was an embodiment of two
+principles and was the ka=the divine twain.
+
+The transition of Apis worship from the animal to the human form was
+accomplished during the reign of the Ptolemies (B.C. 305-42) when Serapis
+or Osiris-Apis was introduced into Egypt and represented as a man with the
+head of a bull, wearing a disk and uraeus. Long before this, however,
+androsphinxes and other combinations of the human and animal form had
+existed in Egypt. At Thebes the divine triad was formed by Amen-Ra,
+Mut-Hathor and Chonsu; at Edfu and Denderah we find Osiris,
+Isis-Sothis-Hathor and Horus. On the other hand, a curious inscription in
+the temple at Denderah, translated by Brugsch (II, p. 512), actually
+describes Amen-Ra as "the great god in Denderah, who periodically
+rejuvenates himself and _becomes a beautiful boy, who is the concealed or
+hidden god, whose name is hidden_; who is the Horus with colored wings,
+coming forth in the upper hemisphere of Edfu, the lord of the double
+heaven."
+
+The inference one might be tempted to make from this and other texts is
+that, at one period, a human babe, the fruit of a royal or sacerdotal
+union, was born in the temple on what constituted New Year's Day and was
+secretly worshipped there during the ensuing year, as the living image of
+Amen-Ra, the hidden god and "divine twain." I venture to point out that
+the adoption of the child as the image of the divinity was the logical
+sequence to the preceding employment of the bull as a rebus for the words
+ua=one and ka=twain; that the consecration of the human form must,
+undoubtedly, have given a strong impulse to statuary, and that the
+sanctification of the child correspondingly exalted motherhood and lent a
+particular consecration to the marriage of its "divine parents." The
+following facts, culled at random, afford a limit of the transitions and
+further developments which took place in Egypt in course of time.
+
+Before proceeding, special mention must be made of one important point
+which throws a flood of light upon the extent of the development of
+separate cults of sun and moon and the institution of solar and lunar
+calendars which respectively governed the activities of the male and
+female populations. As this matter will be fully treated in my calendar
+monograph I shall merely note here that Brugsch cites texts proving the
+existence and simultaneous use of the two calendars, and the supreme
+importance accorded to the new moon of the month Epiphi on whose
+appearance the "goddess Isis-Hathor of Denderah embarked on her sacred
+barge and proceeded up the river, from her city to Edfu (Apollinopolis
+magna) where she joined his majesty ..., her father, ... the incomparable
+sun-god Ra, the first of Apollinopolis, the golden disk, whose children
+are numerous...." It is further stated that the god and goddess became
+inseparable like sun and moon. Brugsch states that the appearance of the
+said new moon, which was also associated with the heliacal rising of
+Sirius, would range from Aug. 18 to Sept. 16, Jul. Cal. (see _op. cit._
+II, pp. 282-1). The appearance of the goddess was the signal for the
+opening of a season of general "feasting and drinking, rejoicing, singing
+and dancing" throughout the land, to which the name Tekhu is given in some
+texts. This is translated by Brugsch as "the intoxication of gladness or
+joy;" it "coincided with the highest level attained by the overflow of the
+Nile," and its modern survival is the annual "marriage of the Nile" which
+takes place on the 23d of August.
+
+It is curious to note how the original carrying out of primitive and naive
+rites by the queen and high-priestess gradually caused her presence to be
+regarded as essential for the "drawing out of the Nile from its source"
+and her person to be surrounded with utmost veneration and sanctity. As
+Prof. Flinders Petrie states, speaking of as far back as B.C. 1383-1365:
+"The marriage to a royal high priestess of Amen was, of course, purely a
+political necessity to legitimate the king's position."
+
+"It would seem that Hor-em-heb was not married to Nezem-mut until his
+accession, when he legalized his position by becoming husband of the
+high-priestess of Amen, as in the arrangement of the later dynasties. This
+marriage was an affair of politics solely, considering the age of the
+parties; Horemheb was probably between fifty and sixty at the time and if
+the queen was the same as Nefertiti's sister Nezem-mut, she must have been
+about the same age as Horemheb" (_op. cit._ pp. 183, 250). How long the
+female Egyptian ruler maintained her sway may, perhaps, best be seen by
+the following texts describing the political homage paid to the living
+goddess of the Egyptians under Ptolemaic and Roman rules.
+
+One inscription clearly shows that, at the time of Ptolemy IX, Euergetes
+II, the living Isis was acknowledged as the sole ruler of the land of the
+south by the king and his wife, queen Cleopatra III, who jointly occupied
+the throne of northern Egypt. Jointly the latter dedicated a beautiful
+hall to the goddess Isis, as a place in which to celebrate the Tekhu feast
+and in which she might linger at this season (Brugsch, _op. cit._ II, p.
+284). I have found indications in other works that, in other localities,
+the goddess entered a secret chamber in the earth or pyramid or celebrated
+her sacred mysteries and festival on the sacred boat of the sun, in the
+sacred sea or lake belonging to the temple. In these cases it is obvious
+that the dominant idea was the performance of the sacred rites in the
+sacred centre or middle.
+
+At a later period Cleopatra VII ascended the female throne at the age of
+seventeen and became high-priestess of Amen, the living image of Isis. It
+was understood that as soon as her brother Ptolemy XIV, then aged twelve,
+should come of age, she was to marry him. Partly for political reasons,
+akin to those which had caused king Horemheb, on his accession, to marry
+the high priestess of Amen, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony become in
+succession the consorts of Cleopatra, after whose death Egypt became a
+Roman province. But the "land of the south," and traditional, divine,
+feminine rulership, lingered on. Under the third prefect, AElius Gallus,
+Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, invades Egypt at the head of her army.
+She was defeated, but the position of the high-priestess of Amen, the
+living Isis, continued to be such as to exact the homage and an act of
+propitiation from the Roman Emperor.
+
+An inscription, from the time of Augustus, records that a beautiful
+monument, or "house," had been erected by the "lord of the land, the
+autocrator, the son of the sun, Caesar," and was presented, at the time of
+the Isis festival, to its possessor, the great Isis, the mother of the
+god, the mistress of the lying-in-house, the splendid and mighty queen of
+Philae, the benevolent princess of Abaton, the daughter of the sun. She is
+likewise named "she who is great or whose greatness extends towards the
+four quarters" and is designated as "the royal wife of the majesty of
+Osiris and the royal mother of Horus, the victorious bull," _i. e._ the
+ka. It is stated that "she found the house of birth brilliantly adorned
+and well arranged in every way" and she installed herself in its interior
+on a given day, so as to bring forth her son in these surroundings. One of
+the rewards promised to Caesar for the delicate attention and gift bestowed
+upon the goddess is "eternal and permanent occupation of the throne of
+Horus, the first of the living ones." According to the Esne calendar a
+"divine birth" actually took place on a given date. Brugsch, referring to
+Plutarch and calendar texts, shows that the commencement of the Isis
+festival dated from the time when Isis assumed a phylactery, or amulet, to
+indicate that she had conceived.
+
+Another inscription shows that Tiberius Claudius had caused the house to
+be renovated for "the mighty goddess Isis, the life giving mistress of
+Abaton, the good Hathor, the queen of the land of Nubia, the divine mother
+of the golden (Nub) Horus, the benevolent sister of Osiris, the great
+protectress who guards his son." As Tiberius Claudius, in this text named
+himself her loving son, it is obvious that the day had passed away when
+solely her own divine son Horus would be the one legitimate and divine
+heir to the Egyptian throne. It is interesting to surmise what became of
+the children whose "divine births" continued to be celebrated as a sacred
+occurrence to which even a Roman Emperor yielded homage. The natural
+sequence would have been that, accompanied by a band of devoted followers,
+the sons of the sun, the young bulls, _i. e._ the ka, or divine twain, and
+their sisters, would seek distant lands in which jointly to establish new
+kingdoms on the ancient, familiar plan.
+
+Collectively, the preceding evidence has afforded a realization of some of
+the curious but natural results of the prolonged cult of the dual
+principles of nature in Egypt, the most remarkable being, perhaps, the
+creation of a distinct, "divine" caste of individuals, from the naive
+adoption of marriage and birth as consecrated religious rites, symbolical
+of the union of heaven and earth and the production of new life. While at
+one time, and in certain localities, this mode of symbolism obviously took
+the upper hand and fostered the growth of the artificial idea of the
+"divine rights of royalty," there are evidences that, simultaneously, the
+union of the dual principles of nature was symbolized in one or more
+different archaic and primitive ways. These appear to have been separately
+adopted in various centres of thought where the disastrous and debasing
+consequences of the association of the idea of sex with the cult of heaven
+and earth, light and darkness, etc., were realized with disapproval.
+
+We thus find that, even at Edfu, the ceremonial rite of lighting new
+sacred fire by means of a wooden instrument and friction was performed on
+the great Isis festival which was marked by the "divine birth." According
+to the calendar of Canopus this fell on the first day of Payni, and a
+prescribed illumination of the temples and palace was kept up until the
+30th or last day of the month. In the most ancient Egyptian calendars the
+"lighting of light" at the same period is also recorded (Brugsch, _op.
+cit._ II, p. 470) and, according to Herodotus, the festival was named "the
+lighting of lamps" and was observed throughout all Egypt. He adds that "a
+religious reason is given why this night is illuminated and so honored"
+(II, 61 and 62).
+
+The influence of increasing astronomical knowledge likewise shows itself
+in the joint observation of the movements of sun, moon and stars and the
+determination of the relative positions of the latter to the sun at the
+periods of the equinoxes and solstices. Without taking period or sequence
+into consideration for the present, I merely note that we find evidence
+that, at one time, images of sun and moon, of the right and left eyes of
+Ra, or statues of Hathor-Isis and Osiris, replaced their living images in
+religious ceremonies.
+
+Sometimes the entire ritual seems to have consisted in the union of water,
+the produce of heaven, with seeds, the produce of earth; the ensuing
+germination and production of young shoots being deemed sacred and
+symbolical of the renewal of life. The fact that statuettes of Osiris have
+actually been found, made of paste containing various seeds, distinctly
+shows that, like the Babylonian Baal, the Egyptian male divinity was
+identified with the earth. Another indication of this is furnished by the
+descriptions of the feast of Pan, which fell at the period of the spring
+equinox. At this period the crop of dura, which had been sown by the king
+in the sacred fields at Denderah, at the time of the "Osiris mysteries,"
+immediately after the inundation had receded and "the earth was laid
+bare," became ripe. The ceremony of cutting the first sheaf of dura was
+performed by the king, with the silex sickle=khepes.
+
+While Osiris was thus directly associated with the produce of the earth
+there are also evidences that, just as Isis became identified with birth
+and life, her consort became the lord of death and of the underworld.
+Mysterious rites and human sacrifices seem to have been instituted in his
+honor. According to obscure myths Osiris himself had been foully murdered,
+his body cut into fourteen pieces and cast over the length and breadth of
+the land. His head was supposed to be preserved at Abydos, the chief
+centre of his worship, and shrines were erected over the other portions of
+his body. It will be a matter for further research to investigate whether
+the "mysteries of Osiris" did not include the dramatization of the death
+of Osiris, in which a human victim personified the god and was actually
+killed and dismembered.
+
+It is, perhaps, worth noting here, as an analogy, how appropriately the
+ancient Mexican annual sacrifice of a youth, chosen among the most
+perfect, might have answered as a rendition of the drama of Osiris. The
+body of the victim was divided and the pieces distributed to a fixed
+number of priests and chieftains, who partook of them as sacred food. The
+head was preserved in the Great Temple itself, on the Tzompantli, and the
+large number of skulls seen there by the Spaniards constituted a proof of
+the great antiquity of the custom. The blood of the victim, poured upon
+seeds, seems to have been considered essential for bringing about the
+germination of the sacred shoots and typical of the union of the dual
+principles of nature and of life springing from death. Idols, formed of
+seeds moistened with human blood, were distributed to the participants in
+the ceremony. According to some authors this sacred paste, and not pieces
+of human flesh, constituted the consecrated food, eaten according to the
+prescribed ritual.
+
+How far analogous rites were performed in Egypt remains to be seen; it is,
+at all events, certain that, by slow degrees, the cult of the dual
+principles of nature gave rise to the institution of strange unnatural
+rites, the original naive meanings of which became obscured, debased or
+lost. While various localities of Egypt, notably Thebes and Abydos, appear
+to have become the birthplace of curious aberrations of the human
+intellect, there was one ancient and great centre of learning where
+monotheism and the knowledge of the fundamental scheme appear to have been
+preserved intact, namely, at Heliopolis, the ancient On or Anu of the
+North, named the "House of the Sun" by Jeremiah and "the Eye or Fountain
+of the Sun" by the Arabs. According to Mr. Wallis Budge, "its ruins cover
+an area three miles square ... the greatest and oldest Egyptian College or
+University for the education of the priesthood and laity stood here....
+During the XXth dynasty the temple of Heliopolis was one of the largest
+and wealthiest of all Egypt and its staff was numbered by thousands. When
+Cambyses visited Egypt the glory of Heliopolis was well on the wane and,
+after the removal of the priesthood and sages of the temple to Alexandria,
+by Ptolemy II (B.C. 286), its downfall was well assured. When Strabo
+visited it (B.C. 24) the greater part of it was in ruins.... Heliopolis
+had a large population of Jews and it will be remembered that Joseph
+married the daughter of a priest of On (Annu).... Macrobius says that the
+Heliopolis of Syria or Baalbek, was founded by a body of priests who left
+the ancient city of Heliopolis of Egypt" (The Nile, p. 132).
+
+Indirectly we learn the tenor of the doctrines and ideas held by the sages
+of Heliopolis at one period by the remarkable attempt to reform the
+religion of Egypt, carried out by their pupil, Amenhotep IV (about B.C.
+1450). Evidently realizing, with his masters, the extent to which the
+ancient fundamental religion had become obscured and debased by the
+multiplication of images of the deity, and the institution of rival cults,
+which were shrouded in mystery and darkness, the young prince boldly made
+war against the priesthood of Amen-Ra and the cult of a "hidden god."
+
+Destroying the monstrous images which had originally been rebus figures
+only, and represented the supreme deity in partly human and animal form,
+he instituted the disk or circle as the simple and purer form under which
+the divinity was to be revered.(118) Animated by the clear realization to
+what an extent the original communal or republican scheme of organization
+was being departed from by the artificial creation of a "divine" race of
+kings who claimed to be gods, he caused himself and his queen to be
+portrayed as simple mortals, and not as the deities Osiris and Isis.
+Choosing the sun as his emblem, this champion of pure light and open truth
+fought the Egyptian votaries of darkness. He erased the word Amen=hidden,
+from public monuments, changed his own name from Amenhotep to
+Chu-en-Aten=the brilliance or glory of the disk and founded a city also
+named Chu-aten, which was to be the centre of a new and reformed state. It
+seems evident that this was instituted on the familiar archaic plan and
+that the so-called "heresy of Amenhotep" was but an attempt, backed by the
+sages and philosophers of Heliopolis, to abolish the artificialities and
+abuses which had come into existence and destroyed the order of the state
+and the harmony of the primitive plan. It is well known that gradually
+Amenhotep's successors were obliged to yield to the hostility of the
+priesthood of the "hidden god" and that these, in turn, erased or defaced
+all images of the disk or aten within their reach.
+
+Ineffectual though the grand attempt had been to reorganize state and
+religion and reestablish republican principles, on the original plan, the
+knowledge of the original scheme seems to have been preserved intact
+during the following centuries, by the sages and philosophers of
+Heliopolis, by whom the primitive set of ideas seems to have been
+gradually developed into an abstract philosophical system. Reminding the
+reader that Plato spent "thirteen years in Egypt, in gaining an insight
+into the mysterious doctrines and priest-lore of the sacerdotal caste," I
+also draw attention to the passage in his "Timaeus," in which Critias makes
+the statement that when Plato's ideal republic ... was being discoursed
+upon, he was reminded, to his surprise, of the account of a state given to
+the Greek sage, Solon, by the priests of Sais, and perceived how, "in most
+respects, the republic described coincided with Solon's statements." It is
+indeed striking how clearly we can recognize, in Plato's republic, the
+underlying, primitive, universal scheme in this case, highly developed,
+elaborated, transfigured and transformed into the philosophical ideal of a
+great intellect.
+
+Before demonstrating which of the main features of Plato's cosmogony and
+ideal republic we have found actually carried out in practice, let us
+briefly refer to the most ancient descriptions of the primitive government
+of Greece, preserved in the Timaeus and Critias, where the conversations
+held, by Solon, with the priests of Sais are recorded. Solon (about 594
+B.C.) on his arrival (at Sais) "was very honorably received; and
+especially, on his inquiring about ancient affairs of those priests who
+possessed superior knowledge in such matters, he perceived that neither
+himself nor any one of the Greeks (so to speak) had any antiquarian
+knowledge at all.... One of their extremely ancient priests said to Solon:
+'you (Greeks) are all youths in intelligence, for you hold no ancient
+opinions derived from remote tradition _nor any system of discipline_ that
+can boast of a hoary old age.... In this our country, ... the most ancient
+things are said to be here preserved ... and all the noble, great or
+otherwise distinguished achievements, performed either by ourselves, by
+you or elsewhere, of which we have heard the report, all these have been
+engraved in our temples in very remote times and preserved to the present
+day. The annals of our own city (Sais) have been preserved eight thousand
+years in our sacred writings ... your state has a priority over ours of a
+thousand years.... I will briefly describe the law and more illustrious
+actions of those states which have existed nine thousand years ...' "
+(Timaeus). It is interesting at this point to recall also the familiar
+statements made by the priests of Sais to Solon, concerning the immense
+antiquity of the human race and the "multitude and variety of destructions
+which have been and will be undergone by the human race ... after which
+nations become young again, as at first, knowing nothing of the events of
+ancient times" (Timaeus, V).
+
+Referring the reader to the original text I merely point out here that the
+priest of Sais, referring to the sacred writings themselves, assigned to
+remotest antiquity the principle of distribution and arrangement on which
+the state had originally been founded and established. In the Critias the
+description of the Athenian state, which "had been founded nine thousand"
+years before, contains the following particulars which will appear
+familiar to the reader. "To the gods was once locally allotted the whole
+earth.... Obtaining a country agreeable to them by just allotment, they
+chose regions for their habitations.... Different gods received by lot
+different regions.... Hephaestus and Athene, a brother and sister, both
+received one region as their common allotment ... their temple was built
+on the Acropolis ... whose northern and southern slopes were respectively
+associated with separate winter and summer residences." The population was
+divided into classes and each caste occupied a fixed place of residence.
+"The outer parts, down the flanks (of the Acropolis) were inhabited by
+craftsmen and husbandmen who tilled the neighboring land; the
+warrior-classes lived separately, by themselves, in the more elevated
+parts around the temple of Athene and Hephaestus, which they had formed,
+as it were, into the garden of a single dwelling by encircling it with one
+enclosure" (The Critias, VI). "... On this site was a single fountain
+which furnished every part with abundant water...." "The 'guardians of the
+state' were the 'leaders' of the Greeks and as to their number they paid
+special attention that they should always have the same number of men and
+women that might serve in war, the whole being about twenty thousand."
+
+In the description given, in the Critias, of the state of Atlantis, the
+identical features recur, but are more fully described. In the centre of
+the island of Atlantis stood a mountain, surrounded by a plain, which was
+ultimately made square. The mountain was the residence of a pair of
+mythical lovers, consisting of a god and of a mortal woman, and became the
+birthplace of their offspring, "a divine race of kings." "The god ... with
+his divine power, agreeably adorned the centre of the island, causing two
+fountains of water to shoot upwards from beneath the earth, one cold and
+the other hot, and making every variety of food to spring abundantly from
+the earth." The central hill, from which thus proceeded all life and
+festivity, was at first "circularly enclosed, the land and sea being
+formed into alternate zones, greater and less, two out of land and three
+out of sea, from the centre of the island all equally distant." The ten
+kings, born of the "divine union, lived each in his own district and city,
+and ruled supreme over his people. The government and commonwealth in each
+case was, by the injunction of the god, according to the laws which were
+handed down. The latter were inscribed on a column of orichalcum which was
+deposited in the centre of the island, in the temple of the god, where the
+ten kings originally assembled every fifth year. A fire burned near the
+column and a bull was sacrificed at its base, after which a sacred cup was
+filled with its blood and this was poured into the fire by way of
+purifying the column" (Critias, VII-XVI).
+
+The above mention of a column is of interest when it is realized that, in
+historical times, the laws of Solon were actually inscribed on a square
+wooden pillar which was made to revolve or turn and was placed on the
+Acropolis. The presence of a revolving pillar on the Acropolis, the sacred
+centre of the Athenian state, is, moreover, curiously in keeping with the
+conception of axial energy set forth by Plato and awakens the desire to
+learn from Greek scholars what relationship, if any, there was between the
+Sanscrit aksa=axle or axis, the Greek akra (akris=summit, akros=most high,
+supreme, akrisios=mountain-top god) and the Egyptian ak=the Centre, and
+hak=a king; and whether the word polis=city was connected with polos=the
+pole-star, an axis, pivot or pole, from polein=to turn, and may be
+interpreted as the equivalent of the Egyptian An and Annu. It would also
+be important to learn whether the name of the principal ancient god of
+Greece, Apollo, who was revered under the form of a column at Delphi, can
+also be connected with the verb polein or pelein=to turn, as well as the
+name Polias _i. e._ the goddess protecting the city, a surname for Minerva
+(Athene) at Athens, where she was worshipped at one time as the protecting
+divinity of the Acropolis. The title Poliuchus, "protecting the city,"
+occurs as a surname of several divinities and particularly of Minerva
+Chalchioecus, "of the brazen house," at Sparta and Athens. It is
+instructive likewise to compare the Greek words for axis=axon, and
+polis=city, with Helice, the name for Ursa Major and for a town in
+Arcadia, with the Egyptian Annu, An or On, the names of capitals, and the
+Egyptian word an=that which turns around. It will be for Greek and
+Egyptian scholars to enlighten us as to whether the Egyptian an and the
+Greek polis are synonyms; in which connection I draw their attention to
+the following suggestive passage of the Critias (VII).... "Yet before we
+narrate this we must briefly warn you not to be surprised at hearing
+Hellenic names given to barbarians ... and the cause of this you shall now
+hear. Solon made an investigation into the power of names and found that
+the early Egyptians, who committed these facts to writing, transferred
+these names into their own language; and he again, receiving the meaning
+of each name, introduced it by writing into our language." While, on one
+hand, it is certain that the Egyptian astronomer-priests associated the
+pole star with the words An, Anu, Anubis, on the other, the following
+passages from Plato's works clearly demonstrate his views concerning axial
+rotation.(119) A fresh interest is undoubtedly added to Plato's philosophy
+when it is regarded as the possible result of the thirteen years spent by
+him with the Egyptian priesthood, who may possibly have confided to him
+the entire sum of their ancient philosophy and accumulated store of
+knowledge, and who certainly seem to have imposed upon him the reticence
+and obscurity noticeable in the Republic, the Critias and the Timaeus.
+
+To those who have followed my investigation of the ancient state
+organization and cosmical conceptions of the ancient Egyptians, and noted
+the interpretation given to the pyramid and the fact that Amenophis
+instituted the disk as the image of the Supreme Being, the following
+detached extracts from Plato's Timaeus will appear familiar and full of
+fresh significance. "To discover the Father and Creator of this universe
+(also called the heaven or the world) or his work is indeed difficult;
+_and when discovered it is impossible to reveal him to mankind at
+large_.... The composing (or framing) Artificer constituted the universe
+from entire elements of fire, water, air and earth and ... considering
+that it would thus be a whole animal.... He gave it also a figure becoming
+and allied to its nature; and to the animal destined to comprehend all
+others within itself that figure as the most becoming which includes
+within itself every sort of figure whatever. Hence he fashioned it in the
+shape of a sphere, perfectly round, having its centre everywhere equally
+distant from the bounding extremities.... He assigned to it a motion
+peculiar to itself ... making the world to turn constantly on itself and
+on same point, he gave it a circular motion ... he assigned to it a motion
+peculiar to itself, being that of all the seven kinds of motion.... As for
+the soul, he fixed it in the middle, extended it throughout the whole and
+likewise surrounded it with its entire surface ... and so, causing a
+circle to revolve in a circle, he established the world as one
+substantive, solitary object.... _Let the universe be called heaven or the
+world or by any other name it usually receives_.... The soul of this
+universe ... being composed of three parts ... being interwoven throughout
+from the middle to the very extremities of space and covering it even all
+around externally, though at the same time herself revolving within
+herself, originated the divine commencement of an unceasing and wise life
+throughout all time.... Time ... was generated with the universe.... Time
+... an eternal image _on the principles of numbers_ ... the perfect number
+of time completes a perfect year ... for this purpose ... were formed
+_such of the stars as moved circularly through the universe_...."
+
+While a careful study of Plato's work will further elucidate his views
+concerning the quadruplicate nature of the universe, of its comprehensive
+unity, of axial rotation, the generation of time and of the principle of
+numbers, I point out that the following passage conveys the idea of
+applying the universal plan to the regulation of human thought: "This,
+however, we may assert, that God invented and bestowed sight upon us for
+the express purpose, that on _surveying the circles of intelligence in the
+heavens_, we might properly employ those of our minds, which, though
+disturbed when compared with the others that are uniform, are still allied
+to their circulation and that, having thus learned and being naturally
+possessed of a correct reasoning faculty, we might, _by imitating the
+uniform revolutions of divinity_, set right our own silly wanderings and
+blunders."
+
+There are two portions of Plato's cosmology to which I wish particularly
+to draw attention, because of the striking examples that exist, showing
+that the views therein expressed and suggestions given, were independently
+carried into practice in ancient times, in widely separated countries. One
+is the suggestive attempt to figure the Cosmos by geometrical images, a
+method which had been carried out by the pyramid-builders and Amenophis
+III and suggests an explanation for the origin and meaning of the
+geometrical decoration that prevailed at one period of antiquity. The
+other is the association of time with the principles of numbers, the most
+remarkable exemplifications of which are furnished by the Egyptian, Hindu,
+Chinese, Mexican and Maya cyclical systems, founded upon the associations
+of divisions of time and numerals, and even and uneven numbers with
+day-names, etc.
+
+Having hastily noted some features of Plato's Cosmos let us next obtain an
+insight into the ideas associated with Polaris and the Septentriones by
+the ancient Greeks and their neighbors, before and after Plato's time. I
+gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen's
+"Star-names and their meanings" (New York, 1899), for the following
+valuable information and at the same time express my regret that his
+useful work was unknown to me when I wrote the preceding portion of my
+investigation.(120)
+
+"Ursa Minor was not mentioned by Homer or Hesiod for, according to Strabo,
+it was not admitted among the constellations of the Greeks until about 600
+B.C. when Thales, inspired by its use in Phoenicia, his probable
+birthplace, suggested it to the Greek mariners in place of its greater
+neighbor which till then had been their sailing guide. Thence its title
+Phoenice and Ursa Phoenicia. But it also shared, with Ursa Major, the titles
+Septentrio, Aratos, Amaxa, Aganna and Helice. It also bore the 'early and
+universal title' Kynosura or Cynosura, usually translated 'the Dog's
+Tail,' the origin of which is uncertain, Bournouf asserting that 'it is in
+no way associated with the Greek word for dog.' Cox identified the word
+with Lycosura (meaning tail or trail of light), which recalls the city of
+that name in Arcadia considered, by Pausanias, the most ancient in the
+world, having been founded by Lycaon some time before the Deluge of
+Deucalion."
+
+"Euclid said in his Phainomena: 'A star is visible between the Bears, not
+changing its place, _but always revolving upon itself_' (_cf._ Plato's
+Cosmos). Hipparchus, that the pole was 'in a vacant spot forming a
+quadrangle with three other stars,' both writers calling this Polos, the
+Polus of Lucan, Ovid and other classical Latins, and Euphratean observers
+had called their pole-star Pul or Bil. But, although other astronomical
+writers used these words for some individual star, there is no certainty
+as to which was intended, for it should be remembered that, during many
+millenniums, the polar point has gradually been approaching our pole-star
+which, 2000 years ago, was far removed from it, in Hipparchus' time 12 deg.
+24' away, according to his own statement, quoted by Marinus of Tyre and
+cited by Ptolemy. Heraclitus, the Ionian philosopher of Ephesus of about
+500 B.C., asserted that this constellation marked the boundary between the
+east and the west, which it may be regarded as doing when on the horizon."
+This statement is of extreme importance as it proves an orientation of the
+north by the pole-star and not by the solstitial position of the sun.
+"Another name for it, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, used for it or its quarter of the sky, was
+from the Greek, as seen in Plutarch's {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} the
+'fields' or 'spaces' into which the augurs divided the heavens, the
+templa, or regiones coeli of the Latins...."
+
+"In Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the use of the seven stars of Ursa Major in
+Greek navigation is clearly shown. The constellation is entitled the
+Bear=arctos, described, according to different translators, as 'circling
+on high,' 'wheeling round,' or 'revolving around the axle of the
+sky.'(121) Homer used, equally with Arctos, the name Amaxa=the wain or
+wagon, to designate the seven stars. Aratos called the constellation the
+'Wain-like Bear;' and, alluding to the title Amaxa, asserted that the word
+was from ama=together, the Amaxai thus circling together around the pole;
+but no philologist accepts this and it might as well have come from
+axion=axle, referring to the axis of the heavens. In fact Hewitt goes far
+back of Aratos in his statement that the Sanscrit god Akshivan, the Driver
+of the Axle (aksha), was adopted in Greece as Ixion, whose well-known
+wheel was merely the circling course of this constellation. Anacreon
+mentioned it as a Chariot as well as a Bear; and Hesychius had it Aganna,
+an archaic word from agein, 'to carry,' singularly like, in orthography at
+least, the Akkadian title for the Wain stars, Aganna or Akanna, the Lord
+of Heaven; and Aben Ezra called it Ajala, the Hebrew word for 'waggon.'
+The name Helice from {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, the Curved, or Spiral One, apparently first
+used by Aratos and Apollonius Rhodius, became common as descriptive of its
+twisting around the pole, ... Sophocles having the same thought in his
+mention of 'the circling paths of the Bear.' Some, however, derived the
+name from the curved or twisted positions of the chief stars.... Helice
+was also the name of a city in Arcadia, the country so intimately
+connected with the Bears, whose inhabitants were called the Bear race."
+
+As far back as Hesiod's time the constellation was associated in myth,
+with the name Kallisto, "the beautiful," which "La Lande referred to the
+Phoenician Kalitsah or Chalitsa, Safety, as its observation helped to a
+safe voyage. Another version of the Grecian myth associated the
+constellation with Artemis, the Roman Diana [_i. e._ the huntress, _cf._
+Ishtar and Isis-Satit]." The apparent connection of the name Artemis with
+Themis="law and justice personified," should be noted here.
+
+The preceding statements establish that, in ancient Greece, Polaris was
+identified with the celestial Polos and was described as a star, not
+changing its place, but always _revolving on itself_ and it appears
+superfluous to point out how closely Plato's Cosmos agrees with the
+current astronomical theories. The Ursae, on the other hand, were
+identified with the titles Helice, referring to axial rotation, and with
+the names Aganna (Akanna) Arctos and Amaxa, which are identical in sound
+with the words we have found associated with Polaris and the Septentriones
+in the ancient Egyptian texts.
+
+Deferring the demonstration that a number of the natural objects or
+animals represented in the Egyptian rebus signs, which were merely
+employed in hieratic script to express the syllables an, am, ar, ak, etc.,
+are to be found as actual names for Polaris and the Ursae in different
+western Asiatic and other countries, I shall now briefly show that, in
+remotest historical times, the Grecian states were established upon the
+model of an ideal republic such as is outlined in Plato's works, in
+accordance with current cosmological conceptions. According to ancient
+tradition the aborigines of Attica were first civilized under Cecrops who
+is said to have come hither from Sais, Egypt, about 1500 B.C.
+
+Turning to Iwan Mueller's monumental "Alterthumswissenschaft" (IV.
+Handbuch der Griechische Alterthuemer), let us examine the data he presents
+concerning the beginnings of Athenian culture.
+
+"The historical inhabitants of Attica belonged to the Ionic race and
+claimed to be autochthonous.... They were grouped into four tribes: the
+Geleontes, Argadeis, Aigikoreis and Hopletes. The existence of these four
+tribes is usually connected with a territorial division of Attica into
+four parts and their names are supposed to have been derived from the
+location and occupation of each tribe. The Geleontae=the shining ones, are
+said to have formed the priest or warrior caste and to have lived in
+Pedion. The Argadaei were the agriculturists and were situated in the plain
+of Thriasis. The Aigikoraei or goatherds were assigned to Diakria.
+Authorities still disagree about the habitation of the Hopletes, 'the
+armed ones.' The interpretation of these names is still open to doubt. An
+ancient tradition attributes to them an Ionic derivation.... On the other
+hand, it is probable that when they emigrated to Attica the tribe remained
+separate and became associated with their place of residence ... at a
+later period the phratries were associated with localities.... Each of the
+four castes had its chieftain and an equality of rank seems to have been
+maintained. In ancient times the citizens were divided into three classes:
+the Eupatridae or nobility; the Geomorae or farmers; and the Demiurgae or
+artisans, merchants, potters or fishermen,--in fact all who exercised some
+occupation.
+
+"The political unity of Attica was centred in the plain of Cephisos, which
+was the kernel of the country. In the lower part of the plain, about a
+mile from the sea, situated on a plateau, and crowning a high rocky
+elevation, lay the ancient fortress Cekropia, the residence of Cecrops and
+Erechtheus, the mythical, earth-born forefathers of the Athenians. At the
+foot of the fortress, a lower town gradually grew up and spread itself
+towards the south. This primitive Athens originally formed only the
+nucleus of a small kingdom situated in the plains and surrounded by
+enemies.... According to an Attic tradition Cecrops collected the
+inhabitants of Attica into 12 ... tribes, states or communities.... The
+names of several of these have been shown to have also been applied to
+capitals which were independent centres of government. Athens, the centre
+of the state, developed into a large city in which the nobility of the
+whole country resided and where many artisans also settled. The majority
+of the citizens lived, however, in the surrounding country.... The harvest
+festival, held at ancient Athens, in honor of the goddess Athene, the
+patroness of agriculture, was also a general feast for all inhabitants of
+Attica ..." (pp. 104-108).
+
+The foregoing suffices to establish that, in remotest antiquity, Attica
+was divided into four territorial divisions, with a central seat of
+government, the capital, which formed the fifth division. The inhabitants
+of the four regions constituted four tribes, each under its own chieftain.
+Each tribe became identified with a different occupation and ultimately
+constituted castes which remained associated with their place of
+residence. Simultaneously with this territorial distribution, another
+classification of the population was evolved, which divided it into three
+strata, corresponding to the upper, central and lower caste and thus
+yielded a total of seven great divisions of the state, which thus reveals
+itself as having been a heptarchy and explains the constitution of the
+Heptanomis, which existed in Central Egypt under Greek rule.
+
+From the preceding material it appears that when Solon divided the people
+into four classes, he merely reinstated the most ancient form of state
+organization known in Greece. It would be interesting to learn how far the
+following offices had been previously known. It is well known that Solon
+instituted nine archons (literally leaders), which seem to have been the
+equivalents to the group of "nine gods" mentioned in Egypt in association
+with the supreme god or goddess. The characteristic feature of the archons
+appears to have been the fact that they were elected and that the first
+archon was surnamed Eponymos and gave his name to the year; the second
+archon, entitled Basileus, was the king, and the third, Polemarchas, was a
+warrior. The remaining six were collectively called Thesmothetes,
+administrators of right or justice. Under the above was the Council of
+Four Hundred. Each of the four phylae fell into three parts or thirds,
+producing a total of 12, a number corresponding to the organization of
+twelve tribes, communities or states. Each of these was divided into 4
+Naucrariae, under 48 captaincies. The following extracts from Iwan Mueller's
+work supply us with further details concerning the Athenian government and
+show that variants of the same existed at different periods, throughout
+ancient Greece.
+
+"At Athens, in historical times, the members of one tribe formed a
+corporation, recognized a common ancestor, observed a form of ancestral
+cult and kept a tribal register with the names of all newly born children
+(p. 20). The tribes formed corporations within the state, and each had its
+own cult and chieftain.... The Doric nation consisted of three such
+tribes.... In Ephesus the citizens were divided into five 'gens' (_i. e._,
+four quarters and centre). It is certain that in Athens, Cyrene, and
+Chios, the phratries were communities with separate forms of cult, who
+worshipped beside their tribal deities, Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria
+..." (pp. 20 and 21).
+
+"In Teos the towns inhabited by a 'gens' were divided into at least seven
+quarters.... In Tenos each gens was known as 'a tower,' and each
+individual bore the name of his tower and his gens." Pausing here for an
+instant, I draw attention to the recurrence in Greece of certain features
+of the Great Plan which must now be familiar to the reader: the
+association of divisions of people with a "tower," an artificial "high
+place" or mountain, the development and existence of separate forms of
+cult, corresponding to tribal and territorial divisions; the supreme cult
+of a male and female divinity, corresponding to the traditions that the
+state was founded by two individuals and was governed by two rulers. An
+illustration of this is furnished by Sparta, which "was governed by two
+kings, belonging to two different royal families ... the origin of this
+custom is unknown ... these kings usually were at enmity with each
+other...." "The population of Sparta was primarily divided into five
+'phyles,' identified with five local districts. The names of the latter,
+Pitane, Mesoa, Limnai, Konoura and Dyme, were identical with those of the
+five Comes or group of separate communities which had constituted the
+state of Sparta at the time of Thucydides." It will be perceived that this
+organization corresponds to that of a capital and four provinces.
+Simultaneously the population was grouped into three main classes and
+twenty-seven phratries.
+
+Considering that in ancient times the belief prevailed, and was shared by
+the Spartans themselves, that Lycurgus had introduced his scheme of
+organization from Crete, it is interesting to learn that "the Cretans
+themselves claimed that their laws dated from a remote antiquity and had
+been communicated to Minos and Rhadamanthus by Zeus himself." In one of
+the most ancient portions of the Odysseus, Idomeneus is represented as
+ruling in particular over cities situated in _the middle_ of the island.
+In historical times the central rulership or monarchy had been abolished
+and "the state was ruled by ten chiefs of tribal divisions, who bore in
+common the title Cosmos and held office for the limit of one year."
+Although the most ancient accounts of the maritime supremacy of Crete
+under its king Minos, the "son of Zeus," are regarded as grossly
+exaggerated, modern authorities agree that, on account of its geographical
+position, Crete must undoubtedly have been an extremely important centre
+of maritime commerce, during a prolonged period.
+
+On this account, and because the Spartans acknowledged to have received
+their scheme of organization from Crete, I draw particular attention to
+the design on a coin from Cnossus, the most important capital of Crete,
+which recently arrested my attention. It is preserved at the Berlin Museum
+and is reproduced in Spamer's work, already cited (fig. 72, 14 and 15). On
+the obverse, it exhibits the fabulous Minotaurus the monster, half man and
+half bull, who is stated to have ruled the island. On the reverse, is a
+geometrical figure, representing a swastika, in the centre of which is the
+five-dot group. A similar coin also found on the site of Cnossus, and
+assigned to B.C. 700, is preserved at the British Museum. Its reverse
+exhibits also the five-dot group and the swastika, between whose branches
+are four large dots or circles. In the Berlin Museum specimen the latter
+are replaced by squares containing cross lines. To any one familiar, in
+the first case, with the scheme of organization into five Comes, _i. e._
+4+1, such as has been shown to have been adopted in Sparta and elsewhere
+in Greece, the design on the reverse of both coins appears perfectly
+intelligible. No geometrical or cursive sign could more clearly express
+the scheme or ground-plan upon which the most ancient form of government
+in Greece has been shown to have also rested.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 72.
+
+
+As to the image of the Minotaurus on the obverse of the Berlin coin: to
+any one familiar with the widespread system of figuring the state under
+the form of a human being or of a quadruped, and of symbolizing its ruler
+as its head, the image appears intelligible as that of the quadruplicate
+state. The circumstance that the head is that of a bull seems to indicate
+that, like the Egyptians, the Cretans applied the title "bull" to their
+king; thence perhaps the fable that the island was at one time governed by
+the monster Minotaurus who claimed as annual tribute, from conquered
+tribes, seven youths and maidens. It is striking how perfectly the
+geometrical figures on the reverse of both coins, which I hold to
+represent territorial divisions, seem to form the complement to the image
+of the state represented in semi-human and semi-animal form. Interesting
+variants of the same design appear on two coins of the same period in the
+British Museum collection. One of these, from Syracuse, exhibits a
+swastika, in the centre of which is a human head--a sign which I should
+interpret as the image of a state and its single central ruler. A coin
+from Corinth displays a plain swastika only, which suffices to indicate,
+however, that its state organization was on the familiar plan.
+
+In connection with the swastika and five-dot group it is interesting to
+examine some ancient Egyptian seals exhibiting crosses with four dots or
+strokes (fig. 72, 3-5), and to compare these with Rhodian specimens
+(10-13). On vases found by Schliemann on the site of Troy (8 and 9), we
+find, in one case a swastika and in the other a cross and four dots in a
+circle forming the nave. It is interesting to compare the Athenian nos. 6
+and 7, one being a swastika and the other a cross in a lozenge.(122) An
+extremely curious instance of an entire decoration of a building
+consisting of crosses and five-dot groups, is furnished by the cenotaph
+erected by a late king in honor of Midas, king of Phrygia (fig. 72, 2),
+which, curiously enough, offers much resemblance to the geometrical style
+of stucco decorations of the ruins of Mitla, Mexico.(123) The presence of
+the swastika on coins assigned to about B.C. 700 and its use in Greece,
+where plain cross-symbols had previously been employed, naturally leads to
+the inquiry as to the oldest-dated swastikas which have hitherto been
+found in Greece and Egypt.
+
+In his important work on the subject already referred to, Prof. Thomas
+Wilson (_op. cit._ pp. 806 and 833), cites the opinions of Prof. Max
+Mueller and Count Goblet d'Alviella as agreeing with that of Waring, who
+states that "the swastika is sought for in vain in Babylonia, Assyria and
+Phoenicia," and "had no foothold in Egypt." The same authority says that:
+"the only sign approaching the fylfot in Egyptian hieroglyphics ... is not
+very similar to our fylfot ... and forms one of the hieroglyphs of Isis"
+(Ceramic Art in Remote Ages, p. 82). On the other hand, Professor Goodyear
+says (Grammar of the Lotus, p. 356): "The earliest dated swastikas,
+hitherto found in Egypt, occur on the foreign Cyprian and Carian [?]
+pottery fragments of the time of the twelfth dynasty [B.C. 2466-2266]
+discovered by Mr. Flinders Petrie in 1889. In the Third Memoir of the
+Egypt Exploration Fund, Prof. Flinders Petrie published illustrations of
+Greek vases showing unmistakable swastikas which, though found at
+Naukratis in Egypt, are not Egyptian, but Greek."
+
+The only other examples of the swastika in Egypt cited by Prof. Thomas
+Wilson are those woven on Coptic grave cloths made of linen and reproduced
+in "Die Graeber- und Textilfunde von Achmim-Panopolis by R. Forrer." These
+grave cloths pertained to the Christian Greeks who migrated from their
+country during the first centuries of our era and settled in Upper Egypt,
+in Coptos and the surrounding cities. I am able to add another instance of
+the employment of the swastika in Egypt, which, although of Coptic origin,
+attaches itself to ancient Egypt.
+
+I have already pointed out that, in Lepsius' Book of the Dead, the
+foremost of the gods of the four quarters, represented in mummy form,
+exhibited a cross on his right shoulder. During a recent visit to the
+Berlin Museum, my attention was arrested by seeing a swastika painted in
+precisely the same position, on the right shoulder of the stucco mummy
+case of a man, from Hermopolis, dated from the second century after Christ
+(Catalogue No. 11649). This remarkable coincidence seems to furnish
+conclusive evidence that, long before the introduction of Greek culture
+and Christian influence, the plain cross was employed by the ancient
+Egyptians in precisely the same way as, subsequently, the swastika by the
+Copts. To some of my readers the question will perhaps suggest itself
+whether some early Christian sects and, amongst them, communities of Greek
+Copts, did not interpret the mission of Christ literally, as an attempt to
+reestablish an earthly "kingdom of heaven" on the ancient plan, the
+knowledge of which had been preserved at Heliopolis, by the sages and
+philosophers of Egypt and the large Hebrew colony established there.
+
+Returning to the swastika: From the account given by Prof. Thomas Wilson
+(_op. cit._, 810) of Schliemann's observations on the swastikas he
+discovered, during his excavations on the site of Troy, we learn that,
+whereas the swastika occurs on thousands of whorls found in the third,
+fourth and fifth cities, but few whorls were found in the first and second
+cities, which were the deepest and oldest and _none of these bore the
+swastika mark_. These observations, added to the appearance of the
+swastika in Egypt at a comparatively late period, appear to prove that,
+whereas the cross-symbol was known in remotest antiquity in Asia Minor and
+Egypt and expressed the same meaning as the swastika, _i. e._ Polaris and
+circumpolar rotation and the quadruplicate organization of the Cosmos
+suggested by these natural phenomena, it was only the form or shape of the
+cross which underwent a change at a certain period. The earliest-dated
+specimens of this new form, given to a more ancient symbol, occur on the
+pottery fragments found in Egypt by Prof. Flinders Petrie. The presence of
+the swastika, on the whorls found in the ruins of the third city built on
+the site of Troy, also indicates that its adoption occurred at a fixed
+date and marked a new departure.
+
+Referring back to page 21, where I show that the observations which led to
+the adoption of the swastika as a symbol could not possibly have been made
+until after Ursa Major had become circumpolar, about B.C. 4000, I point
+out that the oldest swastikas which have hitherto been found corroborate
+this view, since they are all posterior to the time when Ursa Major became
+circumpolar. Long anterior to its adoption, however, the primordial set of
+ideas, suggested to the human mind by the observation of natural
+phenomena, had reached an advanced stage of development, and had been
+worked out, applied to the regulation of human life and symbolized, in
+various ways, in widely separated countries.
+
+It is impossible to conclude my comparative research, which has been
+rewarded by a most unexpected wealth of material, without enumerating a
+few facts connected with the earliest histories of Rome, ancient Ireland,
+Britain, Wales and Scandinavia. These brief and doubtlessly imperfect
+resumes will have fulfilled their purpose if they stimulate inquiry and
+evoke authoritative statements by learned specialists.
+
+ANCIENT ROME.
+
+Whether Rome "was founded by the common resolve of a Latin confederacy or
+by the enterprise of an individual chief, is beyond the reach even of
+conjecture. The date fixed upon for the commencement of the city is, of
+course, perfectly valueless in its precision" (Chambers' Encyclopaedia).
+"According to Varro the city of Rome was founded B.C. 753, but Cato places
+the event four years later.... The day of its foundation was the 21st of
+April, which was sacred to the rural goddess Pales. There seems to be some
+uncertainty whether Romulus gave his name to the city or derived his own
+from it, but those who ascribe to the city a Grecian origin ... assert
+that Romulus and Roma are both derived from the Greek word for 'strength.'
+The city, we are assured, had another name which the priests were
+forbidden to divulge; but what that was it is now impossible to
+discover.(124) There is, however, some plausibility in the conjecture that
+it was Pallanteum, and from the great care with which the Palladium, or
+image of Pallas, was preserved, it seems probable that the city was
+supposed to be under the care of that deity. If this conjecture be
+correct, the Pelasgic origin of Rome cannot be doubted, for Pallas was a
+Pelasgic deity....
+
+"The institution of the vestal virgins was older than the city itself and
+was regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their religious
+system. In the time of Numa there were but four ... their duty was to keep
+the sacred fire on the altar in the temple of Vesta from being
+extinguished and to preserve a certain sacred pledge on which the very
+existence of Rome was supposed to depend.(125) What this pledge was we
+have no means of discovering; some supposed that it was the Trojan
+Palladium; others, some traditional mystery brought by the Pelasgi from
+Samothrace. One fact is certain: that the Palatine is regarded as the
+oldest portion of the city and the original site and centre of the embryo
+mistress of the world and mother of cities, the _Roma quadrata_, fragments
+of whose walls have been brought to light.(126)
+
+"Tradition relates that it was on the Palatine that Romulus marked out the
+Pomoerium, a space around the walls of the city, on which it was unlawful
+to erect buildings.... The next ceremony was the consecration of the
+comitium, or place of public assembly. A vault was built under ground and
+filled with the firstlings of all the natural productions that sustain
+human life and with earth which each foreign settler had brought from his
+home. This place was called _Mundus_" (History of Rome, Goldsmith's
+abridgment, 21st edition, by W. C. Taylor, p. 13).
+
+This fact furnishes evidence that the sacred central cosmical vault over
+which a mound may have been formed by the earth contributed from different
+quarters, was regarded as a synopsis of all, and that sanctity was also
+attached to the central place of assembly where justice was administered
+at regular intervals, weekly markets were held and religious rites were
+celebrated.(127)
+
+Tradition relates that, after the foundation of the central "Mundus," the
+founder of Rome established the Sabine town which occupied the Quirinal
+and part of the Capitoline hills. "The name of this town most probably was
+Quirium ... the two cities were united on terms of equality and the
+double-faced Janus, stamped on the earliest Roman coins was probably a
+symbol of the double state." It is significant to find not only that Janus
+was sometimes depicted with four faces instead of two, in which case he
+was called Janus Quadrifrontis, but that references are also made to the
+female form of Janus=Jana, the latter being identified with Diana.
+Considering that it was from Quirium that the Roman youths obtained Sabine
+wives by force, which had been refused to their entreaties, it would seem
+as though, originally, as elsewhere, the men and women of the community
+resided separately and that stringent laws regulated their intercourse. In
+other ancient communities it has been shown how the separation of the
+sexes created in time an upper and lower class, and to the same origin may
+perhaps be assigned the most remarkable feature of the Roman constitution,
+_i. e._ the two-fold division of the people into patricians and plebeians.
+
+While the foregoing statements throw light upon the ideas associated with
+the Middle and show that Rome was originally a dual state, the following
+facts furnish indications of a quadruplicate division. At an early period
+Rome was laid out and enclosed in a square, the population _was divided
+into four tribes_ and mention is made of "the state, under Servius
+Tullius, being an entity divided into _four cities_ and twenty-six tribes
+... this being strictly a geographical division analogous to our parishes.
+The division of the city into four tribes continued until the reign of
+Augustus (B.C. 29)...."(128)
+
+The four chief religious corporations of ancient Rome, mentioned in the
+Century Dictionary, evidently correspond to this fourfold division and it
+is specially stated of one of these corporations that it was represented
+and governed by a group consisting of seven "septemvir epulones" who
+formed a "septemvirate."
+
+The number of septemvirs corresponded to the "seven hills" which were
+enclosed by Tullus Hostilius, and it is stated that there were seven
+places of worship in ancient Rome. It is interesting to find that between
+A.D. 193 and 211, Septimius Severus, a native of an ancient Punic colony
+in Africa, erected a Septizonium (an edifice consisting, like the
+Babylonian zikkurat, of seven stories) on the Palatine, where a large
+temple of Apollo had previously been built.(129)
+
+Although it is thus evident that, at different periods, seven-fold
+division was carried out in ancient Rome, it was not until after the reign
+of Theodosius, according to some authors, that the seven-day period was
+imported from Alexandria and the term "septimana" adopted in Rome.
+"Previously to this Rome had counted her periods by eight days, the eighth
+day itself being originally called Nundinae--a term later applied to the
+whole cycle" (Chambers' Encyclopaedia). Noting that the period of eight
+(=2x4) days accords with the quadruplicate system applied to the primitive
+state, I draw attention to the numerical classification of the citizens of
+Rome employed during centuries, which so curiously agrees with the system
+carried out in Peru at a widely sundered period (see p. 141).
+
+Ten households formed a gens (clan or family); ten clans or one hundred
+households formed a curia or wardship; and ten wardships, or one hundred
+clans, or one thousand households formed a populus, civitas or community.
+As it is stated that, at one time, Rome consisted of four cities, it is
+obvious that the above numbers, quadrupled, constituted the state which
+thus included forty wardships, four hundred gentes and four thousand
+households. As each gens possessed a chieftain, endowed with paternal
+authority over its members, there must, at one time, have been four
+hundred of these "patricians," whose number is thus found to correspond to
+the Greek "Council of 400" and curiously enough to the "four hundred
+Tochtli" or governors of the ancient Mexican commonwealth.
+
+A noteworthy feature of the attempt to institute the Decemvirate in Rome
+(5th century B.C.) was the arrangement that the ten chosen men exercised
+office in prescribed rotation for one day, each ruling, in consequence,
+for thirty-six days in the year which, like the Egyptian, then consisted
+of three hundred and sixty days and of an epact of five days. The
+assignment of a day to each chieftain finds its parallel not only in
+Assyria but also in ancient America (see p. 181).
+
+In connection with the Roman communal organization, attention is drawn to
+what appears to be a remarkable survival of an extremely ancient and
+natural mode of distinguishing the wardships. It is well known that,
+according to tradition, the republic of Siena, Italy, was founded at a
+remote period "by the sons of Remus, the twin brother of Romulus." The
+following facts prove that, to this day, certain features of its social
+organization exhibit an affinity to that of primitive Rome. "Siena, from
+the earliest day, has been divided into contrade or parishes. Each
+contrada has its special church, generally of great antiquity, and each
+contrada is named after some animal, or natural object, these names being
+symbolical of certain trades or customs. There are now the wolf, giraffe,
+owl, snail, tower, wave, goose, tortoise, etc., in all seventeen. Each has
+its colors, heralds, pages, music, flags; all the mediaeval paraphernalia
+of republican subdivision" (Frances Eliot, Diary of an idle woman in Italy
+I, p. 19).
+
+The employment of the names of animals and natural objects as distinctive
+marks for a wardship offers a curious analogy to the American institution
+of tribal names and totems.
+
+The circumstance that, in remotest times, the king of Rome, the
+acknowledged metropolis or mother city, was accompanied, on public
+occasions, by _twelve_ lictors or administrators of justice, each carrying
+the axe tied in a bundle of rods, shows that, at one time, the government
+was administered by thirteen individuals--a method we shall find again in
+ancient Ireland and Scandinavia. The history of Rome reveals that the
+different variants of governmental scheme adopted, one after the other,
+under influences emanating from Greece and Egypt, were reared upon the
+familiar universal plan. The most striking instance of this is, however,
+furnished by the details preserved of the groundwork on which Constantine
+founded (A.D. 330) the city he intended to be the capital of a universal
+empire, and named the New or Second Rome.
+
+Historians relate that the peninsula of Byzantium offered striking
+resemblances to the sites of Carthage and Rome. The design of Constantine
+embraced the entire peninsula with the seven hills upon it. "On foot, with
+a lance in his hand, professing to be under the guidance of divine
+inspiration, the emperor directed the line which was traced as the
+boundary of the destined capital." ... "In imitation of Rome at that
+period, the city was divided into 2x7=fourteen wards (regiones).... Its
+centre was marked by a column ... surmounted by a bronze colossus of
+Apollo. The church of S. Sophia, built on the site of an ancient temple of
+Wisdom, was subsequently dedicated to 'the Holy Eternal Wisdom' by
+Justinian. In the court called the Forum Augusteum, one side of which was
+formed by the palace and the other by the church, stood the Milliarium
+Aureum, not, as at Rome, a gilt marble pillar, but a spacious edifice, the
+centre from which all the roads of the empire were measured and on the
+walls of which the distances to all the chief places were inscribed.... In
+the new reunited empire quadruple division was maintained, _the __ empire
+being divided into four parts_, each forming a praetorian prefecture under
+a praetorian prefect, who, being the lieutenant of the emperor, ruled over
+the governors and people of the province with absolute power. The four
+prefectures were subdivided into thirteen dioceses, each governed by a
+vice-prefect named vicarius, the total number of dioceses being
+fifty-two."
+
+This system of numeration is of particular interest as it is not only
+identical with the system of a modern pack of cards, the origin of which
+is unknown, but is also the same as the Mexican year cycle (see p. 297).
+Vestiges of sevenfold organization are traceable in the appointment by
+Constantine, of "seven ministers of the palace" who exercised "sacred"
+functions about the person of the emperor, and the division of all Gaul
+into seven provinces placed under the governorship of the Vicar of the
+Seven Provinces. In conclusion I venture to point out that the
+four-storied amphitheatre of Vespasian (A.D. 71), the Pantheon of Agrippa
+(A.D. 23) and the Mausoleum of Hadrian (A.D. 138) appear to have a
+cosmical character, the first having been planned to hold the entire
+population of Rome, around a central space in which, originally, the
+circling chariot simulated the circuit of the celestial "plaustrum" or
+"carro"=chariot, the Latin name given to Ursa Major.
+
+While, on public festivals, the amphitheatre must have appeared as a
+synopsis of the whole empire and may also have been originally used for
+nocturnal, religious or political assemblages, the great Pantheon
+enclosing the images of twelve deities, may well have been a conscious
+attempt to represent the all-embracing Cosmos of Egyptian and Greek
+philosophy, the framed view of the heaven, seen through the central
+opening in the dome, being the symbol of the "hidden and invisible god,"
+of the initiated. To Hadrian, who visited Egypt twice and was undoubtedly
+acquainted with the idea of Plato's Cosmos or Theos, the idea of building
+a great circular structure in the centre of which he would be laid to
+rest, would naturally have suggested itself. Passing from a consideration
+of the buildings which, with the pyramids, appear to be among the grandest
+exponents of natural philosophy and religion ever reared by the hand of
+man, and clearly appear to have been planned under the direct influence of
+Egyptian and Greek philosophy, let us briefly glance at the mode in which
+the identical fundamental scheme was perpetuated among some northern
+peoples.
+
+ANCIENT IRELAND, BRITAIN AND WALES.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that, in ancient Ireland, we find distinct traces
+of a state, founded on the same crystallized artificial system that has
+been found at the basis of the most ancient civilizations of the world.
+"There is really no authentic history of Ireland before the introduction
+of Christianity into the country, but there are some genuine traditions
+which appear based upon truth, because they accord with and explain the
+peculiar customs which were found to prevail in the island at the time of
+the English invasion. These traditions declare, that the original Celtic
+inhabitants were subdued by an Asiatic colony, or at least by the
+descendants of some Eastern people at a very remote period; they aver that
+the conquerors were as inferior to the original inhabitants in numbers as
+they were superior in military discipline and the arts of social life;
+they describe the conquest as a work of time and trouble and assert that,
+after its completion, an hereditary monarchy and hereditary aristocracy
+were for the first time established in Ireland...."
+
+"At some unknown period Ireland was divided into five kingdoms, Ulster,
+Leinster, Connaught, Munster and Meath ... the latter being the property
+of the paramount sovereign ..." (W. C. Taylor, History of Ireland, 1837).
+
+John O'Neil cites "the very oldest Irish books, according to which two
+brothers, the leaders of the Milesian colonization, divided Ireland into
+Northern and Southern kingdom." Elsewhere he relates how a prince of the
+north had been united in marriage to the princess of the south and that
+"the mythical Niall-Navi-giallach of the nine treasures had had a Northern
+king for father and a Southern princess for mother." Besides this
+subdivision which strikingly recalls the ancient Egyptian, O'Neil brings
+out the remarkable fact that definite positions in relation to each other
+and the cardinal points were assigned to the five Irish kings and tells us
+that "we have a fuller and later division when, in the central hall, the
+miodh-chuarta of Tara, the king of Erinn sat in the centre, with his face
+to the East, the king of Ulster being at his North, the king of Munster at
+his South, while the king of Leinster sat opposite to him and the king of
+Connaught behind him" (_op. cit._ I, 463).
+
+I refer the reader to his extremely interesting comparison (I, p. 369) of
+ancient Ireland being "an Irish instance of a Chinese 'Middle Kingdom,' "
+and to the data given in connection with the great hall of Tara, which was
+called Meath or Mid-court, Miodchuarta (pronounced Micorta), and the
+Northern hill of Miodhchaoinn (or Midkena), guarded by Miodhchaoinn and
+his three sons, the guardians of the hill being thus four in all. O'Neil
+also refers to "the great idol or castrum of Kilair ... which was
+surrounded by twelve smaller ones and was called the stone and umbilicus
+of Hibernia and, as if placed in the midst and middle of the land, 'medio
+et meditullio'...." "Meath itself, where this Kilair navel stood, was
+anciently the central one of the five divisions of Ireland and is called
+Media by Giraldus Cambrensis, ... and connected with the words
+medi-tullium and medi-tullus." The legend states that "the castrum of
+Kilair and the stones around it were transported by Merlin to Stonehenge
+and 'set up in the same order.' "(130) "At Mag Slecht was the chief idol
+of Ireland, called Cenn Craich (Mound-chief) covered with gold and silver,
+and twelve other idols about it, covered with brass" (O'Neil, p. 273).
+
+"The five Irish kingdoms were again subdivided into several principalities
+inhabited by distinct 'septs,' each ruled by its own carfinny or
+chieftain. The obedience of these local rulers or toparchs to the
+provincial sovereign was regulated, like his to the general monarch, by
+the powers that he possessed for enforcing authority.... The succession to
+every degree of sovereignty was regulated by the law of tanistry, which
+limited heredity right to the family but not to the individual.... Each
+district was deemed the common property of the entire sept; but the
+distribution of the several shares was entrusted to the toparch.... The
+lower orders were divided into freemen and hetages, or as they were called
+by the Normans, villanis. The former had the privilege of choosing their
+tribe; the latter were bound to the soil and transferred with it in any
+grant or deed of sale."
+
+Ruined groups of buildings, consisting of seven sanctuaries or churches,
+situated around a round, high tower, usually with four windows near the
+top, opening to the cardinal points, exist in various parts of Ireland,
+the Seven Churches in County Wicklow being the most famous example. The
+cosmical character of the round towers has been set forth by John O'Neil,
+to whose work I refer the reader. According to my views the groups testify
+to the establishment, at one time, of several septarchies in Ireland, the
+geographical centres of which, as in Assyria and elsewhere, were marked in
+this case by the cosmical round tower, figuring the axis or spindle,
+around which each sept built its council house, for religious and
+political assemblies.(131) In connection with such it is interesting to
+read what Caesar says of the priests and judges of Gaul, which was
+organized into seven provinces, as late as at the time of Constantine:
+"These Druids held a meeting at a certain time of the year in a
+consecrated place in the country of the Carnutes [modern Chartres] which
+country is considered to be in the centre of all Gaul." It is well known
+that anterior to the Roman Conquest there existed in Britain a
+long-established, seven-fold state, governed by seven kings, compared by
+John Speed (1630) to seven crowned pillars.
+
+The kingdom of Mercia included the counties in the centre of the kingdom
+and is said to have been founded by Crida or Creoda. The central and chief
+ruler of Britain was styled Bretwalda. It is well known that Stonehenge,
+which is associated in folk-lore with the number seven, is situated in the
+heart of the plain region of England and is supposed to have been the seat
+of central religion and government.(132)
+
+It is moreover acknowledged by Knight that the ancient Britons were a
+people who evidently had some great principle of association in their
+religion as in their industry. The familiar fact, that at one period the
+ancient Kent, Cantium, was governed by four kings, also styled "the four
+princes of Cantii," furnishes an indication that quadruplicate division
+was also known to the ancient Britons.
+
+A few instructive facts concerning Welsh Druidism may be appropriately
+cited here.
+
+Morien has pointed out that the Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Amen-Ra,
+the Egyptian Hidden Sun. According to Welsh system the universe was born
+of Celi-Ced, a dual power, Celi being the masculine and Ced the feminine
+principle. Ceridwen is termed the Welsh Isis, and her name translated as
+"the producing woman." Celi is invariably represented as _hidden_, the
+three Hus representing him in manifestation.
+
+"The three Hus are: Hu cylch y Cengant=the Hu of the circle of infinitude;
+Hu cylch y Sidydd=the Hu of the circle of the zodiac and Hu yn Nghnawd=Hu
+incarnate. The latter was incarnate in the Arch Druid. He, standing in the
+middle of the Gorsedd circle, where the triple life lines met, implied by
+his action that the three emanations which had their root in the dual
+Ced-Celi, focussed themselves in him. He stood facing the east where the
+sun rises" (_cf._ the ceremonial position assumed by the king of Erin in
+council and that of the Roman augur on drawing his templum). "The name for
+the physical sun was Huan, translated as 'the abode of divinity.' " "The
+Druidic bards of N. Wales worshipped Beli."(133)
+
+In Welsh legend a god named Peredur Paladye Hir (of the long spear or pal)
+is associated with his brother, both sons of Eliffer, one of the _thirteen
+princes of the north_. Peredur is one of seven brothers; there were seven
+profound mysteries of Druidism, _i. e._ seven divisions of the
+reverberations of the Word, emanating from Ced, and the seven Tattaras or
+seven rays.
+
+SCANDINAVIA.
+
+According to the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturlesson, whose opinion was
+the re-echo of ancient traditional beliefs, Odin and his eight sons and
+four companions, twelve in all, were earthly kings and priests of a
+sacerdotal caste, who had emigrated from Asia--perhaps from Troy--and who
+conquered and ruled over various parts of Scandinavia and Northern Germany
+where, after their death, they were regarded by the people as deities
+(Chambers' Encyclopaedia).
+
+O'Neil states "that Odin was named Mith-Odinn (Mid-Odin?) by Saxo
+Grammaticus," and quotes the following: "Odinn died in his bed, in Sweden,
+and when he was near his death he made himself be marked with the point of
+a spear and said he was going to Godheim" (Ingliga Saga). "The twelve
+_godes_ or diar or drotnar of Odin were obviously cognate to our _god_ as
+a name of a deity. They (or the priests who represented them) directed
+sacrifices and judged the people, and all the people served and obeyed
+them" (O'Neil I, p. 76).
+
+A strange reality is given to Odin and his twelve "godes," when it is
+realized that at Mora, near Upsala, Sweden, there exists the ancient stone
+throne on which the ancient kings of Sweden were crowned and this central
+stone is surrounded by twelve lesser stones, just as the Irish
+"Mound-chief" was surrounded by twelve idols.
+
+While the above facts suffice to indicate that, in remotest antiquity, the
+government of the state was vested in one supreme and twelve minor chiefs,
+the following brief extracts from the Eddas reveal the cosmical beliefs of
+the Norsemen: "In the cold north existed Niflheim in the middle of which
+was a well from which sprang twelve rivers. In the south existed the warm
+Muspelheim. There was a contention between both of these worlds.... The
+union of heat and cold produced Oergelmer or Chaos, and the first human
+being, Ymir. The revolving eye of the Norse world-millstone was directly
+above Oergelmer and through it the waters flowed to and from the great
+fountain of the Universe waters." Ymir drew his nourishment from four
+streams of milk proceeding from the mythical cow Aedhumla. Subsequently he
+was slain by three divine brothers who carried his body to the _middle_ of
+Ginnungagap, and formed from it the earth and the heavens ... of his skull
+they formed the heavens, at each of the four corners of which stood a
+dwarf, viz: Austri at the East, Vestri at the west, Northri at the north
+and Suthri at the south.... When heaven and earth were formed, the chief
+gods or Oesir, of whom there were twelve, met in the Centre of the world
+and built Midgardr or Asgard, the yard, city or stronghold of the Middle
+and of the Asen=the gods. It was situated on the Himinbiorg, or Hill of
+Heaven, on the summit of which was the ash-tree, Yggdrasil, whose branches
+spread over the whole world and tower over the heavens.
+
+The following is from the prose Edda: "Then the sons of Bor built in the
+middle of the universe the city called Asgard, where dwell the gods and
+their kindred, and _from that abode work out so many wondrous things both
+on earth and in the heavens above it_. There is in that city a place
+called Hlidskjalf, and when Odin is seated there upon his lofty throne, he
+sees over the whole world."
+
+In the Eddas we find evidences that while Odin or All-fader was the ruler
+of heaven, his powerful son Thor was "the ruler of Thrudheim and drove
+through the world in a chariot and became the supreme god."
+
+The following facts, taken from Mr. Allen's "Star-names," established the
+association of Thor with Polaris and the Ursae. "In ancient times the
+northern nations termed Ursa Major 'the wagon of Odin, Woden or Wuotan,
+the father of Thor.'(134) The Danes, Swedes and Icelanders also knew it as
+Stori Vagn, the Great Wagon and as Karl's Vagn; Karl being Thor, their
+chief god of whom the old Swedish Rhyme Chronicle of Upsala says '... The
+god Thor was the highest of them. He sat naked as a child, seven stars in
+his hand and Charles' Wain.' "
+
+The "throne of Thor" or "Smaller Chariot," was the name given to Polaris
+(Ursa Minor) by the early Danes and Icelanders and their descendants still
+call it the "Litli Vagn," the little wagon. The Finns, apparently alone
+among the northern nations of Europe in this conception, named Ursa Minor,
+Vaehae Otawa, the Little Bear. They, however, termed Polaris, Taehti, "the
+star at the top of the heavenly mountain."
+
+It is striking how clearly, in Scandinavia, the Middle is associated with
+a sacred mountain and tree, the world axis, a heavenly city, an enthroned
+central god, and with Polaris, Ursa Major and the idea of eternal
+circumpolar rotation expressed by the wain eternally wheeled around the
+throne of Thor. To any one imbued with the ideas set forth above, the
+signification of the Scandinavian, Druidic, New Year festival, the name
+for which was "the wheel" (yule, yeol, yeul, hjol, hiugl, hjul), must
+clearly appear as the date on which the complete circuit of the Ursae
+around the pole, was ceremonially registered. It is obvious that this
+could best be expressed by a circle being drawn around the swastika or
+cross, to which the fourth arm would be added, completing thus the
+registration of the four seasons, marked by the opposite positions assumed
+by the Ursae at nightfall. It is well known that the wheel-cross, swastika,
+triskeles and S-figure constitute, with the winding serpent and the tau,
+named Thor's hammer, the main symbols of ancient Scandinavia (see fig. 13,
+p. 29 and fig. 38, p. 119). I venture to point out how obviously Thor's
+hammer symbolizes the union of the Above and Below, the heaven represented
+by the horizontal line resting on the perpendicular support, symbolizing
+the sacred pole, column, mountain and tree intimately associated with
+Polaris, the world axis.
+
+As a suggestion only, I venture to point out how, the old Norse name for
+star being tjara and for tree=tar, the role of the tree in Druidic cult
+would be fully accounted for, the initiated only being aware that it was
+but a rebus symbol of the secret or hidden star-god Polaris.
+
+It can readily be seen how natural or artificial elevations and erected
+stones, trees, staffs or poles must have been used as means of determining
+the positions of the Ursae at the public celebration of the Yule festival
+and that the ceremony of kindling of new fire was observed at the time
+when the "wheel" was supposed to begin its new annual revolution.
+
+Reflection clearly shows that pole-star worship must have taken a stronger
+hold upon the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia and their descendants,
+the seafaring Vikings, than upon any other nation. We are compelled to
+admit that the recognition that Polaris formed the centre of axial
+rotation and the middle of the sky, would have impressed itself most
+profoundly upon observers stationed in the latitude where winter darkness
+prevailed and the pole-star appeared to be nearly overhead. Under such
+conditions the association of the opposite positions of the Septentriones
+with directions in space, _i. e._, the cardinal points, would be most
+striking.
+
+What is more: the re-appearance of the sun, after the long darkness of a
+northern winter, must have established the idea of a fixed relationship
+between certain positions of Ursa Major and the solstitial position of the
+sun. It may indeed be said that the observation of the solstices and
+equinoxes was forced upon the inhabitants of the north as nowhere else on
+the globe and that it may perhaps be therefore designated as the
+birthplace of primitive astronomy.
+
+The origin of the idea of an all-pervading duality and the chains of
+association which linked Light and the Sun to air and water, and to the
+male element, whilst Darkness and the Nocturnal Heaven became connected
+with earth, fire and woman, are clearly accounted for in the circumpolar
+regions only, where the year divides itself into a period of light in
+which independent and roaming out-door life was possible, and a period of
+darkness during which family life, in underground fire-lit dwellings, was
+compulsory. If fathomed, the mind of the Eskimo to-day may possibly reveal
+the germs of identical associations of ideas, for it would seem as though
+existence in the polar regions would infallibly stamp them indelibly upon
+the consciousness of all living creatures, until they unconsciously
+pervaded their entire being and even affected the structural organization
+of the human brain.(135)
+
+The tendency to believe that the human race must have spent its infancy
+near the pole and received there an intellectual stamp, which could not
+have been conveyed to it so clearly in any other latitude, is undoubtedly
+encouraged by the opinion of various authorities, that "all forms of life
+must have originated at the pole, this having been the first habitable
+portion of our world." This view is exhaustively treated in William
+Fairfield Warren's "Paradise Found, the cradle of the human race at the
+North Pole" (Boston, 1885), to which I refer the reader and which contains
+much valuable data which I would have incorporated in the present
+investigation had I had earlier access to the volume. It would seem as
+though Warren's conclusions were in perfect accord with the conclusions
+arrived at by some leading palaeontologists, geologists and botanists,
+concerning the distribution of life on the globe. These are conveniently
+summarized in the article on "Distribution" in the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica, from which the following detached excerpts are made for the
+benefit of the reader.
+
+"The general result arrived at is that the great northern continents
+represent the original seat of mammalian life and the regions of its
+highest development.... The tertiary fauna of North America, compared with
+that of Europe, exhibits proofs of a former communication between the two
+northern continents both in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, but
+always, probably, in rather high latitudes. This is indicated both by the
+groups which appear to have originated in one continent and then to have
+passed across to the other and also by the entire absence from America of
+many important groups which abounded in Europe (and _vice versa_)
+indicating that the communication between the two hemispheres was always
+imperfect and of limited duration.... On the other hand, the marked
+continuity of the Northern Flora (with only a gradual east and west change
+in the arctic regions, but with an increased divergency southwards)
+requires it to be treated as a whole, although it has long been divided
+into that of the old and new world by the severance of North America from
+Northern Asia and by the barrier to an interchange of vegetation in the
+upheaval of the Rocky Mountain range. The old and new world divisions of
+the flora which, no doubt, began to diverge from the mere influence of
+distance, have now had that divergence immensely increased by
+isolation.... Large American genera (of the intermediate flora) have sent
+off offsets into Eastern Asia which, gradually diminishing in number of
+species and sometimes slightly modifying their character, have spread over
+the whole of Asia and invaded almost every part of Europe.... With regard
+to the arctic alpine flora, Hooker found that, estimating the whole arctic
+flora at 762 species, arctic East America possessed 379 of which 269 are
+common to Scandinavia. Of the whole flora 616 species are found in arctic
+Europe and of these 586 are Scandinavian and this leads Hooker to the
+striking observation that 'the Scandinavian flora is present in every
+latitude of the globe and is the only one that is so.' According to
+Bentham, Scandinavia, which would, according to older rules, have been
+termed the centre of creation for the arctic regions, may now be termed
+the chief centre of preservation within the arctic circle owing, perhaps,
+to its more broken conformation and partly to that warmer climate ...
+which was, during the glacial period a means of preservation of some
+colder species which were everywhere expelled or destroyed.... We may
+infer that, towards the close of the Tertiary epoch, the continuous
+circumpolar land was covered with a vegetation also largely composed of
+identical plants, but adapted to a warmer climate. As the climate became
+less warm there would commence a migration southwards which would result
+in the modified descendants of these plants being now blended with the
+vegetation of central Europe and the United States. As the glacial period
+gradually advanced, the tropical plants will have retreated from both
+sides towards the equator followed in the rear by the temperate
+productions and these by the arctic. When the climate of the earth again
+ameliorated, the migration took place in a reverse direction and in this
+way mountain ranges became the havens of refuge for the fragments of the
+original arctic flora which were exterminated on the lowlands. An
+indication of the great antiquity of the arctic alpine flora is afforded
+by the fact of its absence in the comparatively modern volcanic mountains
+of France.... If it be granted that the polar area was once occupied by
+the Scandinavian flora and that the cold of the glacial epoch did drive
+this vegetation downwards ... in arctic America ... where there was a free
+southern extension and dilatation of land for the same Scandinavian plants
+to occupy, these would multiply enormously in individuals...."
+
+The following remarkable results of recent botanical research will be
+found to be of profound interest to investigators and to support the
+foregoing conclusions. Amongst the many important discoveries of hitherto
+undescribed species of plants, made by the distinguished botanists Mr.
+Stephen Sommier and Dr. Emile Levier during their expedition in the
+Caucasus mountains, in 1890, was that of a species of fungus named
+_Exobasidium discoideum_ Ell., which was found growing on the
+_Rhododendron flaro_ L. This fungus was submitted to Prof. P. Magnus of
+Berlin, who pronounced it to be the identical Exobasidium which has been
+found growing on the _Azalea viscosa_ L. in New Jersey, U. S. A. The
+following is the authoritative statement of Prof. P. Magnus which appears
+in Messrs. S. Sommier and E. Levier's Enumeratorio plantarum caucas: acta
+horti petropolitani, vol. XVI. St. Petersburg, 1899.
+
+"The occurrence of the identical species of fungus on two closely related
+plants, which respectively grow in the Caucasus and in North America and
+are missing in intermediate countries, deserves our deepest interest....
+These plants are relics of the Tertiary period, during which North America
+and Europe still formed a continuous floral area. While the plants, on
+which the fungus grew, differentiated into two closely related species, in
+two at present widely separated but formerly connected radii of
+distribution, the parasitical Exobasidium remained outwardly unaltered.
+This is exactly like the case of another fungus, _Uromyces glycyrrhizae_,
+which I have described and explained in the 'Berichten der Deutschen
+Botanischen Gesellschaft' (Bd. VII, 1890, S. 377-384). _Exobasidium disc._
+is also a parasitical fungus which has been growing on the parent form of
+_Rhododendron viscosum_ and _Rhododendron flavum_ ever since that period
+when North America and Europe were continuous and possessed the same
+flora."
+
+I am also indebted to Professor Magnus and to Dr. Levier for the following
+names of closely allied species of plants which are found in America and
+Asia only, it being particularly noticeable that it is in Asia Minor and
+the Caucasus mountains that the relatives of the American species are most
+frequently met with.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_: North America.
+_Platanus orientalis_: Asia Minor.
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_: North America.
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_: Asia.
+_Rhododendron viscosum_: North America.
+_Rhododendron flavum_: Caucasus Mts.
+_Rhododendron maximum_: North America.
+_Rhododendron ponticum_: Causasus Mts.
+
+Professor Magnus has, moreover, recently pointed out that the fungus
+Uropyxis, which is a widespread American species and grows in Mexico, has
+a representative in Manchuria. In his monograph on Uropyxis, Professor
+Magnus enumerates further species of fungi which occur in America and Asia
+only and are missing in other portions of the world (P. Magnus, Berichten
+der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang 1899. Band XVII, Heft 3).
+
+Referring the reader to Professor Edward S. Morse's trite article, Was
+Middle America peopled from Asia? (Appleton's Popular Science Monthly,
+November, 1898), I cite, from this, the following authoritative
+statements: "From the naturalist's standpoint the avenues have been quite
+as open for the circumpolar distribution of man as they have been for the
+circumpolar distribution of other animals and plants, down to the minutest
+land snail and low fungus. The ethnic resemblances supposed to exist
+between the peoples of the two sides of the Pacific may be the result of
+an ancient distribution around the northern regions of the globe."
+
+The very remarkable survival of certain plants and fungi, dating from the
+Tertiary period, in two such widely sundered countries as Asia Minor and
+North America, certainly finds a curious and striking parallel in the
+analogy of the cosmical ideas and social organization of Babylonia and
+Assyria with those of Mexico.
+
+What is more: A cosmical scheme, attributable to a prolonged observation
+of natural celestial phenomena, such as could best have been carried on in
+circumpolar regions, has been shown to be as widespread as the
+Scandinavian flora which "is present in every latitude and is the only one
+that is so."
+
+Many of my readers will doubtless be inclined to explain the identity of
+cosmical and religious conceptions, social organization, and architectural
+plans shown to have existed in the past between the inhabitants of both
+hemispheres, as the result of independent evolution, dating from the
+period when primitive man, emerging from savagery, was driven southward
+from circumpolar regions, carrying with him a set of indelible impressions
+which, under the influence of constant pole-star worship, sooner or later
+developed and brought forth identical or analogous results.
+
+Those who hold this view may perhaps go so far as to consider the
+possibility that, before drifting asunder, the human race had already
+discovered, for instance, the art of fire-making and of working in stone,
+had adopted the sign of the cross as a year-register, and evolved an
+archaic form of social organization. To many this view may furnish a
+satisfactory explanation of the universal spread of identical ideas and
+the differentiation of their subsequently independent evolution.
+
+On the other hand, another class of readers may prefer to think that,
+while both hemispheres may have originally been populated by branches of
+the same race, at an extremely low stage of intellectual development,
+civilization and a plan of social organization may have developed and been
+formulated sooner in one locality than in another, owing to more favorable
+conditions and thence have been spread to both continents by a race, more
+intelligent and enterprising than others, who became the intermediaries of
+ancient civilization.
+
+The great problem of the origin of American peoples lies far beyond the
+scope of the present work and its final solution can only be obtained at
+some future day by the joint cooeperation of Americanists and Orientalists.
+On the other hand certain incontrovertible facts which throw light upon
+the question of prehistoric contact have been coming under my observation
+during my prolonged course of study and the presentation of these may
+advance knowledge by acting as a stimulus to discussion, inquiry and
+research by learned specialists.
+
+For ready reference I submit the following tabulated record of the widely
+sundered countries in which are found, applied to the governmental scheme,
+the same cosmical divisions, respectively consisting of four, seven and
+thirteen parts, the group being invariably associated with the idea of an
+all-embracing One, constituting the Four in One, Seven in One and Thirteen
+in One. It is superfluous to add that, in each country enumerated, the
+existence of more or less distinct traces of an ancient pole-star worship
+and the cult of the sacred Middle, the Above and Below and Four Quarters,
+_i. e._, the four, seven and thirteen directions in space, have been
+recorded in the preceding pages. Important additional facts, acquired by
+reference to Hewitt's Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, to which my
+attention was directed by Mr. Stansbury Hagar, and to other valuable
+works, will be found included in the following summary.
+
+It would be of utmost assistance to me in my future researches and I would
+regard it as a personal favor if specialists would draw my attention to
+any deficiencies they may detect, and inform me of the latest results of
+their individual investigations bearing upon the subjects under
+consideration.
+
+INDIA.
+
+Seven zones, seven directions in space, seven sages.
+
+"The conception of the confederated kingdom formed of six dependent and
+allied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in the centre."... "It
+is this conception which is worked out in the six kingdoms surrounding the
+central kingdom of Jambudvipa, into which they divided India. This form of
+kingdom still survives in those which form the tributary states of Chota
+Nagpore, for in all of these the central province is ruled by the king and
+those surrounding it by his subordinate chiefs ..."(136) (Hewitt, Ruling
+Races of Prehistoric Times, p. 256).
+
+Four lakes, four rivers, four cosmical divisions, four guardians, p. 320.
+
+"In the Gond 'Song of Lingal,' it is related how, Lingal, having been
+slain by the confederacy [of six kingdoms surrounding seventh], came to
+life again, and with four new-born Gonds, founded a new race of Gonds;
+taught them to build houses and to grow millets.... He divided the people
+into _four tribes_.... With these he united the four tribes descended from
+the Gonds he had brought down in his first avatar.... These formed the
+eight united races of the tortoise-earth.... Lingal placed among them
+priests ... who married the new-comers to the daughters of the previous
+immigrants.... This ... marks the first stage of the union of the Kushikas
+and the Maghadas, the latter being the race who worshipped the mother-Maga
+as the sacred alligator (Hewitt).
+
+"According to the Mahabharata the two races of Kushikas and Maghadas were
+united under one king.... This land was called by Hindu geographers
+Saka-dvipa, said in the Mataya Purana to be the land of the mountain
+whence Indra gets the rain;" that is of the mountain called
+Khar-sah-kurra, Ushidhan and Savkanta. "This mountain stood as the meeting
+point of the two confederacies of the patriarchal tribes and the
+matriarchal races.... Each confederacy is formed by six kingdoms
+surrounding a seventh or ruling kingdom in the centre.... This, in the
+Iranian federation, is Khavaniras or Huaniratha and in India, Jambu-dvipa,
+the land of the Jambu tree."
+
+Hewitt publishes an interesting drawing (reproduced as fig. 73, _c_),
+formed "by the union of the four triangles representing the Southeastern
+and Northwestern races, who all looked on the mother mountain of the East,
+whence Indra gets the rain, as their national birthplace, where they
+became united as the Kushite race, the confederation of civilized man. It
+represents the Greek cross and the double dorje or thunderbolt of Vishnu
+and Indra and also a map of the Indian races, as distributed at the time
+of the union. It also forms, with spaces left open for the parent rivers,
+... an octahedron or eight-sided figure ... and the angles of the tribal
+angles form the swastika ... the sign of the rain-god ..., the great Sar
+of the Phoenicians...." Referring the reader to Hewitt's interesting
+discussion of this figure with which he associates the origin of the
+swastika, I point out a fact he barely notices, namely that the figure
+coincides with the description of Mt. Meru, associated with four lakes,
+four rivers, four mythical animals and four guardians (p. 320). It is in
+connection with the cosmical Middle Mountain that the foundation of an
+earthly kingdom on the same plan becomes significant and the distribution
+of races figured by Mr. Hewitt assumes utmost importance. The
+representation of the four races by "tribal triangles," is of special
+interest when collated with the Egyptian sign for city or state and the
+pyramid, the building of which I have several times alluded to as an event
+facilitating, symbolizing and commemorating the foundation of a
+quadruplicate state (pp. 220 and 221).
+
+ARABIA.
+
+"In the land of Arabia, of the irrigating and building Minyans and
+star-worshipping Sabaeans, the land of the Queen of Sheba, or the number
+seven (sheba) ... a fresh confederacy was formed, to rival that of the
+Kushite mountain of the East ..." (Hewitt, p. 291).
+
+It is significant that among the Sabaeans the seven-day period prevailed.
+
+ASSYRIA.
+
+Seven directions of heaven and earth, seven territorial districts, seven
+mountains, seven kings, seven-staged towers, seven year and day periods,
+etc., pp. 328, 348 and 358.
+
+Four-god cities, square cities, square four-storied towers, four cities,
+four regions or provinces, four-fold power embodied in king wearing cross,
+tetrarchies (?).
+
+EGYPT.
+
+Seven classes of people, seven districts, seven-day period, pp. 300 and
+375.(137)
+
+Quadruplicate division of capital and state, four fields of heaven, p.
+372.
+
+Sacerdotal group consisting of 12+1=13 individuals, p. 437.
+
+Division of the country, at one time, into twelve parts (Ast).
+
+CHINA.
+
+Seven Manchurian tribes, p. 302.
+
+Four provinces, four mountains, four seas, p. 286; four classes of seven
+each, p. 292.
+
+At the summit of the present administration in Pekin, Four Grand
+Secretaries, two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese.(138)
+
+Twelve districts, p. 292.
+
+ANCIENT JAPAN.
+
+The "Seven divine generations," each consisting of a god and goddess.
+
+Four classes of people, 2x4=8 holy quarters, eight great islands.
+
+Imperial council of twelve divided into the higher council of five called
+Golosew="Imperial Old Men" and the lower council of seven members termed
+Waka Tosiyori="Junior Old Men" (Chambers' Encyclopaedia). The imperial
+council, with the emperor, thus constituted the sacred thirteen.
+
+PERSIA.
+
+Seven divisions of Cosmos, seven regions, seven spirits personifying
+celestial bodies and moral qualities.
+
+Ancient confederacy of Iran consisted of six kingdoms grouped around the
+central royal province, "situated under the pole-star," and called
+Kwan-iras or Hvan-iratha, ruled by Susi-nag, the original father-god of
+the model state identified with the pole-star, Draconis, the serpent
+(Hewitt, _op. cit._ p. 253), see also Appendix III, list II.
+
+Four-fold rule embodied in king, p. 325. Darius distributed Persian empire
+into 4x5=20 satrapies, each including a certain continuous territory
+(Grote).
+
+GREECE.
+
+Tenos divided into seven quarters, seven divisions of state.(139)
+
+Four tribes,(140) four castes, territorial division of Attica into four
+parts, institution of tetrarchies. Thessaly anciently divided into four
+tetrarchies. Institution (between 600-560 B.C.) of cycle or period, marked
+by the four sacred Olympic games, one of which took place in one of four
+cities each year in rotation. Pisistratus added the quadrennial or greater
+Panathenaea to the ancient annual and lesser Panathenaea (Grote, History of
+Greece, vol. 4).
+
+Twelve tribes formed by Cecrops--represented by twelve chiefs,
++Cecrops=thirteen.
+
+It is most interesting to find this division adopted in Plato's de
+Legibus, in which it is imagined that three elderly statesmen come
+together, belonging respectively to Athens, Crete and Lacedaemon, to
+discuss the reestablishment of the depopulated city of Magnesia in Crete.
+Aristotle has insinuated that the scheme proposed by Plato was not
+original and had been actually realized at Lacedaemon. Mr. George Burger,
+the able translator of Bohn's edition of Plato's Works, in his
+introduction to vol. V, remarks that, if that were the case, Plato would
+never have wasted his time in writing two elaborate treatises on matters
+already well known, when it would have been sufficient to point out ...
+the institutions of Lycurgus as the pattern, if not of a faultless
+government, at least of one, that approached the nearest to perfection.
+Plato might have replied to the charge made by Aristotle by saying that
+his notions were all the better for not being original, for it was thus
+shown that, as some of them were practicable, since they had already been
+put into practice--the rest, which were a reform rather of existing
+institutions than the construction of a code perfectly novel, would be
+equally practicable if they were submitted to the same test. In his
+Protagoras, Plato distinctly states that in Crete and Lacedaemon a most
+beautiful philosophy was to be found, which had been handed down from
+ancient times.... Let us now examine the plan discussed by the three
+statesmen and submitted to them by the anonymous Athenian who, according
+to Cicero, Plutarch and Boeckh, was Plato himself.
+
+In the case of "the Magnesians, whom a god is again raising up and
+settling into a colony ... a divine polity...." Plato says: ... "It is
+meet, in the first place, to build the city as much as possible in the
+middle of the country.... After this to divide it into twelve parts(141)
+and placing first the temple of Hestia, and Zeus and Athene, to call it
+the Acropolis and to throw around a circular enclosure and from it to cut
+the city and all the country into twelve parts. But the twelve parts ought
+to be equalized ... and the allotments to be five thousand and forty....
+After this to assign the twelve allotments to the twelve gods and to call
+them by their names and to consecrate to each the portion attained by lot
+and to call it a phyle; and again to divide the twelve sections of the
+city in the same manner as they divided the rest of the country, and that
+each should possess two habitations, one near the centre and the other
+near the extremity, and thus let the method end ... (B. V, C. 14).... We
+ought, in the first place, to resume the number five thousand and forty
+because it had and has now convenient distributions, both the whole number
+and that which was assigned to the wards, which we laid down as the
+twelfth part of the whole, being exactly four hundred and twenty. And as
+the whole number has twelve divisions, so also has that of the wards. Now
+it is meet to consider each division as a sacred gift of a deity through
+its _following both the months and revolutions of the universe_. (By this
+is meant, says Ast, the twelve signs of the zodiac.) _Hence that which is
+inherent leads every state, making them holy_.... Some persons indeed have
+made a more correct distribution than others, and with better fortune have
+dedicated the distribution to the gods. But we now assert that the number
+five thousand and forty has been chosen most correctly, as it has all
+divisions as far as twelve, beginning from one, except that by eleven; ...
+let us distribute this number; and dedicating to a god ... each portion,
+and giving the altars ... let us institute monthly two meetings relating
+to sacrifices ... twelve according to the divisions of the wards and
+twelve to that of the city ... for the sake of every kind of intercourse."
+
+It should be noted here that, as in his Republic, Plato provides his ideal
+state with female as well as male guardians, and with priestesses as well
+as priests, whose duty it was to fulfil sacerdotal functions. Special
+attention is drawn to this point, as in practice, it naturally signifies a
+dual government, such as I have traced in ancient Egypt,
+Babylonia-Assyria, and also in Mexico and Peru.
+
+"As regards the number of ... festivals ... let there be three hundred and
+sixty-five ... so that some one of the magistrates may always sacrifice
+... there are to be twelve festivals to the twelve gods from whom each
+tribe has its name ... and twelve guardians of the law.... There ought to
+be twelve hamlets, one in the middle of each twelfth part, and in each
+hamlet to be selected first, a market place and temples ... prepare all
+the rest of the country by it into thirteen parts for the handicraftsmen
+and to cause one portion of these to reside in the city by distributing
+this portion among the twelve parts of the whole city ... to have other
+persons distributed out of the city, in a circle around it."
+
+The portions of Plato's work dealing with the appointment of the governors
+and guardians of the state and their rotations in office and imposed tours
+of inspection, are of such particular interest in connection with the
+present comparative research, that I am impelled to quote them here.
+
+"Let each (of the twelve) phyles furnish for the year five Rural Stewards
+(in all sixty) ... each of whom is to choose twelve young men ... to the
+latter let there be allotted portions of the country during a month ... so
+that all of them may have a practical knowledge of every part of the
+country.... But let the governorship and guardianship continue to the
+guards and governors for two years, and let those who first obtain by lot
+their respective portions, the guard officers, lead out, _changing the
+places of the country constantly by going to the place next in order
+towards the right in a circle, and let the right be that which is in the
+east_. But as the years come around, in the second year, in order that the
+greatest portion of the guards may become acquainted with the country, not
+only at one season of the year, but that as many as possible may know
+thoroughly in addition to the country, at the same time what occurs
+relatively to each spot in the country at each season, let the officers
+_lead them out again to the left, constantly changing the place until they
+go through the second year_. In the third year it is meet to choose other
+rural stewards and guard officers as the five curators of the twelve young
+men.... There were to be three city stewards, dividing the twelve parts of
+the city into three ... and five Market-Stewards, to be chosen from ten
+elected"....(142)
+
+It is deeply interesting to consider from the standpoint of comparative
+study the principal features of the perfected scheme proposed by Plato, in
+the fifth century B. C, for the establishment of an ideal colony, which is
+designated as a "divine polity" or a "holy land." This is especially the
+case when we see that Plato himself states that it is the conformity of
+the states to the inherent laws of nature, that confers upon it divinity
+or holiness. It seems impossible not to recognize that both ideal
+republics of Plato were intended to be "celestial kingdoms" or "kingdoms
+of heaven" and that he expounded and doubtlessly perfected, an ancient
+ideal which had been more or less successfully carried out in different
+countries during many centuries before his time.
+
+Having studied the proposed scheme for the foundation of a new colony of
+the Greeks, who proudly maintained that "it was meet that the Greeks
+should rule barbarians," and pursued a regular system of colonization, let
+us now obtain an idea of the mode in which Greeks had previously founded
+colonies by reading the following passage from Grote's History of Greece,
+vol. IV, chap. XXVII:
+
+"Under reign of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, about the middle of seventh
+century B.C., Grecian mercenaries were first established in Egypt and
+Grecian traders admitted ... into the Nile.(143) The opening of this new
+market emboldened them to traverse the direct sea which separates Krete
+from Egypt--a dangerous voyage with vessels which rarely ventured to lose
+sight of land--and seems to have first made them acquainted with the
+neighboring coast of Libya ... hence arose the foundation of the important
+colony called Kyrene" ... about 630 B.C.
+
+"Thera was the mother-city, herself a colony from Lacedaemon ... political
+dissension among its inhabitants ... bad seasons, distress and
+over-population led to the emigration that founded Kyrene.... The oekist
+Battus was selected and consecrated to work of founding the colony....
+_From the seven districts into which Thera was divided, emigrants were
+drafted for the colony, one brother being singled out by lot from the
+different families_.... The band which accompanied Battus was generally
+supplied with provisions for one year and was all conveyed in two
+pentekonters--armed ships with fifty rowers each. Thus humble was the start
+of the mighty Kyrene. After six years residence in one spot they abandoned
+it and were conducted to a better site by guides, saying: 'Here, men of
+Hellas, is the place for you to dwell, for here the sky is
+perforated.' "(144) The small force brought over by Battus was enabled at
+first to fraternize with the indigenous Libyans,--next, reinforced by
+additional colonists and availing themselves of the power of native
+chiefs, to overawe and subjugate them....
+
+"The Theraean colonists seem to have married Libyan wives, whence Herodotus
+describes the women of Kyrene and Barka as following, even in his time,
+religious observances indigenous and not Hellenic. Even the descendants of
+the primitive oekist Battus were semi-Libyan.... We must bear in mind that
+the population of the [Graeco-Libyan] cities was not pure Greek, but more
+or less mixed, like that of the colonies in Italy, Sicily or Ionia....
+Isokrates praises the well-chosen site of the colony of Kyrene because it
+was planted in the midst of indigenous natives apt for subjection and far
+distant from any formidable enemies.... We are then to conceive the first
+Theraean colonists as established in their lofty fortified post Kyrene, in
+the centre of Libyan Perioeki, till then strangers to walls, to arts and
+perhaps even to cultivated land.... To these rude men the Theraeans
+communicated the elements of Hellenism and civilization, not without
+receiving themselves much that was non-Hellenic in return, and perhaps the
+reactionary influence of the Libyan element against the Hellenic might
+have proved the stronger of the two had they not been reinforced by
+new-comers from Greece.... About 543 B.C. owing to discontent, etc., the
+regal prerogative of the Battiad line was terminated and a republican
+government established; the dispossessed prince retaining both the landed
+domains and various sacerdotal functions which had belonged to his
+predecessors."
+
+ROME.
+
+Seven hills, seven places of worship, septemvirate, seven ministers,
+Septizonium, p. 464.
+
+Roman quadrata, Janus quadrifrontis, quadruplicate territorial division
+carried out. Palestine, for instance, divided into four tetrarchies under
+Roman rule.
+
+Twelve gods, twelve months, etc.
+
+New Rome divided into four parts, each consisting of thirteen prefectures
+_i. e._ fifty-two prefectures in all.
+
+GAUL.
+
+Seven provinces.
+
+BRITAIN.
+
+Seven kings=heptarchy.
+
+Four kings of Kent=tetrarchy.
+
+IRELAND.
+
+Seven sanctuaries grouped around central tower.
+
+Four associates of king of Erin.
+
+Group consisting of 12+1=13 stone figures, p. 469.
+
+SCANDINAVIA.
+
+Four guardians of four quarters.
+
+Thor, supreme divinity, pole-star god, seated and holding "seven stars,"
+the symbol of seven-fold power, in his hand.
+
+Group consisting of royal throne surrounded by 12 stones. Odin associated
+with twelve "godes," p. 472.
+
+NORTH AMERICA.
+
+Huron confederacy=seven tribes, quadriform city, 2x4=8 gentes, p. 198.
+
+ZUNI.
+
+Seven directions in space, seven quarters of city, seven tribes, seven
+towns.
+
+Four bands of priests, p. 201.
+
+Twelve, _i. e._, thirteen priesthoods, p. 201.
+
+MEXICO.
+
+Seven tribes issued from seven caves, seven gods or chiefs, p. 62.
+
+Four quarters of city, represented by four chieftains, four subrulers,
+four divisions of army, four year signs, four tribes, four tribal trees
+(fig. 52), four storied pyramids.
+
+Thirteen divisions or parts, p. 181.
+
+Calendar and state organized into 4x13=52 parts.
+
+YUCATAN.
+
+Title of ruler, "the divine Four," four sub-rulers, four royal brothers,
+four-year periods, p. 218, four quarters, p. 223, four year signs.
+
+Twelve _i. e._ thirteen priest-rulers of Mayapan, p. 209.
+
+GUATEMALA.
+
+Seven tribes, seven day period, p. 179.
+
+Four nations, four provinces, four capitals, four Tullans, pp. 164, 171.
+
+Thirteen divisions of warriors, p. 179.
+
+PERU.
+
+Empire named "Four in one," Creator named "Earth, air, fire and water in
+One," four provinces, four viceroys.
+
+Twelve _i. e._ thirteen wards in Cuzco, twelve divisions of year, p. 144.
+
+Before commenting upon the above summary, and as its necessary complement,
+a brief examination must be made of the various modes in which the
+phenomenon of celestial axial rotation figured in the rituals of primitive
+people.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+The lighting of "sacred fire," by means of the wooden fire-drill and the
+wooden socket block, appears as the most ancient and widespread
+ritualistic performance.
+
+To begin with, the reader is requested to read carefully the following
+detached extracts from Hewitt's work:
+
+"In the Rig-Veda the Aryan invaders of Lydia are called the Tritsu, 'the
+boring people,' who used the fire-drill; also Arna, 'sons of Arani,' the
+fire-drill, whose sacred number is four".... "In India, from time
+immemorial, by a process like churning, fire has been produced by the
+Arani, made of the Ashvattha (_Ficus religiosa_) wood, being twirled
+repeatedly round till the fire is lighted, by a string fixed in the
+cross-bar at its top," a method, I may add, which is a later development
+of the more primitive mode of twirling the fire-drill by hand. "The
+Kushites ... believed that life was generated by the union of heat with
+water ... and that heat was, in the astronomical myth, engendered by the
+revolution of the Great Bear and the connection between it, the vital heat
+and the creating water is shown in one of its Akkadian names, Bel-a-sar-a,
+which means 'the fire god who measures the water yoke' (R. Brown and
+Sayce), or, in other words, Bel, the distributor of the water allotted to
+the earth. From this heavenly cistern and fire-drill, in which marichi,
+the fire-spark, is hidden, the water of life is distributed."
+
+Compare the preceding with the following statements: "According to the
+Arab doctrine of the pole, the seven stars of the Great Bear and the star
+Canopus [?] formed the fire-drill." According to Hewitt "... It was the
+Ashvins, ... the twin brothers of day and night, ... identified with the
+twin stars in Gemini, who twirled round the fire drill of the northern
+pole ... or, according to a later hymn, drove through the seas with one of
+the wheels of their chariot in Ursa Major and one in heaven,--that is, to
+drive around the pole." A deeper comprehension seems to be afforded by
+this association of the Ashvins with the axis, of the significance of the
+two figures (of a god and his consort) who, in the Sippar tablet, appear
+to be directing the wheel of Shamash--the world-axis and symbol of
+quadruplicate terrestrial government (see p. 365). Reference should also
+be repeated here, to Al-kuth and Al-fass, the Arabian names for Polaris,
+respectively signifying the axle and the hole of the axle, also to the
+pole star of Northern India--Grahadhara,--the "pivot of heaven," and to the
+significant fact that in Egyptian hieratic script the word an=the Akkadian
+and Sumerian word for heaven, and Babylonian-Assyrian word for god, is
+found rendered by a man "turning around," an action expressing the verb
+an.
+
+It is interesting to collate these statements with the descriptions of
+Dhruva (see p. 448, note 1), the personification of centrifugal power,
+who, as he turns, causes the heaven to revolve around the fixed centre on
+which he stands, resting on one foot only, and to note how the two
+distinct ideas of central stability and rotation influenced the making of
+pagan divinities. The idea of stability was perpetuated in the house-pole
+which sustained Aman, the roof of primitive dwellings in the column an,
+which supported the temple roof and in time was transformed into a hermes,
+or, in Egypt, into a statue of Amen-ra, and in the mythical mountain of
+the North, Sama, which supported the heaven (Sama). Dhruva's turning round
+on one foot, which implies the use of the other, reappears in the
+Hephaistos of Greek mythology, who was, as Hewitt tells us (p. 504), "the
+fire-drill and its driver, and was called Amphi-Gueeis, or he who halts on
+both legs, ... was cast from heaven by Zeus, and was the husband of the
+fire-socket, the first form of the Greek goddess Aphrodite."
+
+For information regarding the cult of the fire-socket, the construction of
+the Hindu fire-altars in the form of a woman, representing "mother-earth"
+or "the primaeval mother," Aditi, I refer the reader to Hewitt's work, and
+also to p. 323 of the present publication, where the description of the
+Jiddah sanctuary proves the existence of the same ancient form of cult in
+Arabia. Hewitt relates on page 170 that, on the fire-altar, the central
+fire called Agni jatavedas is kindled when the officiating priest
+addresses in the words of Rig-Veda III, 29, 4: "We place thee, O
+Jatavedas, in the place of Ida (the mountain daughter of Manu) in the
+navel (nabha) of the altar, to carry our offerings." In Rig-Veda, X, 61,
+we are also told how Nabha-Nedishtha (that which is nearest to the navel)
+was born from the union of celestial lightning flash with the earth, and
+how, on his birth, he claimed to be the supreme god, saying: "This, our
+navel, is the highest. I am his son.... I am the twice-born son of the law
+(of nature)...." Hewitt (p. 171) regards, moreover, the image of the
+goddess of the earth altar found by Schliemann in the second city from the
+bottom of the six cities, built one over another on the site of Troy, a
+counterpart of the Hindu fire-altar. It is significant that the Trojan
+image exhibits a triangle surrounded by seven disks, and containing the
+swastika, which Hewitt designates as "the holy fire, the sun of the
+revolving year," a view curiously, though indistinctly, analogous and
+parallel to that I have formulated in the present research.
+
+"In the Brahmanas the Try-Ambika offering, a very ancient form of the rain
+festival, is described.... Its sanctity dated from the days of primeval
+theology, for the offerings were made on a spot outside and _to the north_
+of the consecrated area, and on one intersected by cross-roads, and thus
+marked by the cross sacred to the rain-god, which is said to be Rudra's
+favorite haunts, and the halting place of the Agnis.... Hence the festival
+is dedicated to Rud-ra, the red (rud) god, the father of the seven Marut
+stars.... He is called the red god from the spark of fire kindled by him
+in the fire socket when he was the fire-drill, and from being reddened by
+the blood of the victim slain in his sacrifices when he was the
+sacrificial stake to which the annual victims, whose blood fertilized the
+ground, were bound, and this name was continued to him when he became the
+red cloud of the thunderstorm which infused the soil of life into the
+earth by pouring on it the life-giving rain, the blood of the creating
+god...."
+
+In the Rig-Veda the rain-god is termed Ushana, the "lord of fire," who is
+made to exclaim: "It is I who pour down rain for the good of creatures."
+It was he who was also known as Varuna, the Greek Ourauos, who ... became
+the god of the dark night.... The union [in India] of the patriarchal
+worshippers of the Northern father-god, with the matriarchal races of the
+south was followed by the miners, metal-workers and artisans of the early
+bronze age, who looked on fire and the life-giving heat as the author of
+life. These were the people (of Finnic origin) who employed the word ku
+for god, in Asia Minor became the worshippers of the mother goddess Magha,
+the socket block from which fire was generated by the fire-drill, and it
+was they, "the Sons of Magha" that became the Maghi of Persia and the
+Maghadas of Indian history.
+
+In connection with the union of a northern patriarchal and a southern
+matriarchal race, an astronomical myth deserves particular attention, as
+it commemorates the combination of a feminine cult of the Pleiades, the
+"spinning stars," with a masculine cult of Ursa Major. According to this
+myth, related by Hewitt, the "Spinners"=Krittakas (from krit, to spin)
+were "the mother-stars of the earth," who were married to the seven stars
+of the Great "Bear, the father-stars of the North."(145) Remarking how
+curiously the assignment of the north to the male and the south to the
+female element coincides with what has been noted in Egypt, I note here
+the interesting detail recorded by Hewitt (p. 379) that to this day the
+Hindu bride and bridegroom respectively pay reverence to the Pleiades and
+Ursa Major, before worshipping the pole-star, "the spotted bull," on
+entering their house. It would seem as though the fulfilment of this
+ritual might limit the Hindu marriage season to some particular time of
+the year, marked by the position of the Pleiades; in which connection it
+is interesting to remember that, in Mexico, the culmination of the
+Pleiades at midnight marked the New Year festival, when sacred fire was
+rekindled and the union of Heaven and Earth took place. On pp. 130-132 of
+Hewitt's work, vol. I, the reader will find instructive data regarding
+Pleiades festivals.
+
+The preceding details appear to show that whereas a northern patriarchal
+race would naturally symbolize axial rotation by the fire-drill, a
+southern matriarchal race would adopt the spindle for the same purpose.
+Such a ritualistic use of the spindle would undoubtedly afford a very
+simple explanation for the presence of cross-symbols and swastikas and
+other designs of religious significance upon the terra-cotta spinning
+whorls found in such quantities in Troy, for instance, and the cited
+allusion on one of these, to the pole-star god, Tur, corroborates this
+view.(146)
+
+It is instructive to trace how, amongst primitive agricultural races, the
+art of spinning, the employment of beasts of burden, the invention of the
+oil-press which "was used in Asia Minor as it has been used for time
+immemorial in India to extract the oil of the sesame seeds," and of the
+wheel and cart, influenced their respective adoption of symbols of axial
+rotation. In turn, these symbols suggested and created divergent forms of
+ritual and religious cult. "The Turanians ... when they had evolved the
+idea of the god of heaven as the pole turned by the revolving days and
+weeks symbolized it as the pole of the threshing floors around which the
+oxen were driven." The reader is referred here to the passages from the
+Bhagavata-purana quoted in the present work (note 1, p. 448), in which
+axial rotation is compared to "oxen turning around their stakes," to which
+must be added the Vedic "one-wheeled car to which one horse named seven
+was yoked" (see p. 452, note 1), and the revolving wheel and the revolving
+measuring pole of the potter and builder castes, which united formed the
+Telis caste.
+
+In the Vaya Purana, "the seven Maruts drive the stars which are bound to
+it by ties invisible to man, round the pole. They move round like the beam
+in the oil-press, for its bottom is, as it were, standing still, while its
+end moves round".... In the ritual "the Sanscrit Isha or the beam which
+turns this pole of heavenly oil-pressing mill, is the husband and father."
+A diverging view, which developed and combined the ideas of fixity and
+circular motion with the kindling of the vital spark by the wooden
+fire-drill, caused the living tree to become the emblem of the tribal
+father or mother. The custom, still in use among some primitive people, of
+drilling for fire in the dry, inflammable bark of dead trees of a
+particular species, may have forcibly directed the choice of tribal trees.
+At all events, in India, we find the mango or Am tree, which recurs in
+Egyptian script (see fig. 63, 22), the fig-tree, the udumbara, the
+date-palm and other trees established as the parent trees of different
+tribes, who made their respective house-poles and presumably their
+fire-drills and sockets, from their wood. The curious ritual of marrying
+men and women to their respective mother or father tribal trees, before
+they are wedded to their respective husbands and wives is mentioned by
+Hewitt on p. 237, etc. This close bond between some special kind of tree
+and a tribe is a point which I particularly emphasize on account of its
+analogy to ancient Mexican, Maya and Peruvian tribal trees.
+
+Returning to a study of the pole and the beam of the oil-press we find
+that, in Essay II, Hewitt traces the Greek myths of Ixion and Koronis to
+the Hindu comparison of the heavens to a revolving oil-press and, in the
+ritual of the Vajapeya sacrifice, refers the dawn of astronomy to the
+observation of the revolutions of the pole and the reckoning of the seven
+days of the week.... "Ixion, when raised to heaven, was the rain-god, who
+turned one wheel, to which his hands and feet were fixed by Hermes, the
+fire-god, continuously in the air, and this is merely a mythic way of
+saying that he was the fire-drill, made as the revolving pole to rotate
+perpetually, and by being turned to every side in his winged course, to
+produce life-giving heat, the generator of rain.... The Greek Ixion is the
+same word as the Sanscrit Akshivan, the driver of the axle (aksha)....
+Ixion is also, according to Bopp and Pott, connected with the root ik,
+pouring water, which appears in ichor, 'the blood of the gods,' the water
+of life."
+
+"Moreover, the Sanscrit aksha is a word of which the original is found in
+the Gond akkha, an axle. In the summer festival of the agricultural Gonds,
+called Akkhadi or Akhtuj, the worship of the cart axle or Akkha takes
+place and is associated with Nagur, the rain snake.... In the Vajapeya
+sacrifice ... the Soma priest consecrates two cups of the sacred drink
+Soma above the axle, at the same time as the Neskti priest consecrates two
+cups of Sura below it. In this ceremony we see a reminiscence of the days
+when the axle was the upright revolving pole pressing out the heavenly
+rain.... It also shows us how it was that the axle became the sacred part
+of the Soma cart ... and the revolving pole became the axle of the car of
+time and of the cart of the agricultural Gonds...."
+
+It seems easy to trace from the rude one-wheeled cart, the evolution of
+the two-wheeled chariot, the prerogative of royalty in India and Assyria,
+employed simultaneously with the regal umbrella, which, when twirled,
+symbolized celestial axial rotation and suggested the idea of a protective
+deity. The transition from the "one-wheeled car" of the oldest Veda, to
+which "one horse named seven was yoked" to the chariot of Apollo="Seven,"
+whose lyre, with seven chords, struck the divine heptachord of the
+Pythagoreans, and who drove seven horses, coincides with that of the
+umbrella which, in Greece, was borne at the period of the summer solstice
+in the Skirophoria or "festival of the umbrella," in honor of Athene.
+
+It is particularly gratifying to me, as it so forcibly substantiates the
+views I have been enlarging upon in this investigation, to refer here to
+Hewitt's quotations (p. 7, vol. II) from the Rig-Veda, in which the
+wheeled chariot, closely identified with the year, is said to be drawn by
+the father-horse, with seven names, the seven days of the week, etc.
+Hewitt likewise cites passages of the Rig-Veda containing the conception
+of year wheels, the varying number of whose spokes agree with different
+divisions of the year. Thus one year-wheel exhibits twelve spokes,
+denoting months, another five spokes denoting five seasons. A chariot,
+with seven wheels with six spokes, is explained as meaning the seven days
+of the week and the six seasons of the southern year. "All living beings
+rest on the five-spoked wheel, ... the horses draw the never-aging wheel
+through space, whence the eye of the sun on which all life depends, looks
+down. The seventh of those born together they call 'that born alone': this
+is the self-created thirteenth or central month; the six twinned months
+are said to be those begotten of the gods. They are arranged in their
+order, six on each side of the central month, by the leader who dwells
+above." A striking analogy to the ideas I detected, as associated with
+central rulership, in ancient America, is set forth in Hewitt's statement
+that, it was to the one wheel year "that the Hindus likened their
+universal monarch, the Chakravarta or king, who sits, like the Kushite
+monarch, as the father of his subject tribes, in the central province of
+his dominions, and directs his satellites, the rulers of the seasons, who
+became the ruling stars of the frontier provinces--the Nakshatra stars--to
+turn the wheel (chakra) of time in its yearly round" (_op. cit._ p. 31,
+vol. II, see also p. 314.)(147)
+
+The single wheel, without any indication of an utilitarian employment, is
+found directly associated with the pole-star in Japan, where, as in China,
+the use of the wheel has been known from earliest times. It will be for
+Scandinavian archaeologists to enlighten us as to the earliest traces of
+the use, by northern races, not only of the wheeled chariot, familiar to
+those who named Ursa Major, Thor's wagon, but also that of the mill-stone.
+The employment of the latter in the description of the "revolving world
+mill-stone through which the waters of the Universe fountain flowed," is a
+proof that the Eddas were written by an agricultural people, possessing
+advanced methods of grinding or of extracting oil or juice from food
+stuffs. The association of the Norse mill-stone with the distribution of
+liquid, appearing to indicate that, like the oil-press of ancient India,
+the stone-mill of Scandinavia had been employed to extract fluids,
+challenges investigation as to the original home of the mill-stone and
+chariot of the Eddas.
+
+Personally I am inclined to regard the term "world mill-stone" as a
+modernized transcription of the term "axle," and the whole as a rendering
+of the archaic idea that "heat was engendered by the revolution of the
+Great Bear" and that the axle of heaven was the distribution of vital heat
+and vivifying water. I shall await enlightenment as to the relationship of
+the Norse tree of the pole and Thor, with the creating fire-drill of Tur,
+the father-god; and the connection of the Norse "mill-stone" and fountain,
+to the fire-socket and celestial cistern of the Kushites, said to be the
+"sons of the Finnic Ku, the begetter and rain-god," who, having migrated
+to India and united with other races, founded a mighty confederacy, the
+plan of which is figured in Hewitt's work (p. 220), by "the union of four
+triangles, representing the southeastern and northwestern races, ... with
+spaces left open for the parent rivers," which flow towards the cardinal
+points (see figure 73, _c_).
+
+If we now revert to the first stages of the mental evolution, the outcome
+of which we have been reviewing, we cannot but recognize the curious, but
+perfectly natural chain of reasoning which led early man to explain
+natural phenomena in different ways by the results of his own immediate
+observation and experience. He had discovered that the rotation of the
+fire-drill generated fire; consequently the rotation of the circumpolar
+constellations must generate life-giving heat. The churning or twirling of
+liquid in a vessel, by means of the drill, caused an overflow;
+consequently the action of the fire-drill also caused an external flow of
+life-giving waters, which, after the invention of the oil or grape press,
+was compared to the flow of precious oil or wine from the receptacle.
+
+High mountains attracted lightning-clouds and when these collected around
+their summits whence rivers constantly flowed, life-giving rain descended;
+consequently the tops of cloud-capped mountains must reach to the axle of
+the heaven where fire, heat and rain were being generated and distributed
+by the rotation of celestial bodies. As Polaris the axle, pivot or fire
+socket, was immovable it could most appropriately be figured by a wooden
+or stone socket, from which fire and water flowed towards the four
+quarters. Such an image would also figure a year, and, by extension, time,
+since it marked the four annual positions of circumpolar star-groups. The
+adoption of a stone socket as an image of the "revolving heaven" could
+thus have long antedated, but have suggested the invention of the wheel,
+which was at first a religious and then became a royal symbol.
+
+I venture to express the view that the archaic image of Shamash (fig. 73,
+_a_), the homonym of Heaven and the North, which was "an ancient model" at
+the time of Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.), could only have been invented by
+a race of pole-star worshippers who had long been acquainted with the uses
+of the fire drill and the oil-press. At the same time I point out how
+remarkably the combination of four rays and four streams in the image of
+Shamash (Shame=heaven) coincides with the explanation given by Hewitt (p.
+9, vol. II) of the Akkadian eight-rayed star of Anu (heaven), which, he
+asserts, is formed by the superposition of the fire-cross and rain cross.
+It is a most remarkable and undeniable fact that there is a striking
+analogy between the Anu sign as explained by Hewitt and the Shamash image.
+The eight-rayed or "spoked wheel" of Ishtar, which figures on the same
+tablet, also gains significance for the same reason, and particularly when
+collated with the hymn cited in note 1, p. 448, in which she is clearly
+designated as the "axis of the heavens," _i. e._ the female Polaris.
+
+Having indicated how the origin of the image of Shamash can be traced to
+conceptions arising from the use of the fire-drill and some primitive mode
+of extracting oil or of preparing a highly valued drink from seeds and
+plants, by centrifugal action, invented by a primitive agricultural
+people, I advance the suggestion that the celestial tree of the Norsemen
+and Semites, associated with the fountain and the four rivers of life,
+appears as a closely related symbol which, however, mainly expressed the
+idea of stability. In the Eddas the tree occurs as a complement to the
+world axle, the first as the emblem of stability and of a central power
+which dispensed shade and life-giving fruits in all directions; the second
+as the image of centrifugal power which caused the star-groups to assume
+opposite positions and which impartially distributed heat and water. It is
+curious to note how readily from the fire-drill and beam of the oil press
+as a starting point, not only all forms of tree and pole worship and the
+Chinese assignment of element wood to the Middle, but also all symbols of
+centrifugal motion, such as the axle, the pivot and the wheel, could have
+evolved on closely parallel lines.
+
+Let us now transport ourselves to a land where, to this day, the Indian
+women grind maize on a flat stone, by means of a pestle, where the
+oil-press and the mill-stone, the pole of the threshing-floor, the
+potter's wheel and the cart wheel were unknown before the date of the
+Spanish Conquest and rotatory motion was associated with the fire-drill
+and spinning whorl only.
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+The ancient Mexican name for the fire-drill = mamalhuaztli, and that for
+spinning-wheel=malacatl, are both derived from the verb malacachoa=to
+whirl, turn or drill. At the time of the Spanish invasion (A.D. 1519) the
+Mexican priesthood lit the sacred fire of the altar by an extremely
+primitive method of employing the fire-drill: by holding it tightly
+between the palms of both hands and rapidly rubbing them alternately
+forward and backward.
+
+The Codices contain numberless pictures representing a priest, in the act
+of kindling fire by inserting the drill in a simple wooden beam, usually
+exhibiting several small holes or sockets. On the other hand the Borgian
+Codex, which has recently been placed within general reach by the
+generosity of the Duc de Loubat, shows us two elaborate representations of
+the great ceremony of kindling the holy fire in a large circular socket,
+on the body of a woman which, in all cases is combined with the image of
+an alligator (see p. 91). In another Codex the alligator alone supports
+the socket. The smaller of these representations is reproduced in fig. 29,
+and on pp. 93-97 this image is discussed as well as the remarkable stone
+fire altars in human form, of which one has been unearthed near the city
+of Mexico, while no less than six were found at Chichen-Itza. My informant
+on this point is Mr. Alfred P. Maudslay, who added that they seem to have
+been invariably placed at the bottom of the stairs leading up to the
+temple, the facade of which is always supported by two great columns, each
+sculptured in the form of a great serpent with open jaws, the symbol
+which, in the bas-reliefs at Chichen-Itza and on the Central American
+stelae, recurs on the head-dresses of the rulers termed "Divine serpents,"
+or "divine four in One."
+
+Postponing comment upon the curious analogy between the stone fire altars
+in human form, of the Mayas and Mexicans, with those of the Maghadas of
+Northern India, who called themselves the Sons of Magha = the socket-block
+whence fire was generated by the fire-drill, or the mother Maga, the
+sacred alligator, let us examine the fire-drill god of ancient Mexico.
+
+Reference to fig. 1 reveals that it is impossible to see these Mexican
+representations, which I could supplement by others, and not be struck by
+their agreement with the descriptions of the Hindu pole-star god Dhruva,
+who stands on one foot, of the lame Hephaistos of Greek mythology, to
+which I would add that Hewitt also mentions in his preface to vol. II the
+Norse Voelunde, the maimed, one-legged turner of the pole; the god called
+in the Rig-Veda the Aja ekapad, or one-footed goat, who watched the
+revolutions of the solar disk, and the one-legged bird of Russian
+mythology, associated with a revolving house and fire-drill. In the
+Mexican Codices the Mexican Tezcatlipoca, held by one foot to the centre
+of the north, describes a circle around this. His foot evidently
+constitutes the fire-drill, which, inserted in the socket, causes smoke,
+also rain and a serpent to issue from it (see 5 and 6). One figure,
+representing one leg only in the fire-socket, and a head, exhibiting a
+small, smoking fire-socket, appears, in the light of comparative research,
+as a cursive method of representing the fire-drill god, universally
+associated with Ursa Major.
+
+It is remarkable that, in one case water and in another smoke, indicating
+fire, issues from the socket of Tezcatlipoca's fire-drill, and that,
+opposite to the picture in the Borgian Codex, representing the kindling of
+fire on the fire-altar, we have the image of a pool of water from which
+four figures spring toward the cardinal points (see fig. 29).
+
+It is only after recognizing that, like the people of the Old World, the
+Mexicans associated with the fire-drill and socket not only the
+distribution of fire and heat, but also of water, that we also fully grasp
+the symbolism of the symbol of the "Black or Night Sun," from the "Life of
+the Indians," which is but one of many simple forms exhibiting main
+features which recur on the highly elaborated Mexican stone of the Great
+Plan (fig. 73_b_). When placed in juxtaposition the undoubted resemblance
+between the Babylonian image of Shamash and the Mexican image, as well as
+the deep-seated identity of these two quadruplicate symbols stands out
+clearly: in the Babylonian, wavy lines emanating from the centre convey
+the idea of some fluid essence. In the Mexican, instead of the wavy lines,
+the conventional representation of a drop of water is depicted--the idea in
+both cases being obviously identical and agreeing with the primeval
+universal conception of heat or fire, and water emanating from a common
+source, and flowing to the cardinal points. In both cases an axle or
+socket is represented, and it is instructive to study the different ways
+in which the symbol recurs in the Mexican Codices.
+
+                             [Illustration.]
+
+                                Figure 73.
+
+
+Referring back to fig. 1, 1, reproduced from the Codex Borgia, we see the
+axle with rays issuing from a circular band of water. A receptacle filled
+with water occupies the centre and contains a tecpatl, the symbol of the
+north, the same associated with the fire-drill god in the next figure. In
+fig. 1, 4, the central fountain is surrounded, as in many instances, by
+stars which connect it with the nocturnal heaven, and it contains a
+rabbit=tochtli, the rebus figure employed to express the word octli, by
+which the rain was designated as "earth wine" (see pp. 95 and 185).
+
+As I write, I have before me a whole series of painted representations
+from the Codices of what has heretofore been misinterpreted as images of
+the diurnal sun. In some of these the open centre is painted blue or
+green, in others it is filled by a heart from which flows, in some cases,
+a stream of blood, the essence of life. In several instances a tree with
+four main branches grows from the centre.(148) In one case the tree grows
+from a pool and holds in its branches the image of the axle, in the centre
+of which, as in the Humboldt Tablet preserved at the Berlin Museum, a
+figure is seated. The centres of others exhibit the head of a divinity
+painted red, a single eye, or the ollin. All examples establish the fact
+that the Mexican "axle of the North" represented fire and water emanating
+from a single source. In notable examples, where the axle is carved in
+stone, the identical features are conventionally reproduced. Some exhibit
+a depression or deep hole in the centre. This is the case in the
+remarkable example at the museum in New Haven, Conn., where the axle is
+carved on the top of a square altar, the corners of which exhibit symbols
+of the four elements, each accompanied by the numeral 4. The centre of the
+figure exhibits a carved ollin, in the middle of which a deep hole is
+situated. An analogous but shallow depression occurs in the great circular
+monument, the Conquest Stone of Mexico (see p. 259), around which
+Tezcatlipoca, the one-footed fire-drill god, is represented sixteen times,
+each time in the act of receiving the enforced homage of the chief or
+chieftainess of a different locality.
+
+The above monuments, as well as a rudely-carved representation of the
+"sun" recently discovered and unearthed by Dr. Ed. Seler, lying on a
+substructure of stones in the centre of an open space, presumably a market
+place, definitely proves that the design was intended to be placed in a
+horizontal position. This intention has already been noted in the case of
+the Great Cosmical Stone of Mexico (fig. 56), on which the rays and
+intermediate water drops recur, and are represented as emanating from the
+central Nahui Ollin, the Four in One, which encloses the masked face of
+the divine Twain.
+
+A question naturally suggests itself at this juncture: How did the ancient
+Mexicans, who utilized the fire-drill in its most elementary form and as
+far as is known, employed no means of extracting oil or juice or of
+grinding food-stuff by a centrifugal process,(149) come to employ as a
+sacred symbol, the axle or "mill-stone" which, in India, had been adopted
+as an image of central rotation, by people who constantly used the
+fire-drill and the oil-press?
+
+The strongest proof that the idea of a circular disk was associated in
+Mexico with terra-cotta spinning whorls only, is the fact that, in the
+native description of the Great Temple recorded by Sahagun, a circular
+stone monument, employed in religious festivals, which the Spaniards
+described as a "stone wheel," is termed in the Nahuatl text as a
+"te-malacatl" _i. e._ a "stone whorl." Further evidence of the close
+association of such "stone whorls" with thread or cord, the product of
+spinning, is furnished by the way in the ritual, that the victim was
+attached by one foot to the open centre of the "stone whorl" and
+circulated around the stone which lay motionless. On the other hand, the
+sculptured zone on the Great Cosmical stone, enclosing the day signs
+placed in their fixed order of rotation, and the sculptured frieze on the
+Tribute Stone, furnish direct evidence that circular movement was
+associated with the cosmical axle, or disk.
+
+It is obvious that the distribution of water combined with fire from a
+common central source, represented as a mill-stone, could not have been
+suggested to the native mind by the use of the fire-drill and socket and
+the spinning whorl only. Therefore we are obliged to face the question
+whether the cosmical figure may not have been introduced, as a religious
+symbol only, by a race of civilizers who, though acquainted not only with
+the oil press and chariot but also with the Akkadian star of Anu, the
+combination of the rain and fire crosses, and with the Assyrian-Babylonian
+image of Shamash (an elaboration of the same idea), but in the absence of
+beasts of burden and sesame seeds in Mexico, had no opportunity, or did
+not consider it feasible or necessary, to teach the use of the chariot,
+oil-press or circular mill stone to the natives. Before forming any
+conclusions or conjectures on this point, however, a number of other
+questions must be investigated. One fact, however, stands out quite
+clearly: Whereas in figure 73, _b_, we have the rudimentary form of the
+quadruplicate symbol, closely resembling that which was already ancient
+and almost obsolete in Babylonia in the ninth century B.C. and pertained
+to a cult of Shamash, the North and Heaven, which had flourished in that
+country about 1850 B.C., the Great Cosmical Stone of Mexico represents the
+highly advanced development and elaboration of the identical cult, as
+actually established there until the year 1519 of our era.
+
+Pausing here and looking back upon the foregoing summary of the universal
+spread of identical forms of social organization and of rituals suggested
+by the use of the fire-drill, in association with a primitive pole-star
+cult, there are a few distinct and unrelated points which claim special
+attention: First of all, the identity in the form of the fire-altar and
+the cult of the fire-socket, among the Maghas and Nahushas of India and
+the Mayas and Nahuas of Yucatan and Mexico. Secondly, the striking
+resemblance of plan and numerical scheme which unquestionably existed
+between the ideal "divine polities," recorded by Plato, and the states
+which actually existed, of ancient Peru and Mexico. It is impossible to
+read Plato's scheme of an all-pervading division into 12, and his plan for
+the laying out of the capital and state and not to recognize the fact
+that, in Peru, as set forth on pp. 133-149 of the present work, these
+identical principles were actually carried out by the alien Incas who, in
+comparatively modern times, collected the natives together and organized
+them into a settled community. Thirdly, the undeniable fact that the
+numerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican Calendar and state-organization
+is identical with that adopted by Constantine, in establishing New Rome.
+
+Postponing a closer examination of these points until further on, let us
+now continue our comparative review.
+
+The universal spread of the identical scheme of organization, vouched for
+by documentary evidence, is further demonstrated by the results of
+archaeological and historical research and a comparative study of ancient
+symbolism. Thus it is impossible not to admit the striking and deep-seated
+analogy between the Assyrian four-fold division of city and state, the
+title "lord of the four regions" and the image of Shamash, the
+"four-spoked wheel;" the Indian, Egyptian and Grecian philosophical
+conceptions of four elements, culminating in Plato's Cosmos and Theos (an
+entity, spherical in shape, incorporating four elements) and, for
+instance, the quadruplicate symbol carved in the centre of the Mexican
+Cosmical Tablet, which exhibits the symbols of the same four elements
+embodied in a single symbol, representing the supreme power, who is thus
+proven to have been conceived by the Mexicans, as well as by the
+Peruvians, as "the Air, Earth, Fire and Water in One," or the source of
+the four elements.(150)
+
+When it is likewise considered that the Mexicans employed the divine
+title, "four times lord," that the Maya title "Kukulcan," signifies the
+"Divine Four," that the ancient map of Mayapan proves that, like the
+Kushite confederacy, and the kingdoms of Assyria, Egypt and Peru, it was a
+"Four provinces in One" or a "four-fold state," the identity of the
+principles underlying the archaic civilizations of the Old and New World
+becomes more and more apparent. It likewise becomes evident that in each
+of these countries the significance and symbolism of the archaic
+cross-symbol and swastika must have been identical, and that, like the
+pyramid (the form of which, in the ancient Greek alphabet, is given to the
+letter delta which expresses, numerically, four, a quatuor, or 4,000) and
+the square stone altar or column, it figured the Four in One, the mystic
+Five or the Four and all-embracing One. The following array of facts
+demonstrates further the universal association of archaic cross-symbolism
+with the conception of an all-embracing, stable, central power.
+
+A striking demonstration of this is furnished by the diagonal cross,
+employed as a Chinese character, to express the word wu=five, just as it
+is used, in Egyptian hieratic script, to express the syllables uu, un or
+ur (see fig. 60). Sometimes, in Chinese, a horizontal line is drawn above
+the cross and another beneath it, and John Chalmers informs us that,
+according to the Shoh Wan, this "full form means the five elements between
+heaven and earth, the upper line being heaven and the lower earth." The
+sign thus obviously constituted an image of the Cosmos, the 5+2=heaven and
+earth, thus furnishing the familiar seven directions in space, the chief
+and synopsis of which is the sacred Centre.
+
+The association, in ancient America, of the cross-shape with central
+stable power, has already been discussed in the case of the Copan
+swastika, p. 222. At the time when I wrote about this and carved stelae
+found at Quirigua and Copan, I had not yet learned of the remarkable
+discovery made there, by Mr. George Byron Gordon of the Peabody Museum
+Honduras Expedition, which furnishes me with the most striking
+confirmation of the conclusion I expressed on p. 220, namely, that the
+personages, whose portraits are sculptured on the stelae, were high-priest
+rulers, who bore the title "Divine Four," and were "rulers of the four
+regions."
+
+Referring the reader to Mr. Gordon's report, published in vol. I, no. I,
+of the Peabody Museum Memoirs, I merely note his verification that,
+beneath several stelae examined for this purpose, there exist subterraneous
+vaults, in the form of the so-called Greek cross, above the exact centre
+of which the stela stands, its base being inserted in the stones forming
+the ceiling of the chamber. In one case the length of the cruciform vault
+is over nine feet from eastern to western extremity, the width of the
+branches being one foot and their depth two feet. Over thirty vessels of
+pottery were found in this, amongst them large urns with covers. It would
+appear from this that, like the Egyptians, the ancient builders of Copan
+performed certain ceremonial rites in connection with the construction of
+these artificially cosmical centres.
+
+What seems quite clear is that the subterraneous vault constituted a
+sacred cosmical chamber and that the stelae were memorial stones, which
+probably represented the image of a lord, and the record of his fixed term
+of office which formed a period or era of the native calendar (see p.
+221). The stela which formed the stable, visible centre of the hidden
+substructure may also have been employed as a gnomon during some period of
+time, and in the monument the initiated must undoubtedly have recognized
+the underlying cosmical conceptions, and regarded it as a highly developed
+form or variant of the archaic cross, the primitive record of a year. It
+is remarkable how closely analogous are the Central American stelae with
+their hidden cruciform vaults, to the conception of the Egyptian "star of
+Horus" explained by Hewitt as the meridian pole raised in the centre of a
+cross denoting the four quarters.
+
+The most striking evidence of a close affinity between the ancient Central
+American ah-men, or master-masons, who built cruciform windows in the
+walls of temples and designed the cruciform vaults under the stelae at
+Copan and Quirigua, and the amanteca or tolteca, the master-architects and
+builders of Mitla, Mexico, is furnished by Mr. M. H. Saville's recent
+excavation of three remarkable subterraneous, cruciform chambers, the
+largest of which is situated on the summit of a high hill near Mitla. The
+interior of the latter is elaborately decorated with geometrical designs,
+like those on the exterior of the Mitla palace. The extreme length from
+east to west is 9m. 71cm., from north to south 8m. 18cm., and its roof was
+composed of large flat stones. The entrance to this and the other
+cruciform vaults is situated at the extremity of the western arm, which in
+the case described was longer than the other arms.
+
+The most remarkable example of such a cruciform crypt is, however, that
+situated beneath the palace of Mitla, which has been figured by Dupaix in
+Lord Kingsborough's Mexican Antiquities, vol. IX. This vault is also built
+of the shape of a so-called "Greek" cross, but in its centre stands a
+large circular stone column reaching from floor to ceiling. It is
+impossible not to recognize the symbolism of this pillar situated in the
+centre of a structure, the form of which symbolizes the Four Quarters and
+the fundamental identity of the column occupying the centre of the Mitla
+chamber and the Copan stelae standing above the centre of the hidden
+cruciform vault. Details associated with the pillar which stood in the
+Great Temple of Mexico (p. 53), and the "pedestal" erected on the hill of
+justice at Guatemala (p. 79) definitely show that, in ancient America, the
+column was also associated with star-cult, with the administration of
+justice and central celestial and terrestrial government. Investigation
+has shown that precisely the same ideas were associated with the circular,
+square or octagonal columns of Egypt, Greece, Rome and Japan, where they
+either constituted the images of the central supreme divinity, formed the
+support for the statues of earthly "divine" rulers, or marked the centres
+of the cosmos or state, bearing inscriptions of the sacred laws as in
+Athens, or of the distances to all points of the empire, viz. the Roman
+Milliarum Aureum.
+
+It is remarkable to find that, whereas in ancient Byzantium the centre of
+the city had been marked by a column surmounted by a colossal statue of
+Apollo, a pillar or pole god, Constantine erected a "spacious edifice,
+from the centre of which all roads of the empire were measured."
+Considering that, at the time when this edifice was built, the ancient
+quadruplicate plan had been revised and the empire of New Rome had been
+divided into four parts by Constantine, it seems reasonable to infer that
+the form of the great edifice which marked the territorial centre of the
+new empire bore the impress of the cruciform plan, and that the shape of
+the cross should have been adopted throughout the empire, in edifices
+marking central consecrated places. How much of the true spirit of the
+Christian ideal of universal brotherhood entered into the constitution of
+Constantine's New Rome it is impossible to conjecture. Niebuhr denies that
+Constantine was a Christian, records that he was only baptized shortly
+before his death, and states that the religion of Constantine "must have
+been a strange compound indeed, something like the amulet recently
+discovered at Rome, which is an example of that curious mixture of
+Judaism, Christianity and Paganism which we so frequently meet with from
+about the beginning of the third century."(151)
+
+In an extremely interesting monograph "On the origin of the cruciform plan
+of the mediaeval Cathedral," by the distinguished architect, Mr. E. M.
+Wheelwright, published in the "Transactions of the Boston Society of
+Architects, 1891," I find the significant fact that what is now the little
+church of S. Tiburce, Rome, in the form of a Greek cross, was built at the
+time of Constantine.
+
+The same monograph teaches that "de Rossi discovered in the catacombs of
+Rome two scholia of a plan called specifically triclinium, of a date
+previous to Diocletian and probably of the third century. In such were
+celebrated, by the presbyters, the memorial feasts of martyrs, the
+congregation assembling outside. Tombs of a positive cruciform plan are
+also found in the catacombs. In the fifth or sixth century cruciform
+buildings became in the East, and _wherever Byzantine influence was
+potent, the recognized form for tombs, mortuary chapels and buildings
+commemorative of holy places_. These types seem to have been given, by
+Byzantine architects, special recognition of the purpose of their
+construction and to have appeared to them _as monuments requiring a
+symbolical expression of plan_, while they evidently _did not consider
+such symbolical expressions requisite in buildings planned for general
+congregations_, which, although of types without distinct association with
+the Christian faith, were held, for several centuries, to be sufficiently
+well adapted to purposes of Christian worship without material change from
+their ancient form [that of the Roman Basilica]."
+
+Referring the reader to Mr. Wheelwright's monograph for interesting data
+concerning the Byzantine influence discernible in the early types of
+Christian churches of cruciform plan erected in northern Italy and Europe,
+I merely note here that in St. Sophia, founded by Constantine, and
+completed by Justinian, "the load of the dome is thrown on four great
+piers disposed at either corner of a square. These great piers, with the
+corresponding buttresses of the outer wall, suggest a possible symbolical
+intent in the arrangement ... otherwise the cruciform plan here suggested
+is expressed neither externally nor internally." I venture to suggest that
+in St. Sophia, "Holy Eternal Wisdom," as in the case of the Pantheon, the
+dominant idea may have been the all-embracing unity, but that, as the
+number four was identified with "wisdom and justice" by the widespread
+Pythagorean philosophy, that number must have seemed, to the initiated, to
+pervade the entire structure. In the case of the Church of the Nativity at
+Bethlehem, where it was Justinian's intention to mark a sacred locality,
+we find the cruciform plan clearly carried out. "The church of St. Simeon
+Stylite at Kelat Seman Syria, built about A.D. 500, is a most interesting
+example of a cruciform church, marking a sacred spot [and associated with
+a sacred column]."
+
+"The church of the seventh century built at Sichem, over the well of the
+Samaritan, shows a distribution of plan similar to that of S. Simeon
+Stylite, the holy object being at the crossing.... There are existing at
+St. Wandrille and at Querqueville in Normandy, two (cruciform) triapsidal
+churches of a date prior to the Norman conquest ... a well preserved
+four-apsed tomb chapel exists at Montmajour near Arles, built in 1019; the
+detail and plan of which point to a Syrian prototype and resembles two
+buildings of an early date now existing in Dalmatia." The use of the
+cruciform type of church, anterior to the great revival of purely
+Christian religious architecture in the thirteenth century, was confined
+to Picardy and the Rhenish provinces, fine churches of this type being at
+Cologne, Bonn, Marburg, etc.
+
+It is interesting to recall that the building of sacred structures is
+attributed to "secret organizations of free or enfranchised operative
+masons which existed during the middle ages, and possessed grades of
+officers and secret signs by which, on coming to a strange place, they
+could be recognized as real craftsmen and not impostors." To this day, in
+some parts of Germany and Bohemia, the swastika is the sign or mark of the
+stone-mason's guild which has survived from the mediaeval times. In the
+organized bands of masons whose mark was the swastika and who introduced
+Eastern cosmical symbolism into Europe and gradually developed, upon this
+basis, a purely Christian form of architecture, we may perhaps see the
+descendants of those ancient builders who, filled with the conception of
+the sacred Central power, the Four Quarters, the Above and Below, planned
+the square, seven-stoned zikkurats of Babylonia-Assyria, the pyramids,
+obelisks and sphinxes of Egypt, the columns and cruciform tombs and
+sanctuaries of Greece, Asia Minor and Rome, the cruciform temples and the
+topes of India and the domes of the Pantheon and St. Sophia.(152)
+
+It would appear that these ancient builders were also the designers and
+founders of cities and states. It is, for instance, known that Hippodamus,
+the son of Euryphon, a Milesian, and by profession an architect, gained
+celebrity in his own art by constructing the Piraeus at Athens and by
+improving the method of distributing streets and planning cities ... and
+also wrote a treatise concerning the best form of government.
+
+A kinship of thought undoubtedly exists between the trained builders of
+cosmical structures in the Old World and the ah-men, the amantecas and
+toltecas of Central America and Mexico, who also reared pyramids,
+cruciform vaults, circular temples, with openings to the four quarters
+(see fig. 30, p. 97), altars and pillars, and in their temples wrought, in
+stone, endless variations of the great human theme: the sacred central,
+stable power, the four quarters and elements, and the heaven and earth
+with the dualities of Nature, and likewise instituted an artificial scheme
+of social organization, a calendar and religious rites based on these same
+fundamental principles, which can be traced back to primitive pole-star
+worship. It has been of utmost interest to me, as I was approaching the
+end of the present investigation, to become acquainted with Hewitt's work
+and his view that it was the seafaring Turanians, originally a northern
+race, the worshippers of Tur=the pole, who claimed descent from the seven
+stars of Nagash, the serpent=Ursa Major, and, from India, extended their
+trade and carried their form of social organization and religious cult
+first to the Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where
+they were known by the Greeks as the Phoenicians.
+
+The subjoined detached passages, which open out new fields of inquiry, not
+only appear to me to establish conclusively this view, but certainly
+afford most interesting information concerning the ancient race of
+pole-star worshippers, seafarers, builders and handicraftsmen who,
+according to Hewitt (p. 25), extended their emigrations not only to Europe
+but also to America.(153) Hewitt bases the latter assertion upon the
+identity be perceived "between Akkadian and American mythological
+traditions."
+
+As the limit of the present inquiry excludes mythology, I cannot discuss
+here the evidences of similarity produced by Hewitt. I must express
+regret, however, that he designates a tribe of Pueblo Indians (the Sias,
+related to the Zunis), as "Mexican" (see vol. II, p. 243, etc.), a term
+which, in this case, is decidedly misleading. His identification of the
+truly Mexican, "teo-cipactli" as a "fish-god" is unfortunate, as
+numberless conventionalized drawings in the Codices prove that cipactli
+signifies alligator. If the somewhat limited and vague evidence, produced
+by Mr. Hewitt, appeared to justify his conclusion, how much more must an
+identity of social organization and cult such as I have traced, not only
+authorize but also render it imperative, that the possibility of
+pre-Columbian contact should be thoroughly looked into. Disclaiming any
+desire to formulate hasty conclusions, and merely for the sake of gaining
+information by looking squarely at facts, I shall now rapidly enumerate
+some of these which undoubtedly appear to corroborate Hewitt's further
+assertion that "the Mayas and Nahuas of Yucatan and Mexico were emigrants
+of the Magha and Nahusha tribes, who pertained to the race of navigators
+known by the Greeks as the Phoenicians ... and who continued in their new
+land, America, the worship of the rain god, to whom, as their fathers in
+central Asia, they dedicated the sign of the cross" (Hewitt, p. 492).
+
+"The Maghas were the Finnic long-haired race of star- and fire-worshippers
+who, starting from Phrygia, as the Takkas conquered northern India ... who
+called themselves the sons of the Northern pine tree, called in Phrygia,
+as by the Northern Finns, Ma=the mother; also the sons of the
+mother-goddess Magha, the socket block whence fire was generated by the
+fire-drill; who is also worshipped as the mother Maga under the form of
+the alligator. Consequently the alligator was their totem." In Essay VIII
+Hewitt states that these "sons of the great witch-mother Maga" lived in
+Magnesia, whence they emigrated to Thessaly and that theirs was the "city
+of the Magnetes" referred to by Plato as "the mother of laws." The word
+mag, however, meant great in Akkadian, hence according to Hewitt the name
+Makkhu, the high priests or Magi (vol. II, p. 54).
+
+
+    The Maya and Mexican fire altars and sockets and their association
+    with the earth-mother and alligator in the native Codices has been
+    discussed. The Mexican day-sign cipactli figures an alligator and
+    is associated with a female deity. The alligator altar at Copan,
+    is described on p. 228. Were it not for limit of space additional
+    testimony could be cited here, proving that in Mexico the
+    alligator was associated with the mother of the race, the
+    fire-socket, and was a tribal totem.
+
+
+"As the mother Maga she is the maker or kneader, the mother of the
+building and constructing races ... they were the first builders of
+towns.... They adored the god of the twirling or churning fire-drill....
+They employed the name Ku, Ukko, Pukka and Pukan to designate the rain and
+thunder god and star-god who guides the stars in their courses and rules
+the beginning of the year" (Hewitt, p 438). The Finnic and Esthonian "Ukko
+is also called Taivahan Napanen, meaning the navel of the heaven and this
+is called the place of the pole star, the star at the top of the heavenly
+mountain" (vol. II, p. 155).
+
+
+    Compare Ku in Maya list, appendix III, also Tezcatli-poca or
+    puca=Mexican fire-drill god, Ursa Major.
+
+
+"They worshipped Nag or Nagash,=the serpent and fire-drill constellation
+of Ursa Major, and consequently called themselves also the sons of
+Naga=the Nahushas. They worshipped the Pleiades=the mother stars...."
+
+
+    The Nahuas traced ancestry to seven stars of Ursa Major and began
+    their religious year at the culmination of the Pleiades at
+    midnight.
+
+
+"The Nagas united with the navigating Shus or Phoenicians ... the red men,
+who worshipped the ruler of heaven.... These Shus ... called in the North,
+Hus ... were the Sumerian trading races of the Euphratean delta and
+Western India, who traced their descent to Khu, the mother bird of the
+Akkadians, Egyptians and Kushites.... They reverenced the sacred 'shu'
+stone, the begetter of fire and of life fostered by heat,... designated as
+the precious stone, the strong stone, the snake stone, the mountain
+stone.... The pregnant mountain of the Shu stone was to the Akkadians the
+central point of the earth. The people who are said in the Rig-Veda to
+have first found fire by the help of Matarishoan, the fire-socket, and to
+have brought it to men, and are said to have placed it in the navel of the
+world ... as the sacred Shu stone."
+
+It should be added here that the Hittite sign for Ishtar was a triangle
+enclosing a stone: "the mountain enclosing the stone of life."
+
+
+    About 270 A.D. the Tutul-xius=(_cf._ Kukul) under a great chief or
+    lord Kukulcan reigned at Chichen-Itza ... (p. 206). In Mexico the
+    name for turquoise is xiuitl and the god of fire is named
+    Xiuh-tecuhtli. Jadeite is designated as chal-chiuitl and is
+    associated with Chalchiuitlycue, the mother-goddess. The
+    spark-producing, flint knife=tecpatl is also employed as a symbol
+    of generation.
+
+
+"Their kings, like those of Egypt, wore the uraeus serpent as a sign of
+royal authority and made this the emblem of kingly rank in countries so
+widely distant from one another as India and Egypt...."
+
+We learn from Prof. A. H. Sayce (Ancient Empires of the East, p. 200),
+that customs that had originated in a primitive period of Semitic belief
+survived in Phoenician religion and that clear traces of totemism are found
+amongst the Semites. "Tribes were named each after its peculiar totem, an
+animal, plant or heavenly body.... David, for instance, belonged to the
+serpent-family, as is shown by the name of his ancestor Nahshon, and
+Professor Smith suggests that the brazen serpent found by Hezekiah in the
+Solomonic Temple was the symbol of it. We find David and the family of
+Nahash, 'or the serpent,' the king of Ammon, on friendly terms even after
+the deadly war between Israel and Ammon, that had resulted in the conquest
+and decimation of the latter."
+
+
+    The name of the culture hero Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl incorporates
+    the word serpent in Maya and Nahuatl. The conventionalized open
+    serpent's jaw forms the usual head-dress of the lords sculptured
+    on the Central American stelae and bas-reliefs. The existence of
+    totemism in America is too well known to require comment, and the
+    arbitrary method by which it was established by the Incas of Peru,
+    when they founded the new colony, has been described.
+
+
+"... I have already shown that the snake-father of the snake races in
+Greece and Asia Minor and of the matriarchal races in India was the snake
+Echis, or Achis, the holding snake, the Vritra, or enclosing snake of the
+Rig-Veda, the cultivated land which girdled the Temenos. This was the
+Sanscrit and Egyptian snake Ahi.... But the Naga snake was not the
+encircling snake, but the offspring of the house-pole and in this form it
+was called by the Jews the offspring or Baal of the land. But as the
+heavenly snake it was the old village snake transferred to heaven, called
+the Nag-ksetra, or field of the Nags, and there it was the girdling
+air-god who encircled the cloud mothers, the Apsaras, the daughters of the
+Abyss, the Assyrian Apsa, and marked their boundaries as the village snake
+did those of the holy grove on earth. But on earth the water-snake was the
+magical rain-pole, called the god Darka, set up by the Dravidian Males in
+front of every house ..." (p. 194). "They are the Canaanites, or dwellers
+in the low country, and the Hivites or the villagers of the Bible and the
+race of Achaeans of Greece. These are the sons of the Achis=the serpent,
+the having or holding snake, the girdling snake of cultivated land which
+surrounded the Temenos or inner shrine, the holy grove of the gods"
+(Hewitt, p. 175).
+
+
+    Attention is drawn here to the twin serpents which enclose the
+    Mexican Cosmical Tablet (fig. 56), whose bodies may be seen to
+    consist of a repetition of the conventional sign for tlalli=land,
+    consisting of a fringed square. Each square in this case encloses
+    a sign resembling that of fire=tletl and the numeral ten. These
+    girdling serpents, whose heads unite, being directly associated
+    with land, appear as the counterpart of the Old World Achis, a
+    curious fact when it is considered that they are represented as
+    springing from the sign Acatl (see p. 257).
+
+    On the other hand, the heavenly "feathered serpent" of Mexico and
+    Yucatan is distinctly associated with the air and the circle; its
+    conception curiously coinciding with that of the "girdling
+    air-god" mentioned by Hewitt. It is well known that the walls
+    enclosing the court of the Great Temple of Mexico, were covered
+    with sculptured serpents, and at Xochicalco, Mexico, and in
+    Central American ruins (Uxmal, for instance), great sculptured
+    serpents surround the buildings. It is remarkable that the sign
+    Acatl not only figures conspicuously on the Great American Tablet,
+    but also on the allegorical figure of the "Divine Serpent," which
+    may well represent the totemic divinity and ancestor of a snake
+    tribe, associated with the word Acatl, possibly conveying their
+    name. The undeniable association, in Mexico, of the serpent with
+    Acatl, curiously agrees with the name of the "sons of Achis, the
+    serpent"=the Achaians: and deserves consideration.
+
+
+In the Genesis genealogy of the kings of Edom, the land of the red man,
+the priest king of the Hus or Shus is mentioned "... his people had
+replaced the Tur, the stone pillar, the Egyptian obelisk by the temple,
+the home and symbol of the creating god, who had been the pillar of the
+house.... But in their eyes the father-god was not the central pillar but
+the two door-posts and thence they called the temple gates Babel or the
+gates of god.... This gate was guarded by the holy twins.... The
+doorposts, and night and morning are invoked in the Rig-Veda.... The Magas
+were the discoverers of magic, mining, metallurgy, handicrafts--the
+pioneers of scientific research and the first organizers of a ritual of
+religious festivals."
+
+
+    Twin pillars, sculptured in the form of great serpents, whose
+    names signify twinship, support the entrances to the ancient
+    temples of Yucatan, Central America, and have been found on the
+    site of the Great Temple of Mexico. The Mexican and Maya accounts
+    of the culture hero Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan state that he and his
+    followers were "great necromancers" and magicians and that they
+    taught handicrafts, metallurgy, and instituted calendar, social
+    organization and ritual. A personal, close examination of a large
+    number of old Peruvian and Mexican as well as Coptic textile
+    fabrics, has convinced me moreover of their identity of technique.
+
+
+"The Magas sacrificed dogs,.... They wore long hair,.... They made human
+sacrifices in order to obtain rain" (Hewitt).
+
+"The Phoenician priests scourged themselves or gashed their arms and
+breasts to win divine favor.... Human sacrifices were made, to Moloch or
+Milkom ... the parent was required to offer his eldest or only son as a
+sacrifice and the victim's cries were drowned by the noise of drums and
+flutes" (Sayce).
+
+
+    The human sacrifices of Mexico are familiar to all. The native dog
+    and various kinds of birds were sacrificed. The Mexican priests,
+    named papas, wore long hair, practised asceticism, gashed their
+    breasts, arms and legs and pierced their ears and tongues. On the
+    Palenque bas-reliefs, priests with long hair are sculptured. The
+    human sacrifices of Mexico and those of Egypt, Phoenicia and
+    Assyria, described by Sayce and Hewitt (pp. 275 and 348), are
+    closely alike. See also Hewitt's account of the blood brotherhood
+    made between the sacrificer and the land on which the blood is
+    poured (p. 196), and the Chichimec blood sacrifice described in
+    the present work, p. 66.
+
+
+The foregoing are a few noteworthy analogies which have impressed
+themselves upon me during the present course of investigation, in addition
+to the many undeniable and unsuspected evidences I have found, of an
+identity of star-cult, ritual and social organization in Old and New World
+civilizations.
+
+It will be seen that the outcome of my researches corroborates the
+opinions differently expressed by a long line of eminent investigators,
+who have been constantly discovering and pointing out undeniable
+similarities and identities between the civilizations of both hemispheres.
+
+It seems to me that an accumulation of evidence now forces us to face and
+thoroughly investigate the possibility that, from remote antiquity, our
+continent and its inhabitants were known to the seafarers of the Old
+World, to whose agency the spread of similar forms of cult and
+civilization in the New World is to be assigned.
+
+While those who uphold the autochthony of the native civilization may
+regard such identities as accidental, those who are willing to admit the
+possibility that the Phoenicians, the red men of antiquity, whose land was
+Syria, navigating by the pole-star, may have reached America, will
+doubtlessly dwell upon the unquestionable fact that the most ancient
+traces of organized and settled communities actually exist along the coast
+swept by the equatorial currents. A glance at an ordinary chart exhibiting
+the ocean currents and trade winds shows that vessels sailing southward
+from the Canary Islands and caught in the north African current, might, at
+a certain point, enter the north equatorial current flowing towards the
+coast of America. Further southward still, off the coast of Guinea, the
+current bearing this name meets the main equatorial current which sweeps
+along the coast of Honduras and Yucatan into the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+What is more, ancient well-known tradition asserts that the culture-hero
+Kukulcan-Quetzalcoatl, with his followers, came to Mexico from the East
+(_via_ Yucatan) and told the natives of their distant home, named
+Tlapallan and Huehue tlapallan which, translated, mean "the red land" and
+"the great ancient red land." Native American tradition unquestionably and
+unanimously ascribes to single individuals of aged and venerable aspect,
+or leaders of small bands of men and women of an alien race, the peaceable
+introduction of a definite plan of civilization, identical in its elements
+with that known to have existed in India, Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria from
+time immemorial, and said to have been spread to these countries by the
+Phoenicians.
+
+Native tradition, therefore, is seen unanimously to controvert the
+independent development of the cosmical schemes of government and most
+advanced forms of civilization which prevailed in America at the Columbian
+period. This, of course, in no wise excludes the existence of purely
+native people, with a certain degree of civilization, more rudimentary in
+form, founded on impressive natural phenomena, which the natives had
+always been in a position to observe for themselves.
+
+In order to obtain an insight into conditions which might have determined
+and affected maritime intercourse with distant America, let us now make a
+rapid survey of the history of the ancient civilizations of the Old World.
+This reveals, in the first case, the undeniable fact (one of deepest
+significance in the light of the present investigation) that the period of
+a general stirring of men's minds, in countries where pole-star worship
+had prevailed from time immemorial, exactly coincides with the period to
+which I alluded on p. 43, during which there ceased to be a brilliantly
+conspicuous and perfectly immovable pole-star in the northern heavens.
+
+From Mr. Hinckley Allen's work (p. 454), I have since learned that
+astronomers have closely determined this period, and that Miss Clerke
+writes of this: "The entire millennium before the Christian era may count
+for an interregnum as regards pole-stars. Alpha Draconis had ceased to
+exercise that office; and Alruccabah had not yet assumed it." Prof. A. H.
+Sayce tells us that the Phoenician pilots steered by the pole-star in
+remotest antiquity, and it is a matter of history that "Pytheas of
+Massilia, the bold navigator (died about 285 B.C.), showed the Greeks that
+the pole-star was not at the pole itself." Previous to that date, however,
+the astronomer-priests must have noted the change in the heavens. On
+descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers, whose entire religion and
+civilization were based on the idea of fixity and rotation, the
+unaccountable change in the order of the universe must indeed have
+produced a deep impression. Under such conditions it seems but natural
+that a great awakening of doubt and speculation should take place, that
+worship should be transferred from stars known to be subject to change, to
+the unseen, incomprehensible but ever-present eternal power which ruled
+the universe.
+
+Let us examine some of the records of the great intellectual movement that
+swept at one time, like a wave, over the ancient centres of civilization.
+The eighth, seventh and sixth centuries before our era are marked by the
+growth of the Ionian philosophy which, as Huxley tells us, "was but one of
+many results of the stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the
+Aryan-Semitic population of Western Asia. The conditions of the general
+awakening were doubtless manifold, but there is one which modern research
+has brought into great prominence. This is the existence of extremely
+ancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and
+the Nile.... The Ionian intellectual movement is only one of the several
+sporadic indications of some powerful mental ferment over the whole of the
+area comprised between the AEgean and Northern Hindustan...."(154)
+
+Professor Schroeder's statement that, "in the seventh century B.C., the
+idea of four, _i. e._ five elements, spread in India," is particularly
+interesting in connection with the date assigned to the birth of the
+Ionian intellectual movement. Of Pythagoras it is related that, like
+Solon, "he had visited Egypt, also Phoenicia and Babylon, then Chaldean and
+independent, and founded a brotherhood originally brought together by a
+religious influence, with observances approaching to monastic peculiarity,
+and working in a direction at once religious, political and scientific."
+According to the learned translator of Cicero's first Tusculan
+disputation(155) "it is generally accepted that Pherecydes of Syros (one
+of the Cyclades islands in the AEgean sea) was the teacher of Pythagoras.
+Pherecydes, who flourished about B.C. 544 is said to have derived his
+knowledge from the secret books of the Phoenicians and from travels of
+inquiry in Egypt." Through Philolaus (see Grote IV, p. 395, note 2),
+Pythagorean science was made known to Plato, whose views are quoted on p.
+449. Grote states that, about 300 B.C., the Pythagorean philosophy nearly
+died out. It is a curious fact that this date coincides, approximately,
+with the destruction of Tyre (Tsar, in Phoenician,=the rock), the last
+stronghold of the Phoenicians, "which had defied Assyrian, Babylonian and
+Persian but at last fell," according to Prof. A. H. Sayce, "in July, B.C.
+332, before the Greek conqueror Alexander. Thirty thousand of its citizens
+were sold in slavery, thousands of others massacred and crucified and the
+wealth of the richest and most luxurious city of the world became the prey
+of an exasperated army. Its trade was inherited by its neighbor Sidon"
+(_op. cit._ p. 194). It is obvious that, at this period, bands of
+fugitives may well have taken refuge in traders' ships and sought safety
+in flight to distant regions, where they might establish themselves and
+found colonies on the pattern of Tyre or of Carthage which, in ancient
+times had also been founded by fugitives and been named "the new city,"
+Karthakhadasha (Sayce). While the great historical events which marked the
+fourth century B.C. seem to have arrested the spread of Pythagorean
+philosophy, we find that, according to Grote, "in the time of Cicero, two
+centuries later, the orientalizing tendency, beginning to spread over the
+Grecian and Roman world, caused it to be again revived, with little or
+none of its scientific tendencies, but with more than its primitive
+religious and imaginative fanaticism.... It was taken up anew by the pagan
+world, along with the disfigured doctrines of Plato. Neo-Pythagorism,
+passing gradually into Neo-Platonism, outlasted other more positive and
+masculine systems of pagan philosophy, as the contemporary and revival of
+Christianity" (_op. cit._ IV, 398). Neo-Platonism reached its height under
+its chief Plotinus (A.D. 205-270) who sought to reconcile the Platonic and
+Aristotelian systems with Oriental theosophy. His pantheistic and eclectic
+school was the last product of the Greek philosophy.(156)
+
+It is, at all events, remarkable, that the date tradition assigns to the
+presence of Kukulcan in Yucatan and the foundation of the quadruplicate
+state of Mayapan coincides with the dying out, in Europe, of pagan
+philosophy, one of the features of which had been the elaboration of ideal
+forms of government based on a numerical and cosmical scheme, the elements
+of which had apparently been spread by the Phoenicians. In Copan and
+Quirigua we find remnants of long-established, peaceable communities
+revealing no trace of war-like weapons, and the memorial stelae of whose
+rulers stand above hidden cruciform vaults, while carved personages are
+represented as seated in the centre of ornate crosses. In Yucatan, through
+which land the foreign civilization seems to have reached the plateau of
+Mexico, there are significant traces of an ancient city, named Zilan,
+situated on the Atlantic coast; proofs that buildings of cosmical forms
+were erected; that the state of Mayapan was laid out on the familiar
+cosmical plan; that repeated migrations took place, and that, from time
+immemorial, a calendar, on the same numerical basis as that of Mexico, had
+been in use. The great state of Mayapan, where a remarkable stone cross
+was found at Cozumel by the Spaniards, is shown to have been figured as a
+circle within a circle, the whole divided into four parts by cross-lines.
+Here, as in Chiapas and Mexico, all divisions of government, population
+and time are organized on a numerical scheme representing the combination
+of 4x5=20 _i. e_. an entire finger and toe count, "a whole man," with the
+13 directions in space. The multiplication of 13 and 20 results in a unit
+of 260 which, as a cycle of time, represents the complete set of all
+harmonious combinations of man the miniature image of the living state,
+with the thirteen directions of space in the all-embracing Cosmos,
+composed of four primary elements. In consonance with this we find the
+existence of 20 (or 4x5) lords, whose names correspond to those of the 4
+chief and 16 minor day-signs of the calendar, and of a lord by election,
+whose name signifies the thirteen divisions or parts, and who constituted
+a microcosmos, a Four in One. In regular rotation the 20 lords, consisting
+of 4 chief and 4x4=16=minor rulers fulfilled duties towards the supreme
+representative who resided in the capital, while they respectively lived
+in four provinces, the population of which was subdivided into four tribes
+each of the 20 divisions of the state being again divided into 13 parts.
+
+In a cosmical state like this in which each individual not only felt
+himself to be a unit and a microcosmos, but also an indispensable part of
+a living organism, under the form of which the state was symbolized, its
+inhabitants, leading lives regulated by a calendar based on the phenomenon
+of circumpolar rotation, under a chief ruler entitled the "Four in One,"
+assisted by four sub-rulers, must indeed have felt that they "lived, moved
+and had their being" in the Teotl or Theos, imagined as the embodiment of
+the four elements. In this connection it is interesting to learn that "the
+animal" itself, of Plato, is considered by eminent authorities to have
+been the tetrad.
+
+In Zuni, where, at the present day, each individual feels himself
+identified with some part of the body of a quadruped, his clan totem, the
+conception of the state as "a living animal," is an actual reality. Their
+pueblo moreover represents a 6+1=7, or a "seven in one," the miniature
+counterpart of the far distant Ooraon village of Chota Nagpore and of the
+ancient archaic kingdoms of India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome,
+etc. Anciently the Zunis called themselves the Ashiwi, a name remarkably
+like that of the Ashvins, derived from the Akkadian ash=six.
+
+I revert again here to the following landmarks, which may perhaps furnish
+a useful "working hypothesis" for future investigation. In Mexico the
+pyramids of Cholula and of Teotihuacan seem to render testimony of the,
+possibly consecutive, establishment of ideal states amongst tribes
+"capable of subjection" by Toltecas, or "Master-Builders," who, according
+to their method, used the building of a great structure, requiring time
+and united labor, as a means of organizing a new community or colony. It
+may be that the period of their completion coincided with the
+establishment of the Calendar system, beginning with the number one.
+
+In my Preliminary Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System (Stockholm
+1894), I demonstrated how, by reconstructing the Calendar cycles, it was
+possible to determine exactly when the native system was adopted.
+According to my demonstration, which has now stood unchallenged for six
+years, a fresh year cycle began in 1507 A.D., with the year sign II Acatl
+and the day 2 cipactli. For a cycle to be associated with the number two
+it is obvious that it must have been preceded by a cycle ruled by number
+one, therefore it may be safely inferred that the cycle II Acatl that
+commenced in 1507 followed a cyclical period of 4x13=52x20=1840 years (p.
+32). Accordingly the date when the Mexican system was instituted in the
+form which existed at the time of the Conquest, may be fixed as
+corresponding to the year 467 of our era.
+
+Considering that the Calendar system was, however, but one part of the
+machinery of government, was inseparable from the organization of tribes,
+classes and individuals, and that its institution signified the foundation
+of a state, it is remarkable to ascertain that, but 137 years previously,
+Constantine, in A.D. 330, had instituted the empire of New Rome, on
+precisely the same numerical basis as that of the Mexican Calendar, and
+divided it into 4 parts or prefectures, each subdivided into 13, yielding
+a total of 52 prefectures. Moreover, as far back as the institution of the
+Kleisthenean democracy, the Greeks had been familiar with an extremely
+intricate and close union of calendar and government system, such as
+existed in Babylonia-Assyria and, as I have shown, in ancient Mexico.
+
+It is certainly suggestive that the period of 137 years, which elapsed
+between the establishment of New Rome on a partly revived and partly
+amended or remodelled plan, and the foundation of the great democracy of
+ancient Mexico at the date inferred, is unparalleled in the history of
+mankind for religious persecutions, carried on in Egypt, Greece and Rome,
+following upon three centuries marked by the growth and spread of
+Christianity and the persecution of its followers, the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the persecution of the Jews. It was in A.D. 379 that
+Theodosius, the Greek, proclaimed Christianity the religion of his empire
+and instituted a relentless persecution of the Arians and followers of the
+ancient Egyptian religion.
+
+Under Arcadius, Emperor of the East (A.D. 395), the Anthromorphites, who
+affirmed that God was of human form, destroyed the greater number of their
+opponents. Under Marcianus (A.D. 451), Silco invaded Egypt with his Nubian
+followers and the Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysite doctrine
+of Eutyches. Later, under Justinian (A.D. 527), the Monophysites separated
+from the Melchites and chose their own patriarch, being afterwards called
+Copts.
+
+It is impossible to close one's eyes to the fact that, during this period
+of persecution and massacre, imminent peril of death must have forced many
+a band of the priests and followers of the ancient Egyptian and other
+religions to seek safety in flight. The events which took place in Egypt
+between A.D. 379 and 451, culminating in Silco's invasion, must
+unquestionably have been deeply felt by the descendants of the ancient
+Phoenician, Carthaginian and Grecian exiles, fugitives and mercenaries who,
+during countless centuries, had founded colonies along the Libyan coast,
+and pushed migration further westward along the coast line. Migrations
+from these regions would doubtless have resulted in the remarkable
+combination of archaic star, fire-drill and socket worship found in
+Yucatan and Mexico, existing alongside of a highly developed and perfected
+philosophical scheme of social organization identical, in principle, with
+that which, in the Old World, constituted an ideal which was the result of
+centuries of experience and active intellectual life.
+
+The present investigation, in which I have collected more material than it
+has been possible to present in this publication, brings out facts tending
+to show that, originally, both hemispheres were peopled from the North,
+and that, in antiquity, at intervals, an extremely limited intercourse was
+kept up between the Old and New Worlds. The obvious fact that navigation
+must have been seriously impeded by the interregnum of Polaris, lasting
+for many centuries, would explain a prolonged isolation of America
+anterior to the Christian era. Whereas the equatorial currents facilitated
+the voyage to America, the same favorable conditions did not accompany
+navigation in the same latitudes in a reverse direction, and this suggests
+the probability that few who set out for "the hidden land," ever returned
+to the port whence they sailed. Investigation seems to reveal that
+influences, emanating from the most ancient centres of Old World
+civilization, reached sundered regions of America at different times, and
+that they could have been carried there by a seafaring and building race
+such as the Minyans, the Magas, the Phoenicians or their descendants.
+
+If such were the case it would be reasonable to expect that, in America,
+traces of words associated with the archaic set of ideas would be found,
+and the same method of writing. Let us now refer with prudent reservations
+as to the possibility of their being accidental, to the striking
+resemblances which undoubtedly exist between certain names for God,
+Heaven, North, Middle, etc., in the languages of the most ancient
+civilizations of the Old World and the Maya and Nahuatl. For convenient
+reference and without detailed comment, these words are presented as
+Appendix III.
+
+Too much importance must not, of course, be given to these linguistic
+analogies; at the same time we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that these
+broken fragments of language, traceable to India, Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt
+and Greece, are found, in America, clinging tenaciously to a set of
+cosmical ideas and a scheme of organization identical in both hemispheres.
+
+It has been surprising to me, for instance, to learn, by carefully
+collecting facts, that whereas Professor Sayce tells us that the supreme
+god of the Phoenicians was named Yeud or Ekhad, the supreme god of the
+Mexican Chichimecs (literally, Red race) was named Youalli-Ehecatl, which
+signifies, literally, night-air or wind. I likewise ascertained that,
+whereas the word yau or yu signifies the source or origin in Chinese, is
+linked to a character forming a cross and is homogeneous with Yaou Sing, a
+star in Ursa Major, described as "revolving," the Mexican name for the
+pole-star god was Yaual or Yohual Tecuhtli, the lord of the circle or of
+the night.
+
+Again there is a remarkable similarity between the Mexican yaualli=circle
+and the verb yoli or yuli=to resuscitate or vivify; the Chinese ui=to turn
+around, and the Scandinavian yul, yeul or yol = wheel, also the festival
+of the winter solstice, when nature seemed to resuscitate. Whereas the
+significance of the above Mexican, Chinese and Scandinavian names, is
+clear, no meaning has, to my knowledge, been attached to the Semitic name
+for the supreme god, which, as Professor Sayce informs us, was pronounced
+Yahu or Yaho or Yahve (see Appendix, list I).
+
+Other striking resemblances are found between the names for handicraftsman
+and master-builder in widely distant countries. Thus, in Phrygia, we have
+the Daktuloi, the builders who erected monuments decorated with
+cross-symbols arranged so as to form a geometrical design, such as
+represented in fig. 72, 2. In Oaxaca the Toltecatl=builders and
+handicraftsmen, erected the walled temple and cruciform structures at
+Mitla, and decorated them with geometrical designs.
+
+Reliable authorities teach us that "the Hittites were the northern minyan
+or menyan=measurers, a building race" (Hewitt); that Aha-Mena, the first
+historical ruler of Egypt, was a builder; that the name of Amun, the god
+of the Ammonites, signified "the builder." Dictionaries reveal that, in
+America, Maya-speaking people designated a master builder or
+handicraftsman as ah-men, or menyah which, in Nahuatl, became amanteca. In
+Yucatan the name for North was Aman or Xaman; the building race of
+civilizers seems to have been associated with that region, which the
+Arabians named Shamaliyy. In the Babylonian-Assyrian Shamash, the Sanscrit
+Brahman and the Egyptian Amen-ra, we seem to have but different forms of
+the same word, which recurs in the Akkadian-Sumerian Sama, or an=the
+revolving heaven (see Appendix, list).
+
+It is to philologists that I refer the question whether the resemblances,
+in sound and meaning, of certain words I have found associated, in widely
+sundered countries, with the universal cosmical set of ideas, are merely
+accidental or whether they furnish indication of a remote common origin or
+of contact at a later period. It will interest me particularly to learn
+their opinion as to the oldest forms of the words; and whether there is
+really no clue to the meaning of the Hebrew Yahu and the Phoenician
+Yeud-Ekhad. One is tempted to inquire whether the Chichimecan
+Youalli-Ehecatl was not the same and whether this and other analogies do
+not constitute evidence tending to establish that Mexico was a Phoenician
+colony in which during centuries of isolation the archaic forms and
+meanings of Phoenician words were preserved.
+
+It is my hope that these lists will be carefully examined and explained by
+competent authorities, to whose judgment they are respectfully submitted.
+Whether they will be accounted for in one way or another, these lists will
+be found to establish the existence of striking resemblances which, by
+themselves, might not carry weight, but which unquestionably gain in
+significance when found in conjunction with cosmical conceptions, social
+organization, forms of architecture and cross-symbolism, which appear
+universal.
+
+A few words here concerning the undoubted general resemblances that exist
+between the Chinese and Japanese, and Central American methods of
+organization--resemblances which even extend to certain words directly
+traceable to Western Asiatic influence in the case of the Eastern Asiatic
+civilizations. The existence of marked differences between the Chinese and
+Maya-Mexican numerical systems and determination of elements, appears to
+exclude the possibility that dominating Asiatic influences could have
+reached America _via_ China and Japan after the still existing,
+crystallized forms of government and calendar had been established in the
+latter countries. As far as I can judge, the great antiquity attributed,
+by Chinese historians, to the establishment of the governmental and
+cyclical schemes, still in use, appears extremely doubtful. Referring the
+question to Sinologists, I venture to ask whether it does not seem
+probable that the present Chinese scheme dates from the lifetime of
+Lao-tze, in the sixth century B.C., a period marked, as I have pointed
+out, by the growth of Ionian philosophy, one feature of which was the
+invention of numerical schemes applied to "divine polities" and ideal
+forms of government. Future investigation may, perhaps, prove that "the
+powerful mental ferment" alluded to by Huxley, as spreading between the
+eighth and ninth centuries B.C., over the whole of the area comprised
+between the AEgean and North Hindustan, was caused by the growth and
+diffusion of plans of ideal states, which would naturally suggest and lead
+to the formation of bands of enthusiasts, who would set out in search of
+districts where they could carry out their principles and ideals.
+
+Personally, I am strongly inclined to assign the origin of the Chinese and
+the Mexican schemes, which are identical in principle, to the same source,
+and to believe that they were carried in opposite directions, at different
+periods, by seafarers and colonists, animated by the same purpose.
+Favorably established in distant regions, both grew and flourished during
+centuries, constituting analogous examples of an immense, submissive,
+native population living under a highly perfected, artificial, numerical,
+scheme of religious government, preserved intact and enforced by a ruling
+caste, who possessed superior knowledge and claimed divine descent.
+
+It is, of course, to Chinese and Japanese scholars and to archaeologists,
+some of whom constitute the able staff of the Jesup Expedition, who are
+investigating the question of Asiatic contact, that I look for further
+information and enlightenment as to prehistoric contact between China and
+America.(157)
+
+The foregoing investigation seems to have shown that in all countries
+alike, at one period or other, the cross-symbol or swastika expressed
+absolutely the same meaning. Primarily the record of a year, which
+suggested the division of the heaven into four parts, it had come to
+signify the establishment of communal life on a basis of fixed law, order
+and harmony. Like the number four itself which, in Pythagorean philosophy,
+is identified with wisdom and justice "because it is the first square
+number, the product of equals," the cruciform symbols have been the
+emblems of justice, equality and brotherhood.
+
+From the dawn of human history, the cross, therefore, appears to have
+expressed a plan as simple as it was noble and great, which consisted in
+peaceably uniting men, on principles of good-will, peace, equity, equality
+and mutual help, of instituting and organizing communal life, and of
+regulating its activity in accord with the immutable laws which govern the
+movements of celestial bodies, causing the circumpolar constellations to
+assume opposite positions, forming the sign of the cross, and marking
+seasons, days and years, all testifying to the existence of a single,
+all-ruling, all-pervading, stable and eternal central power, who thus
+controlled not only the heavens but, by a human representative, the
+earthly kingdom, laid out on the celestial plan.
+
+Considering that no less an authority than St. Augustine has asserted
+"that which is now called the Christian religion existed among the
+ancients, and in fact was with the human race from the beginning," it is
+permissible to ask whether the above scheme does not strikingly
+substantiate his dictum, afford a deep view under the surface of
+accumulated dogma and a perception of the mighty principle that has been
+at work from the beginning of all things and was understood by many at
+that time when "the people that sat in darkness saw great light, and to
+them which sat in the region and shadow of death light sprang up."...
+"From that time Jesus began to preach and say, 'Repent: for the kingdom of
+heaven is at hand' " (Matthew IV, 16, 17). Adopting the cross as the
+emblem of his earthly mission he said: "If any man will come after me, let
+him take up his cross and follow me." By the words: "I bear in my body the
+mark of the Lord Jesus," St. Paul designates the recognized "mark" to have
+been the quadruplicate cross of the Saviour, who charged his apostles to
+preach, saying: "the kingdom of heaven is at hand" and promised them that
+"ye which have followed me in the regeneration, when the Son of Man shall
+sit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones,
+judging the twelve tribes of Israel" (Matthew XIX, 28). The mother of
+Zebedee's children came unto him asking that her sons might sit "the one
+on thy right hand and the other on thy left, in thy kingdom" (Matthew XX,
+20). Repeatedly, the Teacher, referring to children, said "of such is the
+kingdom of heaven," or "Except ye be converted and become as little
+children ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven." St. Paul and his
+followers were designated as "those that have turned the world upside down
+... doing contrary to the decrees of Caesar, saying that there is another
+king, one Jesus" (Acts XVII, 6 and 7).
+
+It is well known that the early Christian church was persecuted because,
+from the first, it preached a total regeneration of human society and its
+reestablishment of a basis of peace and good-will, social equality,
+absolute justice, mutual aid, respect and sympathy, unselfish,
+disinterested subservience of the individual to the interest of the
+community.
+
+It was for the sublime principle of a religious democracy and the
+regeneration of human society that, in an age of tyranny, oppression and
+bloodshed, the early Christian martyrs laid down their lives. The
+foundations of religious orders were as many attempts to realize the
+Christian ideal, and to this day the Roman Catholic Church, whose clergy
+and religious orders unquestionably afford a splendid living example of
+devotion to a common cause, self-abnegation, obedience and humility,
+clings to the ideal of a state in which temporal power is wielded by a
+hierarchy raised to rulership from all ranks, merely by virtue of
+personal, moral and intellectual qualities. Throughout the Christian
+church the ideal of religious democracy prevails. Each day it is prayed
+for in the words "Thy kingdom come," by those taught to look forward to
+the promise of the time when "former things are passed away and a holy
+Jerusalem shall descend out of heaven from God, lying four-square, with
+twelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels and names written thereon
+which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel ... and
+the wall of the city had twelve foundations and in them the names of the
+twelve apostles of the Lamb,.... And I saw no temple therein, for the Lord
+God Almighty and the Lamb are the temple in it ... but the throne of God
+and of the Lamb shall be in it.... And he showed me a pure river of water
+of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the throne of God and of the
+Lamb. In the midst of the street of it and on either side of the river was
+there a tree of life, which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her
+fruit every month ..." (Revelation, chaps. XXI and XXII).
+
+It appears significant, in the light of the present investigation, that
+the birth of Christianity, as well as the revival of pagan systems of
+philosophy, embodying principles for the organization of religious
+brotherhoods and ideal democracies, should coincide with the spread of the
+great tidings that a star had been seen by the Magi, or "wise men of the
+East, who came _from the east_ to Jerusalem." Occurring, as it did, after
+"the interregnum as regards pole-stars," during which nomadic tribes and
+seafarers had vainly sought the fixed star which had guided their
+forefathers, the appearance of a brilliant pole-star must have seemed
+doubly significant and revived, among pagan philosophers, the ideal of an
+earthly kingdom ruled by Heaven. The advent, at this time, of the Messiah
+who, with his twelve disciples, announced that the kingdom of heaven was
+nigh and taught that God was to be worshipped in the Spirit only, must
+indeed have appeared particularly impressive and well-timed.
+
+Faithfully clinging to the ideal of a regenerated religious democracy, the
+early Christian church maintained itself through centuries of persecution
+and is slowly advancing, amidst almost overwhelming and innumerable
+difficulties, towards its realization.
+
+Returning to Mexico we find that its civilization at the time of the
+Conquest was precisely what might be expected if a small body of men of
+superior wisdom and experience, such as was possessed by a remnant of
+Graeco-Egyptian philosophers, had embarked in ships manned by the
+descendants of Phoenician seafarers, and found refuge in the "land of the
+West," amongst simple, docile people, existing in large numbers, who,
+treated "as little children and instructed with love and gentleness,
+willingly submitted themselves to the guidance of their teachers." A
+single, short-lived generation of these would have amply sufficed for the
+establishment of the governmental system and calendar, the firm
+institution of a "celestial kingdom," and the spread of knowledge of the
+technique of various arts and industries deemed most useful to the
+natives. On the other hand, the foreign element, whose aims were chiefly
+ideal, could have left little or no impression upon the evolution of the
+native race, its art and industry, which doubtlessly followed its original
+independent line of development.
+
+It is remarkable how the echo of great events in Old World history seem to
+have reached the Western hemisphere. In the Old World the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries were marked by a revival of religious enthusiasm, by the
+Crusades, the persecution of infidels by the Christian world and by a
+general stirring amongst oriental people, the descendants of the ancient
+pole-star worshippers.
+
+Historical records and traditions accord in stating that in about the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era, the civilizations of Mexico,
+Yucatan and Central America underwent a great period of warfare,
+pestilence and famine, leading to the disintegration of the great ancient
+centres, to numberless migrations, and to an assumption of dominion in
+Mexico by a fierce warrior-race who increased the number of human
+sacrifices. It seems significant that it is to this troublous period in
+the history of ancient America that the advent of the Incas in Peru is
+assigned by native tradition, which also records the existence of more
+ancient centres of civilization situated around the Titicaca lake. The
+foundation of the Inca empire is assigned to as late as about 1200 A.D.
+(see p. 148, note 1), and all who compare Plato's scheme for the
+reestablishment of the holy polity of the Magnetes, and the description of
+the Peruvian "Four in One" state, must admit that the latter constitutes
+the most perfect example known, of a community based on those numerical
+principles which were considered most perfect by Plato. At a first glance
+one might be tempted to conclude that the foreign civilizers of Peru, the
+Incas, were acquainted with Plato's twelve-fold scheme and deliberately
+established or reestablished a "divine polity" accordingly, naming it the
+"Four in One" and instituting the worship of a supreme divinity designated
+as "Earth, Air, Fire and Water in One," in consonance with the cosmical
+theory said to have been first formulated by Empedocles about B.C. 444,
+and adopted by Plato. Reflection shows, however, that no such conclusion
+is justifiable until competent authorities have thoroughly investigated
+and satisfactorily established how far the ideas of Empedocles and Plato
+were original and how far they incorporated older philosophical ideas,
+such as were preserved by the Egyptian priesthood or had been disseminated
+by the Phoenicians.(158) Nevertheless it is an undeniable fact that the
+Inca colony constitutes a most valuable object-lesson of a "cosmical
+state" founded on precisely the numerical scheme and principles of
+organization advocated by Plato. Reflection shows, moreover, that such a
+polity could only have been established and maintained itself during
+centuries, in a land free from enemies and amongst docile people "apt for
+subjection."
+
+A significant result of a critical comparison of the celestial kingdoms of
+Peru and Mexico is the perception that, in the former, as in Egypt, a
+hereditary sovereignty was exercised by male and female sacerdotal rulers
+of a "divine line of descent." On the other hand we find, in Mexico, a
+state of affairs in exact accordance with Montezuma's account of the
+behavior of his predecessors towards the lord who had led them and
+presided over the foundation of the Mexican empire. During his absence
+they, his vassals, established democratical principles and when he
+returned, having intermarried with women of the country and founded new
+cities, they refused to recognize his authority and let him depart. From
+Montezuma himself we learn that, although they thus emancipated themselves
+from their former lord, they continued to regard themselves as dependent
+and owing allegiance to the mother-city whence they had come. Until the
+time of the Conquest, however, they were governed by rulers whom they
+elected, and who had risen in rank merely by virtue of their moral and
+intellectual distinction.
+
+It is indeed deeply suggestive and impressive to realize that, in
+antiquity as in modern times, the American Continent seems to have been
+sought, as a place of refuge, by men whose ideals have been state
+institutions founded on democratic principles. The ancient polities of
+Mexico and Peru and, what is more, the archaic Pueblos of to-day, alike
+furnish examples of conditions, such as undoubtedly existed in
+Mediterranean countries in ancient times and inspired Greek statesmen and
+philosophers to plan ideal polities, and must have preceded the creation
+of the Jewish and early Christian spiritualized ideal of a New Jerusalem,
+pervaded throughout by the Divine Spirit. In conclusion, there are a few
+points which I recommend to the consideration of students. Different
+writers have, as Prescott summarizes, with certainty discerned in the
+highest American civilizations, a Semitic or an Egyptian or an Asiatic
+origin.
+
+This remarkable combination of features, distinctively characteristic of
+the said civilizations, actually existed amongst the Phoenicians who, as
+Professor Sayce relates, were allied to the Semitic race, were affected by
+contact with their cousins the Arameans or Syrians, penetrated to the
+coast of India, derived their art from Babylonia, Egypt, and later from
+Assyria, and "knew how to combine together the elements it had received
+and to return them, modified and improved, to the countries from which
+they had been borrowed." In the case of India and China it is an
+established and accepted truth that an active communication existed
+between these countries and Asia Minor, which was carried on by a race of
+seafarers and colonists. When it is realized that, through them, distant
+regions became known and accessible, and that at one time in the history
+of Greek philosophy, for instance, statesmen, philosophers and
+mathematicians alike rivalled each other in planning ideal states, based
+on the identical principle: the harmonizing of human life with Nature's
+laws; it seems but rational to infer that, at different times, bands of
+enthusiasts, adopting one numerical scheme in preference to another, and
+led perhaps by its inventor or disciples, set out in search of distant
+countries where they could undisturbedly establish "celestial kingdoms"
+according to their ideal plan. To such an enterprise as this I venture to
+assign the establishment of the celestial kingdom of China, drawing
+attention to Biot's statement, cited on p. 298, that year cycles (_i. e._
+the sociological and chronological system since in use) were introduced
+there from India, after the Christian era. This being the case, contrary
+to the claims of a much greater antiquity by Chinese scholars, the present
+form of the "celestial kingdom" appears to date from the arrival in China,
+from Persia, of Semitic emigrants, during the first century of our era
+(see p. 303), and to have undergone a certain re-modelling in the first
+half of the sixth century, after the arrival of a band of Syrian
+Christians (p. 304).
+
+Pointing out that these dates would make it appear as though the cyclical
+systems of India and Eastern Asia had been formulated under the direct or
+indirect influence of Greek philosophy, I observe that the date of their
+introduction and establishment assigns them to approximately the same
+period which produced the numerical scheme adopted by Constantine, Maya
+and Mexican calendrical and chronological scheme. At the period when
+Constantine established New Rome and instituted four divisions of the
+empire, each divided into thirteen yielding a total of fifty-two
+prefectures, there lived in Byzantium a philosopher and rhetorician
+(315-390 A.D.) whose name was Themistius and who filled the office of
+prefect of Constantinople. It is well known that the attempt thus to
+organize the empire proved fruitless and that the proclamation of
+Christianity as the religion of his empire by Theodosius I (379 A.D.)
+inaugurated a prolonged persecution of pagan religion and philosophy (see
+p. 530).
+
+Is it inadmissible to consider at least the possibility that, disappointed
+and driven from their land, some of those who clung to the ancient ideal,
+and were acquainted with the perfected scheme of state organization
+instituted by Constantine during the lifetime of Themistius, carried it at
+a later period, to the "hidden land" of the West and established it there,
+where it was preserved intact until the time of the Spanish Conquest? Is
+it by accident only that one of the names of the capital of ancient
+Mexico, as preserved in the writings of Cortes and Bernal Diaz is
+Temistitan, literally "land of Temis," the Nahuatl language not furnishing
+any meaning to the latter word? Can it be that, just as the word Teotl,
+resembling Theos, is found on Mexican soil, employed with the same meaning
+as in Greek, the name Temistitan means "the land of established law, order
+and justice" dedicated to the Greek Themis, just as New Rome was dedicated
+to Sofia=Wisdom? Or did some sort of connection exist between the name of
+the Mexican capital, the system on which it was established and the
+philosopher Themistius?
+
+Is it by chance merely that the state calendar of Temistitan was based on
+4x13=52 divisions, and that Themistius of Byzantium, a member of that
+school of philosophy which had evolved numberless plans and numerical
+schemes for ideal states, should have held one of the 4x13=52 prefectures
+during Constantine's reign? In order to make the most rapid advance
+towards a solution of the great problem of the origin of American
+civilizations, I venture to suggest that Orientalists and Americanists
+should combine and freshly study it from opposite points of view. One side
+might be taken by those who incline to admit the possibility that a few
+Phoenician traders discovered the American continent in ancient times and
+that, subsequently, those to whom they imparted their discovery and their
+successors, the daring Greek navigators, conveyed thither, at intervals,
+bands of refugees or enthusiasts who braved danger and death, in the hope
+of reaching the blessed land where, free from persecution, they could
+found ideal democracies or divine polities.
+
+Besides studying and adding to the numberless similarities which have been
+cited by so many different authorities and to which I have added a modest
+contribution, let them produce evidence showing the improbability that the
+identical forms of cult, religion, social organization, calendar cycles
+and numerical schemes should have been independently evolved two or more
+times by distinct races. On the other hand, let those who hold the view
+that American civilization was purely autochthonous, advance grounds for
+the supposition that it developed a school of philosophical speculation
+and that America produced its Empedocles and its Plato. Let them also
+formulate the psychical law which caused the American race to formulate
+the four elements, recognized as such by the philosophers of India and
+Greece, and not the five of Chinese philosophy; and to evolve numerical
+schemes applied to social organization, identical with those current in
+India, Western Asia and the Mediterranean countries, but different from
+that employed in China and Japan. It will also be incumbent upon them not
+only to disprove American traditions, which record the introduction of a
+higher civilization and plans of social organization by strangers, but
+also to demonstrate that, although in ancient times, Phoenician traders
+carried on an active traffic with Britain, daring the perils of the Bay of
+Biscay, they could not possibly have ventured across the southern
+Atlantic, even in the most favorable seasons. It has remained a source of
+sincere regret to me that circumstances prevented my attending the
+Orientalist Congress which met at Rome, in October, 1899, under the
+presidency of the illustrious Count Angelo de Gubernatis, to whom credit
+is due for having first suggested and planned that a section of the
+Congress should devote itself to the discussion of prehistoric contact or
+connection between the Old and New Worlds.
+
+With an apology for my non-attendance and consequent failure to aid in
+organizing the section and carrying out a plan which met with my
+enthusiastic approval, I venture to submit the present investigation to
+the President and officers of the Orientalist Congress with the earnest
+hope that it may contain material and suggestions for fruitful discussions
+during the next Congress held, and that these may be carried on in a
+section devoted to the consideration of facts relating to prehistoric
+America and its relation to the Old World.
+
+SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.
+
+In the preceding pages the view is advanced that the ancient cross-symbol
+or swastika was first used by man, presumably in circumpolar regions, as a
+record of the opposite positions assumed, by circumpolar constellations,
+in performing their nocturnal and annual circuit around Polaris. Employed
+as a year sign in the first case, the cross or swastika later became the
+symbol of the Four Quarters, of quadruplicate division and of a stable
+central power whose rule extended in four directions and controlled the
+entire Heaven.
+
+At some remote period of antiquity man developed the idea of social
+organization and, in India, ancient Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria, actual
+proofs exist that the earliest cities and states were divided into four
+quarters, a division involving the distribution of the population into
+four tribes under a central chief. Wherever this division was carried out,
+it represented an attempt to harmonize human society and the establishment
+of the ideal of a religious democracy, founded on principles of law,
+order, justice, peace and good will. The pyramid, a primitive form of
+which consisted of four stories, and cruciform sacred structures, may be
+regarded as monuments commemorating a cosmical and territorial
+organization into four parts. The more extended conception of seven
+directions in space, consisting of the Above and Below, or Heaven and
+Earth, the Four Quarters and the sacred Middle, the synopsis of all, was
+also evolved. In the confederations of India and Iran, and Arabia, in the
+seven-storied towers of Babylonia, and in the division of the Egyptians
+into seven classes, we find the earliest traces of a practical application
+of this numerical division.
+
+The ancient historical records of Egypt and Greece reveal that, in the
+earliest polities, the population was divided into groups consisting of a
+fixed number of individuals, officially represented by chieftains, or
+officers of the state, and that, in consequence, a state formed a unit,
+constituted according to a mathematical scheme, which was also applied to
+the regulation of time. Each officer of the state held office for a fixed
+term, in a prescribed order of rotation. The year was divided into a fixed
+number of seasons, marked by the positions of a circumpolar constellation,
+and this therefore appeared to regulate not only the cycle of time but the
+governmental rotation of office and the entire activity of the community.
+Starting from a common basis of quadruplicate division in different
+countries, a great variety of constitutions of state was independently
+invented by statesmen and philosophers, who devised cycles produced by
+different combinations of numbers and signs, the object being to regulate
+time and communal life in imitation of the law, order and harmony existing
+in the motion of the stars and under the guidance of a supreme ruler, the
+earthly representative of Polaris.
+
+The origin of these ideas and governmental scheme, in the Old World, is
+assigned by competent authorities to a northern race which had discovered
+the art of fire-making and evolved a religious cult and ritual suggested
+by it, in association with pole-star worship. Their civilization is
+supposed to have been developed by contact with a southern race, in
+Phrygia, and to have been carried at a remote period by their seafaring
+descendants to India, Asia Minor, Egypt and beyond the pillars of
+Hercules, to European countries, situated on the Atlantic.
+
+The present investigation brings into prominence the fact that, just as
+the older Andean art closely resembles that of the early Mediterranean, an
+observation first made by Prof. F. W. Putnam,(159) so the fundamental
+principles, numerical scheme and plan of the state founded by the foreign
+Incas in Peru, resembled those formulated by Plato in his description of
+an ideal state.
+
+It is a remarkable fact, on which the writer lays utmost stress, that,
+whereas there is a marked difference between the Chinese and the Mexican
+and Peruvian divisions of the elements and numerical cycles, the American
+systems exactly agree with those propounded by Greek philosophers and said
+to have reached them from more ancient centres of culture, presumably
+through the Phoenicians. On the other hand, there undoubtedly exist
+remarkable analogies between the Chinese and Hindu and Mexican
+sociological, chronological, cyclical systems, their principles being
+precisely the same. These close analogies as well as the marked
+divergences which have been noted can only be satisfactorily accounted for
+by the assumption that each of these countries derived their civilization
+from the same source. Over and over again different writers have pointed
+out undeniable analogies and resemblances between the highest forms of
+American civilization and that of China, India, Asia Minor, the
+Mediterranean and Western European countries. At the same time modern
+research has shown that the seafarers, whom we shall conveniently
+designate as the Phoenicians, acted as the intermediaries of ancient Old
+World civilization and formulated a culture which incorporated and formed
+a curious compound of elements drawn from different countries and people.
+
+While investigation, moreover, reveals that the conquest of Phoenicia and
+intermittent periods of warfare and persecution directed against the
+religion and democratic principles of its people, must have furnished the
+most powerful incentive for them to extend their voyages of discovery and
+seek distant lands where colonies might be established. It is obvious
+that, if safe places of refuge were found, their existence would remain a
+secret and that, in course of time, a complete isolation of distant
+colonies would result.
+
+Considering that it would be premature to formulate a final conclusion on
+a subject which demands so much more investigation, I merely observe here
+that, as far as I can see, the conditions which existed and survive
+amongst the aborigines of America would be fully accounted for by the
+assumption that they received certain elements of culture and civilization
+from Mediterranean seafarers who, at widely separated, critical periods of
+Old World history, may have transported refugees and would-be colonists or
+founders of ideal republics and "divine polities" to different parts of
+the hidden or divine land of "the West," the existence of which was known
+by tradition to the Egyptian priesthood.
+
+Under such circumstances it is apparent how the American Continent could
+have become an isolated area of preservation where archaic and primitive
+forms of civilization, religious cult, symbolism and industries, drawn at
+different epochs, from various, more or less important centres or from the
+outposts of Old World culture, would be handed down, transformed through
+the active and increasing influence of the native elements. The latter
+must always have been markedly predominant since it must be assumed, if at
+all, that the number of individuals who reached America, and the
+subsequent duration of their lives, must have been extremely limited. What
+is more, as Montezuma related that the colonists, from whom he descended,
+married native women, it is obvious that, from the outset, foreign and
+native influences were combined.
+
+There was one main element, however, underlying both foreign and native
+civilizations, which formed the basis of both, united and made them as
+one, namely, the recognition of fixed immutable laws governing the
+universe, attained, by both races, by long-continued observation of
+Polaris and the "Northern" constellations.
+
+To me the most precious result of the preceding investigation is the
+gradual recognition that the entire intellectual, moral and religious
+evolution of mankind has been the result of the fixed laws which govern
+the universe. From the time when our world began to revolve in space, at
+intervals, a luminous point of fixity in space has existed and an unknown
+force, irresistible as that which controls the magnetic needle and
+gyrostat,(160) appears to have raised the mind of man from ignorance and
+darkness and guided his footsteps towards a higher scale of existence and
+a more elevated conception of a supreme central power.
+
+From this, amongst favored races, the higher conception of an invisible
+supreme deity seems to have been gradually developed by the human mind, as
+it rose in the scale of spiritual evolution. To many, the idea that it was
+the observation of the stars and the recognition of the fixity of Polaris
+which first led man to realize the existence of immutable laws, and of a
+supreme celestial power ruling the universe and to form the sacred sign of
+the cross, will appear as the fulfilment of the text in Genesis, which
+expressly mentions as the first, and therefore chief, purpose for which
+the lights in the firmament were created, that "they should be for _signs_
+and portents, for seasons, for days and years ... and for lights."
+
+When we realize that all revolving spheres in space, and the beings that
+may live upon them, have been, are, or shall be subject to the same
+conditions as govern our tiny world, forcing their intellectual evolution
+to proceed in parallel lines to ours, we are compelled to recognize the
+existence of One Great Plan, and to render reverent homage to the
+Master-Architect of the Universe.
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF SOME QUECHUA, NAHUATL AND MAYA WORDS.
+
+
+QUECHUA.           NAHUATL.                  MAYA.
+hatun=great.       huey=great.               pax=name of
+pacha=time,        pachtli=name of           festival in
+name of annual     annual harvest            which prayers
+harvest            festival.                 were offered to
+festival.                                    obtain abundant
+                                             harvest.
+yacu and           atl=water.                haa=water.
+unu=water.                                   aak=moist.
+                                             aakal=lagoon.
+                                             yachhaa=canal,
+                                             stream of
+                                             water.
+pihi-huy=first     pil-conetl=infant
+born.              son.
+                   pilli=nobleman,
+                   or son.
+                   pilhua=he who
+                   has sons.
+                   pilli=the
+                   fingers.
+all=good.          qualli=good.
+ycacha=            mala-cachoa,
+frequentative.     verb, to spin or
+ahua=to spin or    twist or turn
+weave.             something around
+ahua-ycacha=to     continuously.
+spin               malacatl=spindle.
+continuously.      icpac=to be on
+ticpac=to lie      the top of
+mouth upwards.     something high.
+ticnu=the          ticatla=midnight.
+zenith.
+cosca=things       cozcatl=beads,
+that are alike,    strung precious
+necklace.          stones,
+                   metaphorically
+                   used to designate
+                   one's children.
+maqui or           maitl=hand.               kab=hand.
+maki=hand.         macpalli=palm of          tankab=palm of
+makip-pampa=palm   hand. pan=affix,          hand.
+of hand.           meaning upon,
+pampa=name for     above.
+plain.
+humihua=small      comitl=earthen            cum=earthen
+vessel.            vessel.                   vessel.
+                                             hooch=vessel in
+                                             general.
+hunu and huni=a                              hun=one.
+number, a                                    hunkinchil=one.
+division of men,                             count=10x100,000.
+ten thousand
+(Markham).
+hunu=all.
+palla=woman of     tlapalli-eztli=nobility
+noble birth.       of blood or
+                   lineage
+                   (metaphor).
+pallca=the         tlapalli=color or dye.    pal, pa'al,
+fingers, or        tlapaloloni=worthy of     palal,
+branches of a      being reverenced and      palil=child, boy,
+tree               saluted.                  servant.
+(Chinchaysuyo      tlapaliui=able-bodied,
+dialect.)          marriageable young man.
+                   atlapalli=wing of a
+                   bird, leaf of tree.
+                   cuitlapilli,
+                   atlapalli=metaphor
+                   signifying the people
+                   and servants of the
+                   state, literally the
+                   tail and wing of a
+                   bird.
+
+It is quite obvious how this metaphor came to be employed. The words for
+tail and wing respectively terminate with pilli the word designating
+nobleman, the upper class, and palli, signifying the lower class, women,
+boys, servants. The head of the bird signified the chief and the two eyes
+and two halves of the beak conveyed the idea of duality, or two in one.
+There are indications that the right foot, with its four claws, symbolized
+the four chief rulers of the Above and the left foot the four rulers of
+the Below.
+
+The control of the feet and entire body was, of course, assigned to the
+head. It is only when the full metaphorical significance of the eagle, as
+an emblem of the state, is understood, that the meaning of the eagle in
+the arms of Mexico and the native bird symbolism begin to become apparent.
+I have shown that in Peru and Yucatan the word for head was synonymous for
+chief. It remains to be ascertained how far the same symbolism prevailed
+throughout the American Continent and whether in other cases the words for
+bird, wings, tail and claws are homonymous or synonymous for the state and
+its divisions. Amongst the Zunis the State and entire scheme of
+organization is associated with the imaginary form of a quadruped and in
+Mexico there are indications that at one time the human form was regarded
+as an emblem of the State and its subdivisions. This subject is referred
+to more fully in the text.
+
+QUECHUA.                   NAHUATL.                      MAYA.
+Uira-cocha=name            In the native
+of mythical                harangues the
+personage and              Supreme Being
+title of                   is referred to
+Creator.                   as being like
+                           an unfathomable
+                           abyss.
+                           ixachicatlan=abyss.
+                           ixachi=great,
+                           much.
+cochca=coch-allpa=fallow   cochi=to sleep.               cuchil=place or
+land, "tierra              tlacochcalli=                 town.
+de descanso":              literally house of            ah-cuch-cab=the
+literally, land            rest, burial                  chief or ruler
+that is                    towers.                       of a town or
+resting.                                                 place.
+collana= excellent,
+principal, sovereign,
+first and best of each
+species.
+collanan ayllu=royal       coyauac=something
+line, name used by the     broad, like a
+Incas. coya=princess of    spring of water or
+royal blood, virgin,       a window(161)
+queen.
+hapichi=title, meaning     tlapixqui=title of            piz=measure,
+the collector of           some priests,                 quantity.
+produce, he who collects   literally, he who             pizil=to
+or gathers in.             gathers in the                measure.
+                           harvest. _Cf._
+                           pixquitl=harvest,
+                           etc.
+tiani=to sit down.         tiacauan=brave men,           tialtic=
+tiyana=seat of honor       strong warriors.              appurtenance,
+such as were employed as   tiyacapan=first-born.         right of
+mark of chieftainship.     tiyacapanyotl=the             possession.
+huahua-tiana=matrix.       right of
+tiya-chicu=to be selling   primogeniture and
+something in the public    property.
+square. tiyachi=to offer   tianquiztli=market,
+or place something in      also place or
+the public square to be    square where market
+sold or exchanged.         was held.
+micuy=food.                tiamiquiztli=act of
+                           buying or selling.
+                           tiamictli=merchandise.(162)
+in-ti or in-tin=the sun.   tona-ti-uh=the sun,           kin=the sun.
+                           literally, that which
+                           shines.
+mitimaes=name for          ce-mitime=sons of one
+colonists.                 mother.
+tayta=father.              tatli=father.
+mama=mother.               ta-tzin=father, reverential
+huarmi=woman.              form. nantli=mother.
+Mama-ciuaco=name of a      nantzin=reverential form.
+female ruler of royal      cihuatl=woman. mama=verb,
+blood, mother of Inca      to rule.
+Rocca.
+uma=literally, the head,   ome, literally two, title     hool, ppool or
+title of priest. Ingua     of head priest, for           pul, head,
+or Inca=title of           instance: ome acatl, ome      chieftain,
+Peruvian ruler.            tochtli. quaitl=head.         beginning.
+                           in-quaitl=the head.
+                           qua=abbreviation for quaitl
+                           (see Sahagun, book IX,
+                           chap. XXIX, par. 6).
+Tonapa=name of culture     tonal pouhque=diviner or
+hero who established       soothsayer, from verb
+Inca civilization at       tonalpoa=to divine by signs
+Tiahuanaco, erected        or count festivals by
+large cross, etc., made    ancient calendar (Molina
+his way to the ocean and   dictionary). _Cf._
+departed.                  tonal-mitl=ray of sun;
+                           literally, sun's arrow,
+                           from tona-tiuh=sun. _Cf._
+                           tona-catzon=the ancient
+                           men, or the ruins.
+ticsi=foundation.          icxitl=foot.
+ticsik=founder.            icxinecuiltic=a lame
+tecci-muyu-pacha=the       person. _Cf._ name of Ursa
+entire world or            Major. qua= tecciztle=
+universe.                  literally: "heads decorated
+                           with shell."=disciples of
+                           Quetzalcoatl "who called
+                           themselves sons of the sun
+                           and toltecas." _Cf._
+                           Ticitl=medicine man or
+                           woman, astrologer or
+                           divines, who employed the
+                           pearl-oyster shell
+                           tici-caxitl, for divinatory
+                           purposes. yoal-ticitl=title
+                           of earth-mother, or
+                           ancestress of human race,
+                           whose symbol was a
+                           sea-snail=tecciztli.
+Pacha-Yachachic=title of   pachoa=verb, to rule or       am=spider.
+Supreme Being or Creator   govern others. yacana=to      aman=North.
+translated as              guide others, to govern a     ah-men=he who
+pacha=world, time.         town, to lead the blind.      builds.
+paccha=spider.             paccamachtia=to teach         ah-pakcah=he
+yachachic=the teacher      cheerfully and with           who founds a
+from yacha=to learn with   patience. amanteca=skilled    town and
+affix chi, means to        artisans.                     peoples it.
+teach, like ru-rachi=to
+cause others to make
+something).
+Pachacamac=title of
+Creator.
+pa-chac-an or              yaca-tecuhtli, title of the   bacab=title of
+pa-cha-ca=title of         god of the travellers or      the rulers of
+officer of the Inca.       merchants, literally          the four
+ccapac=title of supreme    meaning the lord who          provinces or
+ruler; ccapac apu, male    guides, governs or leads.     quarters.
+ruler; ccapac              The names of his five         chac=title of
+ccoya=female ruler.        brothers were                 four assistants
+                           Chiconquiauitl, Xomocuitl,    of high priest.
+                           Nacxitl, Cochimetl,
+                           Yacapitzauac. The sister
+                           who completed the group of
+                           seven, was named
+                           Chalmeca-ciuatl (Sahagun,
+                           op. cit. Book I, chap.
+                           XIX). This god and his six
+                           brethren, to whom the
+                           merchants offered
+                           sacrifices when they had
+                           safely returned from their
+                           perilous and long
+                           expeditions, doubtlessly
+                           were Polaris and the Ursa
+                           Minor or Major.
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II. A PRAYER-MEETING OF THE STAR-WORSHIPPERS.
+
+
+Sook-es-Shookh, on the river Euphrates, in the Mesopotamian villayet,
+though an interesting spot, is not an imposing or attractive place. Like
+most of the townlets in this part of Asia Minor, it is just a straggling,
+overgrown village, a few one-storied plastered houses, with flat roofs and
+narrow doorways, dotted here and there, a number of wattled and mud-daubed
+huts huddled irregularly about, a _mesjid_, of course, a khan or
+caravanserai, and one or two open spaces with the inevitable refuse and
+rubbish heaps, where a bazar or market is held on Fridays. It looks,
+however, picturesque and peaceful enough, as we ride into it, in the
+deepening twilight of a late September evening. The stars are beginning
+already to twinkle overhead, but there is still sufficient light left to
+note the strange, white-robed figures moving stealthily about in the
+semi-gloom down by the riverside. Clad in long snowy garments, reaching
+nearly to the ground, they pass to and fro near the edge of the water,
+some wading into mid-stream, while the sound of a strange salutation
+exchanged in a strange tongue, _Sood Havilakh_, strikes oddly upon the ear
+long accustomed to the ordinary salutation, _Selam Alekum_, of the
+Arab-speaking Moslemin. _Paderha Sutekh_, "their fathers were burned,"
+cries our Persian _Charvadar_ and guide in disgust, as he catches a
+glimpse of the white-robed figures, thus delicately hinting that they are
+not followers of Islam; and a Jew from Hamadan who accompanies our party,
+on his way to the tomb of Ezekiel, deliberately spits upon the ground and
+exclaims, in pure Hebrew, _Obde kokhabim umazaloth_, "servants of the
+stars and planets." And the Hebrew is not wrong. The forms gathering by
+the riverside in the twilight are those of "Star-worshippers," the last
+remnants of the famous magi of ancient Chaldea, and their followers, the
+Babylonian adorers of the host of heaven. To the number of about four
+thousand in all, they still survive in their Mesopotamian native land,
+principally along the banks of the Euphrates river, where they form small
+village communities. They invariably keep their settlements somewhere near
+a stream, for their religious rites and ceremonies are preceded by
+frequent bathings and ablutions, and a rill of flowing water passing near
+or through their tabernacle or meeting-place is indispensable. Hence this
+edifice is always raised quite close to the river. They call themselves
+_Mandaya_, Mandaites, possessors of the "word," the "living word," keep
+strictly to their own customs and observances and language, and never
+intermarry with Moslems, who call them _Sabba_, Sabeans. Their dialect is
+a remnant of the later Babylonian, and resembles closely the idiom of the
+Palestinian Talmud, and their liturgy is a compound of fragments of the
+ancient Chaldean cosmogony with gnostic mysticism influenced by later
+superstitions. They are a quiet and inoffensive people noted, oddly
+enough, for the quality of their dairy produce in the villages, and for
+their skill as metal workers and goldsmiths in the towns where they
+reside. Their principal settlement is, or was, at Mardin, in the Bagdad
+district; but there has always been a small community of them at
+Sook-es-Shookh, on the banks of their favorite stream, the Euphrates.
+
+It happens to be the festival of the Star-worshippers celebrated on the
+last day of the year and known as the _Kanshio Zahlo_, or day of
+renunciation. This is the eve of the new year, the great watch-night of
+the sect, when the annual prayer-meeting is held and a solemn sacrifice
+made to Avather Ramo, the Judge of the under world, and Ptahiel, his
+colleague; and the white-robed figures we observe down by the riverside
+are those of members of the sect making the needful preparations for the
+prayer-meeting and its attendant ceremonies. First, they have to erect
+their _Mishkna_, their tabernacle or outdoor temple; for the sect has,
+strange to say, no permanent house of worship or meeting-place, but raise
+one previous to their festival and only just in time for the celebration.
+And this is now what they are busy doing within a few yards of the water,
+as we ride into the place. The elders, in charge of a _shkando_, or
+deacon, who directs them, are gathering bundles of long reeds and wattles,
+which they weave quickly and deftly into a sort of basket work. An oblong
+space is marked out about sixteen feet long and twelve broad by stouter
+reeds, which are driven firmly into the ground close together, and then
+tied with strong cord. To these the squares of woven reeds and wattles are
+securely attached, forming the outer containing walls of the tabernacle.
+The side walls run from north to south, and are not more than seven feet
+high. Two windows, or rather openings for windows, are left east and west,
+and space for a door is made on the southern side, so that the priest when
+entering the edifice has the North Star, the great object of their
+adoration, immediately facing him. An altar of beaten earth is raised in
+the centre of the reed-encircled enclosure, and the interstices of the
+walls well daubed with clay and soft earth, which speedily hardens. On one
+side of the altar is placed a little furnace of dark earthenware, and on
+the other a little handmill, such as is generally used in the East for
+grinding meal, together with a small quantity of charcoal. Close to the
+southern wall, a circular basin is now excavated in the ground, about
+eight feet across, and from the river a short canal or channel is dug
+leading to it. Into this the water flows from the stream, and soon fills
+the little reservoir to the brim. Two tiny cabins or huts, made also of
+reeds and wickerwork, each just large enough to hold a single person, are
+then roughly put together, one by the side of the basin of water, the
+other at the further extremity of the southern wall, beyond the entrance.
+The second of these cabins or huts is sacred to the _Ganzivro_ or high
+priest of the Star-worshippers, and no layman is ever allowed to even so
+much as touch the walls with his hands after it is built and placed in
+position. The doorway and window openings of the edifice are now hung with
+white curtains; and long before midnight, the hour at which the prayer
+meeting commences, the little _Mishkna_, or tabernacle open to the sky, is
+finished and ready for the solemnity.
+
+Towards midnight the Star-worshippers, men and women, come slowly down to
+the _Mishkna_ by the riverside. Each, as he or she arrives, enters the
+tiny wattled hut by the southern wall, disrobes and bathes in the little
+circular reservoir, the _tarmido_, or priest, standing by and pronouncing
+over each the formula, "_Eshmo d'hai, Eshmo d'manda hai madhkar elakh_"
+("The name of the living one, the name of the living word, be remembered
+upon thee"). On emerging from the water, each one robes himself or herself
+in the _rasta_, that is, the ceremonial white garments peculiar to the
+Star-worshippers, consisting of a _sadro_, a long white shirt reaching to
+the ground; a _nassifo_, or stole, round the neck falling to the knees; a
+_hiniamo_, or girdle of woollen material; a _gabooa_, square head-piece
+reaching to the eyebrows; a _shalooal_, or white overmantle and a
+_kanzolo_, or turban, wound round the _gabooa_ head-piece, of which one
+end is left hanging down over the shoulder. Peculiar sanctity attaches to
+the _rasta_, for the garments composing it are those in which every
+Star-worshipper is buried, and in which he believes he will appear for
+judgment before Avather in the nether world _Materotho_. Each one, as soon
+as he is thus attired, crosses to the open space in front of the door of
+the tabernacle, and seats himself upon the ground there, saluting those
+present with the customary _Sood Havilakh_, "Blessing be with thee," and
+receiving in return the usual reply, _Assootah d'hai havilakh_, "Blessing
+of the living one be with thee." The numbers increase as the hour of the
+ceremonial comes nearer, and by midnight there are some twenty rows of
+these white-robed figures, men and women, ranked in orderly array facing
+the _Mishkna_, and waiting in silent expectation the coming of the
+priests. A couple of _tarmidos_, lamp in hand, guard the entry to the
+tabernacle, and keep their eyes fixed upon the pointers of the Great Bear
+in the sky above. As soon as these attain the position indicating
+midnight, the priests give a signal by waving the lamps they hold, and in
+a few moments the clergy of the sect march down in procession. In front
+are four of the _shkandos_, young deacons, attired in the _rasta_, with
+the addition of a silk cap, or _tagha_, under the turban, to indicate
+their rank. Following these come four _tarmidos_, ordained priests who
+have undergone the baptism of the dead. Each wears a gold ring on the
+little finger of the right hand, and carries a tau-shaped cross of olive
+wood to show his standing. Behind the _tarmidos_ comes the spiritual head
+of the sect, the _Ganzivro_, a priest elected by his colleagues, who has
+made complete renunciation of the world and is regarded as one dead and in
+the realms of the blessed. He is escorted by four other deacons. One holds
+aloft the large wooden tau-cross, known as _derashvod zivo_, that
+symbolizes his religious office; a second bears the sacred scriptures of
+the Star-worshippers, the _Sidra Rabba_, "the great Order," two-thirds of
+which form the liturgy of the living and one-third the ritual of the dead.
+The third of the deacons carries two live pigeons in a cage, and the last
+a measure of barley and of sesame seeds. The procession marches through
+the ranks of the seated worshippers, who bend and kiss the garments of the
+_Ganzivro_ as he passes near them. The _tarmidos_, guarding the entrance
+to the tabernacle, draw back the hanging over the doorway and the priests
+file in, the deacons and _tarmidos_ to the right and left, leaving the
+_Ganzivro_ standing alone in the centre, in front of the earthen altar
+facing the North Star, Polaris. The sacred book, _Sidra Rabba_, is laid
+upon the altar folded back where the liturgy of the living is divided from
+the ritual of the dead. The high priest takes one of the live pigeons
+handed to him by a _shkando_, extends his hand towards the Polar Star upon
+which he fixes his eyes, and lets the bird fly, calling aloud, _Bshmo
+d'hai rabba mshabbah zivo kadmaya Elaha Edmen Nafshi Eprah_, "In the name
+of the living one, blessed be the primitive light, the ancient light, the
+Divinity self-created." The words, clearly enunciated within, are
+distinctly heard by the worshippers without, and with one accord the
+white-robed figures rise from their places and prostrate themselves upon
+the ground towards the North Star, on which they have silently been
+gazing.
+
+Noiselessly the worshippers resume their seated position on the ground
+outside. Within the _Mishkna_, or tabernacle, the _Ganzivro_ steps on one
+side, and his place is immediately taken by the senior priest, a tarmido,
+who opens the _Sidra Rabba_ before him on the altar and begins to read the
+_Shomhotto_, "confession" of the sect, in a modulated chant, his voice
+rising and falling as he reads, and ever and anon terminating in a loud
+and swelling _Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo Manda d'hai_, "Blessed be thy name, O
+source of life," which the congregants without take up and repeat with
+bowed heads, their hands covering their eyes. While the reading is in
+progress two other priests turn, and prepare the _Peto elayat_, or high
+mystery, as they term their Communion. One kindles a charcoal fire in the
+earthenware stove by the side of the altar, and the other grinds small
+some of the barley brought by the deacon. He then expresses some oil from
+the sesame seed, and, mixing the barley meal and oil, prepares a mass of
+dough which he kneads and separates into small cakes, the size of a
+two-shilling piece. These are quickly thrust into or on the oven and
+baked, the chanting of the liturgy of the _Shomhotto_ still proceeding
+with its steady sing-song and response, _Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo_, from
+outside. The fourth of the tarmidos now takes the pigeon left in the cage
+from the _shkando_, or deacon, standing near him, and cuts its throat
+quickly with a very sharp knife, taking care that no blood is lost. The
+little cakes are then brought to him by his colleague, and, still holding
+the dying pigeon, he strains its neck over them in such a way that four
+drops fall on each one so as to form the sacred _tau_, or cross. Amid the
+continued reading of the liturgy, the cakes are carried round to the
+worshippers outside by the two principal priests who prepared them, who
+themselves pop them direct into the mouths of the members, with the words
+_Rshimot bereshm d'hai_, "Marked be thou with the mark of the living one."
+The four deacons inside the _Mishkna_ walk round to the rear of the altar
+and dig a little hole, in which the body of the dead pigeon is then
+buried. The chanting of the confession is now closed by the officiating
+_tarmido_, and the high priest, the _Ganzivro_, resuming his former place
+in front of the Sacred Book, begins the recitation of the _Massakhto_, or
+"renunciation" of the dead, ever directing his prayers towards the North
+Star, on which the gaze of the worshippers outside continues fixed
+throughout the whole of the ceremonial observances and prayers. This star
+is the _Olma d'nhoora_, literally "the world of light," the primitive sun
+of the Star-worshippers theogony, the paradise of the elect, and the abode
+of the pious hereafter. For three hours the reading of the "renunciation "
+by the high priest continues, interrupted only, ever and anon, by the
+_Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo_, "Blessed be thy name," of the participants
+seated outside, until, towards dawn, a loud and ringing _Ano asborlakh ano
+asborli ya Avather_, "I mind me of thee, mind thou of me O Avather," comes
+from the mouth of the priest, and signalizes the termination of the
+prayers.
+
+Before the North Star fades in the pale ashen grey of approaching dawn, a
+sheep, penned over night near the river, is led into the tabernacle by one
+of the four _shkandos_ for sacrifice to Avather and his companion deity,
+Ptahiel. It is a wether, for the Star-worshippers never kill ewes, or eat
+their flesh when killed. The animal is laid upon some reeds, its head west
+and its tail east, the _Ganzivro_ behind it facing the Star. He first
+pours water over his hands, then over his feet, the water being brought to
+him by a deacon. One of the _tarmidos_ takes up a position at his elbow
+and places his hand on the _Ganzivro's_ shoulder, saying, _Ana shaddakh_,
+"I bear witness." The high priest bends towards the North Star, draws a
+sharp knife from his left side, and reciting the formula, "In the name of
+Alaha, Ptahiel created thee, Hibel Sivo permitted thee, and it is I who
+slay thee," cuts the sheep's throat from ear to ear, and allows the blood
+to escape on to the matted reeds upon which the animal is stretched out.
+The four deacons go outside, wash their hands and feet, then flay the
+sheep, and cut it into as many portions as there are communicants outside.
+The pieces are now distributed among the worshippers, the priests leave
+the tabernacle in the same order as they came, and with a parting
+benediction from the _Ganzivro, Assootad d'hai havilakh_, "The benison of
+the living one attend thee," the prayer-meeting terminates, and the
+Star-worshippers quietly return to their homes before the crimson sun has
+time to peep above the horizon.(163)
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX III. COMPARATIVE LISTS OF WORDS.
+
+
+I.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+YAU or YU=the source or origin, the Chinese character for which figures a
+square or circle divided into four by crossed horizontal and perpendicular
+lines, the latter projecting above the square or circle.(164)
+
+YAOU and YU=mythical emperors who instituted the celestial kingdom, see p.
+298.
+
+YAOU SING="Revolving Star" in Ursa Major. China.
+
+UI or HWEI=verb to turn around. Chinese.
+
+YUL, YEUL, YEOL=wheel (Icelandic hjol, O. Swedish hiugl, Swedish hjul).
+
+HVEL=disk, orb. Iceland.
+
+WUOTAN=ODIN=supreme divinity. Scandinavia.
+
+JOVLA=sacred hearth fire of Northern Finns, under guardianship of mother
+of family.
+
+JOVIS=Roman supreme divinity, associated with wheel.
+
+YAHWE=Hebrew name for God, translated as "heaven," was pronounced Yahu.
+According to the Masoretes must be read Yeho (Yahu). The early Gnostics
+wrote Iao, that is Yaho (Sayce). The four consonants yhvh, pronounced
+Yahveh, constituted the sacred Tetragrammaton, or four lettered name of
+the Most High.
+
+Archbishop Tenison says (Idolat. p. 404): "This name was no mystery among
+the Greeks, as is evident from the mention of the god Ieuo in
+Sanchoniathon; Jaho in St. Hiersm, and the Sibylline Oracles; Jaoth or
+Jaho in Irenaeus; of the Hebrew God called Jaoia by the Gnostics; of Jaou
+in Clemens Alexandrinus, of Jao the first principle of the Gnostic Heaven
+in Epiphanius; the God of Moses in Diodorus Siculus; the god Bacchus in
+the oracle of Apollo Clarius; lastly, as was said, of the Samaritan Jabe,
+in Theodoret."
+
+YEUD EKHAD=name of supreme god of Phoenicians the Red people (Sayce).
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+YOUALLI-EHECATL, literally, night or circling-air or wind=supreme god of
+the Chichimecs (see p. 33), a Mexican ruling tribe whose name signifies
+the red lineage or people.
+
+YAHUAL-TECUHTLI or YOUAL-TECUHTLI=the Lord of the circle or of the Night,
+_i. e._ North-star god, supreme divinity. Mexico, see p. 279.
+
+YALAHUA=Tzendal deity, p. 181.
+
+YANAULUHA=Zuni deity, p. 223.
+
+{IO, IOVANA, IELLA, IOCAHUNA=names for god.
+{HUIOU=sun.
+{HUIOO or HUIHO=mountain. Haiti.
+{YOLI, YULI=verb, to live, resuscitate, vivify.
+{OLLIN="motion." Nahuatl.
+YAUALLI=to walk in a circle many times. Nahuatl.
+YOUALLI=night. Nahuatl.
+HUE=egg. Maya.
+
+II.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+SHAME=heaven. Babylonian-Assyrian.
+
+SAMA=heaven. Graeco-Persian.
+
+SAMA or SHAMA=north. Arabic (Al Kaukabal Shamaliyy=star of the North; Al
+Kulbal Shamaliyy=the northern axle or spindle).
+
+AMAN=verb to sustain. Akkadian.
+
+AMAXA=name for Ursa Major=a chariot. Greek.
+
+SAMAS or SHAMASH=Babylonian-Assyrian god, "the universal judge," whose
+image was wheel with four rays (see pp. 331 and 350), _cf._ Ramman.
+
+BAAL-SHAMAYUN=supreme god. Phoenicia.
+
+AMASIS=Egyptian god.
+
+KAMOSH=god of Moabites, p. 350.
+
+HAM or KHAM=name for northern Egypt.
+
+AMANTINI=an Illyrian tribe. Greece.
+
+BR-AHMA=supreme god. India (_cf._ Yama).(165)
+
+BR-AHMANAS=priestly caste. India.
+
+ARYAMAN=star-god associated with Mitra-Yaruna, Ursa Major and number
+seven. In Zendavesta is associated with Ashvino-ritual. India.
+
+AMA or AME=heaven. Japan.
+
+KAMI=deity, top, above.
+
+O-KAMI=the honorable government.
+
+YAMA=mountain. Japan.
+
+YAMATO=main island of Japan.
+
+AMA-NO-MA-HITOTSU="Eye of Heaven," name for Pole-star. Japan.
+
+AME-NO-MI-NAKA-NUSHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven,
+first Japanese "hidden" god.(166)
+
+AME-NO-TOKO-TACHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-standing-eternally-in-heaven, hidden god;
+_cf._ Kuni-no-toko-tachi-no-kami=Deity-standing-eternally-on-earth. Japan.
+
+AMEN-RA=hidden god. Egypt.
+
+AHA-MENA or MENES=historical founder of kingdom="the Constant One." Egypt;
+_cf._ menu=monuments; smen=to establish. Egyptian.
+
+MINYOE, MINYANS or MINOEANS=race who traced descent from Minos=the measurer
+(Men=measurer); great agricultural and building race in India, Arabia and
+Egypt. Measured time by circumpolar constellations; became confederates of
+Sabaeans; conquered Phrygia, built Mycenae (Hewitt).
+
+AMUN=national god of Ammonites. Amun means the builder or architect and
+is, like the name of Egyptian god, formed of aman, to sustain. He was the
+god of the meridian and of the central house-pole, sustaining roof who, in
+Egypt, became Amen-ra (Sayce and Gesenius, quoted by Hewitt, _op. cit._).
+The supreme god of the Ammonites was Nagash, the constellation of Ursa
+Major (Hewitt).
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+AMAN or XAMAN (pron. Haman)=north. Maya, Yucatan.
+
+AH-MEN=master builder, handicraftsman; _cf._ Menah or Menyah=artificer,
+artisan, builder, handicraftsman; _cf._ verb men=to build, found,
+establish, erect, also menta'al=to govern. Maya, p. 234.
+
+AMAN-TECA=name used in ancient Mexico to designate master-handicraftsmen,
+synonym of Tolteca.
+
+AMAUTAS=name given in Peru to the "wise men" who introduced civilization.
+
+III.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+AN=heaven, god. Babylonian Assyrian (p. 331).
+
+ANA=heaven. Sumerian, Akkadian,(167) _cf._ Akanna=Ursa Major, Akkadian,
+see p. 235.
+
+AN and ANNU=names of celestial and terrestrial sacred central cities.
+Egypt, _cf._ an=pillar or that which turns around. According to Flinders
+Petrie, the an was an octagonal fluted column with a square tenon or top.
+
+MANU=sacred mountain situated in N. W. Egypt.
+
+KW-AN-IRAS=sacred central cosmical division situated under pole-star,
+around which the six kingdoms of Iran were situated. Persia.
+
+CANAAN=holy land, whose capital was Jerusalem.
+
+AN-SHAN=name of ancient Persian empire.
+
+AN-SHAR=supreme god. Assyria, _cf._ Nannar, pp. 336 and 337.
+
+AN-SAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt, _cf._ Anubis also Anu and Anath,
+Janus and Jana.
+
+Z-AN=old Doric form of Zeus, hence Janus.
+
+SHANG=heaven, the Above. China.
+
+KAN=mountain, also Yo. China.
+
+ALKAID=star in Ursa Major, also used for moon; origin of Spanish title
+Alcalde.
+
+ALKABIR=the Great. Early Arabic.
+
+KA=surnamed the Great. Kushite father of life, the hidden god who guards
+and distributes, at the appointed seasons, the life-giving rains
+(Hewitt).(168)
+
+KA=title of Egyptian king, usually rendered by "bull."
+
+KHAN=a prince. Tartary.
+
+KHAKAN=an emperor or sovereign. Persia.
+
+HAN=name for empire. Japan, _cf._ ken, imperial domain.
+
+HANA=flower or blossom. Japanese, _cf._ ankh=flower, Egyptian and
+anthos=flower, Greek.
+
+ANGLI or ANGRIWARII=widely diffused, great northern race, mentioned by
+Tacitus and Ptolemy.
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+CA-AN=heaven. Maya, Yucatan, see pp. 278 and 288.
+
+CANAL=Above. Maya, Yucatan.
+
+CAN=title of culture-hero: KUKUL-CAN=the divine can, homonym of
+can=serpent. Maya, Yucatan.
+
+ZIUVA-CAAN=Colony founded in Yucatan, by Holon-chan-te=Peuh.
+
+ANAHUAC: name of Mexican empire, usually loosely translated as a=water,
+nahuac=by the water.
+
+To this list should be added the following affixes or prefixes, denoting,
+in each case, "place, land or region of."
+
+Egyptian: ta, for instance meh-ta or mah-ta=north; amen-ta=hidden region,
+N. W.
+
+Chinese: kwan=earth, land.
+
+Persian: Kwan-iras or Hvan-iras=the name for Iran="land of Iran"?
+
+Japanese: han=empire, ken=domain.
+
+Maya: tan, for instance Aman-tan or Xaman-tan=North.
+
+Nahuatl: an, tlan or can, "land of, also mountain."
+
+Zuni: wan=place of, for instance Halona-wan.
+
+IV.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+AK=Middle. Egypt, p. 385.
+
+AKANNA=literally "the Lord of Heaven," title Ursa Major. Akkadian, p. 394.
+
+N-AKKASCH=title of Polaris "the serpent." Phoenicia (p. 325).
+
+NAGASCH, NAHUSHA, or the Great Nag=the great invisible god, hidden in his
+ark of clouds, who reveals himself to men as the ruler of time and the
+orderer of the regular sequence of the phenomena of nature, and who
+churns, in the mortar of the heavens, the life-giving rains in which his
+divine spirit is infused.... (Hewitt).
+
+NAGA, NAGUR=the rain snake, at whose summer festival called Akkhadi or
+Akhtuj, the Gonds worship the cart axle or akkha in a ceremony which is a
+reminiscence of the days when the axle was the upright revolving pole
+pressing out the heavenly rain. The Naga snake was the offspring of the
+house pole; the soul of life in the rain cloud; the heavenly snake, the
+great time-measurer and year god of the Hindus (Hewitt).
+
+P-AKU=zenith. Akkadian, _cf._ Papakhu, central sacred cosmical chamber.
+
+AKKAD=the North, name of country (B.C. 3800). Babylonia-Assyria, p. 347.
+
+K-AKKABU=_the_ star, Polaris. Babylonia-Assyria, p. 326.
+
+AKRIS or AKROS=summit, point, supreme, most high; _cf._ ok=eye. Greek.
+
+AKRIOS=god of summit, title of supreme god. Greece.
+
+AKA-TOS, AKA=a ship. Greek.
+
+ACHAIIS=the Achaian land.
+
+ACHAIANS=in Homer, the name for Greeks generally.
+
+AKRA=Hindu village dancing and marriage ground, where sacred tree is
+planted and sacrifices made to it in great Naga festival (Hewitt).
+
+AKSA=name of mosque at Jerusalem.
+
+AKSHAFARU=point, summit. Persian.
+
+AKAL, AKARAN=god, eternal, timeless. Zoroastrian, name of god.
+
+H-AK-HAMANISIJA=ancient royal title. Persia.
+
+HAK=king or regent, royal title. Akkadian, Egyptian.
+
+AKACA=Sanscrit name for fifth element aether: (Schroeder).
+
+AGATHON=name given by Pythagoreans to all-embracing soul of the universe.
+
+AK or AG=verb aj, to drive, urge, impel. Sanscrit.
+
+AGNI=god of central fire. India.
+
+AGASTYA=star father of Dravidians. India.
+
+CHAKRA=wheel. Sanscrit.
+
+CHAKRAYARTIN=title, supreme ruler. Sanscrit.
+
+AKSHA=axis or axle. Sanscrit.
+
+AKSHIVAN="the driver of the axle," supreme ruler. Sanscrit.
+
+DAKSHA=the North people, also white, blessed, and the left. Sanscrit.
+
+TAKKAS=one of the most powerful and wealthy tribes of the Punjab, whose
+progeners founded the great city of Taxila, the Hindu Takkasila or rock of
+the Takkas, taken by Alexander the Great. Their name Takkas or Takshas
+means "the makers or artificers," which is connected with the Akkadian
+tuk=stone.... They call themselves the sons of the two Nagas or horned
+snake, Takht-nag and Basak-nag or "the sons of the race of artificers" ...
+as the sons of the all-mother Maga [the maker or kneader], they called
+themselves the sons of the mother-mountain.... (Hewitt).
+
+AKHAL, AKHAL-ZIKH, AKHAL-KALAKI=names of towns. Asia Minor (O'Neil, p.
+681).
+
+ACASA or ACASE=axis or axle. Old Norse.
+
+AKKA and UKKO=names given by Finns to mother-earth and father-heavens
+(O'Neil, p. 38).
+
+NAKA=Middle. Japan (O'Neil, p. 536).(169)
+
+HAK-KAKU=eight holy corners or points; also that which is revealed,
+disclosed, known, come to light. Japanese dictionary.
+
+AKA=above, mountain, _cf._ SAKA=ascent. Japan.
+
+AGATA=ancient name for domain or department (Chamberlain). Japan.
+
+HAKKI=the eight diagrams, _cf._
+Ya-he-koto-shiro-nu-shi-no-kami=Deity-eight-fold-thing-sign-master.
+Chamberlain _op. cit._ pp. 83 and 101.
+
+WAKE, WAKI, WAKU=lord, title. Japan.
+
+KAGU=Mount Kagu in Heaven. Japan.
+
+HAKU=white, shining. Japan.
+
+HOKU, NE-NO-HO, KITA, KITA-NO-HO=North. Japan. _Cf._ Khita=race mentioned
+in Egyptian and Biblical history, and Kitai=name for China.
+
+HOKU-SEI, HOKU-SHIN, HOKKIYOKU, North Star. Japan.
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+_Nahuatl._
+
+ACACHTO=the first, at first.
+
+YAQUE=that which has a point; a point, by extension a nose.
+
+YACANA=to govern a town or to guide.
+
+YACA-TECUHTLI (literally, the governing or guiding lord)=title of Polaris,
+_cf._ Pacha-Yachachic=Peruvian Creator, p. 159.
+
+TON-ACA-TECUHTLI=title of Creator.
+
+MAL-ACATL=wheel, spindle, verb malacachoa, to walk around in a circle.
+
+ACATL=cane, staff.
+
+CE-ACATL, OME-ACATL=titles of deities meaning One Acatl, Two Acatl.
+
+13 ACATL=inscription on Stone of Great Plan and on image of Divine Twain
+(see p. 261).
+
+ACALLI=boat, from atl=water, calli=house.
+
+_Maya._
+
+AKAB=night.
+
+B-AK-CAB=in a circle, around, _cf._ hab=year.
+
+BACAB=title of four "rulers of the year," tetrarch.
+
+AK-BAL=a vessel or pot.
+
+C-ACAB=town, village.
+
+B-AK-LIC=around in a circle, in the surroundings.
+
+B-AK-TE=together.
+
+B-AK-ACH=all, the whole.
+
+B-AK=rock, fortification, enclosure, also bone, phallus, foundation,
+heron.
+
+N-AK=throne, belly.
+
+N-AK-LIC=at the root, on top of all.
+
+L-AK-AN=standard, banner.
+
+L-AK-IN=east.
+
+K-AK=fire.
+
+P-AC-AT=sight.
+
+Z-AK=white _cf._ Iztac=white. Nahuatl.
+
+V.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+MAD-HYIAS=Middle. Sanscrit.
+
+MAGHAVAN=Vedic name of Indra.
+
+MATH=the fire-drill, from math or manth=to twirl or churn. Sanscrit.(170)
+
+MATHURA=name of central sacred locality. India (see Hewitt, p. 214).
+
+MAGANA=Akkadian name for the Sinaitic Peninsula.
+
+MAGHADAS=Finnic race ruling Northern India before the Kushites.
+
+MERU=the Middle. Sanscrit, p. 317.
+
+MAHTA or MEHTA=north. Egyptian, _cf._ mit=death.
+
+MED-DOS, MEDOS or MESOS=Middle. Greek.
+
+MED-IUS=Middle. Latin.
+
+MED-ON=Middle. Old Irish, _cf._ Medi=Tullium, centre of state.
+
+MID-JIS, Middle. Goth.
+
+MIODHACH=a Central Power (Joyce). Celtic.
+
+MITRA=the god said, in Rig-Veda, "to fix times of festivals." Was
+associated with Varuna=night and rain god (Greek, Ouranos), with the
+constellation of Ursa Major and the number seven. The North was sacred to
+Mitra-Varuna who "maintain the invariable succession of the order of
+natural phenomena" (see Hewitt, pp. 144, 416 and 420).
+
+MILKOM=god of Ammonites whose supreme god was Ursa Major.
+
+MEDIA or MADGA=ancient kingdom whose inhabitants were allied to Persians
+and shook off yoke of Assyrian rule in 708 B.C.
+
+MEDUM=site of most ancient pyramid known. Egypt.
+
+MECCA=sacred capital. Arabia.
+
+MY-CENAE=very ancient city in N. E. of Argolis, built upon craggy height,
+principal city of Greece and capital of kingdom in Agamemnon's time.
+
+METHONE=most ancient Greek colony on Thermaic gulf.
+
+MI-YAU-KEN: "name under which the Pole-star is worshipped in Japan in the
+form of a Buddha with a wheel, the emblem of the revolving world, resting
+on his folded hands."(171) _cf._ Chinese.
+
+MUKDEN=capital of Manchuria, p. 288, _cf._ Mughs or Maghadas, Finnic race
+ruling Northern India before Kushites, and
+
+MANJHUS="royal land" set apart in Ooraon villages.
+
+MIOKEN=name of town and mountain. Japan.
+
+MIWA=sacred mountain shrine regarded with extraordinary reverence. Japan
+(Chamberlain).
+
+MIAKO=ancient sacred capital of Japan, residence of
+
+MIKO, or MIKADO=heavenly sovereign who, like the Chinese Wong or
+Wang=king, ruled the three powers, heaven, earth and man. The Chinese
+character, consisting of three horizontal lines crossed by a perpendicular
+line expresses also the Japanese Miko which includes males and females and
+is used combined with Naka=middle _i. e._, Middle sovereign (Chamberlain).
+
+MIHE=threefold. Japanese.
+
+MID-KENA=cosmical central power and mountain. Old Irish.
+
+MID-GARD=cosmical centre. Scandinavia.
+
+MIODH-CHUARTA (pron. micorta)=Meath, centre of Irish kingdom.
+
+MERCIA=middle kingdom of Britain.
+
+HAR-MOED=central mountain. Isaiah XIV.
+
+MISHKNA=name of tabernacle of pole-star worshipping Mandaites (see
+Appendix II).
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+MEXICO=name of capital and by extension of state.
+
+MEK-TAN=Maya name for empire, literally: "land of Mek."
+
+MITNAL or METNAL=underworld. Maya.
+
+MICTLAN=name of region surrounding pyramids of Teotihuacan.
+
+MITLA=name of ruins in Oaxaca, Mexico.
+
+MICTLAMPA=north. Nahuatl. _cf._ miquiztli=death.
+
+MICTLAN-TECUHTLI=lord of the North, or underworld. Mexican pole-star god.
+
+VI.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+I-KU or I KUU=the leader or prince, Polaris. Assyria.
+
+DIL-GAN-I-KU=the messenger of light, Polaris. Akkadian.
+
+KU=holy, divine (tul-ku, the holy altar). Akkadian.
+
+KU=word of Finnic origin brought to India by Northern settlers--used by
+them to denote Father-god=Ukku. Uk=the great Ku=placer or begetter
+(Hewitt, p. 148).
+
+KU-SHIKAS=ruling race of India, of Northern origin, known as
+Ashura-kushikas (Hewitt).
+
+CHU=the brilliance or light, Egyptian.
+
+CHU-ATEN=the central capital founded by Amenhotep.
+
+AL-KUTB=the axle, Polaris. Arabia.
+
+TUL-KU=the holy altar. Akkadian.
+
+GU=the urn. Akkadian.
+
+KUL-KUN=central cosmical mountain. China, _cf._ Sar-tuli-elli, king of the
+holy mound.
+
+KURUMA=wheel, Japanese, also mawaru, from marawi=to turn, revolve.
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+_Maya._
+
+KU=god.
+
+KUKUL=holy, divine (p. 69).
+
+KUKULCAN=name of culture-hero.
+
+KU-LEL=noble.
+
+KU-NA=temple.
+
+KUKUM=feather.
+
+KUL=chalice.
+
+CHUT=bowl, _cf._ Nahuatl cumitl=bowl or jar.
+
+CHU-MUC=that which is in the middle or centre.
+
+CHU-MUCCIL=Middle, centre.
+
+CHU-MUC-AKAB=midnight.
+
+CHU-NIL=adj. the principal.
+
+VII.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+CITRA=bright, shining. Sanscrit.
+
+TARA=star. Sanscrit, _cf._ Ra=god. Egypt.
+
+SITARA=star. Hindu.
+
+TJARA=star. Old Norse, _cf._ tar=tree.
+
+TARA=name of central city. Old Irish.
+
+UTTARA=North. Sanscrit.
+
+ISH-TAR=goddess, a hymn to whom, in Akkadian and Assyrian, begins thus:
+"Thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of the
+earth her name revolves" (Prof. Sayce, quoted by O'Neil, p. 715).
+
+Compare with Egyptian ra=god and note that the Sanscrit uttara could have
+been expressed in Egyptian hieratic script by the form of eye=uta and the
+sign for ra _i. e._ an eye within a circle (see p. 390 and fig. 62). Also
+compare the Sanscrit and Hindu citra and sitara with Egyptian seb-seta
+"the hidden star," pictured by the turtle, sit or cit, etc. (see p. 398).
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+CITLALLIN=star. Nahuatl.
+
+IX-TOLOLOTLI=eye, employed in picture writing for star. Nahuatl, see in
+centre of Nahui-Ollin, fig. 2, Nos. 1 and 3.
+
+IXUA=the birth of a plant, the germination of seed, _cf._ cihuatl=woman.
+Nahuatl.
+
+IXTLI=the face. Nahuatl.
+
+ICH=the eye. Maya.
+
+IK=life, breath, air, wind _cf._ ecatl=breath, etc., Nahuatl, and ek=star.
+Maya.
+
+KIKCOLOM=blood. Maya.
+
+XICO=navel. Nahuatl.
+
+VIII.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+TEH-TEH=designation of the first star of the Great Bear, given in
+star-list in Papyrus of Ani, and the same as Te-te, the Akkadian star-god
+of the two foundations (Hewitt, p. 267).
+
+TET=highly abraded form of timmen=foundation.
+
+TEM=foundation, Egyptian (O'Neil); foundation stone (Brown). Akkadian.
+
+TET=eternity, symbolized by stone pillar. Egypt.
+
+A-TEN=circle or disk. Egypt.
+
+UA-TET=Egyptian name for emerald.
+
+THEOS=Greek name for god _i. e._ Cosmos.
+
+THEO=descriptive of running wheel, of anything circular which seems to run
+around into itself.
+
+THEORS=sacred envoys, who came for sacred festivals to Olympia or Delphi
+from different points.
+
+THEMIS=law, right, agreed upon by common consent or prescription. Greece.
+
+THEMIS=personified law, order and justice, _cf._ Artemis, the goddess to
+whom the seven stars of the Great Bear were sacred (Hewitt).
+
+TEMENOS=piece of land sacred to a god, sacred precincts, precincts of
+temple.
+
+A-THENA=name of Grecian capital, state and goddess, signified "Seven."
+
+TENOS and TEOS=names of Greek states, p. 456.
+
+DEOTHAN=village earth-god worshipped by Brahmin priests (Hewitt).
+
+TEEN or TIEN=heaven, god, the character for god being an upright pole or
+support, a "ti." Chinese, see p. 301, _cf._ Chinese character, tien,
+field, representing a square divided by cross lines into four parts.
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+TEM, TETEM=stone altar, foundation. Maya. p. 229.
+
+TETL=stone. Nahuatl.
+
+TEO-CALLI="house of god" = temple. Nahuatl.
+
+TEOTL=name for god. Nahuatl.
+
+TEOTIHUACAN=site of extensive ruins. Mexico.
+
+TENOCH-TI-TLAN=name of capital of Mexico.
+
+TEMISTITAN=another ancient name for Mexican capital.
+
+IX.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+ASH=number six. Akkadian.
+
+ASHURA=trading non-Aryan races, the Hittites, worshippers of six gods, six
+seasons, of Pleiades and of Ashura Mazda, the Zend god. Established system
+of grouping six provinces around central royal province where king
+resided.
+
+ASHVINS=stars which drove round the pole the constellations of Ursa Major
+and Draco, another name for Ashura? Sons of horse (ashva), brought barley
+to India, drank mead (madhu); instituted the Ashva Medha, or
+horse-sacrifice of the Hindus, also used by North Germans Ugro-Finns,
+Scythians and Romans.
+
+ASH, NAK-KASCH=Draco, Euphratean name for Polaris.
+
+MASSEBA=stone pillar. Hebrew symbol, see p. 350.
+
+ASHERAH=pole or tree, worshipped by Phoenicians and Hebrews equivalent of
+Indian rain-pole.
+
+AL-FASS=axis, Arabian name for pole-star.
+
+PHAR-ASH-AH, PARR-ASIS=Hebrew and Phoenician "guiding star," Polaris.
+
+ASSUR=kingdom and god of Assyria.
+
+ASAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt (O'Neil, p. 59).
+
+ASIA=name given by Greeks to Asia.
+
+ASKANIOS=ancient name of Phrygia.
+
+ASTARTE=goddess of heaven, see p. 350.
+
+ASS or AESIR=Scandinavian gods.
+
+ASSGARD=central, divine dwelling. Scandinavia.
+
+UM-ASHI=reed shoot that sprouted when the earth, young and like unto
+floating oil, drifted about medusa-like. Japan. (Records of Ancient
+Matters, section I.)
+
+UMASHI-ASHI-KABI-HIKO-JI-NO-KAMI="Pleasant-reed-shoot-elder-deity," born
+from primaeval reed-shoot.
+
+ASHI-HARA-NO-NAKA-TSU-KUNI=Land in the Middle of the Reed plains, common
+periphrastic designation of Japan.
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+AZTLAN=the original home of Aztec race, according to tradition.
+
+AZTEC=name of dominant race. Mexico.
+
+ASH-IWI=other name for Zuni tribe (Cushing, see p. 203).
+
+X.
+
+OLD WORLD.
+
+O, ON or NO=name of celestial and terrestrial capitals. Hebrew and
+Egyptian.
+
+OLYMPOS=the breaker or organizer of time (Hewitt, p. 514).
+
+KOLONH=a hill, mound, Greek; Lat. tumulus.
+
+COLONOS=a demos of Attica lying on and around hill sacred to Poseidon.
+
+COLONIA=a colony, the Lat. colonia.
+
+KOLOSSOS=statue in general, _i. e._ column?
+
+OM-EL-KORA=mother of cities. Arabian, see p. 323.
+
+OMPHALE=in Greek mythology, the fire socket, wife of Herakles, the fire
+drill (Hewitt).
+
+HO=designation for directions in space. China, see pp. 285-288.
+
+HO=acme, taken to mean the best, highest, most showy part of anything.
+Japanese (Chamberlain).(172)
+
+HO=the land's acme, or a plain surrounded by mountains. Japan (Motowori).
+
+HOM=date-palm-sacred tree. Babylonia-Assyria (Sir Geo. Birdwood).
+
+NEW WORLD.
+
+HO, or TI-HOO=ancient capital of Yucatan, see p. 277.
+
+HOM=mound. Maya.
+
+HOMTAMIL=belly, _i. e._ omphalos.
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Abadiano, Dionysio, 246, 251.
+
+Above (see "Heaven or Above").
+
+Academia Manuscript, 11.
+
+Acamapichtli, Mexican ruler, having title of "Woman-serpent," 63, 67, 71.
+
+Acatl, one of the four Mexican year-symbols, 76, 170, 179, 257, 280.
+
+Acolma, 55.
+
+Acosta, 76, 150.
+
+Agave or maguey, juice of, "drink of life," 188.
+
+Ahau, Maya glyph, chief, lord, 169;
+  figured on gold plaque from Cuzco, 169, 220.
+
+Ahau-ka-tun, 24-year period, 219;
+  literally lord, 20 stone, compared with Copan stelae, 219, 221.
+
+Ah-cuch-cab, Maya name of ruler or chief of a town or place, 184;
+  title of chief, 220;
+  terrestrial lord, 224.
+
+Ah-cuch-haab, Maya name for four year-signs, 220.
+
+Air, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, lord of, 126;
+  name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, 253.
+
+Air and water design, on sacred edifices in ancient America, 126;
+  union of, 126;
+  emblem of Above, 126;
+  on drinking vessels, 127;
+  on dome of ancient Greek monument, 127;
+  associated with the male region, 249.
+
+Akbal, Maya glyph, 108.
+
+Akkad=the North, 334.
+
+Akkadians, Semitic race of Assyria-Babylonia, 334.
+
+Alexander of Macedonia, 527.
+
+Allen, Richard Hinckley, 448, 451, 525.
+
+Alligator, altar at Copan, 227, 228, 296;
+  totem of Copan tribe, 228;
+  symbol in codices, 504, 518;
+  in India, 505, 519;
+  totem of Mayas and Mexicans, 520.
+
+Altars at Copan, 226, 227, 228, 229.
+
+Amaterasu, Japanese sun-goddess, 311.
+
+Amaytun, painted representation of the 20 and 24-year epoch, 219, 226.
+
+Amen-Ra, the supreme dual god of the Egyptians, 389, 390, 391.
+
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, 510, 545.
+
+American Folk-Lore Society, 510.
+
+American Museum of Natural History, 234.
+
+American peoples, 479-548.
+
+Ammon, 522.
+
+Ammonites, 351.
+
+Anacreon, 453.
+
+Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, 86, 93, 98.
+
+Andastes, 196.
+
+Andean art, compared with Mediterranean, 545.
+
+Andree, Richard, 52, 53.
+
+Angrand, Leonce, 150, 151.
+
+Animal form, as totem, 154;
+  associated with Four Quarters by Zuni, 295;
+  combined with bird, symbol of union of Above and Below, 296;
+  summary of use in symbolism 296;
+  in Chinese calendar, 299, in Buddhist mythology, 318;
+  combined with human in Babylonian symbolism, 335 (see Human form).
+
+Anthromorphites, 530.
+
+Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, 399;
+  cult of, very ancient, 437.
+
+Apollo, worshipped in form of a column, 447, 513.
+
+Arabia, star worship, axial rotation, seven-day period, etc., 322, 324,
+            448, 482, 495, 556.
+
+Aratos, 453.
+
+Arcadius, 530.
+
+Architecture, ancient, influenced by religious cults of Heaven and Earth,
+            284;
+  Byzantine, 515;
+  cruciform, 515;
+  symbolism of (see Windows, Cone, Tau, Pyramid, Color, Greek fret, etc.).
+
+Arctos, 452.
+
+Aristotle, 485, 486, 487.
+
+Arizona, 52, 199.
+
+Arriaga, Padre, 134.
+
+Arrowpoint, barbed, used instead of flint knife as symbol of
+            life-producing force, 55, 56.
+
+Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, 366, 369.
+
+Ashurbanipal, Assyrian king, offspring of Heaven and Earth, 346.
+
+Asia Minor, compared with North America in relation to tertiary plants and
+            fungi, 479.
+
+Asiatic contact, 534, 541 (see Pre-Columbian contact).
+
+Asiatic Society of Japan, 565, 575.
+
+Assyria, star-cult, 326;
+  numerical divisions, etc., 328;
+  cult of Polaris, 335;
+  analogies with China and Central America, 349;
+  civilization more recent than that of Babylonia, 353;
+  founded by Semitic Babylonians, 354;
+  rise of pure monotheism, 355;
+  stelae with seven symbols, seven circles, etc., 358;
+  Pole-star worship, seven-fold division, Four Quarters, etc., 367;
+  summary, 483.
+
+Astarte, Assyrian goddess figured as cow and as moon, 337, 345, 350.
+
+Astronomy, cast of astronomy-leaders, 22;
+  study of, among native races, 42;
+  basis of religion, 43;
+  knowledge of, among Eskimo, 50;
+  and other native peoples, 53;
+  Mexican astronomers, 82;
+  among the Zuni, 205;
+  astronomer-priests of Mexico 274;
+  in China, 285;
+  Chinese, Babylonian, Hindoo, Chaldean, Egyptian, Thibetan and Indian,
+              300, 301;
+  in Chaldea, 330;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 328, 338;
+  in Egypt, 376, 383;
+  Egyptian zodiac signs, illustrated, 395;
+  the time when there ceased to be a conspicuous pole star, 525-526 (see
+              Polaris, Calendar, etc.).
+
+Atlantis, Island of, 446.
+
+Atlatl or spear thrower, 211;
+  on temple of the Tigers, and on Stone of Tizoc, 212.
+
+Attiwendaronks, 196.
+
+Avila, 132.
+
+Axayacatl, living representative of Huitzilopochtli, 71.
+
+Axial rotation (or wheel) in ancient religion, symbolism and government;
+  in Maya name for Ursa Major, 8-10;
+  title of Mexican supreme divinity, "Wheel of the Winds," 11, 33;
+  origin of idea was rotation of Ursa Major around Polaris;
+  symbolized by swastika symbol, 18-23;
+  imitated by Mexican game, "Those who fly," 24;
+  associated with Mexican Calendar system, 25;
+  indicated by name Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan, 56;
+  represented by Mexican sacred dance, 59;
+  indicated in Vienna Codex by circle of footstep, 90;
+  in Zuni religious ceremony, 129;
+  in religious ceremony and irrigating canals of Peru, 145, 146;
+  symbolized by Nahuiollin on Mexican Calendar Stone, 251-52;
+  by one-footed man on Mexican "Sacrificial Stone," 259;
+  in ancient plan of Mexican government, 273;
+  pictured divinity surrounded by circle of footsteps, 279;
+  in plan of ancient Chinese government, 280-291;
+  in calendar systems of China and Mexico, 292;
+  symbolized by spider's web, 293;
+  in Chinese calendar, 309;
+  the wheel in Hindu religion, 313, 319;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 332, 356, 365, 366, 367;
+  "Wheel of the law" and "lord of the wheel" of India, in Egyptian
+              symbolism, 394, 400, 401;
+  centrifugal power and rule indicated by names of capital cities in Egypt
+              and Greece, 413;
+  revolving pillar on Acropolis at Athens, 447;
+  in Arabia, 448;
+  in India, 448;
+  in Plato's cosmical conception, 449;
+  in Homer's works, 452;
+  in Sophocles' work, 453;
+  in ancient Greece, _polos_=a star revolving on itself, 453;
+  Sanscrit god, "the driver of the axle," 453;
+  Greek "Ixion's wheel," 453;
+  indicated by cross symbol and later by swastika, 461;
+  wheel associated with Jove on Roman tombstone, 464;
+  in Scandinavia, the wain wheeled around the throne of Thor, 473;
+  Turanian god of heaven=the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks,
+              499;
+  symbols of, in Old and New World, 494-544;
+  summary, 544.
+
+Ayllu, Peruvian word for tribe or lineage, 141.
+
+Aztlan, land of light, 56, 57.
+
+Baal, Assyrian god, 345;
+  worshipped under image of bull, 410.
+
+Babylonia, Chinese immigrants from, 299;
+  Middle kingdom, 299;
+  astronomy, 300;
+  star cult, 326;
+  numerical divisions, etc., 328;
+  either a mountain or a star signified a god, 329;
+  astronomical observations of great antiquity, 329;
+  oriented to the Four Quarters, 333;
+  decline of the empire, 347;
+  female ruler, 347;
+  described in Revelations;
+  sevenfold organization, 348;
+  seven-staged tower, 356;
+  sevenfold state, 357;
+  altar of gold, 361.
+
+Babylonia-Assyria, the Babylonia triad, Anu, Ea, and Bel, signify the
+            Above, Middle and Below, 336;
+  compared with gods of China, 336;
+  combined Heaven and Earth cult, 344;
+  seven-fold organization, 360;
+  seven-staged tower (Zikkurat) and the great basin (Apsu) symbolized
+              cosmological conceptions;
+  tree or pole as sacred symbol;
+  fire-stick, 361;
+  worship of Polaris;
+  male and female principles in nature, 363;
+  New Year's festival, 364;
+  summary and conclusions, 367, 544.
+
+Bacab, title of Maya chief, 86;
+  title of rulers of Four Quarters, 183.
+
+Bailly, 319.
+
+Balam, Maya word for ocelot;
+  title of four lords of Below or Earth;
+  same as chac, 185.
+
+Balboa, 150.
+
+Ball, C. J., 302.
+
+Bandelier, Ad. F., 61, 74, 79, 84, 168, 200.
+
+Baptism, Maya, 225.
+
+Barber, Commander, U. S. N., 159.
+
+Bartholomew de las Casas, Friar, 32.
+
+Bat, symbol of happiness, 277.
+
+Bat-kin-ya-muh, the Water people, 200.
+
+Bastian, A., 153.
+
+Bead, jade bead, as symbol in Mexico, 81;
+  "gold bead," used as title;
+  symbolical among the Mayas, 237.
+
+Beard, on stelae at Copan and Quirigua, 219, 230;
+  on calendar sign;
+  on images of air-god, 231;
+  worn by representatives of Above, 231;
+  not worn by representatives of Below, 231;
+  in pictorial art, 232;
+  on portrait-statue of Stela E, at Quirigua, 232;
+  bearded personages on stelae were high-priests, etc., 232;
+  beardless effigies indicated different caste, 232;
+  bearded Spaniards regarded, by Mexicans, descendants of founders of
+              their civilization, 266;
+  emblem of sovereignty in Egypt, 426.
+
+Bee, Maya word for=cab;
+  Cab glyph, 110.
+
+Beetle (see Scarab).
+
+Beltram de Santa Rosa, Fray, 89, 101.
+
+Benares, temple of;
+  sacred cow, 316.
+
+Bentham, 476.
+
+Bentley, 300.
+
+Berichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, 478.
+
+Berlin Museum, 380, 417, 423, 424, 426, 427, 457, 460, 507.
+
+Berra, Orozco y, 264, 268, 269.
+
+B. N. MS. (Biblioteca Nationale MS.), same as "Lyfe of the Indians."
+
+Biblioteca Nazionale Manuscript (in press), 7, 9, 11, 12, 34, 37, 39, 44,
+            45, 46, 47, 54, 57, 64, 66, 71, 99, 102, 111, 112, 125, 128,
+            130, 189, 241, 279, 505.
+
+Biot, 298, 301.
+
+Bird, title of Mexican war chief, 25;
+  humming-bird in symbolism, 39;
+  with spider, serpent and cross on shell gorget, 49;
+  Bird-god, borne on litter, 71;
+  ancient Yucatan in shape of bird, 86;
+  illustrated social organization in Mexico, 87;
+  totem of Incas, 157;
+  on arms of Mexico, 157;
+  on sculptures at Tiahuanaco, 167;
+  man-bird represented ruler of upper division of State in Mexico, 185;
+  typical of lords of four provinces in Mexico, 190;
+  blue-bird, Mexican symbol, 190;
+  name of Nahuatl tribe, 206, 214;
+  three most powerful tribes of Yucatan have bird names, 217;
+  on altar at Copan, 228;
+  in sculptures at Palenque, and in Mexican Fejervary chart, 235;
+  mask in Mexican festival, 242;
+  totem of the Air people in Mexico, 254;
+  recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 282;
+  use of as symbol, 296;
+  vulture, symbol of Upper Egypt, 368.
+
+Birdwood, Geo., 314, 575.
+
+Blackfoot Indians, myth about Ursa Major, 511.
+
+Black, Robert, 526.
+
+Black Sun, in B. N. MS., 54.
+
+Blood offerings, meaning of, 98, 99, 442.
+
+Boas, Franz, 147.
+
+Boat, in sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, 160;
+  in Babylonian symbolism, 366;
+  in Egyptian symbolism, 403;
+  Egyptian, Grecian, Phoenician in early times, 491.
+
+Bochica or Ida-can-zas, culture hero of the Muyscas;
+  personification of the Sun or Above, 171.
+
+Bodleian MS., 44, 90.
+
+Bodleian Library at Oxford, 508.
+
+Boeckh, 488.
+
+Bogota, dual government, calendar, etc., 171.
+
+Bohn, 486.
+
+Book of the Dead, 372, 374, 386, 387, 404, 406.
+
+Book of Manu, 317.
+
+Book of Yu, 296.
+
+Bopp and Pott, 500.
+
+Boturini, 150, 180, 181, 182, 268, 269.
+
+Bourbourg, B. de, 35, 69, 89, 191, 206, 211, 216, 217, 271.
+
+Bournouf, 448, 451.
+
+Bovallius, Dr., 230.
+
+Bowl or vase (see Vase).
+
+Brahmanism, 312, 313.
+
+Brandenburg, spearhead from, illustrating triskelion and swastika
+            associated, 28.
+
+Brandsford, J. F., 50.
+
+Brazil, wooden clubs with Greek fret, 121;
+  symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American
+              civilizations, 224.
+
+Breath, puffs of, conventionalized on Copan slab, 223;
+  on bas-relief at Palenque, 223;
+  at Quirigua, 223;
+  compared with Zuni symbolism, 223;
+  in Copan, 280.
+
+Brinton, D. G., 60, 69, 72, 82, 88, 93, 100, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 164,
+            171, 175, 178, 181, 182, 191, 192, 217, 235.
+
+Britain, ancient, numerical divisions, middle, central ruler, quadruple
+            organization, 470, 493.
+
+British Guiana, wooden clubs with "Greek fret," 121.
+
+British Museum, 151, 166, 234, 353, 355, 356, 357, 366, 457, 459.
+
+Brown, Robert, 324, 325, 327, 338, 364.
+
+Brugsch, 370, 376, 377, 378, 379, 382, 385, 387, 390, 393, 395, 397, 398,
+            399, 400, 401, 402, 404, 406, 407, 418, 419, 423, 424, 425,
+            429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442.
+
+Buddhism, 294, 298, 301, 306, 311, 314.
+
+Budge, Wallis, 367, 368, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 379, 382, 388, 389,
+            391, 394, 397, 425, 437, 443.
+
+Bull, winged bulls of Babylonia and Assyria, 336;
+  symbolism of, 337;
+  Yahwe, national god of the Hebrews, represented as man or as bull, 350;
+  astronomical sign in Egypt for Ursa Major, and possibly of Polaris, 385;
+  linguistic reasons why king of Egypt was entitled "the bull," 385;
+  title of Egyptian supreme deity, 389;
+  cow, bull or ox, in Egyptian zodiac signs, 395;
+  Apis, sacred bull of Egypt, 399;
+  in inscription in temple of Denderah, 401;
+  Baal worshipped under image of, 410;
+  Egyptian _ka_, rebus, signifying Polaris and Ursa Major, 410;
+  title of Amen-Ra, 410;
+  associated with the goose in symbolism, 418;
+  Minotaurus, ruler of Crete, 457.
+
+Burger, George, 486.
+
+Burial urn, emblem of earth mother, 106.
+
+Buschmann, Dr., 153, 155, 158, 165, 172.
+
+Butterfly used as symbol of immortal soul by Mexicans, 39;
+  symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 47.
+
+Byzantine architecture, 515.
+
+Cab, Maya day sign, word for bee, also earth, 109;
+  honey, 110;
+  associated with female principle, 110.
+
+Cabal, day-sign, on Copan altar, 227.
+
+Caban, Maya day-sign, identical with symbol of earth, 107;
+  figured with leaves of maize, 109;
+  the Below, 227.
+
+Caesar, called the Son of the Sun, 440, 470, 537.
+
+Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, 79;
+  court of, 79;
+  obsidian mirror used as oracle, 80;
+  Annals of, 164;
+  legend suggesting form of government, 172;
+  tribal division associated with calendar, 178, 179;
+  tradition in relation to 7-day period, 182.
+
+Calendar systems, Mexican, 7;
+  suggested by Polaris and circumpolar constellations, 25;
+  Maya, origin of, 35;
+  Mexican, monograph on, 53;
+  origin of, 100;
+  ancient Peruvian, 145;
+  among the Muyscas, 171;
+  connection between calendar signs and divisions of the people, 175;
+  a governmental institution, 179;
+  invention of native system by ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, 182;
+  among the Zuni, 205;
+  kept profound secret by priesthood, 205;
+  Maya, 220;
+  fixed term of office for ancient American rulers, 221;
+  Mexican, originated from the fixed market-days, 245;
+  signs identified with different parts of human form, 282;
+  instituted by the Chinese emperor, Yaou, 289, 292;
+  comparison of American and Chinese, 297, 298, 299, 309;
+  Chaldean and Hindoo, 300;
+  Japanese compared with Mexican, 311;
+  Hindu with Mexican, 319;
+  Assyrian and Babylonian, 337, 348, 349;
+  ancient Egyptian, 377, 378;
+  lunar and solar, 439;
+  Esne calendar, 440;
+  Canopus calendar, 441;
+  Central American and Mexican, 528;
+  time when first adopted, 529, 530.
+
+Calendar-stone of Mexico, 12;
+  night sun pictured on, 13;
+  symbol of five dots compared with same on recumbent stone figure, 95;
+  market-stone of the City of Mexico, regulated social organization, 245;
+  special work on, by Zelia Nuttall, 246;
+  image of "Great Plan" or Scheme of Organization, 247;
+  figured and described, 248-258;
+  regulated machinery of state, 254;
+  Gama's, Valentine's and Chavero's descriptions, 256;
+  based on observation of Polaris, 257;
+  embodied the idea of a central, dual and quadruple power, etc., 258;
+  contains symbol of union of dual principles of nature, 280.
+
+Calendar-swastika, 9, 18, 41
+  (see Swastika).
+
+California Indians, use today two symbols in use by ancient Mexicans and
+            Mayas, _i. e._, flint-knife and "stone yoke," 104, 105.
+
+Calli, Nahuatl for western horizon=the house, 38;
+  one of the four-year symbols, 76;
+  meaning, the house, 253.
+
+Campina de Puebla, 275.
+
+Can, Maya word for serpent, 38;
+  serpent and numeral four, 50, 110, 112;
+  affix in names of towns, Iroquois, Maya and Mexican, 198;
+  associated with pyramid as Teotihua-Can, 263;
+  in Chinese and Maya associated with fourfold division, 288.
+
+Canaan, account of Hebrew religion, 350.
+
+Canada, Iroquois town, 197;
+  Maya meaning of, 198.
+
+Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, 440.
+
+Capital, Maya word for, homonymous with five=ho, 256.
+
+Caracol, or Round Temple, of Chichen-Itza, built by Quetzalcoatl,
+            representing Middle and Four Quarters, and centre of dominion,
+            97.
+
+Cardinal points, assignment of colors and parts of human body, 293, 294;
+  associated with form of quadruped among the Zuni, 295
+  (see Four Quarters).
+
+Carillo, Crescencio, 85, 86.
+
+Carthaginians, having knowledge of an island in the ocean, 540.
+
+Cartier, 197.
+
+Cary's translation of Herodotus, 437.
+
+Caryatids, at Chichen-Itza, 212.
+
+Cassiopeia, 22, 25, 26, 29, 40, 49.
+
+Caste, in Peru, 143;
+  in Mexico, 273.
+
+Castelnau, 150.
+
+Cat, sacred symbol in Egypt, 408.
+
+Catari, chronicler of the Incas, 151.
+
+Celi-Ced, the dual power, from which the universe was born (Druidic), 471.
+
+Centipede, Mexican symbol, 186.
+
+Central America, fundamental basis of government and civilization, 15;
+  symbolical form in architecture, 113, 119;
+  carved stone seats or altars, 283
+  (see Copan, Guatemala, etc.).
+
+Centre (stable centre or middle), in ancient government, religion, and
+            symbolism: Polaris, the centre of axial energy, 22, 30;
+  centre of the Cosmos, among Zunis, Mayas, Mexicans and Peruvians, 41;
+  symbols of, 46;
+  on shell gorgets, 49;
+  divergence from idea, 52;
+  represented by recumbent stone figure, 96;
+  among Incas, 136, 142, 144;
+  and Four Quarters represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;
+  in ancient American game, 178;
+  in Fejervary Codex, 178;
+  in social organization, 180;
+  on sculpture of Lord of Above, 186;
+  colors associated with, 192;
+  among the Zuni, 202;
+  in Copan Swastika, 222, 224, 225;
+  on Tablet of the Cross at Palenque, 236, 243;
+  union with Four Quarters in Mexican calendar-stone, 250, 258;
+  on Mexican monolith "Divine Twin," 260, 262, 264;
+  symbolized by pyramid, 273, 274;
+  words and symbols connected with, 277;
+  associated with swastika, 280;
+  expressed by pyramid, 282;
+  typified by cross-legged human figure, 283;
+  expressed in flower symbol, 284;
+  Chinese "Middle kingdom," 286, 287, 288, 291, 294, 299;
+  in America, symbolized by human heart and navel, in China by stomach,
+              296;
+  in Chinese religion, 306;
+  Japan called "Centre of the Earth," 310;
+  represented by statue of Buddha, 314;
+  Nirvana, 315;
+  in Hindu religion, 317;
+  in religion of Arabia, 323, 324;
+  of Persia, 325;
+  of Babylonia, 330, 333;
+  Jerusalem, sacred spot marking the centre of the world, 352;
+  in Babylonia-Assyria 364;
+  in Egypt, 376, 379, 380, 381, 384, 385, 386, 394;
+  expressed by mummy-shaped object, also by cone, 410;
+  by a crown, 412;
+  by a flower, 415;
+  in Egyptian feast, Tekhu, 439;
+  in ancient government of Crete, 457;
+  in ancient Rome, 463;
+  in ancient Ireland, Britain and Wales, 468-471;
+  in Scandinavia, 472;
+  in cross-symbolism, 511;
+  in religious ideas of Old and New World, 517, 535;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Century Dictionary, 452, 464.
+
+Cezalcouatl, name for Kukulcan, 69.
+
+Chaac Mool or Lord Tiger, name given by Le Plongeon to the recumbent
+            figure bearing circular vessel, found in Chichen-Itza, 95
+  (see "Recumbent stone figure").
+
+Chac (Maya) red color;
+  also rain, storms, thunder and Lightning;
+  title of Lord of Below, 185.
+
+Chac-noui-tan, name for Yucatan, 210.
+
+Chalchihuitl=jade, 34, 91;
+  jade beads, 81.
+
+Chalmers, John, 511.
+
+Chambers' Encyclopaedia, 452, 462, 463, 465, 484, 564.
+
+Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 565, 568, 571, 574, 575.
+
+Chariot, symbolism of, 313, 500, 501.
+
+Chavero, A., 33, 61, 253, 256.
+
+Che, Maya word for tree;
+  in names of tribes, 199, 234.
+
+Checker-board (or tartan) design, formed by taus, 122, 123, 124.
+
+Ch'en, Maya day sign, 110.
+
+Cheles, one of the Yucatan tribes, 217.
+
+Cherokees, 196.
+
+Chess board, in Egypt, 124.
+
+Chiapas, the present home of the Tzendals;
+  native calendar system, 180, 182;
+  migrations from, 210;
+  numerical divisions, 528.
+
+Chichen-Itza, culture-hero ruled in, 68, 69;
+  recumbent stone figure bearing circular vessel, 93, 185, 214;
+  connection established with Mexico by Kukulcan (Quetzalcoatl), 93;
+  Caracol or Round Temple, 97;
+  bas-relief illustrating navigation by boats, 160;
+  tradition about settlement of, 207;
+  evidence of Aztec influence, 212;
+  classification of ruins, 216;
+  tablet in house of "Tennis-court" 259.
+
+Chichimecs, sacrifices by, 66.
+
+Chicome-coatl, literally, seven-serpents, title of earth mother, 181.
+
+China, cosmical symbol compared with those of Copan and Mexico, 114;
+  symbols of Above and Below, 118;
+  sound of words, in symbolism, 276;
+  pole-star worship, 284;
+  the emperor at Pekin termed the Son of Heaven and the Empress inhabits
+              the palace of Earth's repose;
+  Yang and Yin;
+  Above and Below, etc., 286;
+  reason of deformation of feet, 287;
+  Chow Dynasty, fourfold plan of cities, linguistic affinities with
+              Mexicans and Mayas, "Quadriform constitution," 288;
+  calendar system, social and religious organization compared with that of
+              ancient America, 291, 292, 293;
+  tables showing the agreement and divergence in ancient systems of China
+              and America, 293;
+  assignment of colors and of parts of human body to cardinal points, 294;
+  comparative study of symbolism, 296;
+  social organization, etc., 297;
+  calendar and numerical system, 297, 298;
+  origin of civilization, 299;
+  astronomical system, 300, 301;
+  Buddhism, 301, 303, 315;
+  primitive calendar, 301;
+  Taouism, 301;
+  Chinese language said to be the same as Akkadian, 302;
+  civilization not indigenous, emigration into, 303;
+  Dowager Empress Ling, 304;
+  Israelites, 303-306;
+  Christians, 306;
+  fundamental principles of religion identical with that of ancient
+              America, but later, divergent, 306, 307, 308, 309;
+  Heaven and Earth cult practised at the present time, 344;
+  summary of numerical divisions, 483;
+  use of wheel from earliest times, 501-502;
+  use of Cross symbol with idea of central power, 511;
+  resemblances and differences, Chinese and Maya, Mexican, 533, 534;
+  doubt about extreme age of governmental scheme, 533;
+  celestial kingdom dates from first century, 541, 542;
+  summary and conclusions, 546.
+
+Cholula, contains largest pyramid in America, 268;
+  built as place of refuge from inundations, 271, 272;
+  place of sanctity, 275;
+  also called Cholola or Colola, 275;
+  marks site of great and ancient Tollan, 275, 276, 529.
+
+Cholollan, pyramid, a venerated sanctuary, 269;
+  tradition concerning, 270;
+  native name is "tollan," 275
+  (see Tullan Cholollan).
+
+Christianity, in China, 305, 306;
+  period of growth, persecution of pagans, 530, 531;
+  St. Augustine states that it has existed from the beginning, 536, 537,
+              538, 539, 541.
+
+Chuen, Maya day-sign, 112.
+
+Cib, Maya day-sign, 109, 110, 111.
+
+Cibola, seven cities of, 203.
+
+Cicero, 488, 526, 527.
+
+Cieza de Leon, 132, 150.
+
+Cihuacoatl, the earth mother, flint knife in wrappings, symbol of, 55;
+  the Woman serpent (or twin), 60;
+  name of Quilaztli, 60;
+  female ruler, 62, 63, 64;
+  Mexican ruler, 67;
+  personification of Earth, 76;
+  Montezuma's substitute, 77;
+  duties of, agents of, 78;
+  offered sacrifice to god of Underworld, 79;
+  compared with serpent in Maya Codex, 111;
+  emblem of, 128;
+  female title of lord of the night, 181.
+
+Cipactli, Mexican sign for a "marine monster," 228.
+
+Circle, symbol of heaven, 260;
+  influence on ancient architecture and symbolism, 284;
+  with dot, Egyptian sign for time, 387.
+
+Circle or ring, symbol of Egyptian "lord of the ring," Hindu "lord of the
+            wheel," Persian "god of the ring," and Mexican "lord of the
+            circle," 401.
+
+Circle or disk, Egyptian symbol, 402, 412, 444;
+  also in Peru, 444.
+
+Circumpolar constellations, studied by primitive man, 15;
+  in relation to origin of swastika symbol, 15;
+  form triskelion on night of winter-solstice, 27;
+  relation to sacred numbers, 29;
+  associated with idea of death and resurrection, 39;
+  in relation to underworld, 40;
+  four movements of, 54;
+  in connection with cult of Below, 54;
+  worship of in Old World, 383-387
+  (see Pleiades, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Polaris).
+
+Circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult of Polaris, 475;
+  place where human race probably spent its infancy, 475;
+  fauna and flora, 476, 478, 479.
+
+Circumpolar rotation, represented by swastika and star-symbols on pottery,
+            50-52;
+  compared to rotation of fire-drill by early peoples, 502
+  (see Rotation or Wheel).
+
+Clavigero, 24, 25, 58.
+
+Claws (or nails) of the state, title of warriors, 87;
+  in Mexican calendar-stone, 249;
+  on monolith "Divine Twin," 261.
+
+Cliff dwellers, tau as symbol, 119.
+
+Clubs (wooden) from South America and Peru, with symbolical designs, 122.
+
+Coatl (serpent or twin) in connection with tree symbolism, 188;
+  compared with Zuni Koa=twin, 201.
+
+Cocomes, Maya tribe, 209, 214.
+
+Codices: Borgian, 27, 36, 55, 91, 95, 98, 103, 116, 189, 504, 505;
+  Chimalpopoca, 270;
+  Chumazel, 85;
+  Cortesian, 111;
+  Dresden, 35, 37, 39, 41, 45, 110, 183;
+  Fejervary, 9, 10, 44, 107;
+  Fuenleal, 8, 10, 12, 33, 44;
+  Mendoza, 63, 87, 88, 117, 118, 122, 130, 173, 263;
+  Telleriano-Remensis, 10, 11, 240;
+  Troano, 86, 109, 110;
+  Vatican, 11, 44, 55, 50, 78, 80;
+  Vienna, 34, 44, 86, 90, 100, 103, 119, 123, 127.
+
+Cogolludo, 89, 180, 206, 210, 218.
+
+Colebrook and Bentley, 300.
+
+Colhuacan, Mexican local name, 263.
+
+Color, red in Mexico, associated with north, 57;
+  cult of Earth, 185;
+  title, 193;
+  blue, associated with rulership and divinities, 61, 62, 91, 214;
+  black, associated with Tezcatlipoca and with Quilaztli, 62;
+  yellow, color of the west, female region, 64;
+  meaning of, 114, 115;
+  on Moki masks, 119;
+  in tau design, 122;
+  on ancient Mexican temples and sculptures, 128;
+  in Peruvian symbolism, 130;
+  in Zuni symbolism, 130;
+  in architecture at Uxmal, 131;
+  used to denote social status by Peruvians, Mayas, Mexicans and Zunis,
+              192;
+  associated with four Quarters and Above and Below, 192, 251;
+  used for face and body painting, 193;
+  Huaxtecan mantle of five hundred colors, 208;
+  painting of caryatids in Chichen Itza, 212;
+  symbolic at Copan and Quirigua, 233;
+  emblematic, in China, 286;
+  assigned to elements by Mexicans, Zunis and Chinese, 200, 293;
+  assigned to cardinal points, in China and America, 294;
+  in Buddhist temple; in Quetzalcoatl's temples in Mexico, 295;
+  in Hindu caste, 313;
+  in Babylonia, 328;
+  in Egypt, red associated with the north and male sex, and white with
+              south and female sex, 369, 373, 425.
+
+Colorado, cliff dwellers, 119.
+
+Column, sacred, in great temple of Mexico, 53;
+  on hill of justice in Guatemala, 79;
+  stelae at Copan and Quirigua, 220, 230, 512;
+  laws inscribed on, centre of island Atlantis;
+  laws of Solon inscribed on, in centre of Athenian state;
+  of Apollo at Delphi, 447;
+  the cosmical round tower of Ireland, 470;
+  at Mitla, Mexico, 513;
+  symbolism of, in Old and New World, 513, 517.
+
+Confucianism, 115, 289, 298, 306.
+
+Cone, in Mexican ollin-sign, signified the Above, 118;
+  used in native architecture;
+  culminated in pyramid, 118;
+  represented by shape of windows in ancient ruins, 120;
+  on summit of House of the Doves at Uxmal, 131.
+
+Conical stone, on which human victims were sacrificed, 118.
+
+Congress of Americanists, 230, 231.
+
+Congress of Orientalists, 544.
+
+Conquest Stone of Mexico, "Sacrificial Stone," "Tribute Stone," 258, 507.
+
+Constantine, 509, 513, 514, 515, 530;
+  his numerical scheme compared with same in India, Mexico and Yucatan,
+              542, 543.
+
+Copan, lentil-shaped stone altar, from, 113;
+  carved stelae, 215;
+  purpose of erection, 216;
+  study of the ruins, 219;
+  cult of Polaris illustrated by carved slab in temple, 11, 222;
+  numerical organization illustrated, 222;
+  numerical divisions, symbolism, etc., identical with those of Peru,
+              Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuni, etc., 226, 228, 233;
+  numerical divisions on altar conform with Zuni clan-organization, 229;
+  bearded effigies, 231;
+  dual rulers, 232;
+  totemic animals and symbolic colors, 233;
+  excavation at Mound, 4, 233;
+  same cult as that of Palenque and Quirigua, 240;
+  carved stone seats or altars, 283;
+  alligator altar, 295;
+  stelae as memorial columns, 512, 513;
+  remnants of old civilization, 528.
+
+Copan swastika, compared with design on club from South America, 224;
+  compared with tablet in "Temple of the Sun," 239
+  (see also Swastika).
+
+Copts, 530.
+
+Cord (Maya kaan), associated with Maya word for Heaven=caan, and with
+            glyph, _can_, 112;
+  meaning of carved gorget worn on a cord, 112;
+  sky represented as a circle composed of a cord to which stars were
+              attached, 113;
+  on lentil-shaped stone altar at Copan, 114;
+  on shield of Mexican god, 128;
+  on Copan stela, 219.
+
+Corinth, coin with swastika, 459.
+
+Cortes, 34, 67, 68, 74, 75, 77, 97, 107, 150, 171, 183, 208, 245, 264,
+            266, 542.
+
+Cosmos, four-fold and seven-fold divisions of, in Peru, Mexico, Yucatan,
+            Zuni, 41, 42;
+  in Babylonia, India, Persia, etc., 328;
+  in pagan philosophy, 484, _note_
+  (see separate headings; also, Quadruple Organization and Numerical
+              Divisions).
+
+Cow, venerated in India, 316;
+  Canaan goddess, Astarte, in form of, 337;
+  Egyptian god Isis (Hathor) worshipped under form of, 406;
+  or bull, cult of Apis in Egypt, 437
+  (see Bull).
+
+Cox, 289, 451.
+
+Coya, wife or sister of Inca, 134.
+
+Cozumel cross, called symbol of "rain-god," 280.
+
+Creation myths, ancient Mexican, 54, 55, 56;
+  Zuni, 105, 200, 223;
+  Peruvian, 138;
+  Hindu, 313-318;
+  Babylonian, 334, 340;
+  Babylonian and Hebrew evidently from same source, 353.
+
+Creator, or "Supreme Being," in Mexico, 8;
+  title "wheel of the winds," 11;
+  Polaris, 22;
+  worshipped by ancient Americans, 32, 36;
+  earliest form of;
+  feathered serpent, image of, 70;
+  the four elements regarded as attributes of, 99;
+  belief in, represented by mushroom-shaped stone figure, 115;
+  Inca knowledge of, 135, 149;
+  Quechua title for;
+  Mexican title for, 159;
+  in Peru, identified with Mexican "Lord who guides," or Polaris;
+  and associated with star and cross, 161;
+  image of at Cuzco, 162;
+  worship of in Texcoco, 163;
+  in Peru, 164;
+  in Tiahuanaco, 168;
+  native title, "Heart of Heaven", 189;
+  in Mexico represented by rebus of the feathered serpent, 209;
+  Nahuatl title, expressed by an eye and pyramid in picture-writing, 269;
+  Divine Twain, Father and Mother of all, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, 270;
+  in China, 302;
+  Akkadian name for symbol, an eight-pointed star, 302, 304;
+  among the Hindu, 312;
+  Brahmanistic conception of, 314;
+  in Persia, 325;
+  in Babylonia, 329, 330;
+  among the Hebrews=Yahwe lord of Heaven, 304, 351, 352;
+  in ancient Egypt, 397, 403, 412, 444;
+  in Plato's Timaeus, 449;
+  the Norse, Thor, 473;
+  the source of the four elements, 510;
+  comparison of names in Old and New World, 532;
+  summary, 548.
+
+Cremation, significance of, 106.
+
+Crete, Greek plan of organization came from, description of symbols on
+            coin 457;
+  ancient philosophy of, 486-488.
+
+Cross-bones, origin of symbol, 184.
+
+Cross-legged seated figures, on Central American stone seats or altars,
+            283;
+  emblem of stable centre and Four Quarters, 283.
+
+Cross-symbol, Maya and Mexican, figured and described, 37, 38, 45, 46, 47;
+  on shell gorget from Tennessee, 49, 50;
+  on pottery from Mississippi Valley, 51;
+  from Arizona, 52;
+  on Iroquois belt, 198;
+  in symbolical carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224;
+  four-spoked wheel as cross symbol in Assyria, 356;
+  emblem of sovereignty in Babylonia-Assyria, 365;
+  used as symbol at earlier period than swastika, 461;
+  with idea of Central power, 511;
+  emblem of Christian religion, 535, 536;
+  summary, 544
+  (see Swastika).
+
+Cross-tablets at Palenque, 237, 238, 239.
+
+Cross-worshippers, Chinese name for Christians, 305.
+
+Cruciform structures, vaults under stelae at Copan and Quirigua, 512;
+  at Mitla, Mexico, 513;
+  at Rome, 514;
+  buildings and churches of later period, 515;
+  at Byzantium, 515;
+  in Syria, 515;
+  in India, 516;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Cruz, Alonzo de la, 230.
+
+Cubas, Garcia, 218, 231.
+
+Culin, Stewart, 178.
+
+Cum-ahau, name of divinity of Yucatan, 93, 222, 226.
+
+Cup-shaped depression, on stone altar at Copan, 114.
+
+Cushing, Frank H., 41, 99, 115, 129, 132, 192, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206,
+            227, 295, 511, 574.
+
+Cuzco, "navel of the earth," 133;
+  plan of city, Centre and Four Quarters, 136;
+  founded by Manco Capac, 156;
+  temple, facing north and containing gold image of "Creator," 163;
+  gold plaque from, 168;
+  symbolism analogous to Mexican and Maya, 170.
+
+Dahlgren, E. W., 230.
+
+D'Alviella, Goblet, 19, 459.
+
+Dances, sacred, 57;
+  description of Mexican dance, representing wheel or axial rotation, 58,
+              59;
+  of Moki Indian, 119;
+  at Cuzco, 145;
+  Sun pole dance of American Indians, 313, _note_.
+
+Davis, J. F., 300.
+
+Day-sign, Maya and Mexican, 75, 107-112;
+  influence of, 177;
+  totem of clan, 178, 179;
+  Cabal, on Copan altar, 227;
+  and year signs of native calendar, 248;
+  in calendar-stone, 253;
+  names of, used as personal and tribal names, 253.
+
+Death, symbol of, 39.
+
+Deer, mask of, 165.
+
+Deities, Aztec, number of, same god under several names, 8.
+
+Demosthenes, lantern of, 127.
+
+Denderah, 400.
+
+Dennis, J. S., 483.
+
+DeRossi, 514.
+
+Desjardins, 150.
+
+Destruction of the earth, Mexican traditions concerning, 270, 271.
+
+Dhruva, 495, 496.
+
+Diaz, Bernal, 71, 72, 75, 77, 80, 96, 97, 245, 265, 542.
+
+Din-gira, Akkadian name for God, 302.
+
+Diocletian, 514.
+
+Divination, in connection with use of mirrors, 83;
+  origin of 177;
+  in China, Thibet and India, 301.
+
+Divine Twin
+  (see Duality).
+
+Documentos ineditos del Archivio de Indias, 77.
+
+Dog, head of, on sculptures from Santa Lucia, 165; Maya word for=men, 234.
+
+Donelly, Ignatius, 374, 516.
+
+D'Orbigny, 150.
+
+Douglas, R. K., 285, 291, 298, 299, 302.
+
+Draconis, observation in Egypt, 384.
+
+Dragon, at Quirigua, 233.
+
+Dragon-fly, employed as cross-symbol, on Algonquin garment, 48.
+
+Druids, 470, 471.
+
+Drums, 58, 59, 60, 213.
+
+Duality or "Divine Twin," symbol of, 39;
+  conventional representation of, 46;
+  idea of, 47;
+  dual stellar divinity, 56, 57;
+  represented in sacred dance, 59;
+  by male and female ruler, 62;
+  development of idea, 67;
+  twin brothers as rulers in Yucatan, 68;
+  Montezuma, impersonation of, 73, 77, 78;
+  in Peruvian symbolism, 134;
+  the "Beloved Twain" of the Zuni, 200;
+  Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan, 223;
+  dual ruler at Copan, 228;
+  in Quirigua, 232;
+  on Palenque tablet, 245;
+  on Mexican Calendar Stone, 249;
+  in Mexican sculpture, 251, 260-262;
+  dual government at time of Conquest, 266;
+  in China, 285;
+  in Hindu religion, 312;
+  in India, 314;
+  in Babylonia-Assyria, 342;
+  in Egypt, 389, 397, 399, 410, 412, 415, 423;
+  in ancient Rome, 463;
+  in ancient Ireland, 468;
+  in Druidic traditions of Wales, 471.
+
+Duemichen, 385.
+
+Duran, Friar, 26, 41, 56, 57, 58, 61, 71, 77, 78, 80, 88, 182, 241, 243,
+            245, 258, 282.
+
+Eagle (quauhtli), associated with Cassiopeia;
+  title of Mexican war chief, 25, 167;
+  Eagle-woman, 60;
+  among the Incas, 156;
+  on bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, Guatemala, 156, 157;
+  totem of one or more of the Incas, 157;
+  on bas-relief in City of Mexico, 157;
+  in arms of Mexico, 157;
+  symbol of Above among the Zuni, 204;
+  symbol of state in Mexico and Central America, 295;
+  summary of use as symbol, 296.
+
+Earth, or "The Below," in ancient religion and symbolism;
+  in ancient Mexican and Maya cosmos;
+  in secret beliefs of Zuni priests, 41;
+  female region, 42;
+  lord of, 45;
+  cult of, 54;
+  associated with woman, 60-655;
+  sacrifices to, 66;
+  Cihuacoatl, personification of, 76;
+  sacrifices to god of, 79;
+  in connection with human sacrifices, 91;
+  sacred rites, 97, 98;
+  in Zuni ceremonies, 100;
+  in connection with cremation, 106;
+  symbol of, in use by California Indians, 106;
+  priestesses of, buried in caves, 107;
+  symbols of, 110;
+  associated with image of serpent, 111;
+  with angular form, 113;
+  composed of fire and water, 113;
+  on altar at Copan, 114;
+  associated with square form and bowl, 115;
+  flat-topped mitre worn by lord of, 116;
+  Chinese symbol, 118;
+  sacrifices 118;
+  tau upright, emblem of, 118, 119;
+  cult of, in Peru, 130, 133, 134, 135, 141, 142;
+  idea prevailed in Tiahuanaco, 166;
+  among the Muyscas, 171;
+  in calendar, 179;
+  in social organization, 180, 181;
+  associated with animal form, 184, 185;
+  color associated with, 192;
+  associated with female principle, 193;
+  votaries of, 195;
+  in Zuni social system, 202, 203, 204;
+  priests of, represented without beards on sculptures at Copan and
+              Quirigua, 231, 232;
+  moon symbol of cult, 267;
+  cultivation of maize, by daughter of, 276;
+  symbolized by quadruped, 282;
+  vase, emblem of, 283;
+  associated with square form, and darkness;
+  influence on primitive architecture and symbolism, 284;
+  flower used as symbol of, 284;
+  in China, 285, 288, 290, 307;
+  in Hindu religion, cult of Siva, 314;
+  in Persian religion, 325;
+  in Assyrian and Babylonia cult, 334, 336, 338, 339;
+  cult combined with that of Above practised in China at present time,
+              344;
+  Baal, Phoenician god of Earth, 351;
+  in Egypt, 381;
+  symbolized in Scandinavia by Thor's hammer, 474;
+  table of countries where traces of cult have been found, 480;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Earth-mother, represented by Cihuacoatl, 79;
+  pictured in Borgian Codex, 98;
+  Zuni symbol of, 100, 200, 201
+  (see Earth or the Below, also Cihuacoatl).
+
+Earth-work builders of the Ohio valley, 50, 199, 280.
+
+Eddas, written by agricultural people, having knowledge of the fire-drill,
+            axial rotation, etc., 502, 503.
+
+Egypt, crux ansata, 119;
+  checker-board design;
+  basis of chess-board, 124;
+  civilization mainly Euphratean, 327;
+  explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, 367-461;
+  color symbolism;
+  high development of pole-star worship;
+  territorial divisions, 368;
+  Four Quarters;
+  hieroglyph for capital or city, cross symbol with four divisions, 369,
+              371;
+  pyramid, and square form associated with earth, and round with sky, 371;
+  numerical divisions, 375;
+  seven-fold organization, centre, Polaris, 376;
+  calendar, 377, 378;
+  sky-goddess Nut, 378;
+  lotus flower symbol, 379;
+  Polaris, sphinx, pyramid, Middle, 379;
+  mummy, Polaris, 380, 383;
+  Ursa Major, used as a measurer of time, 384;
+  bull, used as astronomical sign of Ursa Major, king entitled "The Bull,"
+              385;
+  Amen-Ra, the supreme, dual god;
+  king associated with sun, and queen with moon, 389;
+  hawk-headed god, An, compared with Assyrian, Greek and Mexican gods of
+              the circle or wheel, 401;
+  Egyptian queen analogous in position to Mexican Quilaztli, 428, 429;
+  festival of Tekhu, 439;
+  becomes a Roman province, 440;
+  cult of dual principles of nature, 441;
+  summary, 483;
+  the sacred and tribal tree, 499;
+  the symbolical use of the column, 513;
+  Aha-Mena, first historical ruler, was a builder, 532;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Faber, 516.
+
+Fauna and flora of the tertiary period, in Old and New World, 476-479.
+
+Feather, symbol of divinity (Mexican and Maya), 69, 70;
+  names signify something divine, 129;
+  Egyptian symbol, 390, 409, 410.
+
+Feathered serpent, origin of use as symbol, 69;
+  effigies of in Mexico, 70;
+  used as rebus to express Supreme Being and his earthly representative,
+              208
+  (see also Serpent).
+
+Feet of Chinese women, deformation of, 287.
+
+Fejervary Codex, 178, 187, 235, 250.
+
+Ferlini, 427.
+
+Fewkes, J. Walter, 130, 199, 200.
+
+Figueredo, Padre Juan de, 164.
+
+Finger and toe count=20: 175, 295, 296, 297.
+
+Fire, sacred, Pleiades in connection with kindling, 53;
+  new, kindling of, 56;
+  festival of god of, 57;
+  earliest form under which deity was worshipped, 58, 64, 70;
+  in Peru, 83;
+  lighting of, by means of mirror, 83;
+  god of, associated with sceptre having gold disk, 87;
+  kindled on body of human victim, 91, 95;
+  lord of, 127, 128, 214;
+  feast of in Mexico, 240;
+  name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, 253;
+  symbolical meaning of, 280;
+  means of producing in Mexico and India, 318;
+  in connection with cult of Polaris, 319;
+  worship of in India, 320, 321;
+  in Parsee religion, 326;
+  in Babylonia-Assyria, 362;
+  ceremonial rite, in ancient Egypt, 442;
+  at New Year festival in Scandinavia, 474;
+  (in Old World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altars, lord
+              of fire, 494-504, 519, 520, 521;
+  (in New World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altar,
+              fire-drill god, 504-509;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Five elements in China, 293, 301, 309;
+  in India and in Greece, 484, _note_.
+
+Five-day periods, year divided into in Mexico, 292;
+  in Japan, 310.
+
+Five-dot groups, idea of, 256;
+  on monolith "Divine Twin," 260;
+  on coin found in island of Crete, 457;
+  on the cenotaph of king Midas, 459.
+
+Fletcher, Alice C., 196, 511.
+
+Flint, Earl, 195.
+
+Flint knife, Tecpatl, in wrappings, symbol of earth-mother, used as
+            sacrificial knife, 55, 56;
+  on head dress in B. N. MS., 57;
+  in connection with emblematic vase, 103;
+  sacred among the Hupa Indians of California, 105;
+  on sacrificial stone of Mexico, 258;
+  emblem of generation, 521
+  (see Tecpatl).
+
+Flood and destruction myths and traditions, 88, 240, 253, 270-275
+  (see Myths and Traditions).
+
+Flower, as symbol, 101;
+  four petals, two leaves and stalk, 191;
+  on Tablet of the Cross, 236;
+  symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 278;
+  recapitulation of meaning of, 284;
+  lotus in Hindu religion, 314;
+  or rosette, in Assyrian symbolism, 366;
+  seven petalled flower on Phoenician tablets, 395;
+  Egyptian word for=_ankh_ means also "life," 413;
+  emblem of Middle, axial rotation and life, 413-420.
+
+Footsteps, in circle, indicating rotation, 90, 279.
+
+Forrer, R., 460.
+
+Foerstemann, E., 107, 109, 112.
+
+Four Elements, in ancient religion and symbolism: union of, in sacred
+            rites, 97;
+  regarded as attributes of Supreme Divinity, 99;
+  Mexican and Zuni beliefs and ceremonies, 99-102;
+  symbolized by calendar signs, 182;
+  symbols of, on Mexican Calendar Stone, 249-251, 253, 254;
+  classification of among the Mexicans, Zuni, and Chinese, 293, 294;
+  Creator, in Peru and Mexico, named Earth, air, fire and water in One,
+              494, 510, 529.
+
+Four Quarters, in ancient religion and symbolism: 38, 41, 46;
+  on shell gorgets, 48, 49;
+  colors of, represented on feathered serpent, 70;
+  represented in Mexico by four executive officers, 75, 76;
+  ancient Yucatan divided into, 85, 86;
+  in Vienna Codex, 90, 91;
+  in Borgian Codex, 91;
+  represented in Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen Itza, 97;
+  all things divided into, for an indefinite period, finally subdivided,
+              99;
+  figured as single sign, 124;
+  in plan of capital and form of government among Incas, 136, 144;
+  represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;
+  represented by four limbs of human figure, 174;
+  symbolized in ancient American games 176, 178;
+  in Fejervary Codex, 178;
+  represented by 20-day period, 179, 180;
+  lords of, among the Quiches, 182;
+  colors of, 192;
+  among Zuni, 201;
+  in pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, 208;
+  idea of, carried out by Quetzalcoatl in the Mexican temples, 209;
+  ruler of, on Copan stelae, 220;
+  meaning of symbol as used among the Maya, 223;
+  on Copan swastika, 224;
+  on Palenque tablets, 243;
+  in Mexican calendar-stone, 250;
+  designated by colors on monuments in Mexico, 251;
+  symbolized on monolith "Divine Twin," 260;
+  cult of, in Mexico and Peru, 264;
+  Cortes regarded as Lord of, 266;
+  in connection with pyramid, 273;
+  list of symbols connected with, 278;
+  expressed by pyramid, 282;
+  in flower symbol, 284;
+  in Chinese calendar system, 285, 291;
+  associated with color and the elements, 293;
+  with parts of the body by Chinese, 294;
+  with form of quadruped by Zuni, 295;
+  in China, 298;
+  in Japan, 311;
+  in India, 313;
+  in Persia, 325;
+  in Assyria and Babylonia, 332, 333, 337, 357;
+  in Egypt, 369, 372, 386, 394, 395, 415;
+  in ancient Ireland, the five kings assigned one to the middle and the
+              others to the cardinal points, 468;
+  in ancient Britain, 470;
+  in ancient Scandinavia, 472;
+  table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480-494;
+  in religious ideas of Old and New World, 517, 539;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Gage, Thomas, 75, 84.
+
+Gallatin, 196.
+
+Gama, Leon y, 96, 186, 246, 252, 256, 260.
+
+Game of ball, represented idea of perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies,
+            82;
+  of patolli, description of, 87;
+  tlachtli and patolli in Mexico, 176, 177, 178.
+
+Garcia, 150.
+
+Garcilaso de la Vega, 132, 133.
+
+Gaul, divided into seven provinces, 493.
+
+Gesenius, 518.
+
+Gensler, Dr., 395.
+
+Ghizeh Museum, 427.
+
+Gibbon, 150.
+
+Gilgamesh epic, 366.
+
+Gillies, John, 487.
+
+Globus, 52.
+
+God C, Maya divinity, 108, 111;
+  not identical with Polaris, 112.
+
+God L, Maya divinity, 108.
+
+God M, Maya divinity, 108.
+
+Godman, F. Ducane, 120.
+
+Godman and Salvin, 216.
+
+Gomara, 26, 39, 90, 150.
+
+Goodyear, William H., 314, 395, 413, 414, 415, 418, 420, 424, 460.
+
+Goose, in Egyptian symbolism, 398;
+  in Egyptian, Sanscrit and Hindu religious art, 418;
+  in the prehistoric art of Greece, Italy, Hallstatt, Gaul, Sweden;
+  name for in different languages, 419.
+
+Gordon, G. B., 512.
+
+Gottfriedt, J. L., 63.
+
+Government (see Quadruple organization, and Social organization).
+
+Great Plan, stone of, 506.
+
+Great temple of Mexico, 53, 80;
+  recumbent stone figure on summit of, 96;
+  contains forty high towers to hold effigies of lords of the Above, 107,
+              225.
+
+Great Turtle at Quirigua, 234, 240.
+
+Greece, use of checker-board design, 124;
+  primitive government of, 445;
+  Athenian culture, 454-459;
+  summary, 484;
+  Greek colonies in Egypt, 491;
+  the symbolic use of the column, 513;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Greek fret, evolution of, on the American continent, 121;
+  formed by upright and reversed tau, 121.
+
+Griffis, W. E., 310.
+
+Grote, 484, 485, 486, 491, 492, 527.
+
+Guatemala, cult of Polaris, 44;
+  Cakchiquel Indians, 79, 171;
+  obsidian mirror as oracle, 82;
+  ancient capital of, divided into two and four parts, 85;
+  ancient civilization in, 89;
+  mushroom-shaped stone figures from, 114;
+  sculptured slabs resembling image in Inca fable, 153;
+  Nahuatl language spoken in, 155;
+  caste division associated with left hand, evidence that Nahuatl was
+              spoken in, 165;
+  Nahuatl names of four provinces, 172;
+  stela with symbol of open hand, 184;
+  numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, 226;
+  summary, in table of countries, 494.
+
+Gubernatis, Angelo de, 318, 544.
+
+Gudea, 357.
+
+Guiana, symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American
+            civilizations, 224.
+
+Guillemin, Amedee, 162, 163.
+
+Habel, Dr., 154, 156.
+
+Hagar, Stansbury, 480, 510.
+
+Hakluyt, 140, 161.
+
+Hale, Horatio, 196, 198.
+
+Haliburton, R. G., 339, 469.
+
+Hammurabi, 349.
+
+Hamy, Ernest, 114, 174.
+
+Hanan-ayllu, upper lineage in Peru, 133.
+
+Hanan Cuzco=the Above, ruled by the Inca, 133;
+  division of Inca capital including those of upper class, 140, 164.
+
+Hathor-Isis, Egyptian goddess of whom the queen was the living image,
+            429-437.
+
+Hawk god, in Egyptian zodiac, 400;
+  on inscriptions in temple of Denderah, 401;
+  Egyptian god Horus represented with head of hawk, 402;
+  used as image of Amen-Ra, 412.
+
+Heaven, or "the Above," in ancient religion and symbolism:
+  in conception of cosmos in ancient Mexico, in secret beliefs of Zuni
+              priests, associated with rising of celestial bodies, 41;
+  male region, 42, 54, 62, 65;
+  sacrifices to, 66;
+  Montezuma living representative of, 71, 72;
+  in Zuni ceremonies, 100;
+  symbolized as air, light and water, 103;
+  lords of, buried in wooden effigies placed in high towers, 107;
+  associated with rounded form;
+  temples were circular, 113;
+  on lentil-shaped altar at Copan, 114;
+  in mushroom-shaped stone figures from San Salvador and Guatemala, 115;
+  peaked mitre worn by lord of, 116;
+  represented in Mexican ollin-sign by cone, 118;
+  symbolized by conical stone on which human victims were sacrificed, 118;
+  Chinese emblem of, 118;
+  in Moki Indian dance, 119;
+  in ancient architecture, 119-121;
+  on clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, 121;
+  in Peru, 130-146;
+  in Tiahuanaco, 166;
+  in Bogota, 171;
+  represented by human head, 174;
+  associated with human figure, 184, 185;
+  in Mexican tree symbolism, 188, 189;
+  color associated with, 192;
+  priests represented with beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua,
+              231;
+  in Mexican calendar-stone, 249;
+  in "Divine Twin," 260;
+  list of symbols connected with, 278, 282;
+  in China, 284-290, 298, 299, 301, 306, 307, 344;
+  Hebrew Jehovah called "God of Heaven," 304, 323, 351;
+  in India, 314;
+  in Persia, 325;
+  in Assyria and Babylonia, 334, 336, 338, 339;
+  in Egypt, 429;
+  in Scandinavia, 474;
+  table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Heaven and Earth, union of:
+  symbolized by human face, 46, 47;
+  expressed by cross-symbols, 48;
+  illustrated by double tau-shaped figure, 86;
+  in connection with Toxcatl festival, 97;
+  in ancient architecture, 120;
+  in ancient symbolism 130;
+  typified by shape of irrigating canals of Peru, 132;
+  on Copan stelae, 221;
+  on summits of high mountains, 283;
+  in China, 286;
+  by figure of ocelot and eagle combined, 296;
+  in Babylonia, 330, 334-346;
+  in Egypt, 425, 429-438.
+
+Hebrews, 304, 305, 327, 350, 351, 352, 364.
+
+Heliopolis, seat of learning and monotheism in ancient Egypt, 444.
+
+Heraclitus of Ephesus, 452.
+
+Hercules, twelve labors of, 511.
+
+Herodotus, 300, 328, 329, 361, 375, 399, 412, 437, 442-492.
+
+Herrera, 77, 86, 132.
+
+Hesiod, 453.
+
+Hewitt, 453, 480-482, 494-509, 517-524, 565-575.
+
+Hiawatha, 197.
+
+Hieroglyphs, and symbols, on stone monuments of Central America, 218-233;
+  Yucatan, 234-244;
+  Mexico, 245-275.
+
+Hilavi, 134.
+
+Hipparchus, 452.
+
+Hippodamus, 486, 516.
+
+Historical Exposition at Madrid, 23.
+
+Ho, ancient name for Merida, on ancient map from Codex Chumazel, 86, 90.
+
+Hochelaga, kingdom of, 197;
+  Iroquois central capital, 198.
+
+Holcan, title given to war chiefs in Mexico, signifies literally the head
+            of four, 209;
+  relates to rulership of Four Quarters, 209.
+
+Holmes, W. H., 39-48, 49, 69, 97, 131, 213, 235, 240.
+
+Homer, 451, 452.
+
+Honduras, ancient civilization in, 89, 218;
+  Peabody Museum Expedition, 512
+  (see Copan).
+
+Hopi, ceremonial having affinities with the Nahuatl and Maya, 209.
+
+Horizon, western, Nahuatl symbol for=calli, the house, 38.
+
+Horse, sacred animal in Egypt, 409.
+
+Horse-shoe symbol, 106, 107, 108.
+
+Horus, Egyptian God identified with Polaris, 402.
+
+House of the Doves at Uxmal, symbolism of, 131.
+
+Huaca, tribal or household "idol" among the Peruvians, origin of, 138,
+            139, 140.
+
+Huaxtecans, 64, 125;
+  Maya colony on Mexican coast, 160, 207, 208.
+
+Huitzilopochtli, tradition concerning, 12;
+  represented as humming-bird, 26;
+  connected with Above, the male region, 42;
+  the traditional leader of the Aztecs, 57;
+  tradition concerning sister of, 60;
+  associated with blue color, 62;
+  represented by Montezuma, 71;
+  title of, "Heart of the Heaven," 72;
+  companion idol to that of Tezcatlipoca in great temple of Mexico, 80;
+  monolith in Mexico, 245;
+  statue of, 265.
+
+Human arm, symbol of one of the divisions of state in Mexico, 175.
+
+Human bones, used as rebus, 183;
+  reason of decoration, 184.
+
+Human breath, symbolism of, 9, 10
+  (see also Breath).
+
+Human face, used symbolically, 47;
+  in centre of ollin sign, 54;
+  on sculpture at Tiahuanaco, 169;
+  in Mexican calendar, 169;
+  in Central American sculptures, 221;
+  in Copan sculpture, 222;
+  in Mexican calendar-stone, 248;
+  summary, 281.
+
+Human faces, of silver and mosaic, on necklace of statue, 265.
+
+Human figure, in sacrifice regarded as symbolic of Middle and Four
+            Quarters, 91;
+  in mushroom-shaped stone figure, 114;
+  in Vienna Codex, 123;
+  statue of man and woman, symbolized duality in Peru, 134;
+  Inca gold image of Creator and of the sun, 135;
+  image of the State in Mexico, 174;
+  associated with Four Quarters of the Above, 184;
+  combined with animal figure, symbol of dual State, 185;
+  on Copan stelae, 219-227;
+  at Quirigua, 231, 232, 233, 234;
+  in sculpture at Palenque, and in Mexican Fejervary chart, 235-240;
+  recapitulation of meaning of symbol;
+  image of constitution and calendar system;
+  calendar signs identified with, 282;
+  seated cross-legged, emblem of stable Centre, 283;
+  parts of, assigned to cardinal points in China, 294;
+  in Zuni, 295;
+  significance of, in sculpture, 295;
+  on stela, represented the chief and his term of office, 295;
+  summary of its use as symbol, 296;
+  statue of Buddha conveys idea of swastika, also of Centre, 315;
+  combined with animal in Babylonian symbolism, 335;
+  winged, bird-headed human figure on Assyrian bas-relief, 366;
+  in Egypt, 378, 379, 400, 437, 438;
+  in the island of Crete, 457, 458.
+
+Human fingers, symbol of four officers, 175.
+
+Human foot, symbol of lower division of State, 175.
+
+Human hand, symbol of supplication, 127, 261;
+  on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;
+  meaning of, 174;
+  wooden sceptre in form of, 174;
+  symbol of capital of State, 175;
+  on garment of chieftain at Uxmal;
+  on stela used as name-sign of ruler in Mexico;
+  symbol of ancient capital in Yucatan;
+  sceptre in shape of, 184;
+  symbol of four lords of the Above, 185;
+  the idea of many hands guided by one head or central power, 186;
+  symbol of lord or chief, 190;
+  expressed numeral five, 279;
+  Egyptian symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 394.
+
+Human head, on Tablet of the Cross, 236;
+  as corn cobs on maize plant, 237;
+  in serpents' jaws on calendar-stone, 257;
+  portraits or effigies of the dead, 276;
+  used as symbol of Centre, 279;
+  on winged bull, 337.
+
+Human heart, symbol employed by Mexicans, Mayas, Quiches, and Tzendals,
+            71;
+  extracted from human victim of sacrifice, 91;
+  emblem of supplication, 127;
+  in sacrifice, 173, 296;
+  between 4 squares, symbol for chieftain, etc., 199;
+  on monolith "Divine Twin," 261;
+  of gold on necklace of idol, 265.
+
+Human eye used as star symbol, 279
+  (see Eye symbol).
+
+Human mouth and teeth, symbolized earth or Below, 281.
+
+Human nose, mystic union of two streams of breath, consecrated by wearing
+            symbolical nose ornament, 282.
+
+Human sacrifice
+  (see Sacrifice).
+
+Human skull, artificial deformation of, 143.
+
+Human stomach, in China symbol of Centre;
+  death by disemboweling practised, 296.
+
+Human thumb, symbol of central ruler, 175.
+
+Humboldt, 297, 301, 319.
+
+Humboldt Tablet, 506.
+
+Humis-katshina, Zuni dance, tau symbol used in, 119.
+
+Hunter, Annie, 222.
+
+Hupa Indians, 105.
+
+Hurin-ayllo, lower lineage in Peru, 133.
+
+Hurin Cuzco=the Below, 133;
+  division of the Inca capital including the lower class, 141, 164.
+
+Huron Indians, 196-199, 493.
+
+Huxley, 526, 534.
+
+Hwang-te, Chinese emperor who introduced calendar system, 298, 301.
+
+Idols, represented attributes of divine power, etc., 8;
+  tribal and household, 138, 139, 140.
+
+Ik, Maya glyph, 225.
+
+Illinois, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.
+
+Imix, Maya glyph, 108.
+
+Incas of Peru, 133;
+  cult of, 134;
+  Great Temple of, 135;
+  gold images of Creator and of the sun, 135, 136;
+  form of government, based on Centre and Four Quarters, 136;
+  ancestor worship, 137;
+  origin of, 151;
+  use of tree symbolism, 186;
+  record of male and female ancestry, 186;
+  gold associated with male element, silver with female, 187;
+  associated with golden effigy of sun, 264;
+  advent into Peru, 539;
+  summary and conclusions, 546
+  (see also Peru).
+
+India, divisions of year, 291;
+  astronomical system, 300;
+  swastika abounds in, 312;
+  Mithra, Hindu god of the wheel, 313;
+  Brahmans, Buddhists, 314;
+  marriage custom, 316;
+  numerical divisions, 317;
+  native maps of, 318;
+  ceremonial mode of producing fire, 318;
+  Middle, centrifugal power;
+  quadruple organization, etc., 320;
+  tree worship, 321;
+  worship of Polaris, "the pivot of the planets," 448, _note_;
+  summary, 480;
+  Pythagoras derived his philosophy from, 484;
+  sacred fire, fire drill, fire altar, 494;
+  marriage, 498;
+  the Maghas and Nahushas compared with the Mayas of Yucatan and the
+              Xahuas of Mexico, 509;
+  the idea of five elements, 526;
+  active intercourse with seafarers, 541;
+  cyclical system of, assigned to same period as Constantine's numerical
+              scheme and the calendrical schemes of the Mayas and
+              Mexicans, 542;
+  summary and conclusions, 514.
+
+Indra, 312.
+
+Initial scroll, in Central American inscriptions, 221, 233.
+
+Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie, 79.
+
+Ireland, numerical divisions;
+  quadruple organization;
+  dual ruler;
+  Middle;
+  Four Quarters;
+  cosmical round tower;
+  Seven Churches;
+  great hall of Tara (midcourt), 468-470;
+  summary, in table of countries, 493.
+
+Iroquois, social organization, 196;
+  wampum belts, 197;
+  numerical divisions, 198;
+  linguistic affinities with Mayas, 198, 199.
+
+Irrigation, in ancient Peru, 146.
+
+Ishtar, cult of, 342-350;
+  ring or circle, symbol of, 359, 360;
+  "axis of the heavens," female Polaris, 503.
+
+Isis, Egyptian goddess worshipped under form of cow, 406;
+  in sculpture and symbolism, 421-434;
+  called daughter of the sun, 440, 441.
+
+Isokrates, 492.
+
+Israelites, 345;
+  idea of central power;
+  star-cult developing into monotheism, 352, 353, 355.
+
+Itza, tribe who occupied Chichen-Itza, 206.
+
+Ixion's wheel, 453.
+
+Ixkun, 210, 215, 244;
+  bas-relief at, 259.
+
+Ixtlilxochitl, 33, 66, 84, 163, 255.
+
+Izamal, ruins of, 214, 217.
+
+Iz-calli, Mexican 20-day period, 240;
+  festival of "renovation," 241.
+
+Iztaccihuatl, giant volcano, 275.
+
+Jade, Nahuatl word for, chalchiuitl, 34, 81;
+  symbol of;
+  emblem of water goddess, 91;
+  placed with dead of upper class in Mexico, 195;
+  jade celts from Nicaragua, 196;
+  ancient name for pyramid of Cholula, "the monument or precious jade
+              stone of the Toltecs, etc.," 269;
+  Chinese word for, significance of, 563, _note_.
+
+Jaguar, figure of, represented four lords of the Below, 184, 185;
+  skeleton of, in Mound 4 at Copan, 233;
+  compared with ocelot, 233;
+  on Cross tablets at Palenque, 239
+  (see Ocelot, Puma, Quadruped and Animal form).
+
+Janus, double-faced, probably symbol of double state in Rome, 463.
+
+Japan, junks, 309;
+  organization founded on plan derived from Corea;
+  "great Centre of the Earth;"
+  tradition about North Pole;
+  compared with China, 310;
+  Buddhism, 311;
+  four divisions of population, with Emperor at head;
+  governed by two rulers, celestial and terrestrial, 311;
+  swastika;
+  Shinto religion, 311;
+  quadruple organization, 311, 312;
+  summary, 483.
+
+Jastrow, Morris, 327-344, 348, 350, 354, 357, 361-367.
+
+Jensen, 327.
+
+Jerusalem, temples to Baal and altar to Astarte, 350-352;
+  destruction of, 530.
+
+Jesup expedition to the North Pacific, 534.
+
+Jones, Sir William, 300.
+
+Joyce, 570.
+
+Justinian, 530.
+
+Kaan, Maya word for cord, associated with caan, Heaven, 112.
+
+Kaka or Akaka-kwe, mythic dance drama people, among the Zuni, 204.
+
+Kan=numeral four, 110;
+  Maya word for serpent, 112;
+  Nahuatl word for serpent, 189;
+  Chinese word for mountain, also for province or ruler, 287.
+
+Kan-asta (Iroquois) frame poles of the council house, 197.
+
+Kanasta-tsi-koma (Iroquois) "the great framework;"
+  name of Iroquois league, 197.
+
+Katun, period of twenty years marked by sculptured stone, 218, 219, 220,
+            221.
+
+Kingsborough, 11, 57, 62, 78, 240, 246.
+
+Kin (Maya)=sun, 217.
+
+Kin-ich-ahua, one title of Maya supreme divinity, 36.
+
+Kircher, 485.
+
+Knight, 470.
+
+Kukulcan, Maya title for Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, 68;
+  meaning of name=divine serpent, 68, 69;
+  represented by feathered serpent in Yucatan and Mexico, 69;
+  tradition concerning, 69;
+  ruler of Chichen Itza, 69;
+  assumed offices of four rulers, 69;
+  established connection between Chichen Itza and Mexico, 93;
+  compared with culture hero of Bogota, 171;
+  Maya chief or lord, journeyed to Mexico and was there called,
+              Quetzalcoatl, 206;
+  actual person, Maya high priest, Mexican culture hero, 207;
+  brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, 208;
+  name signified "divine four," 208;
+  title expressed by serpent on Copan stelae, 220, 223;
+  represented by monolith "Divine Twin," 262.
+
+Kulkun, mountain in China, called king of mountains, summit of the earth,
+            etc., 287.
+
+Kushites, myth regarding origin of life, etc., 495.
+
+Kwakiutl Indians, social organization and secret societies, 147;
+  compared with Maya, Mexican and Peruvian, 148.
+
+Lacedaemon, ancient philosophy of, 487.
+
+Lacouperie, T. de, 300, 302.
+
+Land, conventional symbol of, 123.
+
+Landa, Fra Diego de, 35, 69, 86, 191, 192, 206-220, 242, 281.
+
+Language, differed in male and female communities, 193;
+  influence on ancient American symbolism, 284
+  (see Linguistics).
+
+Laoutsze, founder of Taouism, 298, 534.
+
+Laplace, 319.
+
+Las Casas, 67.
+
+Layard, 360.
+
+Lea, Chinese word for Below, 118.
+
+Left-hand;
+  left-handed was attribute of Mexican god, 12;
+  consecration of, in Mexico and Peru, 163, 164;
+  honorific title, 165;
+  on Copan altar, 228.
+
+Legge, 286, 289, 290, 292, 296, 298, 299.
+
+Lenormant, 566.
+
+Leon, Cieza de, 136, 150.
+
+Le Plongeon A., 93, 95, 184, 214.
+
+Lepsius, 379, 460.
+
+Levier, Emile, 477, 478.
+
+Life of the Indians (same as Hispano-Mexican MS., Biblioteca Nazionale
+            MS., or B. N. MS.).
+
+Linguistics, traces of words associated with archaic set of ideas in Old
+            and New World, 531;
+  comparative tables of words, Appendix I, 549; and Appendix III, 563.
+
+Lion, sacred symbol in Egypt, 408.
+
+Lizard, skin of, in connection with human sacrifice, and with goddess of
+            earth and underworld, 91, 96, 98.
+
+Lizana, 210.
+
+Lloque Yupanqui, third Inca, 133.
+
+Lockyer, Norman, 13, 14, 20, 162, 252, 376, 377, 381, 382, 384, 385, 386,
+            400.
+
+Lorenzana, 68.
+
+Lorillard City (see Menche), 210;
+  sculpture and art of, 234.
+
+Lotus, as symbol in Egypt and India, 314, 320, 379, 413.
+
+Loubat, Duc de, 230, 504.
+
+Luna, Don Jose, 50.
+
+Lunar year, 254.
+
+Lunar periods, 256.
+
+Lunar calendar in Mexico, 297;
+  in China, 297, 298.
+
+Luschan, Felix von, 332, 356, 357.
+
+Lysicrates, choragic monument of, 127.
+
+Lycurgus, 457, 487.
+
+Maghadas of India, 497.
+
+Maghas of India compared with Mayas, 509;
+  a Finnic race, 519.
+
+Maghi of Persia, 497.
+
+Magnus, P., 477, 478.
+
+Mahaffy, J. P., 417.
+
+Maize, ceremonial, 78;
+  symbol of goddess of Earth, 91, 98;
+  used in ceremonial offerings by Californian Indians, 105;
+  on earth symbol in codices, 109, 117, 123;
+  on sculptures at Palenque and Copan, 237, 239, 243;
+  in Mexican New Year festivals, 241;
+  cultivation of, in very early times, 272, 275;
+  legacy of Corn Maidens and Daughters of Earth, 276;
+  as year symbol, 291.
+
+Maler, Teobert, 184, 212, 213, 214.
+
+Maltaya bas-relief, 359, 360.
+
+Manco, Capac, 133;
+  founder of Cuzco, 156, 161, 186.
+
+Manche, a tribe of Menche and Palenque, 235.
+
+Mandaite pole-star worship, 321, 322, 556.
+
+March, H. Colley, 23, 24.
+
+Marcianus, 530.
+
+Market stone of the City of Mexico, 245
+  (see Mexican Calendar Stone).
+
+Marinus, 452.
+
+Maritime intercourse between Old and New World, interrupted for many
+            centuries by interregnum of Polaris, 531;
+  equatorial currents favoring migrations to New World, 524, 525;
+  evidence of Graeco-Egyptian contact with Mexico, 538
+  (see Pre-Columbian contact).
+
+Markham, Clements B., 132, 136, 142, 152, 160, 168, 510.
+
+Marriage, in Mexico, sacred rites in connection with, 102;
+  laws governing, 176;
+  among the Hindu, 316;
+  on New Year's day in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 346;
+  in ancient Egypt, 441;
+  festivals, in India and in Mexico connected with worship of Pleiades,
+              498
+  (see Heaven and Earth, union of).
+
+Marroquin, 80.
+
+Maspero, 437, 518.
+
+Master builders, ah-men, Maya name for;
+  aman-teca, Mexican name for, 234;
+  kinship between those of Central America and Mexico, and the trained
+              builders of cosmical structures in the Old World, 517, 529,
+              532, 533.
+
+Maudslay, Alfred P., 120, 121, 170, 172, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222,
+            223, 227, 229, 230, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 504.
+
+Mayapan, capital of confederacy of Mayas, 69;
+  ancient capital of Yucatan, 86;
+  Ho, another name for, 206;
+  Ichpa, another name for, 206;
+  ancient chronicles, 209, 211;
+  Cocomes, people of, 211-216.
+
+Mayer's Manual, 285.
+
+Mazahuas or deer people, of Guatemala, 165.
+
+McGee, W. J., 101.
+
+Mecca, "the mother of cities;"
+  the grave of Mother Eve, 323.
+
+Medhurst, W. H., 285, 289.
+
+Melchites, 530.
+
+Memorial stones, in Copan, 219.
+
+Men, name of dog in Maya calendar;
+  means master-builder, artisan, etc., 234.
+
+Menche, ancient ruins of, 215;
+  "Lorillard City," 234;
+  ancient civilization of, 244.
+
+Mendieta, 44, 67, 76.
+
+Merida, modern capital of Yucatan, 68;
+  ancient name, "Ho," 85;
+  figured in ancient map, 86.
+
+Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, 321, 557;
+  quadruple organization, stable Centre, 322;
+  seat of various empires, 334.
+
+Mexican Calendar Stone
+  (see Calendar Stone of Mexico).
+
+Mexican Calendar system
+  (see Calendar Systems).
+
+Mexican MSS. unpublished, 90.
+
+Mexican Sacrificial Stone
+  (see Sacrificial stone).
+
+Mexico, number of deities;
+  same god under several names, 7;
+  idols, 8;
+  worship of supreme Creator, 8;
+  calendar-swastika, 9;
+  calendar-stone, 12, 13, 95, 245-258, 280;
+  system of government, origin of, 15;
+  game, symbolizing axial rotation, 24, 25;
+  calendar system, 25, 35, 53, 100, 145, 176, 179, 182, 221, 245, 282,
+              297, 528, 529, 530;
+  Great Temple of, 58, 83, 90, 96, 107, 225, 507;
+  City of, divided into four quarters, 83;
+  built on dual island in dual lake, 84;
+  ancient map of, 88;
+  ancient capital of, divided into two halves, 89;
+  recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessel, 93;
+  tribal and household "idols," origin of, 139;
+  native arms of, 157;
+  caste division associated with left hand, 165;
+  origin of human sacrifice, 173;
+  numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical
+              with Peru, Copan, Guatemala, Yucatan, Zuni, etc., 226;
+  map of, to be published, 230, 231;
+  compared with other ancient cultures of America, 235-244;
+  sun cult and moon cult existing at same time, 264;
+  dual government at time of Conquest, 266;
+  cradle of American civilizations, 276;
+  names of symbols translated from Maya, 278;
+  swastika symbol found associated with calendar signs, 280;
+  spider's web as symbol of numerical divisions, 293;
+  summary, in table of countries, 494;
+  the sacred and tribal tree, 499;
+  lighting the sacred fire, 504;
+  symbols and plan of government compared to those of Old World, 506-524;
+  numerical divisions on which the cosmical scheme was based, 528;
+  date when calendar was instituted, 530;
+  ruder forms of culture, 531;
+  civilization at time of Conquest indicative of contact with Old World,
+              538;
+  period of warfare, pestilence, etc., 539;
+  resemblance between name of capital (Temistitan), and of Greek
+              philosopher, Themistius, 543;
+  summary and conclusions, 546.
+
+Meyer's Lexikon, 288.
+
+Micmac Indians, myths about Ursa Major, 510.
+
+Mictlampa, Nahuatl name for the North, 8.
+
+Mictlan, land of the dead, 40, 245.
+
+Mictlantecuhtli, identical with Tezcatlipoca, 8;
+  lord of the North, 9, 11;
+  symbols of, 37, 42, 44, 47, 57, 185, 186, 249, 260, 295.
+
+Midas, king of Phrygia, 459.
+
+Migration, from the north, to South America, 224;
+  caused by desire to find stable centre of the earth, 275;
+  in Mexico and Central America in twelfth century, 539
+  (see Migration myths).
+
+Migration myths and traditions: in connection with cult of Polaris, 43;
+  Peruvian, Mayan, Mexican, 149, 150, 151;
+  motive of, explained by Zuni, 201, 202;
+  Kukulcan driven out of Chichen Itza and journeyed to Mexico, 206;
+  three brothers came from the West and settled in Chichen Itza, 207;
+  into Yucatan from the South, 210, 211;
+  the Mayas came from Tollan in Zu-iva, 217;
+  the Mexican culture hero came from the East, "the ancient red land,"
+              525, 528-530
+  (see Myths and Traditions).
+
+Mikado, 311.
+
+Mill-stone, as symbol, 494-509.
+
+Milne, J. G., 425.
+
+Minotaurus, ruler of island of Crete, 457.
+
+Mirror, of obsidian, 10;
+  used as oracle among the Cakchiquel Indian of Guatemala, 80;
+  in sacred edifices;
+  in great temple of Mexico;
+  eyes of image of Tezcatlipoca, 80;
+  symbol of Tezcatlipoca;
+  oracle of judgment in Mexico and Guatemala;
+  aid to astronomical observations, 82;
+  of obsidian, symbol of star-cult;
+  of polished pyrites, symbol of sun-cult, 83;
+  in connection with symbolical tree and serpent, 110;
+  bowl of water, preceded use of, 225;
+  in Shinto symbolism, 311;
+  in Egypt, 409.
+
+Mississippi valley, cult of Polaris, 44;
+  earth-work builders, 50;
+  early peoples of, in contact with Mayas, 112;
+  names of cities and tribes showing Maya influence, art resembling that
+              of Mayas, 199.
+
+Missouri, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.
+
+Mit (Egyptian)=death, or the dead, 381.
+
+Mithra, Aryan god of the wheel, 313.
+
+Mitimaes, Peruvian colonists, 149.
+
+Mitla, 244;
+  recent excavations at, 513.
+
+Moabites, 351.
+
+Mohammedans, 305.
+
+Mol, glyph on Copan altar, 227.
+
+Molina's dictionary, 8, 93, 132, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146, 147, 152, 154,
+            158, 165, 168, 186, 189, 192, 553.
+
+Monarquia Indiana, 95.
+
+Mongolia, Buddhists of, 315.
+
+Monkey=Ozomatli, Mexican day-sign, 112.
+
+Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches, 530.
+
+Montagua river, 215, 230.
+
+Montesinos, 146, 150.
+
+Montezuma, 34, 43, 54, 60, 61, 67-75, 83, 106, 125, 150, 183, 208, 231,
+            245, 265, 266, 540, 547.
+
+Moon, associated with cult of night, Earth Mother, the Below, 104;
+  in Peruvian cult of the Below, 134, 135, 148;
+  in Bogota, 171;
+  astronomical attainments of priests of, 180;
+  in Mexican calendar stone, 250;
+  image in silver on pyramid at Teotihuacan, 264, 267;
+  in China, 286, 287, 292;
+  lunar calendar, 297;
+  in religion of Persia, 325;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 332, 344, 347;
+  in Egypt, 389, 424, 438.
+
+Moqui Indians, tau symbol used by, 119.
+
+Morien, 471.
+
+Morse, Edward T., 473, 478.
+
+Mortillet, Gabriel de, 19.
+
+Mortuary customs in Mexico, placing jade with dead of upper class, and
+            texaxoctli with dead of lower class, 195;
+  carried northward from the south, 196;
+  body of Mexican ruler covered with raiment of four principal gods, 209.
+
+Moslems, 324.
+
+Motowori, 575.
+
+Motul, dictionary of, 112.
+
+Mound, symbol of Earth, 110;
+  in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224.
+
+Mound-builders (see "Earth-work Builders").
+
+Mountain, sacred (see "Pyramid or Mountain").
+
+Mueller, Iwan, 454.
+
+Mueller, Max, 459, 484, 564.
+
+Muluc, Maya division of 4 years assigned to the north, 218.
+
+Mummy, in Egyptian symbolism, 380, 394, 403, 404, 410.
+
+Museums: American, of New York, 234;
+  Berlin, 380, 417, 423, 424, 426, 427, 457, 460, 507;
+  Bonn, 464; British, 151, 166, 234, 353, 355-357, 366, 457, 459;
+  Dresden, 129, 155;
+  Ghizer, 427;
+  National, Mexico, 9, 13, 86, 93, 98, 256, 260;
+  National, Washington, 19, 51;
+  New Haven, 507;
+  Peabody, 34, 48, 61, 153, _note_, 195, 218, _note_, 512;
+  South Kensington, 216, 227, 234, 239, 313;
+  Stockholm, 48; Trocadero, 104, 174, _note_.
+
+Mushroom-shaped stone figures, from San Salvador and Guatemala, 114;
+  represent native idea of Above and Below with central ruler of both,
+              114;
+  indicate belief in one supreme ruler, 115.
+
+Mussulman, 324.
+
+Muyscas of Bogota, 171.
+
+Myths and traditions: _Creation_ myths
+    (see separate heading), 54, 55, 56, 105, 138, 200, 223, 313-318, 334,
+                340, 353, 495;
+  _flood and destruction_ myths
+    (see separate heading), 88, 240, 253, 270-275;
+  _migration_ myths
+    (see separate heading), 43, 149, 150, 201, 202, 206, 207, 210,
+                211-217, 525-530;
+  _star cult_ myths,--Mexican, 11, 12, 25, 26;
+    American Indian, 511, _note_;
+    Turanian, 517, 518;
+  _Mexican_, life after death and relative position of man and woman, 38,
+              39;
+    Tezcatlipoca cast down from Heaven and arose as an ocelot, 44, 45;
+    Quilaztli, "woman serpent," 60-62;
+  _Maya_, culture hero, Kukulcan, 69;
+    suggesting worship of Polaris, 159;
+    relating to 7-day period among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala,
+                182;
+  _Peruvian_, concerning the Inca Yupanqui who introduced the worship of
+              the Creator, 152, 153;
+    relating to ancestors of Manco Capac and the "royal eagle," 156;
+    concerning contest between serpent and eagle, compared with similar
+                Mexican tradition, 159;
+  _Japanese_, concerning birthplace of Japanese race, 310;
+  _Arabian_, Moslem tradition about Heavenly and earthly Kaaba, 324;
+    astronomical, 465;
+  _Assyrian_, relating to planet Venus and god Ishtar, 344;
+  _Greek_, about fire-drill, 496, and Ixion, 500;
+  _Rig Veda_, origin of fire, 521.
+
+Nahr-el-Kelb, bas-reliefs at, 357;
+  Esarhaddon stela, 359.
+
+Nahuas of Mexico compared with Nahushas of India, 509, 519.
+
+Nahui-ollin, Mexican symbol, "four movements," 170;
+  represents four movements of constellations, 250;
+  summary of the four-fold divisions of which it was a symbol, 251;
+  commemorated the four epochs of the world's history, 253;
+  common to the various ancient peoples of America, 256, _note_
+  (see also Ollin).
+
+Nakhunte, king of Susiana, 299.
+
+Naming of children in Mexico and Yucatan, 242.
+
+Navel, name of cosmical centre where human victims were annually
+            sacrificed by Mexican priests="Navel of the Earth," 64;
+  Cuzco called "Navel of the Earth," 133;
+  symbol in ancient American art, 296;
+  in Arabia, 323;
+  in India, "Navel of the heaven," 520;
+  "Navel of the world," 521.
+
+Navigation, primitive crafts and charts, Ceylon and Karashee, 159, 160;
+  Peruvian fishing boats of seal skin;
+  Quetzalcoatl's twin raft of serpent or seal skin;
+  illustrations in native codices and sculptures, 160
+  (see also Boat and Maritime intercourse).
+
+Nebuchadnezzar, 365.
+
+Necklace of hearts and hands, on Mexican idol, indicative of supplication,
+            128.
+
+Neo-platonism, 527.
+
+Nepantla, the zenith, 38.
+
+Nest, in Egyptian symbolism, 398.
+
+Nestorian Tablet, 304.
+
+New Year's Day, in ancient Mexico and Central America, 240-244;
+  in China, 292;
+  in Mesopotamia, 321, 557;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 346;
+  in ancient Egypt, 419, 425-437;
+  in Scandinavia, 473.
+
+Nezahual coyotl, ruler of Texcoco who erected temple to "Unknown God," 33,
+            163;
+  title, Ome Tochtli=2 rabbit, 180.
+
+Nicaragua, star-symbol on pottery from, 50;
+  ancient occupation by Nahuatl-speaking race, 158;
+  jade celts from, 195.
+
+Niebuhr, 514.
+
+Night, priest of, lord of, 82;
+  sons of, 83;
+  Egyptian symbol of, a star suspended by thread, 387.
+
+Nimroud bas-reliefs, 366.
+
+Nirvana, in Hindu religion, 315.
+
+Nordenskjoeld, Baron Gustav, 119, 230, _note_.
+
+Norsemen, Eddas, symbolism, celestial tree, 502, 503.
+
+North, symbols of, 10;
+  sign of, 35;
+  underworld, 39;
+  in Cosmos, associated with Tecpatl=flint, red, fire, warmth, 42;
+  symbol of, 56, 57;
+  color of, red, 57;
+  lord of, 57;
+  female region, 64;
+  symbol of, in Mexican calendar-stone, 250;
+  region of the dead, 267;
+  Maya name and symbol of, 278;
+  Buddha associated with, 316;
+  veneration of, in India, 317;
+  in Egyptian pyramid symbolism, 381;
+  Babylonian word=akkad, 400.
+
+Nose, grotesque, on sculptures at Copan, Quirigua and Palenque, 240.
+
+Nose ornament, religious idea associated with, 103.
+
+Nott and Gliddon, races of men recognized by ancient Egyptians, 373.
+
+Numbers, sacred, 29, 30
+  (see Numerical divisions).
+
+Numerical divisions, in sociological and calendrical systems:
+  in Mexico and Central America, 29, 62;
+  in Peru, 144, 147, 167;
+  in Guatemala, 164, 171, 179;
+  represented by human figure, 174, 175;
+  in Mexican government, 179, 181;
+  carried northward from the south, 196;
+  in Huron Confederacy, 198;
+  among the Zuni, 201;
+  in Yucatan, 209, 218, 223;
+  at Chichen Itza, 212, 213;
+  in Copan, 221, 226, 228, 229;
+  in symbolic carving from South America, 224;
+  in Quirigua, 232, 233;
+  in Mexican Calendar stone, 248, 256;
+  on monolith "Divine Twin," 261;
+  in China, 286, 292, 302;
+  Mexican compared with Chinese, 297;
+  in Japan, 310;
+  in India, 313, 320;
+  in Persia, 325;
+  in Assyria, 328, 348, 358, 360;
+  in Egypt, 368-376;
+  in cyclical systems of Egyptians, Hindus, Chinese, Mexicans, Mayas and
+              Greeks, 450;
+  in ancient Rome, 464;
+  and Greece, 484;
+  in ancient Ireland, 468-470;
+  Britain, 470;
+  Wales, 471;
+  Scandinavia, 471, 472;
+  table of countries in which used, 480-494;
+  Plato's "divine polities" compared with scheme of organization in Mexico
+              and Peru, 509;
+  summary, as shown in Yucatan and Mexico, 528;
+  chief ruler called "Four in One," 529;
+  apparent survival in early Christian religion, 536-538;
+  in Plato's and Inca's scheme of state, 539;
+  in Constantine's plan, and in Maya and Mexican calendars, 542, 543;
+  analogies and divergences, American divisions agree with Greek but
+              differ from Chinese, 546.
+
+Nutt, David, 451.
+
+Nuttall, Zelia, work on the Atlatl, 34;
+  on the Mexican Calendar system, 7, 53, 244-247.
+
+Obsidian mirror
+  (see "Mirror").
+
+Ocelot, Tezcatlipoca took shape of, 8;
+  in Mexican mythical drama, 12;
+  of nocturnal sky, 35;
+  in Mexican codices, 44;
+  at Tiahuanaco, 166;
+  title of one division of Mexican warriors, 167;
+  man with beast (ocelot or jaguar,) symbol of dual State in Yucatan, 185;
+  title of minor rulers in Yucatan, 185;
+  man-ocelot and man-bird, represented rulers of two divisions of state in
+              Mexico, 185;
+  or tiger, warrior-caste of Mexico, 212;
+  skin of, worn by high-priest in Copan and Quirigua, 231, 233;
+  totem of the Fire people in Mexico, 254;
+  symbolized cult of Earth, as opposed to bird, symbol of cult of Heaven,
+              282;
+  symbol of State in ancient America, 295, 296
+  (see also Jaguar, Puma and Quadruped).
+
+Ocna, a Maya festival, 242.
+
+Octli, name of native wine, 78;
+  pulque, 101;
+  earth-wine, indicated by figure of rabbit, 103.
+
+Octli-gods, agents of the Cihuacoatl, 78;
+  rain gods, 96;
+  rain-priests, 101;
+  priests of the earth, emblem of=vase filled with rain or earth-wine,
+              107;
+  monkey intimately connected with, 112.
+
+Odin, Scandinavian king and deity, 471;
+  Norse "ruler of Heaven," 473.
+
+Ohio valley, ancient earth-work builders in contact with ancient Mexicans,
+            50;
+  art resembles Maya, 199;
+  swastika symbol associated with serpent symbol, 280.
+
+Ojibway Indians, 511, _note_.
+
+Oldenburg, 484.
+
+Old World, fire-drill, fire altar, sacred fire, oil press, millstone,
+            axial rotation, etc., 494-504;
+  civilizations compared with New World, 504-609, 525;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Oliva, Padre Anello, 132, 150, 154, 156, 157, 164.
+
+Oliver, G., 484, 485.
+
+Ollin, in Calendar-stone, 12, 13, 14, 15, 54
+  (see also Nahuiollin).
+
+Olmos, Friar Andreas de, 54, 189, 190, 195.
+
+Olympic Games, marked cycle or period, 485.
+
+Omacatl, associated with water, 81.
+
+Omaha Indians, measured time by Ursa Major, 511, _note_.
+
+Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl, 163.
+
+Ondegardo, Polo de, 132, 141, 148.
+
+O'Neil, 448, 449, 451, 468, 469, 471, 472, 547, 568, 570, 572, 574.
+
+Oriental Congress, 544.
+
+Orientation, 42;
+  of Copan and Quirigua the same, 230;
+  of temples at Palenque, 235;
+  diagonal, in Egypt and Central America, 372, _note_;
+  Egyptian pyramids faced the north, and the pole-star, 382;
+  temples in Lower Egypt faced to the North; in Upper Egypt to the South,
+              383.
+
+Origin of American civilizations, 543;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Orizaba, giant volcano, 275;
+  ancient name, Citlal-tepetl=Star Mountain, 275, _note_.
+
+Ozomatli, monkey;
+  Mexican day-sign, 112.
+
+Pacha-Yachachi, Inca name for Creator, 135.
+
+Painting, in connection with symbolism, 114;
+  of body and face in Peru, Mexico and Yucatan, 192, 193
+  (see Color).
+
+Palenque, Palace House with tau-shaped recesses, 121, _note_;
+  character of stelae, 215;
+  study of monuments, 234-239;
+  same cult as Quirigua and Copan, 240;
+  tablets, tribal registers, 243;
+  tablet, in "Temple of the Sun," likened to Mexican Sacrificial stone,
+              259.
+
+Palestine, cult of Astarte and Baal, and monotheism of the Israelites,
+            345.
+
+Pan, feast of, 442.
+
+Pantheon, 515.
+
+Panuco, Maya colony established at, 125, 207, 208, _note_.
+
+Papa, name of Mexican Priest, 39.
+
+Papakhu, name of inner sanctuary of Babylonian and Assyrian temple, 330,
+            331.
+
+Papalotl, butterfly, 39.
+
+Parry, Francis, 104.
+
+Parsee religion, worship of fire as outcome of pole-star worship, 326.
+
+Parturition, symbolized by shell, 95;
+  by snail, 111.
+
+Path of the Dead, ancient road leading to Pyramid of the Moon, 267.
+
+Patolli, native Mexican game, 87;
+  symbolized social organization, 176, 177.
+
+Paz Solden, 150.
+
+Peabody Museum, 34, 48, 61, 153, _note_, 195.
+
+Peabody Museum Honduras Expedition, 218, _note_, 512.
+
+Pedregal de San Augustin, ancient lava-field in City of Mexico, 271.
+
+Peking, contains temple to North Star God, 284
+  (see China and Polaris).
+
+Penatiel, Antonio, 262.
+
+Perez, 109.
+
+Perrot and Chipiez, 421.
+
+Perry, John, 547.
+
+Persia, ancient religion of;
+  swastika;
+  seven divisions of Cosmos, four-fold rule, 325, 484.
+
+Peru, worship of Pleiades, 53;
+  sacred fire, 83;
+  use of checker board design, 124;
+  light and dark colors used to designate the Above and Below, 130;
+  irrigating canals in symbolic form, 132, 146;
+  outline of civilization, 132;
+  stone monument typifying duality, 134;
+  knowledge of Creator, 135;
+  form of government, 136, 137;
+  tribal and household "idols," 138, 139, 140;
+  four rulers, 141;
+  classification of people, 142;
+  "white virgins," title given to upper class maidens;
+  "black virgins," lower class;
+  caste;
+  deformation of skulls, 143;
+  ceremony for driving out sickness, 144;
+  Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, 144;
+  ceremony illustrating rotation, 145;
+  religious festivals, 146, 147;
+  civilization from the north, 150;
+  prehistoric ruins, 151, 156;
+  Inca fable, 152;
+  compared with symbolism of sculptured slabs in Guatemala, 153, 154, 155,
+              156;
+  linguistic affinities between Quechua and Maya and Nahuatl, 158, 159;
+  Polaris;
+  navigation, 159, 160;
+  worship of "Creator" (Polaris) superseded sun and moon cults, 161, 164;
+  caste division associated with left hand, 165;
+  ruins of Tiahuanaco, 165-169;
+  symbols compared with those of Mexico and Central America, 170;
+  summary, 494;
+  scheme of government compared with Plato's "divine polities", 509, 539;
+  summary and conclusions, 546.
+
+Petrie, Flinders, 375, 380, 404, 425, 439, 461, 483, 491.
+
+Pheidon of Corinth, 486, _note_.
+
+Pherecydes, the Phoenician teacher of Pythagoras, 526.
+
+Philolaus, 485, 527.
+
+Phoenicians, cult of Astarte, 345;
+  a northern race, called Turanians, 517;
+  navigators, 519;
+  worshipped serpent, fire-drill and the Pleiades;
+  called the "red men," 521;
+  tradition indicates their migration to the New World, 524, 525, 528-535;
+  evidence of their influence, 538-541;
+  allied to Semitic race, 540, _note_, 541, 543;
+  summary and conclusions, 546.
+
+Pig, sacred animal in Egypt, 409.
+
+Pigmy races, traditions of, 339.
+
+Pillar, worship of (see Column).
+
+Pilli, Mexican title, 74;
+  meaning "fingers," title of minor lords, 282.
+
+Pilquixtia, a Mexican festival, 240.
+
+Pinches, Mr., 357.
+
+Plato, 346, 444-451, 467, 486-490, 509, 527, 529, 539, 546.
+
+Plato's "Divine Polities," identical with scheme of government in ancient
+            Mexico and Peru, 509, 539.
+
+Pleiades, study of, by primitive peoples, 52;
+  on Society Islands, 52;
+  in Mexico, 53;
+  in southern America, 53, 54;
+  on Mexican Calendar-stone, 252;
+  in Chinese calendar, 296;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 338 (see Polaris, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor);
+  worship of, in India and Mexico;
+  in connection with New Year and marriage festivals, 498.
+
+Plotinus, 527.
+
+Plutarch, 441, 452, 488.
+
+Polar constellations, chart of, 16.
+
+Polar regions, both hemispheres originally peopled from, 531.
+
+Polaris, the author's observation of, 7;
+  primitive man's study of, 14, 15;
+  Draconis, as pole-star;
+  apparent immovability;
+  means of determining direction;
+  supernatural power, 21; worship of;
+  centre of axial energy, 22;
+  Mexican Calendar system suggested by, 25;
+  numerical value of, 30, 31;
+  centre of cosmic system, 40, 41;
+  changes in relative positions of, 42;
+  ceased to be brilliant and immovable about 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D., 43;
+  cult of;
+  migrations from south to north, 43;
+  spread of cult in Mexico, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Peru;
+  also, in Mississippi valley, as indicated by carvings on shell gorgets,
+              44;
+  symbols of, analogous to cross and star symbols on shell gorgets from
+              Tennessee, 48, 49, 50;
+  suggestions of cult among the Eskimo, 50;
+  represented by star symbols and swastika on pottery from Arizona and
+              Nicaragua, 50;
+  in connection with cult of Earth and Night, 54;
+  represented by Montezuma on his throne, 72;
+  not identical with God C, 112;
+  as centre of rotation in Zuni emblem, 129;
+  as a guide in navigation between Guatemala, Nicaragua and Peru, 159;
+  between Ceylon and Karachee, 159, 160;
+  cult superseded sun and moon cults in Peru, 161;
+  invisible at Cuzco;
+  Inca worship of the invisible Creator, 161;
+  Yoal-tecuhtli, Mexican lord of the Night;
+  title of Polaris, 181;
+  producer of life and regulator of the universe;
+  tecpatl (flint knife) symbol of, 183;
+  in connection with tree symbolism;
+  title, "Heart Of Heaven," 189;
+  among the Zuni, 202;
+  at Copan, 222, 224;
+  reflected in bowl of water=Creator, 225;
+  in Shakespeare, 247;
+  represented central face in Mexican calendar-stone, 250;
+  Calendar-stone based on observation of, 257, _note_;
+  in connection with pyramid, 273, 274;
+  in connection with swastika symbol, 276;
+  Maya name, Ek-chuah, patron divinity of travellers and traders, 278;
+  North Star God, temple to, in Pekin;
+  Chinese name=Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of
+              Heaven, 284-287, 291, 295;
+  in work of Confucius, 298;
+  in Chinese Taouism, 301, 302;
+  Hebrew Jehovah, having same title, "God of Heaven," 304;
+  in India, 316, 318, 319;
+  in Mesopotamia, 321;
+  in Arabia, 324;
+  linguistic affinity between name of Polaris, and word for capital and
+              for north, in Babylonia, 325;
+  Phoenician name=the serpent, 325;
+  in Persia, 326;
+  in Babylonia, "lord or king", "Great Mountain," 329;
+  cult of, in Assyria and Babylonia, 332-339;
+  among the Israelites, 352;
+  in Babylonia, highest form developed into monotheism, and lowest form
+              into cult of Ishtar and Bel, 353;
+  represented in Babylonian temples by a fire in centre of square altar,
+              362, 363;
+  Euphratean star-worshippers, 364;
+  high development of cult in Egypt, 368, 376-382;
+  Egyptian mummy, image of, 386;
+  Egyptian names for, 398, 401-403;
+  in Egyptian religion and symbolism, 403, 404, 409, 410, 415, 421, 423;
+  in India, called the "pivot of the planets," 448, _note_;
+  in Arabia, "the hole where the earth's axle found its bearing," 448,
+              _note_;
+  in ancient Greece, 450-453;
+  Greek Polos, a star revolving on itself, 453, 454;
+  indicated by cross symbol before the use of swastika, 461;
+  called by early Danes and Icelanders, "throne of Thor" or "smaller
+              Chariot," 473;
+  called by Finns "Taehti=star at the top of the heavenly mountain," 473;
+  among the ancient Scandinavians and their descendants the Vikings, 474;
+  circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult, 475;
+  table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480;
+  associated with use of fire-drill in Old and New World, 494;
+  among Hindus, 498;
+  Greek Ixion, 500;
+  Assyrian goddess Ishtar called the "axis of the heavens," female
+              Polaris, 503;
+  figured by wooden or stone socket from which fire and water flowed to
+              the four quarters, 503;
+  pole-star god of the Hindus compared with fire-drill god of Mexico, 505;
+  the Mexican pole-star god compared with the Hindu, Greek, Norse,
+              Russian, etc., 505;
+  Old and New World, 517;
+  Phoenicians steered by, from earliest times, 523, 525;
+  interval of time when the pole star ceased to be conspicuous, 525;
+  maritime intercourse interrupted, 531;
+  reappearance of, 538;
+  summary and conclusions, 544;
+  Mesopotamian prayer meeting of star-worshippers (Appendix II), 557.
+
+Popocatepetl, volcano, Mexico, 275.
+
+Popol-Vuh, sacred book of the Quiches, 72, _note_, 113, 270.
+
+Popular Science Monthly, 478.
+
+Porto Rico, stone objects from, 118;
+  cult of aborigines, 118.
+
+Powell, J. W., 288, _note_.
+
+Powers, Stephen, 105.
+
+Pre-Columbian contact indicated by same cosmical divisions and scheme of
+            government in Old and New World, 480-504;
+  same symbolism, etc., 509-544;
+  traditions indicate, 525, 528, 529, 530;
+  question of contact between China and America, 534;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Prescott, 541.
+
+Pritchard, W. T., 290.
+
+Proctor, Richard A., 162.
+
+Propitiation, origin of, 177.
+
+Ptolemy, 452.
+
+Pueblo Indians, use of tau, 119;
+  associate step pyramid with rain, 132;
+  affinities with Mexican and Maya, 199;
+  corn maidens, 276.
+
+Pulle, Mr., 318.
+
+Pulque, in connection with cult of earth-mother, 193
+  (see Octli).
+
+Puma, four heads terminating arms of swastika at Tiahuanaco,
+  (see Quadruped, Ocelot and Jaguar).
+
+Putnam, F. W., 50, 196, 199, 545.
+
+Pyramid or sacred mountain:
+  culmination of symbolism of cone, 118;
+  in mountain worship, 132;
+  Maya word for, 191;
+  Lord of the Mountain a sovereign title among the Quiche, 211;
+  origin and significance of, 251;
+  typified numerical divisions, 252;
+  on statue "Divine Twin," 262;
+  origin attributed to the Maya speaking people;
+  at Teotihuacan, 263;
+  interpretation of affix "can" in names of Mexican and Maya towns, 263,
+              264, 266, 268;
+  image of central, dual and quadruple power, 269, _note_;
+  of Cholula, ancient name for, means "the monument or precious jade stone
+              of the Toltecs, etc.," 269;
+  erected as place of refuge from inundations, 272;
+  symbol of Central power, and quadruple organization, 274;
+  same as expressed by swastika, 274;
+  of Cholula, marks the site of great and ancient Tollan, 275;
+  as symbol of Centre in Cosmos, 277;
+  meaning of symbol, 282, 283;
+  in Chinese symbolism and social organization, 287, 288, 333;
+  in Japan, 310;
+  in Hindu religion, 317;
+  in Babylonia, 328;
+  star god called "Great mountain," 329;
+  identical with god in Babylonia and in Assyria, 333;
+  Hebrew god, Yahwe, worshipped on Mount Sion, 351;
+  Jerusalem founded on Mount Zion, 352;
+  holy mound symbol of god Shamash of Assyria, 356;
+  central deity of Babylonia called "the great mountain," 367;
+  in Egypt expressed a whole divided into four parts, 371;
+  miniature of cosmos, 379, 380;
+  seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt, 381, 386;
+  of Begerauie, 427;
+  "holy mountain of God" Book of Prophet Ezekiel, 449, _note_;
+  the chief idol of Ireland was called Cenn Craich (mound-chief), 469;
+  form of letter delta in Greek Alphabet, 511;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, 207, 208.
+
+Pyrites, mirror of, used as symbol of sun-cult, 83.
+
+Pythagorean philosophy, 484-488, _note_, 515, 526;
+  Neo-Pythagorism, 527.
+
+Quadruped, meaning of use as symbol, 282;
+  represented Zuni state and subdivisions, 295;
+  illustrated by Alligator altar at Copan and by "Great Turtle" at
+              Quirigua, also by tortoise in China, 296, _note_
+  (see Ocelot, Jaguar and Puma).
+
+Quadruple organization, in cosmos, and scheme of government:
+  origin of idea, 15;
+  Maya, Mexican, and Zuni, 41, 42;
+  expressed in cross symbols, 47-54;
+  Mexico divided into four parts, 83;
+  at time of Conquest, 75, 76;
+  in ancient map of Yucatan, 86;
+  in ancient map of Mexico, 88;
+  in Inca empire, 136, 144;
+  in Guatemala, 171, 172;
+  in Bogota, 171;
+  among the Tzendals, 180, 181;
+  Quiche, 182;
+  in Yucatan sculptures, 185, 186;
+  in tree symbolism, 187, 192;
+  carried northward, 196;
+  in Huron Indian Confederacy, 198;
+  among Zuni, 201;
+  in Maya and Mexican traditions, 208, 209;
+  in Yucatan, 218, 223;
+  at Copan, 226, 228;
+  at Quirigua, 232;
+  at Palenque, 236;
+  Palenque, Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, Mexico and Zuni compared, 244;
+  regulated by Calendar Stone, 245, 247, 254;
+  in connection with pyramid building, 272, 273-282;
+  in China, 286, 291;
+  represented by human figure, 296;
+  China and Mexico compared, 297;
+  in Japan, 310-312;
+  in India, 313, 318, 481;
+  in Mesopotamia, 321;
+  in Persia, 325;
+  in Assyria, 332-337, 335;
+  in ancient Egypt, 371, 372, 399;
+  in Greece, 454;
+  indicated first by cross symbol and later by swastika, 461;
+  in ancient Rome, 463;
+  in ancient Ireland, 468;
+  in ancient Britain, 470;
+  in Scandinavia, 472;
+  table of countries where traces are found, 480-494;
+  comparative review, 509, 510;
+  in cruciform structures at Copan and Mitla, 512, 513;
+  chief ruler called "Four in One," 529
+  (see also, Numerical Divisions).
+
+Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle woman, Mexican title, 60.
+
+Quetquetzalcoa, plural of Quetzalcoatl, title of his successors, 70, 97,
+            98.
+
+Quetzal, feathers of, carved on feathered serpent, 70;
+  exhibiting colors of Four Quarters, 70;
+  used as Mexican symbol of beloved chief or child, 190;
+  totem at Palenque, 236, 237;
+  totem at Copan, 237;
+  (see also Bird).
+
+Quetzalcoatl, invocation to;
+  Creator and maker, twin lord and twin lady, 32;
+  "wheel of the winds," 33;
+  the divine twin, centre of cosmos, 42;
+  other names for;
+  myth concerning, 55;
+  an actual person who came from Yucatan, 67;
+  ruled in Chichen-Itza, 68;
+  Maya title=Kukulcan, 68;
+  in Mexico supreme god, also god of fire, and of the four winds, 70;
+  successors to, 71;
+  was driven from Tullan by enemies, 88;
+  established connection between Chichen-Itza and Mexico, 93;
+  recumbent figure of, in temple of city of Tula, 95;
+  sacrifices to, 96;
+  god of the winds, 96;
+  built Caracol or Round Temple at Chichen-Itza, 97;
+  Round Temples in Mexico dedicated to, 97;
+  divine twin, 126;
+  on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, 154, 157;
+  his craft called "serpent or twin raft," 160;
+  another name for Maya lord, Kukulcan, 206;
+  brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, 208;
+  important historical person, 208;
+  Tollan abode of, 217;
+  compared with figure on Copan sculpture, and with priest in Zuni
+              creation myth, 223;
+  figured with beard, in Mexican codices, 231;
+  monolith "Divine Twin," 260, 262;
+  image of, in temple of Cholollan, 270;
+  temple at Tula, 294.
+
+Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, title of high priest in service of
+            Huitzilopochtli, 71;
+  also title of Montezuma, 71.
+
+Quiche, Supreme Divinity of, 71, _note_;
+  Sacred book of, 72, _note_;
+  totems, 164, _note_;
+  numerical and social system, illustrated by tradition, 182;
+  compared with Zuni, 182;
+  "Lord of the Mountain" title, 211;
+  affix in name, _che_, Maya word for tree, 235;
+  used day and year signs as personal and tribal names, 253;
+  traditions of destruction of earth, 270.
+
+Quilaztli, sister of Huitzilopochtli, myth concerning, 60;
+  the mother of all, same as Cihuacoatl, 61, 67;
+  compared with Egyptian queen, 428.
+
+Quirigua, sister city to Copan, 210;
+  ancient monuments, 215, 216, 218, 223, 229;
+  social organization same as that of Copan, 230, 231, 232;
+  totemic animals and symbolic colors, 233;
+  "Great Turtle," 234, 240, 296, _note_;
+  stelae as memorial stones of high priest rulers, 512;
+  remnants of old civilization, 528.
+
+Ra, Egyptian word for God, 409.
+
+Rabbit (tochtli), 78;
+  Mexican calendar sign;
+  symbol of earth and reproduction, used to represent sound of word,
+              octli, 78;
+  figure of, indicates sacred octli or earth-wine, 103;
+  in Nahuatl picture writing, 125;
+  the rebus for earth-wine or rain, 506.
+
+Rabinal, 172.
+
+Rain, Tlaloc, god of, 78, 81;
+  figured with scrolls about the eyes, 95;
+  symbols, 96;
+  lords, four hundred in number, sacred vase, emblem of, 102;
+  Zuni rain-makers, 132;
+  rites practised on summits of pyramids, 283;
+  ancient festival described in the Brahmanas, 496, 497;
+  symbolized by rabbit, 506.
+
+Rattlesnakes, on monolith "Divine Twin," 261.
+
+Raven, or summer people among the Zuni, 201.
+
+Rawnsley, 491.
+
+Rays, carved on Calendar stone the idea of, 255.
+
+Read, C. H., 166.
+
+Recumbent stone statues, 93-96, 185, 214.
+
+Recurved staff or sceptre, 34.
+
+Red land, in name of Mexican city Tlapallan, and of Chichen (Itza), 68;
+  "the great ancient red land" in the East, 525.
+
+Red man, origin of title, 193;
+  title of the Phoenicians, 521;
+  in Genesis, 523;
+  Chichimecs of Mexico (literally, Red race), 532.
+
+Rig-Veda, 494, 496, 497, 499, 500, 505, 521, 522.
+
+Riksmuseum of Stockholm, 48.
+
+Ring or circle, in Persia, 326
+  (see Circle or ring).
+
+Rio Lagartos, 217.
+
+Rios, Padre, 11, 268, 270.
+
+Rivero, 134;
+  and Tschudi, 150.
+
+Roman, 150.
+
+Roman Catholic Church, 537.
+
+Roman Milliarum Aureum, 513.
+
+Rome, sacred fire, Roma Quadrata, 461;
+  duality, middle, quadruple government, 463;
+  numerical divisions, 464;
+  seven-storied tower, 464;
+  seven-day period, 465, 466, 467;
+  summary, in table of countries, 493;
+  Constantine's plan of state-organization in New Rome identical with the
+              numerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican calendars, 509;
+  the symbolical use of the column, 513;
+  amulet, 514;
+  church built by Constantine in form of Greek Cross, 514.
+
+Rosa, Beltran de la, 181.
+
+Rosny, Leon de, 36.
+
+Rotation
+  (see Axial rotation).
+
+Round form, associated with cult of Heaven or the Above in Mexico, Central
+            America;
+  among Zunis, 113-115;
+  in ancient architecture, 115;
+  associated with sky in Egypt, 371.
+
+Round Temples of Chichen Itza and Mexico, symbolism of, 97.
+
+Royal Ethnographical Museum of Dresden, 129, 155.
+
+Rust, Horatio N., 104.
+
+Sabaean star-worship, 322.
+
+Sabbath, derivation of name, etc., 327.
+
+Sacrifice, human, sacred rite, in Mexico, 63;
+  symbolism of, in Aztec religion, 66, 77;
+  human victim formed living swastika, 91, 92;
+  human blood used to moisten sacred dough, 98;
+  origin of blood sacrifices, 98;
+  to Heaven and to Earth, 118;
+  in Peru, 147, 148, 151;
+  in Mexico, taking out heart of captive signified destroying life of
+              conquered tribe, 263;
+  in China, 296;
+  Egyptian compared with Mexican, 442, 443.
+
+Sacrificial-stone of Mexico=Tribute-stone, or law-stone recording
+            collection of tributes, etc., 258, 259.
+
+Sahagun, Friar Bernardino de, 8, 11, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 47, 53, 56, 61,
+            66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 77-83, 104, 118, 123, 127, 128, 150, 159,
+            173, 175, 176, 189, 192, 245, 259, 261, 279, 507, 553, 555.
+
+St. Augustine, 536.
+
+Sakkarah, Egyptian seven-storied pyramid, 381.
+
+Salado, 200.
+
+Salcamayhua, 132, 146, 148, 151, 161, 170, 186.
+
+Salcamayhua tablet, 510, _note_.
+
+Sanchez, Jesus, 44, 93, 95, 96, 157, _note_.
+
+San Fun, ancient Chinese work, 291.
+
+Saniah-ya-kwe: priesthood of the Hunt, among the Zunis, 201.
+
+San Salvador, mushroom-shaped stone figures from, 114.
+
+Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, sculptured slabs at, 153, 154, 163, 172.
+
+Sapper, Carl, 114, 173.
+
+Satow and Hawes' Handbook of Japan, 570.
+
+Saville, M. H., 513.
+
+Saxo Grammaticus, 472.
+
+Sayce, A. H., 324, 327, 347, 348, 349, 425, 449, 481, 491, 518, 519, 520,
+            521, 524, 525, 527, 532, 540, 572.
+
+Scandinavia, triskelion associated with swastika, 28, 29;
+  Greek fret, 121;
+  numerical divisions;
+  middle;
+  Four Quarters;
+  Ursa Major called "Thor's Wagon;"
+  sacred mountain and tree;
+  axial rotation;
+  cult of Polaris;
+  duality;
+  flora and fauna, 471-479;
+  summary, in table of countries, 493;
+  use of wheel in early times, also mill stone, 502, 503.
+
+Scarab, meaning of emblem, secret sign for "hidden god," 397, 399.
+
+Sceptre, with gold disk, in Mexico, 80, 81;
+  emblem of sovereignty in Assyria and Babylonia, 365;
+  in Egypt, 425.
+
+Schellhas, P., 107, 108, 109, 111, 182.
+
+Schlagintweit, 294, 301.
+
+Schlegel, G., 284.
+
+Schliemann, H., 459, 460, 518.
+
+Schroeder, 526, 568.
+
+Schuchhardt, 518.
+
+Scorpion, Maya Zin-an;
+  symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, 9.
+
+Scotland, use of checker-board design, 124.
+
+Sed festival, 425, 429, 431.
+
+Selden MS., 57, 90, 508, _note_.
+
+Seeds, in symbolism of earth mother, 109;
+  in Maya codices, 111;
+  seeds of life, Zuni, Mexican, Maya, 223, 225;
+  on Tablet of the Cross, 236;
+  on Copan swastika;
+  among Zuni, 236;
+  conventionalized maize seeds, 237;
+  idols formed of seeds in Egypt and Mexico, 442, 443.
+
+Seler, E., 109, 129.
+
+Semiramis, temple of, 347.
+
+Semites, 350-352, 521;
+  name of Supreme god=Yahu or Yaho or Yahve, 532;
+  allied to the Phoenicians, 540, _note_, 541.
+
+Sendschirli tablet, 365.
+
+Sepher Hathora, Hebrew book of the law, 361.
+
+Serpent, in ancient religious symbolism:
+  associated with time, 26, 27;
+  Nahuatl name=twin, Maya name=four, 31;
+  symbol of dual or quadruple nature, 31;
+  of eternal life and the Creator, 32;
+  cursive sign for, 38;
+  on shell gorgets from Mississippi valley, 49, 112;
+  origin of symbol, 50;
+  divine ruler of four quarters, 68, 69;
+  feathers with (see Feathered serpent) 70, 71;
+  pertaining to earth-mother, 100;
+  double-headed, forming vase, 101;
+  in connection with tree of life, 103, 110, 189;
+  with burial of woman, 107;
+  with symbol of Earth, 111;
+  associated with air symbol, 126;
+  in ancient Peruvian fable, 152;
+  on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, 154;
+  totem of tribe conquered by Incas, 157;
+  in arms of Mexico, 157;
+  on silver pendant from Cuzco, 170;
+  with seven heads, symbolical of Mexican and Maya seven tribal divisions,
+              181;
+  of dual ruler, 190;
+  mythological snake among the Pueblo people, 200;
+  symbol of Below among the Zuni, 204;
+  totemic animal of Uxmal, 214;
+  at Copan and Quirigua, 219, 220, 223, 228;
+  on "Cross Tablets" at Palenque, 236, 238, 239;
+  on Calendar-stone, 255;
+  on monolith "Divine Twin," 261;
+  of gold and mosaic on statue of Huitzilopochtli, 266;
+  meaning of symbol, 281;
+  in India, 313;
+  in Persia, 325;
+  in Babylonia, 335;
+  worshipped in the temple of Solomon, 351;
+  in Egyptian symbolism, 389, 391, 393, 424;
+  in Old and New World, 522-523.
+
+Serpent-woman, 60, 61, 65;
+  Cihuacoatl, Mexican ruler, 67, 77, 79, 111;
+  emblem of, figured and described, 128.
+
+Seven, sacred number, 29, 56
+  (see summary, 480-494;
+  also Numerical divisions).
+
+Shakespeare, 247, _note_.
+
+Shamash, temple of, in Babylonia, 331;
+  antiquity of cult of, 332;
+  symbols of, 356;
+  cross and four-spoked wheel of, 355, 365, 495;
+  image of, made by a race of pole star worshippers, 503;
+  compared with "black or night sun" on Mexican Calendar stone, 506.
+
+Shang, Chinese word for Above, 118.
+
+Shang-te, Chinese supreme ruler, whose residence was "Tien"=Heaven, 301.
+
+S-shape, Ursa Minor figured as, 11;
+  bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 29;
+  on native fabrics, in Vienna Codex, 34;
+  in B. N. MS., 34, 38;
+  in Sahagun's Historia, 34;
+  cakes in shape of, 34;
+  associated with star signs and the North, 35;
+  in Mexican and Maya codices, 35, 36;
+  sign of summer solstice, 36;
+  with cross and rain symbols, 37;
+  breads in shape of, 46;
+  figure on Phoenician tablet, 395, _note_.
+
+Shell gorgets, representing winged human being, 39, _note_;
+  in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee, showing cult of Polaris, 44;
+  from Tennessee, 48, 49;
+  evidence of identical symbolism from Yucatan to Illinois, 48-52, 112.
+
+Shell, symbol of parturition, 95, 238.
+
+Shell pendant, symbolism of, 112.
+
+Shinto religion, 311.
+
+Shiwana-kwe, priesthood of the priest-people among the Zuni, 201.
+
+Shoo king, 289, 290, 292, 295, 298, 299.
+
+Shogunate, 311.
+
+Shun, Chinese emperor succeeding Yaou, 292, 298.
+
+Siculus, Diodorus, 329, _note_, 540, _note_.
+
+Sidon, 527.
+
+Siena, Italy, founded by sons of Remus, affinities with ancient Rome, 465.
+
+Silco, 530, 531.
+
+Simpson, Wm., 313.
+
+Sippara, tablet of, 331, 332, 350, 356, 365, 495, 503, 506.
+
+Situa, Peruvian festival when the cults of Above and Below were
+            celebrated, 134.
+
+Siva, cult of, compared with cult of Earth-mother, 314.
+
+Skull, artificially deformed in ancient Peru, 143.
+
+Sky-father among the Zuni, 201.
+
+Smith, Professor, 522.
+
+Smyth, Piazzi, star-map, 30, 43.
+
+Snail, symbol of parturition, 111.
+
+Social organization in Mexico, at time of Montezuma, myths relating to
+            origin of, 54, 62-75
+  (see Quadruple organization and Numerical divisions).
+
+Society Islands, study of Pleiades in, 52.
+
+Solomon, built altar to Astarte in Jerusalem, 350;
+  built altars to Kamosh, god of the Moabites, and to Milkom, god of the
+              Ammonites, 351.
+
+Solomon's temple, 327, 344, 522.
+
+Solon, 445, 447, 448, 455, 526.
+
+Solar or civil year, divisions, 254.
+
+Solstice, summer, 36;
+  winter, 40;
+  lighting sacred fires at time of, 83.
+
+Sommier, Stephen, 477.
+
+Sophocles, 453.
+
+South America, symbolism of, compared with that of Mexico, 122, 224
+  (see Peru).
+
+Southern Cross, 162.
+
+South, Acatl=cane, blue, Mexican emblem and color of, 42.
+
+South Kensington Museum, 216, 227, 234, 239, 313.
+
+Spamer, 332, 428, 457.
+
+Spear-throwers, on tablet at Chichen Itza, and on Mexican Tribute Stone,
+            259.
+
+Speed, John, 470.
+
+Sphinx, Egyptian, 373, 379.
+
+Spider, a symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, 37;
+  tradition about Tezcatlipoca's descent from the sky by a spider's
+              thread, 44;
+  in Nahuatl=tocatl. In Maya=am;
+  symbol originated in Yucatan, 47;
+  on shell-gorgets from Illinois, Tennessee and Missouri, 47, 49;
+  in ancient MSS., 90, 202;
+  in Zuni symbolism, 201;
+  Maya symbol of the North, 278;
+  web of, use as symbol of numerical divisions, 293, 535, _note_.
+
+Spindle, as symbol of axial rotation, in connection with cross symbols on
+            terra cotta spinning whorls, 498.
+
+Spinning tops, 547, _note_.
+
+Spinning whorls, symbolic of rotary motion, in Troy, 498;
+  in Mexico, 504, 508.
+
+Square form, associated with Earth in native American symbolism and
+            architecture, 115, 260, 284;
+  in Egypt, 371.
+
+Stadacone, same as Canada, 197.
+
+Stanley, Dean, 514, _note_.
+
+Star symbol, a black dot, 35;
+  an eye, 36, _note_, 50, 116, 155, _note_, 269, 279;
+  suspended by thread, symbol of night (Egyptian), 387;
+  plain circle in Chinese symbolism, 391;
+  expressed numeral five in Egypt, 398
+  (see Polaris).
+
+Star-cult
+  (see Polaris).
+
+Star god, in Babylonia, Bel;
+  in Asia Minor, Ah-baal, identified with pole-star, 329
+  (see Polaris).
+
+Star-map, Piazzi Smyth's, 20.
+
+Star-names in Maya, 278.
+
+Stelae, purpose of erection, marked periods of time, 216;
+  at Copan and Quirigua, 219-240;
+  correspond with Ahua-ka-tun, the 20-year memorial stone, 221;
+  of Assyrian kings, having seven symbols, seven circles, etc., 337-360;
+  Esar-haddon of Sendschirli, 342, 359;
+  Bavian, 357, 358, 359;
+  of Sargon, 357, 359;
+  trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, 378;
+  funeral stela at Bulak, 421;
+  at Quirigua and Copan memorial stones of high priest rulers, with title
+              "Divine Four";
+  built over hidden cruciform vaults, compared with the Egyptian "star of
+              Horus," 512, 513.
+
+Stevenson, 150.
+
+Stolpe, Hjalmar, 48, 121, 224.
+
+Stoll, Otto, 79, 85, 164, 173.
+
+Stomach, symbolized the Centre or Middle, in China, 296.
+
+Stone, rough or worked, emblem of Earth mother, buried with the dead, 106.
+
+Stone of Tizoc, compared with Altar K of Copan, 226.
+
+Stone collar, from Porto Rico, analogous to stone yokes of Mexico, 118.
+
+Stone figures, recumbent, bearing circular vessels, 93;
+  figured, 94
+  (see Recumbent stone figure).
+
+Stone knives, flint knife in wrappings, Mexican and Maya symbol of Earth
+            mother, 55, 56;
+  among California Indians, 105.
+
+Stone monuments, of Peru (Tiahuanaco), 164-169;
+  Central America, 154, 218-233;
+  Yucatan, 234-244;
+  Mexico, 245-275.
+
+Stone "seats," found in Ecuador, analogous to vase or earth symbols, 107.
+
+Stone tiger with human head and depression in back, found in Mexico and
+            Yucatan, 95.
+
+Stone tables, at Chichen Itza, 212;
+  Maya name for=Mayac-tun, 213;
+  used as drums in sacred ceremonies, 213.
+
+Stone tablet at Sippar, 331, 332.
+
+Stone vessels, found in Mexico and Yucatan, 213.
+
+Stone "yokes," compared with symbolic vase;
+  pertained to cult of earth-mother;
+  in use among Indians of Southern California, 104;
+  in connection with burial of priestesses of Below, 107.
+
+Strabo, 329.
+
+Strebel, Hermann, 104, 153, 156, 157, 165, 172.
+
+Stuebel, A., 167, 169.
+
+Sturlesson, Snorri, 471.
+
+Sumerians, inhabited the South=Sumer, 334.
+
+Summary, of study of ancient American symbols,--cross, serpent, tree,
+            flower, etc., 279-284;
+  use of human and animal figure in symbolism, 296;
+  of countries in which are found the "Quadruple Organization," pole-star
+              worship, etc., 480-494;
+  and Conclusions, 544-562;
+  and tables of words used in the Old and New World in connection with a
+              certain culture based on pole star worship, Appendix I, 548;
+              and Appendix III, 562.
+
+Sun cult, Nahuatl word for sun applies equally to the stars;
+  day sun and night sun;
+  Ollin, symbol of, 13;
+  superseded by star cult, 22;
+  associated with star-cult, 53, 54;
+  Black Sun in B. N. MS.,
+  myth concerning, 54, 55;
+  emblem of Montezuma, 72;
+  Montezuma, high priest of, 74;
+  mirror of polished pyrites, symbol of, 83;
+  rival of star-cult, 83;
+  sacrifices to, in Mexico, 117, 118;
+  in Peru, 134;
+  superseded by belief in Creator, among the Incas, 135;
+  temple of, at Cuzco, 138;
+  upper class maidens in Peru, dedicated to, 143, 145, 148, 149, 170;
+  among Muyscas of Bogota, 171;
+  astronomical attainments of priests of, 180;
+  "Virgins of the Sun" and sun-priests in Mexico and Peru, 194;
+  Sun-father of the Zuni, 200, 201, 204, _note_;
+  on Copan sculpture, 222;
+  in Mexican calendar-stone, 249;
+  four movements of, 252;
+  golden effigy of, associated with Incas in Peru, 264;
+  Enclosure of, name of pyramid at Teotihua-Can, 264, 267;
+  tablet of the sun, in China, 285;
+  temple of, 286;
+  altars, 387;
+  sun-goddess of Japan, 311;
+  among the Hindu, 312;
+  in religion of Persia, 325;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 332;
+  in Egypt, 382;
+  king of Egypt associated with, 389, 424;
+  Egyptian goddess Hathor-Isis was called the female sun, 432;
+  development of cult in Egypt, 438;
+  Caesar called son of the sun, 440.
+
+Supreme being
+  (see Creator or Supreme Being).
+
+Sut-staw-ra-tse, the leader of the "Kingdom of Hochelaga," 197.
+
+Swastika, in Mexican Calendar, 9, 18, 41;
+  origin of symbol;
+  formed by positions of Ursa Major, 15, 16, 18;
+  various forms of, illustrated, 17, 19;
+  geographical distribution of, 19;
+  date when first used as symbol, 20, 21;
+  sign for a year or cycle of time, 23;
+  suggests axial rotation, 24, _note_;
+  formed by four serpents in Codex Borgia, 27;
+  associated with triskelion, on spearhead from Brandenburg;
+  on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 28;
+  formed by combination of star groups, 29, 30;
+  suggested by star-symbol on pottery from Nicaragua and Arizona, 51, 52;
+  origin of the idea of dividing everything into four parts, 76;
+  represented by Zuni idol, 129;
+  rounded and square forms of, at Tiahuanaco, 166;
+  terminating in four puma heads, symbol of central ruler, 209;
+  "The Copan Swastika," 222, 223, 224;
+  the pyramid, a later development of same idea, 274;
+  in different parts of the world, accompanied with pole-star worship,
+              etc., 276-280;
+  in Mexico and Ohio valley, linked with serpent;
+  in Copan, with Middle and Four Quarters, 280;
+  Christian cross compared with, 305;
+  use of symbol in China, 309;
+  in Japan, 311;
+  meaning conveyed by figure of Buddha 315;
+  in Egypt, 409;
+  on Egyptian seal, 459;
+  on coin from island of Crete, 457;
+  on coin from Syracuse;
+  on coin from Corinth;
+  on vases from Troy, 459;
+  in Greece, 459, 460;
+  on Cyprian and Carian pottery;
+  on Greek vases found at Naukratis;
+  on Coptic grave cloths;
+  on mummy case from Hermopolis;
+  on whorls from Troy, 460;
+  date of its use as symbol, 461;
+  later development of the cross symbol, 461;
+  in Scandinavia, 474;
+  on image found in Troy, 496;
+  identical in significance in Old and New World, 510;
+  symbolized "Four in One," and stable centre, 511;
+  in some parts of Germany and Bohemia is still the sign of the
+              stone-mason's guild, 516;
+  or cross-symbol, same meaning in all countries, 534, 538;
+  summary and conclusions, 544.
+
+Sweat house, Nahuatl name of, 124.
+
+Symbolism, in central United States identical with that of Mexico and
+            Yucatan, 48, 49, 50;
+  of Mexico influenced by migration from Yucatan, 67;
+  influenced by sound of word, among the Mayas and Mexicans, 110, 183,
+              185, 186, 284;
+  in China, 277;
+  showing linguistic affinities between Mayas, and early peoples of the
+              Mississippi valley, 112;
+  same in Peru, Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, 170;
+  resemblances between Pueblo people and Mayas and Mexicans, 199, 200,
+              236;
+  same in Copan, 226;
+  in Palenque and Quirigua, 240;
+  on Calendar stone explained, 247;
+  symbols connected with Middle, etc., 277;
+  with Four Quarters, Above and Below, 278;
+  names of Mexican symbols often translations of Maya name, 278;
+  recapitulation of important native symbols, 279-284;
+  year symbols in Mexico and China, 291;
+  resemblances and differences, Chinese and American, 293-296;
+  summary of use of human and animal figure, 296;
+  explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, 367-461;
+  Egyptian pyramid and mummy, 379-381;
+  of ancient Scandinavia, 474;
+  symbols denoting axial rotation, 494;
+  in architecture (see window, tau, pyramid, Greek fret, round form,
+              square form, color, etc.);
+  of human form (see separate references under Human);
+  for special symbols, see separate references.
+
+Syracuse, coins from, swastika with human head in centre, 459.
+
+Tabasco, 211.
+
+Tablet, containing ancient map of Babylonia
+  (note following Index).
+
+Talon, of beast of prey, symbol of four lords of Below, 185.
+
+Taouism, 298, 301, 306.
+
+Tarahumari Indians, ceremonies typifying fecundity of earth, etc.,
+            compared with those of ancient Mexicans, 101.
+
+Tartan design, 122, 123, 124.
+
+Tau, double, shape of courtyard, 82, 86, 87;
+  signified union of Above and Below;
+  inverted, emblem of Above;
+  upright emblem of the Below, 118;
+  in American ceremonial rite;
+  among the cliff dwellers of Colorado;
+  among the Pueblo Indians;
+  in Scandinavia, called Thor's hammer;
+  in architecture of Central America, and Palenque;
+  in dance of Moqui Indians;
+  different forms of, figured and described, 119, 122;
+  in checker-board or tartan design, 123;
+  suggested by fire-drill, 280;
+  tau-shaped cross in Mesopotamia, 321;
+  tau-shaped altar in Egypt, 411.
+
+Taylor, E. B., 297, _note_.
+
+Taylor, W. C., 463, 468, 488, _note_.
+
+Tecpan, Mexican council house;
+  meaning of word, 183.
+
+Tecpatl, symbol of the North, 10, 34;
+  flint knife, 45, 46;
+  sacred producer of vital spark, 47;
+  myth concerning, 54;
+  figured as offspring of dual divinity, 55;
+  symbol of Fire, 56;
+  emblem of "supreme pontiffs," 62;
+  one of the four year symbols, 76;
+  in Borgian Codex, 98;
+  on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;
+  possible origin of name, which means "to govern," 183;
+  on Sacrificial Stone of Mexico, 258.
+
+Teen-hwang-ta-tee, Chinese name for the pole-star, 284, 302.
+
+Temistitan, ancient name for capital of Mexico, 542.
+
+Temple of Mexico, 58, 80, 83, 90, 118.
+
+Temples, of the "Tigers" at Chichen-Itza, 212;
+  "11," at Copan, 222;
+  of "the Inscriptions" at Palenque, 235, 240;
+  of "the Sun," 235, 239, 240;
+  of "Cross No. 2," 235, 243;
+  of Ptah at Memphis, 367;
+  at Abydos, 386.
+
+Tenayocan, name of Mexican town containing the affix "Can," 263.
+
+Tennessee, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.
+
+Tenochtitlan, 63;
+  hieroglyph in centre of ancient Maya and Mexican maps, 88.
+
+Teo-Culhuacan, from _Teotl_, stars, sun, gods, something divine; and
+            _Culhua_, something recurved, and _can_, the place of=name for
+            Aztlan, 56.
+
+Teotihuacan, pyramids of, 140, 199, 263, 264;
+  description of ruins, registry of death by small clay heads, 267;
+  Pyramids show knowledge of "Great Plan;"
+  great antiquity;
+  advanced stage of intellectual development, 268;
+  same civilization as builders of Pyramid of Cholula, 269;
+  two cults, two languages (Maya and Nahuatl) and dual rulership, 274,
+              529.
+
+Teotl, represented by image of sun;
+  signifies something divine, 13, 65;
+  title of the upper class in Mexico, 102, 140;
+  meaning a divinity or divine lord and applied to all lords or rulers,
+              279.
+
+Terra cotta heads and figures in Mexico and Peru, 139, 140.
+
+Terrace form, rain symbol, 132.
+
+Tet, Egyptian symbol of eternity, described and analyzed, 394.
+
+Texcoco, 55, 163, 183.
+
+Texoxoctli, stone placed with dead of lower class, 195.
+
+Tezcatl, obsidian mirror, 10.
+
+Tezcatlipoca, meaning of name;
+  identical with Mictlantecuhtli, 8;
+  surrounded by circle of footsteps;
+  myth concerning, 9;
+  symbols of, representations of;
+  fastened to symbol of the North, 10;
+  star-cult connected with, 11;
+  synonymous names, 11;
+  myth concerning, 12, 26, 44, 45;
+  associated with the Below, the female region, 42;
+  with black, 62;
+  title of, means "Heart of the Earth," 72, _note_;
+  "Shining Mirror," 79;
+  image of, beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli, in great temple of Mexico,
+              60, 82, 265;
+  lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, 82;
+  priests of, called "Sons of the Night," connected with divination, 83;
+  honored jointly with Huitzilopochtli at Toxcatl festival, 97;
+  flint knife, emblem of, 103;
+  compared with Zuni idol, 128, 129;
+  suggested by symbols at Tiahuanaco, 166;
+  tradition, 208;
+  fire-drill god, 505, 507.
+
+Tezolotlan, termed the land of war, 172.
+
+Tezozomoc, 11, 40, 60, 61, 79.
+
+Themistius of Byzantium, 542.
+
+Theodosius, 530.
+
+Theophrastus, 519.
+
+Thibet, astronomical science, 301;
+  Buddhist of, 315.
+
+Thomas, Cyrus, 109.
+
+Thor, Norse supreme god, 473.
+
+Thor's hammer, 119.
+
+Thucydides, 457.
+
+Tiahuanaco, place of first appearance of Incas, 133;
+  monolithic doorway, 165;
+  swastika sacred symbol, 166;
+  ruins of, 167-169, 209.
+
+Tiberius Claudius, 440.
+
+Tien (Chinese), Heaven, also Supreme ruler, 301.
+
+Tiger, in stone, with human head and hollow depression in back, found in
+            Yucatan and Mexico, 95;
+  on sculpture from Mitla, 163;
+  "Tiger's arm," title of prince in ancient Mexico, 163;
+  head, symbol on monolithic doorway at Tiahuanaco, Peru, 165;
+  heads, at end of swastika;
+  on sculptured doorway, 166;
+  in headdress on sculptures, 167;
+  warrior caste of Mexico;
+  temple of, at Chichen Itza, 212
+  (see Puma, Jaguar and Quadruped).
+
+Tikal, 210;
+  classification of ruins, 215.
+
+Timaeus, 445.
+
+Time, Egyptian sign, circle with dot, 387.
+
+Tinamit, on Usumacinto river, 215.
+
+Tionontate or Tobacco Nation, 197.
+
+Titicaca lake, as place of first appearance of Incas, 133, 539.
+
+Tititl, name of Mexican feast, 79.
+
+Tizoc, stone of, 9, 172, 212.
+
+Tlacaxipehualiztli, ritual at festival of, 12.
+
+Tlachtli, courtyard in shape of double tau, 87;
+  ancient Mexican game, 176.
+
+Tlaloc, title of god of rain, 78, 99;
+  designated by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, 81.
+
+Tlatoque, literally, "The speaker" title of chief of clan, 178.
+
+Tlaxcalla, republic of;
+  government of, army of, 75;
+  recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, found in, 93;
+  small republic of Mexico, name signifies bread;
+  hieroglyphic sign is maize-cake, 272.
+
+Tloquenahuaque, title of "Creator" in texcoca, 163.
+
+Tochtli, one of the four year symbols, 76;
+  rabbit, 78;
+  tochtli-gods, agents of Cihuacoatl, 78.
+
+Tollan, abode of Quetzalcoatl, 217;
+  native name for Cholollan, 275.
+
+Toltecas, representatives of high civilization of ancient Yucatan, 89;
+  master-builders, 234, 253, 254, 529.
+
+Topiltzin, title of supreme pontiff, of Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, 77,
+            96.
+
+Torquemada, 54, 55, 60, 67, 77, 95, 96, 150.
+
+Tortoise, among the Iroquois, 197;
+  in Mexico, 279;
+  Maya word for _ac_, 281;
+  in Chinese symbolism, 296.
+
+Totemism, North American Indian, 154, 197;
+  Peruvian, 157, 201;
+  Quiche, 164, _note_;
+  Zuni, 201, 204;
+  Copan and Zuni, 227;
+  and Quirigua, 233;
+  Fire people of Mexico,--the ocelot; Air people,--the bird, 254;
+  in relation to signs of zodiac and to the stars, 255;
+  in Babylonia, 348;
+  alligator totem in India and Mexico, 520;
+  among the Semites, 521, 522;
+  serpent totem among Semites, Mayas, Nahuas, and Peruvians, 522, 523.
+
+Toxcatl festival, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli, jointly honored, 97.
+
+Traditions (see "Myths and Traditions").
+
+Tree symbolism, tree of life in Vienna Codex, 103;
+  in Dresden Codex, 110;
+  in ancient America, 186;
+  among the Incas, 186;
+  among the Mexicans, social organization represented by, 187;
+  Above and Below, 188;
+  serpent and Polaris, 189;
+  embodied male and female elements, 188;
+  shape of human figure, 189;
+  used to signify lord or governor, also ancestor, 189, 190;
+  sacred tree of the Mayas, 191;
+  among Peruvians, Mexicans and Mayas, image of social organization, 192;
+  in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224;
+  symbol of tribe in America, 235, 236, 237, 242, 213, 507, _note_;
+  symbol of the year in Mexico, 241;
+  che, Maya word for tree, zin-che=cross, literally tree of life or of
+              power, 278;
+  quahuitl, Nahuatl word for tree, symbol of Centre;
+  homonymous with _quaitl_, meaning head, 279;
+  recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 281;
+  compared with Chinese symbol of "wood," 294;
+  in Buddhist religion, 321;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, on bas-relief at Nimroud, 360;
+  as sacred symbol, 361;
+  tree worship, by Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, 362-364;
+  celestial tree of life in garden of Paradise, 365;
+  the ash-tree of the Norsemen on the summit of the Hill of Heaven, 472;
+  symbol of star-god, Polaris, 474;
+  tribal trees in India, Egypt, Mexico, Central America and Peru, 499;
+  the celestial tree of the Norsemen and Semites, 503;
+  in ancient America, 506, 507.
+
+Tribute stone, Mexican "Sacrificial" stone, 259.
+
+Triskelion, companion symbol to swastika;
+  formed by polar constellations at winter-solstice, 27;
+  not used in the South but with swastika in the North, 28;
+  on pottery from Arkansas;
+  on spearhead from Brandenburg;
+  on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 28;
+  formed by combination of star groups, 30;
+  sign of winter solstice, 37.
+
+Trocadero Museum, 104, 174, _note_.
+
+Troncoso, Francisco del Paso y, 13, 82, 250, 252.
+
+Troy, vases from, having swastika or cross symbol, 459.
+
+Troy, spindle whorls with swastikas and allusion to pole-star god, Tur,
+            498.
+
+Tschudi, 134.
+
+Tuch-pan, name of capital of Maya colony, 125, 207.
+
+Tula, 60;
+  city of, 95.
+
+Tulapan, 210.
+
+Tullan, 173;
+  name of culture hero's home, 68;
+  meaning of, in Maya language, 68;
+  identity not established;
+  beautiful land of the Aztecs, Mayas, Kiches and Cakchiquels;
+  Cakchiquel legend regarding;
+  Maya migration from, 88, 268.
+
+Tullan Cholollan, ancient seat of civilization;
+  probable place where scheme of organization was evolved, and where
+              traditions of destruction of earth originated, 268, 274,
+              275.
+
+Turanian, originally a northern race, (see Phoenicians), 517.
+
+Turtle, at Quirigua, 234;
+  in Egyptian symbolism, 398.
+
+Tusayan, ceremonies, symbols and myths compared with those of Central
+            America, 200.
+
+Tuscaroras, 196.
+
+Tutulxius, 211;
+  immigrants into Yucatan, tradition concerning, 210.
+
+Twin, divine
+  (see Dual Divinity).
+
+Twin serpents, on Mexican Calendar Stone, symbolizing dual forces of
+            nature, and quadruplication, 257;
+  on dual statues, on summit of great Temple of Mexico, 266.
+
+Tylor, E. B., 196, 363.
+
+Tyre, destruction of, by the Greeks, 527.
+
+Tzendals, culture hero of, 60, 71, 72;
+  calendar signs, 180;
+  social organization and numerical system, 181, 182.
+
+Tzilan, ancient capital in Yucatan, 234.
+
+Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, name of Quilaztli, 60.
+
+Uhle, Max, 167-169.
+
+Upsala, university of, 230, _note_.
+
+Urhye, Chinese dictionary, 292.
+
+Ursa Major, myths concerning, 8, 11, 12;
+  meaning of name in Nahuatl, 8, 9;
+  four positions of form swastika, 14-22;
+  nearer to pole-star in remote antiquity, 21;
+  rotary motion, 22;
+  positions of, scratched on rocks, beginning of astronomical records, 23;
+  Tezcatlipoca and ocelot associated with, 26;
+  in relation to sacred numbers, 29;
+  resembles s-shape, 34;
+  in relation to idea of Above and Below, 40;
+  ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, 57;
+  on calendar stone, 246, 250;
+  identified as star-god, "Youal-tecuhtli" mentioned by Sahagun, 279;
+  among the ancient Chinese, 284, 285, 291, 298, 302;
+  in Hindu religion, 319;
+  in Babylonia and Assyria, 358, _note_;
+  in Egypt, 378, 382, 384, 385, 397, 400, 410;
+  Akkadian title, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven, 394;
+  Greek name for Helice, 447;
+  as sailing guide in ancient Greece, 451, 452;
+  became circumpolar about B.C. 4000, time of adoption of swastika symbol,
+              461.
+
+Ursa Minor, S-shaped figure sign of, 11, 29;
+  connected with Tezcatlipoca, 12;
+  rotation of, 18;
+  suavastika formed by, 19;
+  in relation to sacred number, 29, 33;
+  represented by recurved sceptre, 34;
+  represented by Maya glyph, Hun-Imix, 35;
+  in connection with Polaris, 36;
+  in relation to idea of Above and Below, 40;
+  symbol of;
+  s-shaped breads made in honor of, 46;
+  ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, 57;
+  in Copan swastika, 224;
+  in Egypt, 382;
+  in Babylonia-Assyria=Kakkabu, 400;
+  in ancient Greece as sailing guide, 451.
+
+Usumacinto river, 235.
+
+Uxmal, House of the Doves, symbolism of, 131;
+  symbolic hand on garment of chieftain, 184;
+  the serpent city of America, 214;
+  ruins in, 216.
+
+Valentini, P. J. J., 256, _note_.
+
+Valera, Padre Blas, 151.
+
+Varuna, name of supreme god in India, 312.
+
+Vase, or Bowl, symbol of earth mother, 100;
+  emblem of the rain priests or Octli gods, 102;
+  worn in nose as emblem;
+  meaning of, 103;
+  containing rabbit or flint knife, 104;
+  as conventionalized serpent jaw, resembles horseshoe-shaped stone
+              "yoke," 104;
+  considered sacred among Zuni Indians, 105;
+  reason of vase decoration, 105, 106;
+  grave made in shape of;
+  buried with dead to propitiate earth-mother;
+  used as burial urn, 106;
+  stone "seats" indicate analogous cult of earth-mother south of Mexico,
+              107;
+  Maya day-sign, Caban, 107;
+  in Maya codices, 107, 108;
+  figured as day sign, ch'en, 110;
+  associated with seeds and germination, by Mayas and Mexicans, 111;
+  in Vienna Codex, 123, 124;
+  sacred bowl among Pueblo Indians, 132;
+  in hand of ruler on Copan sculpture, 222, 224, 225;
+  bowl of water, preceded use of obsidian mirror, in divination, 225;
+  Maya supreme priest called "Lord of the Vase or bowl," 226;
+  on Tablet of the "Cross 2," at Palenque, 236;
+  recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 283;
+  used for Astronomical purposes among pigmy races, and in Phoenicia,
+              Assyria and Egypt, 339;
+  large terra-cotta jars found at Nippur, and in temple of Solomon, 344;
+  canopic vases in Egypt, 372;
+  same idea embodied in pyramid, 386;
+  in zodiac signs, 395;
+  symbol of god Amen-Ra, 408;
+  in cult of Egyptian goddess, Isis, 424.
+
+Vedas, 312, 314, 452, _note_, 494, 496, 497, 499, 500, 505, 521, 522.
+
+Vega, Garcilaso de la, 136, 137, 150, 151.
+
+Vega, Nunez de la, 180, 181, 182.
+
+Venice, compared to Mexico, 84.
+
+Venus, temple of Mexico dedicated to, planet of, 53;
+  on Calendar-stone, 252.
+
+Vikings, cult of Polaris, 474.
+
+Villavicencio, 150.
+
+Virgins of the Sun, in Mexico and Peru, 194.
+
+Vishnu, cult of, 314.
+
+Volcanoes, as probable cause of traditions of destruction of earth,
+            270-275.
+
+Von Herder, 449, _note_.
+
+Von Luschan, 342, 358, _note_, 359, 360.
+
+Von Schroeder, L., 484, 458, _note_.
+
+Votan, culture hero of the Tzendals, title "the Master of the Sacred
+            Drum," 60, 71-72, _note_.
+
+Vulture, totem of Quiche chieftain, 164;
+  in Egyptian symbolism, 398, 425, 426.
+
+Wales, Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Egyptian Amen-Ra;
+  dual power;
+  Central ruler;
+  numeral seven in Welsh legend, 471.
+
+Wampum belts, Iroquois, 197-199.
+
+Wan, Chinese word for swastika, 309.
+
+Warburg, A., 119.
+
+Waring, 459.
+
+Warren, William F., 475, 566.
+
+Water, sacred pool in temple of Mexico, 225;
+  in connection with star cult, 226;
+  associated with fire-drill and socket in Old and New World, 505.
+
+Water era, one of the four eras of the world, 253.
+
+Water goddess, called Chalchiutlycue, 91.
+
+Water and air design, encircling the mitre of the Lord of the Above;
+  on mantles of Montezuma's predecessors, 125;
+  emblem of cult of Above, 126.
+
+Weaving, art of among the Huaxtekans, 207-208, _note_.
+
+West, Cihuatlampa (in Nahuatl)=place of the women, 38;
+  in Cosmos=Calli=house, yellow, earth, darkness, 42;
+  door of the Underworld, 54;
+  female region, 64.
+
+Webster's Dictionary, 419.
+
+Wheat, stalk of, year symbol in China, 291.
+
+Wheel, emblem of the Deity and of rotation, among ancient Mexicans, 33;
+  represented by Mexican dance, 59;
+  the four-spoked wheel of Shamash in Babylonia and Assyria, 332, 356,
+              365;
+  symbol of axial rotation and time in Old World, 500;
+  associated with pole-star in Japan, 501;
+  use of, known in Japan and China from the earliest times, 501-502;
+  in Scandinavia, 502;
+  first religions and their royal symbol--possibly evolved from the stone
+              fire socket, 503 (see Axial Rotation).
+
+Wheelwright, E. M., 514, 515.
+
+Whitney, J. D., 449 _note_, 452, _note_.
+
+Wickersham, James, 288, 292.
+
+Wiener, 132, 146.
+
+Williams, 288.
+
+Wilson, Sir Daniel, 540.
+
+Wilson, Thomas, 19, 23, 28, 50, 318, 459, 460.
+
+Wind-god, symbol of, 34.
+
+Windows, symbolism of, in Mexico, Central America and elsewhere, 120, 121.
+
+Winged disk, in Assyria, 356, 357.
+
+Winter solstice, triskelion sign of, 27, 28.
+
+Woman, origin of idea of inferiority, 65;
+  position of, in Peru and Mexico, 194;
+  "Corn Maidens" and "Mothers" in America, 276;
+  in China, 286, 287;
+  in Babylonia-Assyria, 341;
+  in Greece and Rome, 345 in Egypt, 426-436.
+
+Writing, cursive and ikonomatic of the Old World;
+  picture writing adopted by Spanish missionaries to New World, 534-535,
+              _note_;
+  Egyptian hieratic script, 535, _note_;
+  numerical value of letters in Greek alphabet;
+  Maya calculiform hieroglyphs;
+  geometrical figures used by Phoenicians, 536, _note_.
+
+Wu, Chinese empress, 309.
+
+Wylie, Alexander, 303, 335, 481, _note_.
+
+Xicalango, 211.
+
+Xilomaniztli, another name for the festival "Izcalli;"
+  meaning the birth or sprouting of the young maize, 241.
+
+Xiuhtecuhtli, Mexican lord of the year or of fire;
+  emblem of, figured and described;
+  called the turquoise;
+  or grass-green pyramid, 129, 214, 223.
+
+Xius, tribe of ancient Yucatan, 211.
+
+Xonecuilli, native name for Ursa Minor (see Ursa Minor).
+
+Xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl (Nahuatl)=the verdant or blue sky, a title of
+            Huitzilo-pochtli, 72.
+
+Yang and Yin, in Chinese religion;
+  belief of the modern Chinese concerning, 286.
+
+Yaou, Chinese emperor who divided China into four provinces, 298.
+
+Year symbols, in Mexican calendar, acatl, tecpatl, calli and tochtli, 76;
+  glyphs on Copan stela or katun, 220;
+  Maya name for=Ah-cuch-haab, 220;
+  in Mexican Calendar-stone, 253;
+  in Mexico, bunch of grass or maize shoots;
+  in China, stalk of wheat, 291.
+
+Yoalticitl, mother of the gods in ancient Mexico, 123.
+
+Yop-at, Maya name for "a mitre," symbol of divine ruler, 118.
+
+Yope or yopi, Mexican peaked headdress or cone 117.
+
+Yopico, name given to temple and monastery in courtyard of Great Temple of
+            Mexico, 118.
+
+Youal-tecuhtli, star-god mentioned by Sahagun, identified as Ursa Major,
+            279;
+  name signifies, "lord of the night," also "Lord of the circle or wheel,"
+              279.
+
+Yuoalahua=lord of the wheel, 71.
+
+Yu, Chinese emperor;
+  divisions of China, 292, 299.
+
+Yucatan, cult of Polaris, 44;
+  Mexican culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, came from, 67;
+  social organization, older than that of Mexico, 67;
+  Twin-brothers personifying the Above and Below, 68;
+  serpent symbol, more ancient than in Mexico, 70;
+  ancient map of, 85-90;
+  early peoples of, in contact with those of Mississippi valley, 112;
+  traditions about Kukulcan's journey to Mexico, 206;
+  traditions of tribes who came from the south, 210-214;
+  meeting ground of Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people, 214;
+  not cradle of Maya civilization, 214;
+  ancient monuments of, 216;
+  fourfold divisions, 218, 494;
+  Mayas compared with Maghas of India, 509, 519;
+  ancient civilization, 528;
+  ruder forms of culture alongside of the perfected social organization,
+              531;
+  period of warfare and pestilence, 539
+  (see Chichen Itza, Mayapan, etc.).
+
+Yupanqui, founder of Cuzco, who introduced worship of the Creator, 135,
+            161, 186.
+
+Zamorra, Fray Geronimo Roman y, 275.
+
+Zarate, 150.
+
+Zeller, Edward, 484.
+
+Zenith, nepantla, 38.
+
+Zigzag or undulated lines, symbol of water, 126.
+
+Zikkurats of Babylonia, seven-staged towers, 327-331;
+  oriented to the four cardinal points, 332;
+  together with "Great basin of Apsu," formed image of Cosmos, 361.
+
+Zilan, Maya centre of female industry 208, _note_;
+  name signified "embroidery," 210;
+  stone monoliths, 216;
+  ancient centre of culture in Yucatan, 217.
+
+Zip, glyph on Copan altar, 227.
+
+Zmigrodski, 19.
+
+Zodiac composed of twenty day-signs, 255;
+  in Chinese calendar, 285.
+
+Zumarraga, Bishop, 264.
+
+Zuni, conception of Cosmos, Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, 41,
+            100;
+  ceremonies typifying the fecundity of the earth, etc., 101;
+  vase used as emblem of earth-mother, 105;
+  cult of Above and Below;
+  swastika symbol in use among;
+  cult of Polaris;
+  Zuni idol compared with Mexican lord of fire and lord of the under
+              world, 128, 129, 130;
+  twin brothers, war-gods, compared with counterparts in Mexico and
+              Yucatan, 130;
+  colors assigned to cardinal points, 192;
+  creation myth, 200, 223;
+  modern, ceremonies, symbols, etc., compared with those of Mexico,
+              Central America and Peru, 200;
+  Sky-father and Earth-mother;
+  Macaw or winter people, and Raven or summer people, 201;
+  linguistic affinities with Nahuatl and Maya, 201;
+  myth about building the town at the stable middle of the earth, 202;
+  social organization, 203, 205;
+  symbol of seeds of life, compared with Mexico and Maya, 223;
+  numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical
+              with that of Mexico, Yucatan, Copan, Guatemala, Peru, etc.,
+              226, 493;
+  spider's web as image of numerical divisions;
+  colors assigned to four elements, compared with Mexico and China, 293;
+  use of quadruped to symbolize cardinal points and divisions of state
+              compared with similar symbolism in Mexico and Central
+              America, 295;
+  the pueblo represents a "seven in one," a counterpart of archaic
+              kingdoms in India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome,
+              etc., 529.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+I am indebted to the eminent Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins
+University, for drawing my attention to the existence of an extremely
+important and interesting ancient map of Babylonia on an unfortunately
+broken and mutilated clay tablet also inscribed with cuneiform characters.
+This tablet is reproduced in photogravure and illustrated by a pencil
+drawing on pp. 100 and 101 of the Notes on "the Book of Ezekiel"
+(translated by Prof. C. H. Toy), which forms Part 12 of the monumental
+polychrome edition of the Bible, which is being edited by Prof. Paul
+Haupt, with the assistance of Dr. Horace Howard Furness. Although
+designated as a "Babylonian map of the world" it obviously represents
+Babylonia as a Middle Kingdom, traversed by the Euphrates and containing
+Babylon, surrounded by other cities situated in the Euphratean valley.
+
+Babylonia is enclosed in two large concentric circles representing the
+sea, designated in a cuneiform inscription as the "Bitter stream" or "Salt
+water river." Triangles extend beyond the outer circle, recalling the four
+"rays or spokes" of the image of Shamash (fig. 65). Cuneiform characters,
+in one of these triangular spaces, designate it as an island. Professor
+Toy states that "there seem to have been originally seven of these
+triangles, but most of them are broken away." In point of fact only one of
+the triangles is whole, and distinct traces of three others are preserved.
+As the mutilated condition of the tablet forbids certainty as to the
+original number of triangles, I venture to point out that it seems more
+likely that instead of seven there were originally six triangles around
+the central disc and that the map of Babylonia constitutes an image of a
+confederated state, like those of India and Persia (see pp. 480 and 484),
+conceived as formed of "six dependent and allied states surrounding the
+seventh ruling state in the centre."
+
+Referring the reader to p. 348 of this work where "the seven kings" of
+Babylon are mentioned and seven-fold organization is discussed, I merely
+state that the importance of the Babylonian map can scarcely be overrated
+as a proof of the application in remote antiquity of the cosmical scheme
+to territorial divisions. It will be for Assyriologists to determine for
+us the relative ages of the Sippara tablet (p. 332 and fig. 65, 1), and
+the Babylonian Map tablet and to define their respective connections with
+the "four regions" and "seven directions," or with quadruplicate and
+seven-fold schemes of organization. It is my hope that their researches
+will lead to definite knowledge as to the date when these cosmical schemes
+were employed in the Euphratean valley.
+
+In conclusion I draw attention to the two interesting wheel-shaped maps of
+the world also published in the "Notes on Ezekiel" (p. 105), and the
+remarkable diagram (p. 197), showing the allotment of the land of Canaan
+according to Ezekiel. On p. 204, in the Notes of Chapter 48 of Ezekiel,
+there are valuable details concerning the geographical distribution of the
+tribes of Israel, and the position, in the centre, of the sacred
+reservation and the symmetrical arrangement of the gates of Jerusalem,
+which were associated with the cardinal points and tribal representatives.
+
+Z. N.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 The Swastika. Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1894. Washington,
+      1896. During the preparation of this paper I also consulted the
+      following works, from which some forms of swastika are likewise
+      reproduced on pl. II: Le signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme.
+      Gabriel de Mortillet. Paris, 1866. Zur Geschichte der Swastika.
+      Zmigrodski, Braunschweig, 1890. La migration des symboles. Comte
+      Goblet d'Alviella. Paris, 1891.
+
+    2 I would insert here that it was only when the present investigation
+      was almost completed, that my attention was arrested by a reference
+      in Professor Wilson's work, already cited, to a short article on the
+      Fylfot and the Futhorc tir by H. Colley March, M.D.
+
+      Having succeeded in obtaining a copy of the Transactions of the
+      Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society (vol. 4, pp. 1-12,
+      1886), in which it appeared, I had the extreme satisfaction of
+      finding that a specialist working in another field and approaching
+      the problem from another direction had come to two of the identical
+      conclusions that I had reached in a totally different manner. This
+      fact constitutes, in my opinion, the most powerful support of the
+      correctness of the views we hold in common after having formed,
+      expressed and worked them out in such a different way, as can be
+      verified by a comparison of our two works.
+
+      Referring the reader to his valuable and suggestive communication to
+      which I shall revert, I shall merely mention here that Dr. March
+      recognizes, as I do, that the "essential suggestion [of the swastika
+      and fylfot] is of axial rotation." He attributes the original of the
+      swastika to the nocturnal (not as I do, to the annual) rotation of
+      the Ursa Major around Polaris, and likewise refers to the fact that
+      about four thousand years ago, the circular sweep of the circumpolar
+      constellations was far more striking than at present. After meeting
+      on this common ground our lines of investigation part company and go
+      wide asunder, nor am I able to follow some of Dr. March's
+      conclusions such as, for instance, his opinion that the fylfot was a
+      sign of a "diurnal rotation" suggested by "the rising and setting of
+      the sun and moon when the spectator looked at them with his back to
+      the north." On the other hand I am indebted to him for much valuable
+      information relating to the rune or futhorc tir, to which I shall
+      refer later.
+
+    3 Besides the word _coatl_=twin, the Mexicans had another term to
+      express some thing double, in pairs. A plant with two shoots was
+      named xolotl. Double agave plants, or maize when occasionally met
+      with, were regarded with superstition and named me-xolotl. The
+      pretty little parroquets, popularly known as "love-birds" from their
+      habit of constant association, in pairs, were named xolotl. The
+      circumstance that the term for birds'-down was also xolotl may
+      explain why the down-feathers of eagles and other birds were
+      employed and played a certain role in ritual observances. They
+      expressed and conveyed the sound of a word which meant something
+      double and could therefore be used to symbolize a variety of
+      meanings relating to multiplication or propagation. That the
+      Mexicans figuratively connected birds'-down with generation is
+      proven by the well-known myth of the birth of Huitzilopochtli from
+      the union of a ball of birds'-down and a goddess named "she with the
+      petticoat of serpents" (Sahagun, book III, chap. I).
+
+      Tufts of birds'-down figure, in the B. N. MS., on the shield of the
+      female ancestress of the human race, one of whose numerous titles
+      was toci,="our grandmother," to express which the figure of a citli
+      or hare was sometimes employed in pictography. Of her it was said,
+      that she bore only twins, a figure of speech meaning great
+      productiveness, just as the female divinity is also termed "the
+      woman with 400 breasts" (text to p. 29, Vatican Codex, Kingsborough,
+      vols. II and V). In the text to the Telleriano-Remensis Codex
+      (Kingsborough, vol. I, pl. 24), we find Xolotl, a deity wearing the
+      shell-symbol of Quetzalcoatl, directly named "the god of twins."
+
+    4 The full meaning which may have been attached to the eye-symbol in
+      both Nahuatl and Maya languages is set forth in the following notes
+      which I give merely for the suggestion they convey of a deep meaning
+      having been attached to the eye-symbol. The Nahuatl word for eye is
+      _ix-telolotli_, but in pictography it represented the phonetic value
+      of _ix_ only. It may, therefore, have been employed as a cursive
+      sign for face=_ixtli_ and the fact that it figures in the centre of
+      the symbol _ollin_, where a face sometimes occurs, confirms this
+      surmise. In the Maya language the word for eye is _ich_, which is
+      practically identical with the Nahuatl _ix_, and this enters into
+      the composition of the following words, the meanings of which are
+      worth considering in connection with the fact that the eye is shown
+      to have been employed to convey the meaning of star, in both
+      languages: Ix-machun=eternal, without beginning, ix-mayam=forever,
+      continuously, without interruption. ix-maxul=perpetual, without end.
+      The fact that each of these Maya words exhibits the prefix _ix_ and
+      that an eye is employed to express this sound and stands for star,
+      is certainly interesting, since it suggests that the natives
+      associated the idea of eternity with the stars.
+
+    5 This native belief is beautifully illustrated by the two "highly
+      artistic shell-gorgets representing winged human beings," which are
+      described and figured by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, in Part II of his
+      instructive and extremely useful "Archaeological Studies among the
+      Ancient Cities of Mexico," which I have received just as this paper
+      is going to press. I am much pleased at the possibility of drawing
+      attention, by means of a footnote, to the interesting fact that in
+      one gorget the human head is figured with butterfly wings, whilst in
+      the other it is accompanied by conventionalized feathers and a
+      butterfly wing. There can be no doubt that both gorgets are attempts
+      to represent the resuscitated souls of departed warriors, according
+      to the native ideas concerning them. It is nevertheless very
+      remarkable to see actually that the ancient Mexicans employed the
+      butterfly as a symbol of an immortal soul and had also evolved the
+      idea of a winged head, analogous to that of a cherub, to represent a
+      blest spirit, dwelling in celestial regions.
+
+      It is noticeable that the name of the Mexican priests was papa,
+      which syllables are the first in the word papalotl=butterfly. It may
+      be that a distinction was made and that the souls of the dead
+      priests were supposed to assume the shape of butterflies or moths,
+      whilst the warriors became celestial humming-birds.
+
+    6 In connection with Montezuma's use of a litter it should be noticed
+      that, in the picture-writings, only the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl
+      and the bird god Huitzilopochtli are represented as seated on
+      litters. The two bars of Quetzalcoatl's litter, figured in Duran's
+      atlas (Tratado 2, cap. 1 a) terminate at each end in a serpent's
+      head. The pair of twin serpents thus rendered, evidently convey an
+      allusion to his name, which would be equally comprehensible in the
+      Maya or Mexican languages. In another portion of Duran's Atlas
+      (Trat. 2, chap. 2), Huitzilopochtli is figured as seated on a litter
+      masked as a bird, and a finely-executed native picture of the
+      bird-god, being borne on a litter, is in the B. N. MS. where he is
+      named "the precious lord" and is represented with a sceptre in his
+      hand surmounted by a heart. This latter detail is of special
+      interest, since it indicates that the Mexicans employed the heart
+      with the same symbolical and metaphorical meaning as the
+      Maya-Quiches and Tzentals. The latter had named their culture-hero
+      "Votan"="the Heart" (of the people). (Brinton Hero-myths, p. 217.)
+      In the Popol-Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiches, the supreme
+      divinity is named "the Heart of the heaven, whose name is Hurakan."
+      He is also named the "Heart of the Earth," a title whose equivalent
+      in Mexico=Tepe-Yollotl, was applied to Tezcatlipoca and associated
+      with the bodiless voice, the echo, which was supposed to proceed
+      from the "heart (or life) of the Mountain." The above data
+      undoubtedly prove the important point that Huitzilopochtli and
+      Tezcatlipoca were respectively entitled "the Heart of the Heaven"
+      and "the Heart of the Earth."
+
+    7 Short triangular capes are worn to this day by the Mexican women,
+      and are called quechquemitl=shoulder capes. It is curious to find in
+      Molina's dictionary, the following: tzimpitzauac=something figured,
+      which is wide above and pointed below, and tzimmanqui=something
+      figured which is pointed above and wide below, words which seem to
+      indicate that they refer to triangles and that these had different
+      meanings according to position.
+
+    8 The production of this drink was limited to the area in which the
+      agave plant could be cultivated. As set forth in my commentary on
+      the "Lyfe of the Indians," the natives employed many other kinds of
+      fermented liquors, made from different fruits and plants.
+
+    9 The sacred symbols and numbers of Aboriginal America in Ancient and
+      Modern times. (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, no. 2,
+      1894.)
+
+   10 Tribes of California, Stephen Powers. Contributions to North
+      American Ethnology. Washington, 1877. vol. III, p. 79.
+
+   11 Fourth Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, p. 518. Washington.
+
+   12 Republicas de Indias, Fray Jeronimo Roman de Zamorra 1569-1575, ed.
+      Suarez. Madrid, 1898.
+
+   13 Pilz-foermige Goetzenbilder aus Guatemala und San Salvador, Carl
+      Sapper, Globus. band LXXIII, nr. 20.
+
+   14 For other examples see Borgian Codex, pp. 2, 5, 64, 66, 74.
+
+   15 Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System. Stockholm, 1894.
+
+   16 Biologia Centrali-Americana. Archaeology, edited by F. Ducane Godman,
+      London.
+
+   17 The most striking example of this is in the Palace House, at
+      Palenqne, all wall-holes of which are tau-shaped. An elaborate
+      stucco ornamentation, richly colored, encloses two upright taus
+      surrounded by raised borders. One is a deep opening in the wall; the
+      other, next to it, is filled in and exhibits a horizontal line
+      resting on a vertical one. There can be no doubt that a profound
+      symbolical meaning was expressed by the entire motif, which has been
+      admirably reproduced by Mr. A. P. Maudslay (Biologia
+      Centrali-Americana, Archaeology, part VI, pl. 18).
+
+   18 Veroeffentlichungen aus dem Koeniglichen Museum fuer Voelkerkunde, IV
+      band, I heft. 1895. p. 5.
+
+   19 Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarias Reales, Lisbon, 1609; also
+      translation by Sir Clements B. Markham, issued by the Hakluyt
+      Society. Rites and Laws of the Incas (accounts by Molina,
+      Salcamayhua, Avila and Ondegardo), translated by Sir Clements B.
+      Markham; also Cieza de Leon, Herrera, etc. and MS. of Padre Anello
+      Oliva.
+
+   20 Attention is called to a curious error in the original text by
+      Arriaga, quoted by Rivero and Tschudi. Arriaga states that the two
+      statues stood back to back, but he makes the woman look toward the
+      "poniente" and the man to the "occidente," thus making both figures
+      face the west. As "poniente" is the current Spanish phrase for the
+      west, it is evident that the author made a slip in the use of the
+      classical term, and intended to say that the man faced the
+      "oriente."
+
+   21 The Terra-cotta Heads of Teotihuacan, American Journal of
+      Archaeology, Baltimore, 1886.
+
+   22 For this valuable list I am indebted to the kindness of Sir Clements
+      B. Markham, the President of the Royal Geographical Society of Great
+      Britain, who generously allowed me to study some of his MS. notes on
+      Ancient Peru.
+
+   23 "From what can be gathered and conjectured in considering the
+      traditions of the present time, it is not more than 350 to 400 years
+      since the Incas only possessed and ruled over the valley of Cuzco as
+      far as Urcas, a distance of six leagues and to the valley of Yucay,
+      which is not more than 5 leagues.... The historical period cannot be
+      placed further back than 400 years at the earliest" (Polo de
+      Ondegardo 1550-1600).
+
+   24 Lettre sur les Antiquites de Tiahuanaco, 1866, pp. 9, 17, 19.
+
+   25 Blas Valera, apud Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, Lisboa,
+      1609, lib. I, cap. XI, pp. 13, 14; lib. II, cap. VI, p. 42. See also
+      Garcia, Origen de los Indios. Madrid, 1729, lib. IV, cap. XV, p.
+      313.
+
+   26 Narratives of the Rites and laws of the Incas, translated by
+      Clements B. Markham, C. B., F. R. S., ed. Hakluyt Society, pp.
+      10-13.
+
+   27 It is the merit of the late distinguished philologist Dr. Buschmann,
+      in his invaluable work on Aztec names of localities to have pointed
+      out that although the Cakchiquel language is now spoken at
+      Cozumalhuapa or Cotzumalguapan, its name is unquestionably Nahuatl
+      (Cozamalo-apan). Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen, VII, p. 34.
+
+      The largest number of illustrations of the beautiful bas-reliefs
+      found in the above locality have been published by M. Herman Strebel
+      of Hamburg, whose valuable publications and splendid collections of
+      ancient Mexican antiquities, preserved at Berlin and Hamburg, are
+      well known. Die Steinsculptures von Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa
+      (Guatemala) in Museum fur Volkerkunde. Hamburg, 1894. Jahrbuch der
+      Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Austallen, XI.
+
+      Three of these remarkable bas-reliefs are figured in the valuable
+      publication by Geheimrath A. Bastian: Steinsculpturen aus Guatemala,
+      Berichte der Koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin, 1882. Dr. Habel's
+      drawings were published in 1878, in the 22d vol. of the Smithsonian
+      Contributions to Knowledge.
+
+      Casts of these bas-reliefs are on exhibition in the Peabody Museum.
+
+   28 "The skins of lions, with the heads, had been prepared, with gold
+      ear-pieces in the ears and golden teeth in place of the real teeth
+      which had been pulled out. In the paws were certain rings of gold.
+      Those who were dressed or invested with these skins put on the head
+      and neck of the lion so as to cover their own and the skin of the
+      body of the lion hung from the shoulders." _op. cit._ p. 45.
+
+      The wearing of puma and ocelot skins by one of the two highest
+      grades of warriors in Mexico is too well known to need further
+      mention here.
+
+   29 In connection with the three points proceeding from the eye, the
+      Mexican symbol for star, I would draw attention to the fact that in
+      the latitude of Santa Lucia only three equidistant positions of Ursa
+      Major, and, possibly, of Ursa Minor, would be observable, the
+      constellations being below the northern horizon when lying between
+      it and Polaris. The symbolical three points could have thus
+      originated in the same way as the triskeles in other countries, from
+      observation of the identical phenomenon.
+
+   30 This bas-relief is reproduced in vol. III of the Anales del Museo
+      Nacional, p. 302, and is discussed by Senor Sanchez.
+
+   31 Article Peru, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
+
+   32 Garcilaso de la Vega, The Royal Commentaries of the Incas, Hakluyt
+      ed. vol. I, p. 270.
+
+   33 Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, p. 86.
+
+   34 Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, pp. 77, 84.
+
+   35 The Heavens ... London. Richard Bentley and Son. 1883. pp. 287-289.
+
+   36 Historia Chichimeca, chap. XIX.
+
+   37 In Quechua the left hand was named lloque maqui and the right, pana
+      maqui. In the Chinchaysuyo dialect of Quechua the left hand was
+      hichoc maqui and the right, allaucay maqui (Vocabulario Padre Juan
+      de Figueredo).
+
+   38 Annals of the Cakchiquels. Library of Aboriginal Literature, vol.
+      VI, D. G. Brinton, p. 71. It is a striking coincidence which further
+      excavations may however destroy, that seven similar upright slabs
+      were found at Santa Lucia, six complete ones of which exhibit
+      individuals whose left hands bear special marks. What is more, these
+      figures are accompanied by animals which agree with a native
+      chronicle quoted by Dr. Otto Stoll (_op. cit._ p. 6). According to
+      this some of the totems or marks of dignity worn by certain Quiche
+      chieftains were representations of pumas, ocelots and vultures. It
+      is, perhaps, permissible to advance the hypothesis that the
+      personages on the slabs are representatives of the seven tribes and
+      display their totemic devices.
+
+      I would add a couple of observations which seem to indicate that the
+      language of the people who sculptured and set up the Santa Lucia
+      slabs was Nahuatl. In the first case on the long slab, figured by M.
+      Herman Strebel as No. 11, a chieftain in a recumbent position is
+      conferring with a personage masked as a deer. The date is sculptured
+      on this slab, recalling the Mexican method of figuring numerals and
+      indicates that a historical event is being recorded.
+
+      The Nahuatl word for deer is mazatl and we know that the Mazahuas,
+      or "deer-people" is the name of a native tribe which inhabits to
+      this day the coast region of Guatemala. A town named Mazatenango=the
+      capital or mother-city of the Mazahuas lies between the lake of
+      Atitlan and the coast (tenan=mother of somebody; tenamitl=walled
+      city). A small village named Mazahuat also lies farther south and
+      inland on the Lempa river, in San Salvador. On one of the upright
+      slabs two sculptured heads resembling dogs' heads are enclosed in
+      circles. The Nahuatl name for dog is itzcuintl; and a town of the
+      same name, corrupted to Escuintla, lies between the latitude of
+      Amatitlan and the coast of Guatemala, at about the same distance
+      inland as the town of Maza-tenango. As both places were within easy
+      reach from Santa Lucia, it seems possible that the slabs may refer
+      to some conquest or agreement made with the "deer and dog people."
+      At all events the agreement is worth noting as a hint for future
+      research.
+
+   39 Ed. Brinton. Library of Aboriginal literature, p. 13.
+
+   40 It is to the superior authority of my distinguished and highly
+      esteemed colleagues Drs. Otto Stoll and Carl Sapper that I submit
+      the above considerations. It may be possible for the latter
+      enthusiastic explorer and for Dr. Gustavo Eisen, who is continuing
+      his valuable researches in Guatemala, to determine the locality of
+      the ancient Tullan, which should, I imagine, be sought for in a
+      region where the land inhabited by the Four Nations would converge
+      and at a point almost equidistant from the Four Tecpans.
+
+   41 In the Mexican collection at the Trocadero Museum in Paris, there is
+      a curious wooden sceptre in the form of a hand, which has been
+      figured by Dr. Ernest Hamy in his splendidly illustrated work on
+      this Museum.
+
+   42 See Brinton. The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico, p.
+      49.
+
+   43 Bulletin of the Museum of Science and Art, University of
+      Pennsylvania, no. 3, vol. I.
+
+   44 Idea de una nueva historia general, Madrid, 1746, p. 117.
+
+   45 Native Calendar, p. 50.
+
+   46 Vergleichende Studien. Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie, bd.
+      III, 1890, and the Native Calendar, p. 19.
+
+   47 See Molina's dictionary for further meanings of verb yuli, which
+      accounts for another form of primitive native symbolism.
+
+   48 See D. G. Brinton (American Hero-myths, p. 155) who, like other
+      authorities, has not recognized the difference between native
+      cross-symbols, denoting the four quarters celestial and terrestrial
+      and the tree of tribal life.
+
+   49 Dr. Hale states that these squares remind us of the similar Chinese
+      character which represents the word "field" (p. 241).
+
+   50 A Central American ceremony which suggests the snake dance of the
+      Tusayan villagers. Reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol.
+      VI, no. 3, July, 1893. _cf._ Bandelier, Final Report of
+      Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States.
+      Archaeol. Inst. Papers, Am. series, IV, pp. 586-591.
+
+   51 Thirteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896.
+
+   52 In abbreviated form I note here, inviting special comparison with
+      Mexico, that the Zuni Upper world was symbolized by the sun, eagle
+      and turquoise; the Lower world by the rattlesnake, water and toad.
+
+   53 Landa states that Mayapan signified "the banner of Maya," the latter
+      being the name of the "tongue of land" on which the capital was
+      situated. This explanation is, however, scarcely satisfactory, for
+      pantli is Nahuatl. If the entire word be regarded as Nahuatl, we
+      obtain "the banner of the hand." As another Maya name for the
+      capital was Ho and this means five it seems possible that this
+      numeral and sound were actually expressed by an open hand and that
+      the Nahuatl name thus arose.
+
+   54 As throughout America four brothers are always found associated, in
+      consequence of the general spread of the quadruple organization, the
+      fact that three rulers only are mentioned here and that three
+      powerful tribes were found in possession of Yucatan, indicates that
+      these must have separated themselves from their original State. The
+      subsequent reduction of their number to two shows further
+      dissension.
+
+   55 It seems reasonable to refer to this date the expulsion of the Maya
+      tribe, the Huaxtekans, who founded their colony at Panuco, named
+      their capital Tuch-pan and carried with them their execrable
+      practices and ideas. At the same time they possessed and handed down
+      such a proficiency in the art of weaving that at the time of
+      Montezuma the most beautiful textile fabrics, furnished to him as
+      tribute, were the Huaxtecan "centzon-tilmatli" or mantles of four
+      hundred colors, "finely woven and covered with intricate and
+      artistic designs." This circumstance points to a possible connection
+      with Zilan, the reputed Maya centre of female industry. It has been
+      stated by good authorities that the only antiquities thus far found
+      in America, which testify to the existence of a degraded and obscene
+      cult, are from the region of Panuco.
+
+   56 It is interesting to note in the above description absolutely no
+      mention of woman in the organization of Mayapan. It is therefore to
+      be presumed that they were excluded from this capital, and
+      inhabited, as in Mexico, their own town, under female rulership and
+      that of the "lords of the Night."
+
+   57 See the Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans. Peabody
+      Museum Papers, vol. 1, no. 3. Cambridge, 1891.
+
+   58 Relacion. ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 52. In a note the Abbe
+      states that the above description recalls the monoliths of Copan and
+      Quirigua.
+
+   59 We are told that the Cheles inhabited a province named Ah-bin-chel,
+      and that their capitals were Tikoh and Izamal (literally, Ah=they
+      who are of, kin=sun, chel=sort of bird and the ancient name of a
+      sacerdotal lineage in Yucatan). Thence the title Chelekat=holiness,
+      highness, grandeur, given to the head of this lineage (Brasseur de
+      Bourbourg). Ix-chel=the woman-bird, was the high-priestess or
+      medicine-woman and midwife. The Cheles, Tutul-xius and Cocomes were
+      the three most powerful tribes at the time of the Conquest. It is
+      noteworthy that they all had bird names and that the word chel, the
+      totemic bird of the Cheles, so closely resembles che=tree, that the
+      combination of a che or tree as a symbol of the tribe and the
+      chel-bird would have been suggested by the language.
+
+   60 According to Senor Garcia Cubas, "this peninsula of Yucatan must
+      have been united at one time, to the island of Cuba, the determining
+      cause of their separation being the impetuous current of the Gulf of
+      Mexico" (Atlas Metodico, Mexico, 1874, p. 32).
+
+   61 For a general account of the ruins of Copan and for a plan on which
+      the position of the different structures, stelae, altars and
+      prominent sculptures are given, I refer to the Memoirs of the
+      Peabody Museum vol. I, no. 1, containing a preliminary report, of
+      the Explorations by the Museum. Cambridge, 1896.
+
+   62 Historia de la Provincia de Yucathan, by Friar Diego Lopez
+      Cogolludo, Madrid, 1688.
+
+   63 It seems to me that this statement establishes once and for all the
+      order in which these sculptured glyphs are to be read. It is evident
+      that in fastening them to the walls the idea was that of building up
+      the calculiform record by placing the stones above each other, in
+      the same manner that a stone wall would be raised. Accordingly, the
+      earliest records would form the base and the last be at the top.
+
+   64 See Biologia Centrali Americana, pt. I, Copan "a" pl. 9. Casts of
+      this sculpture and of two others nearly identical, from Copan, are
+      in the Peabody Museum.
+
+   65 It is my intention to reproduce these plans of Copan and Quirigua
+      and of other ancient American capitals in the publication I have
+      undertaken to make in co-editorship with Mr. E. W. Dahlgren of
+      Stockholm, of the beautiful map of the City of Mexico and its
+      surroundings, painted by Alonzo de la Cruz, the cosmographer of
+      Philip II of Spain. Mr. Dahlgren published an interesting account of
+      this map, which is preserved in the library of the university at
+      Upsala, in 1889, with its uncolored reproduction on a reduced scale.
+      In his monumental work on ancient cartography, Baron Nordenskjoeld
+      also published an uncolored production of this map and, with Dr.
+      Bovallius, exhibited a beautiful facsimile of this precious
+      document, at the Historical Exposition in Madrid, in October, 1892.
+      During the previous summer at Stockholm, I had personally
+      superintended the painting of a perfect facsimile copy of the map
+      which I exhibited in the Anthropological Building of the World's
+      Columbian Exposition in 1893. The original map was exhibited in
+      Stockholm during the meeting of the Congress of Americanists at
+      Stockholm in 1894, and I suggested that it ought to be published in
+      exact facsimile and in colors, particularly on account of the many
+      hieroglyphic names of localities it exhibits. It was thereupon
+      agreed by Mr. Dahlgren and myself that we should jointly publish the
+      map with an accompanying text in English, my share of the work being
+      principally the decipherment of the hieroglyphs of localities, the
+      classification of the tribes inhabiting them, as well as the
+      presentation of all historical facts connected with them that I
+      could obtain from the native and early Spanish chronicles. With
+      characteristic liberality the Duc de Loubat most kindly supported
+      the proposed publication by subscribing to twenty copies of it in
+      advance and depositing the payment for these at the Academy of
+      Sciences. The reproduction of the map has been facilitated by this
+      generous action and I take great pleasure in expressing here our
+      grateful appreciation to the Duc de Loubat, who has been patiently
+      awaiting the achievement of our undertaking. Both Mr. Dahlgren and I
+      have been prevented from completing this up to the present, by work
+      planned previously to the publication of the map. The present
+      publication will prove, however, that the social organization of the
+      Mexicans has been the object of my painstaking study and that, until
+      I had satisfactorily set forth the fundamental principles which
+      influenced not only the distribution of the population, but the
+      ground-plan of the capital itself, any text I could publish with the
+      map would be incomplete. As matters now stand, I propose to treat of
+      the City of Mexico as a type of an ancient American sacred city, to
+      compare its ground plan with those of other native capitals and to
+      trace, as far as possible, the localization of the various tribes
+      and classes of the ancient population, so that we can form an
+      adequate idea of the topography and machinery of the great state
+      known as the Empire of Montezuma. I hope and expect to complete this
+      publication in a reasonable period of time but dare not define its
+      limits, as all scientific research demands more time and strength
+      than can be determined upon in advance. In conclusion I would state
+      that, at the Congress of Americanists which took place at the city
+      of Mexico in 1895, the distinguished Mexican cartographer, Senor
+      Garcia Cubas, whose splendid maps of Mexico are well known, made an
+      interesting communication on this map, of which he had seen a copy.
+
+   66 It has been surmised that the name Palenque is of Spanish origin and
+      means "a palisade;" but it seems far more likely to be the
+      approximate rendering of the sound of the old native word by a
+      Spanish word, in the same way that the Nahuatl Quauh-nahuac became
+      the Spanish Cuerna-vaca, literally cow's horn.
+
+   67 Brasseur de Bourbourg's Maya Vocabulary contains an interesting
+      instance of a native tribe or lineage bearing the name of a bird:
+      "Chel: name of a kind of bird; ancient name of a great sacerdotal
+      family reigning at Tecoh (near Izamal, Yucatan). Thence the title
+      'Chelekat,' which meant holy, exalted, great, and was applied to the
+      head of this family."
+
+   68 On a large tablet at Ixkun, the cast of which is now in Mr.
+      Maudslay's collection at the South Kensington Museum, similarly
+      placed figures support on their bent backs and shoulders standing
+      personages, facing each other, and surrounded by glyphs. In this
+      case, however, the men who serve as footstools, are bound and
+      distinctly show a difference of type and costume, so that there can
+      be no doubt that the tablet commemorated the conquest of an alien
+      tribe.
+
+   69 Estudio arqueologico y jeroglifico del Calendario o gran libro
+      astronomico.... Mexico. 1889.
+
+   70 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, III, 1, 60.
+
+   71 A somewhat disheartening consideration concerning the Stone of the
+      Great Plan deserves mention. The probability is that it was
+      originally painted with the colors of the four quarters and that
+      some of the records thus made are irretrievably lost. On taking the
+      first impressions with gelatine, in order to make his admirable cast
+      of the monolith, Senor Abadiano discovered many traces of color,
+      lodged in small crevices and corners of the carvings. Moreover, the
+      use of the symbolical colors on stone monuments is vouched for by
+      the great painted monolith which was, strange to say, re-interred
+      after having been discovered in the City of Mexico some years ago.
+      The reproduction of an obviously incorrect drawing made of this
+      stone during its uncovered state, has been published in vol. II of
+      the Annals of the National Museum of Mexico.
+
+   72 Relacion, p. 339, Kingsborough, vol. IX.
+
+   73 Leon y Gama advanced the opinion that the stone, supplemented by a
+      gnomon, served as a solar clock or dial, to mark the hours of the
+      days and the seasons, etc. He added that the stone may have served
+      further purposes than those he enumerated and hints that it may have
+      also recorded lunar periods. This distinguished scholar concludes by
+      acknowledging that the ancient Mexicans possessed enlightened
+      knowledge of the movements of the principal planets and methods of
+      observing them, in order to divide time for the purposes of civil
+      and religious government (Description de las dos Piedras. Mexico,
+      1852, p. 110).
+
+      The late Doctor Philip Valentini, in a learned discourse on the
+      Calendar-stone, read at New York in 1878, expressed his view that it
+      contained a complete and plastic representation of the division of
+      time employed in ancient Mexico.
+
+      The distinguished Mexican scholar, Senor Alfredo Chavero, has
+      published the most elaborate treatise which has been written on the
+      subject and discusses the views of Gama and Valentini with much
+      erudition. Referring the reader to his publications in the Annals of
+      the National Museum of Mexico I shall but mention his views that the
+      four symbols, contained in the quadruplicate central figure, record
+      four epochs of the native cosmogony, that the central head is an
+      image of the sun and that the monument itself is a votive tablet
+      which was erected to the Sun in historical time, two conclusions to
+      which I cannot subscribe. It is impossible to discuss fully the
+      valuable publications of Senores Troncoso and Chavero in these
+      cursive remarks, but I shall do so on another occasion. Meanwhile
+      there is one point upon which both of these authorities agree,
+      namely, in admitting the possible connection between the
+      civilization of Mexico and Peru and in recognizing that various
+      ancient people of America had the nahui-ollin in common. A passage
+      in Senor Chavero's work claims moreover special mention, as it
+      contains his supposition that the sign nahui-ollin may have
+      symbolized not only the four movements of the sun, but also those of
+      the moon, which the writer seems to regard as the nocturnal or dark
+      sun. I am quite ready to agree with the above authorities on some of
+      the points mentioned, conflicting as their views appear to be at
+      first sight. Inasmuch as I regard the monument as the image of a
+      plan or theoretical scheme which colored and influenced all native
+      thought, I hail any recognition made by other students of its
+      all-pervading presence in the Calendar and in the cosmogony of the
+      ancient Mexicans. On the other hand I maintain a view which
+      materially differs from those of previous writers, namely, that the
+      entire plan was originally based on the primitive observation of
+      Polaris and in the conception of a stable centre: the seat of a
+      power extending over the Four Quarters and the Above and Below.
+
+   74 In the text, as published, Bernal Diaz states that this statue had a
+      face like that of a bear "un rostro, como de osso," but goes on to
+      say that it was decorated according to the same mode as the other
+      "del otro." I am inclined to think it more than probable that
+      instead of "de osso " the text should also read "del otro," as among
+      the many images of Tezcatlipoca that are extant, none show him
+      connected with the bear in any form or shape.
+
+   75 In Tullan we seem to find the Maya equivalent to the Mexican
+      Itzacual=enclosure, by which the Teotihuacan pyramids are popularly
+      designated, as may be verified by the discussion of the Maya word in
+      the preceding pages (_cf._ tulum, tulul, tuliz, tulacal), which
+      conveys the idea of something enclosed, entire, whole and universal
+      and will be reverted to. Cholol-lan seems to be connected with the
+      verb cholol-tia=to escape (like game from a snare or net) to fly, or
+      to spring away. According to this, Cholol-lan would mean "the place
+      of escape or flight" and it will be seen that this designation will
+      be found to agree with the native tradition concerning the purpose
+      of the pyramid, which will be cited presently. It is not impossible,
+      however, that Cholol-lan may be bilingual and also be a corrupt
+      rendering of the Maya _ho_ or _hool_=head, also capital. This
+      supposition receives a certain support from Padre Rios' statement
+      that "the inhabitants of Cholula, in their sacred festivals,
+      performed a solemn dance around the pyramid chanting a song which
+      began with the words Tulanian Hulaez." These, he states, "belonged
+      to none of the languages now spoken in Mexico" (Orozco y Berra _op.
+      cit._ p. 363). The name Tlachiuhaltepetl is translated by Orozcoy
+      Berra by "mountain made by hand," _i. e._ artificial mountain or
+      pyramid; from tlachiuhaliztli, the act of accomplishing some work
+      forming or creating something. As the origin of primitive symbolism
+      is a question of such deep interest I shall mention here some
+      curious data in connection with the pyramid. The word Tlachiuhale
+      was a title or name applied to the "Creator or Former of living
+      creatures." In order to express the sound of this word in the
+      picture-writings, it is obvious that a pyramid could have been
+      employed, since it graphically and phonetically conveyed the desired
+      sound tlachiual-tepetl. At the same time a complementary sign would
+      be necessary so as to obtain a symbol which would specially apply to
+      the Creator alone. The word tlachia=to look, see, watch, naturally
+      suggests itself, as a complement to the sound tlach; and to express,
+      in a cursive way, the action of seeing, an eye sufficed. We thus see
+      that an artificial mountain or pyramid and an eye formed a
+      hieroglyph which expressed the sound "Tlachiuale" and signified the
+      "Creator." As the eye by itself was the sign for star, and the idea
+      of a central star, as frequently depicted in the nahui-ollin sign,
+      was an emblem of the creative and central power, it is evident that,
+      besides its literal meaning, _i. e._ an artificial or created
+      mountain, a "tlachiuhaltepetl" would have been regarded by the
+      initiated as the Mountain of the Creator, the sacred pyramid, which
+      was the image of central, dual and quadruple power.
+
+   76 The testimony of early Spanish missionaries established the fact
+      that in ancient Mexico a caste of master builders and masons
+      existed, whose name, Tulteca, identified them with the ancient
+      centre of civilization and integral state of Tullan. "Whenever the
+      natives were asked who had constructed certain edifices, passes and
+      roads, etc., they invariably answered the 'tultecas,' a Nahuatl word
+      in current use, which signified 'the skilled artificers or workers
+      in stone, etc., the master-masons or builders.' "
+
+   77 The ancient native name of this volcano was Citlal-tepetl, literally
+      the Star Mountain, from which it may, perhaps, be inferred that,
+      from the plains, its high and sharp peak served as a means of
+      registering the movements of certain stars and planets.
+
+   78 China, Prof. Rob. Douglas, p. 259.
+
+   79 The Chinese designation ho, applied to the limits of space, is
+      particularly interesting in connection with the Maya ho and its
+      homonyms.
+
+   80 "The Mongol-Mayan Constitution," The American Antiquarian, May and
+      June, 1898. It is with all the more genuine appreciation that I
+      point out how Mr. Wickersham, anticipating my publication of the
+      same conclusion, has recognized that the Zunis, Mexicans and
+      Peruvians as well as the Chinese, were ruled by what he aptly terms
+      the "Quadriform Constitution," since it has taken me years of hard
+      study to perceive this common basis. I likewise draw attention to
+      his study in primitive law, "The Constitution of China (Olympia,
+      1898)," but must remark that I strongly differ from his conclusions
+      in the recently published Answer to Major Powell's inquiry "Whence
+      came the American Indians?" (Tacoma, 1899.)
+
+   81 Shu King. The Chinese Classics, Legge. Book I, p. 37.
+
+   82 Sacred Books of the East, Legge, vol. III, Shu King; also W. H.
+      Medhurst, Shanghai, 1846.
+
+   83 An interesting note in connection with the assignment of color to
+      the cardinal points in Asia, is given by Schlagintweit (Buddhism in
+      Thibet, 27, 3), who relates that "the walls of the temples look
+      towards the 4 quarters of heaven and each side should be painted
+      with its particular colour, viz.: north=green, east=white,
+      south=yellow, west=red, but this rule is not strictly adhered to;
+      most, indeed, are painted red." As a parallel to this I refer to
+      Sahagun's description of the temple of the high-priest Quetzalcoatl
+      at Tula, which held four chambers facing the cardinal points; "The
+      east chamber was termed the golden house and was lined with plates
+      of gold; the west chamber was termed the house of emeralds and
+      turquoises; the south chamber was inlaid with silver and mother of
+      pearl and the north chamber with red jasper and shells." Sahagun
+      describes also a second building of the same kind, in which the
+      decoration of the four rooms was carried out in the same colors, in
+      feather-mosaic (_op. cit._ Book X, chap. XXIX).
+
+   84 The alligator-altar of Copan and the "Great Turtle" of Quirigua, on
+      which four limbs may be discerned, are the most remarkable examples
+      of the native employment of the quadruped figure as a symbol of
+      clan-organization and the great Quadruplicate Plan. An interesting
+      instance of the association, in China, of the form of a four-footed
+      animal with numerical divisions is furnished by the following
+      passage from the Book of Yu, Shoo-King, ed. Legge. Khung-she has
+      said that "Heaven conferred on Yue the divine tortoise bearing a book
+      out of the river; on its back were various numbers, up to nine. Yue
+      arranged them and completed the 9 species. On the head of the
+      tortoise was 9, on the tail 1, on the left side 3, on the right 7.
+      The shoulders were formed by 2 and 4, the thighs by 6 and 8."
+
+   85 As Prof. E. B. Taylor has aptly pointed out: "By accident the
+      [Mexican] Calendar may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of
+      cards laid out in rotation of the four suits, as an ace of hearts, 2
+      of spades, 3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of hearts, etc.... This
+      system [of combining signs with numerals] is similar to that of
+      central southwestern Asia where, among the Mongols, Tibetans and
+      Chinese, etc., series of signs are thus combined to reckon years,
+      months and days.... Humboldt makes this comparison in his Vue des
+      Cordilleres, p. 212".... (Article "Mexico," Ency. Brit.).
+
+   86 The following passages contain interesting evidences of the ancient
+      application of the number seven to tribal organization in China. "In
+      the time of the Suy dynasty Manchuria went by the name of Mo-ho in
+      China ... the people being _then divided into seven tribes_....
+      Towards the end of the eleventh century one Yang-ko was elected as
+      their chief ... and he organized something of a regular government
+      throughout the various tribes of Jou-tchi or Nio-tchi's and
+      collected taxes from them. The highest of his officers were all
+      styled po-k-eih-lee and _were distinguished by the names of the sun,
+      planets and 28 constellations of the Zodiac_. Every five, every ten
+      and every hundred men had their special officers.... From the chief
+      of five to the chief of ten thousand, each trained his dependents in
+      military art...." Wylie: On the origin of the Manchus (Chinese
+      Researches, p. 244).
+
+   87 The Nestorian Tablet in Si-ngan-foo (p. 24, Chinese Researches.
+      Shanghai, 1897).
+
+   88 (The Religion of Japan, Wm. Elliott Griffis. London, 1895, p. 67 and
+      note 9.) This curious agreement between the Japanese and other
+      ethnic traditions, in locating Paradise, the origin of the human
+      family and of civilization at the north pole, has not escaped the
+      attention of Dr. W. F. Warren, President of Boston University, who
+      makes extended reference to it in his suggestive book, "Paradise
+      Found, The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. A Study of
+      the Prehistoric World. Boston, 1885."
+
+   89 An interesting parallelism in the development or evolution of the
+      idea of rotation around a central pole was brought to my notice by a
+      model in the Indian Department of the South Kensington Museum. It
+      represents the Hindu fanatical religious rite known as the "Churruck
+      Puja." Four individuals are suspended by cords, with hooks drawn
+      through their flesh, to a movable wooden structure like a wheel
+      surmounting a high pole, similar to that used by the Ancient Mexican
+      "flyers" (see p. 24) which likewise served as a pivot for the
+      circling motion of the performers. The torture voluntarily endured
+      by the latter recalls that accompanying the sacred sun pole-dance of
+      certain North American Indian tribes. It is interesting to contrast
+      the ancient Mexican refined and intellectual symbolization of
+      circumpolar motion with the fanatical and hideous self-torture
+      associated with the North American and Hindu modes of representing
+      the same phenomena, as it throws much light on the development of
+      certain sides of human nature.
+
+   90 Mr. Wm. H. Goodyear, from whose admirable work, the Grammar of the
+      Lotus, the above quotations are taken, remarks that "the myth of
+      Horus rising from the lotus, as found in the Egyptian texts, is the
+      exact counterpart of this idea and as far as Brahmanism is
+      concerned, is much the older;" also that "it is possible that the
+      lotus symbolism of Egypt and India dates from a race which divided
+      into separate branches; it is also possible that the people of India
+      experienced the influence, direct or indirect, of Egypt."
+
+   91 Researches into the origin of the primitive constellations of the
+      Greeks, Phoenicians and Babylonians (Robert Brown, jun., F. S. A., M.
+      R. A. S., vol. I, 1899, p. 357).
+
+   92 In Assyria we find one of the oldest temples bearing the name
+      E-kharsag-kurkura, that stamps the edifice as the reproduction of
+      the "mountain of all lands" and there are other temples that
+      likewise bear names in which the idea of a mountain is
+      introduced.... The zikkurat or "mountain-house"=E-kur was at Nippur,
+      Sippar, Uruk, Ur and Larsa, "the centre of a considerable group of
+      buildings; while at Babylon ... the temple area of E-sagila must
+      have presented the appearance of a little city of itself, shut off
+      from the rest of the town by a wall which invariably enclosed the
+      sacred quarter." The name E-kur was used at Nippur, by extension, to
+      denote the entire sacred precinct which contained the zikkurat or
+      staged tower, the great court where worshippers assembled, shrines
+      and other minor structures. The excavations at Nippur have afforded
+      us, for the first time, a general view of a sacred quarter in an
+      ancient Babylonian city. The extent of the quarter was considerable.
+      Dr. Peters' estimate is eight acres for the zikkurat and surrounding
+      structures.... "A factor that contributed largely to the growth of
+      the sacred precinct in the large centres was the circumstance that
+      the political importance of such centres as Nippur, Lagash, Ur,
+      Babylon and Nineveh led the rulers to group around the worship of
+      the chief deity, the cult of the minor ones who constituted the
+      family or court of the chief god." A "list of temples in Lagash,
+      recently published by Scheil, ... furnishes the name of no less than
+      thirteen sacred edifices, and we are certain that as many as four or
+      five smaller chapels surrounded the precinct in which stood the
+      great temple E-ninnu ..." (Jastrow, _op. cit._).
+
+   93 These facts shed additional light and interest upon the Mt. Meru of
+      India, where the Brahmans sought union with their god Brahma.
+
+   94 "Diodorus Siculus maintains that the E-kur was employed as an
+      astronomical observatory. The antiquity of Babylonian astronomy is
+      indicated by the testimony of Simplicius and Porphyrius who relate
+      that Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander the Great during his
+      campaigns, brought back from Babylon and communicated to Aristoteles
+      a series of observations which had been made there for a period of
+      1,903 years. Accordingly, the Chaldaeans must have begun to make
+      astronomical notes more than 2,200 years before the Christian era.
+      It stands indeed to reason that they must have made observations
+      during countless centuries, since they discovered the Saros, known
+      as the Chaldaean period of 6583-1/3 days, which served for the
+      prediction of eclipses and were also acquainted with the precession
+      of the equinoxes."
+
+   95 Professor Jastrow tells us that the name Shamash merely signifies
+      vassal or servitor. I venture to point out what is doubtlessly a
+      fact familiar to Assyriologists, that the name closely resembles the
+      Babylonian-Assyrian name Shame=heaven, the equivalent of the
+      Sumerian an, a word of which the most ancient cuneiform signs were
+      four crossed lines, forming eight lines proceeding from a common
+      centre.
+
+   96 A striking corroboration of the view that China derived its
+      civilization from Asia Minor is afforded by the resemblance between
+      the Assyrian Anu and the Chinese Shang, both signifying Heaven, and
+      the Assyrian Ea and Chinese Lea, both applied to "the Below."
+
+   97 An analytical study of the Babylonian and Assyrian divinities
+      enumerated in Professor Jastrow's hand-book enables us to detect
+      some of the natural associations of ideas that influenced the
+      formation of one artificial theological system after another, all
+      springing from a single root.
+
+      The fundamental realization of the antithesis of light and darkness
+      giving rise to the division of the universe into two distinct parts,
+      the conception of an eternal antagonism between both followed and
+      led to the stage of thought set forth by Mr. Robert Brown who tells
+      us (_op. cit._) that "the original twins were the Sun and Moon" and
+      that an archaic cosmogonic legend attached to the third month of Kas
+      (twins) is that of two hostile brethren and the building of the
+      first city. The great twin-brethren who join together to build the
+      city are the Sun and Moon, engaged in preserving cosmic order yet
+      also constantly antagonistic to each other and who constantly chase
+      each other, one being up when the other is down. Mr. Brown also
+      relates the myth of antagonistic satraps Namaros and Parsondas and
+      states that, in the twin stars, Castor and Pollux, named by the
+      Euphrateans the great Twins=Mastab-bagal-gal, the Sun and Moon were
+      re-duplicated. The Euphratean abbreviation is mas=twin or mas-mas,
+      and Pollux is equated with the fourth antediluvian king Ammenon, a
+      name derived from Akkadian: umun=offspring, an=heaven _i. e._ the
+      Sun, "the son or offspring of heaven."
+
+   98 "There are reasons for believing, however, that Sarpanitum, the
+      offspring-producing goddess once enjoyed considerable importance of
+      her own; that, prior to the rise of Marduk to his supreme position,
+      a goddess was worshipped in Babylon, one of whose special functions
+      it was to protect the progeny while still in the mother's womb. A
+      late king of Babylon, the great Nebuchadnezzar, appeals to this
+      attribute of the goddess. To her was also attributed the possession
+      of knowledge concealed from men.... A late ruler of Babylon,
+      Shamash-Shumu-kin, calls her 'the queen of the gods' and declares
+      himself to have been nominated by her to lord it over men" (Jastrow,
+      _op. cit._ p. 122).
+
+      The following extracts from Assyrian prayers addressed to Ishtar
+      further define her position at one time: "The producer, queen of
+      heaven, the glorious lady. To the one who dwells in E-babbara.... To
+      the queen of the gods to whom has been entrusted the commands of the
+      great gods. To the lady of Nineveh.... To the daughter of Sin, _the
+      twin-sister of Shamash_, ruling over all kingdoms. Who issues
+      decrees, the goddess of the universe.... _Besides thee there is no
+      guiding deity_...."
+
+   99 As an illustration of the ideas connected with Astarte it is
+      interesting to note that fish and doves, inhabitants of the sea and
+      air, became her sacred emblems. The horns which she is sometimes
+      represented as wearing seem to be not only symbolical of the moon,
+      but also to be a remnant of a more ancient form of symbolism which
+      associated the goddess with the cow. It is stated that, in Canaan,
+      Astarte was represented under the form of a cow and it will be shown
+      that, in the Egyptian zodiac Polaris and Ursa Major were represented
+      under the form of a bull or cow or its thigh. The eye painted on the
+      prow of the ship was also a symbol of the goddess, an interesting
+      fact considering that the eye expresses a star among other primitive
+      people.
+
+  100 Book V, Chaps. VIII-X.
+
+  101 "That the Hebrew and Babylonian traditions [of the Creation] spring
+      from a common source is so evident as to require no further proof.
+      The agreements are too close to be accidental. At the same time the
+      variations in detail point to an independent elaboration of the
+      traditions on the part of the Hebrews and Babylonians.... It is in
+      Babylonia that the thought would naturally arise of making the world
+      begin with the close of the storms and rains in the spring. The
+      Terahites must, therefore, have brought those cosmological
+      traditions with them upon migrating from the Euphrates Valley to the
+      Jordan district.... The intercourse, political and commercial,
+      between Palestine and Mesopotamia was uninterrupted.... The
+      so-called Babylonian exile brought Hebrews and Babylonians once more
+      side by side.... A direct borrowing [of traditions] from the
+      Babylonians has not taken place and while the Babylonian records are
+      in all probability much older than the Hebrew, the latter again
+      contain elements, as Gunkel has shown, of a more primitive character
+      than the Babylonian production. This relationship can only
+      satisfactorily be explained on the assumption that the Hebrews
+      possessed the traditions upon which Genesis narrative rests, long
+      before the Babylonian exile, when the story appears, indeed, to have
+      received its final and present shape.... Yahwe is assigned the role
+      of Bel-Marduk, the division of the work of creation into six days is
+      definitely made and some further modifications introduced ..."
+      (Jastrow, _op. cit._ pp. 452-453).
+
+  102 Dr. von Luschan (_op. cit._ p. 22) translates this cuneiform sign,
+      which exists in Babylonian and Assyrian forms, as "Siebeneinigkeit"
+      and emphasizes the fact that it is employed in the singular form.
+      The inference that it may designate not only the Pleiades but more
+      probably Ursa Major corroborates the view that the mystic number
+      seven impressed itself upon the human mind by its association with
+      the Septentriones.
+
+  103 The fact that the mountain was the symbol of the centre of the earth
+      and of Bel, throws light upon the meaning of the clay cones which
+      were "very common votive objects in Babylonia especially in the
+      earlier periods." They would have been appropriately used in the
+      cult of Baal, the personification of the male principle, and are
+      indeed usually represented as offered by male worshippers. That the
+      cones in some cases represented the conical bunch of the male
+      blossom of the palm tree may also be conjectured.
+
+  104 An interesting complement to this is furnished by the texts of
+      oracular messages sent by the goddess Ishtar to King Ashurbanapal
+      who seems to have been a fervent disciple of the theological school
+      of Arbela. On one occasion, when the king's army was in a
+      predicament, Ishtar appears at night and declares: "I walk in front
+      of Ashurbanapal, the king, who is the creation of my hands." On
+      another occasion the oracle-giving medium reports to the king:
+      "Ishtar, dwelling in Arbela, came with quivers hung on her right and
+      left sides with a bow in her hand and girded with a pointed
+      unsheathed sword. Before thee [_i. e._ the king] she stood and like
+      the mother that bore thee [with maternal kindness] Ishtar, supreme
+      among the gods, addressed thee commanding: 'Be encouraged
+      [literally, look up] for the fray. Wherever thou art, I am.' " The
+      images of Ashur aiming his arrow and Ishtar with an unsheathed
+      pointed sword recall the biblical description of the flaming sword
+      which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life (Genesis
+      III).
+
+  105 It is interesting to trace to the same origin the "quadriga" which
+      may well have been associated with the "primitive sun"=Polaris,
+      before supreme sovereignty was transferred to Phoebus, the diurnal
+      sun, by the votaries of the cult of Light.
+
+  106 I am pleased to be able, at the last moment, to insert the following
+      interesting points personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis
+      Budge: In remotest antiquity two mythical mountains marked the two
+      divisions of the land: Bakhan, situated to the southeast, and Manu,
+      situated to the northwest. The latter, like the mountain Meru of
+      India, was the abode of the blessed, towards which the souls of the
+      dead set out from Abydos and where eternal rest was to be found. The
+      curious connection between the north=mehta and the west=amenta,
+      which I have shown to have prevailed in ancient Mexico where the
+      north is named Mictlan and in Yucatan where Aman signifies north, is
+      particularly interesting in connection with the exclamation or
+      exhortation to the soul, constantly met with in the Egyptian Book of
+      the Dead: Er-amentet=to the hidden land! _i. e._, the northwest.
+
+  107 Thesaurus Inscriptionem AEgyptiacarum II, p. 212.
+
+  108 First Steps in Egyptian, London, 1898. I am mainly indebted to this
+      useful book and other publications by the same author for the
+      Egyptian words cited in the following pages. An interesting point,
+      personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis Budge, is that the
+      cardinal points in Egypt were located diagonally, a method which is
+      shown to have also existed in Central America by the diagonal
+      orientation of numberless pyramids and buildings.
+
+  109 A History of Egypt, Vol. II. London, 1896.
+
+  110 Reference is made to another translation of the hymn in the "Records
+      of the Past," Vol. II, pp. 127-136, and to Grebaut, Hymne a Ammon
+      Ra.
+
+  111 First steps in Egyptian, Mr. Wallis Budge, p. 235.
+
+  112 An extremely interesting instance of the hand being actually figured
+      between the sun and the moon, _i. e._ as the symbol of the Middle,
+      is to be seen on the Phoenician tablet to Baal Hamman and Tanitla,
+      from Carthage, preserved at the British Museum and figured by Mr.
+      Goodyear, fig. 64, 1. Above the hand is a group of symbols
+      consisting of two S-shaped signs, resembling the Mexican picture of
+      Ursa Major. Between these is a pyramid and above this a
+      seven-petalled conventionalized flower, which should be compared
+      with fig. 64, 3, a copy of the familiar flower on the sacred tree of
+      the Assyrians. In fig. 64, 2, copied from another Phoenician tablet
+      (Goodyear), the flower occupies the central position between two
+      hands; the latter taking the places of sun and moon in the tablet 1,
+      an interesting detail considering the instances cited, showing that
+      dual rulership was indiscriminately associated with "right and left
+      hand" or "the sun and moon."
+
+  113 It is remarkable that the sound of the Latin word for ram=aries, so
+      closely resembles the Egyptian symbols for Amen-Ra (see fig. 63,
+      1-4) and that the am and ar syllables occur in the following names
+      for ram or sheep, applied to the zodiacal constellation:
+
+      Al Hamal=the sheep (Arabic).
+      Bara=the ram (Persian).
+      Amru=the ram (Syrian).
+      Varak=the ram (Parsi).
+
+  114 The inscription on this monument, which also exhibits the portrait
+      statue of Amenophis III, is of particular interest as it states that
+      the temple of Saleb, built by the king, was "very wide and large ...
+      its towers reached to the sky, and _the flagstaffs united themselves
+      with the stars of heaven_" (see official catalogue of the Berlin
+      Museum, p. 122). This appears to indicate that the flagstaffs were
+      employed for purposes of astronomical observations.
+
+  115 The ideas associated with the form of a lion couchant are best
+      learned from the following passages from the Bible: "He couched, he
+      lay down as a lion and as a great lion; who shall stir him up?"
+      (Numbers XXIV, 9, see also Genesis XLIX, 9). It is only by the light
+      afforded by such insights into eastern contemporaneous thought that
+      the meaning of the Egyptian sphinx can be in some measure
+      understood.
+
+  116 I address the query to Egyptologists: whether there are any
+      indications of a common identity of sound in the Egyptian word for
+      beard and same name, denoting rule or power, similar to that
+      existing in the Maya language between "ah-meex"=bearded man and
+      "ah-mek-tan" governor, ruler (see p. 232).
+
+  117 The somewhat perplexing allusions to the "divine marriage" of Isis
+      to her father or brother and to her giving birth to her own mother,
+      as in the above text, are very naturally explained by the fact that
+      the successive officiating king-high-priest always personified
+      Ra-Osiris or the Sun and the queen Isis-Sothis-Hathor and the Moon
+      or Sirius. The female child to whom the queen gives birth was
+      destined to be her successor and another personification of Isis,
+      therefore she could be said to have given birth to her own mother,
+      since, like the latter, the child would be an Isis. In the same way
+      the queen could be said to marry her father and brother, as, like
+      herself, the king was the offspring of a divine union and bore his
+      father's title. In connection with the custom of the male Horus
+      naming the "young sun" and the female Horus the young star or moon,
+      it is noteworthy that the son and daughter of Anthony and Cleopatra,
+      who used to assume the insignia of Isis on state occasions, were
+      given the Greek surnames of Helios and Selene.
+
+  118 It is extremely curious and interesting that the Incas, the
+      civilizers of Peru, also set up a disk of gold as the image of the
+      Creator and placed it between images of the sun and moon. We also
+      find the Inca Ccapac Yupanqui, like Amenhotep, deploring the spread
+      of idolatry and image-worship as a misfortune to his vassals and a
+      sorrow to himself. It is recorded of another Inca that, as a wise
+      measure he destroyed all writing, presumably picture and rebus
+      writing, as calculated to mislead his people by a multiplication of
+      symbols. It is an interesting reflection which our increased
+      knowledge of the primitive civilization of Egypt enables us to make,
+      that the organization of Peru, under Inca rule, must have closely
+      resembled that of Egypt in remotest antiquity, at its primitive
+      stage of development, when simplicity, harmony and equilibrium
+      existed throughout the "celestial kingdom."
+
+  119 The following detached extracts, partly from Mr. Richard Hinckley
+      Allen's valuable work, should be carefully studied in connection
+      with the above text, as they throw further light upon the ideas
+      associated with the sacred centres of heaven and earth by nations
+      with whom the Greeks were in touch.
+
+      "To the whole Arabian nation, heathen or Mahommedan, Polaris was
+      Alfass, the hole in which the earth's axle found its bearing" (p.
+      451).
+
+      The following important material pertains to the chapter on India,
+      of whose insufficiency I am painfully aware. "In earliest Northern
+      India the star nearest the pole was known as Grahadhara, 'the pivot
+      of the planets,' representing the great god Dhruva, and Al Biruni
+      said that among the Hindus of his time it was Dhruva himself. It was
+      an object of their worship" (p. 456).
+
+      In Bournouf's Bhagavata-purana (chap. IV) it is said that "Dhruva,
+      meditating on Brahma, stood on one foot, motionless as a post; while
+      he did so half the world, wounded by his big toe, bent over under
+      his weight like a boat which, bearing a vigorous elephant, leans at
+      each step he takes, from left to right." O'Neil, citing the same
+      source continues: "In consequence of his austerities Bhagavat said
+      'I grant thee virtuous Child, a Spot which has never yet been
+      occupied by any being, a Spot blazing with splendor, of which the
+      ground is firm, where is fixed the circus of the celestial lights,
+      of the planets, constellations and stars; which turn all around like
+      oxen round their stake, and which [the Spot] subsists motionless
+      even after the Dwellers of a Kalpa [a day and night of Brahma _i.
+      e._ 4,320,000,000 years] have disappeared. Around this Spot there
+      turn with the stars and leaving it on their right, Dharma, Agni,
+      Kasyapa and Sakra and the Solitaries who live in the Forest' ..."
+      (p. 801). According to the Vishnu-purana: "As Dhruva turns, he
+      causes sun, moon and other planets to turn round also, and the lunar
+      asterisms follow in his circular course, for all the celestial
+      lights are in fact bound to the Polar star by aerial cords"
+      (Vishnu-purana, see O'Neil, p. 503). It is instructive to compare
+      these descriptions of Dhruva with the Akkadian-Sumerian hymn to
+      Ishtar, whom I have identified as the female form of Polaris (p.
+      342). According to Professor Sayce it begins: "Thou who as the axis
+      of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of the earth her name
+      revolves" (O'Neil, p. 715).
+
+      O'Neil further notes that "Dhruva is named the sun of Uttana-Pada"
+      and that this name is connected with uttarat=north and also
+      signifies outstretched, supine. He also states that "Uttara and
+      Uttara was the dual god of the north, the son and daughter of
+      Virata, and expresses the opinion that the age of the Dhruva legend
+      is unutterable" (p. 503).
+
+      According to another Sanscrit legend: "At one time in the history of
+      the creation an attempt was made by Visvamitra to locate a southern
+      pole and another bear in positions corresponding to the northern,
+      this pole passing through the island Lumka or Vadavamukha (Ceylon)"
+      (Allen, p. 436). Professor Sayce writes: "In early Sumerian days,
+      the heaven was believed to rest upon the peak of 'the mountain of
+      the world' in the far northeast, where the gods had their
+      habitations (_cf._ Isa. XIV, 13) [the mount of congregation in the
+      uttermost parts of the north], while an ocean or 'deep' encircled
+      the earth which rested upon its surface." Von Herder referred to it
+      as "Albordz, the dazzling mountain on which was held the assembly of
+      the gods, and identified it with the holy mountain of God," alluded
+      to in the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel XXVIII, 14; and Professor
+      Whitney quoted from the sixty-second verse of the first chapter of
+      the Surya Siddhanta, "the mountain which is the seat of the gods"
+      and from the thirty-fourth verse of the twelfth chapter: "A
+      collection of manifold jewels, a mountain of gold, is Meru, passing
+      through the middle of the earth-globe, and protruding on either
+      side;" commenting on which he says: the "seat of the gods" is Mount
+      Meru, situated at the North Pole (p. 452).
+
+  120 I likewise deeply regret that it is only since the last pages of the
+      present investigation have been in proof, that a remarkable work,
+      full of valuable material relating to the universal spread of
+      pole-star worship and symbolism, was particularly recommended to me
+      by a distinguished fellow archaeologist. Had I realized before this
+      the great value of the late John O'Neil's "The Night of the Gods"
+      (David Nutt, London, 1897), as a compendium, the result of years of
+      conscientious and painstaking labor, I should have made extensive
+      use of it and should have been able to make my survey of the ancient
+      civilizations of the Old World far more complete and my material
+      more convincing. As it is, I can only warmly recommend the work to
+      all interested in the present investigation, who will see for
+      themselves the widely different points of view from which our
+      respective researches have been carried out but will probably be
+      struck with the identity of some of our views. I should like to
+      express here my keen realization of the many blunders and omissions
+      I have probably made in the course of the present investigation,
+      which carried me, reluctantly, into fields of research where I felt
+      myself to be a stranger. In view of the disadvantages under which I
+      have labored, under pressure of time and a frequent inability to
+      obtain all the books I wished to consult, I rely upon the leniency
+      of specialists and upon their kindly communicating to me the faults
+      they detect, so that I may avoid them in future publications.
+
+  121 "The Century Dictionary has a theory as to the origin of the idea of
+      a Bear for the seven stars, doubtless from its editor, Professor
+      Whitney, that seems plausible, at all events scholarly. It is that
+      their Sanscrit designation, Riksha, signifies, in two different
+      genders, 'a bear' and 'a star,' 'bright' or 'to shine;' hence a
+      title, the Seven Shiners,--to that it would appear to have come, by
+      some confusion of sound of the two words, among a people not
+      familiar with the sound" (p. 424). "Later on Riksha was confounded
+      with Rishi, and so connected with the Seven Sages or Poets of India.
+      Al Biruni devoted a chapter of his work on India to the seven stars
+      [of Ursa Major] known as Saptar Shayar, the seven Anchorites"
+      (Allen). I draw attention here to the curious fact that the Sanscrit
+      verb to see=iksh is nearly homonymous with riksha and that
+      therefore, in Sanscrit, the association of a star with the
+      eye=akshan, that sees=iksh, must have been a very close one and
+      suggested the employment of the eye as a symbol for star. In
+      connection with the Sanscrit riksha it is curious to note that, in
+      Japanese, riki means power, viz., jin-riki-sha=man--power-wagon; and
+      hasha or rinsha=wagon or wain. The following extract from one of the
+      hymns in the oldest Veda, the Brahmana, which "mark the beginning of
+      the philosophical creed of the Vedic period," is particularly
+      significant when compared, not only with the preceding association
+      of Ursa Major with the seven sages of India, but also with Plato's
+      cosmological doctrines: "I have beheld the Lord of Men," one poet
+      writes, "with seven sons, of which delightful and benevolent [deity]
+      who is the object of our invocation, there is _an all-pervading
+      middle brother_ and a third brother.... They yoke the seven to the
+      one wheeled car; _one horse named seven_ bears it along; the
+      three-axled _wheel is undecaying, never loosened and in it all these
+      regions of the universe abide_.... Immature, undiscerning in mind, I
+      inquire of those things _which are hidden from the gods_ [_cf._ Hymn
+      to Amen-Ra, p. 388, where the same expression is used], the seven
+      threads which the sages _have spread to envelop the sun in whom all
+      abide_" (Chambers' Encyclopaedia, article India).
+
+  122 Fig. 72, 1, is referred to on p. 319.
+
+  123 The original name for Phrygia is said to have been Askanios, from
+      Askanios its first ruler. The cenotaph of Midas is built in the rock
+      at Jazylykaia, in the vicinity of Kumbet, where other similarly
+      decorated royal tombs exist.
+
+  124 It would be interesting to learn whether the Arabian title
+      Om-al-kara, "the mother of cities," has ever been connected with
+      Roma by investigators.
+
+  125 It is recalled here that the twin brothers Romulus and Remus are
+      supposed to have been the issue of the union, in the temple of Mars,
+      of the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia with a personification of the god
+      Mars.
+
+  126 The recurrence of the square plan, employed in Babylonia and Egypt
+      (see pp. 333 and 369), is noteworthy.
+
+  127 In course of time each Roman civitas, or political canton or
+      community, possessed such "a centre, which was termed capitolium,
+      _i. e._ the height, from being originally fixed on a height or
+      hill-top, corresponding to the Greek akra. Round this stronghold of
+      the canton, which formed the nucleus of the earliest Latin towns,
+      houses sprang up, which were in turn surrounded by the oppidum or
+      the urbs (ring-wall connected with urbus, curvus, orbis); hence, in
+      later times, oppidum and urbs became, naturally enough, the
+      recognized designations of town and city."--Chambers' Encyclopaedia.
+
+  128 Diocletian (A.D. 292) revived dual rulership and quadruplicate
+      organization by instituting the quadruple hierarchy of two Augusti
+      and two Caesars. The prevalence of quadruplicate division with
+      current cosmical conceptions is shown by the following text: "The
+      usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur ascending
+      a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a _litus_. He
+      turned his face to the east and marked out some distant objects as
+      the limits within which he would make his observations and _divided
+      mentally the enclosed space into four divisions_.... He next ...
+      prayed and offered sacrifices...." "We learn from ... the augur
+      Cicero that while the Romans only had four divisions to their
+      heavens-templum, the Etruscans had sixteen, obtained by bisecting
+      and rebisecting the four angles" (O'Neil, p. 433).
+
+  129 The cult of Ishtar=Isis, associated with mystery and of
+      Serapis=Osiris, had been instituted in Rome by Domitian (A.D. 82)
+      who caused temples to be built for them. Curious instances of the
+      spread of the cults of other countries throughout the Roman empire
+      have come under my personal notice. In the Museum at Bonn, Germany,
+      there is a Roman tombstone the inscription on which consists of a
+      wheel above the name Jovis, the association of Jove with the wheel,
+      being very remarkable and significant in connection with the present
+      subject.
+
+      At Nimes in the South of France, a curious statue of Mithra was
+      found in the ruins of the Roman city. It consists of a Hermes,
+      surmounted by a hairy, dog-like face. A great serpent is wound
+      around the Hermes, the signs of the zodiac being sculptured between
+      the coils. In the light of the present investigation the meaning of
+      the symbolical statue seems too obvious to require explanation. It
+      is strange that the recollection of seeing this statue at the age of
+      nine with my father, who pointed out and explained the signs of the
+      zodiac to me, is one of the most vivid of my childhood.
+
+  130 The curious association of the number seven with Stonehenge in gypsy
+      folk-lore, which possibly contains vestiges of Druidical folk-lore,
+      is brought out by R. G. Haliburton in his paper on "Gypsy folk-lore
+      as to Stonehenge," to which I refer the reader.
+
+  131 In the case of Mayapan, Yucatan, the practical use of analogous
+      council-houses is described (p. 209). The Irish tower and seven
+      houses are remarkably in accord with the scheme of organization used
+      in ancient Greece where, at Tenos, each gens was known as "a tower"
+      and each gens, as well as its town, was divided into at least seven
+      parts (p. 456).
+
+  132 John Speed relates that one of the kings of Kent, named Catigera,
+      "was interred upon a plain where his monument vulgarly called
+      'citscotehouse,' consisted of four stones pitched in the manner of
+      the stonehenge." It is tempting to see in the four stones "pitched"
+      around the grave, the underlying thought of a resting-place in the
+      cosmical centre, of the symbolized four quarters, and to view the
+      prehistoric crosses of Ireland and Scotland as emblematic of the
+      Middle and Four Quarters, associated with secret pole-star and
+      cosmical cult and employed as symbols of time and of quadruplicate
+      government.
+
+  133 Celi-Ced and the cult of the wren. Theosophical review, June 15,
+      1900.
+
+  134 Light is thrown upon the possible conception of Ursa Major as Thor's
+      wagon and the most primitive form of chariots in general by the
+      archaic chariot of state used, to this day, in Corea and formerly in
+      Japan. It is one-wheeled and the seat, destined for one person, is
+      placed high above the single wheel and rests upon two long poles,
+      the ends of which project in front and behind. Four men are required
+      to support and push this chariot of state, a fine example of which
+      has lately been secured for the Museum of Salem, Mass., by Prof. E.
+      S. Morse.
+
+  135 It is with keenest interest that I look forward to learning, from
+      the distinguished archaeologists of Sweden, among whom I have the
+      honor of having highly-esteemed, personal friends, how far their
+      observation and deeper knowledge lead them to entertain views I have
+      advanced concerning the origin of the swastika and the influence of
+      pole-star worship upon the development of primitive religion and
+      social organization. It is from them that I expect information as to
+      the relation of the prehistoric inhabitants of Scandinavia to the
+      ancient centres of civilization which have been discussed.
+
+  136 Hewitt states (p. 90) that, "it was successively immigrating races
+      from the North ... who placed a king at the head of the confederated
+      provinces formed from their confederated villages.... The
+      confederate form of these kingdoms is shown in such names as
+      Chuttisgurh which means the 36 gurhs or united provinces. But the
+      final consolidated form of the pre-Aryan Indian village was that
+      framed by the Kushites. It was they who placed the royal province in
+      the centre of the kingdom.... It was on these principles that the
+      government of the Ooraon village of Chota Nagpore was constructed.
+      The Ooraon form of village government is that which has been
+      preserved with less alteration from subsequent invaders than that of
+      any other part of India, for the Ooraons, Mundas, Ho-kals and Bhuyas
+      have always been able, under the protection of their mountain
+      fastnesses, their political organization and their natural love of
+      independence, to keep their country free from the interference of
+      the hated Sadhs, the name by which they call the Hindus. But these
+      people, who repelled and held themselves aloof from later invaders
+      were of no less foreign origin than those who succeeded them, for
+      they were all formed by the union with the matriarchal Australioids
+      _and patriarchal Mongols or Finnish and other Northern stocks_, most
+      of whom were formed into confederated tribes of artisans and
+      agriculturists in Asia Minor and it was from the southern part of
+      Asia Minor or Northern Palestine, that the Ooraons came. They
+      themselves say that they came from Western India, from the land of
+      Ruhidas [the land of the red men], but this means Syria, the country
+      whose people were called Rotou by the Egyptians, and they were the
+      race who introduced barley and plough-tillage into India and Chota
+      Nagpore."
+
+      Particular attention is drawn to Wylie's statements, quoted on p.
+      303, concerning the migration of Israelites to China, via Persia
+      (about A.D. 58-75) and the native record that Christianity was the
+      ancient religion of Ta-Tsin=Syria. Hewitt's identification of Syria
+      as the "red land" causes the Ooraon and Chinese traditions to agree
+      in assigning it as the common source of origin of their
+      civilization. According to Professor Sayce it was "about B.C. 600
+      that the Phoenicians penetrated to the northwest coast of India," and
+      "tradition brought them originally from the Persian Gulf" (Ancient
+      Empire of the East, p. 183).
+
+  137 The recent discovery, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, of the mummy of
+      Aha-Mena, and of six other kings of the first dynasty, suggests the
+      possibility that they may have reigned simultaneously and
+      constituted a heptarchy(?). Although it would materially affect
+      Egyptian and Babylonian-Assyrian chronology as it now stands,
+      historians may yet find it necessary to make a revision taking into
+      deeper consideration the existence of tetrarchies and heptarchies in
+      which a number of kings and subrulers reigned simultaneously.
+
+  138 To assist these four principal secretaries are two
+      under-secretaries, one Manchu and one Chinese, and a board of ten
+      assistants. Together, these sixteen secretaries divided between two
+      races, constitute a grand secretariat, which acts as nearly as
+      possible as the cabinet of the Emperor. (Missions in China. Jas. S.
+      Dennis, D.D.)
+
+  139 This association of Tenos with seven-fold division is particularly
+      suggestive because, in Pythagorean philosophy, the number seven was
+      named Parthenos, Athene, also Apollo, Hermes, Hephaistos, Heracles,
+      Dionysius, Rex, etc. These divinities, the second and third of which
+      are specially known as patrons of cities, appear in a new light when
+      it is realized that they were personifications of the number seven
+      and, by extension, of the seven-fold cosmos, state and city. On p.
+      449, Plato's division of the Cosmos is cited. Reference to the
+      history of Greek philosophy shows, however that the spurious
+      existence of four or five elements had not always been accepted in
+      Greece, that Thales (640-550 B.C.) had laid down the doctrine of a
+      single eternal, original element, water or fluid substance, and
+      "assimilated the universe to an organized body or system."
+      Xenophanes (570-480 B.C.) conceived "nature as one unchangeable and
+      indivisible whole, spherical, animated ... penetrated by or indeed
+      identical with God." It is usually accepted that it was Empedocles
+      (444 B.C.) who first formulated the elements, earth, air, fire and
+      water, to which later philosophers added a fifth, the all-embracing
+      aether.
+
+      In a luminous monograph (Pythagoras und die Inder, Leipzig, 1884.),
+      Professor L. von Schroeder, of Dorpat, Russia, quoting the authority
+      of Professor Max Mueller, Edward Zeller and Oldenburg, has
+      conclusively shown that the five elements, earth, fire, water, air
+      and aether (Sanskrit akaca) already occur in the Brahmanas; were
+      taught in the Samkhya philosophy of the Kapila and were therefore
+      known in India at least as far back as in the seventh century B.C.
+      The idea of the five elements is so familiar to the Hindus at the
+      present time that death is usually spoken of as "a dissolution into
+      the five elements," or a "going over into the Five." Professor von
+      Schroeder's conclusion is that Pythagorean philosophy derived the
+      elemental divisions from India as well as its doctrine of
+      transmigration, etc., and its science of geometry and of number,
+      mentioning, in support of the latter assertion, the fact that
+      Samkya, the name of the ancient Indian school of philosophy,
+      signifies "number," that its followers were therefore designated as
+      "philosophers or teachers of numbers." At the same time I point out
+      that, according to Oliver, "a large portion of Egyptian philosophy
+      and religion was constructed almost wholly upon the science of
+      numbers and we are assured by Kircher (Oedip. Egypt, II, 2) that
+      everything in nature was explained on this principle alone."
+
+      Returning to Professor von Schroeder's work I refer the reader to
+      pp. 59 and 65, and notes for an extremely interesting discussion of
+      the Greek name of the fifth element that figures in the work of
+      Philolaus, the first who wrote a treatise on the Pythagorean system
+      of philosophy. The name employed has been deciphered by different
+      authorities as {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. The
+      interpretation given is that the name (the first syllable of which
+      recurs in the word Olympus) signified "that which moves or carries
+      with it the universe." Professor von Schroeder suggests that the
+      name may be a corruption of the Sanscrit name for aether, the
+      all-embracing element, akaca. I venture to recall here the curious
+      fact that, in ancient Mexico, the symbol, enclosing the four
+      elements, is always designated as the ollin, a word associated with
+      the idea of "movement" and of life=yoli.
+
+      In his work on the "Pythagorean Triangle," the Rev. G. Oliver gives
+      an extremely clear account of the Pythagorean philosophy and tells
+      us that its central thought is the idea of number, the recognition
+      of the "numerical and mathematical relations of things...." "The
+      Pythagoreans seem," says Aristotle, "to have looked upon number as
+      the principle and, so to speak, the matter of which existences
+      consist;" and again "they supposed the elements of number to be the
+      elements of existence, and pronounced the whole heaven to be harmony
+      and number."
+
+      Concerning the universe, like many early thinkers, as a sphere, they
+      placed in the heart of it the central fire to which they gave the
+      name of Hestia, the hearth or altar of the universe, the citadel or
+      throne of Zeus. Around this move the ten heavenly bodies ... the
+      earth revolved on its own axis....
+
+      They developed a list of ten fundamental oppositions: 1, limited and
+      unlimited; 2, odd and even; 3, one and many; 4, right and left; 5,
+      masculine and feminine; 6, rest and motion; 7, straight and crooked;
+      8, light and darkness; 9, good and evil.... The union of opposites
+      in which consists the existence of things is harmony; hence the
+      expression that the whole heaven or the whole universe is harmony.
+      Pointing out that it is only by a combination of odd and even
+      numbers that a harmonious cycle is created, I continue to cite from
+      Mr. Oliver's work: "The decade, as the basis of the numerical
+      system, appeared to them to comprehend all other numbers in itself,
+      and to it are applied, therefore, the epithets quoted above of
+      number in general. Similar language is held of the number 'four'
+      because it is the first square number and is also the potential
+      decade (1+2+3+4=10). Pythagoras is celebrated as the discoverer of
+      the holy 'Tetraktos' the fountain and root of ever-living nature, or
+      the Cosmos consisting of Fire, Air, Earth, Water, the four roots of
+      all existing things.
+
+      "Number," says Philolaus, "is great and perfect and omnipotent, and
+      the principle and guide of divine and human life. Number then is the
+      principle of order, the principle on which cosmos or ordered world
+      exists." Without number and the limitation which number brings,
+      there would only be chaos and the illimitable, a thought abhorrent
+      to the Greek mind.
+
+  140 "The four Ionic tribes were abolished by Kleisthenes (510 B.C.) who
+      created, in their place, ten new tribes founded on a new principle,
+      independent of the gentes and phratries. Each new tribe comprised a
+      certain number of demes or cantons with the enrolled proprietors and
+      residents in each of them. Each tribe had a chapel, sacred rites and
+      festivals and a common fund for such meetings, in honor of its
+      eponymous hero, administered by members of its own choice; and the
+      statues of all the ten eponymous heroes, fraternal patrons of the
+      democracy, were planted in the most conspicuous part of the agora of
+      Athens.... The demes taken altogether, included the entire surface
+      of Attica. Simultaneously Kleisthenes divided the year into ten
+      portions called Prytanies,--the fifty senators of each tribe taking
+      by turns the duty of constant attendance during one prytany and
+      receiving during that time, the title of The Prytanes. The order of
+      precedence among the tribes in these duties was annually determined
+      by lot.... Moreover, a further subdivision of the prytany into five
+      periods of seven days each and of the fifty tribe-senators into five
+      bodies of ten each, was recognized; each body of ten presided in the
+      senate for one period of seven days, drawing lots every day among
+      their number for a new chairman called Epistates, to whom, during
+      his day of office were confided the keys of the acropolis and the
+      treasury, together with the city seal." The remaining senators, not
+      belonging to the prytanizing tribe, might of course attend if they
+      chose, but the attendance of nine among them, one from each of the
+      remaining nine tribes, was imperatively necessary to constitute a
+      valid meeting and to insure a constant representation of the
+      collective people. During those later times--the ekklesia or formal
+      assembly of the citizens, was convened four times regularly during
+      each prytany ... (_op. cit._, vol. IV, p. 138). Special attention is
+      drawn here to the intimate association of the system of government
+      and the calendar, analogous to the ancient Mexican system.
+
+      "The number of inhabitants an ideal state should contain and their
+      numerical organization were evidently subjects of supreme interest
+      to Greek statesmen and philosophers. The great work by Aristoteles
+      (384-322 B.C.) on Politics, 'according to Grote,' was based on a
+      collection made by himself, of 158 different constitutions of
+      states, which collection has, unfortunately, been lost." "The
+      purpose of comfortable subsistence for which commonwealths are
+      instituted, requiring a minute subdivision of labor," Aristotle
+      says, that "in this particular view, the more populous the community
+      its end will be the more completely attained.... All things
+      considered he declares in favour of what would be now deemed a very
+      small commonwealth, consisting of 15,000 or 20,000 citizens...."
+
+      "In his 'Book of Laws' Plato intended to delineate a more
+      practicable scheme of government than that of his first.... His two
+      republics nearly agree in form, though they differ in magnitude; the
+      first containing one thousand and the second five thousand and forty
+      men bearing arms.... In his second republic he equalizes estates but
+      leaves population unlimited.... A regulation directly the reverse of
+      this is introduced by one of the most ancient writers on the subject
+      of politics, Pheidon of Corinth, who limits population, but does not
+      equalize possessions.... The republic, planned by the architect
+      Hippodamus, consisted of ten thousand men, divided into the three
+      classes of artificers, husbandmen and soldiers. The territory he
+      likewise divides into three portions: the sacred, destined for the
+      various exigencies of public worship; the common, to be cultivated
+      for the common benefit of the soldiers; and the private, to be
+      separately appropriated by the husbandmen. His laws were also
+      divided into three kinds...." (Aristotle's Ethics and Politics, John
+      Gillies, LL.D., London 1804).
+
+      The knowledge that a republic was actually planned on the scheme of
+      three-fold division naturally suggests the possibility that the
+      Sicilian coat of arms, the triskeles, may be a survival of a period
+      when a similar republic existed in Sicily and the year was divided
+      into three seasons only. (For interesting details concerning the
+      employment and spread of a year of three seasons in ancient times,
+      see Hewitt, _op. cit._ Preface XVI, vol. I.)
+
+      In Grote's history we learn that after the establishment of the
+      first Athenian democracy by Kleisthenes and the victory they gained
+      over the Boeotians and Chalkidians, the Athenians _planted a body of
+      four thousand_ of their citizens as kleruchs (lot-holders) or
+      settlers upon the lands of the wealthy conquered Chalkidians. This
+      is a system which we shall find hereafter extensively followed out
+      by the Athenians in the days of their power; partly with a view of
+      providing for their poorer citizens, partly to serve as garrison
+      among a population either hostile or of doubtful fidelity. These
+      Attic kleruchs did not lose their birthright as Athenian citizens:
+      they were not colonists in the Grecian sense and they are known by a
+      totally different name--but they corresponded very nearly to the
+      colonies formally planted out on the conquered lands by Rome. The
+      increase of the poorer population was always more or less painfully
+      felt in every Grecian city ... the numerous kleruchies sent out by
+      Athens, of which this to Euboea was the first, arose in a great
+      measure out of the multiplication of the poorer population, which
+      her extended power was employed in providing for ... (_op. cit._
+      vol. 4, p. 171). The number "four thousand" specially designated is
+      of particular interest because the letter of the Greek alphabet
+      expressing it was the delta, in the form of a triangle or pyramid,
+      which also signified "the fourth" or "a quarter." The ideas
+      suggested by these facts are: that the foundation of such a colony
+      would have been commemorated by the building of a pyramid by the
+      conquered race, the division of labor amongst them preparing the way
+      for the institution of a social organization on the familiar plan
+      (_cf._ p. 273). It is only when we reflect what an admirable means
+      of establishing communal life and activity the mere act of building
+      under direction and guidance must have been, that we appreciate the
+      fine wisdom of the ancient kings, civilizers and culture-heroes, who
+      were, first of all, master builders, architects and masons and who
+      began the work of rearing an empire by directing the erection of a
+      monument which, by its form, expressed the all-pervading plan of
+      organization.
+
+  141 "Taylor says that the reason Plato adopted this division is because
+      the number 12, the image of all-perfect progression, is the product
+      of 3 by 4, both of which numbers, according to the Pythagoreans, are
+      images of perfection. On the other hand, Ast conceives that Plato
+      had in mind the division of the country in twelve parts found in
+      Egypt and elsewhere, and which seems, as may be inferred from other
+      portions of his work, to have been connected with the division of
+      the year into twelve months, each under the superintendence of one
+      of the twelve greater gods." To this note I add the remark that, in
+      B. VI, C. 8, Plato distinctly refers to the twelve tribes as "the
+      thrice four tribes, recommending that they should appoint thrice
+      four interpreters," one for each tribe. It should also be recalled
+      that Cecrops is said to have employed the division into twelve and
+      is supposed to have brought it from Egypt. In the present summary
+      the employment of the same division in other countries can be
+      verified.
+
+      It may be of interest to note here that, like the Egyptians, the
+      Greeks divided their month into 3 decades. The year consequently
+      contained 3x12=36 decades+5 days.
+
+  142 Considering that the employment of silver or gold currency among the
+      nations of antiquity has been regarded, by some, as a proof of
+      advanced culture, it is interesting to learn, from the following
+      passage, that, as a result of experience and with wisdom and
+      foresight, Plato recommended the adoption of different forms of
+      currency in each different state, in order to avert the dangers
+      resulting from the accumulation of riches. "A law ... that no
+      private person be permitted to possess any gold or silver; but that
+      there be a coin for the sake of daily exchange, which it is almost
+      necessary for handicrafts to change and for all who have need of
+      such things to pay the wages due to hired persons, be they slaves or
+      domestic servants. On which account we say that _they must possess
+      coin which is of value to themselves, but of no worth amongst the
+      rest of mankind_." It is curious to note how closely the employment
+      of the cocoa bean, in ancient Mexico and of wampum in North America,
+      as the staple currency, fulfilled the purpose recognized as
+      desirable, by Plato.
+
+  143 At the last moment I learn that fragments of AEgean pottery lately
+      found at Abydos in tombs of the Egyptian kings of the first dynasty,
+      by Prof. Flinders Petrie are considered to prove that, "Grecian
+      merchants sailed the seas in 4500 B.C., ... a conclusion further
+      borne-out by the pictures of vessels with 60 oarsmen, vessels quite
+      large enough for crossing the Mediterranean, which have been seen on
+      prehistoric memorials of the oldest inhabitants of Egypt"
+      (Rawnsley). In this connection it is interesting to learn, from
+      Professor Sayce, that the Phoenician galley was the model of the
+      Greek one, that it was at Carthage that a ship, with more than three
+      banks of oars, was first built, and that its pilots steered by the
+      pole star, not, like the Greeks, by the Great Bear (Ancient Empires
+      of the East, p. 205).
+
+  144 An interesting interpretation of this somewhat obscure sentence is
+      obtained by collating it with the conception of "the revolving eye
+      of the Norse world mill-stone which was directly above Oergelmer and
+      through which the waters flowed to and fro from the great fountain
+      of the Universe mountains" (p. 472). The analogy is strengthened by
+      the fact that the mountainous region in which Kyrene was situated
+      has always been noted for its fertility, the water, from the
+      mountains enclosing its plains, settling in pools and lakes,
+      affording a constant supply, during the summer months, to the Arabs
+      who frequent it. The feature of Kyrene, most renowned in antiquity,
+      was its inexhaustible Fountain of Apollo, and travellers describe
+      how, to this day, the Bedouin Arabs flock to it when their supply of
+      water and herbage fails in the interior. Grote states that the same
+      circumstance must have operated in ancient times to hold the nomadic
+      Libyans in a sort of dependence upon Kyrene (Grote, _op. cit._ vol.
+      IV, p. 37).
+
+      The realization that an inexhaustible fountain of water meant life
+      to primitive nomadic people, enables us to understand the expression
+      "fountain of life" and the constant associations of the sacred
+      central mountain with pools of water and streams flowing in four
+      directions. It is remarkable and highly suggestive how closely the
+      following topographical details, given by Grote, of the original
+      seat of the Macedonians (which were in the regions east of the chain
+      of Skardus, north of the chain which connects Olympus with Pindus
+      and which forms the northwestern boundary of Thessaly), coincide
+      with the conception of Mt. Meru, for instance.
+
+      "Reckoning the basin of Thessaly as a fourth, here are four distinct
+      inclosed plains on the east side of this long range of Skardus and
+      Pindus,--each generally bounded by mountains which rise precipitously
+      to an alpine height, and each leaving only one cleft for drainage by
+      a single river,--the Axius, the Erigon, the Haliakmon and the Peneius
+      respectively. All four plains ... are of distinguished fertility
+      ..." (Grote, _op. cit._ vol. IV, p. 10). The close vicinity of
+      Olympus, the Grecian "divine mountain," is particularly suggestive,
+      inasmuch as it proves to be geographically associated with four
+      remarkable plains and rivers.
+
+  145 "This metaphorical name (the Krittakas) was derived from the
+      vocabulary of the Northern races, who had learned in Asia Minor and
+      the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea to spin thread and weave cloth
+      from the flax of Asia Minor, and the hemp of the shores of the
+      Caspian Sea, and who had taken their knowledge with them when
+      emigrating to the villages of the Neolithic life in Europe and to
+      the Kushite Empire in India, where they divided the people into
+      guilds or trade unions, founded on community of function, and
+      discovered how to use cotton thread for weaving. The reverence of
+      the Ashura Kushika for the Pleiades, whose mother star is Amba, also
+      proves them to be connected with the southwestern Semites, the
+      Himydritic Arabs of Southern Arabia, the land of Sheba, meaning
+      _seven_, meaning the seven stars of the constellation of the Great
+      Bear, called by the Arabs Al-suha, who first worshipped the Pleiades
+      with its 6 stars, the sacred number of the Ashura, as their mother
+      constellation, under the name of Tur-ayya, or children of the
+      father-pole (tur, of the Turanian race) ..." (Hewitt).
+
+  146 Various writers have observed and pointed out the close resemblance
+      in form and decoration, between the terra-cotta whorls found, in
+      profusion, in Mexico and those of Troy.
+
+  147 There is, however, a wide difference between Hewitt's views and mine
+      concerning the stars associated with the year wheel and the origin
+      and meaning of the primitive cross-symbols and swastika, although at
+      times they partially agree. As Hewitt gives several totally distinct
+      and different explanations of the origin and significance of crosses
+      and swastikas, it is difficult to understand clearly his standpoint.
+      On p. 9, vol. II, he makes an interesting differentiation between a
+      diagonal or transverse and upright cross, respectively designating
+      them as rain-cross and fire-cross, and states that their
+      superposition forms the eight-rayed star, the Akkadian and early
+      Indian sign of Anu=god. On p. 145, vol. II he names the transverse
+      cross a sun-cross and says it describes the track of the sun across
+      the heavens, on solstitial days and distinctly describes the
+      swastika in the centre of the triangle on the Hindu altar, as "a
+      symbolic picture of the sun rising at midsummer in the N. E. and
+      setting in the N. W., and at the winter solstice rising in the S. E.
+      and setting in the S. W." On the other hand Hewitt associates the
+      right-angled cross with the fire-god and the pole-star (p. 191, vol.
+      II), and the five-rayed star of Horus as the rain or meridian pole,
+      or mountain standing in the midst of the four stars marking the four
+      quarters of the heavens (p. 9, vol. II and p. 17, vol. I). I
+      recommend a careful re-perusal of all of Hewitt's interpretations of
+      cross-symbols and swastika and a close comparison of these with my
+      views, as set forth in the beginning of the present publication, to
+      Mr. Stansbury Hagar who, somewhat hastily, upon hearing my brief
+      communication to Section H of the A. A. A. S. in New York, June
+      1900, stated (in the October number of the Folklore Journal) that my
+      view concerning the origin of the swastika was the same as that
+      suggested by Hewitt.
+
+  148 Referring the reader to pp. 186-192 for details concerning native
+      tree worship, I shall but add that to this day, among certain North
+      American tribes, the planting of the sacred tribal pole in the
+      hallowed earth socket is accompanied by curious ritualistic marriage
+      rites, and the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire of the fire
+      drill. For the association of four Mexican tribes with four tribal
+      trees and totemic birds, see fig. 53, and note that the central
+      figure, enclosed in a square, is represented as though four streams
+      of blood, flowing from the four angles, converged in his person,
+      constituting him the "Four in One."
+
+  149 The only mention of a movable axle or hub that I know of in Mexican
+      chronicles is the cylinder of wood, described on p. 24 as being
+      shaped like a mortar. The only native illustration I have met which
+      suggests the native employment of some kind of revolving press or
+      axle is the curious and clumsy apparatus figured on pp. 11 and 12 of
+      the Selden MS. preserved at the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and
+      reproduced by Kingsborough. An examination of this strange
+      mechanical contrivance apparently associated with a monkey=ozomatli,
+      and the sacrifice of two prisoners, will be found as interesting as
+      it is puzzling.
+
+  150 In a paper read to the Section of Anthropology of the New York
+      meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
+      Mr. Stansbury Hagar communicated the interesting results of his
+      study of the Salcamayhua tablet which has been alluded to on p. 162
+      of the present publication. With his kind authorization I take
+      pleasure in citing here his interpretation of the name of the
+      Peruvian Creator, an abbreviation of which is inscribed on the plate
+      or tablet. It will be found to accord with that given by Sir
+      Clements B. Markham (History of Peru, p. 20), but to be more
+      explicit. According to his view the name should be analyzed as
+      follows: illa=light, lightning=fire; ticci=foundation, brick=earth;
+      uayra _i. e._ huaii=air, wind; cocha=lake=water.
+
+      "Illa ticci uayra cocha would thus mean: the universal spirit
+      defined by naming what seemed to a people unacquainted with
+      scientific chemistry to be the four ultimate elements."
+
+      Referring to the cognate Aymara language, Mr. Hagar interprets the
+      name pachaya chachic as "source, lit. male ancestor, grandfather of
+      all things," and states that the opening inscription on the tablet
+      should therefore read: "Spirit of Fire, Earth, Air and Water, source
+      of all things" ... that is to say "image of the source whence heaven
+      and earth have emanated." Mr. Hagar states that this source seems to
+      be appropriately figured by the oval form which he interprets as an
+      egg (see fig. 28, _c_). On the other hand I point out that the flat
+      plate of fine gold, which was set up by the Inca Manco Capac between
+      images of the sun and moon, is figured as circular in shape (fig.
+      28, _b_).
+
+      I draw attention to Mr. Stansbury Hagar's interesting and suggestive
+      paper on "The Celestial Bear," which appeared in vol. XIII, no.
+      XLIX, of the Journal of American Folk-lore, in July, 1900. In this
+      he relates the legend connected with Ursa Major by the Micmac
+      Indians, that "this group of stars served to mark the divisions of
+      the night and the seasons for the Micmacs." A point of particular
+      interest in connection with the Micmac legend is the fact, so
+      clearly distinguishable, that the story was suggested to the minds
+      of the Indians by the different positions assumed by the
+      constellation in its annual circuit around Polaris.
+
+      "The Micmacs say,.... In all things as it was and is in the sky, so
+      it is on earth.... In midspring the bear does actually seem to be
+      climbing down out of her [celestial] den [_corona borealis_], which
+      appears higher up to the northern horizon. In midsummer ... the bear
+      runs along the northern horizon.... Soon after the bear assumes an
+      erect position she topples over on her back [is slain] in the
+      autumn. In midwinter she lies dead on her back, ... but the den
+      [_corona borealis_] has re-appeared, with the bear of the new year
+      lying therein, invisible. But this does not end the story of the
+      bear, ... through the winter her skeleton lies upon its back in the
+      sky, but her life spirit has entered another bear who also lies upon
+      her back in the den, invisible and sleeping the winter sleep. When
+      the spring comes around again, this bear will again issue forth from
+      the den to be again pursued by the hunters, to be again slain, but
+      again to send into the den her life-spirit, to issue forth yet again
+      when the sun once more awakens the sleeping earth. And so the drama
+      keeps on eternally." Reasoning by induction, I am strongly tempted
+      to assign the origin of the Egyptian myth of Osiris and of the
+      "child in its cradle," to the same source of inspiration--possibly
+      also other myths of antiquity, such as the twelve labors of Hercules
+      (held by O'Neil to be a pole-star god) may be assigned to the same
+      source. At all events, the Micmac example is extremely instructive
+      and suggestive.
+
+      The following extracts from Mr. Hagar's paper establish that Ursa
+      Major was known as the Bear to several North American tribes, and
+      generally served to mark time and seasons. "In a Blackfoot myth we
+      read: The seven Persons slowly swung around and pointed downward. It
+      was the middle of the night," showing that they too marked the time
+      at night by the position of these stars. So the Zunis tell, when
+      winter comes, how the bear, lying, sleeps, no longer guarding the
+      West land from the cold of the Ice gods, etc., a story which
+      demonstrates that in Zuni mythology there was a marked association
+      between the terrestrial bear [the "great white bear of the seven
+      stars," Cushing] and the seasons.
+
+      The Ojibways mention the constellation in connection with the four
+      quarters in heaven, showing that they, at some time, were accustomed
+      to mark their seasons not only by the position of the stars of the
+      Bear, but also by the rising and setting of various fixed stars.
+
+      In conclusion I would state that Miss Alice Fletcher has informed me
+      that, among the Omaha Indians, time is measured by Ursa Major, and
+      that the pole-star is named the "Star which never travels."
+
+  151 "The amulet is of finely wrought silver, with magic inscription, the
+      seven-branched candlestick of Jerusalem and the usual Christian
+      monogram. The inscription is in Greek, mixed with barbarous and
+      unintelligible forms. It contains however express allusions to
+      Christianity and states that whoever wore it would be sure to please
+      gods and men." It is well known that Constantine had on the reverse
+      of his coin the inscription Sol Invictus and on the obverse the
+      monogram of Christ. "This has been interpreted as a proof that the
+      sun was his own guardian deity," but I venture to explain the
+      adoption of the sun as analogous to the ancient Egyptian mode of
+      designating the sovereign as the son of the sun, the sacred
+      representation of Heaven. Dean Stanley (Eastern Church, p. 193)
+      refers to Constantine's "mode of harmonizing the discordant
+      religions of the empire under one institution and retention of the
+      old Pagan name of Dies Solis or Sunday, for the weekly Christian
+      festival," which was recommended by Constantine to his subjects,
+      Pagan and Christian alike, as "the venerable day of the Sun."
+
+  152 "No country in the world can compare with India for the exposition
+      of the pyramidal cross.... The body of the great temple of Bindh
+      madhu (formerly the boast of the ancient city of Benares ...
+      demolished in the seventeenth century) was constructed in the figure
+      of a colossal cross, with a lofty dome at the centre, above which
+      rose a massive structure of a pyramidal form. At the four
+      extremities of the cross there were four other pyramids.... A
+      similar building existed at Mhuttra.... By pyramidal towers placed
+      crosswise the Hindoo also displayed the all-pervading sign of the
+      cross. At the famous temple of Chillambrum, on the Coromandel coast,
+      there were _seven_ lofty walls, one within the other, round a
+      central quadrangle, and as many pyramidal gateways in the midst of
+      each side which forms the limbs of a vast cross" (Faber, quoted by
+      Donelly in Atlantis, p. 335).
+
+  153 "The Tur-vasu, or people whose creating god (vasu) was the pole
+      (tur), when united with the traders of the south, became the
+      mercantile mariners of the Indian Ocean, who had imposed their rule
+      and traditions both on the lands of Northern India and on those of
+      the twin rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris.... From India, the only
+      land on the Indian Ocean where they could build sea-going ships,
+      they extended their trade, forms of government and national myths,
+      first to the Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria,
+      where they were known to the Greeks as the Phoenicians" (p. 356).
+
+      "These people had seven parent stars whose names are preserved.
+      Professor Sayce has identified the first of these, Sugi, with 'the
+      star of the Wain' and states that it means the
+      'creating-spirit-reed' or the northern khu=bird, the 'reed of the
+      bird, the mother of life.' Sugi is therefore an additional name for
+      the Bear to that of Bel, distributor of waters.... In both names the
+      metaphor is the same, for it is from the reeds at the source of the
+      rivers, their point of distribution, that the rivers are born....
+      Both names denoted the star that led the year and it was the Great
+      Bear, as Sugi, that led the earliest year, opening with the week of
+      creation" ... (p. 357). ... "The sons of the Tur or pole were the
+      Indian Tur-vashu, the Zend Turanians, the mariners of Asia Minor
+      called by the Egyptians Tour-sha (Maspero), the sea traders of the
+      Mediterranean called the Tur-sene of Lydia, the Tur-sena or
+      Tyrrhenians of Lemnos and Etruria, who spoke a language closely
+      allied to that of the Akkadians. That their god was worshiped in
+      Cyprus and Asia Minor is proved by the _terra-cotta whorl_ found in
+      one of the settlements on the site of Troy, dedicated in Cypriote
+      characters to Patori-Turi, the father Tur, who gave his name to the
+      Phrygian city of Turiaion. The great antiquity of the settlement is
+      proved by the fact that though some bronze knives and instruments
+      were found in it, by far the greater number of implements were of
+      stone and the pottery, though similar to that of Mycenae, is of a
+      more archaic type" (Schuchhardt's Schliemann's Excavations, App. I,
+      331-332 and 334).
+
+      "They were also the first spinners, weavers, makers of pottery and
+      built canoes and worked in mines.... They grew wheat, barley, peas,
+      flax and fruit trees.... These men covered the whole of Europe and
+      Southern Asia ... and the Indian Dekhan with cromlechs and stone
+      circles, which were certainly in some cases roofed over, dolmens,
+      meaning stone tables, shrines, altars, tumuli and memorial stones or
+      pillars and all of these, whether found in Western Europe or
+      Southern Asia, are completely identical in character. These people
+      had, in their migrations, established an active and widespread
+      foreign trade..." (p. 178).
+
+      "These maritime Tursena were intermingled with the matriarchal
+      Amazonian tribes who preceded them, and who seemed to have founded
+      the ancient ports of Asia Minor and Palestine, especially the Ionian
+      cities of Smyrna and Ephesus and that of _Askelon_. It was in the
+      land of Phrygia, the mountain countries of the Caucasus range and
+      the snowy heights whence the Euphrates rose, that the earliest
+      shepherds met the matriarchal races, the immigrants from the
+      southeast, the Hindu village communities, who are called by the
+      Greeks Amazons, and are described as the earliest ruling races of
+      Asia Minor and Greece (p. 175)."
+
+      "... The Great Naga is the Akkadian god Ner-gal, and the Phoenician
+      god Sarrahu, or the Great Sar. His name among the Shuites, or the
+      worshippers of Susi-nag on the west of the Euphrates, is Emu, a name
+      which is letter for letter the same as that of the national god of
+      the Ammonites, Amun" (Sayce: Hibbert Lectures, 1887, III, p. 196,
+      note 1. "Amun means the builder, or architect, and is, like that of
+      the Egyptian god, formed of aman, to sustain" (Gesenius, Thesaurus,
+      p. 115). "He was the god of the house pole, who became in Egyptian
+      Thebes, Amen-Ra, the hidden, and it was the people who made the
+      house-pole the symbol of their ancestors, ... who brought to Egypt
+      as well as to Assyria and India, the custom of having cities for the
+      dead apart from those for the living.... It was from the rains of
+      the summer-solstice ... generated from the Naga snake that the
+      Phoenician sons of Kush were born, whose kings, like those of Egypt,
+      wore the Uraeus snake as a sign of royal authority. Their original
+      settlement, according to a tradition recorded by Theophrastus, was
+      at _Tulos_ or Turos, in the Persian Gulf, the modern Bahrein. This
+      was the holy island of Diloun, called Dilmun by the Akkadians.... It
+      was the settlement of Hindu navigators in the holy island of Dilmun
+      in the Persian gulf, and at Eridu, which first brought them in
+      contact with the Arabian star-gazers and merchants, and it was the
+      union, in the ancient city of Ur, of these races with the Hebrew
+      tribe of Gad (who built, not only the cities of Bashan, but also
+      those of Assyria and were the great builders of the ancient world),
+      which first formed the Semite race. It was the meridian pole, the
+      heavenly, revolving pole, the Tur of the Akkadians, which the
+      Dravidian traders of India brought with them to Eridu" (p. 292). "It
+      was these Tursena who, by developing the ancient organization of the
+      village and province in India, divided all the countries they
+      occupied into confederacies of cities, such as we find among the
+      Euphratean nations, the Egyptians, Canaanites and the people of Asia
+      Minor, Greece and Italy. It was they who were the fathers of Greek
+      and Latin civilization." (p. 296). "It was these people who brought
+      from India their village institutions, their holy groves and
+      seasonal dances.... Among them the Finnic mining races descended....
+      It was in Phrygia that they were mixed with the Daktuloi, or race of
+      handicraftsmen and artificers, the sons of Dak, the showing or
+      teaching god, the god Daksha, the father of the Kush race.... They
+      were the carpenters and builders of the Stone age."
+
+      Prof. Sayce's "Ancient Empires of the East" furnishes further
+      interesting details concerning the Phoenicians. According to this
+      eminent authority, at an early date, in order to relieve the
+      pressure of population, they sent out organized colonies to the
+      recently discovered lands of the West. Accordingly commercial marts
+      were established at Thera and Melos,.... Colonies were established
+      at Attica, on the coast of Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica,
+      and beyond the columns of Herakles, in Gadeira. The three cities of
+      Rhodes were planned by Phoenician architects.... The Assyrian
+      character of early Greek art is due to its Phoenician inspiration....
+      It was about "B.C. 600 that these people penetrated to the northwest
+      coast of India and probably to the island of Britain as well....
+      They were the intermediaries of ancient civilization ... and the
+      chief elements of Greek art and civilization came from Assyria
+      through the hands of Phoenicians.... Phoenician art was essentially
+      catholic ... it assimilated the art of Babylonia, Egypt and Assyria
+      superadding something of its own.... Their chief deity was Yeud or
+      Ekhad=the Only One ... they worshipped the Kabeiri ... originally
+      seven stars ... who were the makers of the world, the founders of
+      civilization, the inventors of ships.... The cities of Phoenicia were
+      the first trading communities the world has seen.... Their colonies
+      were originally mere marts and their voyages of discovery were taken
+      in the interests of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of Spain,
+      the birds of the Canaries, the frankincense of Arabia, the pearls
+      and ivory of India, all flowed into their harbours.... Many of their
+      colonies were wholly independent, and governed by their own kings
+      and benefiting Phoenicia only in the way of trade.... In Phoenicia ...
+      the king seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling ...
+      princes and ... chiefs. In time the monarchy disappeared altogether,
+      its place being supplied by suffetes or 'judges,' whose term of
+      office lasted sometimes for a year, sometimes for more, sometimes
+      even for life.... At Carthage there were two suffetes, who were
+      merely presidents of the senate of thirty ... whose power was
+      subsequently checked by a board of one hundred and four.... By
+      providing that no member of the board should hold office for two
+      years running, Hannibal changed the government into a democracy."
+
+  154 Evolution and Ethics. Appleton ed. New York, 1896, p. 104.
+
+  155 "Death no Bane," translation by Robert Black, M. A., Sampson Low,
+      Marston & Co., London, 1889, p. 121, note.
+
+  156 Merely as affording a glimpse of the troublous period during which
+      Plotinus lived, I recall the fact that Caracalla, visiting Egypt,
+      caused a large number of young men to be massacred at Alexandria
+      (A.D. 211). Between A.D. 248 and 268, Alexandria was the seat of
+      civil war for twelve years, and through war, famine and pestilence,
+      in a few years, about half of the population, not only of
+      Alexandria, but of Rome, perished. A general persecution of
+      Christians was also carried on at this period, and in A.D. 268
+      Zenobia invaded Egypt.
+
+  157 To those of my fellow-workers who have made a special study of the
+      most ancient forms of cursive and ikonomatic writings of the Old
+      World, I should like to submit some facts concerning the ancient
+      Mexican method, which may carry a fresh suggestion and be an aid to
+      future research.
+
+      When the first Spanish missionaries who reached Mexico found
+      themselves confronted by the barrier of language and wished to teach
+      the native converts the Lord's Prayer in Latin, they adopted the
+      method of picture writing employed by the aborigines. By painting a
+      banner=pantli, a stone=tetl, a cactus=nochtli and another
+      stone=tetl, they conveyed the words Pa-te-noch-te, which,
+      approximately, represented paternoster. The consequence was that the
+      Indians were able to memorize prayers in a language unknown to them,
+      by referring to pictures of objects and naming these in their own
+      tongue. A number of curious documents exist, which exhibit a great
+      difference and variety in execution and are more or less cursive,
+      according to the artistic sense and ability of the missionary or
+      converted Indian who drew them. The fact that Spaniards, possessing
+      our mode of writing, should have found picture-writing the most
+      effective means of teaching primitive people speaking an alien
+      tongue has always appeared to me as most instructive and suggestive.
+
+      As the natives suggested this method to their instructors, it is
+      obvious that it was their habitual mode of memorizing a foreign
+      language. The possibility that words recorded in native pictography
+      may belong to an alien tongue, opens out a new field for future
+      research. A curious result is obtained when Tenoch-Titlan, one of
+      the ancient names of the capital of Mexico is studied from this
+      point of view. In the well-known rebus now employed as the arms of
+      Mexico, the syllables Te and Noch only are actually expressed in
+      picture-writing by the stone=tetl, from which a cactus=nochtli is
+      growing. This group is, however, surmounted by an eagle holding a
+      serpent in its talons and the meaning of this animal group appears
+      symbolical merely. It may be a curious coincidence that the eagle
+      holding a serpent in its talons was employed by Mediterranean people
+      as an emblem of victory and occurs on ancient Greek coins with this
+      significance, and that the recorded name, Tenochtitlan or "the land
+      of Tenoch," curiously resembles Tenos, the name of a Greek
+      heptarchy, founded by seven tribes just as the adjacent town of
+      Chalco, in Mexico, resembles Chalcis, the town in Euboea, where
+      Aristoteles died.
+
+      On p. 418 and in my discussion of Egyptian hieratic script, I have
+      pointed out that some signs employed express the sounds of words in
+      another tongue, that the syllables am and an, for instance, seem
+      indissolubly and universally linked to pole-star worship and
+      symbolism. It does not seem unreasonable to endeavor to explain this
+      by imagining that individuals, wishing, in each case, to teach the
+      word _Sama_=the revolving heaven _i. e._ the North, to people
+      speaking different languages, should make a picture of a tree or
+      boat named am in one tongue, and in another country, draw a spider,
+      named am, by its inhabitants. In the first country the tree, or
+      boat, and in the second, the spider, would, in time, become the
+      symbols of the north, and though different, signify the same thing.
+      In time, each sign might be employed to express the syllable am in
+      general and in this way isolated systems of ikonomatic writing would
+      evolve and, in course of time, native artists would more or less
+      skilfully produce conventionalized and distinctly characteristic
+      forms and methods.
+
+      At the same time the colonizing race might be employing and
+      perfecting a totally different form of cursive writing for their own
+      purposes of registration, etc. For instance: in Athens, where Euclid
+      held an archonship in 403 B.C. and, during centuries, Pythagorean
+      philosophers identified "earth with a cube, fire with a pyramid, air
+      with an octahedron, water with an icosahedron, and _the Sphere of
+      the Universe_ with a dodecahedron," and also taught that a point
+      corresponds with the monad, both being indivisible; a line with the
+      duad, etc., it is obvious that points, lines and geometrical figures
+      must have been employed for the cursive registration of ideas. In a
+      state, firmly established on fixed principles of numbers, the
+      cursive registration of its subdivisions, by means of numbers only,
+      was rendered possible and in such a community the necessity for
+      cursive writing would be limited and perhaps be confined to the
+      registration and identification of individuals, the reports of
+      quantities of produce, etc.
+
+      The facts that the letters of the Greek alphabet possess fixed
+      numerical values, and that the initial letters only of their tribal
+      names were inscribed on the shields of Lacedaemonian, Sicyonian and
+      Messenian warriors, for instance, appear to indicate that, at one
+      time, each Greek tribal division possessed its cursive mark, a
+      letter, which may have indicated, at the same time, a numerical
+      division of the confederacy. To understand such cursive records it
+      is evident that a knowledge of the numerical basis of the state
+      would be indispensable and imperative and that this would be
+      confined to the rulers only. My opinion that the Maya calculiform
+      hieroglyphs constitute cursive notation relating entirely to the
+      calendrical and governmental cyclical system and absolutely
+      unintelligible without a knowledge of this, has already been
+      partially referred to on pp. 242 and 244. From Mexican manuscripts,
+      where individuals, by means of a number and a calendar sign, are
+      linked to a division of the state, I hope yet to be able to clearly
+      demonstrate the practical harmonious working of a machinery of
+      state, established on a perfected numerical scheme, the cursive
+      notation of which was extremely simple.
+
+      Meanwhile I offer the foregoing remarks as suggestions for future
+      research and as an expression of my opinion that people, using
+      geometrical and numerical cursive methods of notation in their own
+      country, may have systematically employed the pictographic method in
+      teaching their language to strangers and in establishing their
+      civilization in foreign lands.
+
+  158 It is particularly interesting to learn from Professor Sayce (_op.
+      cit._ p. 188), not only that Phoenician culture had been introduced
+      among the rude tribes of Israel, but that the temple of Jerusalem
+      was built by Phoenician artists after the model of a Phoenician one,
+      the main features of which were the two columns or cones at the
+      entrance and the brazen sea or basin, which rested on _twelve_
+      bulls, this number agreeing with the number of Israelitic tribes and
+      with tribal or caste divisions in other ancient centres of
+      civilization. It is thus certainly suggestive to find the number
+      twelve associated with the Phoenicians, to whom the spread of
+      civilization in the Old World is attributed and whose predecessors,
+      at the period of Babylonian culture, were, according to Professor
+      Sayce, "solitary traders, who trafficked in slaves, in purple-fish
+      ... and whose voyages were intermittent and private."
+
+      ... "Diodorus Siculus assigns to the Carthaginians the knowledge of
+      an island in the ocean, the secret of which they reserved for
+      themselves as a refuge to which they could withdraw should fate ever
+      compel them to desert their African home. It is far from improbable
+      that we may identify this obscure island with one of the Azores,
+      which lies 800 miles from the coast of Portugal. Neither Greek nor
+      Roman writers make any reference to them, but the discovery of
+      numerous Carthaginian coins at Carvo, the northwesterly island of
+      the group, leaves little room to doubt that they were visited by
+      Punic voyagers."--Sir Daniel Wilson. The lost Atlantis and other
+      ethnographic studies. New York, 1892.
+
+  159 Address of the retiring President of the A. A. A. S., Columbus
+      meeting, 1899. Proceedings of the A. A. A. S., vol. XLVIII, to which
+      the reader is referred for valuable data.
+
+  160 "Professor Perry, F. R. S., in his admirable monograph on Spinning
+      Tops, (Romance of Science: Spinning Tops, by Professor John Perry,
+      M. E., D.Sc., F. R. S., 1890, pp. 107-110, 12-13, cited by O'Neil,
+      _op. cit._, p. 540.) shows how a spinning gyrostat whose spinning
+      axis is compelled by the experimenter into a horizontal plane is
+      then constrained by the earth's motion alone to direct its spinning
+      axis due north and south and so to indicate mathematically the lie
+      of the true meridian of its spot. If the spinning gyrostat be next
+      shut off from all other motion except a vertical one in the plane of
+      this meridian, its spinning axis will point its north end up to, and
+      continue to point truly up to, the celestial pole." Then, adds
+      Professor Perry, in terms strangely suitable to my purposes: "It is
+      with a curious mixture of feelings that one first recognizes the
+      fact that all rotating bodies, fly-wheels of steam-engines and the
+      like, are always tending to turn themselves towards the Polestar;
+      gently and vainly tugging at their foundations, all the time they
+      are in motion, to get round towards the object of their adoration."
+
+  161 The Incas claimed to have descended from three windows. See Rites
+      and Laws of the Incas, p. 77.
+
+  162 It is noteworthy that the Zuni name for village in general is
+      tiŽ-na-kwin-ne. Tina=many sitting around and kwin-ne=place of.
+
+  163 The accuracy and value of the above article are vouched for, in an
+      interesting way by the Rev. Samuel M. Zwemer, F. R. G. S. (a
+      missionary who spent ten years in Arabia), who refers to it as
+      follows, and quotes it in his recent publication: "Arabia, the
+      cradle of Islam. New York, 1900," p. 289. "An anonymous article in
+      the London Standard, Oct. 19, 1894, entitled, 'A prayer-meeting of
+      the Star-worshippers,' curiously gave me the key to open the lock of
+      their silence. Whoever wrote it must have been perfectly acquainted
+      with their religious ceremonies, for when I translated it to a
+      company of Sabeans at Amara, they were dumfounded. Knowing that I
+      knew _something_, made it easy for them to tell me more."
+
+  164 I point out the remarkable fact that the Chinese name for jade=yu,
+      is homonymous with the word for source or origin, hence, perhaps,
+      its sacredness and employment as a secret symbol of the hidden
+      source of all things. See p. 277 for Chinese choice of symbols
+      influenced by sound of name.
+
+  165 The Hindu Yama and Yami were twin brother and sister, and have been
+      respectively identified by Prof. Max Mueller as night and day. Yama,
+      the inseparable duality, is entitled law and justice, etc. and was
+      represented with four arms, riding a buffalo, with a crown on his
+      head, accompanied by "two four-eyed watch dogs, which are probably
+      the eight or twice-four regions of the compass"... (Chambers'
+      Encyclopaedia). Of the originally cosmical character of Yama there
+      can be no doubt. It is curious to find, at the epic and Puranic
+      period, the account of "Yama" marrying the thirteen daughters of
+      Daksha (north-people, white), becoming the regent of the south and
+      residing in Yamapura, a town in the lower regions; details which
+      appear to indicate the actual establishment of a kingdom on the
+      familiar plan by an earthly representative of the cosmical deity.
+
+  166 This was the first god of the divine triad of whom it is recorded
+      that "they hid their persons;" see Translation of the Ko-ji-ki or
+      Records of Ancient Matters, Basil Hall Chamberlain, vol. X,
+      supplement, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Sections I
+      and II from which this and the following names of gods are taken.
+
+  167 The Akkadian Sumerian Cosmos is thus described: "Above the earth
+      extended the sky, ana, spangled with its fixed stars (mul) revolving
+      around the mountain of the east (Kharsak Kurra) the column which
+      joins the heaven and the earth and serves as an axis to the
+      celestial vault. The culminating point in the heaven, the zenith
+      (Paku), was not this axis or pole; on the contrary, it was situated
+      immediately above the country of Akkadia [Kalama] which was regarded
+      as the centre of the inhabited lands, while the mountain which acted
+      as a pivot to the starry heavens was to the northeast of this
+      country. Beyond the mountain, also to the northeast, extended the
+      land of Aralli, which was very rich in gold and was inhabited by the
+      gods and blessed spirits" (Lenormant, quoted by Warren _op. cit._ p.
+      166).
+
+  168 This is the Ka of Egyptian theology ... he is the Sek-Nag, the god
+      of the Raj, or royal race of Gonds, born (ja) of Ra, that is, the
+      sons of Ra-Hu, the begetting (Hu) creating fire-god (Ra). His
+      festival is held every seven years and is attended only by males who
+      are bound to secrecy as to its rites.... This god, the great Nag, is
+      the soul of life in the rain cloud, the heavenly snake ... the other
+      being the Ahi or Echis, the snake of earth. "To the present day the
+      Jains, who are the great trading race of India, call themselves
+      Ka-ya=the sons of Ka. This name they must have brought with them to
+      the holy island (Dilmun), from thence it must have travelled to
+      Egypt with the race who established the Kushite rule there"
+      (Hewitt).
+
+  169 The titles "Middle king," "Great Middle princess," are cited by
+      Chamberlain, _op. cit._ pp. 265 and 267.
+
+  170 Madhu=the inspiring intoxicating honey mead used in the sacred
+      ritual, substituted by a Northern people for the barley liquor
+      offered in the manthin or creating, churning cup. The names given to
+      the drinkers of madhu="madhuya," madhu-pa and Madhvi; also
+      madhu-varna, the men of Madhu's caste, are curiously homonymous with
+      the word for Middle Madhyias and appear to designate them as the
+      "Middle caste," naturally associated with the North.
+
+  171 Quoted by O'Neil from Satow and Hawes' Hdbk. of Japan, 2nd ed. p.
+      39.
+
+      It is interesting to compare the following Japanese words with
+      Miyauken:
+
+      MIYO=wonderful, admirable, secret, mysterious, holy.
+
+      MIYA=Shinto temple where the kami are worshipped. Japan.
+
+      MIYUKI=travelling, going, only applied to circuit of provinces
+      performed by Mikado.
+
+      KEN=imperial domain, or that territory which is under the direct
+      government of the Mikado, _cf._ Chinese k'an=land.
+
+  172 Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. X, p. 245, note 2.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OLD AND NEW WORLD CIVILIZATIONS***
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