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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:59 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:59 -0700 |
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diff --git a/32066-tei/32066-tei.tei b/32066-tei/32066-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9abb7a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/32066-tei/32066-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,36162 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations</title> + <author><name reg="Nuttall, Zelia">Zelia Nuttall</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>April 20, 2010</date> + <idno type="etext-no">32066</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="he"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2010-04-20">April 20, 2010</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by Julia Miller, Bruce Albrecht, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Fundamental Principles</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Of</p> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Old and New World Civilizations</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">A Comparative Research Based on a Study of the Ancient Mexican Religious, Sociological, and Calendrical Systems.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">Zelia Nuttall</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Honorary Special Assistant of the Peabody Museum; +Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; +Member of the Philosophical Society, Philadelphia; +Honorary Member of the Archaeological Association, Univ. of Pennsylvania; +Corresponding Member of the Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Philadelphia; +of the Anthropological Society of Washington; of the Societá Italiana +d'Antropologia; of the Société de Géographie de +Genève; of the Sociedad Cientifico <q>Antonio +Alzate,</q> Mexico; and of the Société +des Américanistes de Paris.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Archaeological and Ethnological Papers</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Of The</p> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Peabody Museum</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Harvard University</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Vol. II.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Cambridge, Mass.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">March, 1901.</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Editorial Note.</head> + +<p> +The author of this volume explains in her preface how she came +to be led beyond her special field of research into a comparative +study of the early civilizations of the Old World; and how she +traced the origin of the swastika, in Mexico, to an astronomical +source and, in all countries alike, found its use as a sacred symbol +accompanied by evidences of a certain phase of culture based on +pole-star worship, and the recognition of the fixed laws of nature, +which found expression in the ideal of celestial kingdoms or states +organized on a set numerical plan and regulated by the apparent +revolutions of circumpolar constellations. +</p> + +<p> +The results of the author's researches seem to justify her summary +of conclusions; but she distinctly states that she does not +wish to propound any theory. She invites further study and discussion +by Orientalists and Americanists before drawing final conclusions +from the facts she has gathered. The publication of this +paper will open anew the consideration of pre-Columbian visits to +the New World, shown, as many have believed, by identities +too many and too close to be considered as mere resemblances or +as the natural results of independent intellectual development. +</p> + +<p> +The illustrations are nearly all from drawings by the author. +The analytical Index has been prepared by Miss Mead. It will be +seen, by the numbering at the bottom of each page, that it was at +first intended to include this paper in Volume I of the Archaeological +and Ethnological Papers of the Museum; but the addition +of the text relating to the Old World made too bulky a volume, +and it is therefore issued as Volume II of the series. +</p> + +<p> +To Mrs. Nuttall for the gift of her work, the results of years of +research, and to the several generous friends who have provided +the means for publishing this volume, the editor expresses his +gratitude in behalf of the Museum. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>F. W. Putnam</hi>,<lb/> +Curator of the Peabody Museum.<lb/> +Harvard University,<lb/> +March 1, 1901. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Author's Preface.</head> + +<p> +In February, 1898, while engaged upon the translation and commentary +of the anonymous Hispano Mexican MS. of the Biblioteca +Nazionale Centrale Library, of Florence, my interest was suddenly +and unexpectedly diverted from my self-imposed task by the circumstances +described in the opening pages of the present publication. +</p> + +<p> +Laying my work aside, as I then supposed, for a few days only, +I seized the new thread of investigation with a keen and enthusiastic +interest, little knowing that it, in turn, was not only to hold me +fast for nearly three years, but was to lead me out of my original +field of research, into distant, and to me, hitherto untrodden realms, +in close pursuit of facts relating to the oldest forms of religion, +social organization, and symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +The first portion of the present publication was planned as a +short monograph of forty-one pages, treating of the origin of the +native swastika or cross symbols, and was written in July, 1898, +its outcome being the unforeseen conclusion that the cosmical conceptions +of the ancient Mexicans were identical with those of the +Zuñis. I next traced the same fundamental set of ideas in Yucatan, +Central America and Peru and formed the wish to add this +investigation to the preceding. The result has been the portion of +the work extending from page 41, paragraph 2, to page 284, which +was printed in 1899. +</p> + +<p> +Having once launched into a course of comparative research, +the deep interest I have always taken in the question of Asiatic +contact led me to carry my investigation of the same subject into +China. It then seemed impossible not to extend researches from +Eastern to Western Asia, and from Asia Minor to Egypt, Greece, +Rome and Western Europe. It is in this unpremeditated way that +the scope of the present investigation enlarged itself of its own +accord, for the simple reason that the most interesting and precious +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> +facts fell into my way as I advanced and all I had to do was to +pick them up and add them to my collection of evidence. +</p> + +<p> +One serious disadvantage, arising from the circumstance that +the present investigation has been in press for nearly three years, is +my inability to make any alteration, amendment, or addition, in the +earlier portions, which stand as written at different times. It is a +matter of regret to me that I was not acquainted with O'Neil's +<q>Night of the Gods</q> and Hewitt's <q>Ruling Races of Prehistoric +Times,</q> at an earlier stage of my investigation, as through them +my publication would have been enriched by many valuable additions +which I could have incorporated in the body of my work +without unduly sacrificing its unity of form. +</p> + +<p> +In the line of Maya investigation notable advances have been +made since I wrote (on page <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>), +about the <q>septenary set of +signs</q> described by Mr. A. P. Maudslay in 1886, and about the +inscription on the tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque +(pp. <ref target='Pg237'>237-39</ref>). Since that time an important publication on the +Tablet of the Cross, to which I should have liked to refer, has been +issued by the much esteemed Nestor of Maya investigations, Herr +Geheimrath Dr. Förstemann. My attention has also been drawn +by the best versed of American students of the Maya Codices, Mr. +Charles P. Bowditch, to the fact that Mr. Maudslay now recognizes +the general recurrence of an eighth sign in combination with the +septenary group, causing this to consist of an initial glyph, followed +by seven instead of six signs. Referring the reader to pp. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> +and <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, I point out +that the employment of an initial glyph, representing +the synopsis of a whole, followed by seven signs, appears +even more strongly to corroborate my view that the inhabitants of +Copan were acquainted with the septenary, cosmical division I have +traced. +</p> + +<p> +My fellow archaeologists will understand the disadvantage of +issuing an investigation partly written a few years previously, and +will realize that, had I, at the outset, been in possession of all the +facts I have since learned, the present work would have been very +differently planned and executed. On the other hand, as it partakes +somewhat of the nature of a log-book, the reader is able to +follow closely my blundering course, and will recognize and appreciate +some of its perils and difficulties. It being, unfortunately, +impossible to re-write the book. I shall have to be resigned to incur +some criticism and blame for omissions, which could have been +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> +averted. I shall, however, be content if my prolonged study of ancient +Mexican archaeology and the present research open out new +lines of investigation, and conclusively prove that primitive cross-symbols +and the swastika are universally accompanied by vestiges +of a certain set of cosmical conceptions and schemes of organization, +which can be traced back to an original pole-star worship. I +can but think that the material I have collected will also lead to a +recognition that the rôle of the Phœnicians, as intermediaries of +ancient civilization, was greater than has been supposed, and that +it is imperative that future research be devoted to a fresh study +and examination of those indications which appear to show that +America must have been intermittently colonized by the intermediation +of Mediterranean seafarers. +</p> + +<p> +To me the most interesting result of the present investigation +is the fact that, having once started on an unpremeditated course +of study, I found an unsuspected wealth of material and finally +attained one main, totally undreamed-of conclusion, concerning +the law governing the evolution of religion and civilization. This +leads me to think that, as I groped in darkness, searching for light, +I unwittingly struck the true key-note of that great universal theme +which humanity, with a growing perception of existing, universal +harmony, has ever been striving to seize and incorporate into their +lives. The fact that many of the transcriptions of the original +harmony have been and are discordant, and that they temporarily +obscure, instead of rendering, its sublime grandeur, unity and noble +simplicity, appears as the inevitable result of the mental activity, +ingenuity and creative imagination to which mankind also owes +its intellectual and spiritual progress. +</p> + +<p> +In conclusion I regret my inability to express adequately my +grateful appreciation of the unfailing loyalty of those true friends, +in particular Prof. F. W. Putnam, who, trusting in the earnestness +of my purpose and endeavor, have constantly encouraged and +cheered me as they patiently awaited the long-delayed completion +of my work. +</p> + +<p> +Z. N.<lb/> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Cambridge, Mass.</hi>,<lb/> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>December 31, 1900.</hi> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>The Fundamental Principles Of Old And +New World Civilizations.</head> + +<p> +One evening, in February, 1898, I left my desk and, stepping to +the window, looked out at Polaris and the circumpolar region of +the sky, with a newly awakened and eager interest. +</p> + +<p> +For thirteen years I had been studying and collecting material +with the hope of obtaining some understanding of the calendar, +religion and cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans, but had hitherto +purposely refrained from formulating or expressing any conclusions +on the latter subjects having felt unable to extract a clear and +satisfactory understanding of the native beliefs from the chaotic +mass of accumulated data under which they lay like the ruin of an +ancient temple. Though frequently discouraged, I had, however, +never ceased to pursue my research and to note carefully the +slightest indication or suggestion which might prove of ultimate +value. Becoming utterly absorbed in the collection of such notes, +I found no time to publish anything during the past four years, +though realizing, with regret, that those interested in my work +might be disappointed at my delay in issuing the papers announced, +in 1894, as speedily forthcoming. Slowly but steadily, however, +I was gaining ground. Various excursions along new lines of research +increased my experience and, in crossing and re-crossing the +field of ancient Mexico, I frequently had occasion to observe certain +familiar landmarks, from a new point of view, and illuminated +by rays of fresh light proceeding from recently acquired sources. +It was remarkable how often facts, which had seemed so hopelessly +complicated, finally appeared to be quite simple and comprehensible. +This was noticeably the case with the Aztec deities which, +for years, had seemed to me as numberless. After closely studying +their respective symbols, attributes and names, during several consecutive +months, and subjecting them to a final minute analysis, I +found that their number dwindled in a remarkable way and also +verified the truth of the statement made by the anonymous author +of the Biblioteca Nazionale manuscript which I was editing, that +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +the Mexicans painted one and the same god under a different aspect +<q>with different colours,</q> according to the various names they +gave him in each instance. +</p> + +<p> +It was particularly interesting to find that, in assuming that +certain names designated different native deities, the early Spanish +writers had committed a mistake as great as though someone, +reading the litany of the Virgin in a Catholic prayer-book, for +the first time, inferred that it was a series of invocations addressed +to distinct divinities, amongst whom figured the <q>morning star,</q> +a <q>mirror of justice,</q> and a <q>mystical rose,</q> etc. An examination +of the texts of several native prayers preserved, established +that the Mexicans addressed their prayers to a supreme Creator +and ruler, whom they termed <q>invisible, incomprehensible and impalpable,</q> +and revered as <q>the father and mother of all.</q> Some of +their so-called idols were, after all, either attempts to represent in +objective form, the attributes of the divine power, the forces of +nature, the elements, etc., or rebus figures. As these <q>gods</q> or +<q>idols</q> are enumerated farther on and are exhaustively treated in +my commentary of the Biblioteca Nazionale manuscript, now in +press, it suffices for my present purpose merely to mention here +that the most mysterious figure of Mexican cosmogony, Tezcatlipoca, +whose symbolical name literally means <q>shining mirror,</q> +proved to be identical with Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the underworld, +whose title may also be interpreted as <q>the ruler or regent +of the North,</q> since Mictlampa is the name of this cardinal point. +</p> + +<p> +The Codex Fuenleal (Anales del Museo Nacional, Mexico, tomo +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 88) preserves an important myth relating how +Tezcatlipoca, after having been the sun, was cast down from this supreme position +by Huitzilopochtli, <q>descended to the water,</q> but had arisen +again in the shape of an ocelot, and transformed himself into the +constellation of Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p> +According to Sahagun the native name of this star-group was +Citlal-Colotl or <q>star scorpion.</q> Reference to Nahuatl dictionaries +revealed that this insect had doubtlessly been named colotl +on account of its habit of recurving its tail when enraged. +</p> + +<p> +The Nahuatl verb coloa means, to bend over or twist something, +the adjective coltic is applied to something bent over or recurved. +The noun colotli, which is almost identical with colotl, means +<q>the cross-beams, the mounting, branch or handle of a cross</q> +(<q>armadura de manga de cruz.</q> See Molina's dictionary). +</p> + +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> + +<p> +The above facts show that the idea underlying the name for +Ursa Major is primarily that of <q>something bent over or recurved.</q> +It is obvious that the form of the constellation answers to +this description. It is, moreover, extremely significant to find, in +the Maya language also, a certain resemblance between the words +for scorpion and for a cross. This, in Maya, is zin-che and that for +a scorpion is zin-au. The above data justify the induction that the +native conception of a cross was connected with the idea of its arms +being bent over or recurved, as in the Mexican calendar-swastika. +</p> + +<p> +It is important to find the scorpion figured as one of several +symbols of Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, in his sculptured +effigy preserved at the National Museum of Mexico (fig. <ref target='Figure_19'>19</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +It is more significant that the verb coloa, besides meaning <q>to +bend over or twist something,</q> also expressed the action <q>of describing +or performing a circle by walking around something.</q> Now +this is precisely what Tezcatlipoca (the Ursa Major) is represented +as doing on page 77 of the B.N. manuscript, since he figures there, +surrounded by a circle of footsteps. I could but note that this fact +showed that the name of Colotl, applied to the constellation, was +not incompatible with its identification with Tezcatlipoca. Once +my attention had been drawn to the action of walking, performed +by this god, I naturally considered, with fresh interest, the peculiar +fact that he is usually represented with one foot only. The +circumstances under which he had been deprived of this member +are set forth in several of the Codices wherein we see that, after +he <q>descended to the water,</q> he had an encounter with an alligator, +who had viciously bitten off his foot and carried it away. (See +Féjérvary Codex, pp. 3 and 74. Vatican, II, p. 74.) Pictures +representing Tezcatlipoca, after this event, display the broken end +of the tibia exposed and the transverse section of the bone forming +a ring, usually painted either white or red. Special pains seem to +have been taken to accentuate the hollowness of the bone ring, +since its centre is usually painted blue, the symbolical color of +air, and conventionalized puffs of breath or air are shown as issuing +from it (fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>). In some cases, as on the sculptured +monolith called <q>the Stone of Tizoc,</q> these symbols of breath, issuing +from the broken tibia, are figured in such a way that modern +writers, ignoring what they were meant to represent, were led to +identify them as some animal's tail attached to the foot of the +deity. The hollow circle and puffs of air, constantly associated +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +with the god, frequently figure as his ear ornament when his +broken tibia is concealed (fig. <ref target='Figure_2'>2</ref>, no. 3). Besides certain +fanciful interpretations which have been given to this symbol, it has been +explained as being a hieroglyph conveying the name Tezcatlipoca, +and consisting of an obsidian mirror=tezcatl, and smoke=poctli. +A possible objection to this assertion might be that in +Mexican pictography, the mirror is invariably represented as jet-black, +in a white or red frame. In the Codex Telleriano Remensis, +a combination of symbols (of water, fire and a serpent) are +figured as issuing from the base of the bone (fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, +nos. 5, 6). Having taken particular pains to collect all representations of the +footless god, I was specially interested in one (Féjérvary, p. 1) in +which he is figured as standing on the cross-shaped symbol ollin, +the accepted meaning of which is Four Movements. The most remarkable +and puzzling picture I found, however, is that (fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, +no. 2) in which the jaws of a tecpatl, the symbol of the North, are +represented as holding one of Tezcatlipoca's ankles in a tight grip +and practically fastening him thus to the centre of a diagonal cross. +In this and other pictures (Codex Féjérvary, 41, 43 and 96) it is +obvious that the artists had endeavored to convey the idea of a +person permanently attached to one spot by one foot. The only +form of locomotion possible to him would be to describe a circle +by hobbling on one foot around the other, which would serve as +an axis or pivot. The association of this peculiarity with the symbols +of the North impressed me deeply and involuntarily caused +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +me to think of a title bestowed in the Codex Fuenleal upon the +supreme divinity, namely, <q>The Wheel of the Winds;</q> as well as +of an expression employed by Tezozomoc (Cronica, p. 574). Referring +to the constellations revered by the natives, he mentions +<q>the North and its wheel.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_1'/> + <figure url='images/figure-01.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 1</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Realizing that some definite and important meaning must underlie +the remarkable representations of Tezcatlipoca, I resorted +to all possible means to gain an understanding of them. Referring +to Nahuatl dictionaries, I found a variety of synonymous names for +a person who limped or was lame or maimed. Amongst them was +Popoztequi from poztequi, the verb, <q>to break a leg.</q> Other names +were xopuztequi, xotemol and Icxipuztequi (icxitl=foot). The +latter name happened to be familiar to me, for the commentator of +the Vatican Codex, Padre Rios, gives it as the name of a god and +translates it as <q>the lame devil.</q> He records it immediately after +Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, and designates it as the name +of one of the four principal and primitive gods of the Mexicans. +</p> + +<p> +The commentator of the Telleriano-Remensis Codex, moreover, +records that these four gods were <q>said to have been stars and had +fallen from the heavens. At the present time there are stars in +the firmament named after them</q> (Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 132 +and 162). +</p> + +<p> +Other synonymous terms for lame persons were icxinecuiltic and +xonecuiltic. Tzimpuztequi, on the other hand, besides meaning +lame, also signified something crooked, bent or incurvated. The +second name furnished me with an important clue, for Sahagun distinctly +records that the native name for the constellation Ursa +Minor was Xonecuilli and that it was figured as an S (Historia, +1. <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>, cap. 3). +Besides, the Academia MS. of his monumental work +contains the native drawing of this star-group reproduced as fig. +<ref target='Figure_16'>16</ref>, +no. 1. He also states that S-shaped loaves of bread named xonecuilli +were made at a certain festival in honor of this constellation, +while the B.N. MS. records that a peculiar recurved weapon, figured +in the hands of deities, was named xonequitl (fig. <ref target='Figure_16'>16</ref>, +nos. 2 and 3). +</p> + +<p> +The above data furnished me with indisputable evidence of the +existence, in ancient Mexico, of a species of star cult connected +with the circumpolar constellations and with Tezcatlipoca, the lord +of the North, the central figure of the native cosmogony. It was +puzzling to find this god connected not only with the Ursa Major +but also with Ursa Minor, but an indication suggesting a possible +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +explanation or reconciliation of these apparent inconsistencies is +furnished by the descriptions of the strange ritual performance, +which was annually repeated at the festival Tlacaxipehualiztli and +was evidently the dramatization of a sacred myth. +</p> + +<p> +As an illustration and a description of this rite are contained in +the B.N. MS. and the subject is fully treated in my commentary, +I shall but allude here to its salient features. It represented a +mortal combat between a prisoner, attached by a short piece of +cord to the centre of a large circular stone, and five warriors, +who fought him singly. The fifth, who was masked as an ocelot +and always obtained victory in the unequal contest, fought +with his left hand, being <q>left-handed,</q> a peculiarity ascribed to +Huitzilopochtli. It was he who subsequently wore the skin of the +flayed victim, an action which obviously symbolized a metamorphosis. +One point is obvious: this drama exhibits the victor as a +warrior who was able to circumscribe the stone freely and was +masked as an ocelot—Tezcatlipoca—the Ursa Major, but was +endowed, at the same time, with the left-handedness identified with +Huitzilopochtli. This mythical personage vanquishes and actually +wears the skin of the man attached to the stone; becomes his embodiment, +in point of fact, and obtains the supremacy for which he +had fought so desperately. In the light shed by the Codex Fuenleal, +before cited, it was easy to see that the entire performance dramatized +the mythical combat between Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli +for the position of the ruling power, in the heavens—the sun. At +the same time it was decidedly puzzling to find celestial supremacy +personified by a man, firmly fastened to one spot, the centre of a +stone circle. It was impossible not to perceive the identity of +thought underlying the representation of this prisoner and the pictures +of Tezcatlipoca, the one-footed or lame god—Xonecuilli the +Ursa Minor. It was moreover of extreme interest to note the existence +of traditional records, preserved in the native myths, of +changes in the relative positions of celestial bodies and of the Ursa +Major in particular. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst dwelling upon the striking analogy existing between the +representations of Tezcatlipoca held fast by the symbol of the +North and the prisoner attached to what is described either as <q>a +temalacatl, stone whorl</q> or <q>an image of the sun,</q> my gaze fell +on a small model of the calendar-stone of Mexico, hanging above +my desk, and rested on the symbol Ollin in its centre. The learned +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> +director of the National Museum of Mexico, Señor Troncoso +(Anales del Museo Nacional, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>), had expressed his view +that this symbol was an actual figurative representation of the +annual apparent movements of the sun, and recorded its positions +at the solstitial and equinoctial periods. I had, moreover, submitted +a drawing of this same figure to the eminent English astronomer, +Prof. Norman Lockyer, and he had corroborated this view +and established its correctness. On the other hand, I had long +noted that the <hi rend='italic'>Ollin</hi> was usually figured with an eye, the symbol +for star, in its centre (fig. <ref target='Figure_2'>2</ref>, +nos. 1, 3), and had also paid particular +attention to the fact that the Mexicans had conceived the ideas of +two suns, a young day sun and an ancient night or black sun. In +the B. N. MS., on the mantas worn at their respective festivals, +the day sun is depicted in a somewhat fanciful manner, in blue and +red on a white field. The black sun is, however, represented in +classical style, so to speak, as on the sculptured calendar-stone, +with four larger and four smaller V-shaped rays issuing from it. +In this connection it is well to recall here that the Mexicans had no +specific name for the sun, beyond <hi rend='italic'>Tonatiuh</hi>, which merely means +<q>that which sheds light</q> and could equally apply to the stars. +In the picture-writings the image of the sun was employed to convey +the word <hi rend='italic'>Teotl</hi>. But we find that this word, assumed to be +equivalent to their <q>Dios</q> by the Spaniards, was also a reverential +title bestowed upon chieftains and superiors and was constantly +employed in the composition of words to signify something divine, +supremely beautiful, etc. Whilst I was pondering on the possibility +that the symbol <hi rend='italic'>Ollin</hi> might have represented the movements of +the luminaries of night as well as the orb of day, my attention +became fixed upon the four numerals in each of the ends of the +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +symbol and I was struck by a certain resemblance between their +positions and those of the four stars which form the body of the +bear in the constellation of Ursa Major. It was then that it occurred +to me, as mentioned in the opening sentence of this introduction, +to look at the familiar constellations, with a view to verifying the +resemblance noted above. As my gaze sought <q>the pointers</q> in +Ursa Major, and then mechanically turned to Polaris, I thought of +some passages I had recently re-read, in Professor Lockyer's Dawn +of Astronomy, realizing that his observations, dealing with the latitude +26° (taking Thebes as representing Egypt), could equally apply +to Mexico as this country stretches from latitude 15° to 31°. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_2'/> + <figure url='images/figure-02.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 2</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +<q>The moment primitive man began to observe anything, he must +have taken note of the stars, and as soon as he began to talk about +them he must have started by defining, in some way or other, the +particular star he meant.... Observers would first consider +the brightest stars and separate them from the dimmer ones; +they would then discuss the stars which never set (the circumpolar +constellations) and separate them from those which did rise and +set. Then they would naturally, in a northern clime, choose out +the constellation of the Great Bear or Orion, and for small groups, +the Pleiades (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 132).... A few years' observation +would have appeared to demonstrate the absolute changelessness +of the places of the rising and setting of the same stars. It is +true that this result would have been found to be erroneous when +a long period of time had elapsed and when observation became +more accurate, but for hundreds of years the stars would certainly +appear to represent fixity, while the movements of the sun, moon +and planets would seem to be bound by no law ... would appear +erratic, so long as the order of their movements was not known.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The reflection that Ursa Major was probably the first constellation +which made any deep impression upon the mind of prehistoric +man in America, as elsewhere, lent an additional interest to the +star-group, as I concentrated my mind upon its form and endeavored +to imagine it in four equidistant positions, corresponding to +the numerals in the symbol <hi rend='italic'>Ollin</hi> of the calendar-stone of Mexico +(fig. <ref target='Figure_2'>2</ref>, no. 2). +</p> + +<p> +I succeeded in obtaining, in succession, mental images of the +constellation in four opposite positions. This effort led to an unforeseen +result which surprised me. In a flash of mental vision I +perceived a quadrupled image of the entire constellation, standing +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +out in scintillating brilliancy from the intense darkness of the +wintry sky (fig. <ref target='Figure_3'>3</ref>, no. +3). At the same moment I saw that it bore +the semblance of a symmetrical swastika of giant proportions. +This fact, so unexpectedly realized, gave rise to such an absorbing +train of new ideas and interpretations of the data I had accumulated, +that I left my window, on that memorable night, with a growing +perception of the deep and powerful influence the prolonged +observation of Polaris and the circumpolar constellations would +naturally have exerted upon the mind of primitive man. Deeply +impressed with the striking resemblance between the composite image +of Polaris, Ursa Major, and certain forms of the swastika, I +started on a fresh line of investigation, and devoted myself to the +study of primitive astronomy and its influence upon the intellectual +development of mankind in general and the American races in +particular. After having worked, during thirteen years, without +any preconceived ideas about the ancient Mexican civilization and +without formulating any general conclusion concerning it, I saw all +the knowledge I had slowly acquired fall into rank and file and +organize itself into a simple and harmonious whole. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_3'/> + <figure url='images/figure-03.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 3</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Realizing this I perceived how, with the origin of the swastika, +I had found the origin of the set of primeval ideas which had governed +the human race from its infancy and which, in Mexican and +Central American civilizations, ultimately developed into their ingenious +system of government and social organization. +</p> + +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_I'/> + <figure url='images/plate-i.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate I. Chart of the Polar Constellations. +I: Just After Sunset. II: Midnight. III: Just Before Sunrise.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_II'/> + <figure url='images/plate-ii.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate II. Various Forms of the Swastika.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_4'/> + <figure url='images/figure-04.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 4</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The sequel to the above episode was that, with the aid of my +movable star-chart, I made the following notes of the apparent +positions of the circumpolar constellations at the times of sunrise, +midnight and sunset, choosing the periods of the solstices and +equinoxes in order to obtain an exact division of the year +(pl. <ref target='Plate_I'><hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi></ref>). +Whilst studying these I realized that the midnight position was +the only stable one, since the actual visibility of the constellations +before dawn and after dusk would be subject to considerable variation, +according to seasons, latitudes and atmospherical conditions. +Having noted these positions, I next combined them separately, +obtaining the remarkable results given in fig. <ref target='Figure_4'>4</ref>. +The combined midnight positions of the Ursa Major or Minor, at the four divisions +of the year, yielded symmetrical swastikas, the forms of +which were identical with the different types of swastika or cross-symbols +(the normal, ogee and volute, etc.), which have come +down to us from remote antiquity and are reproduced here for +comparison (pl. <ref target='Plate_II'><hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi></ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a-f</hi>). Reflection showed me that such composite +pictures of the Ursa constellations constituted an exact +record of their annual rotation, and afforded a perfect sign for +the period of a year. I moreover perceived how the association +of rotatory motion with the advance of time, and its division into +fixed periods or cycles, would be the natural outcome of the recognition +of the annual rotation of the star-groups. +</p> + +<p> +The Calendar-Swastika, or cross of ancient Mexico +(pl. <ref target='Plate_II'><hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi></ref>, <hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) +constitutes an absolute proof of the native association of the +cross-symbol with the ideas of rotatory motion and the progress of +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +time, and furnishes an indication that, in an analogous manner, +the swastika may have been primarily and generally employed by +primitive races, as a sign for a year or cycle. A close scrutiny of +the respective forms of the crosses yielded by Ursæ Major and +Minor shows that the normal swastika and suavastika may be explained +as the separate representations of the two constellations—the +angular break in the outline of Ursa Major suggesting the +direction of the bend to the right of the arms of the normal swastika, +whilst the form of Ursa Minor obviously suggests the bend +to the left which is characteristic of the suavastika. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_5'/> + <figure url='images/figure-05.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 5</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +My growing conviction that the Bear constellations had furnished +the archetype of the different forms of swastika and cross-symbols, +found subsequent support when I referred to the map showing +the geographical distribution of the ancient symbol published +by Prof. Thomas Wilson in his valuable and comprehensive monograph +on the subject,<note place='foot'>The Swastika. +Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1894. Washington, 1896. +During the preparation of this paper I also consulted the following works, from +which some forms of swastika are likewise reproduced on pl. +<ref target='Plate_II'><hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi></ref>: Le signe de la +Croix avant le Christianisme. Gabriel de Mortillet. Paris, 1866. Zur Geschichte +der Swastika. Zmigrodski, Braunschweig, 1890. La migration des symboles. Comte +Goblet d'Alviella. Paris, 1891.</note> to which I am indebted for much information +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> +and several illustrations (pl. +<ref target='Plate_II'><hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi></ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a-f</hi>, etc.). The map, reproduced +here (fig. <ref target='Figure_5'>5</ref>), proves that, with two exceptions, which +can be attributed to a migration southward, the employment of the +swastika has been confined to the northern hemisphere, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, precisely +to that portion of our globe from which the circumpolar constellations +are visible. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_6'/> + <figure url='images/figure-06.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 6. Star-Map, Representing The Precessional Movement Of The +Celestial Pole +From The Year 4000 B.C. To The Year 2000 A.D. +(<hi rend='italic'>From Piazzi Smyth</hi>.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The interesting possibility of being able to determine, approximately, +the date in the world's history when the swastika began to +be employed as a symbol, next occurred to me. Piazzi Smyth's +star-map, discussed and reproduced in Professor Lockyer's work +already cited (fig. <ref target='Figure_6'>6</ref>), +illustrates the changes of direction of the +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> +earth's axis in space, which gives rise to what is called the precession +of the equinoxes and has a cycle of something like 25,000 or +26,000 years. Reference to this star-map (fig. <ref target='Figure_6'>6</ref>) +proved that the observations, leading to the adoption of the swastika as a symbol, +could not possibly have been made until after Ursa Major had become +circumpolar, about 4,000 B.C. At that period, when Draconis +was the pole-star, the circle described about it by Ursa Major +was considerably closer than it is at present. The accompanying +illustrations (fig. <ref target='Figure_7'>7</ref>), +subject to correction, demonstrate the relative +distance of the constellation about 2,770 B.C., 1,800 B.C., +and 2,000 A.D., and show how much more strikingly impressive +the polar region of the heavens was in remote antiquity. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_7'/> + <figure url='images/figure-07.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 7.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Let us now briefly review some of the ideas which would naturally +suggest themselves to the mind of the primitive observer, +after he had recognized the apparent immovability of the polar-star, +concentrated his attention upon this feature, and contrasted +it with the varying motions of all other celestial bodies in general +and with the rotation of the circumpolar star-groups in particular. +</p> + +<p> +This recognition would lead to his gradually learning to utilize +Polaris as a means of ascertaining direction. His appreciation of +valuable guidance rendered in perilous wanderings would develop +feelings of trust, dependence and gratitude towards the one changeless +star which permanently rendered valuable services and under +whose guidance difficult and essential nocturnal expeditions could +be safely undertaken. Superiority and, eventually, extensive supernatural +power would more and more be attributed to it, as knowledge +was gained of the laws of motion from which it alone seemed +to be exempt. This exemption would cause it to be viewed as superior +to all other heavenly bodies and even to the sun, and it is easy +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +to see how this idea, becoming predominant, might cause the cult +of the pole-star to disestablish an organized sun-cult amongst some +tribes. Historical evidence, to which I shall revert more fully proves, +indeed, that a native American ruler and reformer actually employed +the following reasoning in order to convert his council and people +from the worship of the sun to that of a superior divinity which +could have been no other but Polaris: <q>It is not possible that the sun +should be the God who created all things, for if so he would sometimes +rest and light up the whole world from one spot. Thus it +cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who directs him and +this truly is the true Creator.</q> +</p> + +<p> +These words shed a whole flood of light upon primitive religious +ideas at an early stage of development. They prove that the +association of repose and immovability with the supreme power +signified a radical change of thought, based upon prolonged astronomical +observation, and indicated intellectual advancement. +Attempts to render the new idea objective, to express it and impress +it upon the multitude, would naturally end in the production +of images of the supernatural power, representing or typifying +immovability, changelessness, strength combined with absolute +repose. +</p> + +<p> +It is thus rendered evident what a deep significance may be embodied +in the rudest images of supernatural beings in attitudes of +repose, since a prolonged course of astronomical observation and +reasoning may have preceded their production. +</p> + +<p> +Simultaneously with the recognition of Polaris as an immutable +centre of axial energy, the rotatory movement of Ursa Major must +have excited interest and observation. It was inevitable that star-gazers +should gradually recognize a constant agreement between +certain positions of Ursa Major and Cassiopeia after dusk for instance, +and the annual recurrence of rain, verdure and bountiful +food-supplies. +</p> + +<p> +The members of a tribe who, more observant than others, had +learned to associate certain positions of these constellations with +the seasons and, as a consequence, were able to decide when expeditions +to distant localities, in quest of game or fruit, might be +successfully undertaken, would naturally assume leadership and +command obedience and respect. +</p> + +<p> +The sense of responsibility, superiority and, possibly, rivalry +would act upon such individuals as a powerful incentive to further +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> +observation and thought and it is evident that, as their mental +faculties expanded and one generation transmitted its store of accumulated +knowledge to the next, a regular caste of astronomer-leaders +would develop, with a tendency to conceal the secrets of +their power from the ignorant majority. A broken line, carved on +a rock by one of these primitive observers, would have constituted +a valuable secret note of the position of Ursa Major on a memorable +occasion and would be looked upon as a mystic or magical +sign by the uninitiated. A series of such inscriptions might represent +the store of astronomical knowledge accumulated by several +generations of observers, and it is interesting to recognize that +such astronomical records as these were probably the first which +men were impelled to perpetuate in a lasting form; since it was +absolutely necessary that they should be permanently available for +reference at prolonged intervals of time. What is more, the mere +fact of being obliged to refer to these inscriptions would cause the +astronomers to reside permanently in one locality. The habit of +consulting the prophet or oracle before undertaking important +steps, involving the welfare of the tribe, would gradually cause +the rocks or cavern in which he resided to be invested with a certain +sacredness. +</p> + +<p> +It is thus evident that the first men, who rudely scratched the +outline of Ursa Major or Minor on a rock, took what was probably +one of the most momentous steps in the history of the human +race, and it is easy to see how a variety of combinations of circumstances +would have led many men, in widely-separated localities +and at different periods of the world's history, to perform precisely +the same action. In some cases, under favorable surroundings, +the rudimentary attempt would mark the starting point for a long +line of patient observation and study, which would inevitably lead +to the creation of centres of intellectual growth, to the association +of the different positions of the constellation with the seasons and +culminate in the habitual employment of a swastika as the sign +for a year, or cycle of time.<note place='foot'><p>I would insert +here that it was only when the present investigation was almost +completed, that my attention was arrested by a reference in Professor Wilson's work, +already cited, to a short article on the Fylfot and the Futhorc tir by H. Colley +March, M.D. +</p> +<p> +Having succeeded in obtaining a copy of the Transactions of the Lancashire and +Cheshire Antiquarian Society (vol. 4, pp. 1-12, 1886), in which it appeared, I had the +extreme satisfaction of finding that a specialist working in another field and approaching +the problem from another direction had come to two of the identical +conclusions that I had reached in a totally different manner. This fact constitutes, in +my opinion, the most powerful support of the correctness of the views we hold in +common after having formed, expressed and worked them out in such a different +way, as can be verified by a comparison of our two works. +</p> +<p> +Referring the reader to his valuable and suggestive communication to which I shall +revert, I shall merely mention here that Dr. March recognizes, as I do, that the +<q>essential suggestion [of the swastika and fylfot] is of axial rotation.</q> He +attributes the original of the swastika to the nocturnal (not as I do, to the annual) +rotation of the Ursa Major around Polaris, and likewise refers to the fact that about +four thousand years ago, the circular sweep of the circumpolar constellations was far +more striking than at present. After meeting on this common ground our lines of +investigation part company and go wide asunder, nor am I able to follow some of Dr. +March's conclusions such as, for instance, his opinion that the fylfot was a sign of a +<q>diurnal rotation</q> suggested by <q>the rising and setting of the sun and moon when +the spectator looked at them with his back to the north.</q> On the other hand I am +indebted to him for much valuable information relating to the rune or futhorc tir, to +which I shall refer later.</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> + +<p> +The idea of rotation, associated with calendar signs and periods, +finds its most striking and convincing exemplification in the following +description of the ancient Mexican game <q>of those who fly,</q> +translated from Clavigero (op. et ed. cit. p. 236). This performance, +which furnished a diversion to the Spaniards after the Conquest, +had evidently been, originally, connected with religious +ideas. <q>The Indians selected a tall, stout and straight tree, and, +lopping off its branches, planted it firmly in the centre of the great +square</q> (which was always situated in the centre of the city and +had four roads leading to it from the four quarters). <q>On the +summit they placed a large cylinder of wood, the shape of which +was compared by the Spaniards to that of a mortar. Four strong +ropes hung from this and supported a square frame composed of +four wooden beams. Four other ropes were fastened by one end +to the pole itself and wound around it thirteen times. Their loose +ends were passed through holes in the middle of each beam and +hung from these. Four Indians, masked as eagles or other birds, +ascended the pole singly, by means of certain loops of cord, and +mounting on the cylinder they performed in this perilous position +a few dance-like movements. Each man then attached himself to +the loose end of one of the hanging ropes, and then, with a violent +jerk and at the same moment, the four men cast themselves into +space from their positions on the beams. This simultaneous movement +caused the frame and cylinder to revolve and uncoil the ropes +to which the men were fastened and these descended to the +ground after performing a series of widening circles in the air. +Meanwhile a fifth individual, who had mounted the wooden cylinder +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> +after the others, stood on this as it revolved, beating a small +drum with one hand, whilst he held a banner aloft with the other.</q> +Whilst it is obvious that this peculiar and dangerous performance +clearly symbolized axial rotation, typified by the revolving pivot +and the four men in aërial motion, its full meaning and intention are +only made clear by the following explanation recorded by Clavigero. +<q>The essential point in this game was to calculate so exactly +the height of the pole and the length of the ropes, that the +men should describe precisely thirteen circles each before reaching +the ground, so as to represent the cycle (of 4×13=)52 years.</q> +</p> + +<p> +This passage constitutes absolute proof that the Mexican Calendar +system was intimately associated with axial rotation and ideas +such as could only have been derived from observation of Polaris +and of the circumpolar constellations. The game itself was a +beautiful and well-conceived illustration of the flight of time, typified +by the aërial circles performed by the men masked as birds, +and of its methodical division into fixed periods. +</p> + +<p> +Leaving the subject of the calendar for the present we must revert +to my tables recording the apparent annual and nocturnal +axial rotation of the circumpolar constellations. +</p> + +<p> +Whilst studying these the reflection naturally arose, that the +people who observed Ursa Major must have paid equal attention +to Cassiopeia and noticed that these constellations ever occupied +opposite positions to each other as they circled around the pole. +Dwelling on the fact that in ancient Mexico Ursa Major was associated +with an ocelot, I remembered the many representations in +which an ocelot is represented as confronting an eagle, usually in +mortal combat. Mexican war-chiefs were classed into two equally +honorable grades, designated as the <q>ocelots and the quauhtlis, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, eagles.</q> The constellation of Cassiopeia presents to +me, a marked resemblance to the image of a bird with outspread wings, +whose head is turned toward Polaris. The fact that when this +star-group seems to be above, Ursa Major seems to be below, and +<hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>, would obviously suggest the idea of an eternal combat +between two adversaries who alternately succumbed and resuscitated. +It was interesting on reasoning further, to note that once +the above idea had taken root it must have been impossible not to +associate in course of time, the quadruped and the bird with the +elements to which they seemed to pertain, and gradually to conceive +the idea of an everlasting antagonism between the powers of +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> +the sky and of the earth, or light and darkness, and other opposites +which suggested themselves naturally, or were artificially created, +by the fertile mind of man. In this connection it should be observed +that the mythical adversary of Tezcatlipoca, the ocelot, +designated as Ursa Major, is Huitzilopochtli, whose idol, in the +Great Temple of Mexico, represented him masked as a hummingbird +(see Atlas Duran). The special reason why this bird became +associated with the god is explained +by the following passage +in Gomara (Histoire générale +des Indes. Paris, 1584, chap. +96, p. 190): <q>This bird died, +or rather fell asleep in the +month of October and remained +attached by its feet to a twig. +It awakened again in April when +the flowers blossomed. For this +reason, in the language of the +country it is named Huitzitzilin, +the resuscitated.</q> We therefore +see that whilst it is stated in the +myth that the ocelot arose again after having been cast down from +the sky by Huitzilopochtli, the very name of the latter betokened +that the bird-god had also only just <q>resuscitated</q> from a presumably +similar defeat. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_8'/> + <figure url='images/figure-08.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 8.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +As one and the same object may suggest several resemblances +at the same time or consecutively, and thus give rise to a group of +associations around a single figure, I venture to point out that the +zigzag form of Cassiopeia may well have been compared to forked +lightning and caused the idea of lightning and thunder to become +indissolubly connected with the conception of a great celestial bird. +Again there is the possibility that the same star-group may have +more strikingly suggested, to other people, the idea of the winding +body of a serpent describing a perpetual circle around a central +star. In Mexico, as elsewhere, we find the serpent closely associated +with the idea of time. It is represented as encircling the calendar +wheel published by Clavigero (fig. <ref target='Figure_8'>8</ref>). Four loops, formed +of its body, mark the four divisions of the year. Twin serpents, +whose heads and tails almost meet, are sculptured around the +famous calendar-stone of Mexico. Four serpents whose bent +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +bodies form a large swastika and whose heads are directed towards +a central figure, are represented in the Codex Borgia in association +with calendar-signs (fig. <ref target='Figure_9'>9</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Féjérvary, p. 24). I shall have occasion +to refer in detail to +Mexican serpent-symbolism +further on. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile I would submit +the interesting results obtained +on combining the positions +apparently assumed +by the circumpolar constellations +during a single night. +The tables exhibit four composite +groups representing +the positions at the solstitial +and equinoctial periods (fig. +<ref target='Figure_10'>10</ref>). +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_9'/> + <figure url='images/figure-09.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 9.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_10'/> + <figure url='images/figure-10.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 10.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The night of the winter solstice, the longest of the year, yielded +alone a symmetrical figure. It resembled the well-known triskelion, +the companion-symbol of the swastika (figs. <ref target='Figure_10'>10</ref> +and <ref target='Figure_11'>11</ref>). +Just as this had proved to be the most natural of year symbols, so +the triskelion revealed itself as a natural sign of the winter solstice, +the period recognized and celebrated by most inhabitants of the +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +northern hemisphere as the turning-point of the year. In a climate +like that of Mexico and Central America, however, where the year +divided itself naturally into a dry and a rainy season, it is evident +that the winter solstice would be less observed +and that the ardently-desired recurrence +of the rainy season, after a long and +trying period of drought, should be regarded +as the annual event of utmost importance. +Indeed, if carefully looked into, +the entire religious cult of these people +seems to express but one great struggling +cry to the God of Nature for life-giving rain, +and a hymn of thanksgiving for the annual, +precious, but uncertain gift of water. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_11'/> + <figure url='images/figure-11.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 11.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +To these supplicants the winter solstice +betokened little or nothing and it is not surprising +to find no proofs of the employment +of the triskelion as a sacred symbol in ancient +Mexico. On the other hand, it has +been traced by Mr. Willoughby on pottery +from Arkansas, and in Scandinavia, where +the circumpolar constellations have doubtlessly +been observed from remote times, and +the winter solstice has ever been hailed +as the herald of coming spring, the triskelion +is often found associated with the +swastika. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_12'/> + <figure url='images/figure-12.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 12.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +I am indebted to Prof. Thomas Wilson's +work already cited for the two following +illustrations of objects exhibiting this association. +The first is a spearhead found +in Brandenburg, Germany (fig. <ref target='Figure_12'>12</ref>). The +second is a bronze brooch from Scandinavia, +to which I shall presently revert (fig. <ref target='Figure_13'>13</ref>). +It exhibits, besides the +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> +triskelion, swastika and circle, the S-shaped figure which was, as +I shall show further on, the sign actually employed by the ancient +Mexicans and Mayas as the image of the constellation Ursa Minor, +whose outline it indeed effectually reproduces. +</p> + +<p> +Before referring to the Mexican and Maya representations of +the star-group, I would next demonstrate that the sacred numbers +of Mexico, and of other countries situated +in the northern hemisphere, coincide exactly +with the number of stars in the circumpolar +constellations themselves and in simple combinations +of the same. +</p> + +<p> +Ursa Major and Ursa Minor each contains +seven stars, and the number seven is +the most widely-spread sacred number. +Ancient traditions record that the race inhabiting +Mexico consisted of seven tribes +who traced their separate origins to seven +caves, situated in the north. In memory of +these, at the time of the Conquest, there +were seven places of sacrifice in the city of +Mexico. I shall recur to the number seven +further on, in discussing the native social +organization, and now direct attention to +the five stars of Cassiopeia and to the fact +that the combination of the stars in this constellation +with Polaris and Ursa Major yields the number thirteen. +This result is specially interesting since the entire Calendar-system +of Mexico and Yucatan is based on the combination of the numerals +13+7=20, the latter again being 4×5. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_13'/> + <figure url='images/figure-13.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 13.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand the same number, 13, is also obtained by the +combination of the Ursæ star-groups with Polaris. The number +5 is constantly yielded by Cassiopeia and the four-fold repetitions +of the groups supply the suggestion of the number 4. The combination +of Ursa Minor and Cassiopeia yields 12. The accompanying +figure exhibits swastikas composed of Ursa Minor accompanied +by Ursa Major and Cassiopeia separated and combined (fig. +<ref target='Figure_14'>14</ref>). +I next direct attention to the peculiar difference in the numerical +values of the Ursæ swastikas. +</p> + +<p> +In the first, the central star, surrounded by four repetitions of +the seven-star constellation, yielded a total of twenty-nine stars—4x5+9. +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> +Further combinations will be seen by a glance at the +Ursa Major swastika (fig. <ref target='Figure_4'>4</ref>). The analysis of the Ursa Minor +swastika is not so simple and occasions a certain perplexity. +</p> + +<p> +When I had first combined the four positions of this constellation, +I had, naturally, and without further thought, figured Polaris but +once, as the fixed centre, whereas I had repeated the other stars of +the compact group four times. It was not until I began to count +the stars in the swastika that I realized how I had, unconsciously, +made one central star stand for four, and thus deprived the composite +group of the numerical value of three stars. On the other +hand, if I repeated the entire constellation four times, I obtained a +swastika with four repetitions of Polaris in the middle. In this +way, however, Polaris became displaced, and the idea of a fixed +centre was entirely lost. A third possible method of composing +the swastika was to allow one central star for each cross-arm. +But this gave two central stars, each of which would represent two +stars. Unless enclosed in a circle and considered as a central +group by themselves, the four and the two repetitions of Polaris +could not convey the idea of a pivot or fixed centre. The three +respective numerical values obtained from these experimental combinations +were 4×6+1=25, 4×7=28, and finally 2×13 or +4×6+2=26. In each swastika the central star forcibly stood +for and represented two or four (fig. <ref target='Figure_15'>15</ref>). +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_14'/> + <figure url='images/figure-14.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 14.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In the triskelions the same perplexity arose: if Polaris was repeated, +the idea of a fixed centre was lost (fig. <ref target='Figure_15'>15</ref>); if figured +singly, it nevertheless necessarily and inevitably stood as an embodiment +of three stars. Reasoning from my own experience, I +could but perceive, in the foregoing facts, a fruitful and constant +source of mental suggestions, the natural outcome of which would +be the association of the central star with an enhanced numerical +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +value, and a familiarity with the idea of one star being an embodiment +of two, three or four. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_15'/> + <figure url='images/figure-15.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 15.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +As the evolution of religious thought and symbolism progressed, +this idea would obviously lead to the conception of a single being +uniting several natures in his person. In this connection it is certainly +extremely interesting to find the serpent associated with the +Calendar in Mexico and Yucatan, its Nahuatl name being homonymous +for twin, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> two, and the Maya +for serpent, <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>cam</foreign>, +being homonymous for the number four. The serpent was, therefore, +in both countries the most suggestive and appropriate symbol +which could possibly have been employed in pictography, to convey +the idea of dual or quadruple natures embodied in a single +figure.<note place='foot'><p>Besides the word +<foreign rend='italic'>coatl</foreign>=twin, the Mexicans had another term to express some +thing double, in pairs. A plant with two shoots was named xolotl. Double agave +plants, or maize when occasionally met with, were regarded with superstition and +named me-xolotl. The pretty little parroquets, popularly known as <q>love-birds</q> +from their habit of constant association, in pairs, were named xolotl. The circumstance +that the term for birds'-down was also xolotl may explain why the down-feathers +of eagles and other birds were employed and played a certain rôle in ritual observances. +They expressed and conveyed the sound of a word which meant something double +and could therefore be used to symbolize a variety of meanings relating to multiplication +or propagation. That the Mexicans figuratively connected birds'-down with +generation is proven by the well-known myth of the birth of Huitzilopochtli from the +union of a ball of birds'-down and a goddess named <q>she with the petticoat of +serpents</q> (Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, chap. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>). +</p> +<p> +Tufts of birds'-down figure, in the B. N. MS., on the shield of the female ancestress +of the human race, one of whose numerous titles was toci,=<q>our grandmother,</q> +to express which the figure of a citli or hare was sometimes employed in pictography. +Of her it was said, that she bore only twins, a figure of speech meaning great +productiveness, just as the female divinity is also termed <q>the woman with 400 +breasts</q> (text to p. 29, Vatican Codex, Kingsborough, vols. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>). In the text to +the Telleriano-Remensis Codex (Kingsborough, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +pl. 24), we find Xolotl, a deity +wearing the shell-symbol of Quetzalcoatl, directly named <q>the god of twins.</q> +</p></note> Added to this the circumstance that, to the native mind, +the serpent, upon merely shedding its skin, lived again, we can +understand why the ancient Mexicans not only employed it as a +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> +symbol of an eternal renewal or continuation of time and of life, +but also combined it with the idea of fecundity and reproductiveness. +In Yucatan where the Maya for serpent, <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>, +is almost homonymous with <foreign rend='italic'>caan</foreign>=sky +or heaven and the adjective <foreign rend='italic'>caanlil</foreign>=celestial, +divine, the idea of a divine or celestial serpent would naturally +suggest itself. It is therefore not surprising to find, in both countries, +the name of <emph>serpent</emph> bestowed as a title upon a supreme, celestial +embodiment of the forces of nature and its image employed +to express this association in objective form. In Yucatan one +of the surnames of Itzamná, the supreme divinity, was Canil, a +name clearly related to <foreign rend='italic'>caanlil</foreign>=divine +and <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>=serpent. +</p> + +<p> +In Mexico the duality and generative force implied by the word +<q>coatl</q> are clearly recognizable in the native invocations addressed +to <q>Our lord Quetzalcoatl the Creator and Maker or Former, who +dwells in heaven and is the lord of the earth [Tlaltecuhtli]; who is +our celestial father and mother, great lord and great lady, whose +title is Ome-Tecuhtli [literally, two-lord=twin lord] and Ome-Cihuatl +[literally, two-lady=twin lady</q>] (Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chaps. +25, 32 and 34). +</p> + +<p> +The following data will suffice to render it quite clear that the +Mexicans and Mayas employed the serpent as an expressive symbol +merely, signifying the generative force of the Creator to whom +alone they rendered homage. It is no less an authority than Friar +Bartholomew de las Casas who maintained that <q>in many parts of +the [American] Continent, the natives had a particular knowledge +of the true God; they believed that He created the Universe and +was its Lord and governed it. And it was to Him they addressed +their sacrifices, their cult and homage, in their necessities...</q> +(Historia Apologetica, chap. 121). +</p> + +<p> +Friar Bartholomew specially adds that this was the case in Mexico +according to the authority of Spanish missionaries and no one +can doubt that this was the case when they read that in the native +invocations, preserved by Sahagun, the supreme divinity is described +as <q>invisible and intangible, like the air, like the darkness +of night,</q> or as the <q>lord who is always present in all places, who +is [as impenetrable as] an abyss, who is named the wind [air or +breath] and the night.</q> <q>All things obey him, the order of the universe +depends upon his will—he is the creator, sustainer, the omnipotent +and omniscient.</q> He is termed <q>the father and mother of +all,</q> <q>the great god and the great goddess,</q> <q>our lord and protector +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> +who is most powerful and most humane,</q>—<q>our lord in whose +power it is to bestow all contentment, sweetness, happiness, wealth +and prosperity, because thou alone art the lord of all things.</q> +One prayer concludes thus: <q>Live and reign forever in all +peace and repose thou who art our lord, our shelter, our comfort, +who art most kind, most bountiful, invisible and impalpable!</q> +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, on the rhetoric, moral philosophy and +theology of the Mexicans, chaps. 1-40). It is related that, in gratitude +for the birth of a son, the ruler of Texcoco, Nezahual-coyotl +erected a temple to the Unknown God.... It consisted of +nine stories, to symbolize the nine heavens. The exterior of the +tenth, which formed the top of the nine other stories, was painted +black with stars. Its interior was encrusted with gold, precious +stones and feathers and held <q>the said god, who was unknown, +unseen, shapeless and formless</q> (Ixtlilxochitl, Historia Chichimeca +ed. Chavero, p. 227; see also p. 244). A passage in Sahagun +(book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>) states that +<q>the invisible and imageless +god of the Chichimecs was named Yoalli-ehecatl [literally, night-air +or wind], which means the invisible and impalpable god ... +by whose virtue all live, who directs by merely exerting his wisdom +and will.</q> In the Codex Fuenleal (chap. +1) the remarkable title of <q>wheel of the winds=Yahualliehecatl,</q> +is recorded as <q>another +name for Quetzalcoatl.</q> This undeniably +proves that the Mexicans not only figured the +Deity by the image of a serpent but also +thought of him as a wheel which obviously +symbolized centrical force, rotation, lordship +over the four quarters, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, universal rulership. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_16'/> + <figure url='images/figure-16.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 16.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Returning from these ideas of later development to the primitive +source of their suggestion, let us now examine the native picture +of Xonecuilli, Ursa Minor, preserved in the unpublished Academia +MS. of Sahagun's Historia, in Madrid (fig. <ref target='Figure_16'>16</ref>, no. 1). It +is an exact representation of the star-group. The fact that the seven +stars are figured of the same size in accurate relation to each other, +either proves that the eyesight of the native astronomers was extremely +keen and their atmosphere remarkably clear, or that possibly, +the minor stars of the group were more brilliant in ancient +times, than they are now. Astronomers tell us, for instance, that +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +as late as the seventeenth century the star in the body of Ursa +Major nearest to the tail, was as bright as the others, while it is +now of the fourth magnitude only. +</p> + +<p> +It must be admitted that the shape of the constellation resembles +an S. An SS sign is mentioned by Sahagun (Historia, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>, +chap. 8) as occurring frequently, as a symbolical design on native +textile fabrics. It figures as such, in the black garments of the +female consort of Mictlantecuhtli in the Vienna Codex, pp. 23 and +33. He denounces it as suspect and hints that it was intimately +connected with the ancient religion. +</p> + +<p> +S-shaped sacred cakes, called Xonecuilli, were made during the +feast of Macuilxochitl=five flowers, and are figured (fig. +<ref target='Figure_16'>16</ref>, no. 2) +in the B. N. MS. (p. 69) with a four-cornered cross-shaped cake of +a peculiar form (fig. <ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>), which is found associated with five +dots or circles in the Codices and also with the Tecpatl-symbol of +the North (fig. <ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +A recurved staff, which is held in the hand of a deity in the +B. N. MS. is designated in the text as a +<foreign rend='italic'>xonoquitl</foreign> (fig. <ref target='Figure_16'>16</ref>, +no. 3). Amongst the insignia of the <q>gods,</q> sent as presents by Montezuma +to Cortés upon his landing at Vera Cruz, were three such +recurved <q>sceptres,</q> the descriptions of which I have collated +and translated in my paper on the Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the +Ancient Mexicans (Peabody Museum Papers, vol. 1, no. 3, Cambridge, +1891, p. 22). In this work I presented my reasons for +concluding that these recurved sceptres were ceremonial forms of +the atlatl. I now perceive that they were endowed with deeper +significance and meaning. The Nahuatl text of Sahagun's Laurentian +MS. of the Historia de la Conquista (lib. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xii</hi>, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>) records +the name of one of these staffs as <q>hecaxonecuilli,</q> literally +<q>the curved or bent over, air or wind,</q> and describes it as made +of <q>bent or curved wood, inlaid with stars formed of white jade=chalchihuite.</q> +This passage authorizes the conclusion that four +representations in the B. N. MS. of black recurved sceptres, exhibiting +a series of white dots, are also heca-xonoquitl, inlaid with +stars, and that all of these are none other but conventional representations +of the constellation Xonecuilli, the Ursa Minor. In +each case the deity, carrying the star-image, also displays the ecacozcatl +the <q>jewel of the wind,</q> the well-known symbol of the +wind-god. In one of these pictures (p. 50) he not only bears in +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> +his hand the star-image, but also exhibits a star-group on his head-dress, +consisting of a central-star, on a dark ground, surrounded +by a blue ring. Attached to this against a dark ground, six other +stars are depicted, making seven in all. In connection with this +star-group it is interesting to note that the hieroglyph, designated +by Fra Diego de Landa as <q>the character with +which the Mayas began their count of days or +calendar and named Hun-Imix,</q> furnishes a case +of an identical though inverted group (Relacion +de las Cosas de Yucatan, ed. B. de Bourbourg, +p. 237). Enclosed in a black ring, the glyph displays, +above, a large black dot with six smaller +ones grouped in a semicircle about it, and below, +four perpendicular bars. +</p> + +<p> +Subject to correction, I am inclined to interpret +this glyph as a hieratic sign for the constellation +Ursa Minor and its four movements, and to consider +it as furnishing a valuable proof of the origin +of the Maya Calendar. +</p> + +<p> +The seemingly inappropriate procedure of figuring +shining stars by black dots actually furnishes +the strongest proof that a star group is +thus represented; for, in the Maya language, +<q>ek</q> is a homonym for star and black, and a +black spot was, in consequence, the most expressive +sign for a star. This fact affords a valuable +explanation of the reason why the ocelot, whose +skin is spotted with black, was employed as the +figure of the nocturnal sky, and clearly proves +that the Mexicans adopted this symbol and its +meaning from the Mayas. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_17'/> + <figure url='images/figure-17.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 17.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +We will now revert to the S-shaped sign. Its +association with images of star is further exemplified +in Mexican Codices. It occurs on the wall +of a temple, in combination with symbols for stars +and the North-Mictlan, which consist in this case, of skulls and +cross-bones (fig. <ref target='Figure_17'>17</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +In the Dresden Codex, of Maya origin, there is an extremely +important page on which the S-sign occurs in connection with twin +deities, besides rain and cross symbols (fig. +<ref target='Figure_17'>17</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>). A careful examination +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +of the group shows that one of the seated figures is +accompanied by a downpour of water (painted blue in the original), +besides the S-symbol which is also repeated above the head +of his companion. Higher up, on the same page, the S occurs again +in a group of glyphs alongside of twin-seated figures. These, as +well as the single-seated form beneath them, have an eye or a large +black spot surmounted by dots instead of a head (Vocabulaire +de l'écriture hiératique de Yucatan, p. 38). Monsieur Léon de +Rosny has identified this figure, which also occurs in the Codex +Troano, as the image of the supreme divinity of the Mayas, of +whom more anon, one of whose titles was Kin-ich-ahau, literally +Sun-eye lord. +</p> + +<p> +A similar sign consisting of the lower half of a human body +seated, with a large eye on its knees is repeated several times in +the Borgian Codex. This form is also figured as seated in a temple, +without the eye-star, but three stars are on the roof and the +S-sign is on the lower wall of the building (Borgian Codex, p. 16). +</p> + +<p> +The above facts demonstrate that, in both MSS. derived from +different sources, the same association of ideas is expressed.<note place='foot'>The +full meaning which may have been attached to the eye-symbol in both Nahuatl +and Maya languages is set forth in the following notes which I give merely for +the suggestion they convey of a deep meaning having been attached to the eye-symbol. +The Nahuatl word for eye is <foreign rend='italic'>ix-telolotli</foreign>, +but in pictography it represented the phonetic value of +<foreign rend='italic'>ix</foreign> only. It may, therefore, have been employed as a +cursive sign for face=<foreign rend='italic'>ixtli</foreign> and the fact that it figures +in the centre of the symbol <foreign rend='italic'>ollin</foreign>, where +a face sometimes occurs, confirms this surmise. In the Maya language the word for +eye is <foreign rend='italic'>ich</foreign>, which is practically identical with the +Nahuatl <foreign rend='italic'>ix</foreign>, and this enters into the +composition of the following words, the meanings of which are worth considering in +connection with the fact that the eye is shown to have been employed to convey the +meaning of star, in both languages: Ix-machun=eternal, without beginning, +ix-mayam=forever, continuously, without interruption. ix-maxul=perpetual, without +end. The fact that each of these Maya words exhibits the prefix +<foreign rend='italic'>ix</foreign> and that an eye +is employed to express this sound and stands for star, is certainly interesting, since +it suggests that the natives associated the idea of eternity with the stars.</note> The +S sign appears in connection with twin- or single-seated forms, surmounted +by a symbol for star. It is unnecessary for me to lay +further stress upon the obvious facts: that the only celestial body +which could possibly have been associated with a seated form, suggesting +repose, was Polaris. It is, moreover, only by assuming that +the sign of the seated star represents the stationary pole-star that +its combination in the Codices with the S-sign—Xonecuilli—Ursa +Minor, can be understood. I likewise draw attention to the possibility +that the S, or single representation of the constellation, +may well have been employed as a sign for the summer solstice, +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +since, in some localities, during the shortest night of the year, +Ursa Minor may have been visible in one position only. Assuming +that the triskelion was the sign for the winter solstice we should +thus have natural signs for the two nights marking the turning-points +of light and darkness in the year. +</p> + +<p> +Reverting to fig. <ref target='Figure_17'>17</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, from the Codex Dresdenis, I draw attention +that it furnishes definite proof that the Mayas associated the +idea of the immovable seated star with twin deities and that they +connected the S-symbol with cross and rain symbols. A striking +combination of the latter symbols is represented under the principal +seated figures. It consists +of a diagonal cross traversed +perpendicularly by a +band of blue water. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_18'/> + <figure url='images/figure-18.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 18.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Further Maya cross-symbols +should be cursorily examined +here, viz: fig. <ref target='Figure_18'>18</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi> and +<hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>. They +will be found to consist of +variations of two fundamental +types, often figured +alongside of each other and +enclosed in a square, or circle. +One type consists of two +diagonally crossed bars, +plain or representing cross +bones (<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>). A rectilinear cross +with interlaced circle (<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>) is +also found. The other type exhibits a small cross, square, circle +or dot in the centre of the square with a circle in each corner. +In some cases these are united by a series of dots to the central +circle and thus form a diagonal cross (<hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi> +and <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>) which is +sometimes figured as contained in a flower with four petals, such +as is also found in Mexican symbolism. The diagonal, dotted +cross is frequently combined with four pairs of black bars, placed +in the middle of each side of the square, pointing towards the +centre. Similar pairs of black bars are figured in the B. N. MS. +(p. 3) on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli, with stars, around one of +his symbols, a spider. They likewise recur on two of several sacrificial +papers on p. 69, amongst which one exhibits a diagonal +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +cross, another the S-sign, while others display realistic drawings +of stars with six or eight points. +</p> + +<p> +The pairs of bars figure in the hieroglyph designated by Maya +scholars as the sign for <foreign rend='italic'>Kin</foreign>, +the sun, which may be seen in the +centre of large diagonal cross-symbols in fig. <ref target='Figure_18'>18</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>, from +the Dresden Codex: The cross, of fig. <ref target='Figure_18'>18</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>, is composed of +two bones and two arrowpoints, a particularly interesting combination +considering that in the Maya a bone is <foreign rend='italic'>bak</foreign>, an arrow is +<foreign rend='italic'>kab-cheil</foreign> +and the name given to the gods of the four quarters <q>the +sustainers of the world,</q> is <foreign rend='italic'>Bakab</foreign>. +It cannot be denied that the +phonetic elements of this name occur in the words for bones and +arrows which form the cross, symbolic of the four quarters. In +fig. <ref target='Figure_18'>18</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>, +the cross may be composed of four bones, but of +this I am not certain. In both cases, however, the crosses rest on +a curious double and parti-colored symbol and are associated with +serpent signs, in which the open jaws and teeth are prominent +features. It is noteworthy that while <q>can</q> or <q>cam</q> is the +Maya for serpent, the word <q>camach</q> means jaw. The figure +consisting of the upper jaw only of a serpent, in the left hand +corner of the band above, fig. <ref target='Figure_18'>18</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>, proves, therefore, to be a +cursive phonetic sign for serpent. +</p> + +<p> +The parti-colored symbol combined with the cross obviously +signifies a duality, such as light and darkness, the Above and +the Below and a series of dualities—possibly the two divisions of +the year, the dry and rainy seasons. In Mexico we are authorized +by documentary evidence, to give a wider and deeper interpretation +to the symbol of duality, for it can be absolutely proven that +the Mexican philosophers divided the heavens into two imaginary +portions, and respectively identified these with the male and female +principles. +</p> + +<p> +In Nahuatl the West was designated as Cihuatlampa, <q>the place +or part of the women.</q> The souls of the women who had earned +immortality were supposed to dwell there, whilst the souls of the +men resided in the East. In the appendix to book <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi> of +Sahagun's Historia, it is described how, according to the native belief, +the souls of the male warriors hailed the daily appearance of the +sun above the eastern horizon, and escorted it to Nepantla, the +zenith. Here the souls of the women awaited it and assumed +the duty of escorting the sun to the western horizon, the symbol +for which was calli=the house. The above passage indicates that +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +the native philosophers imagined across the middle of the sky a +line of demarcation, separating the portions of the heaven respectively +allotted to the male and female souls. For four years after +death these souls retained their human form, and then, after passing +through nine successive heavens, entered into the celestial paradise +where they assumed the forms of different kinds of butterflies and +humming-birds. The names of these are enumerated in the Nahuatl +text of Sahagun's Laurentian MS. (book +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>).<note place='foot'><p>This native +belief is beautifully illustrated by the two <q>highly artistic shell-gorgets +representing winged human beings,</q> which are described and figured by Mr. +Wm. H. Holmes, in Part <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> +of his instructive and extremely useful <q>Archaeological +Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico,</q> which I have received just as this paper +is going to press. I am much pleased at the possibility of drawing attention, by +means of a footnote, to the interesting fact that in one gorget the human head is +figured with butterfly wings, whilst in the other it is accompanied by conventionalized +feathers and a butterfly wing. There can be no doubt that both gorgets are attempts +to represent the resuscitated souls of departed warriors, according to the native +ideas concerning them. It is nevertheless very remarkable to see actually that the +ancient Mexicans employed the butterfly as a symbol of an immortal soul and had +also evolved the idea of a winged head, analogous to that of a cherub, to represent a +blest spirit, dwelling in celestial regions. +</p> +<p> +It is noticeable that the name of the Mexican priests was papa, which syllables are +the first in the word papalotl=butterfly. It may be that a distinction was made and +that the souls of the dead priests were supposed to assume the shape of butterflies +or moths, whilst the warriors became celestial humming-birds. +</p></note> The symbolism +of the humming-bird has already been explained by a +passage cited from Gomara's Historia. In this connection it is +extremely interesting to find the humming-bird represented in the +B. N. MS., as sucking honey from a flower, which is attached by +a cord, covered with bird's down, to a bone, the symbol of death. +</p> + +<p> +This peculiar but expressive group of symbols figures only on +the head-dresses of deities wearing certain other symbols, amongst +which we find the Eca-cozcatl and Eca-xonequilli the image of +Ursa Minor, already described. +</p> + +<p> +The merest indication of the association of a circumpolar constellation +with the idea of death (disappearance) and resurrection +(re-appearance) is of special interest, since the ancient Mexicans +located the Underworld, the <q>place of the dead,</q> in the North. +Reflection showed, however, that such an association could only +have suggested itself to the minds of star-observers living in +southern latitudes, approximate to the equator, or in localities +where the northern horizon was more or less shut off from view by +intervening mountains. In such places Polaris would appear comparatively +close to the boundary-line of the northern sky so that +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> +the Ursa constellations and Cassiopeia would be invisible to the +local astronomers at midnight during that period of the year when +one or the other of the star-groups seemingly stretched between +Polaris and the northern horizon. A glance at plate <ref target='Plate_I'>I</ref> +shows that, at the present time, it is about the period of the autumnal equinox +that Ursa Minor would be invisible at midnight, in such localities, +while Ursa Major would gradually disappear from view towards +midnight, during a certain number of nights, according to latitude +and locality, between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice +whilst Cassiopeia would seem to hover above the horizon. +The total or partial alternate periodical disappearance of the two +most familiar star-groups in the extreme North and their re-appearance +after sometimes regular intervals of time could but have +made a profound impression upon primitive astronomers and +thinkers. Whilst the mere periodical reversal of the positions of +Cassiopeia and Ursa Major suggested alternate victory and defeat, +the actual though brief and partial disappearance of either star-group +must have appeared to be a descent into an under-ground +space, associated with darkness and death, followed by a resurrection. +In his Cronica, Tezozomoc records, besides Mictlan (the land +of the dead), another name for the underworld, Opochcal-ocan, +literally, the place of the house to the left. This appellation +can only be understood when it is realized that, in a sufficiently +southern latitude, an observer, watching the setting of a circumpolar +constellation below the horizon, would always see it disappear +to his left and subsequently rise to his right. It is evident +that in time this fact would give rise to the association of the +left with the underworld, the lower region, and the right with the +region above. The native idea of a dwelling in the underworld is +further demonstrated by the bestowal of the symbol <hi rend='italic'>calli</hi>=house, +upon the western horizon below which all heavenly bodies were +seen to disappear. A definite connection between the West and +one half of the North being thus established, it would naturally +result that a corresponding union of the South and East would be +thought of in time, and that these quarters would become associated +with the rising of celestial bodies, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, with light, the +Above, while the opposite quarters became identified with their +setting, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, with darkness, the Below. +</p> + +<p> +Pausing to review the foregoing conclusions, which I have shown +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +to be the natural and inevitable result of simple but prolonged +astronomical studies, observation and plain reasoning, we see that +they led to a conception of the Cosmos as divided into seven parts, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the fixed Centre, the pivot, primarily suggested by Polaris +who was regarded as the creative, generative and ruling power of +the universe; the Four Quarters, seemingly ruled by the central +force and associated with the elements; the Above and the Below, +suggested by the rising and setting of celestial bodies and associated +with light and darkness, sky and earth, etc., etc. +</p> + +<p> +Many of my readers will doubtless recognize at once that the +above organization of the Cosmos into the Centre or Middle, the +Above and the Below, and the Four Quarters, is precisely that +which the Zuñi priests taught Mr. Frank Cushing, when they initiated +him into their secret beliefs. Other explorers have recorded +the same conception amongst different native American tribes and +with these proofs that this set of ideas is still held on our Continent +at the present time, I point out the fact that the Maya figures +(fig. <ref target='Figure_18'>18</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi> +and <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>, from the Dresden Codex) become perfectly intelligible +only when interpreted as representing the Centre, the Four +Quarters, the Above and the Below, the latter figured by the dark +and light halves of the dual sign. Furthermore, I can demonstrate +that this fundamental set of elementary, abstract ideas, furnishing +the first principles of organization, is plainly visible under the surface +of the ancient Mexican civilization and can be traced not +only in Yucatan and Central America, but also in Peru. In these +countries, as I shall show, it assumed an absolute dominion over +the minds of the native sages, directly suggesting the forms of +government and social organization existing at the time of the +Conquest and faintly surviving to the present day. It entirely +controlled the development of aboriginal religious cult and philosophical +speculations and pervaded not only the native architecture +and decorative art, but also all superstitious rites and ceremonies, +and entered into the very games and pastimes of the people. +</p> + +<p> +The following table presents the bare outline of the scheme of +organization exposed in the preceding text. In making it I have, +after due consideration, definitely adopted the assignment of the +Mexican symbols and colors to the cardinal points given by Friar +Duran in the Calendar-swastika contained in his atlas and reproduced +(pl. II, <hi rend='italic'>g</hi>). +</p> + +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> + +<quote rend='display'> +<p> +Each of these is North; West; South; then East.<lb/> +Symbols: Tecpatl, Flint; Calli, House; Acatl, Cane; Tochtli, Rabbit.<lb/> +Colors: Red; Yellow; Blue; Green.<lb/> +Elements: Fire; Earth; Air; Water.<lb/> +Warmth; Darkness; Breath; Rain. +</p> + +<p> +Together, North and West are The Below, the <q>female</q> region. +TEZCATLIPOCA=MICTLANTECUHTLI. +</p> + +<p> +South and East are The Above, the <q>male</q> region, +HUITZILOPOCHTLI. +</p> + +<p> +Combined, they are The Centre.<lb/> +The dual, generative, ruling and directive Force.<lb/> +QUETZALCOATL.<lb/> +The Divine Twin. +</p> +</quote> + +<p> +Before proceeding to examine more closely the great edifice of +human thought which was reared, in the course of centuries, on +the ground plan designated above, we must retrace our steps and +consider what a deep impression the gradual realization of the +changes in the relative positions of Polaris and certain familiar +star-groups must have produced upon those who were the first to +realize them. Transporting ourselves back to the gray dawn of +civilization, let us endeavor to understand the position of the native +priest astronomers who, having received and transmitted a set +of religious and cosmical ideas, based on the assumption of the +absolute and eternal immutability of the centre of the heaven, +Polaris, gradually became aware that it also was subject to change, +evidently obeyed an unseen higher power and that the ancient order +of things, recorded by their predecessors, had actually passed away. +</p> + +<p> +It is obvious that, in all centres of astronomical observation +and intellectual culture, a complete revolution of fundamental doctrine +or thought must have taken place. A period of painful misgivings +and doubt must have been passed through, during which +an earnest and anxious observation of all celestial bodies must +have seemed imperative and obligatory. Under such circumstances +astronomy must have made great strides and astronomical observation +become the foremost and highest duty of the intellectual leaders +of the native races. Pyramids and temples would be built for the +purpose of verifying and recording the positions of sun, moon, +planets and stars, and the orientation of these buildings would be +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> +carefully planned accordingly. Before obtaining glimpses of the +great evolution of religious thought which progressed on our Continent +in olden times, it is well to realize, by means of Piazzi +Smyth's map (fig. <ref target='Figure_6'>6</ref>) that the world ceased to possess a +brilliantly conspicuous, absolutely immovable pole-star for a prolonged period +of time, stretching somewhere between 500 B.C. and 1200 A.D. +</p> + +<p> +The ancient native chronicles record that under <q>divine</q> leadership +great migrations of tribes took place within this period, the +purpose of which was to find a locality which fulfilled certain ardently-desired +conditions connected with religious cult. +</p> + +<p> +From various centres of civilization in Mexico and Central +America we also hear different accounts of how, at different times, +small bands of earnest men, under a leader of superior intelligence, +bent on a peaceable but unexplained errand, arrived from +distant regions and departed for an unknown goal, after delaying +just long enough to teach social organization and impart a higher +civilization to the tribes encountered on their passage. +</p> + +<p> +These preserved the memory of the <emph>title</emph> of the leader, in their +different languages and he became the culture-hero of their tribe. +The fact that, in each case, these sages taught the ignorant tribes +the division of time and instituted the calendar, proves that they +were skilled in astronomy. +</p> + +<p> +From a sentence uttered by Montezuma to the native astronomers +whom he termed <q>the Sons of the Night,</q> we learn that it +was their custom <q>to climb mountains</q> so as <q>to study the stars.</q> +When one considers the full import of the problems which had to +be faced by these ancient sages, who earnestly endeavored to account +for the great changes which had taken place in the heavens, +within the memory of man, it seems natural to suppose that many +an expedition was undertaken for the purpose of acquiring further +astronomical knowledge, of finding, perhaps, the immovable star +which had been revered in past ages by the ancestors of the native +race. +</p> + +<p> +The cult of Polaris may well have made such expeditions assume +the aspect of an imperative religious duty and sacred pilgrimage. +As all expeditions across Mexico and Central America would necessarily +be limited by the oceans and be fruitless as far as Polaris +was concerned, it is obvious that the line of exploration which +would be ultimately adopted, would run from south to north and +<hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>. A small band of enthusiasts, setting forth under the +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +leadership of some of the most advanced thinkers of the time, +would undoubtedly have been prepared to devote their entire lives +to the object in view. As long as a single member of such an expedition +existed, he would be a powerful and active agent in +spreading the fundamental set of ideas derived from the observation +of Polaris. In lapse of time, by transmission, its influence +might travel to a region too remote perhaps for direct contact to +have taken place. +</p> + +<p> +If I have indulged in the foregoing line of conjecture and surmise, +it is because it is my purpose also to demonstrate, by absolute +proof, that the dominion of the above set of ideas extended +over Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala and even reached Peru, where +its influence is distinctly visible. +</p> + +<p> +It also extended far to the north in prehistoric times, for certain +carved shell-gorgets which have been found in prehistoric graves +in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee exhibit emblems which have +definite meanings in the Maya language, spoken in Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +In order to maintain this assertion I must make a slight digression +from the main subject and revert to the myth already +cited, recording the casting down from heaven of Tezcatlipoca who +arose and ascended again in the form of an ocelot. There are +interesting native pictures of this combat and the fall of the ocelot +in the Vatican Codex <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 34, the Féjérvary Codex, p. 56, and +others equally important, representing the fall or descent of an +eagle from the sky, to which I shall revert. +</p> + +<p> +It is moreover recorded by Mendieta (p. 82) that Tezcatlipoca +likewise descended or let himself down from the sky by a spider's +thread, and in the Bodleian MS. (p. 12) there are two curious pictures +one of an ocelot and a cobweb, the other of an ocelot, descending +head foremost from stars. The same incident is also +pictured in the Vienna Codex (p. 9) where the ocelot, attached by +the tail, is connected by a cord with star-emblems. +</p> + +<p> +There are two facts of special interest in regard to the above +descent of Tezcatlipoca by a spider's thread. The first is that the +title Tzontemoc=<q>he who descends head foremost</q> is recorded +in the Codex Fuenleal immediately after the name Mictlantecuhtli. +The second is that the spider is figured on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli +in the B. N. MS. and is sculptured in the centre, above his +forehead, in his sculptured image, identified as such by Señor Sanchez +(Anales del Museo Nacional <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, p. 299) and reproduced here +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> +(fig. <ref target='Figure_19'>19</ref>). It +represents <q>the lord of the North or Underworld</q> +descending, head foremost, with a tecpatl or flint knife issuing from +his mouth and with outspread limbs, the outlines of which are almost +lost under the multitude of symbols which are grouped around +him. These symbols are carefully analyzed in my commentary +on the B. N. MS. in which I also describe other known carved +representations of the same conception and point out analogous +pictures in the Maya Codices. The position of the limbs of the +descending figure is best understood by a glance at fig. +<ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, from +the Dresden Codex. It represents a bar with cross symbols from +which a human body is descending. The feet rest on dual symbols, +about which more could be written than the scope of the +present paper allows. A tecpatl or flint knife, attached to the body +by a double bow with ends, may be seen between the dual symbols, +and its presence is of utmost importance since it proves that the +Mayas also associated the flint with the same figure. Instead of a +head the body exhibits a sort of equidistant cross with four circles. +Strange to say, the only analogous cross-figures I have been able +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +to find in all the Codices are those reproduced in fig. +<ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, +and <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>. The latter exhibits a curious, conventionalized flower +growing on the top of a pyramid. Its stem and leaves are painted +brown and are spotted, resembling the skin of an ocelot. As there +is a Mexican flower, the Tigridia, of which the native name was +ocelo-xochitl, it may be that it is this which is thus represented. +Fig. <ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, +from the B. N. MS., figures as a sacred cake, alongside +of the S-shaped xonecuilli breads which were made in honor +of Ursa Minor at a certain feast. Finally, fig. <ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, represents +a certain kind of ceremonial staff which is inserted between the +two peaks of a mountain—a favorite method employed by the +native scribes, to convey the idea that the object figured was in +the exact centre. This kind of staff occurs frequently in certain +Codices, sometimes being carried by a high priest. It invariably +exhibits a flower-like figure with five circles and is surmounted +by a tecpatl or flint knife. Without pausing to discuss the subject +fully I merely point out here that, collectively, these symbols +explain each other and convey the idea of the Centre and the Four +Quarters evidently associated with the tecpatl, the symbol of the +north, and the ocelot and xonecuilli=Ursa Minor. It is particularly +interesting to note that the outspread human body is made to +serve as a sort of cross-symbol. A careful study of the conventional +representation of the face of <q>the lord of the North,</q> in fig. +<ref target='Figure_19'>19</ref>, gives +the impression that it was also used to convey the idea of +duality, or the union of two in one. The upper half of the face +exhibits a numeral on either cheek under the eyes, seeming to convey +the idea of dualities. The two circular ear ornaments, united +by a band above the head, and the two nostrils united in one nose, +seem to convey the idea of the union of the dualities, whilst the +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> +lower half of the face, which is rendered strikingly different to the +upper, by being in higher relief and marked with perpendicular +lines, exhibits a mouth from which a flint knife, with symbolical +eye and fangs carved on it, is hanging like a tongue. I have already +shown that the flint knife was regarded as the sacred producer +of the <q>vital spark.</q> I may add here that I have also +found, in the Codices, tecpatl-symbols on which the curved symbol +of air or breath was figured. To my idea the sculptured face +is meant to symbolize the dual creator, the dispenser of the spark +and breath of life, whilst the human skull on his back betokens +that he is also the giver of death. Though unable to enter fully +into the subject here, I would nevertheless state that I can produce +further data to prove that the human face was frequently employed +for a symbolical purpose by the native American races who were +evidently entirely under the dominion of the idea of duality, of +the Above and Below and the life-producing union of both. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_19'/> + <figure url='images/figure-19.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 19.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_20'/> + <figure url='images/figure-20.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 20.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The question why the spider, named <q>tocatl</q> in Nahuatl, should +have been adopted as the chief symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, occupied +me much until I found the clue to its significance in the Maya +language. In this the word for North is <foreign rend='italic'>Aman</foreign> and the name +for <q>the spider whose bite is mortal,</q> is +<foreign rend='italic'>Am</foreign>. This striking fact +may be interpreted as a positive proof that the spider-symbol, employed +by the Mexicans, must have originated in Yucatan, from +the mere homonymy of two Maya words. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand shell-gorgets exhibiting the effigy of a spider, +and obviously intended to be worn with its head turned downwards, +have not only been found in Illinois but also in Tennessee +and Missouri. On the gorgets from the latter States a cross is +carved on the body of the spider (fig. <ref target='Figure_22'>22</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>). As certain spiders +exhibit cross-markings, it is, of course, possible that it was +chosen as a cross-symbol for this reason only, in some localities, +just as the butterfly was evidently adopted in Mexico, as an +apt image of the Centre and the Four Quarters on account of its +shape and its possession of four wings. The conventionalized +figure of a butterfly, with a star on its body and four balls, painted +with the colors of the quarters, was a sacred symbol which is minutely +described by Sahagun and is figured on a manta in the B. N. +MS. A glance at its reproduction (fig. <ref target='Figure_21'>21</ref>, no. 13) shows +how the form of the insect has been conventionalized so as to resemble the +ollin (no. 12) and other Mexican cross-symbols (nos. 2, 4, 11, 14 +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +etc.). The eye or star in its centre, like that in the ollin, and circle +(no. 4), signify Polaris; the conventionalized head and antennæ are +obviously made to convey the idea of <q>two in one,</q> of the Above +and Below united in the Centre. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_21'/> + <figure url='images/figure-21.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 21.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +I venture to suggest that the dragon-fly was employed as a cross-symbol +in an analogous manner, on the Algonquin garment preserved +at the Riksmuseum, Stockholm, and described by Dr. +Hjalmar Stolpe in his admirable study on American art (Amerikansk +Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1896, p. 30). As I shall revert to +it later on, I now draw special attention to the circumstance that +instead of the cross, on a spider-gorget from Tennessee, there is +a round hole which, when the shell-disc is held aloft, lets a ray of +light shine through and furnishes an apt presentation of a star. +This and the cross furnish analogies to the Mexican and Maya +symbols of Polaris which are too obvious to need to be emphasized. +Nor do these gorgets alone furnish an undeniable indication that +an identical symbolism extended from Yucatan to Illinois. Other +gorgets, also figured in Mr. Wm. H. Holmes' monograph <q>Art in +Shell,</q> several of which are in the Peabody Museum, from the stone +graves in Tennessee, exhibit variously carved representations of a +serpent. In all specimens the identical idea is carried out: the +eye of the serpent forms the centre of the design on the disc and +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> +four circles on the body of the reptile, or four solid bars, interrupting +a hollow line encircling the central motif, emphasized a division +of the disc into four equal parts. The idea of the Serpent in repose, +the Centre and the Four Quarters is thoroughly carried out and the +true meaning of the design is only appreciated by the light of the +Maya and Mexican symbolism which has already been so fully +discussed. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_22'/> + <figure url='images/figure-22.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 22.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The third Tennessee gorget reproduced here (fig. +<ref target='Figure_22'>22</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>), from +Mr. Holmes' work, exhibits a combination of numerals which is +particularly interesting if confronted with the sacred numbers of +the Mexicans and Mayas. From a central circle three curved lines +issue in a fashion resembling those on fig. <ref target='Figure_21'>21</ref>, +no. 2, but the fact that the circular band exhibits seven double circles and the outer +edge is divided into thirteen parts, is of special moment. Still +another design, on a shell-gorget from Tennessee, not only exhibits +the peculiarity, pointed out by Mr. Holmes, of a square with loops, +resembling certain figures in Mexican Codices, but also other significant +details which I shall point out (fig. <ref target='Figure_22'>22</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>). The cross in +the centre occupies the centre of a star with eight rays and the +four birds' heads at the sides of the square illustrate rotation from +right to left. I am inclined to view in this gorget an emblem of +Polaris with Cassiopeia in rotation around it, figured as a bird, but +whether this is the case or not it must be conceded that it is indeed +remarkable to find a set of symbols, consisting of the spider, the +cross, the serpent and the bird, carved on prehistoric gorgets found +in the United States whilst the deep meaning of these identical +symbols is furnished by Maya and Mexican records. I venture to +remark here that no more expressive and appropriate ornament +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +than these shell-gorgets could have been designed, or worn by the +ancient Maya or Mexican priests, prophets and leaders who, in a +remote past, had guided themselves by the light of Polaris and +instituted its cult as the basis of their native religion. +</p> + +<p> +On realizing the above-mentioned identity of symbolism, it is +impossible not to conclude that the prehistoric race which inhabited +certain parts of the United States was under the dominion of +the same ideas as were the Mexicans and Mayas. The indications +point, in fact, to the probability that the origin of the employment +of the spider-symbol originated in Yucatan, and if this be admitted +then there is no reason to deny the possibility that the serpent-symbol +came from there also, since the Maya language suggests an +affinity between the serpent, <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>, +and the sky=<foreign rend='italic'>caan</foreign>, and the +numeral 4=<foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>. I refrain, for the present, from +expressing any final conclusion on this subject, which will doubtless afford ample +food for reflection and argument to all interested in the important +problem as to where the cradle of ancient American civilization +was situated. But these symbolic gorgets go far towards +substantiating Professor Putnam's oft-expressed +conclusions that the ancient peoples of the central and +southern portions of the United States were, to a certain +extent, offshoots of the ancient Mexicans. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_23'/> + <figure url='images/figure-23.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 23.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Before abandoning the subject of native symbolism +and star-emblems I should like to present, as a curiosity, +with an appeal to specialists to enlighten me as to the +astronomical knowledge of the Eskimos, an Eskimo drawing from +Professor Wilson's instructive and useful monograph. It is said to +represent a <q>flock of birds,</q> but so closely resembles Cassiopeia +and Polaris that I am tempted to view it as an indication that the +Eskimos may also have associated the idea of a celestial bird, or +birds, wheeling around a central point, with the constellation and +the pole-star (fig. <ref target='Figure_23'>23</ref>). +Having once ventured so far afield, I cannot +refrain from presenting here an interesting set of aboriginal star-symbols, +reproduced from Professor Wilson's comprehensive work +(fig. <ref target='Figure_24'>24</ref>), +each composed of a cross combined, with a single exception, +with a circle. I draw attention to the striking resemblance of +some of these signs to those painted on the finely decorated pottery +found on the hacienda of Don José Luna, in Nicaragua, and described +by J. F. Brandsford, M.D. (Archaeological Researches in +Nicaragua, Smithsonian Inst., 1881, p. 30, B), and suggest that, in +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> +both localities, the symbol may be a rudimentary swastika, and +represent Polaris and circumpolar rotation. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_III'/> + <figure url='images/plate-iii.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate III. 1. Shell gorget, Missouri. 2, 5-14. Pottery vessels, Arkansas. +3, 4, 15-17, 19-28. Pottery vessels, Missouri. 18. Pottery vessel, Kentucky. +6. National Museum. 3, 16, 17, 21, 24, +25. St. Louis Academy. All others Peabody Museum. +Willoughby, <q>Pottery from the Mississippi Valley.</q> +Journal of American Folk-lore, January-March, 1897.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In conclusion I refer the reader to Mr. C. C. Willoughby's valuable +and most interesting <q>Analysis of the decorations upon +pottery from the Mississippi Valley</q> (Journal Amer. Folk-lore, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, 1897), in which he figures the remarkable specimens +preserved in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, the designs on which, +as he states, <q>are mostly of symbolic origin and have been in use +among various tribes within the historic period from the Great +Lakes to Mexico.</q> With the kind permission of the editor of the +Journal, I reproduce some of Mr. Willoughby's illustrations on +Plate <ref target='Plate_III'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi></ref>. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_24'/> + <figure url='images/figure-24.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 24. Crosses And Circles Representing Star Symbols, Arizona.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Returning to consider the probable result of the gradual diffusion +of star-cult owing to natural causes and of the consequent +divergence from the idea of the Centre, which had so deeply influenced +the minds of primitive men during many centuries, with +earnest, and extended astronomical observation, keeping pace with +the development of the idea of the Above and Below, it is obvious +that the utmost attention would be next given to the conspicuous +star groups and planets which are visible at certain times and then +seem to have departed or descended into the under world. Any +one who has read the interesting communications by Herr Richard +Andree (Globus. bd. <hi rend='smallcaps'>lxiv</hi>, nr. 22), On the relation of the +Pleiades to the beginning of the year amongst primitive people, followed +by a note by Herr Karl von den Steinen on the same subject, will +realize that widely-separated tribes of men, by dint of simple observation, +knew the exact length of the periodical appearance and +disappearance of this star group and regulated their year accordingly. +Herr Andree cites, for instance, that <q>in the Society islands, +the year was divided into two portions, the first of which was +named Matari-i-inia=the Pleiades above. It began and lasted +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +during the time when these constellations were visible close to the +horizon after sunset. The second period, named Matarii-i-raro=the +Pleiades below, began and lasted for the time during which the +star-group was invisible after sunset</q> (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 419, London 1829). That the ancient Mexicans +had likewise observed the Pleiades and been deeply impressed +by them is proven by the well-known fact that the ceremony of the +kindling of the sacred fire, which betokened the commencement +of a new cycle, was performed <q>when the Pleiades attained the +zenith at midnight precisely.</q> In my complete monograph in the +ancient Mexican calendar-system it will be my endeavor to present +all the data I have collected concerning the degree of elementary +astronomical knowledge attained by the native astronomers. I +shall, therefore, content myself with pointing out here that besides +the foregoing testimony about the Pleiades, the native name for +which was the miec=the many, or the tianquiztli=the marketplace, +there are records proving that the cult of the planet Venus +was a firmly established feature of the native religion at the time +of the Conquest. Sahagun records that the Nahuatl names for this +planet were citlalpul or hueycitlallin both signifying <q>the great +star.</q> <q>In the great temple of Mexico an edifice named ilhuicatitlan +[literally, the land of the sky] consisted of a great, high +column, on which the morning star was painted.... Captives +were sacrificed in front of this column annually, at the period when +the star re-appeared</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +appendix to book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +With regard to the connection of the Pleiades with the beginning +of the Mexican cycle, it is interesting to note Herr Andree's +statements that the most intimate connection of the star-group with +the thoughts of primitive people, would naturally take place in +such localities where its periodical movements coincided with the +changes of season, wind and weather which affected agriculture. +A survey of the data presented by Herr Andree shows that the +cult of the Pleiades attained its greatest development amongst +tribes inhabiting a southerly latitude. It was in South America, +indeed, that the Peruvians, alongside of their highly developed sun-cult, +rendered homage and offered sacrifices to the Pleiades. In +Mexico, the cult of the Pleiades appears as intimately associated +with that of the sun and to have assumed importance only in historical +and comparatively recent times, probably when the periodicity +of the sun's movements had been taught or recognized and the +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +sign <foreign rend='italic'>ollin</foreign>, which +is an exact presentation of the annual course of +the sun, had been invented and adopted as a symbol. I have already +pointed out that this sign occurs on the calendar-stone, for +instance, which has a human face in its centre, bearing two numerals +on the forehead and obviously symbolizing the union of two +in one. In other instances the centre displays the eye, or star symbol +and conveys the suggestion that the <q>four movements</q> of the +circumpolar constellations were thereby symbolized. It may be that, +in ancient Mexico, the two symbols, respectively referring to the +movements of the sun and of the circumpolar star-groups, were emblematic +of the two different cults or religions which existed alongside +of each other. The first, the cult of the Above, of the Blue Sky, +was directed towards the sun and the planets and stars intimately +associated with sunrise and sunset, amongst them the Pleiades. The +cult of the Below, of the Nocturnal Heaven, was directed towards +the moon, Polaris and the circumpolar constellations—also to the +stars and planets during the period of their disappearance and +possibly in the same way to the enigmatical <q>Black Sun,</q> figured in +the B. N. MS. which may have been the sun during its nightly stay +in the House of the Underworld, whose door was in the west. In +order to obtain an idea of the immense proportions ultimately +assumed by these two diverging cults and the enormous influence +they exerted upon the entire native civilization, it will be necessary +to examine the form of the social organization in Montezuma's +time. +</p> + +<p> +In order to comprehend this, however, it is first necessary to +study carefully the myths relating to its origin. Torquemada (lib. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. 41) cites the authority of Friar Andreas de Olmos for +the following native account of the creation of man, which was +differently recounted to him in each province. He states that the +majority of the natives, however, agreed that <q>there was in heaven +a god named <q>Shining Star</q> (Citlal-Tonac) and a goddess named +<q>She of the starry skirt</q> (Citlal-Cue), who gave birth to a flint +knife (Tecpatl). Their other children, startled at this, cast the +flint down from the sky. It fell to earth at the place named <q>Seven +caves</q> and <q>produced 1,600 gods and goddesses,</q></q> a figure of speech +which evidently expressed the idea that, in coming in forcible contact +with the soil the flint gave forth sparks innumerable which +conveyed vitality to numberless beings. It is evidently the same +idea of <q>life sparks</q> being called into existence by the union of +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +heaven and earth which underlies the Texcocan version of the creation +of man recorded as follows by Torquemada (<hi rend='italic'>op. et loc. cit.</hi>). +<q>The sun ... shot an arrow towards the land of Acolma near +the boundary of Texcoco. This made a hole in the ground whence +issued the first man....</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_25'/> + <figure url='images/figure-25.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 25.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The illustrated version of the above myths, given in the Vatican +Codex <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, designates the celestial progenitor of human life as +Quetzalcoatl, also named Tonaca-Tecuhtli=the lord of our subsistence, +Chicome-xochitl=<q>Seven roses or +flowers</q> and Citlalla-Tonalla=<q>The +Milky +Way,</q> literally, The +shining stars. The +dual divinity is figured +(fig. <ref target='Figure_25'>25</ref>, no. 4) as two +persons with the shaft +of an arrow over each +of their heads and with +the symbol Tecpatl=flint, +between them as the issue of their union. In the Borgian +Codex (fig. <ref target='Figure_25'>25</ref>, no. 1), a barbed arrowpoint, instead of +the Tecpatl, figures between the celestial parents. Their union is symbolized +by a covering, the shape of which, in further representations +(fig. <ref target='Figure_25'>25</ref>, nos. 3 and 5) in the same MS., offers resemblance +to the tau-shaped windows which are such a common feature in Maya and +also in Pueblo architecture (fig. <ref target='Figure_25'>25</ref>, +no. 2<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>). The preceding data, +which could be amplified, seem to show that the natives associated +the tau-shape not merely with the idea of the Male and Female +principles, but also with the Above and the Below, or Heaven (air +and water) and Earth (earth and fire). I shall have occasion, further +on, to refer again to the symbolism of the native tau. +</p> + +<p> +The above illustrations, however, definitely prove that the flint +knife and the arrow (with a flint point, presumably), were indiscriminately +designated as the medium by means of which the spark +of life was created and imparted to earth-born beings. +</p> + +<p> +It will be proved further that, at the period of the Conquest, the +arrow was revered as an image of life-producing force in Yucatan +and Mexico. The flint knife cased in wrappings was called <q>the +son</q> of Cihuacoatl, the earth-mother, and was regarded as her +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +special symbol. It is significant, therefore, to find that it was +the emblem of office of one of the two high priests, who alone +employed it, as a sacrificial knife, in performing his awful duty of +immolating human victims. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the cane-shaft of an arrow figures above the head +of the celestial couple in the Vatican Codex is particularly interesting +because the name Ome-Acatl=Two-Cane, is given as the +name of a divinity by Sahagun (book <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, chap. 15) and that the +ceremony of kindling the New Fire, at the commencement of a +cycle of years was also associated with the calendar sign Ome-Acatl +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>, chap. 10). +</p> + +<p> +At a certain festival images of Omacatl were manufactured and +carried by the devout to their houses in order to receive from them +<q>blessings and multiplication of possessions</q> +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +chap. 19). +</p> + +<p> +I draw attention to the fact that life is supposed to have proceeded +from the union of stellar divinities, that the Tecpatl and +flint are the well-known symbols for the North and Fire and that the +Vatican commentator identifies the celestial parent as <q>Seven-Flowers.</q> +What is more, Duran (vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, pp. 8 and 9) relates that +the native race was organized into seven separate tribes and that +these <q>claimed to have come out of <q>seven caves</q> (Chicom-oztoc) +which were situated in Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan <q>a land of which +all men know that it is in the North.</q></q> Now Teo-Culhuacan is +composed of the word Teotl, which designated the stars, the sun, +the gods and, by extension, something divine or celestial. Culhua +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Coloa) means something bent over or recurved, or the action +of describing a circle by moving around something, and +<foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> means +<q>the place of</q> in Nahuatl. This locality is represented in the +picture-writings by a strange and impossible mountain with a recurved +summit (fig. <ref target='Figure_26'>26</ref>, no. 1). Aztlan literally means <q>the land +of whiteness, brightness, light.</q> In Duran's Atlas the seven caves +are represented as containing men and women—the progenitors of +the seven tribes. The order in which these are described, in the +Mexican myth, as having issued from the caves, is instructive and +sheds light upon the provenance and purpose of the tradition. It +represents the Mexicans as the superior predestined race who remained +in their cave the <q>longest, by divine command,</q> their +<q>god having promised them this land.</q> The tradition relates that +six tribes reached and settled down in the central plateau of Mexico, +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +302 years before the Aztecs arrived, under the leadership of +Huitzilopochtli an oracular divinity, whose commandments were +transmitted to the people by four priests (Duran, chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +In my opinion it is impossible to study the above and supplementary +data without realizing that the native race assigned its +origin to a dual star-divinity, associated with the Tecpatl, the symbol +for the North and for Fire. The peculiarity that the divinity +is designated as Seven-flowers, and that there were seven tribes, +indicates that the native idea was that each tribe came from one of +the seven stars in Ursa Major or Minor. The Aztecs seem to have +claimed for themselves the descent from the superior star, the central +one, and to have thus justified or supported their ultimate establishment +of a central government which ruled over the other six +tribes. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_26'/> + <figure url='images/figure-26.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 26.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The assumption that the native race claimed descent from the +Ursa Major or Minor constellation is further supported by the fact +that the shape of the mythical recurved mountain and the name +Aztlan=land of light or brightness are simultaneously explained, +as well as the number of caves and tribes. It does not seem to be +a mere coincidence that in two totally different Codices (the Selden +MS. p. 7, Kingsborough, vol. 1, and the B. N. MS., p. 70) a +sacred dance is represented as executed by seven individuals who +move around a central seated personage. In the latter MS. the +seated figure wears a head-dress surmounted by flint knives and +his face is painted <emph>red</emph> the color assigned to the North. Moreover +the dance is taking place before an image of Mictlan-Tecuhtli, the +lord of the North, whose raiment is strewn with cross-symbols. +Referring to other native dances we find that the most sacred of +all dances was performed at the festival of the god of fire by +priests only, who, smeared with black paint to typify darkness and +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +night, carried two torches in each hand and first sat, then slowly +moved, in a circle, around the <q>divine brazier,</q> and finally cast +their torches into it (Duran <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +p. 174). This, probably the most +ancient of sacred dances, must have been extremely impressive +and significative to those who witnessed it, at night-time, from the +base of the pyramid and heard the distant solemn chant of the +dancers. To watchers from afar, the fire and the lighted torches +revolving around must have seemed like a great central star with +other stars wheeling about it. +</p> + +<p> +Further on, it will be shown that the earliest form under which +the Deity was revered was that of fire and the foregoing description +fully explains why it was first chosen as the most fitting image +of the central immovable star. It has already been shown +that, in the popular game of <q>the flyers,</q> a high pole surmounted +by one man served as the pivot for the circumvolation of the four +performers, who <q>acted</q> the <q>flight of time.</q> The idea of an +extended rule, proceeding from a central dual force, was, however, +carried out on a grand scale in the most solemn of all public dances +named the Mitotiliztli. Duran (<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +p. 85) states that as many as +<q>8,600 persons danced in a wheel in the courtyard of the Great +Temple, which had four doorways, facing the cardinal points and +opening out on to the four principal high roads leading to the capital. +The doorways were respectively named after the four principal +gods and were spoken of as <q>the doorway of such and such +a god.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +Clavigero, to whose work (Historia, ed. Mora, Mexico, 1844, p. +234) I refer the reader for further details, describes the dances at +the time of the Conquest as having been most beautiful, and relates +that the natives were exercised in these, from their childhood, by +the priests. This authority also relates that the Mitotiliztli was +performed by hundreds of dancers at certain solemn festivals, in +the great central square of the city or in the courtyard of the temple, +and gives the following description: +</p> + +<p> +The centre of the space was occupied by two individuals (designated +elsewhere as high priests) who beat measure on sacred +drums of two kinds. One, the large huehuetl, emitted an extremely +loud, deep tone, which could be heard for miles and was +usually employed in the temples as a means of summoning to worship, +etc. The second, the teponaztle, was a small portable wooden +drum which was usually worn suspended from the neck by the +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +leader in warfare and emitted the shrill piercing note he employed +as a signal. The chieftains (each of which personified a god) +surrounded the two musicians, forming several concentric circles, +close to each other. At a certain distance from the outer one of +these, the persons of an inferior class were placed in circles and +these were separated by another interval of space, from the outermost +circles, composed of young men and boys. The illustration +given by Clavigero records the order and disposition of this sacred +dance, which represented a kind of wheel, the centre of which was +occupied by the instruments and their players. The spokes of the +wheel were as many as there were chieftains in the innermost circle. +All moved in a circle while dancing and strictly adhered to their +respective positions. Those who were nearest the centre, the chieftains +and elders, moved slowly, with gravity, having a smaller circle +to perform. The dancers forming the outer circles were, +however, forced to move with extreme rapidity, so as to preserve +the straight line radiating from the centre and headed by the chieftains. +The measure of the dance and of the chorus chanted by +the participants was beaten by the drums and the musicians asserted +their absolute control of the great moving wheel of human beings, +by alternately quickening or slackening the measure. The perfect +harmony of the dance, which successive sets of dancers kept going +for eight or more hours, was only disturbed occasionally by certain +individuals who pushed their way through the lines of dancers +and amused these by indulging in all sorts of buffoonery. No +one, on reading the above description of the most ancient and +sacred of native dances can fail to recognize that it was an actual +representation of axial rotation and that no more effective method +of rendering the apparent differences in the degrees of velocity in +the movements of the circumpolar and equatorial stars, could possibly +have been devised. The fact that this dance was a most +solemn and sacred rite, whose performance was obligatory to the +entire population, indicates that it constituted an act of general +obedience and homage and a public acknowledgment of the absolute +dominion of a central dual, ruling power. +</p> + +<p> +It is particularly interesting that, in this dance, the latter is represented +by two individuals who respectively employ the sacred drum +of the priesthood, and that used by war chieftains only (the one +instrument emitting a low and the other a high tone); for the +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +culture hero of the Tzendals, Votan, who, with the aid of his followers, +taught this tribe the civil laws of government and the religious +ceremonials, was entitled <q>the Master of the sacred Drum.</q> +(See Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 214.) +</p> + +<p> +Reverting to the organization of the native race into seven tribes +and the wandering of the seventh and principal division, under the +leadership of Huitzilopochtli: according to Tezozomoc (Cronica, +p. 23), Huitzilopochtli was accompanied by <q>a woman who was +called his sister and was carried by four men. She was a powerful +sorceress, possessed the power of assuming the shape of an eagle, +had made herself greatly feared and caused herself to be adored +as a goddess.</q> Indignant at her arrogance the priests counselled +a course which was adopted by the Mexicans. The woman and +her family were left behind at Malinalco where they settled and +populated a town, whilst the other portion of the tribe, under +strictly masculine rule, advanced towards Tula where they established +themselves. <q>This was the second division which had taken +place, amongst the Mexicans or Aztecs ... and when +they reached Tula they found their number greatly diminished.</q> +This same incident is related with greater detail by Torquemada +(vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, chap. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>) from which we learn what a great animosity was +felt against the woman. On one occasion, which I shall not pause +to describe, two war chiefs menaced her. The <q>talk</q> she gave +them in return is so remarkable that it deserves to be quoted in +full; for it affords a deep insight into the native mode of expression, +teaches us the titles of the woman and shows that her position +was undoubtedly one of powerful authority. +</p> + +<p> +<q>I am Quilaztli, your sister and of your tribe ... you +know this and yet you think that the dispute or difference you +have with me is like an ordinary one, such as you might wage with +any ordinary base woman, who possessed little spirit or courage. +If you indulge in this thought you are deceiving yourselves, for I +am valiant and manly and my titles will oblige you to acknowledge +this. For besides the ordinary name of Quilaztli, by which you +know me, I also possess four titles, by which I know myself: +the first of these is Cihuacoatl=the Woman-serpent (or twin); +the second is Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle-woman; the third is +Yao-Cihuatl=the Woman-warrior and the fourth is Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, +the Woman of the Underworld. From the properties +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +or qualities conveyed by these titles you can appreciate who I am; +what power I yield and what harm I can do you and if you want +to test the truth of this, here is my challenge!</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>The two brave captains, undaunted by the arrogant words by +which she attempted to terrify them, responded: 'If you are as +valiant as you describe yourself to be, we are not less so; but +you are a woman and it is not meet that it should be said of us +that we took up arms against women;' and without speaking further +they left her, much affronted that a woman should challenge +and defy them. And they kept silence about this occurrence so +that their people should not know of it.</q> Señor Alfredo Chavero +(appendix, p. 125, to Duran's Historia, Mexico, 1880), commenting +upon this passage, says: <q>It is impossible to doubt that this tradition +refers to an important event in the history of the Aztec +tribe.... I think it contains the record of a religious +struggle.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The full significance of the narrative will become clear, I think, +when the following points are dwelt upon. One thing is certain: +here is a historical personage, a woman, who was termed <emph>the sister</emph> +of Huitzilopochtli, who evidently exerted a high authority and whose +titles were actually the names of the highest female divinity. Sahagun +(book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. 37) states that Quilaztli, a goddess, the same +as Cihuacoatl, was the mother of all and was also named Tonant-zin=<q>our +mother.</q> What is more significant still is that, in all +historical records antedating the Conquest, a man bearing the feminine +title of Cihuacoatl=serpent woman, is distinctly and repeatedly +mentioned as the coadjutor of the Mexican ruler. Mr. +Ad. Bandelier, in his careful study <q>On the social organization and +mode of government of the Ancient Mexicans</q> (Twelfth Annual +Report of the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch, and Ethn., Cambridge, +1879) to which I refer the reader, discusses the relative +positions of Montezuma and the Cihuacoatl and states: <q>there is +no doubt about their <hi rend='italic'>equality</hi> of rank though their duties were +somewhat different</q> (p. 665). This equality is illustrated by the +records that both rulers shared the same privileges regarding dress. +Thus they alone wore sandals and the Cihuacoatl is termed <q>the +second or double of the king, his coadjutor</q> +(Duran, chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxxii</hi>, +p. 255 and Tezozomoc, chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xl</hi>, p. 66). The latter author, +however, gives the full <q>sacred title</q> as Tlil-Potonqui Cihuacoatl, +literally, <q>the black-powdered woman-serpent</q> and we thus +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> +learn that, whilst Montezuma's garments were habitually blue like +Huitzilopochtli, his coadjutor, like Tezcatlipoca, was associated +with black. It is well known that some of the Mexican priests +always smeared their bodies with black, which was therefore their +special mark. +</p> + +<p> +To my idea the foregoing data, with circumstantial evidence too +diffuse to be conveniently produced, clearly indicate that at one +time, in the early history of the Aztec race, it had been governed +jointly by a male and a female ruler on a footing of perfect equality, +the one being the living representative of the Above or masculine +elements and the other personifying the Below or feminine elements. +The fact that Cihuacoatl is named <q>the sister</q> of Huitzilopochtli +shows that the female ruler was not necessarily his wife, although +she was his coadjutor in her own right. Both rulers were respectively +served by four persons presumably of their respective sex. +Besides these Duran (chap. 3) records that <q>there were also other +seven teotls=lords, who were much reverenced on account of the +seven caves out of which the seven tribes had come.</q> +</p> + +<p> +We thus perceive that at one time the chief authority was vested +in a man and a woman, his sister, who enjoyed a perfect equality. +Four persons administered the government of each ruler and each +of the seven tribes had <q>its honoured representative.</q> For how long +this organization had existed it is impossible to tell. Dissension +arose and division supervened, but to the time of the Conquest the +identical form of government was in force with the remarkable +difference that the title and office of the Cihuacoatl, originally held +by a woman, were held by a man, whom I do not hesitate to identify +as one of the two <q>supreme pontiffs,</q> whose emblem of office was +the flint knife, the offspring of Cihuacoatl, the earth-mother. +</p> + +<p> +Historical evidence shows that this alteration had not been made +without bloodshed and renewed difficulties. Thus it is related +that, long after the Mexicans had separated from the sister of +Huitzilopochtli and her adherents, they were induced to <q>ask the +daughter of the ruler of Culhuacan to become the Queen of the +Mexicans and mother of their god. She conformed with their +request but was subsequently killed by her subjects, who flayed +her body and dressed a youth in her skin [a figure of native +speech which symbolized his assumption of her office]. Under +this form she was revered as a goddess, was named our grandmother +and <q>the mother of the god,</q> etc.</q> These and the following details, +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +taken from well-known authentic native sources, are attractively +rendered in the <q>Newe Welt und Amerikanische Historien</q> +(Johann Ludwig Gottfriedt. Frankfurt-a.-M., 1613, pp. 54 and 55). +</p> + +<p> +Again, after the Mexicans had been settled at Tenochtitlan for +some time, they desired to make an alliance with the King of Culhuacan +and therefore <q>chose to nominate, as their ruler, Acamapichtli, +who was the son of a Mexican chieftain by a daughter of +the Culhuacan ruler</q> and evidently lived with the latter. For it +is related that, on giving his consent, the king of Culhuacan stated +that if only a <emph>woman</emph> (of his family) had been nominated he would +have refused (to trust her to the Mexicans). The farewell words +he addressed to Acamapichtli are worthy of quotation: <q>Go my +son, serve thy god, be his representative. Rule the creatures of +the god by whom we live; the god of day, of the night and of the +winds. Go and be the lord of the water and land owned by the +Mexicans.</q> +</p> + +<p> +As it is subsequently stated that Acamapichtli <emph>and his queen</emph> were +received at Tenochtitlan with great honors, it would seem as though +the Mexicans who, from some deeply-rooted religious idea, considered +it essential to have a female ruler of the line of the king +of Culhuacan, obtained their desire only by accepting a male member +of her family as a protection and safeguard for her sacred +person. It may be that for the reasons of safety and preservation +the female ruler, who was the living representative of the Cihuacoatl, +gradually retired into absolute seclusion whilst a man of her +kin assumed, in public, her title and prerogatives. +</p> + +<p> +Unless it is assumed that this was the case, it seems impossible +to explain why Acamapichtli is designated in the Codex Mendoza +(Kingsborough, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>) as having begun to rule in the year +I Tecpatl or flint (approximately corresponding to A.D. 1364) with +the title of <q>Woman-serpent</q>=Cihuacoatl. From this date the title +seems always to have been borne by a man. When human sacrifices +had become a prominent feature of the native cult and it became +a duty of the Cihuacoatl to perform the bloody rite, it is +obvious that it became impossible for a woman to fill the position. +</p> + +<p> +We obtain, however, glimpses of the shadowy form of an invisible +and venerable female ruler who is at the head of the <q>House +of Women,</q> watches over the welfare of the women of the tribe +and officiates as a priestess, with her assistants, at births, baptisms +and marriages. In order to account for the obscurity which surrounds +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +her, it should be noticed that the mere fact that the ideas +of darkness and seclusion became indelibly associated with the +female sex, would naturally and inevitably cause women to be +housed up, veiled and condemned to comparative inaction and immobility. +A primitive stage in the growth of the above idea is +shown in the case of the Huaxtecas, the women of which tribe wore +abundant covering whilst the men, on religious principle, wore +none. A careful study of the conditions surrounding the Cihuacoatl +or high priest shows that he also conformed to the exigencies +of his position when he acted as the representative of the hidden +forces of Nature, of the female principle. He and the entire +priesthood smeared their bodies with black, cultivated long hair, +and wore, during the performance of certain religious ceremonies, +a wide and long garment reaching to the ground. It is noticeable +that the designs on the garments of the priests, in the B. N. MS., +are invariably executed in red and yellow, the symbolical colors +of the north and west, combined with black the symbol of the +union of both, the Below. In this connection it is noteworthy that +in Mexican pictography the faces of women are usually painted +yellow—the color of the West=the female region. The association +of darkness, concealment and secrecy, with the female +principle, is exemplified by the fact that a building in the enclosure +of the Great Temple of Mexico, named the <q>house of darkness,</q> +was dedicated to the earth-mother=Cihuacoatl (Sahagun, +appendix to book II). Other temples of hers are described as +being cave-like, underground, dark, with a single low entrance, the +door of which was sometimes sculptured in the form of the great +open jaws of a serpent. Only priests were allowed to penetrate +into these mysterious chambers where sacred and secret rites were +performed and a sacred fire was also kept burning in an adjoining +chamber. Evidence, which I shall produce further on, establishes +that the high-priest Cihuacoatl dwelt, at times, in a house named +<q>place of darkness</q> and annually sacrificed a human victim in +honor of the lord of the underworld, in an edifice called <q>the navel +of the earth.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The religious cult of one-half of the Mexican hierarchy was +distinctly nocturnal. The chief duties of certain priests were astronomical +observation and the supervision of the sacred fire, which +was kept perpetually burning on the summit of each temple-crowned +pyramid, in what was termed <q>the sacred or divine brazier</q> of +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +sculptured stone. Two priests jointly watched by night and +day and received and transmitted to the flames the incense offerings +of the devout. The temple fires were extinguished only at +the expiration of a cycle of fifty-two years and were then rekindled +by the high priest at midnight precisely, with impressive +solemnity. +</p> + +<p> +In ancient Mexico, it should however be observed, although the +logical association of women with the hidden forces of nature, the +underworld and the Below, had exerted a certain influence over +her practical existence, it had not yet given rise to the idea of her +inferiority as compared to man, the associate of the Heaven, the +Above, the visible and active forces of nature. The native sages +did not identify her so intimately with the earth as to deny her the +possession of a soul—the celestial spark. On the other hand it +is curious to note that the Nahuatl word for wife is Cihua-tlan-tli +and for husband is Te-o-quichtli. Is it possible that the particle +<foreign rend='italic'>tlan</foreign> in the first and +<foreign rend='italic'>Teo</foreign> in the second may have contributed to +strengthen the association of the woman with earth=tlalli (tlan=land +of) and the man with Teotl, the sun, something divine and +celestial? In course of time it doubtlessly would have transpired, +in Mexico as elsewhere, that the set of primitive ideas which, during +untold centuries, imposed upon women seclusion, obscurity +and inactivity and thus hindered her development of strength of +body and mind, would have directly induced an inferiority. This +has been subsequently proclaimed, as we know, in many countries, +as a direct proof of her lower nature and of her affinity with the +element earth. The assumed and actual inferiority of woman may +therefore be regarded as the logical, inevitable but artificial result +of primordial classification and association. Suggested by the +same natural phenomena which were visible to all inhabitants of +the same latitudes, these ideas occurred to all people at a certain +stage of their development and exerted a dominating influence +over the subsequent growth of their intelligence. It is but now, +that, unconsciously, mankind is beginning to emerge from the leading +strings of its infancy, which became an iron bondage to its +prolonged childhood. In Mexico, at the period of the Conquest, +the absolute equality of the male and female principles was theoretically +maintained. At the same time it is possible to discern +certain agencies at work which were tending to connect the Below, +the female principle, with harm and evil. From time immemorial +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +it had been the custom of the Chichimecs, who, according to Sahagun +(book <hi rend='smallcaps'>xii</hi>, chap. 12, par. 5), inhabited an extremely poor +and barren region of Mexico, to sacrifice the first animal killed in +a hunting expedition and to offer it to <q>the Sun whom they called +father and to the earth their mother.</q> They severed its head and +raised this as though offering it to the sun. They <emph>then tilled the +earth where the blood had been spilt</emph> and left the animal which had +been sacrificed, on the spot (Ixtlilxochitl, Historia Chichimeca +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi> and Relaciones p. 335). This passage, establishing the +cultivation of the soil where the blood had been spilt, sheds a +flood of light on the origin of the offerings of human blood and +the sacrifices of human life, which were such a prominent and hideous +feature of the Aztec religion. +</p> + +<p> +At the beginning of the sixteenth century, instead of the blood +being spilt directly upon the earth, to insure and increase the fruitfulness +of the soil, a human being was stretched across a conical +stone which became thus the image of the earth-mother, his heart +was extracted and offered to the sun, the Above, and his blood was +then smeared on the mouth of certain idols representing the Below. +In the B. N. MS. an interesting illustration and account are +given of an idol of the earth-mother who is figured as standing on +a pedestal adorned with skulls and cross-bones with outstretched +tongue which signified, <q>that she always had great thirst for human +blood</q> and <q>never refused sacrifices offered to her.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Two priests are likewise pictured in the act of offering bowls +containing human blood to the idol and a third, mounted on a ladder, +is pouring the contents of another bowl over its head. It is +obvious how the constant associations of the earth-mother with +sanguinary sacrifices and bloodthirstiness would, in time, give rise +to the idea of a hostile, maleficent power, linked with darkness +and devouring fire, who, under the aspect of the serpent-woman, +waged an eternal warfare on the human race and clamored for +victims and bloody sacrifices. The natural sequence to the above +associations is that in ancient Mexico the powers exerting fatal +influence upon the human race are all represented as female, viz.: +the Cihuacoatl or woman-serpent, the Ciuapipiltin and the Tzit-zime, +etc. These and various other personifications of the female +principle are described in detail in my notes and commentary to +the B. N. MS. +</p> + +<p> +After considering the foregoing data it seems impossible not to +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> +conclude that it must have taken centuries of time for the idea of +duality, or of the Above and Below to have taken such a deep hold +upon the native mind and to have produced such a growth of symbolism +and association in so many ramifications of thought. Let +us endeavor to obtain a further insight into the native mode of +thought by carefully studying some significant details concerning +the social organization of the Mexicans from the time of Acamapichtli +to that of Montezuma and the influences it had been subjected +to gradually. This, the first ruler, unquestionably ruled as +the Cihuacoatl, a name which means either Woman-serpent or +Female-twin. This fact in itself testifies to an epoch-making change +in the organization of the Mexican government, in the making +of which a concession was made to a previously existing order of +things, by the retention of the female title by a male ruler. +</p> + +<p> +Having carefully studied the question for many years, I have +long considered it proven that when the Mexicans settled in the +valley of Mexico they came under a series of influences emanating +from an ancient and highly cultured centre of civilization situated +in the south, which had followed, during untold centuries, +the same lines of primitive thought which have been stated. This +question of contact and influence from an older civilization is so +important and the material I have collected on the subject is so +extensive and complex, that it cannot be adequately treated here. +Further on I shall discuss at length certain historical data throwing +light on ancient contact and influences. Meanwhile I may as +well state here that, having carefully weighed all testimony, I accept +as amply proven and well supported, the testimony of Las +Casas, Torquemada, Mendieta and others, who record that the +Mexican culture-hero Quetzalcoatl was an actual person who had +come to Mexico from Yucatan twice and had finally returned thither, +leaving a small colony of his vassals behind him whose influence +upon the religious and social organization and symbolism of the +tribes, inhabiting the central plateau, can be plainly discerned. +Montezuma himself, in his famous speech to Cortés, which the latter +carefully reported to the Emperor Charles V, states that: <q>we [the +Mexican rulers] were brought here by a lord, whose vassals all of +our predecessors were, and who returned from here to his native +land. He afterwards came here again, after a long time, during +which many of his followers who had remained, had married native +women of this land, raised large families and founded towns in +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> +which they dwelt. He wished to take them away from here with +him, but they did not want to go, nor would they receive or adopt +him as their ruler, and so he departed. Hut we have always thought +that his descendants would surely come to subjugate this country +and claim us as their vassals....</q> (Historia de Nueva +España. Hernan Cortés, ed. Lorenzana, p. 81; see also p. 96). +I do not see how it is possible to construe such plain, unadorned +statements of simple, common-place facts into the assumption that +Montezuma was recounting a mythical account of the disappearance +of the Light-god from the sky, as upheld by some modern +writers, who interpret the whole episode as a sun-myth or legend. +</p> + +<p> +I have already shown that the meaning of the ocelot-skin and +the spider, employed as symbols by the Mexicans, is apparent only +when studied by means of the Maya language of Yucatan, the +land whence the culture-hero is said to have come by the foregoing +authorities. I will add here that in the Maya chronicles, it is +stated that the culture-hero had ruled in Chichen-Itza, the first +part of which name, <foreign rend='italic'>Chichen</foreign>, +means <emph>red</emph>. In Mexican records it +is described that he departed by water from the Mexican coast and +travelled directly east, bound for Tlapallan—a name which means +<emph>red</emph>-land. I draw attention to the fact that any one sailing from +the mouth of the Panuco river, for instance, in a straight line towards +the east, would inevitably land on the coast of Yucatan, not +far from the modern Merida and the ancient ruins of Chichen-Itza. +</p> + +<p> +I shall also produce evidence, further on, to show that the meaning +of the much-discussed name of the culture-hero's home, Tullan, +is also furnished by the Maya language. From more than one +source, we learn, moreover, that there were several Tullans on the +American continent. The conception of <emph>Twin-brothers</emph> as the personification +of the Above and Below had been adopted in Yucatan +and it is to the influence emanating from that source that I attribute +the movement made in Mexico, to substitute male twin-rulers +in the place of the man and woman, who had previously and jointly +ruled the ancient Mexicans. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now analyze the Maya title Kukulcan, of which Quetzalcoatl +is the Mexican equivalent. As already stated, the word +<foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> means serpent and the numeral 4 and is almost +homonymous with the word for sky or heaven=<foreign rend='italic'>caan</foreign>. The +image of a serpent, +therefore, directly suggested and expressed the idea of something +quadruple incorporated in one celestial being and appropriately +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> +symbolized the divine ruler of the four quarters. In the word +Kukulcan the noun <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> +is qualified by the prefix <foreign rend='italic'>kukul</foreign>. In the compiled +Maya dictionary published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (appendix +to de Landa's Relacion) the adjective <foreign rend='italic'>ku</foreign> +or <foreign rend='italic'>kul</foreign> is given as +<q>divine or holy.</q> Kukulcan may therefore be analyzed as <q>the +divine serpent</q> or the <q>Divine Four.</q> When Maya sculptors or +scribes began to represent this symbol of the divinity they must +have searched for some object, easy to depict, the sound of whose +name resembled that of ku or kul. The Maya adjective <q>feathered</q> +being <foreign rend='italic'>kukum</foreign>, +the artists evidently devised the plan of representing, +as an effigy of the divinity, a serpent decorated with feathers and +to this simple attempt at representing the <q>divine serpent</q> in +sculpture or pictography is due, in my opinion, the origin of the +<q>feathered serpent</q> effigies found in Yucatan and Mexico, which +have so puzzled archaeologists. +</p> + +<p> +Of Kukulcan, the culture-hero of the Mayas, it is recounted +that he had been one of four brothers who originally ruled at +Chichen-Itza, over four tribes. <q>These brothers chose no wives but +lived chastely and ruled righteously, until, at a certain time, one died +or departed and two began to act unjustly and were put to death. +The one remaining was Kukulcan. He appeased the strife which +his brothers' acts had aroused, directed the minds of the people to +the arts of peace and caused to be built various edifices. After +he had completed his work at Chichen-Itza he founded the great +city of Mayapan, destined to be the capital of the confederacy of +the Mayas.</q> (See Brinton, Hero-myths, p. 162.) Friar Diego de +Landa relates that the current opinion amongst the Indians of +Yucatan was that this ruler had gone to Mexico where, after his +return (departure?) he was named Cezalcouatl and revered as one +of their gods (Relacion, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 36). +Before analyzing the Nahuatl rendering of Kukulcan's name I +would point out the noteworthy coincidence that, during his reign +at Chichen-Itza and Mayapan, he practically united in his person +and assumed the offices formerly fulfilled by four rulers, of which +he had been only one. +</p> + +<p> +I would, moreover, draw attention to the remarkable, sculptured +columns which support the main portal of the main pyramid-temple +called El Castillo at Chichen-Itza. These represent gigantic +feathered serpents and are figured on pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiv</hi> of Mr. Wm. +Holmes' most instructive and useful <q>Archaeological Studies,</q> Part +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, <q>Monuments +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +of Yucatan.</q> The feathers carved on the massive columns +are evidently the precious tail feathers of the quetzal, which have +the peculiarity of exhibiting, according to the way the light falls +upon them, blue, red, yellow and green colors—precisely those +assigned to the four quarters by the Mexicans and for all we know +to the contrary, by the Mayas. Whether this feather was chosen +for this peculiarity or for its beauty only, as that with which to +deck the effigy of the divinity, can, of course, only be conjectured. +In Mexico numberless effigies of feathered serpents exist. The +resemblance of the sound of the Nahuatl words: feather=ihuitl, +and heaven or sky=ilhui-çatl, should be recorded here as a possible +reason for the association of feathers with the serpent and +as a means of conveying the idea of its divinity. It should also +be noted that quetzal, the name of the most precious feathers the +natives possessed, resembles in sound, the second part of the +Nahuatl words for flame=tle-cueçal-lotl, or for +<q>tongue of fire</q>=tle-cueçal-nenepilli. +That the feathered serpent was an image +of the divinity is finally proven, I think, by the following passage +from Sahagun which establishes that the earliest form, under which +the divinity was revered by the Mexicans, was that of fire: <q>Of +all the gods the [most] ancient one is the God of Fire, who dwells +in the midst of flowers, in an abode surrounded by four walls and +<emph>is covered with shining feathers like wings</emph></q> +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>). It is thus +shown that whilst the word ihuitl=feather suggested +something divine, the word quetzal, besides being the name +of a particular kind of feather, conveyed the idea of something +resplendent or shining [like fire]. The name for serpent, coatl, +signified twin; thus there is a profound analogy between the +Maya and Mexican symbol, pointing, however, to the Yucatan form +as the most ancient. +</p> + +<p> +Let us see how the name Quetzal-coatl occurs in Mexico. It +is given as the name of the <q>supreme god whose substance was as +invisible and intangible as air,</q> but who was also revered as the +god of fire. The constant reference to air in connection with the +supreme divinity caused him to be also adored as the god of air +and of the four winds. On the other hand, the divine title of +Quetzal-coatl was carried by the culture-hero whose personality +has been discussed and who was a Yucatec ruler and high priest. +Sahagun (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> book <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ix</hi>) informs us that <q>Quequet-zalcoa,</q> +the plural form of the word Quetzalcoatl, was employed +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +to designate <q><emph>the high priests</emph> (elsewhere designated as the <q>supreme +pontiffs</q>) <emph>who were the successors of Quetzalcoatl</emph>.</q> He also +states that <q>the high priest of the temple was [the representative +of] the god Quetzalcoatl</q> (book <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +chap. 5). <q>The priest who was +most perfect in his conduct and in wisdom was elected to be high +priest and assumed the name of Quetzalcoatl.... There +were two such high priests equal in rank and honours.... +One of these, the Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, was in the service +of Huitzilopochtli.</q> Without pausing here to analyze this title +since it will be discussed in detail in another publication I will only +repeat that, after years of careful research, I have obtained the +certainty that the foregoing title and office were those held by Montezuma +at the time of the Conquest. What is more, I can produce +ample evidence to prove that he was the living personification of +Huitzilopochtli one of the <q>divine twins</q> and of the Above. He +was not the first Mexican ruler who had filled this exalted rôle, for +it is recorded that Axayacatl, one of Acamapichtli's successors, +had represented, in life, <q>our god Huitzilopochtli.</q> After his death +his effigy <q>was first covered with a fine robe representing Huitzilopochtli; +over this was hung the dress of Tlaloc ... the next +garment was that of Youalahua [=the lord of the wheel] and the +fourth was that of Quetzalcoatl</q> (Duran, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +chap. 39, pp. 304 and 306). +</p> + +<p> +Let us now see how Montezuma's personification of Huitzilopochtli +was carried out by his life and his surroundings. According +to Bernal Diaz, an eye-witness, when the great Montezuma +came forth in state to meet Cortés, he was conveyed on a sumptuous +litter, being thus raised above the earth.<note place='foot'>In connection +with Montezuma's use of a litter it should be noticed that, in the +picture-writings, only the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl and the bird god Huitzilopochtli +are represented as seated on litters. The two bars of Quetzalcoatl's litter, figured in +Duran's atlas (Tratado 2, cap. 1 a) terminate at each end in a serpent's head. The +pair of twin serpents thus rendered, evidently convey an allusion to his name, which +would be equally comprehensible in the Maya or Mexican languages. In another portion +of Duran's Atlas (Trat. 2, chap. 2), Huitzilopochtli is figured as seated on a litter +masked as a bird, and a finely-executed native picture of the bird-god, being borne +on a litter, is in the B. N. MS. where he is named <q>the precious lord</q> and is +represented with a sceptre in his hand surmounted by a heart. This latter detail is of +special interest, since it indicates that the Mexicans employed the heart with the same +symbolical and metaphorical meaning as the Maya-Quiches and Tzentals. The latter +had named their culture-hero <q>Votan</q>=<q>the Heart</q> (of the people). (Brinton +Hero-myths, p. 217.) In the Popol-Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiches, the supreme +divinity is named <q>the Heart of the heaven, whose name is Hurakan.</q> He is also +named the <q>Heart of the Earth,</q> a title whose equivalent in Mexico=Tepe-Yollotl, +was applied to Tezcatlipoca and associated with the bodiless voice, the echo, which +was supposed to proceed from the <q>heart (or life) of the Mountain.</q> The above +data undoubtedly prove the important point that Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca +were respectively entitled <q>the Heart of the Heaven</q> and <q>the Heart of the +Earth.</q></note> When he descended +from this and walked, the golden soles of his sandals prevented +his feet from coming into direct contact with the ground; +he was supported, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> partially held up, by his four principal +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +lords, and a baldachin adorned with light greenish-blue feathers, +gold, pearls and jade representing the xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl=<q>the +verdant or blue sky</q> (which was, by the way, a title of Huitzilopochtli), +was carried over his head. Other lords preceded him, +<q>sweeping the ground and spreading blankets upon it so that he +should not tread upon the earth. All of these lords did not dare +to think of raising their eyes to look at his face—only the four +lords, his cousins, who supported him, possessed this privilege</q> +(Bernal Diaz, Historia Verdadera de la Conquista. Madrid, 1632, +p. 65). A feature, the origin of which can be directly traced back +to the association of the star-god, Polaris, with repose and immovability, +was that Montezuma, like his predecessors, was the only +person privileged to sit on state occasions, on a throne or raised +seat with a high back and rest whilst all other individuals stood +or moved about him. +</p> + +<p> +From several sources we know that Montezuma habitually wore +blue or white attire, which sometimes was of open network. He +employed gold, precious blue and green feathers, turquoise, pearls +and emeralds for his personal ornaments. His diadem with a high +point in front, was incrusted with turquoise or was made of burnished +gold. He sometimes wore a crown made of featherwork, +with a bird's head of gold above his forehead. His emblem was +the sun, the orb of day, and he presided over its cult which had +developed itself simultaneously with the cult of the Above, a feature +of which was the offering of <q>birds, butterflies and flowers.</q> +Sometimes he wore, <q>attached to his sandals, small wings, named +tzi-coyolli, resembling the wing of a bird. These produced a sound +like that of tiny gold bells when he walked</q> (Tezozomoc, Cronica, +p. 594). +</p> + +<p> +It must be admitted, on reading the foregoing descriptions gleaned +from Sahagun's Historia, that it would be impossible to carry out, +more perfectly and completely, the idea that Montezuma was +the earthly representative of the Upper regions, the blue heaven. +By pushing symbolism so far that he actually wore wings on his +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> +feet and avoided contact with the ground, it is not surprising that +Montezuma's adversaries, amongst neighboring tribes, should accuse +him of exacting divine honors for his own person. At the +same time there is no doubt that his own subjects revered him +merely as a temporary representative and mouth-piece of the impersonal +dual divinity. This idea is clearly conveyed by some +native harangues, to which I refer the reader, and from which I +extract the following passages: +</p> + +<p> +After his election, the ruler is solemnly addressed by one of the +chief lords who says to him: <q>Oh! our humane, pious and beloved +lord, who deserves to be more highly esteemed than all precious +stones and feathers, you are here present because our sovereign +god has placed thee [above us] as our lord.... You possess +the seat and throne which was given [to your predecessors] by our +lord god</q> ... <q>you are the image of our lord god and represent +his person. He reposes in you and he employs you like a +flute through which he speaks and he hears with your ears.... +Oh, lord king! God sees what the persons do who rule over his +domains and when they err in their office he laughs at them, but +in silence, for he is god, and is omnipotent and can mock at whom +he will. For he holds all of us in the palm of his hand and rocks +us about, and we are like balls or round globes in his hands and +we go rolling from one side to the other and make him laugh, and +he serves himself of us as we go moving about on the palm of his +hand!</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Although thou art our neighbour and friend and son and brother, +we are no more thy equals, nor do we consider you as a man, for +now you have the person, the image, the conversation and the +communion of our lord god. He speaks inside of you and instructs +you and lets himself be heard through your mouth—his tongue +is your tongue, and your face is his face ... he has adorned +you with his authority and has given you fangs and claws so that +you should be feared and reverenced ...</q> (Sahagun, book +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. 10). +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing figure of speech in which fangs and claws are +alluded to as symbols of fear-inspiring power affords as valuable +an insight into the native modes of thought and expression as do the +similes employed in the following address to the newly-elected ruler +by the spokesman of his vassals. +</p> + +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> + +<p> +<q>Oh lord! may you live many years to fill your office prosperously; +submit your shoulders to the very heavy and troublesome +load; extend your wings and breast as a shelter to your subjects +whom you have to carry as a load. Oh, lord! let your town and +vassals enter under your shadow, for you are [unto them] like the +tree named puchotl or aueuetl, which casts a great circle or wheel +of shade, under which many are gathered in shelter</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The admonition also addressed to the ruler, <q>Never to laugh +and joke again as he had done previously to his election, and to +assume the heart of an old, grave and severe man,</q> explains the +true significance of the name of Montezuma or Mo-tecuh-zoma; +which was an honorific title literally meaning, <q>our angry or +wrathy [looking] lord.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the above data establish beyond a doubt that the Mexican +Quetzalcoatl was regarded as the visible representative of the +celestial ruler of the universe and that divine honors were voluntarily +accorded to him, it is interesting to read Montezuma's explanation +to Cortés concerning this question. The latter writes: +<q>seated on a raised seat Montezuma discoursed as follows: ... +<q>I know that you have been told by my enemies that I am, or +have made myself a god.</q>... Raising his robes he showed +me his body saying: <q>Here you see that I am made of flesh and +bone, like yourself or like any one, and that I am mortal and tangible.</q> +Grasping his arms and his body with his hands he continued: +<q>see how they have like to you.</q></q>... (Historia, +Hernan Cortés, ed. Lorenzana, p. 82). Better than all dissertations, +the above words convey an idea of the naïf simplicity of +the man who uttered them. +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to Mr. Ad. Bandelier's study, <q>On the +social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans,</q> +for further details concerning the duties respectively filled +by Montezuma and his coadjutor, I shall only explain here the +conclusion I have reached that the former was the high priest of +the cult of the sun and heaven, the visible ruler, the war lord, and +the administrator of justice. As stated in a native harangue: +<q>the supreme lord is like unto the heart of the population ... +he is aided by two senators in all concerning the administration of +the government: one of these was a <q>pilli</q> and was named +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +tlaca-tecuhtli; the other was a warrior and was entitled tlacoch-tecuhtli. +Two other chieftains aided the supreme lord in the militia: +one, entitled tlaca-teccatl, was a <q>pilli</q> and warrior; the +other, named tlacoch-calcatl, was not a <q>pilli.</q> Such is the government +or administration of the republic ... and these four +officers did not occupy these positions by inheritance but by election</q> +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. 20). +</p> + +<p> +The following account of the republic of Tlaxcalla throws further +light upon the form of government which prevailed throughout +Mexico and Central America at the period of the Conquest. +<q>The Captains of Tlaxcalla, each of whom had his just portion +or number of soldiers ... divided their soldiers into four +Battails, the one to Tepeticpac, another to Oco-telulco, the third to +Tizatlan and the fourth to Quiahuiztlan, that is to say, the men of +the Mountains, the men of the Limepits, the men of the Pinetrees, +and the Watermen; all these four sorts of men did make the +body of the Commonwealth of Tlaxcallan, and commanded both in +Peace and War ... The General of all the whole army was +called Xico-tencatl, who was of the Limepits ... the Lieutenant +General was Maxix-catzin....</q> (A new survey of +the West-Indies ... Thomas Gage, London, 1655, p. 31). +In Mexico we find that the four executive officers were the chiefs +or representatives of the four quarters of the City of Mexico. In +each of these quarters there was a place where periodical offerings +were made in reverence of one of the signs: acatl, tecpatl, callii +and tochtli, which were the symbols of the cardinal-points, the +elements, and served as day and year signs in the calendar +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, chap. 26). +</p> + +<p> +An interesting indication that the entire dominion of Mexico +was also divided into four equal quarters, the rule administration +of which was attended to by four lords, inhabiting towns situated +within a comparatively short distance from the capital, is furnished +by Bernal Diaz (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 65). He relates that the four lords +who supported Montezuma when he walked in state to meet Cortés +were the lords of Texcoco, Iztapalapa, Tacuba and Coyoacan. +These towns, which were minor centres of government, were respectively +situated at unequal distances to the northeast, southeast, +northwest and southwest of the capital. +</p> + +<p> +These facts and the knowledge that <q>all lords, in life, represented +a god</q> justify the inference that, just as Montezuma represented +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +the central power of the Above or Heaven, the four lords +who accompanied him were the personified rulers of the four quarters, +associated with the elements. In ancient Mexico and Maya +records the gods of the four quarters, also named <q>the four principal +and most ancient Gods</q> are designated as <q>the sustainers of +the Heaven</q> and it cannot be denied that, on the solemn occasion +described, the four lords actually fulfilled the symbolical office of +supporting Montezuma, the personification of the Heaven. This +striking illustration is but one of a number I could cite in proof +of the deeply ingrained mental habit of the native sages to introduce, +into every detail of their life, the symbolism of the Centre, +the Above and Below and the Four Quarters. I shall but mention +here that it can be proven how, in their respective cities the lords +of the cardinal points were central rulers who, in turn, directed the +administration of the government by means of four dignitaries. +Each of these was also the embodiment of a divine attribute or +principle, <q>All noblemen did represent idols and carried the name +of one</q> (Acosta, Naturall and Morall Historie, lib. 5, p. 349). +</p> + +<p> +Each wore a special kind of symbolical costume and was the +ruler or <q>advocate,</q> as he is termed, of a distinct class of people. +<q>For to each kind or class of persons they gave a Teotl [=God +or Lord] as an advocate. When a person died and was about to +be buried, they clothed him with the diverse Insignia of the god +to whom he belonged</q> (Mendieta lib. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, chap. 40). It being +established that each of the four year-symbols, acatl, tecpatl, calli +and tochtli, ruled four minor symbols, it seems evident that, just +as the four lords of the cardinal-points would correspond to the +above symbols, each of the minor lords and the category of people +they represented would also be associated with the minor symbols. +The obvious result of this classification would be the division of +the entire population of the commonwealth into 4×5=20 categories +of people, grouped under twenty local and four central governments, +whose representatives in turn were under the rule of the +supreme central dual powers. Having thus sketched, in a brief +and preliminary way, the expansion of the idea of dividing all +things into four parts, the bud of which was the swastika, let us +examine the Mexican application of the idea of duality, pausing +first to review the data relating to the Cihuacoatl, the personification +of the Earth, the Below and the coadjutor of Montezuma. +</p> + +<p> +Nothing has been definitely recorded about his personality, for +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +he seems to have lived in absolute seclusion during the first occupation +of Mexico by the Spaniards. He is frequently alluded to, +however, and Cortés, Herrera, Torquemada and others, inform us +that he had acted as Montezuma's substitute and led the native +troops against the Spaniards. It is interesting to find that after +the Conquest Cortés appointed him as governor of the City of +Mexico. <q>I gave him the charge of re-peopling the capital and +in order to invest him with greater authority, I reinstated him in +the same position, that of Cihuacoatl, which he had held in the +time of Montezuma</q> (Carta Cuarta, Veytia <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 110). +</p> + +<p> +Quite indirectly, it is possible to learn what sort of military +equipment had been adopted by the Cihuacoatl when he acted as +war-chief. Amongst certain presents, which were sent by Cortés +to Charles V and are minutely described in vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xii</hi> +of the <q>Documentas +ineditas del Archivio de Indias,</q> p. 347, there are several +suits of armor, which could only have been appropriately worn by +the <q>woman serpent.</q> One suit consisted of a <q>corselet with +plates of gold and with woman's breasts</q> and a skirt with blue +bands. Another suit, instead of the breasts, exhibited a great +wound in the chest, like that of a person who had been sacrificed. +In another list (by Diego de Soto, p. 349) a shield is described +<q>which displayed a sacrificed man, in gold, with a gaping wound +in his breast, from which blood was streaming....</q> It is +obvious that the first of these suits of armor conveyed figuratively +the name and the second the office of the Cihuacoatl of +whom Duran speaks as follows: +</p> + +<p> +<q>He whose office it was to perform the rite of killing [the victim] +was revered as the supreme pontiff and his name or title and pontifical +robes varied according to the different periods [of the year] +and the ceremonies which he had to perform. On the present +occasion his title was Topiltzin, one of the names of the great +lord ... (Quetzalcoatl) and he appeared carrying a large +flint knife in his hand ...</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>lxxxi</hi>). The +following passage shows definitely that Montezuma's coadjutor, +his Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, had an equal share of divine +honors accorded to him. <q>The head priest of the temple, named +Quetzalcoatl, never came out of the temple or entered into any +house whatever, because he was very venerable and very grave and +was esteemed as a god. He only went into the royal palace</q> +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. 39). The same authority designates +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> +the second <q>divine twin</q> as the Tlalocan-tlamacazqui or, Tlalocan-tlenamacac +and states that he served the Tlalocan-tecuhtli. +</p> + +<p> +Before proceeding further, let us pause and inquire into the reason +why the name Tlaloc, which is formed of tlalli=earth and is +defined by Duran, for instance, as meaning <q>an underground +passage or a great cave</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, +chap. 84), should be the well-known +title of the <q>god of rain.</q> The explanation is to be found +in the text of the Vatican Codex, A. Kingsborough, <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, p. 190. +This teaches us that the last syllable of the name Tlaloc does not +represent oc=inside of, but stands for octli, the name of the +native wine now known as pulque, which is obtained from the +agave plant. Tlaloc thus meant <q>earth-wine</q> and <q>by this metaphor +they wanted to express that just as the fumes of wine make +mankind gay and happy, so the earth when saturated with water, +is gay and fresh and produces its fruits and cereals.</q> By the light +of this explanation we see that the titles conferred upon Montezuma's +coadjutor were literally <q>the priest or lord, or dealer-of-fire +in the place of the earth-wine.</q> <q>The clouds, rain, thunder +and lightning were attributed to the lord Tlaloc who had many +tlalocs and priests under him, who cultivated all foods necessary +for the body, such as maize, beans, etc., and sent the rains so that +the earth should give birth to all of its products. During their +festival in springtime the priests went through the streets dancing +and singing and carrying a shoot of green maize in one hand and +a pot with a handle in the other. In this way they went asking +for the [ceremonial] boiled maize and all fanners gave them +some</q> ... (Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. 5). +</p> + +<p> +The above and many scattered allusions throw light upon the +group of ideas associated with the Cihuacoatl and clearly indicate +what were his duties. To him devolved the care of the earth and +his one thought was to secure abundance of rain and of crops. +In order to ensure the proper cultivation of the ground, he had, +under him, innumerable agents, who strictly superintended the cultivation +of all food-plants, the irrigation of barren lauds, etc. +These agents, who also resorted to ceremonial usages in order to +bring rain or avert hail-storms and other disasters, were collectively +named <q>the 400 pulque or octli-gods</q>—an appellation +which developed into tochtli-gods, when the rabbit (=tochtli) had +become the pictograph habitually employed to convey the sound of +the word octli, and had been adopted as the symbol of the earth +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +and of prolific reproduction in connection with this. The latter +idea is born out of the female title, that of the earth-mother, who +<q>always brought forth twins.</q> The Cihuacoatl thus stands out as +the representative of the bountiful mother-earth and as the lord of +agriculture, one of whose duties was the careful collection, storage +and distribution of all food products. He presided over the cult +of the fertility of the earth, of the nocturnal heaven, of the stars +and moon, which were associated with the female principle and with +growth in general. The following record proves that amongst his +other duties he offered sacrifices to the invisible hidden powers of +darkness and earth. <q>During the night, in the feast Tititl, the +high priest named Tlillan tlenamacac [=the dealer with fire in +the land of darkness=tlilli=black, evidently a title analogous to +that of Tlill-potonqui-cihuacoatl, given by Tezozomoc, in Cronica, +chap. 33], sacrificed a victim in honour of the god of the Underworld</q> +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, appendix). In this, as on similar +occasions, he was assisted by four priests who succeeded him in +rank. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Bandelier has already recognized that judicial sentences +were ultimately referred to the <q>woman-serpent,</q> who pronounced +the <q>final sentence, which admitted of no appeal.</q> There are more +reasons than can conveniently be presented here, proving that in +Mexico, as in Guatemala, the priest of the Below, the personification +of Tezcatli-poca=Shining Mirror, employed an actual mirror +made of polished obsidian, as an aid in pronouncing final judgment +on criminals. +</p> + +<p> +The Cakchiquel procedure is described by Fuentes of Guzman, +who is quoted by Dr. Otto Stoll in his most instructive and valuable +work on the Ethnology of the Indian Tribes of Guatemala +(Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, band +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, supplement <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +1888): <q>A road leads [from the ancient city of Guatemala] to a +hill [figured with a large tree growing from it]; on its top there is +a flat circular cement floor, enclosed by a low wall. In the centre +is a pedestal, polished and shining like glass. No one knows of +what substance it is made. This was the tribunal or court of the +Cakchiquel Indians, where public trials were held and where the +sentences were executed. The judges sat in a circle on the low +wall. After the sentence had been pronounced, it had to be confirmed +or vetoed by another authority. Three messengers, acting +as deputies of the council, went to a deep ravine situated to the +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> +north of the palace, where, in a sort of hermitage or prayer-house, +there was the oracle of the devil, which was a black, transparent +stone, like glass, but more costly than [ordinary] obsidian. In +this stone the devil revealed to the messengers, the sentence to be +executed. If it agreed with the judgment pronounced, this was +immediately executed upon the central pedestal [of the hill of justice] +on which the criminal was also tortured, at times.</q> If nothing +was seen in the mirror, and it gave no sign, the prisoner was +pronounced free. +</p> + +<p> +This oracle was also consulted before wars were undertaken ... +<q>During the first years of the Spanish occupation, when the bishop +Marroquin heard about this stone, he had it cut out and consecrated +it as an altar, which is still in use in the convent of San +Francisco in the capital. It is a precious stone of great beauty +and is half a vara long.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A picture in the Vatican Codex B (p. 48) represents a temple, +on the summit of which a large obsidian mirror is standing on its +edge. Inside the doorway there are many small black spots, which +obviously represent small mirrors and convey the idea that the interior +walls were incrusted with such. These illustrations would +prove that sacred edifices were associated with obsidian mirrors +even if Sahagun did not mention, as he does (book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, appendix), +no less than three sacred edifices in the great temple of Mexico, +which were associated with obsidian mirrors. It is, moreover, +stated by Duran that <q>in Mexico the image of the god Tezcatlipoca +was a stone, which was very shining and black, like jet. It +was of the same stone of which the natives make razors and +knives,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, obsidian +(Duran <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 98). +</p> + +<p> +What is more, Bernal Diaz relates that the image of Tezcatlipoca, +which he saw beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli in the hall of +the great temple of Mexico, had shining eyes which were made +of the native mirrors=tezcatl. <q>In connection with the shining +eyes</q> of the god it is interesting to note that when, as Duran +states, he was represented under another form, his idol <q>carried +in its hand a sort of fan made of precious feathers. These surmounted +a circular gold disc which was very brilliant and polished +like a mirror. This meant that, in this mirror, he saw all that +went on in the world. In the native language they named it <q>itlachiayan,</q> +which means, that in which he looks or sees</q> (Duran, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 99). +</p> + +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> + +<p> +Sahagun mentions an analogous sceptre which consisted of <q>a +gold disc pierced in the centre, and surmounted by two balls, the +upper and smaller of which supported a pointed object. This +sceptre was called tlachieloni, which means <q>that through which +one looks or observes;</q> because with it one covered or hid one's +face and looked through the hole in the middle of the gold plate.</q> +This kind of sceptre is not exclusively associated with Tezcatlipoca +in the native picture writings, for it figures in the hand of Chalchiuhtlycue +<q>the sister</q> of Tlaloc and of Omacatl whose attributes, +the reeds and chalchiuite or jade beads, prove him to be also +associated with the water. On the other hand the same sceptre is +also assigned by Sahagun to the god of fire. +</p> + +<p> +A clue to the truth and significance of this emblematic sceptre +is furnished by the fact that, in order to express the divine title +Tlachiuale, meaning <q>the Maker or Lord of all creatures or of +young life,</q> the native scribes were naturally obliged to employ +the verb tlachia=to look or see, in order to convey its sound. It +is obvious that they cleverly agreed to express this verb by picturing +some object which could be or was looked through. They +therefore adopted a sceptre with a hollow disc, as an emblem, +which was carried by the living representative of certain divinities, +whose entire costume was in reality a sort of rebus, and in the +case of Tlaloc, the lord of earthwine and fertility and the Tlachiuale +or <q>Creator of young life,</q> par excellence, they once and for +all designated his title by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, +accentuating thereby the action of seeing or looking. But this +probably conveyed even more than the above title, for there is a +Nahuatl noun tlachiuhtli, which means, <q>something made or formed +or engendered,</q> or <q>earth which is ploughed and sown.</q> Then +there is the verb tlachipaua which means, <q>the smile of dawn, the +break of day, the clearing up of the weather,</q> also the purification +and cleansing, all of which were supposed to be under the dominion +of the rain-god and of his living representatives on earth, the rain-priests. +The seemingly conflicting fact that the tlachieloni sceptre +was also assigned to the god of fire is explained by the existence +of the verb tiachinoa=to burn up the fields or forests, and of the +noun tlachi-noliztli=the act of burning up or scorching the fields +or forests, and finally, metaphorically, tlachinoli-teuotl=war or +battle=destruction. It is only when we thus realize all the natives +could express by the image of an eye, looking through a +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +circle, that we begin to grasp its full meaning when employed as a +symbol in their picture writings. +</p> + +<p> +As to the obsidian mirror, which undoubtedly was the symbol +of Tezcatlipoca and, consequently, must have pertained to his +representative, the priest of the Night, we find that it played a +most prominent rôle in the cult he presided over. In the first +case it appears as though it was resorted to in Mexico as in the +conquered province of Guatemala, as the oracle which rendered +final judgment. A series of illustrations, etc., to be published in +my final work on the Calendar System, will prove satisfactorily +that the Mexican astronomers extensively employed black obsidian +mirrors as an aid to astronomical observations, by means of reflection. +Besides mirrors on the summits of temples and mountains, +certain square columns, placed on an elevation and faced +with a broad band of polished obsidian, are pictured in some Codices. +It is obvious that the latter in particular, if carefully oriented, +would have served as an admirable means of registering the periodical +return of planets, stars or constellations to certain positions; +they would then be reflected on the polished surface, as in a frame. +In certain Codices the double, tau-shaped courtyard or enclosure +surrounded by a high wall with battlements, which was employed +in the daytime for the national game of ball, figures in combination +with obsidian mirrors. I draw attention to the fact that the +name of these courtyards was tlach-tli, which literally means the +looking place=the observatory and that, amongst the edifices +of the great temple, a tezca-tlachtli=obsidian-mirror-observatory, +is described. I shall demonstrate more fully, on another +occasion, that the chief purpose of these enclosures was to serve +as astronomical observatories. Dr. Brinton, Señor Troncoso and +other authorities have already observed that the game of ball itself +was intended to represent the idea of the perpetual motion of the +heavenly bodies. (See American Hero-myths, p. 119.) +</p> + +<p> +Returning to reëxamine the divine title Tezcatlipoca we see that, +when interpreted as <q>the lord of the shining obsidian mirror,</q> +it was the most appropriate title of the lord of the Nocturnal +Heaven, which myriads of mirrors reflected each night, throughout +the land. It is easy to see how the habit of referring to the +Temple Minor, in order to ascertain the positions of the stars, +would naturally lead to its being consulted more extensively as an +oracle later on. We thus clearly perceive how the lord of the +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +Night, whose priests called themselves <q>the sons of the Night,</q> +became intimately associated with divination and how the idea of a +definite connection between the movements of the stars or human +destinies would, in the lapse of centuries, make a deep and indelible +impression upon the minds of men. +</p> + +<p> +If the obsidian mirror was the symbol, par excellence, of Mexican +star cult, there are evidences that the small mirror of polished +pyrites was that of the sun-cult. The latter seems to have been +employed, in some way or other, for the concentration of the rays +of the sun required for the lighting of the sacred fire, at noon, on +the days of the vernal equinox and summer solstice. As in Peru, +this duty devolved upon the high priest of the Above or the Son +of the Sun, a title which undoubtedly pertained also to the Mexican +ruler, though not employed so ostentatiously as in Peru. A +keen emulation, which may almost be termed an intense rivalry, +seems to have existed between the two cults, which Sahagun even +goes so far as to designate as two religions. From a chapter of +his Historia we even learn that the entire population of Mexico +was divided into two halves who respectively belonged to one or +the other religion, a fact which naturally affected the position of +the two classes of people and had created the native ideas, of an +upper and a lower class or caste which will be further discussed. +</p> + +<p> +Sahagun's informants explained to him that, when a child was +born, its parents, according to their class, registered it at one of +the two educational establishments for the young and took vows +to have it educated there as soon as it attained a suitable age. +The lower class took their offspring to the Telpuchcalli, where they +were dedicated to the service of the community and to warfare, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the ruling class. +<q>The <q>Lords, chieftains or elders,</q> offered +their sons to the Calmecac to be educated for the priesthood.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It being impossible to present here in full the data showing how +certain primitive conceptions had developed further and how some +human occupations had become associated with the Above and +others with the Below, I will but point out the important fact that +the city of Mexico, divided into four quarters, each of which had +five subdivisions (calpullis), actually consisted of two distinct +parts. One of these was Mexico proper, where the Great Temple +stood and where Montezuma and the lords resided; the other was +Tlatelolco, where the lower classes dwelt and the merchant class +prevailed. After a certain revolt the inhabitants of this portion +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> +of the city were, we are told, <q>degraded to the rank of women</q> +(see Bandelier, <hi rend='italic'>op. et loc. cit.</hi>). From this it would seem evident +that their affairs or lawsuits were settled in the official house named +the Cihua-tecpaneca, whilst the affairs of the nobility, residing in +Mexico proper, were disposed of in the Tlaca-tecpaneca (see Duran, +chap. 3). Knowledge of the prevalence of the division of the +population into two parts is gained through a passage of Ixtl-ilxo-chitl's +Historia (chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxxv</hi>, p. 241): <q>To Quetzalmemalitzin +was given the lordship of Teotihuacan ... with the title of Captain-general +of the dominion of the noblemen. All affairs or lawsuits +of the lords and the nobility belonging to the towns of the +provinces situated in the plain, were to be attended to and settled +in his town. The same title was bestowed upon Quechaltecpantzin +of Otompan, with the difference that he was the captain-general +of the commoners and attended to the affairs and claims of +the commoners and populace of the provinces in the plains.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A further detail concerning the position of the ancient capital of +Mexico should not be omitted, for it is described as follows by the +English friar Thomas Gage, who visited it in 1625: <q>The situation +of this city is much like that of Venice, but only differs in +this, that Venice is built upon the sea-water, and Mexico upon a +lake, which seeming one is indeed two; one part whereof is standing +water, the other ebbeth and floweth according to the wind that +bloweth. That part which standeth is wholesome, good and sweet, +and yieldeth store of small fish. That part which ebbeth and +floweth is a saltish bitter and pestiferous water, yielding no kind +of fish, small or great</q> (p. 43). Added to other data, this detail +seems to indicate that the geographical position of the capital +had been chosen with utmost care and profound thought, so that, +built on a dual island on a dual lake, it should be in itself an image +or illustration of the ideas of organization which I have shown +to have dominated the entire native civilization. If it be admitted, +as I think is evident, that the site of the capital was chosen and +mapped out in accordance with these ideas, then we undoubtedly +have, in ancient Mexico, not only one of the most remarkable +<q>Holy Cities</q> ever built by mankind, but also the most convincing +proof of the great antiquity and high development of the civilization +under whose influence one of the greatest capitals of ancient +America was founded. +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible to read the following descriptions without recognizing +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +that the identical fundamental ideas had undoubtedly determined +the native topography of capitals situated in other parts +of the continent. Beginning with Guatemala, which formed a part +of ancient Mexico, I refer to the plan of the ancient capital and +its description by Fuentes of Guzman, published by Dr. Otto Stoll +in his work already cited: <q>A deep ditch, running from north to +south, divided the town into two portions. One of these, situated +to the east, was inhabited by the nobility; whilst the commoners +(Macehuales) lived in the western division.</q> I pause here to call +attention to the intentional coincidence that the association of +the east with the Above, and the west with the Below, is exemplified +here, topographically. The plan shows that the eastern half +contained, in its centre, a great, oblong enclosure, surrounded by +a high wall. A wall, running from east to west, divided this enclosure +into two distinct courtyards with wide separate entrances +from the west. The northern courtyard, designated as the <q>Place +of the Palace,</q> contains several buildings. The southern one, +named the <q>Place of the Temple,</q> contains an edifice on a terraced +mound and several others. It is noticeable that, in the exact +middle of the central wall, there is a seemingly double, unfortunately +indistinguishable object, or building, which marks the exact +middle of the entire dual enclosure. It is particularly interesting +that the East City is divided into two portions by a wall running +from the southeast angle of the wall of the Temple courtyard to the +outer wall of the city. The southern half, in which the <q>Tribunal +or hill of justice is to be seen, is designated as containing the +houses of the Ahauas or heads of the Calpuls.</q> The northern +half, containing many houses, lacks designation. The West city +is likewise divided into two distinct portions by a broad street, +enclosed by a hill wall and conducting from the western and only +entrance to the city directly to the Place of the Temple. A deep +trench or ditch encloses the entire city, whilst nine watch-towers, +on small hills, are placed at equal distances around it. +</p> + +<p> +If this precious document clearly reveals the ground plan on +which the native capitals were built, in accordance with the dominant +idea, the following native map shows that the ancient dominion +of Yucatan, for instance, was figured as an integral whole with +form of a flat disc divided into four quarters, Ho, the modern +Merida, in its centre. This map, copied from the native Codex +Chumazel, has been published by Señor Crescencio Carillo of Ancona +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +in the Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 43, +as showing the territorial division of Yucatan before the Conquest +(fig. <ref target='Figure_27'>27</ref>). According to Herrera and Diego de Landa, the +unity of the dominion was destroyed about two centuries before the Conquest +by the destruction of the capital, Mayapan. The land then +remained divided amongst many independent chiefs or Bacabs. +Señor Carillo renders the Maya descriptive +text written under the map, +as follows: <q>Here is Mani. The beginning +of the land, or its entrance, +is Campeche. The extremity of the +wing of the land is Calkini; the +(chun) place where the wing grows +or begins, is Izamal. The half of +the wing is Zaci; the tip of the wing +is Cumkal. The head of the land +is the city, the capital Ho.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_27'/> + <figure url='images/figure-27.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 27.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing text shows that, +notwithstanding the circular shape in which it is figured, the +dominion was evidently thought of as in the form of a bird, the +head of which was the capital. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_28'/> + <figure url='images/figure-28.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 28.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +This figure of speech seems to have been prevalent in Mexico +also and to be conveyed by the representation, in the Vienna Codex, +of a double tau-shape to which the head, wings and claw, and +tail of a quetzal are attached (fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, no. 8). As I +shall have occasion to demonstrate further on, the double tau signifies the Above +and the Below and their union forming an integral whole. The +following Nahuatl terms explain by themselves the symbolism of +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +the bird-figure: cuitlapilli=the tail of an animal or bird, atlapalli=the +wings of a bird, or the leaves of a tree, cuitlapalli atlapalli=vassals, +the populace or lower classes, the laborers. +</p> + +<p> +These words furnish irrefutable evidence that the lower class +was familiarly known in Mexico as <q>the wings and the tail</q> of the +commonwealth or state, or the leaves <q>on the trees</q> of the tribe. +Sahagun states, on the other hand, that the Mexicans employed the +metaphor of <q>a bird with wings and a tail</q> to designate a lord, +governor or ruler. He also records that the terms hair, nails, a +thorn, a spine, beard and eyelashes, were used to signify <q>someone +who was noble, generous or of the lineage of the lords.</q> Such +metaphors as these may well cause us to despair at arriving at a +complete understanding of the native imagery and symbolism. +The symbolism of the bird's claw yet remains to be looked into. +The Nahuatl for the same is xo-maxaltic, xo-tzayanqui or cho-cholli. +</p> + +<p> +In one of the ancient Mexican harangues, previously quoted, it +is said of the supreme ruler that he had been given <q>fangs and +nails</q> in order to inspire fear and reverence. Scattered evidence +and the fact that in the Codex Mendoza the decorated claws of an +eagle, for instance, appear as a military device on the shields of +certain war chiefs, seem to indicate that the warriors were spoken +of, metaphorically, as <q>the claws or nails</q> of the state. The following +passage finally proves that the tlachtli or courtyard the shape +of which was a double tau, as in fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, no. 8, was +regarded by the Mexicans as an image of the state itself. In another native harangue +it was said of the newly-elected ruler: <q>He is now placed +or put into the Tlachtli, he has been invested with the leathern +gloves, so that he can govern and throw back the ball to the one +who throws it to him in the game. For the business of governing +very much resembles this game and the game of dice</q> (Sahagun, +book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. xiii). The latter game alluded to, the patolli, +was played on a mat in the shape of a cross, marked off with +divisions, with stone markers, the moves of which were decided +by the numbers obtained on casting the dice, which consisted of +beans with marks on them. It is interesting to find that the word +pat-olli seems to be connected with the verb pat-cayotia=to be +substituted in the place of another, or to succeed another in office +or dignity. The above comparison of the game to the business of +governing indicates that a feature of the government was a methodical +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +succession or rotation in office or dignity, a point to which +I draw special attention, as I shall refer to it later. +</p> + +<p> +The evidence that the Mexicans regarded the form of the courtyard, +named tlachtli, as that of the state itself is noteworthy. On the +other hand, the native map contained in the Codex Mendoza, p. 1, +shows us that they figured their territory as a square, surrounded by +water and divided into four equal parts by diagonal cross-streams +or canals. As in the Maya map the centre of this is occupied by the +well-known hieroglyph or rebus of Te-noch-ti-tlan, the ancient capital, +which consisted of Mexico and Tlatelolco. In three of the +four triangular divisions, two chieftains are figured, whilst in one +there are four, the complete number of chieftains thus being ten. +The incontrovertible evidence that the dominion of the Mexicans, +as well as that of the Mayas, was figured and regarded as an integral +whole has seemed to me to be of extreme importance, because +it points to a fresh interpretation of the much-discussed +meaning of the name Tullan, <q>the glorious centre of culture where +the high priest Quetzalcoatl, had dwelt and whence he had been +driven by the wiles of his enemies. It is a place that we hear of +in the oldest myths and legends of many and different races. Not +only the Aztecs, but the Mayas of Yucatan and the Kiches and +Cakchiquels of Guatemala, bewailed in woful songs, the loss of +that beautiful land and counted its destruction as the common starting-point +in their annals.... According to the ancient Cakchiquel +legends, however, ... <q>there were four Tullans, as the +ancient men have told us.</q> The most venerable traditions of the +Maya race claimed for them a migration from Tullan in Zuyva.</q>... +<q>When it happened to me,</q> says Friar Duran, <q>to ask a +[Mexican] Indian who cut this pass through the mountains or who +opened that spring of water or who built that old ruin? the answer +was: The Tultecs, the disciples of Papa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, Quetzalcoatl. +(See Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.) Considering that the identity +of Tullan has not yet been satisfactorily established, that several +Tullans are said to have existed and that a small town, about a +dozen leagues to the northeast of Mexico, is named Tullan-tzinco=little +Tullan, I should like to direct the attention of Americanists +to the following Maya words: Tul-um=fortification, edifice, +wall and enclosure. Tula-cal, Tuliz, adjectives=whole, entire, +undivided, integral. Tul-ul, adjective=general, universal. Tul-tic, +verb=to belong, to correspond to something. Tul=all +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +around or full. Tul=in composition, to have abundance. Tulnah=to +be too full, to overflow, to proceed, to issue, abound, +high-tide. Tulaan=past participle of tul. +</p> + +<p> +I am of opinion that, after carefully examining the foregoing +words and their meanings, we must admit that an intelligible and +satisfactory derivation and signification of the much-discussed +Tula of the Mexicans, which has been vainly sought in the Nahuatl +language, are obtained if we connect it with the Maya words +for fortress, or stronghold, an enclosed place, an integral whole, +an overflowing source of abundance and plenty. If we do this, +then the problematic term Tolteca, given by Mexicans to the superior +people from whom they had derived their culture and knowledge, +means nothing more than such persons who had belonged +(Maya verb tultic) or were members of a highly cultured commonwealth +or ancient centre of civilization, such as had flourished +during countless centuries, in Yucatan and the present Chiapas, +Honduras and Guatemala. +</p> + +<p> +Reserving this subject for future, more detailed, discussion, I +point out that the name Ho, given to the capital, which is designated +in the map as the <q>head of the land,</q> is obviously derived from +the Maya hol, hool, or hoot, which means not only head but also +chieftain. The circumstance that a single word, Ho, conveyed the +triple meaning of a capital, a chieftain and a head, is particularly +noteworthy, as it affords not only important clues to native symbolism, +which I shall trace later on, but also shows that the presence +of the syllable Ho or O, in certain native names of localities, +may possibly indicate that it was a capital, the residence of a +chieftain. Further light is shed upon the following native association +of ideas when the following words are studied. The ancient +Maya name for a pyramid or artificial mound was ho-m and the +pyramidal elevations on which temples or palaces were built were +designated as ho-mul or o-mul (see Vocabulary, Brasseur de Bourbourg). +The title Holpop was moreover that of the <q>chieftain +of the mat,</q> whose prerogative it was to sit on a mat and to beat +the sacred drum during the public dances or ritual performances +(Cogolludo). The ancient word for vase, vessel or cup in general +was ho-och, whilst o-och meant food or maintenance (Arte +de la lengua Maya, Fray Beltram de Santa Rosa, ed. Espinosa, +Merida, 1859). If the foregoing data be summarized we find that +the word ho, the ancient name of the head of the land, which is +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +figured in its centre, is not only homonymous with capital and +chieftain, but also with pyramid, vase or receptacle and maintenance, +and finally with the numeral 5, also <q>ho.</q> We shall see +that the identical ideas were similarly associated in ancient Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +Referring once more to the ancient map of Yucatan and to the +peculiarity that the head of the figurative bird, the capital, Ho, is +supposed to occupy the centre of the state, I point out nos. 1 and +5 (fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>) from the +Bodleian and Selden MSS. as somewhat analogous +representations of a central capital or chief, and nos. 3 and +6 as possibly being images of a territorial subdivision of the state, +resembling a spider's web. In an unpublished Mexican MS., +which has been recently brought to light, the middle of the concentric +circles is painted blue and suggests the idea of a system of +distribution or irrigation, proceeding from a central supply of +water and radiating in all directions. An accentuation of centrality +is brought into relief in fig. +<ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, no. 6, where the spider's web +is placed in the middle, between the two peaks of a mountain. In +no. 2 a small quadruple sign, which frequently occurs in the Vienna +Codex, always painted in the colors of the four quarters and +united by a cross-band across the centre (no. 4). also figures between +two peaks, above two feet, the significance of which I do +not venture to determine. A remarkable circular disc resembling +the Maya map, and also divided into four parts by cross lines, but +exhibiting footsteps denoting rotation, is represented in the entrance +of a temple, in the Vienna Codex (fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, no. 7). These +figures will be referred to again further on. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now bestow attention upon the names of the Mexican +capital and first note that the edifice of the Great Temple, in which +the Cihuacoatl performed an annual ceremony already mentioned, +was called tlal-xic-co, literally <q>in the navel of the earth or land</q> +(from tlalli=earth, land or country, xictli=navel and co=in) +(Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, appendix). Besides this edifice there was, in +the middle of the lagoon of Chalco, an island, which, to this day, +bears the name of Xico=in the navel or centre. This indicates +the curious circumstance that the edifice and island had apparently +been regarded as forming <q>ideal centres,</q> and shows that the name +of Mexico itself may have been associated with the same conception +being, as it was, the central seat of government. Gomara +states that <q>the city was divided into two halves or parts, one +named Tlal-telolco=small island (literally, <q>in the earth-mound</q>) +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +and the other named Mexico, which means <q>something which flows,</q></q> +(Histoire Généralle des Indes, Paris, 1634, chap. 38). The Nahuatl +word alluded to can be no other than the verb memeya which, +according to Molina, signifies <q>water, or something liquid which +issues or flows in many directions.</q> I have already pointed out +that the Maya words to express water which rises and overflows, +high tide and, by extension, abundance and plenty, are tul, tulnah +and, finally, tulaan, past participle of tul. If the particle <q>me</q> +conveyed the above idea, its combination with xico would cause +the name Mexico to be replete with significance and to mean <q>the +figurative centre whence all maintenance proceeded and flowed in +all directions, throughout the land.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Borgian Codex furnishes representations of identical meaning. +On page 4 a human body, the centre of which forms a large +red disc, is stretched across the double tau-shaped tlachtli which +obviously represents the four quarters, being painted with their +four symbolic colors. It is particularly noteworthy that the limbs +of the central figure are represented as wearing the green skin of +a lizard, while its face is enclosed in the open jaws of the reptile. +It should also be noted here that whilst the Nahuatl names are +cuetz-palin and topitzin, the Maya term for lizard is mech or ix-mech. +On the same page a similar, but smaller, figure is depicted +on a background representing the nocturnal heaven. On the following +page the figure of a dead woman is stretched on a red disc +whilst a priest is drilling the fire-stick into a circular symbol, with +four balls, which is the well-known symbol for chalchiuitl=jade. +As the name of the female water goddess is Chalchiutlycue, this +detail is significant and will be referred to later on. It is noteworthy +that on both pages 5 and 6 the performance of the above +rite is accompanied by the image of the goddess of the earth and +underworld, represented with a death's head, and with her hair +strewn with stars. Her body is that of a green lizard, and she +carries ears and blossoms of maize and holds a blue garment on +which the chalchihuitl symbol figures. +</p> + +<p> +In connection with representatives of the human form outstretched +in sacrifice, on whose body the rite of kindling the sacred +fire or of extracting the heart is being performed, it seems evident +that, under the dominion of the fundamental ideas I have been +discussing, the native sages regarded and utilized the human form +as an image of the Middle and Four Quarters. It is well known +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +that the number 20 was termed <q>one count</q> and connected with +the number of fingers and toes, distributed equally on his four +extremities. The human victim thus formed a living swastika or +cross and became not only the consecrated image of the supreme, +creative, central divinity who controlled the Four Quarters, but also +an image of the central government with its supreme ruler; whilst +the four chiefs of the Quarters were symbolized by the four limbs. +Each of these terminated in a symbolized group consisting of a +hand, maitl, with a thumb (=touey mapilli or vei mapilli, literally, +the great finger, or our great finger) and four fingers (mapilli); or +of a great toe, touei xopil or topec-xopil (literally, our great toe, +or our lord toe) and of four toes=xopilli. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_29'/> + <figure url='images/figure-29.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 29.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The above association of ideas was doubtlessly accentuated by +the fact that the word pilli means a nobleman, a chieftain; thence +he terms pilconetl=the son of a nobleman and pilhua=he who +has sons (pil in this case meaning son and hua=possessor of). +This latter fact could have been very aptly conveyed in the picture-writings +by employing fingers to express the sound <q>pilli.</q> The +number of sons a chieftain had could thus be easily expressed by +his exhibiting a corresponding number of fingers. I shall revert to +this possibility presently, and now referring to fig. +<ref target='Figure_29'>29</ref>, no. 2, direct +attention to the obvious intention to express the idea that the fire +produced was distributed to the four quarters by means of the +figures, painted in symbolical colors, three of which are visible. +Another picture in the same Codex represents four similar figures +springing towards the cardinal points from a source or fountain of +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +water, whilst a priest above a triangular cloak<note place='foot'>Short +triangular capes are worn to this day by the Mexican women, and are called +quechquemitl=shoulder capes. It is curious to find in Molina's dictionary, the following: +tzimpitzauac=something figured, which is wide above and pointed below, +and tzimmanqui=something figured which is pointed above and wide below, words +which seem to indicate that they refer to triangles and that these had different meanings +according to position.</note> holds a pair of +weapons (?) in his hands (fig. <ref target='Figure_29'>29</ref>, +no. 1). If carefully studied, +these groups seem to corroborate the derivation of the name Mexico, +given above. What is more, the first group affords an explanation +of the meaning and purpose of three strange recumbent stone +figures bearing circular vessels, which have been respectively found +in Mexico, Tlaxcala and Chichen-Itza and are now preserved at the +National Museum in Mexico. They furnish the most convincing +proof that an identical cult and symbolism had existed in these +widely-separated localities. The conclusion I have previously expressed, +that an actual connection had been established between +Chichen-Itza and Mexico by the Maya high priest Kukulcan, or +Quetzalcoatl, is thus corroborated by undeniable evidence, which +will be supplemented later on. +</p> + +<p> +The three monoliths have been described and illustrated in the +Anales del Museo Nacional, Mexico, vol. 1, p. 270, by the late +Señor Jesus Sanchez, and are here reproduced. The statue exhumed +at Chichen-Itza by Dr. Le Plongeon (pl. +<ref target='Plate_IV'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi></ref>, fig. 1) +closely resembles that found at Tlaxcalla in Mexico (pl. +<ref target='Plate_III'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi></ref>, +fig. 2). Dr. Brinton, who erroneously describes the Chichen-Itza +statue as representing <q>a sleeping god,</q> points out the extremely +important fact that there was a divinity worshipped in Yucatan +called Cum-ahau, <q>the lord of the vase,</q> who is designated in +a MS. dictionary as <q>Lucifer (the lord of the underworld) the +principal native divinity.</q> He adds there is good ground to suppose +that this lord of the vase ... was the god of fertility +common to the Maya and Mexican cult (Hero-Myths, p. 165). +Considering that the great market-place in the capital was actually +the centre to which the entire product of the land was periodically +carried from its remotest confines, was there classified, exchanged +or distributed far and wide, the comparison to a central flowing +source of maintenance was most appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +That some particular spot in or near the city should have gradually +assumed importance and sanctity as marking the exact centre +of the metropolis, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, of the integral whole of the Mexican +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +<q>empire</q> is but natural and it is not surprising to find that solemn +rites were performed on this spot. In one of the chronicles to +which I shall revert, it is stated that the New Fire was at times +kindled on the prostrate body of a slave, and this curious statement +is corroborated by a picture in the Borgian Codex, showing +a priest producing fire from a circular vessel placed on the body +of a victim beneath whom a face enclosed in the open jaws of a +reptile, is visible (fig. <ref target='Figure_29'>29</ref>). +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_IV'/> + <figure url='images/plate-iv.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate IV.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Le Plongeon, to whom much credit is due for its discovery, +identified the Chichen-Itza statue, for reasons not fully explained, +as a portrait of Chac-Mool, or Lord Tiger, and relates that it was +found at a depth of eight metres, not far from the base of the +Great Pyramid Temple. A statue of a standing tiger, with a human +head and a shallow depression in its back, was also found +near the same spot. I have seen other sculptured figures of human +beings holding a vase, as at the hacienda near Xochicalco, Mexico, +and of tigers, with circular depressions on their backs, and hope +to be able to reproduce their photographs on another occasion. +</p> + +<p> +The most elaborately sculptured recumbent statue is undoubtedly +that which was found in or near the city of Mexico (pl. +<ref target='Plate_IV'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi></ref>, +fig. 3). The under surface of its base (pl. +<ref target='Plate_IV'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi></ref>, fig. 5) is entirely +covered with zigzag water lines and representations of roots +of plants, figured as in the Codices; shells, one kind of which is +the well-known symbol of parturition, and frogs which are intimately +associated with water symbolism. On the hair of the statue +a flower-like ornament is carved (pl. +<ref target='Plate_IV'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi></ref>, fig. 4) in connection with +which it should be noted that the Nahuatl for flower is xochitl, +pronounced hoochitl, resembling the Maya hooch=vase. The small +groups of five dots forming a border around the circular vessel +are noteworthy, as they are likewise sculptured on the calendar-stone. +The characteristic scrolls about the eyes of the figure show +that it personates tlaloc, or earth-wine. The fertility of the earth, +caused by rain, is symbolized by the wreath of ears of corn and +reeds (Nahuatl, <foreign rend='italic'>tollin</foreign>) +which is sculptured around the base of this, +one of the most remarkable of ancient American monuments. +</p> + +<p> +Señor Sanchez cites Torquemada (Monarquia Indiana, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +p. 52) as the only authority who mentions a recumbent image or +idol and relates that, <q>in the city of Tula, there was preserved in +the great temple, an image of Quetzalcoatl ... he was figured +as lying down, as though going to sleep.... Out of +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> +reverence the image was covered with mantles or cloths.... +They said that when sterile women made offerings or sacrifices to +the god Quetzalcoatl, he immediately caused them to become pregnant....</q> +He was the god of the Winds which he sent to +sweep or clear the way for the tlaloques=<q>the earth-wine</q> +gods. +</p> + +<p> +Señor Sanchez also quotes Gama, who, basing himself upon +Torquemada's authority, maintains that Tezcatzon-catl, the principal +rain or octli-god, was figured as lying in an intoxicated condition, +holding a vase of pulque in his hands. To the above data +I add the description by Bernal Diaz, of a <q>figure in sculpture</q> +he saw on the summit of the great temple of Mexico: <q>It was +half man and half lizard (lagarto), was encrusted with precious +stones and one-half of it was covered with cloths. They said that +half of it was full of all the kinds of seeds that were produced in +the entire land, and told [me] that it was the god of sown land, +of seeds and fruits. I do not remember his name....</q> (Historia +Verdadera, p. 71). It may be as well to note, that the Nahuatl +names for lizard, cuetz-palin and topitzin, approximately +convey the sound of the first syllables of the name of the culture-hero +Quetzalcoatl, and of the title <q>topiltzin</q> bestowed upon +him. It must, of course, remain a matter of conjecture whether +the lizard was possibly employed in the above case as a pictograph, +to express the sound of its name. One thing seems certain, +that the Tula image of Quetzalcoatl, to which divinity barren +women directed their invocations, and the statue described by +Bernal Diaz as that <q>of the god of seeds, fruits and cultivated +land,</q> were undoubtedly analogous to the sculptured recumbent +figure found in Mexico, and exhibiting the symbols of Tlaloc, or +earth-wine, of maize, and of parturition. Bernal Diaz further +relates that the said image was kept on the uppermost terrace of +the Great Temple, in one of five <q>concavities surrounded by barbacans +or low walls the wood-work of which was very richly +carved</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. et loc. cit.</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The inference to be drawn from the foregoing data is that the +Mexicans and the Mayas habitually kept, on the summit of their +principal temple, in their centres of government, a statue holding +a circular vessel and figuratively representing the <q>navel or centre +of the land.</q> The group of ideas already traced in the Maya +ho=capital, hom=pyramid, ho-och=vessel, o-och=maintenance, +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +ho=5, thus proves to be completely carried out, for, on this +consecrated spot, which emblematized the source whence all life +proceeded, sacred emblematic rites were performed, the purpose of +which was to typify the union, in the centre, of the four elements +requisite for the productiveness of the earth. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_30'/> + <figure url='images/figure-30.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 30.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The ground plan of the Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen-Itza, +which was built, according to tradition, by the high priest +Quetzalcoatl, carries out the idea of the middle and of the four +quarters in so obvious a manner that it may safely be assumed +that it represented the supposed centre of a dominion +(fig. <ref target='Figure_30'>30</ref>). +Referring the reader to the interesting description +of this remarkable edifice in Mr. +William Holmes' valuable work already +cited, I note that round temples, dedicated +to Quetzalcoatl, are recorded to have also +existed in Mexico. It seems probable that, +at certain festivals, the living representatives +of the Above and Below performed +certain sacred rites on the summit of one +of these circular edifices. It is obvious +that such rites could only have been fitly performed by the coöperation +of both twin rulers or Quequetzalcoas, each of whom personified +two elements. The appropriate season for such rites would be +that when the necessity of insuring a successful harvest would +seem most urgent. It is a recorded fact that the most solemn festivals +of the year were held between the vernal equinox, on which +date the ritual year began, and the fall of the first rain which usually +occurs about the middle of May. It is extremely significant +that at this precise period the festival toxcatl took +place (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Maya +thoaxol or thoxol=distribution, giving each one a little, and o-och=food +or maintenance) during which Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli +were jointly honored. During this festival the <q>sacred +dough,</q> named tzoalli, was a prominent feature of the ritual and it +was undoubtedly associated with the idea of the life-giving union +of the four elements, the Above and Below, or the male and female +principles. +</p> + +<p> +It can, moreover, be directly connected with the recumbent statues +representing the centre; for, whilst Bernal Diaz recorded that +the statue on the summit of the Great Temple held a collection of +all the seeds of the land, Cortés, in his descriptive letter, gives us +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +an important detail which evidently applied to the identical statue. +He relates that <q>the bodies of the idols are made of a dough consisting +of all the kinds of seeds and vegetables that these people +ate. These are ground, mixed with each other and then moistened +with the blood of the hearts of human victims ...</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +p. 105). Sahagun relates that an image of the earth goddess, +under the title of Seven-serpents or twins, was made of this sacred +dough and that offerings of all kinds of maize, beans, etc., were +made before it <q>because she is the author and giver of all these +things which sustain the life of the people</q> +(book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, 4). It is +well known that the dough images were broken into small pieces +and these were distributed to the priests and people, who partook +of the substance after having prepared themselves by fasting, for +the sacred rite. I draw attention to the fact that the above sacred +substance is but the natural outcome of the primitive notion already +mentioned, which led the hunters to spill blood upon the earth, to +obtain its increased fruitfulness. An insight having been thus obtained +of the origin of blood sacrifices in ancient America, it is +possible to understand the meaning of certain representations showing +the performance of ritual blood-offerings. +</p> + +<p> +On the well-known bas-relief preserved in the National Museum +of Mexico, and illustrated in the Anales (vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 63), the +two historical rulers of ancient Mexico, who figure as Quequetzalcoas, +or divine twins, in exactly the same costume, are sculptured +with blood flowing from their shins and in the act of piercing +their ears with a sharp bone instrument. Two streams of blood +descend from these and meet before falling into the open jaws +figured beneath an altar, on which two conventionalized flowers +appear. The two rows of teeth=tlantli, convey the sound of +the affix tlan=land of, or tlalli=earth. But the most remarkable +and striking instance of the group of ideas we have been +studying is found on p. 62 of the Borgian Codex. On a background +formed by a pool of water, there is a group which represents +the <q>earth-mother</q> lying on a band of lizard-skin, with +two maize plants issuing from her body and growing into a large +two-branched tree, in the centre of which is a flint-knife or tecpatl. +A bird stands on its summit and its branches terminate in +maize plants. Its growth is being furthered by the two streams +of blood which proceed from two human figures, standing at each +side of the tree. One is painted black and evidently represents +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +the Lord of the Below; the other is painted blue-green and represents +the Lord of the Above. The blood-sacrifice they are jointly +offering is that mentioned in the <q>Lyfe of the Indians,</q> as performed +in order to obtain generation. Unquestionably this symbolical +group would have been equally intelligible to Mayas or +Mexicans, since the ideas it expressed were held in common by +both people. +</p> + +<p> +Before proceeding further it is necessary to state that after the +native philosophers had, for an indefinite period of time, been satisfied +with the artificial division of all things into four quarters, +corresponding to the cardinal points and elements, the idea of the +Above and Below gradually grew in importance, whilst prolonged +thought and observation disclosed that the above classification demanded +revision. On carefully investigating the attributes of the +principal ancient Mexican deities or personifications of the elements +we see that the native thinkers had found themselves obliged +to make a distinction between the different forms of each element, +having realized, for instance, that water not only fell to earth from +the heaven, but also issued from the depths of the earth in the +form of springs or fountains, and formed rivers and lakes. The +final conclusions they reached in this instance are best explained +by the fact that the name of the god Tlaloc means earth-wine or +rain only, and that his sister <q>Chalchiuhtlycue</q> appears as the +personification of wells, springs, rivers and lakes. It is evident +that the classification of the ocean or sea must have given rise to +much serious thought. We know how the problem was solved by +the fact that the Nahuatl name for the ocean is <q>ilhuica-atl</q>=heaven-water. +Accordingly, the rain and the ocean pertained to +the heaven, the Above and male principle, whilst the wells, springs, +rivers, etc., belonged to the earth, the Below, the female principle. +</p> + +<p> +As in this case, so it was with the other elements, each of which +was finally personified by a male deity and his female counterpart, +which, in some cases, tended to represent its distinctive and beneficent +properties. As these deities are separately treated in my +commentary of the <q>Lyfe of the Indians</q> and lack of space forbids +my discussing them here, I shall but mention that the ultimate +native systematization of the elements, each of which was +thought of as an attribute only of supreme and central divinity, +corresponds exactly to that held by the Zuñis of to-day and set +forth in the following account given by Mr. Frank H. Cushing and +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +quoted in Dr. Brinton's <q>Native Calendar of Central America +and Mexico</q> (p. 8). In quoting it I draw special attention to the +numerical divisions given, as this is absolutely essential for the +understanding of the statements I shall make, further on, concerning +the origin of the native Calendar-systems. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_31'/> + <figure url='images/figure-31.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 31.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +<q>In the ceremonies of the Zuñis the complete terrestrial sphere +is symbolized by pointing or blowing the smoke to the four cardinal +points, to the zenith and nadir, the individual himself making +the seventh number. When the celestial is also symbolized, only +the six directions are added to this seven, because the individual +remains the same, so that the number typifying the universe, +terrestrial and celestial, becomes 13. When, on the other hand, +in their ceremonies, the rite requires the officiant to typify the +supra- and intra-terrestrial spheres, that is, the upper and lower +worlds [the Above and the Below], the same number 13 results, +as it is held that in each the sun stands for the individual, being +in turn the day sun and night sun, the light and dark sun, but +ever the same and therefore counts but once.</q> +</p> + +<p> +After having gained this knowledge of native speculative philosophy, +let us penetrate still further into their modes of thinking +by studying, first of all, a series of symbols of the earth-mother +taken from one of the most valuable of Mexican MSS., the Vienna +Codex (fig. <ref target='Figure_31'>31</ref>). +In these the idea of the vase, bowl or receptacle +and of the serpent predominates. It is instructive of native thought +to find the vase represented as containing a child (no. 1), an agave +plant (no. 7), a fire, denoting warmth (no. 3), a flower (no. 12), +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +and a bunch of hair, the numerical symbol for multiplicity=the +number 400 (no. 5). In no. 2, the hollow between two recurved +peaks conveys the idea of a central vase; a band with eyes rests +upon the peaks and denotes the heaven. No. 4 shows a double +vase, enclosed in a similar representation of the nocturnal heaven—the +idea to be conveyed being evidently that of a receptacle +hidden in darkness. No. 9 displays an open jaw, two claws, a +human heart and a stream of blood issuing from it. Nos. 10 and +11 present different shapes of the serpent's jaw, the symbol of +the earth. +</p> + +<p> +The double-headed serpent forming a vase containing a flower +(no. 12) is particularly interesting because the flower=xoch-itl +in Nahuatl, seems to suggest an intentional likeness to the Maya +word for <q>vase, vessel or cup in general,</q> ho-och (Arte de la +lengua Maya, Fray Pedro Beltran de Santa Rosa, ed. Espinosa, +Mérida, 1859) as well as hoch or o-och=<q>food and maintenance.</q> +The symbolical vase-like opening in the core of the agave plant, +(no. 8) is such as is made to this day, in order to collect the juice, +which, when fermented, constitutes the sacred wine of the ancient +Mexicans, octli, now better known as pulque.<note place='foot'>The +production of this drink was limited to the area in which the agave plant +could be cultivated. As set forth in my commentary on the <q>Lyfe of the Indians,</q> +the natives employed many other kinds of fermented liquors, made from different +fruits and plants.</note> As will be shown +the Mexicans considered this as <q>the drink of life.</q> Its use was +rigidly regulated and supervised by the <q>octli-lords</q> or <q>rain-priests</q> +who distributed it at certain dances, in order to induce a +state of mild intoxication amongst the participants. +</p> + +<p> +As in the case of the Zuñis and Tarahumari Indians of the present +day, referred to by W J McGee, in his valuable and instructive +article on <q>The beginning of Marriage</q> (the American Anthropologist, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ix</hi>, no. 11, p. 371), <q>certain ceremonials typifying +the fecundity of the earth and of the leading people thereof</q> were +performed by the ancient Mexicans. These public ceremonials had +also been <q>apparently developed to the end that the tribes and +peoples might be encouraged to increase and multiply and possess +the fecund earth.</q> They took place at the period of the year +when the heaven and earth were also supposed to +unite, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, at the +beginning of the rainy season. During this the ordinary out-door +occupations of the agriculturist and hunter were forcibly interrupted +and the regular and periodical transportations of produce and tribute +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +to the capital became impossible, owing to torrential rain, +swollen rivers and impassable roads. This period of enforced +shelter and confinement indoors seems to have become the definite +mating season of the aborigines. At the same time the union +of the sexes had obviously assumed a sort of consecration since +it was intimately associated with the cosmical, philosophical and +religious ideas and coincided with what was regarded as the annual +union of the elements or of the Above and Below, the heaven and +earth. +</p> + +<p> +At that period of its history, when the Aztec race was jointly +governed by a priest, personifying the heaven and a priestess, +<q>his wife and sister,</q> who personified the earth, some form of +sacred marriage rite must have been annually performed. The +consecrated character of their union must have naturally caused +their offspring to be regarded as of a holy and almost divine origin. +It is easy to realize, therefore, how, in ancient Mexico, the +artificial idea of <q>superior birth</q> came into existence, how a family +or caste of rulers gradually developed, the members of which +were entitled <q>teotl</q>=divine, whilst the men were regarded as +<q>the sons of Heaven</q> and the women <q>the daughters of Earth.</q> +It is obvious from this that the periodical union of the sexes, accompanied +as it was, by sacred dances and the distribution of +sacred wine, must have gradually assumed a semi-religious character, +whilst the ritual nuptials of the <q>divine</q> rulers, typifying, +as it obviously did, the grand and impressive phenomenon of the +rainy season, must have caused this marriage to assume the character +of a hallowed rite and surrounded it with the most elevated +and intense religious sentiments of which the native mind was +capable. +</p> + +<p> +After this recognition of the diverging influences which guided +the development of primitive marriage institutions, we will return +to the rain-priests or <q>octli-lords,</q> of whom it is repeatedly stated +that there were four hundred, a number corresponding to an assignment +of 100 or 5×20 to each of the four provinces or divisions +of the commonwealth. Their emblem was the sacred vase or receptacle +and in the <q>Lyfe of the Indians</q> this will be seen figured +on their mantas and shields (no. 6<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>). A small gold plate, of +the same shape, is represented as worn by these <q>lords,</q> attached +to the nose (no. 6<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>); and, in the same MS., the symbolical ornament +is also carried by the <q>sister of Tlaloc.</q> It was evidently +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +worn, like similar ornaments in other countries, hanging from the +septum of the nose, and seems to have indicated a consecration of +the breath as the substance of life. As an inference, merely based +on an insight gained into the native modes of thought, I suggest +that the explanation for the adoption of this ornament may have +been the religious idea that the breath of life, dividing itself as it +issues through the nostrils and uniting when inhaled, appeared to +the native thinkers as a marvellous illustration of unity and duality, +both ideas having constantly been present in their minds. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_32'/> + <figure url='images/figure-32.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 32.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In the Vienna Codex there is a remarkable picture of the earth-vase +resting on a slab with five divisions. A profusion of puffs or +breaths of air or vapor issue from it and, branching off in two directions, +form what is like the conventional tree of life, also met +with in Maya bas-reliefs and documents. At the extremities of +the branches which turn downwards, a serpent's eye is visible and +a forked-tongue issues above the middle +(fig. <ref target='Figure_32'>32</ref>, no. 1). The intention +to express an exuberant vitality and growth issuing from +the symbolical vase in the centre of the earth, seems obvious. +This idea is still more clearly conveyed, however, in two symbolic +pictures on pp. 21 and 29 of the Codex Borgia, which are reproduced +as nos. 1 and 4 in fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref> of this publication. The first +represents the vase overflowing with water and containing a flint-knife, +the generator of the vital spark. The central group is surrounded +by water and by sun-rays and obviously symbolizes the union of +air, light and water, constituting the Above, with the flint the emblem +of the earth-mother and of Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the +Under-world. Fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, no. 4, represents the vase overflowing +with a liquid, which is designated as being the sacred octli or earth-wine +by the presence of the rabbit, which expresses the sound of its +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> +name=tochtli. This rebus is surrounded by the nocturnal heaven +strewn with stars and the reference to the union of rain or earth-wine +with earth and darkness is evident. It has been generally +assumed that these images of the vase, containing the rabbit or +flint-knife, represented the moon. As the latter was intimately +associated with the cult of night, of the earth-mother and ideas of +growth, it is not impossible that by an extension of symbolism, +this was the case, but only in the same way as the sun was the +emblem of the cult of the Above. On the other hand the native +drawings of the moon in Sahagun's Academia MS. represent it as +a crescent with a human profile on the inner side, and in a specimen +preserved at the Trocadéro Museum, Paris, it is similarly +carved in rock crystal. +</p> + +<p> +Before proceeding to investigate the symbol further, I would +point out the general resemblance of the vase, especially as a conventionalized +serpent's jaw, to the <q>horse-shoe</q> shape of the +problematical stone <q>yokes</q> which have been so thoroughly studied +by Dr. Hermann Strebel of Hamburg (Studien ueber Steinjoche +aus Mexico and Mittel-Amerika. Internationales Archiv, +bd. <hi rend='smallcaps'>III</hi>, 1890). Mr. Francis Parry has advanced a view concerning +the meaning of these curious <q>sacred stones.</q><note place='foot'>The sacred +symbols and numbers of Aboriginal America in Ancient and Modern +times. (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, no. 2, 1894.)</note> This is +somewhat corroborated, as will be shown, by my recent studies, which +seem to indicate pretty clearly that these symbolical objects pertained +to the cult of the earth-mother. A fact of unquestionable +importance, cited by Mr. Parry, is the certified existence and use, +amongst southern Californian Indians of the present day, of a +rudely worked stone of the same shape, in a native religious rite. +The owner of one of these stones, Mr. Horatio Rust, a pioneer +resident of Pasadena, southern California, exhibited it in the Anthropological +Section of the World's Columbian Exposition, at +Chicago, 1893, and informed me how he had observed that, occasionally, +a native assembly took place at a certain spot on a mountain +side, during which invocations and offerings were made. He +ascertained that the ceremony on one occasion was the equivalent +of the puberty-dances of similar California tribes. Having visited +and examined the spot after one of these celebrations, in which +six young girls, decorated with garlands of flowers, were the chief +participants, he found the <q>sacred stone,</q> concealed and surrounded +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +by offerings of corn, meal and pieces of money. The +version published by Mr. Parry is slightly different to this account, +which was given me by Mr. Rust himself. +</p> + +<p> +In order fully to appreciate the close analogy between the Californian +ceremonial offering of maize and meal to the emblematic +stone and the ancient Mexican ritual offerings of seeds to an idol, +holding a bowl or vase, it is necessary to read the following data. +At the same time I would like to mention here that amongst the +Hupa Indians of California, who have been termed <q>the Romans +of Northern California by reason of their valour and far reaching +dominions,</q> we find that <q>flakes or knives of obsidian or jasper, +sometimes measuring 15 inches or more in length, are employed +for sacred purposes and are carried aloft in the hand in certain +ceremonial dances, wrapped with skin or cloth. Such knives are +esteemed so sacred that the Indians would on no account part with +them, and Mr. Stephen Powers found that they could not be purchased +at any price.</q><note place='foot'>Tribes of +California, Stephen Powers. Contributions to North American Ethnology. +Washington, 1877. vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, p. 79.</note> +</p> + +<p> +It is scarcely necessary to recall here that the flint-knife was a +well-known ancient Mexican emblem, nor to point out the importance +of the conclusion that two well-defined symbols which played +an important rôle in the Mexican and Mayan cult of the Below and +of the Earth-mother, are actually found in use amongst Californian +Indians at the present day. +</p> + +<p> +A whole flood of light is thrown upon native symbolism, however, +by the information obtained from the Zuñi Indians by Mr. +F. H. Cushing. The following passage, from their Creation myth, +affords the most positive confirmation of the foregoing conclusion, +that the bowl or vase was the native emblem of the earth-mother. +The Zuñi speaker said: <q>Is not the bowl the emblem of the +Earth, our Mother? For from her we draw both food and drink, +just as the babe draws nourishment from the breast of its mother. +And round, as is the rim of the bowl, so is the horizon....</q><note place='foot'>Fourth +Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, p. 518. Washington.</note> +Interesting as this explanation of the native symbolism undoubtedly +is, it becomes most important when its full significance is +realized and we recognize that originally earthenware bowls themselves +were looked upon as sacred emblems formed indeed out +of the material of the earth itself. This fact places the invention +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> +and manufacture of earthen vessels in an entirely new light and +enables us to conjecture and understand why, quite apart from their +utility, so much care and decoration were lavished upon them and +why, indeed, they were constantly buried with the dead. They +obviously served as sacred emblems of the earth-mother, to whose +care the dead body was confided, and originally the intention probably +was to propitiate her by the beauty of the sacred vessels, +which, to be symbolical of her bounty, necessarily contained food +and drink. +</p> + +<p> +Without pausing to discuss how easily this custom would have +gradually given birth to the belief that the food and drink thus +offered were intended for the use of the dead body itself, or its soul, +I would point out that, in the absence of clay vessels, a stone, +rough or worked, would have also served as an appropriate emblem +of the earth-mother, being as it were, of her own substance. +It is well known that in ancient Mexico this custom prevailed. +There we also find that the bowl- or vase-shaped grave was employed, +with a deeply religious and symbolical meaning. This is +clearly revealed by a native drawing in the <q>Lyfe of the Indians,</q> +representing a native burial. The deceased, represented by his skull +only, has been placed in a deep hole, figured as a large inverted +horse-shoe, painted brown and covered with small <q>horse-shoe</q> +marks. The same religious symbolism which led to the adoption of +a definite form of sepulchre, typifying the element earth, would evidently +account for the adoption for burial purposes, of large clay +vessels into which the remains of the dead were placed. In some +localities these clay burial urns were, as we know, made large +enough to contain the dead body itself. The difficulty of manufacturing +these would naturally have led to the general adoption of +cremation, simply as a means of reducing the remains so that they +could repose in the sacred image of the earth. Cremation would, +moreover, be a rite full of meaning since, to the native mind, +earth was inseparable from its twin element fire, and both together +constituted the <q>Below.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is significant to find, however, that the ashes of Montezuma's +predecessors had not been finally consigned to the earth. In strict +accordance with their association with the Heaven and Above, +their remains were never allowed to come in contact with the earth, +but were usually preserved inside of a hollow wooden effigy of the +deceased, which was dressed in his insignia and placed in a high +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +tower, built for the express purpose. Cortés states that there were +<q>forty very high towers</q> in the enclosure of the Great Temple of +Mexico and that <q>all of these were sepulchres of the lords</q> (Historia +de Nueva-España, ed. Lorenzana, pp. 105 and 106). Whilst it is +evident that the remains of all lords and priests of heaven should +thus be assigned a place of rest high above the earth, it is equally +intelligible that the bodies of the lords and priests of the Below +and all women should be consigned to the interior of the earth and +by preference in caves. The Codex Féjérvary contains an interesting +picture of the tied-up body of a woman, recognizable as +such from the head-dress and her instrument of labor, the metlatl, +on which the maize is ground. The mummy rests inside of a flat +effigy of a serpent's head, which seems to be carved in wood or +stone and closely resembles fig. <ref target='Figure_31'>31</ref>, no. 11. It is worth +considering whether the carved stone-yokes may not have served in connection +with the funeral rites of the consorts of rulers or high +priestesses or priests of the Below. +</p> + +<p> +If investigations of the vase or earth symbols are extended to +countries lying south of Mexico, traces of the existence of an +analogous cult are observable. There undoubtedly exists a striking +resemblance between the form of the characteristic and peculiar +stone <q>seats</q> which have been found in such numbers in +Ecuador, to the vase, fig. <ref target='Figure_31'>31</ref>, no. 3, for instance. The +employment of these symbolical stones as a consecrated central altar or, +possibly, as the throne of the living representative of the earth-mother, +would have harmonized with the native ideas which have +been traced on the preceding pages. +</p> + +<p> +It was also extremely interesting to me to find the identical symbol +in the Maya day-sign Caban, which has been identified by Dr. +Schellhas and Geheimrath Förstemann as a symbol of the earth +and is figured on p. 99 of Dr. Brinton's Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics. +In the sign Caban, the horse-shoe mark is accompanied +by a series of dots which seem to indicate liquid trickling from the +receptacle and permeating the soil, an idea which is strictly analogous +to the much more elaborate Mexican images of the vase full +of rain or <q>earth-wine,</q> fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, +nos. 1 and 4, which, in cursive +form, was employed as the emblem of the pulque, or octli lords, +the priests of the earth. It is strikingly significant to find that in +the Maya Codices the drops issuing from the horse-shoe are sometimes +figured as trickling into the mouths of <q>divinities</q> whose +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> +faces also exhibit images of the sacred vase, analogous to that of +the Mexican <q>octli-lords.</q> +</p> + +<p> +These Maya divinities have been designated by Dr. Schellhas +as god L, whose face is painted black and under whose eye a vase +is painted, a peculiarity termed by Maya authorities <q>an ornamented +eye</q> and which may be seen in fig. <ref target='Figure_33'>33</ref>, iv; (2) as god M, +<q>a second black god,</q> whose eye is likewise enclosed in a vase and +whose hieroglyph is a vase on a black ground; and (3) as god C, +of whom I shall subsequently speak in detail. (See Brinton's +Primer, pp. 122 and 124.) In the case of god L, the two horse-shoe +marks from which drops are falling into the mouth of the +god, are surmounted by the glyph imix, to which I shall revert. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_33'/> + <figure url='images/figure-33.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 33.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The horse-shoe mark with drops likewise occurs in the design +resembling the akbal glyph, which has been interpreted as connected +with akab=night. It also occurs, in Maya Codices, on +bands exhibiting cross-symbols, sometimes in an inverted position +and hanging from above and sometimes standing on two of the +three mounds which are a feature of these interesting glyphs. +Postponing a detailed discussion of these, I will but emphasize +here that, in the Maya Codices the vase, cursively drawn as a +<q>horse-shoe</q> mark, is proved to be intimately connected with the +ideas of liquid falling from above, and constituting the drink of +divinities and symbols associated with the sacred vase, night and +darkness, all attributes of the Below. We shall next demonstrate +that it was alternately placed, on the Maya Caban glyph, with +a curious sign consisting of a pea-shaped black dot, to which a +curved and wavy line is attached. This is always figured as issuing +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +from above the dot, then extending downwards and half around +it and terminating in a descending, undulating line. +</p> + +<p> +I submit the following to the consideration of Maya specialists: +It seems to me that this sign presents an extremely realistic drawing +of the seed of a monocotyledonous plant, such as the maize or +Indian corn, in its first stage of germination, when the radicle, +having issued from the apex, turns downwards in characteristic +fashion and penetrates into the earth. Besides the realism of the +native drawing there can be no doubt that the image of a sprouting +maize-seed is the most expressive and appropriate accompaniment +to the symbol of fertilizing rain, on an earth-symbol, and I am +unable to understand how Drs. Cyrus Thomas, Seler, Schellhas +and Brinton could have overlooked the realism in this image of a +sprouting seed, and concluded that it was a portrayal of <q>fermented +liquor trickling downward,</q> a <q>nose-ornament,</q> or a +<q>twisted lock of hair,</q> <q>a cork-screw curl.</q> The latter interpretation +was made by Dr. Schellhas because he found the sign in +connection with female figures in the Codices, which undoubtedly +is a fact of extreme interest, as it furnishes a valuable proof that +the Mayas associated the earth with the female principle. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Schellhas, however, records his observation that the sign +caban occurs as a symbol of fruit-bearing earth, in the Codex +Troano, as it is figured with leaves of maize (p. 33) or with climbing +plants issuing from it and winding themselves around a pole +(p. 32). Geheimrath Förstemann connects the day-name caban +with <q>cab</q> to which Perez, in his dictionary, attaches the meaning +of <q>earth, world and soil</q> (Die Tages götter der Mayas. Globus, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>lxxiii</hi>, no. 9) and adds that the hieroglyph decidedly +designates the earth. At the same time he interprets what I regard as +the maize-grain and its radicle, as possibly representing a bird in +its flight upwards, and he merely describes the accompanying inverted +horse-shoe with dots, without attaching any positive meaning +to it. It must be added that Dr. Förstemann himself states +that he is not satisfied with his own interpretation of these two +symbols, the first of which, the seed and radicle, likewise occurs +in the day-sign cib, to which I shall recur. +</p> + +<p> +If any doubt remains as to the signification of the day-sign cab, +I think it will be dispelled when it is shown that the name cab, or +caban is obviously related to the adjective, adverb and preposition +cabal or cablil, which signifies low, below, on the earth, in, beneath +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> +and under. The frequent association of the cab glyph with the +image of a bee, as in the Codex Troano, is partially explained by +the fact that the Maya word for honey is cab, for honey-bee is +yikil-cab. It affords at all events, an instance, in Maya hieroglyphic +writing, of a method of duplicating the sound of a word +analogous to that which I detected in Mexican pictography, and +named complementary signs in my communication on the subject, +published as an appendix to my essay on Ancient Mexican +Shields (Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, Leyden, 1892). +On the other hand the day name and sign cib, on which the sprouting +grain is also figured, seems to be related to the verb cibah=to +will, to occur, to happen, to take place. The allusion contained +in both glyphs is obviously the same and signifies, in the first +place, the hidden process of germination which takes place under +the surface of the soil, and is associated with the idea of the female +principle in Nature. +</p> + +<p> +The seed and radicle, horse-shoe and rain-drops, are also distinguishable +on a vessel on page 35 of the Dresden Codex and on a +small three-legged vase, which is figured by Doctor Brinton (Primer, +118) as the day sign ch'en. This vase is surmounted by two in-curving +projections and offers a close analogy to a sacred vase with +superstructure (fig. <ref target='Figure_33'>33</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>) +from which projects a peculiar open +and double receptacle, into which a priest is sowing small seeds. +The interior of this bowl is represented as hollow, and containing +what I shall show further on to be a native symbol for Earth: +three little mounds. On another bowl, in front of this one, a bird +is sitting and presumably hatching. In another portion of the +same MS. a similar bowl is figured containing three seed fruits and +capsules, resembling pomegranates or poppy-heads (fig. +<ref target='Figure_33'>33</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The tree next to which the first two symbolical bowls are placed +deserves to be carefully studied, for the trunk is crowned by +four stems bearing single leaves and is encircled by a serpent, +<foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>, +the homonym for the numeral four=kan. A fringed mantle and +a scroll hang from the coils of the serpent's body, two footsteps +are painted on the scroll and, pointing downwards, express <q>descent,</q> +as do also the falling drops of liquid on the stems of the +tree which grows from a peculiar glyph with subdivisions, which +has points of resemblance with the glyph under the footless divinity +(fig. <ref target='Figure_33'>33</ref>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>). +An obsidian mirror, with cross bars, is painted +in front of the latter, which displays the same descending footsteps +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +on its mantle. The head and eyes of a snail, the symbol of +parturition, are above its face and a wreath of flowers crowns its +head. Tedious as such a minute analysis may seem, it is nevertheless +necessary, in order to gain a perception of the extent to +which symbolism was practised in the picture writings found in the +Maya MSS., accompanied by the cursive calculiform glyphs. It +seems that, in no. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +we have a presentation of the Maya <q>tree +of life,</q> and that scrolls, on which descending footsteps are depicted, +are intended to convey the meaning that life is descending +from Above into the egg and seeds by virtue or decree of the celestial +power. It should be noted here that the phenomenon of a +living bird issuing from the hard and inanimate egg-shell had made +as deep an impression upon the ancient philosophers in Mexico as +elsewhere, and that the power <q>to form the chicken in the shell</q> +was deemed one of the most marvellous attributes of <q>the divine +Moulder or Former,</q> as is further set forth in the <q>Lyfe of the +Indians.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing illustrations establish, at all events, that the +Mayas, like the Mexicans, associated the sacred vase with seeds +and germination. The vase, illustrated by Doctor Brinton, exhibits +the seed and radicle; and this is also found on the symbol for +earth, which, in the Cortesian Codex, is associated with the image +of a serpent, possibly the equivalent of the Mexican Cihuacoatl, +or female serpent. +</p> + +<p> +If, after mustering this close array of analogies, we next examine +the glyph cib, we find that it exhibits the seed and radicle in +the centre of a square, three sides of which are decorated with what +Doctor Brinton has termed the <q>pottery decoration(?).</q> This consists +of short lines, such as are employed in Mexican pictography, +in the well-known sign for tlalli, or land, which is usually surrounded +on three sides by a fringe, presumably symbolizing plants +and grass, a <q>fringe</q> of vegetation and verdure. In the glyph cib, +already referred to, I am inclined to see but a cursive rendering of +the same idea, with the seed and radicle in the centre and the +fringed border barely indicated by a few short lines. The same +border is found repeated on three sides of the head of a frequently +recurring personage whom Doctor Schellhas designates as <q>God +C, of the Ornamented face.</q> In his extremely valuable work, Die +Göttergestalten der Mayahandschriften, this careful investigator +records the various combinations in which this God C occurs in the +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +Codices and impartially weighs the possibilities of its meaning. +Geheimrath Förstemann has made the important observation that +the figure of God C occurs in combination with the day-sign, +chuen, of the Maya calendar, which coincides with the Mexican +day-sign azomatli=monkey. +</p> + +<p> +I am unable to agree with my venerable friend in identifying +God C, with Polaris. As Doctor Schellhas rightly observes, the +fact that God C is found in combination with the signs of all the +four quarters disproves an identification with Polaris. What is +more, God C is frequently represented as receiving in his mouth +drops of liquid falling from a cursive vase placed above his head—a +detail which clearly connects him with earth and the <q>earth-wine.</q> +In the Mexican MSS. we find the monkey intimately +connected with the octli or earth-wine gods as, for instance, in the +<q>Lyfe of the Indians.</q> I therefore reserve a more detailed discussion +of this subject for my notes on this MS. and return to the +glyphs caban and kan or can. +</p> + +<p> +Just as it has been shown that the first may signify cabal=the +Below, so it is evident that the second is connected with the preposition +and adverb canal, signifying <q>above, on top of, on high.</q> +Dr. Brinton sees in the kan symbol a presentation of a polished +stone, or shell pendant, or bead, and cites the Maya dictionary of +Motul which gives kan as the name for <q>beads or stones which +served the Indians as money and neck ornaments.</q> In connection +with this important statement I revert to the carved shell-gorgets +which have been found in the mounds and ancient graves in the +Mississippi valley and exhibit Maya influence. The greater number +of these exhibit a carved serpent (which in Maya is <foreign rend='italic'>kan</foreign>) +in their centres and this fact affords a clue to the possible origin of +the Maya name for a neck ornament given in the Motul dictionary. +It is undeniable that all evidence unites in proving that the ancient +peoples of the Mississippi valley were in traffic, if not more intimately +connected, with a Maya-speaking people and came under +the influence of the ideas and symbolism current in Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to the employment of the glyph kan in Maya Codices, +for more reasons than I am able to enumerate here, I conclude it +served as an indicative of the Above or Heaven. It is a curious fact +that the Maya word for cord is kaan, whilst the name for sky is caan. +I cannot but think, therefore, that a carved pendant with a serpent +effigy=a kan, worn on a cord=kaan, must have been associated +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +by the Mayas with the Heaven or sky=caan, and that this linguistic +coincidence must have been a strong factor in the development +of the symbolism attached to the glyph can or kan. +</p> + +<p> +An interesting fact, which I shall demonstrate by a large series +of illustration from native Codices in a chapter of my forthcoming +work on the ancient Calendar System, will show that in their +hieratic writings, the ancient Mexican scribes represented the nocturnal +heaven or sky as a circle composed of a cord, to which stars +were attached, whilst the centre of the circle exhibited one or four +stars. In my opinion the origin and explanation of the association +of the cord with stars are clearly traceable to the above mentioned +fact that in the Maya tongue the word for cord, kaan, closely +resembles the sound of the word caan=sky. The presence of +the cord in the Mexican symbols is, therefore, another indication +of their Maya origin. A proof that the Mayas also employed the +cord as a symbol of the sky, or heaven, is furnished by the much-discussed +lentil-shaped stone altar found at Copan, a small outline +of which is represented in fig. <ref target='Figure_21'>21</ref>, no. 1. In order fully to +understand the meaning expressed by this stone, it is necessary to +bear in mind how indissolubly the idea of something circular was +associated by the Mayas and Mexicans with their conception of +the vault of heaven resting on the horizon, and of the Above, +consisting of the two fluid elements, air and water. +</p> + +<p> +It is scarcely necessary to refer again here to more than one +authority for the statement that the temples of the air (of the +Above) were circular, and the reason given by the natives for this +was that <q>just as the air circulates around the vault of the heaven, +so its temple had to be of a round shape.</q><note place='foot'>Republicas de +Indias, Fray Jeronimo Roman de Zamorra 1569-1575, ed. Suarez. +Madrid, 1898.</note> As a contrast to this +conception, the influence of which is also obvious in the form of +the round temples and towers of the ruined cities of Central +America, I would cite the allusions to the solid earth contained in +the sacred books of the Mayas, the Popol Vuh, as being <q>the +quadrated earth, four-cornered, four-sided, four-bordered.</q> These +data establish the important fact, to which I shall recur, that the +native philosophers associated the Above, composed of air and +water, with the rounded, and the Below, composed of fire and +water, with the angular form. +</p> + +<p> +The Copan stone altar exhibits the circular form and is surrounded +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> +by a sculptured cord which conveys the sound of its name +kaan or caan=heaven. On it a cup-shaped depression=ho-och, +marks the sacred centre of the heaven, the counterpart to the terrestrial +bowl whence all life-giving force proceeded. Two curved +lines diverge from this and divide the vaulted circle into two parts. +The curve in the lines may be interpreted as conveying motion or +rotation whilst the division of the sky may have been intended to +signify the eastern or male and the western or female portion of +the heaven, the whole being an abstract image of central rulership +and of a dual principle incorporating the four elements. It is +obvious that the meaning intended to be conveyed might also include +the duality of the Heaven or Above, composed of the union +of the elements air and water. By painting the stone in two or +four colors either of these meanings could have been expressed. +In either case it will be recognized, however, that much as Dr. +Ernest Hamy's deductions concerning this altar have been criticised, +the learned director of the Trocadéro Museum, Paris, was +undoubtedly right in recognizing that the stone is a cosmical symbol, +intended to convey the idea of a two-fold division and analogous +to the Chinese tae-keih which it resembles, with the difference +that the Copan sign is more complex exhibiting, as it does, a +central bowl-shaped depression. A glimpse at the other symbols +in fig. <ref target='Figure_21'>21</ref> will +show that the identical idea is expressed in the Mexican +signs exhibiting a central circle, usually accompanied by a +four-fold division. +</p> + +<p> +An analogous attempt to express the same native idea is recognizable +in the peculiar mushroom-shaped stone figures, represented +by a number of examples at the Central American exposition recently +held at Guatemala,<note place='foot'>Pilz-foermige Goetzenbilder +aus Guatemala und San Salvador, Carl Sapper, +Globus. band <hi rend='smallcaps'>lxxiii</hi>, nr. 20.</note> +and recently described by the distinguished +geologist and ethnologist, Dr. Carl Sapper. The specimens +had been collected in San Salvador and Guatemala and <q>resemble +great stone mushrooms</q> inasmuch as each consists of three well-defined +parts, a square pedestal from the midst of which rises an +almost cylindrical <q>stem</q> supporting a large circular solid top, +flat underneath and rounded above. The cylindrical support is +carved in the rough semblance of a human form, which, in some +instances, has rays issuing from its head. +</p> + +<p> +An acquaintance with the fundamental ideas of native cosmogony +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> +enables us to recognize that the square stone base typifies the +solid part of the universe, the Below, whilst the vaulted circle +above typifies the heaven, the Above. The figure standing between +both is evidently an image of a central lord and ruler, and the +entire image is in accord with the native mode of thought as set +forth in Mr. Frank H. Cushing's report already cited and in the +symbols which have been figured. +</p> + +<p> +After reading Mr. Cushing's account of the native American +philosophy, preserved to the present day by the Zuñis, it is impossible +not to realize how clearly the mushroom-images materialize +the identical ideas which constitute, indeed, the keynote of native +thought and can be traced in each centre of ancient American civilization. +I am inclined to think that these stone images were, +originally, painted with the colors assigned to the four quarters, +which would render the symbolism more apparent. The existence +of these images in a restricted area of territory, seems, moreover, +to indicate that they had been invented there, possibly under the +influence of a religious and political creed with particular reference +to the union, in a single individual, of the power and attributes of +the Above and Below—an idea which strongly contrasts with +Mexico and Yucatan, where the idea of duality prevailed to such +an extent that, by creating two distinct religions and governments, +it ultimately led to the disintegration of the greatest of native empires +and its fall, from which it was only rallying at the time of +the Conquest. It is also possible that the Guatemala images are +the expression of the reversion to a more ancient form of philosophy +or government when it had been realized that dual government +led to dissensions and disintegration. At all events the rude +mushroom figures testify that the conception of a single celestial +or terrestrial ruler of the Above and the Below filled the minds of +their makers at a time, the exact date of which it would be of utmost +importance to determine, if this were only possible. It is +also interesting to note the curious analogy presented by these figures +to the well-known statement by Confucius that, <q>the sage is +united to Heaven and Earth so as to form a triad, consisting of +Heaven, Earth and Man.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The association of the round form and of the peak with the +Above and of the square and bowl with the Below can be also detected +in the form of native American architecture, as exemplified, +for instance, by the contrasting shapes of two temples figured on +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +page 75, of the Borgian Codex (fig. <ref target='Figure_34'>34</ref>) +which were obviously dedicated +to the two prevailing cults. One of these is surmounted by +a tau-shaped thatched roof with a flat top and turned-down ends. +The dedication of this temple to Night or star-cult is conveyed in +this case, by the sign for star on a black ground inserted in the +roof.<note place='foot'>For other examples see Borgian Codex, pp. 2, 5, 64, 66, 74.</note> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_34'/> + <figure url='images/figure-34.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 34.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_35'/> + <figure url='images/figure-35.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 35.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The opposite temple exhibits a roof which rests on a black architrave +and offers a general resemblance to an inverted tau. It rises +in a tapering form and ends in a cone-shaped ornament. The existence +and significance of these two forms of temple-roofs might +escape notice did the same not recur in two high caps or mitres +figured in the Vienna Codex and obviously intended for the respective +use of the Lords of the Above and of the Below at a religious +ceremonial (fig. <ref target='Figure_35'>35</ref>). The first of these ends in a high +peak, the extremity of which is represented as capped with snow, in the +same conventional manner employed in figuring snow-mountains. +An extremely significant feature of this cap is its exhibition of a +curved and rounded pattern only on its border. The second mitre +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> +ends in a horizontal line; it exhibits an angular pattern and two +flaps hang down from it, which, as they naturally concealed the +ears of the wearer, seem to have been symbolical of something +hidden, and, perhaps, of silence and secrecy. A third mitre is +figured on the same page, which seems to unite the characteristics +of both forms and is surmounted by a young maize-shoot, proceeding +from a vase. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_36'/> + <figure url='images/figure-36.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 36.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The association of the Above with a peak or point is further +illustrated by a well-known peaked diadem always painted blue +which was the symbol of the visible ruler (fig. <ref target='Figure_36'>36</ref>, no. 5). +A peak also occurs on military shields accompanied by four bars +(fig. <ref target='Figure_36'>36</ref>, no. 3) and presents an analogy to no. 4 from +the <q>Lyfe of the Indians.</q> The latter is given as the symbol of a sacred +festival which I have demonstrated in a previous publication to +have coincided with the vernal equinox.<note place='foot'>Note on +the Ancient Mexican Calendar System. Stockholm, 1894.</note> For further reasons which +I shall present in my calendar monograph, I infer that we have in +this drawing a most valuable image of the gnomon and dial employed +by the Sun priests for the observation of the equinoxes +and solstices. The human victim who was attached to the centre +of the circular stone during the same festival is usually represented +with the same cone or point and eight appendages on his +head (fig. <ref target='Figure_36'>36</ref>, no. 2). Owing to the circumstance that this +peaked head-dress, or cone, was sometimes employed by the scribes for its +phonetic value, as in fig. <ref target='Figure_36'>36</ref>, no. 1, from the Codex +Mendoza, in which instance it is figured on a mountain and is usually painted +blue, we know positively that its name was Yope or Yopi—a valuable +point since a temple and a sort of monastery in the courtyard +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> +of the Great Temple of Mexico were both named Yopico +(Sahagun). At the same time it should be noted that the Maya +name for <q>a mitre,</q> the symbol of a divine ruler, is Yop-at. In +the Mexican ollin-signs a cone or ascending point is usually placed +above and opposite to a symbol consisting of a ring or loop. These +evidently signify the Above and Below, and in this connection it +is worth noticing that archaeologists have long puzzled over the +curious forms of the two kinds of prehistoric stone objects which +have most frequently been found in the island of Porto Rico. The +first of these consists of an elongated stone, the centre of which +rises in the shape of a cone, whilst the ends are respectively carved +in the rough semblance of a head and of feet. The second form, +which has frequently been found in caves, consists of a large stone +ring, and is popularly termed <q>a stone collar.</q> +I am inclined to regard the latter as being analogous +to the <q>stone yokes</q> of ancient Mexico +and to infer that the aborigines of Porto Rico +practised a form of the same cult. It should +be borne in mind that the high conical stone, +on which the human victims were sacrificed, +was a salient feature in an ancient Mexican temple and that its +form must have had some symbolical meaning. The foregoing +data indicate that it probably was emblematic of the Above and +Centre and was therefore regarded as the fitting place of sacrifice +to the Sun and Heaven, whilst offerings to the Earth were most +appropriately made in circular openings recalling the rim of the +bowl and the round line of the horizon. It will be seen further +on that the cone recurs in native architecture and that its use as a +symbol, in the course of time, culminated in the pyramid. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_37'/> + <figure url='images/figure-37.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 37.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Let us return to it in its rudimentary stage, as a perpendicular +line arising from a medium level, forming an inverted tau. The +widespread employment amongst American peoples of the inverted +and upright tau-shape as emblems of the Above and Below is +abundantly proven and doubtlessly arose as naturally as <q>the +Chinese characters Shang=Above, employed as a symbol for +Heaven, and Lea=Below or Beneath, employed as a symbol for +Earth. These are formed, in the one case, by placing a man (represented +by a vertical line) above the medium level (represented +by a horizontal line) and in the other below it</q> (Encyclopedia +Britannica, art. China) fig. <ref target='Figure_37'>37</ref>. Another equally graphic +presentation +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> +of the analogous thought is furnished by the familiar Egyptian +sign which exhibits a loop or something rounded and hollow above +and a perpendicular line beneath the medium level. It is well +known that the tau occurs in Scandinavia and is popularly named +Thor's hammer (fig. <ref target='Figure_38'>38</ref>). Merely as a curious analogy I point out +that in fig. <ref target='Figure_25'>25</ref>, no. 2, from the Vienna Codex, we have an American +instance of a tau-shaped object held in the hand in a ceremonial +rite. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_38'/> + <figure url='images/figure-38.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 38.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The late and lamented Baron Gustav Nordenskjöld observed +that the entrances to the ruined estufas of the ancient cliff-dwellers +of Colorado were in the shape of an upright tau and it is well +known that this is also the case amongst the Pueblo Indians of the +present day. By means of a photograph taken by Dr. A. Warburg +of Berlin, whilst witnessing the Humis-katshina dance of the +Moqui Indians at Oraibi, in May, 1896, I am able to affirm that +the native dancers wear masks and high head-ornaments, partly of +wood, on which reversed and upright tau-symbols are painted, the +first in a light and the second in a dark color. As the name of +the ceremonial dance was explained to Dr. Warburg as signifying +<q>helping the sprouting or growing maize,</q> and celebrated the advent +of the rainy season, it is obvious that the two forms of tau +which were displayed in alternate order on the heads of the dancers +in the procession symbolized the juxtaposition of the Above and +Below, of Heaven and Earth. +</p> + +<p> +In the ruined temples of Central America, windows in the shape +of upright and reversed taus also occur. The following series of +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> +architectural openings (fig. <ref target='Figure_39'>39</ref>) are copied from Mr. +Alfred P. Maudslay's invaluable and splendid work, which has not, as yet, +met with the recognition it so richly deserves.<note place='foot'>Biologia +Centrali-Americana. Archæology, edited by F. Ducane Godman, London.</note> +They display besides the tau-shape (<hi rend='italic'>g</hi> and +<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) other forms, the symbolism of which +has been discussed. There are cross-shaped (<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>), square, round and +oval windows (<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>j</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>i</hi>), the square obviously symbolical of +the Earth and the round of the Heaven. Besides these there are +openings in the form of a truncated cone (<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> +and <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) and others +ending in a narrow point (<hi rend='italic'>k</hi>). A striking form which recalls the +Moorish arch and is shown in <hi rend='italic'>f</hi>, may, perhaps, be looked upon as +an attempt to express the idea of a union of the Above and Below. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_39'/> + <figure url='images/figure-39.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 39.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In connection with these architectural features it is interesting +to study their names in the native languages. The Nahuatl names +for windows are singularly expressive of their uses: tlachialoyan=the +watching place or look-out; puchquiauatl=the smoke opening; +tlanexillotl=a word which literally means light and splendor, +and to which the following words are related: tlanextia, +verb=to shine, shed light and radiance; tlanextilla=something +revealed, made manifest, found or discovered, newly invented or +formed (brought to light); tlanexcayotiliztli=figure, signification +or example; tlanexcayotilli=something figured or significative. +</p> + +<p> +The meaning of the Maya name for window, ciznebna, is not +clear, whilst that for door, chi, is the same as for mouth, opening or +entrance. At the same time it is evident that, as in Mexico and +elsewhere, the window openings in the Maya temples must have +been associated with the idea of light, and the symbolical forms +given to these besides their positions lead to the inference that +they were actually regarded as mystic framed images, so to speak, +of the supreme, invisible deity, through which, the light of day +and the darkness of night alternately revealed themselves to those +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +inside the sacred buildings. A careful study of the positions and +orientations of these openings may yet prove that they also served +for astronomical observation. The walls being usually pierced +above reach, nothing but the sky could have been watched through +them. But besides these, the interiors of Maya ruins contain interesting +examples of mural openings and recesses which seem to +have been carefully planned so that they should appear dark even +in daytime and, in more than one case, these display the form of +the upright tau, the symbol of darkness and the Below.<note place='foot'>The +most striking example of this is in the Palace House, at Palenqne, all wall-holes +of which are tau-shaped. An elaborate stucco ornamentation, richly colored, encloses +two upright taus surrounded by raised borders. One is a deep opening in the wall; +the other, next to it, is filled in and exhibits a horizontal line resting on a vertical +one. There can be no doubt that a profound symbolical meaning was expressed by +the entire motif, which has been admirably reproduced by Mr. A. P. Maudslay +(Biologia Centrali-Americana, Archæology, part <hi rend='smallcaps'>VI</hi>, pl. +18).</note> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_40'/> + <figure url='images/figure-40.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 40.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It does not seem to have been generally recognized that the +alternate contraposition of upright and reversed taus produces the +best known and most widely spread primitive border-design, usually +known as the Greek fret (fig. <ref target='Figure_40'>40</ref>, no. 6). A plain +demonstration of this is, oddly enough, visible on the two side-projections of the +Scandinavian brooch (fig. <ref target='Figure_13'>13</ref>) all symbols on which, I +venture to assert, would have been perfectly intelligible and full of meaning +to an ancient Mexican. The evolution of the fret, on the American +continent, can be studied on the beautiful wooden clubs from +Brazil and British Guiana, figured in Dr. Hjalmar Stolpes' valuable +work already referred to. As striking instances his fig. 8, pl. 1, +figs. 3<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> and 3<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>, +pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiii</hi>, and figs. 1<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> +and 1<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, should be examined. +The latter instance is extremely instructive as it not only +exhibits single taus of two forms, but the same in different positions, +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +as well as two double-headed figures joined in one, which illustrate +the native association already discussed, of duality and of the +curved lines as the opposite of the rectangular and both respectively +figuring the Above and Below. +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible to study the decorations on these South American +clubs without becoming convinced that their makers shared the +same ideas as the ancient Mexicans. They offer, indeed, a whole +set of variations on the native theme and idea of Heaven and +Earth. Two instances (fig. 5<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, pl. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ix</hi>, and 6<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, +pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi</hi>) in which the +union of two figures produces a third, or a single one produces +two, elucidate the meaning sometimes expressed by the designs. +In the round or spiral forms, which are most frequently accompanied +by a zigzag border, I am inclined to see a presentation of +air and water, corresponding to the Mexican symbols of the +Above. +</p> + +<p> +As lack of space forbids my making here a more extended comparison +of the native symbols, I shall but point out how the tau, +in juxtaposition and contraposition painted in two colors, produces +fig. <ref target='Figure_40'>40</ref>, no. 3. The picture from the Codex Mendoza of a +native tlachtli, the form of which is represented by two taus in contraposition, +is partly painted black. The same division of a single +tau into two parts, colored differently, transforms no. 3 into no. 4 +and shows that a single tau could have been employed cursively +to symbolize union. 2 and 7 are but variants of 3 and 4. If, +instead of angles, curved lines be given to the taus, the first half +of fig. 5 is the result. When spaces between the incurving hooks +and the border are filled out with color, the familiar design on the +second half of 5 results. With exception of the latter, the South +American clubs exhibit each of the above forms, as well as no. 8. +It will be shown later that these also occur in ancient Peru. +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing examples of the employment of taus in upright +and reversed positions is, however, by no means exhaustive. Fig. +<ref target='Figure_41'>41</ref> teaches that +the familiar checker-board or tartan design, symbolically +employed in ancient Mexico, was the simple result of taus +in contraposition, the square spaces thus found being alternately +filled with black and brown or gray. The symbolism of this design +only becomes evident when all the combinations in which it +occurs have been carefully studied. It is represented in the Codices +in the doorways and arches of certain sacred edifices which are +shown to be estufas or temaz-calli by further illustrations which I +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +could not reproduce here, but which exhibit even the steam escaping +from the building and other unmistakable features. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_41'/> + <figure url='images/figure-41.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 41.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Sahagun has recorded how these semi-sacred edifices were specially +consecrated to the <q>Mother of the gods and of us all, whose +curative and life-giving power was exerted in the temazcalli, also +named xochicalli, the place where she sees secret things, rectifies +what has been deranged in human bodies, fructifies young and +tender things, ... and where she aids and cures....</q> +It was customary for pregnant women to resort to these baths +under the care of the medicine-woman who exhorted her patient on +entering, with the words: <q>Enter into it, my daughter, enter into +the bosom of our Mother whose name is Yoalticitl ... warm +thyself in the bath, which is the house of flowers of our god ...</q> +(Historia, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxvii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The Vienna Codex contains, besides pictures of +temples (fig. <ref target='Figure_41'>41</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>b</hi>), two instances which elucidate +the meaning of the design; +<hi rend='italic'>c</hi> of the same figure displays the conventional symbol for land, +fringed on three sides. Enclosed in this and seen, in profile, is a +stratum of checker-board design, above which is a sheet of water; +d displays a conventionally drawn mountain, inside of which is the +symbolical vase filled with the design. From this steam or smoke +ascends through the soil of the mountain, and forces its way through +the surface, above which we see two recurved puffs of smoke and +a young blossoming maize shoot, conventionally drawn, such as +may be seen worn by priestesses, as a symbolical head decoration, +on page 11 of the Vienna Codex. The seated figure of a +priest is represented as sheltering its growth with his outspread +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +mantle. On his back he displays a symbol, composed of two +rolls united by a crossband, which is met with in Maya and Mexican +Codices. In the latter the four projecting ends are usually +painted with the colors of the four quarters. As these are figured +as united into a single sign, it seems evident that this symbolized +a union of the four elements deemed necessary for the production +of life by the ancient native philosophers. +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing illustrations, to which more could be added, clearly +establish that the checkered design was associated with the symbols +of earth, heat and water. It obviously expressed the idea +embodied in the Nahuatl word xotlac=the heated earth; literally, +glowing embers, also budding and opening flowers. It was emblematic +of the fall of the rain or earth-wine upon the heated soil. +In the temazcalli the same life-producing union of the elements +took place and aided human growth and health. It would seem +as though the appellation xoch-i-calli, bestowed upon the sweat-house +by the native medicine-woman, expressed the same train of +thought. Moreover, it is noteworthy, that the sound of the first +part of this name and of xo-tlac recurs in the Maya word for vase +in general, ho-och. The checker-board design would naturally +have been employed in connection with the festivals, associated +with esoteric rites, which were held in celebration of the union of +the Heaven and Earth at the commencement of the rainy season. +It would, naturally, therefore, have been used as a decoration on +the drinking vessels employed in the distribution of fermented +drinks for vivifying and curative purposes. It is met with on +Peruvian drinking bowls, as proven by several examples in the +Royal Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, for instance. +</p> + +<p> +It is curious to note as an interesting analogy that the same +checkered design frequently adorns the ancient Egyptian drinking +bowls represented in the hieroglyphic writings. I have also observed +it in some ancient Greek drinking vessels, preserved at the +Imperial Hermitage Museum at St. Petersburg, where it decorated +the bowl itself or the garments of Bacchantes figured thereupon. +It is also met with in ancient Peruvian textile fabrics, in black and +white, as on one figure vase in the Berlin Museum, and, needless to +remark, it is a Scotch clan tartan. Its adoption as the basis for +chess-boards of ancient Egypt seems to indicate that there it also +signified the Above and Below and that the game was thought of +as an exemplification of the eternal contest between the powers +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> +of Heaven and Earth, light and darkness, etc. We look to specialists +for information as to the origin, meaning and employment +in Egypt and Greece of this primitive and almost universal design. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_42'/> + <figure url='images/figure-42.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 42.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In ancient Mexico and possibly Peru, it obviously pertained to +a set of ideas which, in some communities, might easily have degenerated +and led to the institution of rites and ideas such as were +prevalent in the Maya colony which had established itself at the +mouth of the Panuco river, on the coast of Mexico, north of Vera +Cruz, and from which the Huaxtecans of the present day descend. +It is interesting to note that the name of the capital founded by +the colonists, who seem to have emigrated owing to well-founded +religious persecution, was Tuch-pan, a word which signifies in the +Maya tongue <q>the umbilicus,</q> qualified by pan, meaning <q>that +which is above or excels,</q> etc., but which was expressed in Nahuatl +picture-writings by a rabbit=tochtli and a banner=pantli. +</p> + +<p> +The opposite of the checkered or xotlac design, was the native +water and air pattern which has been pointed out as encircling the +mitre of the Lord of the Above or Heaven. It likewise figures in +native pictures on the mantles of some of Montezuma's predecessors. +The history of its origin and development is best learned +from the following native illustrations. Fig. +<ref target='Figure_42'>42</ref>, nos. 1 and 2, represents +sea-waves, the Maya name for which, by the way, is kukul-yaam, +which admits of the interpretation <q>divine-water</q> or, if +we connect kukul with the Mexican coliuhqui, <q>twisted or bent +water.</q> A representation of water, as figured on a mantle in the +<q>Lyfe of the Indians,</q> conveys the idea of water moved by the +action of the wind, the blank curve reminding one also of the curves +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> +so often associated by native artists with serpents' heads, and with +the wind and rain-gods. The well-known symbol of the air-god is +accompanied, as already shown (fig. +<ref target='Figure_26'>26</ref>), by an ornament which +forms a solid frame for a hollow curve constituting an air-image. +In the following image an analogous ear ornament is figured and it +is surrounded by puffs of air or wind, conventionally +drawn (fig. <ref target='Figure_43'>43</ref>). +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_43'/> + <figure url='images/figure-43.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 43.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Whilst the foregoing illustrations amply prove that the natives +associated the curved and rounded form with water as moved by +air, it must be noticed that in Mexico and Yucatan, as well as in +Brazil and Guiana, plain water was figured by a series of parallel +zigzag or undulated lines. For these reasons I infer that the +symbolical design, representing actual waves, always expressed the +union of air and water, and was therefore emblematic of the cult +of the upper elements, or the Above. It is unfortunate that, in +Mexico, no vestiges remain of the circular temples which were +particularly dedicated to Quetzalcoatl=the divine twin or lord of +the twin upper elements=air and water. Doubtlessly they were +appropriately decorated with horizontal bands exhibiting the sacred +design. The ruined condition of Central American round temples +scarcely justifies the hope that such a verification can be made. At +the same time the round temple on a square base, with its peculiar +ground plan, was, of itself, an image of the Above and of central +rule extending to the four quarters (fig. +<ref target='Figure_30'>30</ref>, p. 97). That the air +and water design was actually employed in America as a frieze on +sacred edifices is proven, however, by more than one illustration +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +in the Vienna Codex and other native MSS. (fig. 35, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>). We also +see the design decorating the painted drinking bowls named xicalli +which were employed in the distribution of the sacred pulque or +octli at certain religious festivals. As the Mexican name given to +the design itself is xical-coliuhqui, it seems as though it was most +popularly known as the <q>twisted or winding pattern</q> of the sacred +drinking vessels. +</p> + +<p> +Having originated, as I have shown, from the simplest observation +of the action of air upon a surface of water, it is but natural +that the same design should have independently originated in several +localities. It is, nevertheless, worth mentioning here that the +dome of one of the most beautiful of ancient Greek remains, the +choragic monument of Lysicrates, or lantern of Demosthenes at +Athens, is surrounded by a band or fascia, cut into the water design. +It is evident that, seen against the sky, this graphically +represented the curling waves of water <q>on summer seas,</q> and +this was evidently the most primitive method of employing this +form of symbolical decoration which is more familiar when executed +in solid masonry stucco, as a frieze. +</p> + +<p> +The identical process of development may be observed in Mexican +architecture. In the Vienna and other native Codices, countless +temples are depicted as surmounted with fasciæ cut into rectangular +designs in such a manner that the blank space left between +each solid projection figures its inverted image in the air (fig. +<ref target='Figure_35'>35</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>-<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>). In these +open fasciæ an intention to symbolize the solid +or Earth, and the fluid or Heaven, is discernible, whilst the step-like +projections seem to express or convey the idea of ascent and descent, +perhaps the ascent of human supplication and the descent +of the much-prayed-for rain. From the other examples of temple +decorations (fig. <ref target='Figure_35'>35</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>f</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) it is evident that, in solid friezes, a +light and a dark color were employed in the same designs, to convey +the same idea. +</p> + +<p> +Evidence proving that the emblems on the roofs of the temples +were replete with meaning is furnished by several representations +of roofs, on which rows of upstretched hands or of human hearts +are depicted. My horror at these seemingly ghastly emblems vanished +as soon as I ascertained their actual meaning from a passage +in Sahagun's Historia. Describing a certain sacred dance he records +that <q>on the white garments of the girls who took part in +it, hands and hearts were painted, signifying that they lifted their +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> +hearts and hands to heaven, praying for rain.</q> Not only does +this explain the symbolism of the hands on the temples but also +the native custom observed, by modern pilgrims in Mexico and +Yucatan, of painting uplifted hands on the outer walls of sanctuaries +as an act of piety and devotion. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_44'/> + <figure url='images/figure-44.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 44.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The hideous necklaces of alternate hands and hearts which encircle +the neck of a great monolithic idol in the city of Mexico and +of an image in the <q>Lyfe of the Indians</q> are thus also proven to +be the touching though uncouth and child-like expression of a devout +prayer. Having gained this insight into the deep significance of +native emblems it is interesting +to study the peculiar breast-ornament +which is the emblem of Xiuhtecuhtli, +literally <q>the azure lord,</q> +or the lord of the year or of fire +and of the Cihuacoatl or woman-serpent. +It consists of an oblong +plaque, the narrow ends of which +are cut out so as to simulate two +air pyramids with steps. The +name of this symbolical ornament +is recorded by Sahagun as xiuh-tetelli, +literally the turquoise or +grass-green pyramid. It is invariably +painted blue and displays +a round plate of burnished +gold in its centre. For more reasons than I can pause to relate +here, it can be shown that the plaque probably symbolized the +Above, the blue sky, water and air, whilst the gold plate was an +image of the central divinity. The sides of the square stool on +which the god is seated are also cut out so as to convey the idea +that he is resting above terraced air-pyramids +(fig. <ref target='Figure_44'>44</ref>). His shield +is surrounded by a cord and contains a cross-symbol with lines conveying +the idea of rotation and four circles. The banner above the +shield named pantli conveys the sound of the word pan=above, +whilst his conical ear-ornament symbolizes the Centre and Above. +These details are noteworthy because I am about to point out the +striking analogy between a Zuñi idol or fetish and the ancient Mexican +pictures of the lord of fire and the lord of the north or the +underworld=Tezcatlipoca. +</p> + +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> + +<p> +This Zuñi idol was sent to the Royal Ethnographical Museum at +Berlin as part of a representative collection by Mr. Frank H. +Cushing and has been figured and described in the publications of +the Museum, with notes by Dr. E. Seler.<note place='foot'>Veröffentlichungen +aus dem Königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi> +band, <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi> +heft. 1895. p. 5.</note> It represents the Zuñi +god Ätchialätopa whose attributes are stone knives, who is the +patron of the secret society, <q>Small fire</q> and who is identified +with a great star. His fetish represents him as standing on the +centre of a cross, formed of four beams placed vertically and perforated +with step-like perforations. The ends are cut out like those +of Xiuhtecuhtli's blue emblem. Two parallel bars, the upper one +of which is painted blue, the color of heaven, and the lower painted +green, the color of the earth, convey the ever-present native idea +of the Above and Below. The arms of the cross are painted red +with yellow ends which, according to Mr. Cushing, represent the +light emanating, in four directions, from the star. The arms are +distinctly associated with the cardinal points and each supports +the effigies of a mountain lion and a bird—typifying, evidently, +as in Mexico, the Above and Below. This cross, with the figure +standing on its centre, is suspended from above and, during a certain +ceremony, it is set into rapid gyratory motion, from left to +right by the officiating high priest. +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible not to see, in this fetish, a swastika in substantial +form and in actual rotation; whilst the figure of the god, decorated +with stone knives, moves as on a pivot in the centre, presenting +exactly the same idea as in the Mexican image of the god held +in the centre of a cross-symbol by the jaws of a tecpatl or flint +knife. It is unnecessary to mention again here that the only star +in the heaven, which could possibly have been regarded as a centre +of rotation, is Polaris; but I should like to draw attention to the +fact that bunches of feathers are attached to the extremities of +the cross-beams and to the summit of the terraced head-dress of +the fetish and recall the circumstance that, amongst the Mexicans +and Mayas, the names for feather were almost identical with those +for heaven or something celestial and divine. +</p> + +<p> +As the Zuñi god is said to be standing on his red star (an mo-yätchun +thlana) and figures as a centre of rotation, I look upon +this fetish as affording most striking confirmation of my conclusions +concerning the origin of the swastika and cross symbols. If +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +it is certain that, at the present day, the Zuñis associate this star-god +with Sirius and their cross symbol with the morning star, then +it is quite obvious that they have lost the original meaning of the +rotating-star fetish, which could never have been suggested by +either of these or, indeed, by any other heavenly body but Polaris. +I regret that space does not permit me to consider here, more fully, +other close analogies between ancient Mexican and modern Zuñi +religious ceremonies, etc., besides those which have been so well +described by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. +</p> + +<p> +I cannot omit to note here for further reference that the national +war gods of the Zuñis are the twin-brothers Ahaiiuta, the elder, +whose altars were situated <emph>to the right</emph> or south and west of Zuñi, +and Matsailéma, the younger, whose altars stood <emph>to the left</emph> or north +and east of the village. The secret society of the warriors and +priests of the bow dedicated their cult to these brothers, whose +counterparts we have already studied in Mexico and Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to the primitive designs which expressed the union of +the Above and Below, I point out an interesting example from the +<q>Lyfe of the Indians,</q> which likewise symbolizes the four quarters, +and their subdivision and their relation to the whole +(fig. <ref target='Figure_32'>32</ref>, no. 3). +A somewhat analogous design, from Peru, presents an outline resembling +a swastika (fig. <ref target='Figure_40'>40</ref>, no. 9) which, when filled in with +alternate colors, yields fig. <ref target='Figure_40'>40</ref>, no. 1, in which the idea +of the Above and Below preponderates. Another example of an analogous employment +of a light and dark color is furnished by a shield in the +Codex Mendoza, shown in fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, no. 1, alongside of an +interesting image which gives us an insight into the depths of meaning +contained in the dualistic native designs. It consists of a disk, one-half +of which represents the starry heaven and the other the sun, +resting on a parti-colored support (no. 8). It is evident that day and +night are thus symbolized, and it is reasonable to infer that in some +centres of thought especially the ideas of light and darkness should +have become associated with the two different forms of cult the +followers of which would be respectively designated as the children +of light and the children of darkness. By means of a light and +a dark color numberless variations of the one theme were indeed +obtained. In the native Codices, in textile fabrics and on pottery, +there are also numerous examples of an extremely simple design +consisting of a single zigzag line running between two parallel +lines and dividing the intervening space into two fields, the lower +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> +of which is filled out with black and the other with some light color. +The dark upright and light inverted peaks were evidently employed +as familiar and favorite emblems of earth and heaven. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_45'/> + <figure url='images/figure-45.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 45.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +I am inclined to see in the serrated summit of the remarkable +edifice, known as the House of Doves at Uxmal, a rendering of +the same symbolism on a gigantic scale +(fig. <ref target='Figure_45'>45</ref>). It cannot but +be recognized, moreover, that a high edifice presenting a regular +series of cones, and extending from east to west, would have +afforded an excellent means of registering the varying positions +of heavenly bodies. To observers looking towards it from the +north or south, at judiciously chosen distances, the entire span of +the sky would have seemed divided into eight equal parts, seen as +inverted air pyramids between nine sections which rise in steps and +terminate in points, each gable being perforated with thirty window-like +openings, arranged in seven horizontal rows. The purpose +of these gable-like piles has been a riddle to the archaeologists, +who have visited Uxmal. Dr. Wm. H. Holmes, from whose valuable +works I cite the above descriptions, expresses his wonder at +<q>the great building, bearing upon its roof a colossal masonry +comb, built at an enormous expenditure of time and labor ... +which seemed to have been built exclusively for the purpose of +embellishing the building and holding aloft its sculptured ornaments</q> +(Ancient cities of Mexico, pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 95). +</p> + +<p> +I venture to maintain that this remarkable edifice not only afforded +facilities for astronomical observation but constituted in itself a +great prayer for rain wrought in stone and addressed to the Lord +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +of Heaven by a devout people. In corroboration of this inference, +besides the foregoing data, I point out that to this day the Pueblo +Indians associate the step pyramid form with beneficent rain and +even give this shape to the edges of the sacred bowls which are +carried in the ceremonial dances by the <q>rain-makers.</q> According +to Mr. Cushing the Zuñis compare the rim of such bowls to +the line of the <q>horizon, terraced with mountains, whence rise the +clouds.</q> He was likewise informed that the terrace form represents +<q>the ancient sacred place of the spaces,</q> an expression which, +though somewhat vague, seems to corroborate my view of the +Uxmal building. The Zuñi statement that the terrace form figured +mountains leads to the subject of so-called <q>mountain worship.</q> +In ancient Mexico, at the approach of the rainy season, religious +ceremonies are performed in honor of the mountains which were +looked upon as active agents in the production of rain, because +they attracted and gathered the clouds around their summits. The +tops of mountains were thus regarded as the sacred place where +the sky and heaven met and produced the showers which vivified +the earth. Pilgrimages and offerings to mountain summits formed +a part of the duties of the Mexican priesthood, but in the cities the +pyramid temple served as a convenient substitute for the mountain. +</p> + +<p> +The close association of the terrace form with rain and water +symbolism is certainly exemplified in the Mexican design on a +temple roof (fig. <ref target='Figure_35'>35</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>). The most remarkable application of the +dualistic designs is, however, met with in Peru where, according to +Wiener, the irrigation canals which carried water to the maize fields +were laid out so as to form pattern bands like fig. +<ref target='Figure_40'>40</ref>, nos. 4 and 7, +for instance. It is evident that this system of irrigation must +have been an extremely effective and practical one, but that it had +been probably adopted from superstitious motives as an illustration +of the vivifying union of the celestial shower with the seed-laden +soil. The assumption that the ancient Peruvians shared the +same ideas as the Mexicans and Mayas will be found justified by +the following data. +</p> + +<p> +It is now my intention to give a brief and bare outline sketch +of the Peruvian civilization, by means of a series of quotations +from the best authorities.<note place='foot'>Garcilaso de +la Vega, Comentarias Reales, Lisbon, 1609; also translation by Sir +Clements B. Markham, issued by the Hakluyt Society. Rites and Laws of the Incas +(accounts by Molina, Salcamayhua, Avila and Ondegardo), translated by Sir Clements +B. Markham; also Cieza de Leon, Herrera, etc. and MS. of Padre Anello Oliva.</note> +Incomplete though this must necessarily +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +be, it will, nevertheless, establish, beyond a doubt, that the +founders of the great Inca empire were under the dominion of the +same set of ideas which I have been tracing throughout the American +continent. The lucid records of the Peruvian chronicles and +the purity with which the system had been maintained by the Incas, +enable us to recognize and appreciate its manifold perfections +as a mode of primitive government. +</p> + +<p> +The best authorities agree that the inhabitants of the country, +now known as Peru, lived in barbarism until civilization was introduced +amongst them by the Incas. One tradition designates an +island in the Titicaca lake, another Tiahuanaco, as the place where, +<q>after the deluge,</q> a man or deity appeared, divided the land into +four parts and distributed these to four brothers, amongst whom +was Manco Capac, to whom was assigned the province to the north. +Each brother had a sister who was also his wife. Manco Capac +and his sister and wife Mama-Ocllo or, according to other authorities, +the third Inca Lloque Yupanqui and his consort, founded +Cuzco, also given as Kosko or Kuska, a name which, according +to Garcilaso de la Vega signifies <q>navel of the earth</q> and was +bestowed <q>because the newly-founded capital was to be the centre +and point of all.</q> The city was divided into two parts: Hanan +Cuzco=the Above, which was ruled over by the Inca, and Hurin +Cuzco=the Below, which was governed by his wife and sister, +who bore the honorific title of Coya=queen and Mamanchic=our +mother. The inhabitants consequently became separated into +two categories: the upper lineage and the lower lineage, Hanan-ayllu +and Hurin-ayllo. At the same time this division was not +made so <q>that those of one-half should have an advantage over the +other ... the command was that only one difference and +acknowledgment of superiority was to be conceded to the inhabitants +of the upper town. They were to be respected and looked +upon as the first born and elder brothers, whilst the dwellers in the +lower town were to be regarded as younger or second brothers. +They were to rank as the right arm and the left arm in all offices +or places where precedence was necessary. The same division was +subsequently carried out in all the towns, great or small, throughout +the country, their inhabitants being constantly classed into +upper and lower lineages or classes.</q> The empire itself was named +Tauantin-suyu, signifying the four in one, or the empire, which +was divided into four provinces: Anti-suyu=East; Cunti-suyu=West, +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> +on the road to which were two famous brooks of water +named the silver serpents, Collquemachachuay; Chincha-suyu=North; +Colla-suyu=South. It is recorded that the Coya or queen +went to the Colla-suyu or South and taught the women the art of +weaving, of planting maize and of preparing it for food. In connection +with the name of female rule=Coya, and the South=Colla-suyu +it is interesting to note that the name for granary was +Coll-cana. Padre Arriaga (quoted by Rivero and Tschudi, p. 163) +describes a remarkable monument which shows that the West was +also associated with the female ruler. <q>The monolithic statue +[magnificently sculptured and placed on a sepulchral eminence near +Hilavi] represented two monstrous figures standing back to back. +One, representing a man, faced to the East; the other, with a +woman's face, looked towards the West.<note place='foot'>Attention +is called to a curious error in the original text by Arriaga, quoted by +Rivero and Tschudi. Arriaga states that the two statues stood back to back, but he +makes the woman look toward the <q>poniente</q> and the man to the <q>occidente,</q> +thus making both figures face the west. As <q>poniente</q> is the current Spanish +phrase for the west, it is evident that the author made a slip in the use of the classical +term, and intended to say that the man faced the <q>oriente.</q></note> +Serpents were represented +as crawling up the figures and these stood on other reptiles +resembling frogs. In front of each of these idols there was a +square slab of stone which seemed to have served as an altar.</q> +</p> + +<p> +With the dual division of the population the seeds of dissension +were sown in Peru as elsewhere. At a certain festival the youths +of the upper lineage encountered those of the lower lineage in +trials of strength and prowess, which sometimes resulted in violence. +A certain feeling of rivalry and opposition must have been +thus fostered. Two forms of cult prevailed: the Inca lords and +warriors were associated with the cult of the Above of which the +emblems were golden images of the Creator and of the Sun, <q>the +lord of day,</q> to whose power rain and thunder were attributed. +The silver huaca or image of the moon, called Quilla in Quechua +and Pacsa in the Colla dialect, was in the figure of a woman and +was kept under the charge of women, the reason for this being +<q>that the moon was a woman.</q> During the festival Situa, one day +was dedicated to the Creator, the Sun and Thunder and another to +<q>the Moon and Earth, when the accustomed sacrifices and prayers +were offered up.</q> We thus clearly distinguish a cult of the Heaven +and Day presided over by the Inca and a cult of Earth and Night, +whose high priestess was the Coya. She, moreover, had charge of +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +the embalmed bodies of her predecessors, which were regarded as +sacred and were solemnly carried forth in certain festivals, whilst +the bodies of the defunct Incas were guarded by their successor. +The emblems of both cults were, however, preserved in a single +Great Temple, whose principal doorway looked to the north, a fact +of special importance in connection with what follows. +</p> + +<p> +All authorities, indeed, designate the north as the quarter whence +the foreign culture-heroes came to Peru. <q>The Incas had a knowledge +of the Creator from the first,</q> but it was not until the time +of the Inca Yupanqui that the ignorant sun-worship of the primitive +inhabitants of the country was superseded by a firmly established +new and superior religion. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Inca Yupanqui appears to have been the first to order and settle +ceremonies and religions. He it was who established the twelve +months of the year, giving a name to each and ordaining the ceremonies +that were to be observed in each. For although his ancestors +used months and years counted by the quippus, yet they +were never previously regulated until the time of this Lord. He +was of such clear understanding that he reflected upon the respect +and reverence shown by his ancestors to the Sun who worshipped +it as a God. He observed that it never had any rest and that it +daily journeyed round the earth; and he said to those of his council +that <emph>it was not possible that the Sun could be the God who created +all things, for if he was he would not permit a small cloud to obscure +his splendour; and that if he was creator of all things he would +sometimes rest and light up the whole world from one spot. Thus it +cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who directs him and +this is the Pacha-Yachachi, the Creator</emph>, literally, the Teacher of +the World.</q> His predecessors had ordered an oval plate of fine +gold which was to serve as an image of the Creator of heaven and +earth, and, in order to convey this meaning it was placed between +images of the sun and moon; a proof that the latter were employed +as symbols of heaven and earth. +</p> + +<p> +Inca Yupanqui, however, also caused a statue of the Creator to +be made of fine gold and of the size of a boy of ten years of age +in order to convey the idea of his eternal youth. <q>It was in the +shape of a man standing up, the right arm raised and the hand +almost closed, the fingers and thumb raised as one who was giving +an order.</q> The second gold statue he had made, a personification +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> +of the sun <q>which was dressed like the Inca and wore all his +insignia,</q> shows he claimed to be and constituted himself as the +visible representative and Lord of the Above. The silver female +statue of the Moon doubtlessly exhibited, in the same manner, the +insignia of the Coya. Inca Yupanqui also ordered the houses and +temple of Quisuar-cancha to be built and, at this spot, Sir Clements +Markham observed an ancient wall, with serpents carved upon it. +The name signifies, literally, <q>the place of the Quisuar tree,</q> and +will be again referred to further on. Without pausing to discuss +the subject at length let us examine further the scheme of government, +etc., introduced by the Incas, the most striking feature of +which was the systematical classification of the people, their assignment +to specified dwelling places and the distribution of labor +according to prescription. +</p> + +<p> +The key to the entire gigantic system was the conception of a +central immutable supreme power which directed all visible and +invisible manifestations and which sent forth and re-absorbed all +energy. In Cuzco and in the Inca Empire we have a minutely +described instance of the application, to terrestrial government, of +the laws of fixed order, harmony, periodicity and rotation learned +by earnest and patient observers of the northern heaven, during +countless centuries of time. The centre of Cuzco consisted of a +great square whence four roads radiated to the cardinal points. In +the centre of this stood a gold vase from which a fountain flowed. +The Spaniards also found in Cuzco a large, beautifully-polished +stone-cross which evidently symbolized, as in Mexico, the four +quarters and must have been appropriately placed in the square. +Garcilaso de la Vega states that the capital formed an actual image +of the whole empire, <q>for it was divided into four quarters and an +extremely ancient law rendered it obligatory that representatives +of each province and of each class of population should reside +there in homes, the location of which precisely corresponded to +the geographical position of their respective provinces. Each lineage +was thus represented and occupied separate dwellings, assigned +to them by the governors of the quarters. All persons were obliged +to adhere to the customs of their forefathers and also wear +the costumes of their ayllus or tribes (Cieza de Leon, Cronica +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xciii</hi>). For +the Incas had decreed that the dresses worn by +the members of each tribe should be different, so that the people +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> +might be distinguished from each other as, down to that time, +there had been no means of knowing to what locality or tribe an +Indian belonged.</q>... In order to avoid confusion the modes +of wearing the hair were rigidly prescribed and the bands worn on +the head by the vassals had to be black or of a single color only. +The higher in rank a person was the more his costume resembled +that of the Inca, without, however, approaching it in length and +richness. <q>Thus, even in an assemblage of 100,000 persons it +was easy to recognize individuals of each tribe and of each rank +by the signs they wore on their heads.</q>... +</p> + +<p> +<q>It was obligatory that each should permanently live in the province +he belonged to. Each province, each tribe and, in many parts +each village, had its own language which was different from that +of its neighbors. Those who understood each other by speaking +the same language considered themselves as related to each other +and were friends and confederates.... The Incas employed +a private language of their own which none but members of the +royal lineage presumed or dared to learn.</q> Garcilaso de la Vega, +who claimed royal descent, stated that unfortunately no records +remained to enable one to form an idea of what the Inca language +was like. +</p> + +<p> +The autocratic, though peaceable way in which the novel scheme +of government was imposed upon the inhabitants of Peru by the +foreign chieftains is best proven by the following passages from +the Rites and Laws of the Incas (p. 77) and Garcilaso de la Vega +(pp. 9 and 10). <q>With a view that each tribe should be clearly +distinguishable and after assigning a different costume to each +they were ordered to choose their respective pacariscas, a word +meaning, literally, their birth and origin. They were told to choose +for themselves whence they were descended and whence they came, +and as the Indians were generally very dull and stupid, some chose +to assign their origin to a lake, others to a spring, others a rock, +others a hill or ravine. But every lineage chose some object for +its pacarisca. Some tribes [subsequently] adored eagles because +they boasted to have descended from them ... others adored +fountains, rivers, the earth, which they call Mother, or air, fire, +... snow-mountains, maize, the sea, named mother-sea.</q> +</p> + +<p> +According to Garcilaso de la Vega <q>the Peruvian tribes subsequently +invented an infinity of fables concerning the origin of their +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> +different ancestors.... An Indian does not consider himself +honorable unless he can trace his descent from a river, fountain, +lake or the sea, or from some wild beast like the bear, puma, ocelot, +eagle, etc.</q> An example of a certain amount of vain-glory +was indeed set by the diplomatic Inca himself who claimed, for +himself and lineage, descent from the Sun and reserved burnished +gold ornaments for his particular use. His successors subsequently +built a temple of the Sun at Cuzco and set up its image made of +gold and precious stones. Around this, the royal <q>pacarisca,</q> +they placed the mummies of all the dead Incas. In another room +there was an image of <q>the moon, with a woman's face,</q> and about +it were the mummies of the royal women. From this we learn +that the latter assigned their origin to the moon and that it was +their pacarisca or huaca. As an illustration of the way in which +creation-myths are sometimes evolved from actual occurrences, it +is interesting to study another account of the mode in which tribal +regulations were introduced into Peru. Owing, most probably, to +the fact that one of the titles given to the Creator was <q>the +Teacher,</q> we find Molina attributing to the Creator himself the +establishment of the tribal system and the assignment of totems +and different costumes to each group or family. If we read his +account and, with Garcilaso de la Vega and others, attribute to the +Incas the introduction of civilization into Peru, we recognize the +practical good sense with which they accomplished the rather difficult +task of obliging each tribe to wear a different costume. <q>In +Tiahuanaco ... he made one of each nation of clay and +painted [these] with the dresses that each one was to wear. Those +who were to wear their hair, with hair; and those who were to be +shorn, with hair cut ... when he had finished making the +nations and painting the said figures of clay, he gave life and soul +to each one, as well man as woman ... each nation then +went to the place to which he ordered it to go.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I confess that, until I studied the above record in full, I had very +vague ideas about the huacas or <q>idols</q> of the Peruvians. But +when I found it stated, further on, that <q>each tribe wore the dress +with which their huaca is invested,</q> I began to realize what huacas +might originally have been. It would seem that on assigning a +different costume and distinctive name to each tribe, the founder of +the new colony gave each chief as a model, a different clay doll, +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> +painted with the distinctive marks he and his people were to adopt. +This figure would naturally have been kept for reference and treated +as something sacred. On certain official occasions it would be produced +as a means of identification or proof that the prescribed +costumes had been strictly adhered to. To this practical and +sensible plan the origin of the so-called tribal and household idols +of the Peruvians and of the Mexicans can doubtlessly be assigned. +Invented as an aid in the establishment of tribal-names and dress-regulations +and intimately connected with the entire system of +government, these huacas gradually became the representative of +the ancestor of the clan, its <q>canting</q> arms and its sacred palladium. +We are told that after the tribes had chosen their various +ancestors or origins, such as caves, hills, fountains, etc., they settled +in the land and multiplied. Then, on account of having +<q>issued or descended from stated localities, the people made huacas +and places of worship of these, in memory of the origin of +their lineage.... The huacas they use are in different shapes.... +Some say the first of their lineages were turned into falcons, +condors and other animals or birds</q> (Molina ed. Hakluyt, +p. 5). A certain form of ancestor-cult was thus evolved in a +natural manner. <q>Idolatrous rites increased and people devoted +themselves to the worship of huacas ... each village had +its huaca. The cult assumed such proportions under Ccapac Yupanqui +that he exclaimed: <q>How many false gods are there in the +land, to my sorrow and the misfortune of my vassals! When +shall we see these evils remedied?</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +At the same time we find that clay or wooden figures continued +to be employed evidently as a method of keeping an accurate register +of the population. In the capital, one building held duplicates +of all the huacas throughout the land. When a new province +was conquered the Inca carried its principal huaca to Cuzco. One +or more living representatives of the conquered tribe, wearing its +characteristic dress, were obliged to reside in the capital. In ancient +Mexico these <q>living images of the gods</q> are one of the +most striking features of the native civilization and have been +persistently misunderstood, especially by modern authorities. As +these <q>living gods</q> are specially treated in the <q>Lyfe of the +Indians,</q> I shall merely point out here that small clay portraits or +effigies of persons were made in Mexico at certain stages of an +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> +individual's life and also after his death. These seem to have been +employed for statistical purposes. +</p> + +<p> +In Mexico and Peru large numbers of small images were preserved +in each household and were under the charge of its chief or +<q>older brother,</q> who was obliged to guard and render account of +them. Of course the Spanish conquerors took it for granted that +all of these were idols and, in their ignorance, destroyed them +unmercifully. Once the native system of tribal organization is +understood, it becomes evident that an accurate register of all +members of a tribe was of utmost importance. By means of a +group of more or less skillfully-modelled figures or heads the size +of a family could be ascertained at a glance by the government +recorder. In the light of this recognition it seems more than +probable that the immense numbers of small clay heads of various +kinds, found in the <q>street of the dead</q> at the base of the great +pyramids of Teotihuacan, and elsewhere, indicate that, in these +localities, a periodical and official registration of deaths was carefully +carried on. This assumption is fully corroborated by the +conclusions I reached, in 1886, after making a minute study of a +large number of terra-cotta heads<note place='foot'>The Terra-cotta +Heads of Teotihuacan, American Journal of Archaeology, Baltimore, +1886.</note> and ascertaining that numbers +of them were portraits of dead persons. The above inference is, +moreover, confirmed by the name of Teotihuacan, which means, literally, +<q>the place of the lords or masters of the teotle.</q> The term +teotl was given to the head of a tribe, who constituted the living +image of the tribal ancestor. When he died he himself became +one of the tribal ancestors and all dead lords were termed teotle. +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing data enlighten us as to the practical value of a +sternly enforced system of division and differentiation for the control +of the population, and of clay images of persons for statistical +purposes. We have seen that, during many centuries, the energy +of the rulers was directed towards making groups of people as +distinct and different from each other as possible. They were +rigidly kept apart and, in all assemblages, they occupied separate +positions, in a fixed order of relation to each other. <q>All the people +of Cuzco came out according to their tribes and lineages ... +and assembling in the great square ... sat down on their +benches, each man according to the rank he held, the Hanan-Cuzco +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> +on one side and the Hurin-Cuzco on the other</q> (Molina ed. Hakluyt, +p. 26). Beside this dual division of the entire population, +under the separate rulerships of the Inca and Coya, who were +linked together, however, in a sacred and indissoluble union and +respectively represented Heaven and Earth, let us study the executive +administration of the religious and civil governments. +</p> + +<p> +Two sets, each consisting of four rulers, next in rank to the +Inca and Coya, are described: Each quarter or Suyu was ruled +over by a <q>viceroy,</q> or <q>Inca governor,</q> entitled tucuyricoc=<q>he +who sees all,</q> or Capac. In the days of the Inca Huayna +Capac the names of the four <q>viceroys</q> are recorded as having +been Capac=Achachic, Capac=Larico, Capac=Yochi, Capac=Hualcaya. +These were obviously members of the Inca family +and next in rank to the Inca, who presided as supreme pontiff over +the religious government. The civil and tribal administration was +executed by four Curacas, each of which had charge of 10,000 +persons belonging to the ayllus=tribes or lineages. The titles +of these four Curacas are recorded as: Hunu-Camayu or Camayoc, +Huaronca-Camayu or Camayoc, Pachaca-Camayu or Camayoc, +Chunca-Camayu or Camayoc. As their titles show, they were the +chief accountants or recorders of statistics, which were recorded +by means of the quippus. Under them, in regular order there +were officers, who respectively had charge of 500, 100, 50 or 10 +individuals. In the latter instance it is expressly stated that it +was always one man out of the ten who governed and rendered +account of the remaining nine. The four chief recorders dwelt in +Cuzco but <q>left it every year and returned in February to make +their report ... bringing with them the tribute of the whole +empire. They also reported upon the administration every year +recording the births and deaths that had occurred among men and +flocks, the yield of crops and all other details, with great minuteness</q> +(Polo de Ondegardo). +</p> + +<p> +From the recorded details of organization we learn that the +governmental scheme introduced by the Incas was based on the assumption +that the standard population of the empire should number +40,000 individuals under the civil rulership of 4 recorders, 40 +first-grade officers, 400 second-grade officers, 4,000 third-grade +officers—each of the last being responsible for nine individuals +besides himself. It is noteworthy that the three grades of officers +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> +correspond to the threefold division of the entire produce of the +land, between the Inca, the Huaca and the Ayllu, equivalent to +the religious government, the civil government and the people—to +the Above, Below and Middle. The minimal division of people +into groups of ten of which one was the governmental representative +corresponds, moreover, to the classification into the following +ten categories, according to their ages: +</p> + +<p> +1. Mosoc-aparic: baby, <q>newly begun,</q> <q>just born.</q><lb/> +2. Saya-huarma: child, <q>standing boy,</q> age 2-6.<lb/> +3 Macta-puric: <q>child that can walk,</q> age 6-8.<lb/> +4. Itanta-requisic: <q>bread-receiver,</q> boy about 8.<lb/> +5. Pucllac-huarma: <q>playing boy,</q> age 8-16.<lb/> +6. Cuca-pallac: <q>Coca pickers,</q> age 16-20.<lb/> +7. Yma-huayna: <q>as a youth,</q> light service, age 20-25.<lb/> +8. Puric: <q>able-bodied,</q> tribute and service, age 25-50.<lb/> +9. Chaupi-rucca: elderly, light service, age 50-60.<lb/> +10. Puñuc-rucca: dotage, no work, 60 upwards.<note place='foot'>For this +valuable list I am indebted to the kindness of Sir Clements B. Markham, +the President of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain, who generously +allowed me to study some of his MS. notes on Ancient Peru.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Although for statistical purposes, exact registers of each of these +groups were annually made by the recorders, it is evident that +the purics or <q>able-bodied</q> men constituted the most important +portion of the population. They naturally fell into two groups +consisting of the nobility and commoners, but scattered evidence +amply provides that they were strictly classified according to the +special service or tribute they rendered to the government. The +best produce of each province was brought to Cuzco. +</p> + +<p> +The inhabitants of each region were specially trained to render +certain services or to excel in particular industries—by this means +each tribe gradually became identified with its special industry or +aptitude. The necessity that the supply of their produce should +be constant and regular, must have necessitated the permanent +maintenance of a fixed number of workers at each branch of industry, +a fact which would give rise to rigid laws controlling the +liberty of the individual, forcing children to adopt their parents' +avocations and forbidding intermarriages between persons of different +provinces. As scattered mention is made of the following +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> +general classification of the male population, I venture to note +them as follows, provisionally: +</p> + +<p> +Nobility: Commoners.<lb/> +<lb/> +1. lords: shepherds (of lamas),<lb/> +2. priests: hunters,<lb/> +3. warriors: farmers,<lb/> +4. civil governors: artificers. +</p> + +<p> +The female population was doubtlessly subdivided in an analogous +manner, for it is expressly recorded that all marriageable girls +were kept in four different houses. Those of the first class, qualified +as <q>the white virgins,</q> were dedicated to the service of the +Creator, the Sun and the Inca; the second were given in marriage +to the nobility; the third class married the Curacas or civil governors, +and the last were qualified as <q>black,</q> and pertained to the +lower classes. +</p> + +<p> +Caste division was never lost sight of—indeed one Inca went +so far as to order that all the people of the Below <q>should flatten +the heads of their children, so that they should be long and sloping +from the front.</q> Thus they should ever be distinguishable +from the nobility and <q>yield them obedience.</q> Although it is not +expressly stated, it may be inferred from actual specimens of +skulls which have been found that, in some localities, in order to +differentiate the two classes still more, members of the nobility +strove to mould the heads of their children in a high peak, so that +they too should perpetually bear the mark of their rank. Whether +such a procedure would exert a correspondingly elevating or abasing +influence upon the intellectual development of the two classes +is a problem for anthropologists. +</p> + +<p> +A very simple explanation of the reason why artificial deformation +of the skull was ever adopted, is obtainable when the all-powerful +dominion of a certain set of ideas is recognized. Many +other customs, still in practice amongst American tribes, are likewise +explained by the arbitrary division of population into classes +and categories. The Peruvian custom of bestowing one name +upon a child when it was one year old and another when it attained +maturity is the direct outcome of the classification of individuals +by age. The ceremonial observances which accompanied the bestowal +of these names were accompanied by a change of costume +which constituted the official enrolment or advancement into another +class. The existence of further systematic class-distinctions +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> +is proven by the description of the picturesque ceremony performed +in the month of August at Cuzco and called <q>the driving out of +sickness.</q> In the centre of the great square around the urn of +gold which typified the <q>central fountain</q> (precisely the idea expressed +by the name of Mexico), four hundred warriors assembled. +One hundred, representing one of the four ayllus, faced towards +each cardinal point and subsequently ran at full speed in its direction, +crying <q>Go forth all evils!</q> +</p> + +<p> +We have now traced the idea of the Above and Below, Centre +and Four Quarters in Ancient Peru. It remains to be noted that +the capital itself, which was to be the image of the whole empire, +was primarily divided into two halves and four quarters, and subdivided +into 4×3=12 wards the names of which doubtlessly corresponded +with that of their inhabitants. When the sacred centre +of the capital is added to these it is clear that the City of Cuzco +was subdivided into as many parts as there were directions in +space, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> 13. It exemplified, therefore, an association of +2×10=20 categories of people classified according to ages, with thirteen +directions in space, and a general subdivision of all classes into four +parts. The Inca with the four Capacs and the Coya with the four +Camayocs formed two groups of five each, which could well have +been represented by a large central figure surrounded by four +smaller ones of equal size. By coloring these with red, yellow, +black and white, their assignment to the cardinal point could have +been expressed. The central figure could be painted in four colors, +for only the Inca and his lineage could wear many-colored +garments, these being indicative that they represented the centre +or union of the four quarters. +</p> + +<p> +Two important features of the system remain to be discussed: +We have studied the minute and methodical classification of the +entire population into distinct groups without touching upon the +practical reasons why this was done. We have analyzed the great +machinery of the Inca dominion as it lies broken and motionless. +But endow the giant wheel with motion, introduce systematical +rotation into its every part, regulate the occupations of the people +by a fixed series of work-days and holidays. Send them forth to +their work and collect the products of their labor at set intervals, +<emph>institute a calendar</emph>, and you will have set the machinery of state in +motion and realized how the classification of individuals according +to rank, ages, and occupations was absolutely necessary in order to +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> +obtain a successful and harmonious result. It has already been +shown that the institution of the calendar and establishment of +twelve festival periods of thirty days each, in a year, succeeded +the division of the people into groups and their assignment to fixed +places of abode. +</p> + +<p> +<q>They commenced to count the year in the middle of May, a few +days more or less, on the first day of the Moon ... in this +month they held the festivals of the Sun</q> (Molina ed. Hakluyt, +p. 16). I direct particular attention to the fact that it was the +new May moon which controlled the beginning of the religious +calendar, although the Incas observed the equinoxes and solstices +and the cult of the Sun was under their special care. The twelve +divisions of the year accord with the twelve wards of Cuzco surrounding +the central enclosure which was always the place where +the festivals were held and the people congregated. +</p> + +<p> +I have as yet found no account of the lesser divisions of time +in Peru, but note that the period of thirty days consisted of six +periods of five days each, a subdivision which would obviously +accord with native habits of thought if associated with the six +terrestrial directions in space and if a reunion of people and collection +of produce from four quarters took place on every fifth day +in the capital. In my special work on the Calendar systems of +ancient America I shall be able to discuss more fully their intimate +indissoluble relation to the regulation of labor and control of the +food supply absolutely requisite for the great capital. +</p> + +<p> +The idea of rotation was carried out in a ceremony described by +Molina. When the December moon was full, after having ploughed +their fields during twelve days, <q>all persons returned to Cuzco +... the people went to a house called moro-uco, near the +houses of the Sun and took out a very long cable which was kept +there, woven in four colors, black, white, red and yellow, at the +end of which was a stout ball of red wool. Everyone took hold +of it, the men on one side, the women on the other, performing +the sacred dance called yaquayra. When they came to the square +... they went round and round until they were in the shape +of a spiral shell. Then they dropped the cable on the ground and +left it coiled up like a snake. The people returned to their places +and those who had charge of the cable took it back to its house.</q> +An extremely important instance of the application of the spiral +is preserved in an illustration in the Account of the Antiquities of +<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/> +Peru by the native chronicler Salcamayhua (ed. Hakluyt, p. 109). +He relates that the Inca Huayna-Capac, when he reached the town +of Tumipampa, <q>ordered water to be brought from a river by boring +through a mountain, and making the channel enter the city by +curves in this way:</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_46'/> + <figure url='images/figure-46.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 46.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The illustration, reproduced here (fig. <ref target='Figure_46'>46</ref>), exhibits an +extremely ingenious mode of irrigation which divided the country surrounding +the town into nine zones of land lying between currents of +water. These are cut through by an exit canal which, at the same +time, presumably supplied a direct water-way for traffic to and +from the town. The association of the spiral form with irrigation +would not, perhaps, seem as important and significant did we not +know that the ancient Peruvians, as proven by Wiener, habitually +laid out the irrigation canals in their +maize-fields so as to form regular designs, +some of which resembled those +illustrated on fig. <ref target='Figure_40'>40</ref>, nos. 2, 4, 6, 7, +which have been shown to signify the +union of the Above and Below, or +Heaven and Earth. In the Peruvian +irrigation canals the water supplied the +light lines and the earth the dark, and +when the small canals were full and +were observed in certain lights, they +must have resembled light blue or white +patterns running through the dark earth. +That their inventors and makers actually associated them with profound +meaning and laid them from superstitious as well as practical +motives is obvious; for, in Peru, as in Mexico, we find the periodical +union of the Heaven and Earth, of rain and earth celebrated +with ceremonial drinking of chicha, specially brewed for this period +which seems to have been the regularly appointed time for juvenile +match-making, by order of the Inca. +</p> + +<p> +<q>When the Inca gave women as wives they were received because +it was the command of the Inca ... because of this it +was considered that she was taken until death and she was received +on this understanding and never deserted</q> (Molina). <q>When the +Inca Rocca married his sister, six thousand people were married +on the next day</q> (Montesinos). In the festival called Ccapac +Raymi, maidens who had attained womanhood offered bowls of +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +fermented chicha to the youths who had just been admitted to the +ranks of the warriors. +</p> + +<p> +<q>During this festival the Priests of the Sun and of the Creator +brought a quantity of fuel, tied together in handfuls, and dressed +as a man and a woman ... they were offered to the Creator, +the Sun and the Inca and were burnt in their clothes together with +a sheep</q> (Molina). +</p> + +<p> +Towards the end of the same month (November), feasts were +celebrated for the flocks of the huacas, that they might multiply; +for which sacrifices were made throughout the kingdom. Ultimately +<q>public solemn sacrifices were made to the Creator, the Sun, the +Thunder and the Moon for all nations, that they might prosper and +multiply</q> (Molina). A few weeks later, an exemption from ceremonial +bondage, for three months, commenced. Throughout January, +February and March no religious festival took place at Cuzco—the +farmers attended to their land and the people were left at +liberty to pursue their various avocations uninterruptedly (Molina +ed. Hakluyt, pp. 51 and 52). I have already shown that the same +exemption from ceremonial bondage during ninety to one hundred +days of the year was customary in Mexico; and, in my note on +the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, communicated to the Congress +of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894 (p. 16), I explained +the reasons which had led me to infer that <q>the religious festivals +were concentrated in the ritual years of 260 days,</q> which indeed +forms a unit, consisting of a complete set of combinations of the +numbers 13 and 20. +</p> + +<p> +In Dr. Franz Boas' admirable monograph on the Social Organization +and secret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (Washington, +1897, p. 418), it is shown that at the present day the clan system +is only in force during one division of the year. <q>At the beginning +of the winter ceremonial the social system is completely +changed. The period when the class system is in force is called +bā-xus. The period of the winter ceremonial is designated as +<q>the secrets,</q> <q>making the heart good,</q> also <q>brought down from +Above.</q> The Indians express this alternating of seasons by saying +that in summer the bā-xus is on top, the secrets below, and +<hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi> in winter. During this time the place of the clans is +taken by a number of secret societies: the spirits who had appeared +to mythical ancestors give new names to the men to whom +they appear, but these names are only in use during the time when +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> +the spirits dwell amongst the Indians, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, in the winter.</q> +Therefore from the moment when the spirits are supposed to be present, +all the summer names are dropped and the members of the nobility +take their winter names. The winter ceremonial societies are arranged +in two principal groups; these are subdivided into 2×10=20 +groups according to age and sex. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Boas distinguishes <q>three classes of tribal names and of +clan names, viz., such as are collective forms of the names of the +ancestors, names taken from the region inhabited by the tribe or +clan and names of honour.... Each clan derives its origin +from a mythical ancestor ... the present system of tribes +and clans is of recent growth ... their numbers have undergone +considerable changes in historical times.</q> A careful study of +the material presented by Dr. Boas shows, however, that the ground-plans +of the entire social fabric reared by the Kwakiutl Indians +closely resembles that on which the stately Maya, Mexican and +Peruvian civilizations were reared. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to Peru, it is particularly noteworthy that the above +mentioned solemn sacrifices to the Creator, the Sun and Thunder, +and Moon and Earth, held in November, were thus offered to them +jointly in one consecrated place, whereas, at other seasons, the +cult was performed separately and on different days, before the +emblems of the Above and Below. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding the moderation and tolerance which seem to +have been characteristic of the Inca government, and the apparent +equality and accord of the two cults, the heads of which were the +Inca and Coya, we find evidences of discord in the historical records. +The Inca empire had scarcely been established for more +than a few centuries<note place='foot'><q>From what +can be gathered and conjectured in considering the traditions of the +present time, it is not more than 350 to 400 years since the Incas only possessed and +ruled over the valley of Cuzco as far as Urcas, a distance of six leagues and to the +valley of Yucay, which is not more than 5 leagues.... The historical period cannot +be placed further back than 400 years at the earliest</q> (Polo de Ondegardo +1550-1600).</note> when we discern signs of a serious rebellion +under the leadership of the Chuchi-capac, the chief of the Southern +province or Colla-suyu, pertaining to the Below. From the +taunts he uttered in the presence of the Inca on a festive occasion +and which have been recorded verbally by Salcamayhua, it is clear +that the chief of the Collas asserted that he (and the people of his +province) actually practised sun-cult although <q>his throne was of +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +silver;</q> that is to say, notwithstanding the fact that moon-cult +pertained to the quarter to which he was assigned, namely, to the +Below. He justifies his departure from moon-cult by taunting the +Inca that he, in turn, did not adhere strictly to sun-cult but worshipped +the impersonal Creator. This struggle between the ancient +native sun-cult and star-cult and this religious dissension, the reason +for which is apparent, initiated the long period of internal +strife and warfare which ultimately made the Spanish Conquest +such an easy matter. +</p> + +<p> +During the course of these wars the Peruvian Inca, on one occasion, +avenged himself for a supposed insult by having drums made +of the skins of some of the enemies' messengers and by sending +back others of these <q>dressed as women,</q> that is to say degraded +from their positions as warriors or noblemen to the ranks of the +commoners. A similar degradation, inflicted upon the Tlatelolcan +rebels by the Mexicans has already been mentioned and can only +be fully understood when the class-system is recognized. +</p> + +<p> +From this and analogous instances it is evident that, admirable +as the scheme of government seems to have been as a means of +laying the foundations of civilization, and of teaching primitive +people agriculture, stability, law and order, yet the very features +which rendered it so efficient at first became, eventually, the cause +of its gradual disintegration, as soon as a certain degree of culture +prosperity was attained by the community. One mode of +avoiding the evils of over-population and of ridding the capital +of its restless, and enterprising or troublesome members, was the +system of Mitimaes or colonists. This merits particular attention, +because it formed an integral part of the marvellous and widespread +scheme of organization we have been studying, and therefore helps +to an understanding of the customary means by which civilization +was spread in past ages throughout the American continent. +</p> + +<p> +As the population of Cuzco increased and greater food supplies +were found necessary, the Incas extended their dominions by a +series of conquests. <q>As soon as they had made themselves +lords of a province they left Mitimaes or settlers there, who caused +the natives to live in communities</q> and established a small centre +of local government on the pattern of Cuzco. Mitimaes or colonists +were also sent, from different provinces, to live on the frontiers, +bordering on hostile countries, so as to aid in defending them +against the enemies. The establishment of colonies in distant districts +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> +was therefore a tried and familiar custom of those who possessed +the wonderful governmental plan we have been studying. +</p> + +<p> +I have shown that the greater the prosperity of a civilized community +organized on this plan, the more imperative the necessity +of founding new colonies would sometimes become. The urgent +need of greater food supplies would lead to the sending out of +expeditions for the purpose of surveying the surrounding country +and ascertaining the quality of its produce. In his MS. Noticia, +Padre Oliva speaks of an exploring party which was sent out by +the ancestor of the Incas with the injunction to return in a year. +After a few years had passed and none of the party returned, a +second expedition was sent out in search of the first and this led +to the final establishment of the Inca dominion in a promising region. +Sahagun recounts how a Maya colony was established at +Panuco; Montezuma himself related to Cortés that he and his lineage +were descendants of colonists from distant parts; traditions +of culture-heroes who established civilization amongst them abound +amongst Central American tribes; finally, Peru is shown to have +been civilized by rulers who carried out, systematically, a ready-made +plan in a comparatively short time. Whence did all these culture-heroes +emanate, carrying the identical method and system into +widely separated districts and establishing centres of civilization +in the richest and most fertile parts of the American Continent? +</p> + +<p> +Documentary evidence certainly justifies the inference that the +civilization of Peru itself was due to just such a deliberately executed +plan of colonization, which gradually extended southwards +and ultimately took root and flourished in the most favorably +situated locality. +</p> + +<p> +Leonce Angrand, who cites Acosta, Montesinos, Garcia, Boturini, +Valera, Garcilaso de la Vega, Gomara, Balboa, Paz Soldan, +d'Orbigny, Zarate, Cieza de Leon, Torquemada, Herrera, Velasco, +Rivero and Tschudi, Gibbon, Stevenson, Castelnau, Desjardins, +Villavicencio, Roman and others, unites their testimony in the following +sentence: <q>It is therefore solely towards the North, in the +elevated mountainous region, that researches should be directed +[in order to ascertain the origin of the Peruvian civilization]. As +soon as this is done innumerable proofs appear of the residence, +in extremely ancient times, of people who can scarcely belong to +other races than those who founded Cuzco and Tiahuanaco. It is +therefore, from the North that these hardy pioneers of humanity +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> +came, from distant civilizations, and it is certainly by going northwards +that one must look for traces of one or the other current of +civilization. The inexhaustible force of expansion of the Inca +Empire extended to the North as well as in other directions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Angrand also mentions a line <q>of prehistoric ruins which extend +northwards from Peru and display the essentially characteristic +outlines of the Mexican Teocallis or temples.</q><note place='foot'>Lettre +sur les Antiquités de Tiahuanaco, 1866, pp. 9, 17, 19.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Garcilaso de la Vega, citing Padre Blas Valera, goes so far as to +state that the race, which introduced human sacrifices and ritualistic +cannibalism into Peru, <q>had come from the region of Mexico, +peopled the regions of Panama and the Isthmus of Darien and all +those great mountains which extend between Peru and the new +kingdom of Granada</q> (the present Nicaragua).<note place='foot'>Blas Valera, +apud Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, Lisboa, 1609, lib. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, cap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi</hi>, pp. 13, 14; lib. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, cap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, p. 42. See +also Garcia, Origen de los Indios. Madrid, 1729, +lib. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, cap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xv</hi>, p. 313.</note> +</p> + +<p> +According to Padre Anello Oliva, whose manuscript notes on +Peru are preserved in the British Museum Library, the immediate +ancestors of the Incas were colonists who came from unknown parts +either by land or by sea, and settled at Caracas (Atlantic coast), +whence they gradually spread southwards. As his authority for this +statement, he cites original manuscripts which had been placed in his +hands by a Spanish missionary of high standing. Among these was +a relation by a Quipucamayoc or <q>accountant by means of quippus,</q> +named Catari, who had been a chronicler of the Incas. His +forefathers had occupied the same post and had handed down the +above record as having been related to them by their predecessors. +</p> + +<p> +This account does not disagree with that of Salcamayhua who +states that <q>all the nations of the empire had come from beyond +Potosi, in four or five armies, arrayed for war and settled in the +districts as they advanced.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Whatever opinions may be held of the relative reliability of the +Spanish chroniclers one thing is certain: that not one ventures +the statement that the Inca civilization was gradually evolved by the +native race of Peru and that all agree in assigning its introduction +to an alien race of rulers who came from the North, and gradually +united the scattered indigenous tribes together under a central government. +Americanists will doubtless agree with me in stating +that, until the past history, antiquities and languages of all tribes +inhabiting South and Central America have been exhaustively +<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/> +studied, no absolutely satisfactory conclusion can be formed as to +when and how civilization was carried to Peru. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, even in the present preliminary stage of investigation, +there are certain undeniable facts which, if brought to +notice at this early date, may prove of inestimable value in directing +future research. One of these facts will doubtless appear to +many as strange and inexplicable but as noteworthy as it appears +to me. +</p> + +<p> +In Cristoval de Molina's account of the fables and rites of the +Incas<note place='foot'>Narratives of the Rites and laws of the Incas, +translated by Clements B. Markham, C. B., F. R. S., ed. Hakluyt +Society, pp. 10-13.</note> already cited, a fable is related concerning the Inca Yupanqui, +the Conqueror, who extended the domain of the Peruvian +empire and instituted the worship of a creator who, unlike the sun, +could rest and light up the world from one spot. +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>They say that, before he succeeded [to rulership], he went one +day to visit his father Uiracocha Inca, who was at Sacsahuana, +five leagues from Cuzco. As he came up to a fountain called +Susur-puquio, he saw a piece of crystal fall into it, within which +he beheld the figure of an Indian in the following shape:</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Out of the back of his head there issued three very brilliant +rays like those of the Sun. Serpents were twined around his arms, +and on his head there was the llautu or royal fringe worn across +the forehead of the Inca. His ears were bored and he wore the +same earpieces as the Inca, besides being dressed like him. The +head of a lion came out from between his legs and on his shoulders +was another lion whose legs appeared to join over the shoulders of +the man. A sort of serpent also twined over the shoulders.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>On seeing this figure the Inca Yupanqui fled, but the figure of +the apparition called him by his name from within the fountain +saying, <q>Come hither, my son, and fear not, for I am the Sun, +thy father. Thou shalt conquer many nations: therefore be careful +to pay great reverence to me and remember me in thy sacrifices.</q> +The apparition then vanished, while the piece of crystal +remained. The Inca took care of it and they say that he afterwards +saw everything he wanted in it. As soon as he was Lord +he ordered a statue of the Sun to be made as nearly as possible +resembling the figure he had seen in the crystal. He gave orders +to the heads of the provinces in all the lands he had conquered, +that they should make grand temples, richly endowed, and he commanded +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> +all his subjects to adore and reverence the new Deity, as +they had heretofore worshipped the Creator.... It is related +that all his conquests were made in the name of the Sun, his Father, +and of the Creator. This Inca also commanded all the nations +they conquered to hold their huacas in great veneration....</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is a startling but undeniable fact that one of the beautiful +bas-reliefs found at Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa near the western +coast of Guatemala, about 1,200 miles to the north of the latitude +of Cuzco, answers in a most striking manner to the description +given of Inca Yupanqui's vision.<note place='foot'><p>It is the +merit of the late distinguished philologist Dr. Buschmann, in his invaluable +work on Aztec names of localities to have pointed out that although the Cakchiquel +language is now spoken at Cozumalhuapa or Cotzumalguapan, its name is +unquestionably Nahuatl (Cozamalo-apan). Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>, p. 34. +</p> +<p> +The largest number of illustrations of the beautiful bas-reliefs found in the above +locality have been published by M. Herman Strebel of Hamburg, whose valuable +publications and splendid collections of ancient Mexican antiquities, preserved at +Berlin and Hamburg, are well known. Die Steinsculptures von Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa +(Guatemala) in Museum fur Volkerkunde. Hamburg, 1894. Jahrbuch der +Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Austallen, <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi</hi>. +</p> +<p> +Three of these remarkable bas-reliefs are figured in the valuable publication by +Geheimrath A. Bastian: Steinsculpturen aus Guatemala, Berichte der Königlichen +Museen zu Berlin, 1882. Dr. Habel's drawings were published in 1878, in the 22d vol. +of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. +</p> +<p> +Casts of these bas-reliefs are on exhibition in the Peabody Museum. +</p></note> +</p> + +<p> +Amongst the thirteen sculptured slabs discovered at Santa Lucia, +there are six entire slabs and the fragment of another which are +of almost uniform size and may be ranked among the finest examples +of aboriginal art which have as yet been found on the +American Continent. They represent seven different renderings +of the same theme. On each slab an individual wearing elaborate +insignia is represented as standing with one arm raised and +his head thrown back in the act of gazing upwards towards a +celestial figure which seems to be descending towards him. The +arms and heads of these nobly conceived figures are visible, but +in each case the faces seem to issue from a highly ornate symbol, +which is different in each one, just as the insignia of each individual +also varies in detail. At the same time it is obvious that the +seven slabs commemorate as it were an identical circumstance,—the +apparition of the same divinity to seven different individuals, +six of which are represented with the sign of speech coming forth +from their mouths in precisely the same manner. The general resemblance, +notwithstanding the distinct individuality of each +bas-relief, suggests that they commemorate the visions seen under +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +similar circumstances by seven distinct personages of the same +rank and position. Involuntarily one thinks of the period of enforced +fast and vigil which marks the attainment of manhood and +is still obligatory amongst North American tribes, amongst whom +it only ends when they have entered into communion with their +totemic ancestor. I am inclined to view these commemorative +tablets as commemorating an analogous rite and perpetuating the +visions of successive members of one ruling family, or clan. The +divinity, invariably associated with serpent +symbols, seems to be Quetzalcoatl, the +divine twin or serpent, exhibiting in some +cases the emblem of the Sun, but evidently +revealing itself to each personage under a +slightly different form. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_47'/> + <figure url='images/figure-47.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 47.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The accompanying drawing (fig. <ref target='Figure_47'>47</ref>) of +one of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs, reproduced +from Dr. Habel's work, will suffice +to establish its resemblance to Padre Oliva's +description of the apparition seen by the +youthful Inca Yupanqui. After a careful +comparison of the text to the sculptured +bas-relief, it must be admitted that a more +graphic and impressive illustration of the +episode can scarcely be imagined. Its +lower portion displays a youthful figure, +looking upwards and exhibiting a necklace, +the circular ear-pieces and royal fringe or +llautu of the Incas. From his shoulders +hangs the skin of a puma or lion with its +head downwards. Molina relates that lion-skins +with the heads were specially prepared +for the ceremonial when youths were +admitted into the ranks of knighthood, the last rite of which was +the piercing of their ears and the enlargement of the orifice +made.<note place='foot'><p><q>The skins of +lions, with the heads, had been prepared, with gold ear-pieces in the +ears and golden teeth in place of the real teeth which had been pulled out. In the +paws were certain rings of gold. Those who were dressed or invested with these +skins put on the head and neck of the lion so as to cover their own and the skin of +the body of the lion hung from the shoulders.</q> <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 45. +</p> +<p> +The wearing of puma and ocelot skins by one of the two highest grades of warriors +in Mexico is too well known to need further mention here. +</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> + +<p> +The youth wears a singular head-dress, or diadem, consisting of +what appears to be an eye with conventionally drawn upper lid, +surmounted by three pointed rays, behind which some long wavy +feathers are visible.<note place='foot'>In connection with the +three points proceeding from the eye, the Mexican symbol +for star, I would draw attention to the fact that in the latitude of Santa Lucia only +three equidistant positions of Ursa Major, and, possibly, of Ursa Minor, would be +observable, the constellations being below the northern horizon when lying between +it and Polaris. The symbolical three points could have thus originated in the same +way as the triskeles in other countries, from observation of the identical +phenomenon.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The celestial apparition to which the youthful figure is looking +up, likewise exhibits the same necklace, pieces, and royal fringe +of the Incas. Indistinctly though some of the details are given, +it seems as though intertwined serpents encircled its head and possibly +its neck. The head of the vision is surmounted by an enlarged +rendering of the conventionally drawn eyelid and three +pointed rays which form the diadem of the youthful knight. The +face of the vision occupies, however, the place of the eye on the +diadem. In this connection it is interesting to note that in the +Nahuatl language, which, as (<hi rend='italic'>op. et loc. cit.</hi>) proven by Buschmann, +was spoken in Guatemala where the bas-relief was found, +the word ixtli designates face, whilst ixtololotli signifies eye. Situated +between the right elbow of the celestial figure and the diadem +of the youth, there is a diminutive reproduction of the eye, eyelid +and three rays, with the addition that what appear like two (or +three?) drops of water or two eyes descend from it towards a +square symbol which resembles the Mexican sign for tlalli=earth, +whilst the eye symbol is closely analogous to a well-known Mexican +sign which has been interpreted as a star, and has, but not as +yet satisfactorily, been identified with the planet Venus. Without +pausing to study this sign as it appears in ancient Mexico I point +out that the position and mode of representation of the upper +figure in the bas-relief sufficiently show that it is an image of a +celestial being or vision in the act of receiving the supplication of +a youth who is wearing divine insignia. There being a possibility +that some of these accessories may be somewhat indistinct in the +original bas-relief now preserved at the Royal Ethnographical +Museum at Berlin, I do not venture to draw special attention to +the possibility of further points of resemblance between the Peruvian +tradition and this Guatemalan sculpture. +</p> + +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> + +<p> +At the same time I shall not omit allusion to the wavy figure +winding upwards from the waist of the supplicant, which recurs in +four out of the seven slabs. It may yet prove to answer to the +description of <q>a sort of serpent,</q> which is recorded as twining +over the shoulders of the vision who was <q>dressed like the Inca.</q> +The lion's head which appears in the drawing to cover the left hand +of the supplicant and the fact that his left foot only, in some cases, +wears a sandal, are important and interesting features to which I +shall revert further on. +</p> + +<p> +Without attempting to offer any explanation of the truly remarkable +fact that a bas-relief exhumed in Guatemala should so +strikingly agree with a description preserved in a Peruvian tradition, +I shall merely point out a second similar though much less +remarkable case of agreement. +</p> + +<p> +Padre Oliva records two instances in which a <q>royal eagle</q> +figures in connection with members of the Inca dynasty. One of +these relates to the ancestors of Manco Capac, the reputed founder +of Cuzco. His great-grandmother, being abandoned by her husband, +attempted to sacrifice her young son to Pachacamac. A +royal eagle descended, carried him away in his talons and set him +down in an island off the Pacific coast, named Guayan, <q>because it +was covered with willows.</q> Oliva explains this tradition as a fanciful +way of recording the fact that the youth's life was probably +endangered, and that he had fled and taken refuge on an island. +At the age of twenty-one he made his way back to the continent +on a raft, but was seized by hostile people. His life was, however, +saved by the daughter of a chieftain who returned with him +to the island. Her name is given as Ciguar, a word strangely like +the Nahuatl Cihuatl=woman. She bore him a son who was named +Atau (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ahau and Ahua=Maya and Mexican words for lord +or chief), who was, in time, the father of Manco Capac, the reputed +founder of civilization in Peru. When the latter was a +child <q>an eagle approached him and never left him.</q> In view of +these traditions it is interesting to note that, on two of the Santa +Lucia bas-reliefs figured by Habel and reproduced by Mr. Hermann +Strebel in pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, fig. +13, of his extremely useful and comprehensive +monograph on the bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, an eagle +is represented in connection with a figure wearing divine insignia. +</p> + +<p> +On one of the seven analogous slabs representing a personage +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> +addressing a supplication to a celestial apparition, a large eagle or +vulture is actually sculptured behind the supplicant, being, as it +were, his individual totem (Strebel, Pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, fig. 5). +</p> + +<p> +A drawing of a part of another slab (Strebel, Pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, fig. 13) +displays an eagle or vulture holding in his beak the body of a +bearded personage who wears a neck ornament and circular ear +pieces, and from whose head two serpents hang. This last detail +associates him with the celestial figure which usually displays +knotted serpents on or above its head, suggesting its connection +with Quetzalcoatl, the divine title of the Supreme Being and also +of the supreme rulers of the Mexicans. It is curious to find in +Peru a tradition recording that, when <q>the Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui +undertook the conquest of the Antisuyus with 100,000 men, their +Huaca sent forth fire and stopped the passage with a fierce serpent +which destroyed many people. The Inca raised his eyes to +heaven and prayed for help with great sorrow, and a furious eagle +descended, and seizing the head of the serpent raised it on high, +and then hurled it to the ground. In memory of this miracle the +Inca ordered a snake to be carved in stone on the wall of a +terrace in this province, which was called Aucapirca.</q> When +divested of all fanciful details, the foregoing Peruvian traditions +seem to show that the eagle was the totem of one or more of the +Incas and that the serpent was the totem of a tribe which was conquered +by the Incas. It is likewise recorded by Padre Oliva that +the Inca named Mayta Capac Amaru ordered his shield to be painted +with weapons and a serpent=Amaru, <q>because he had killed one +in the Andes and therefore took it for his surname.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible for any Mexicanist to read the foregoing texts +without recalling that, in the City of Mexico, there is an unexplained +bas-relief which was put up by the Spaniards after the +Conquest but evidently figures a native tradition. It represents an +eagle bearing in his talons a personage, wearing a diadem, beneath +whom is a group of native weapons.<note place='foot'>This bas-relief +is reproduced in vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi> of +the Anales del Museo Nacional, p. 302, +and is discussed by Señor Sanchez.</note> The arms of Mexico +representing an eagle holding a serpent in its talons and resting on +a cactus, is too well known to require comment and recalls the Peruvian +tradition of the eagle of the Incas conquering the serpent-totem +of a hostile people. +</p> + +<p> +Striking as these undeniable resemblances undoubtedly are, they +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> +would not, by themselves, justify the immediate conclusion that an +actual direct connection existed between the Peruvian traditions +and the Guatemalan and Mexican bas-reliefs which almost seem +to illustrate the same or analogous incidents. At the same time +they prove that, besides their scheme of government, the Incas had +certain myths or traditions in common with the civilized tribes +inhabiting Central America. +</p> + +<p> +It is well to bear in mind that the situations of Cuzco in Peru +and Santa Lucia in Guatemala are both adjacent to the Pacific coast +with an intervening distance of about 27-½ degrees of latitude. +But 15 degrees, however, lie between the northern boundary of modern +Peru and the southern boundary of Nicaragua where, as proven +by Buschmann, innumerable names of localities in the Nahuatl +language testify to its ancient occupation by a Nahuatl-speaking +race. +</p> + +<p> +It is noteworthy that this eminent philologist observed how the +name employed to designate the bamboo bed of the Cacique Agateite, +in Nicaragua, <q>barbacoa,</q> was the same as that of the wooden +bed or litter used by the Inca in Peru (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 756). Buschmann +likewise identified the word galpon=great hall or house. +He also expressed the opinion that <q>the Quechua word <hi rend='italic'>pampa</hi> +resembles the Mexican <foreign rend='italic'>amilpampa ehecatl</foreign>=the south wind, +but the Mexican is formed by the affixes pan and pa and the Quechua +substantive means an even, open plain. At the same time this +meaning and form could be derived from the Mexican affixes</q> +(Buschmann, Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, 7, p. 627). +</p> + +<p> +Following this precedent I have ventured to search for further +resemblances between Nahuatl and Quechua words, and one of the +remarkable results I obtained was the discovery that the well-known +Quechua name for colonists=Mitimaes, the meaning of +which, in Quechua, is not forthcoming, seems to be connected in +sound and meaning with the Nahuatl Ce-mitime=sons of one +mother (Molina's dictionary). It is superfluous to point out how +appropriate this designation would have been for the colonists who +invariably founded fresh centres of civilization on the plan of the +central metropolis. A brief comparative table, the result of an +investigation which lays no claim to be more than a rudimentary +attempt, is published as an appendix to this paper, with the hope +that it may stimulate philologists to supersede it by exhaustive +studies of the subject. A careful examination of the table tends +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +to prove that certain Nahuatl, Quechua and Maya words had a +common origin and shows that a closer connection existed between +the Nahuatl and Quechua languages than between Nahuatl and +Maya or the Quechua and Maya. +</p> + +<p> +I shall have occasion to refer to several of the words I have +tabulated. At present I would draw attention to an analogy which +bears directly on the subject of this paper and is of utmost interest +and importance. If carefully studied it will be seen that the +title <q>Pacha Yachachic,</q> applied in Peru to the Creator, proves to +be allied in sound and meaning to the Mexican title Yaca-tecuhtli, +<q>the lord who guides or governs.</q> According to Sahagun, this +was <q>the god of the traders or traveller-merchants.</q> He had +five divine brothers and one sister, each of which was separately +worshipped by some travellers, whilst others, on their safe return +from distant and dangerous expeditions, offered sacrifices to the +whole group collectively. I leave it to each reader to make his +own inference as to whether this celestial <q>traveller's guide</q> with +his six brethren can have been other than Polaris and Ursa Minor. +The difference in the magnitudes of this constellation would naturally +give rise to the idea of a group composed of individuals of +different ages and sizes; the <q>little sister</q> probably being the +smaller of the four intermediate stars of the constellation and +suggesting tales of adventures relating to the mythical sister of +six brothers. +</p> + +<p> +It is superfluous to emphasize how natural it would have been +to offer a thanksgiving to the <q>traveller's star</q> on returning from +a distant voyage, but I will point out that for coast navigation between +Guatemala and Nicaragua and Peru, the adoption of Polaris +as a guide was and is a matter of course. It is well to bear in +mind that we are dealing here with navigation north and south, +along a sheltered coast, for a distance not exceeding that of the +coast-line between Gibraltar and Hamburg. An instructive example +of primitive navigation, under analogous circumstances, has +been communicated to me, from personal observation, by Commander +Barber of the United States Navy. +</p> + +<p> +Native traders, who navigate north and south in small crafts +along the coast between Ceylon and Karashee, still use, at the +present day, an extremely primitive method of estimating latitude, +which is entirely based upon observations of the pole-star. Their +contrivance consists of a piece of wood four inches square, through +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> +which a hole is bored and a piece of cord, with knots at intervals, +is passed. The square is held at arm's length and the end of the +cord is held to the point of the navigator's nose in a horizontal +line, the height being so adjusted that the pole-star is observed in +contact with the upper edge of the piece of wood. There are as +many knots in the cords as there are ports habitually visited, and +according to the length of the cord required for the observation +of Polaris in the said position, the mariner knows to which port +he is opposite. +</p> + +<p> +According to Sir Clements B. Markham,<note place='foot'>Article +Peru, Encyclopaedia Britannica.</note> the original inhabitants +of the Peruvian coast fished in boats made of inflated sealskins. +It is well known that the coast-tribes of Mexico and Central +America employed boats of various kinds and some of great size. +The Mexican tradition relates that the culture hero Quetzalcoatl departed +in a craft he had constructed and which is designated as a +coatlapechtli=coa=coatl=serpent or twin, tlapechtli=raft. +It is open to conjecture whether this construction, <q>in which he sat +himself as in a boat,</q> may be regarded as a sort of double or twin +raft, or a boat made of serpent or seal (?) skin. In order to form +any opinion, the name for seal in the Nahuatl and other languages +spoken by the coast tribes should first be ascertained and compared +with the native names for serpent. +</p> + +<p> +The Maya colonists who founded the colony on the Mexican +coast, and are known as the Huaxtecans, are described as having +transported themselves thither by boats from Yucatan. In the native +Codices and in the sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, there +are, moreover, illustrations of navigation by boats. As dependent +upon Polaris as their East Indian colleagues of to-day, it is but +natural that the ancient Mexican traders by land or sea expressed +their gratitude by offerings to Polaris and Ursa Minor. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now return to Peru and examine whether there is any +proof that the <q>Teacher or Guide of the World,</q> the Supreme Being +of the Incas, was identical with the <q>Lord who guides</q> revered +by the Mexican navigators. +</p> + +<p> +I have already demonstrated that in ancient America the native +scheme of religion and government was but the natural outcome +of certain ideas suggested by the observation of Polaris and the +circumpolar constellations. I have likewise quoted the remarkable +qualification of a supreme divinity made by Inca Yupanqui, who +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> +raised a temple in Cuzco to the Creator who, superior to the sun, +could rest and light the world from one spot. It is an extremely +important and significant fact that the principal doorway of this +temple opened to the north,<note place='foot'>Garcilaso de la +Vega, The Royal Commentaries of the Incas, Hakluyt ed. vol. I, +p. 270.</note> and that the <q>true Creator</q> is alluded +to as an invisible power, the knowledge of which was transmitted +by the Incas from father to son. Thus Salcamayhua records that +on one occasion the young Inca Ccapac Yupanqui exclaimed <q>I +now feel that there is another Creator of all things [than that +worshipped in the Andes], as my father Mayta Ccapas Inca has +indeed told me.</q><note place='foot'>Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. +Hakluyt, p. 86.</note> Considering that in the latitude of Cuzco, situated +as it is 14° below the equator, Polaris is invisible, the conditions +thus recorded as existing in Peru are exactly those which +might be expected to exist if a religion founded on pole-star worship +had been carried southward to a region in which the star itself +was invisible. The orientation of the temple would designate the +north as the sacred region and the star-god would become an invisible +power whose very existence would have become traditional and +necessarily be accepted on faith by native-born Peruvians and converted +sun- and moon-worshippers. +</p> + +<p> +It is a remarkable fact that a descendant of the Incas has furnished +us with actual proof that the Supreme Creator revered at +Cuzco was not only associated with a star, but also with the figure +of a cross, each branch of which terminated in a star. We are +indebted to the native chronicler Salcamayhua for some extremely +curious drawings, which are reproduced here from his account of +the Antiquities of Peru.<note place='foot'>Rites and Laws +of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, pp. 77, 84.</note> In treating of the primitive astronomy +in America in my special paper on the native calendar, I shall refer +to these in greater detail. For my present purpose it suffices to +designate the following figures. +</p> + +<p> +Salcamayhua records that the founder of the Peruvian Empire, +Manco Capac, ordered the smiths to make a flat plate of fine gold, +of oval shape, which was set up as an image of the Creator (<hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 76). The Inca Mayta Ccapac, <q>who despised all created +things, including the sun and moon,</q> and <q>ordered his people to +pay no honour to them,</q> caused the plate to be renewed which his +<q>great grandfather had put up, fixing it afresh in the place where +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +it had been before. He rebuilt the <q>house of gold</q> and they +say that he caused things to be placed round the plate, which I have +shown, that it may be seen what these heathens thought.</q> The central +figure on this plate consists of the oval image of the Creator, +fig. <ref target='Figure_48'>48</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>. +Close to its right are images designated by the text as +representing the sun and morning star. To the left are the moon +and the evening star. Above the oval and touching it, is a group +of five stars forming a cross, with one star in the centre. Below +it is a cross figure formed by lines uniting four stars. In +this case, instead of being in the middle, the fifth star is attached +to the lower edge of the oval, which is designated as <q>the image of +Uiracocha Pacha-Yachachic, the teacher of the World.</q> Outside +of the plate is what appears to be an attempt to explain more +clearly the relative positions of the group of five stars to the oval +plate (fig. <ref target='Figure_48'>48</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>). It represents the oval and one star in the centre +of a cross formed by four stars. The question naturally suggests +itself whether the group of five stars forming a cross may +not represent the Southern Cross, popularly called the pole-star of +the south and which consists of four principal stars, one of which +is of the first and two of the second magnitude. This possibility +opens out a new field of inquiry, and calls for the statement of the +following facts, which I quote from Amedée Guillemin's Handbook +of Popular Astronomy, edited by J. Norman Lockyer and revised +by Richard A. Proctor.<note place='foot'>The Heavens ... London. +Richard Bentley and Son. 1883. pp. 287-289.</note> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_48'/> + <figure url='images/figure-48.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 48.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +<q>In [our] enumeration of the circumpolar constellations of the +South, we have said nothing of the stars situated at the Pole itself. +The reason is simple; there are none deserving mention, and with +the exception of one star in Hydræ, none approach the third magnitude. +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +There is not then, in the southern sky, any star analogous +to Polaris in the northern heavens.</q> M. Guillemin proceeds to +explain, however, that this poverty of the polar regions is singularly +compensated for by the stars of the equatorial zone. It seems +more than probable that primitive astronomers or their descendants, +who had been reared in a knowledge of the northern Polaris +and of the periodical motion of the circumpolar constellations, +should continue their observations in whatever latitude they found +themselves. It seems possible that they may have observed the +Southern Cross and recognized its closeness to the pivot or centre +of rotation; but from personal experience and observation I can +vouch for the fact that this constellation could never have produced +upon primitive man the powerful impression caused by Ursa Major +and Cassiopeia revolving around Polaris. It is, of course, impossible +to conclude to what extent the ancient Peruvians revered the +Southern Cross. It suffices for the present to establish the incontrovertible +facts that the image of the motionless Creator, set up +by the Incas, was associated with stars and with the cross and that +the door of the Cuzco Temple, where this image was kept, faced +the north, the direction whence, according to native traditions, the +culture-heroes had come to Peru. +</p> + +<p> +The following data furnish further important proof that certain +peculiar ideas, symbols and metaphors were held in common +by the civilizations of Peru, Central America and Mexico. Returning +to the bas-relief (fig. <ref target='Figure_47'>47</ref>), +I recur to an interesting feature, +which I have already pointed out, namely, that the left arm of +the personage terminates in a tiger's or puma's head. In connection +with this peculiarity it is interesting to note that the native +historian Ixtlilxochitl cites his illustrious ancestor and namesake, +the Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, as addressing his young son Nezalhualcoyotl +as <q>my dearly beloved son, tiger's arm.</q><note place='foot'>Historia Chichimeca, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xix</hi>.</note> As +the young prince is referred to in the same chapter as <q>the boy +Acolmiztli [=tiger's arm] Nezalhualcoyotl,</q> it is obvious that the +metaphor constituted a title preceding the actual name. It was +Nezalhual-coyotl who instituted the worship of Tloquenahuaque, +the true Creator, and discountenanced human sacrifices. +</p> + +<p> +If the other analogous Santa Lucia slabs be also examined it +will be seen that although the positions of the bodies and arms +vary, and the form of the head is different in each instance, it is +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +invariably the left arm that terminates in the individual emblem. +This sort of consecration of the left hand seems particularly significant +for the following reason: Padre Anello Oliva records that +the Inca Yupanqui, the founder of Cuzco and the same whose vision +agrees so strangely with the bas-relief, was surnamed Lloque=the +left-handed,<note place='foot'>In Quechua the left +hand was named lloque maqui and the right, pana maqui. +In the Chinchaysuyo dialect of Quechua the left hand was hichoc maqui and the +right, allaucay maqui (Vocabulario Padre Juan de Figueredo).</note> +and was noted for having visited the whole empire +three times. His reign was long and prosperous, and he left +a record as a conqueror and builder. He likewise sent his son +Mayta-Capac to visit the whole empire, accompanied by sages and +councillors. I recall here it was Yupanqui who proclaimed to the +sun-worshippers of Peru, the existence and superiority of an immutable +Creator. +</p> + +<p> +I have already shown how, in Peru, it was a dictum that the +upper division of the empire was to bear the same ideal relation +to the lower as that of an elder brother to a younger or a right +hand to the left. It is, therefore, possible to infer that, on ceremonial +occasions when it is recorded that the Hanan Cuzco and +Hurin Cuzco people were stationed at either side of the Inca, the +Hanan or chieftains constituting the nobility were to his right and +the Hurin people or lower class, to his left. +</p> + +<p> +It is truly remarkable that it is a passage in the Annals of the +Cakchiquels, the people now inhabiting the region of Guatemala +where the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs were found, that contains the +clearest statement regarding the division of a tribe into two classes +and the relative positions assigned to each of these, according to +ceremonial usage. The passage relates: <q>We, the 13 divisions +of warriors, and the seven tribes ... we came to the enclosure +of Tulan, and coming, gave our tribute. The seven tribes +were drawn up in order on the left of Tulan. On the right hand, +were arranged the warriors. Firstly, the tribute was taken from +the seven tribes, next from the warriors.</q><note place='foot'><p>Annals of +the Cakchiquels. Library of Aboriginal Literature, vol. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, D. G. Brinton, +p. 71. It is a striking coincidence which further excavations may however destroy, +that seven similar upright slabs were found at Santa Lucia, six complete ones +of which exhibit individuals whose left hands bear special marks. What is more, +these figures are accompanied by animals which agree with a native chronicle quoted +by Dr. Otto Stoll (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 6). +According to this some of the totems or marks of +dignity worn by certain Quiché chieftains were representations of pumas, ocelots and +vultures. It is, perhaps, permissible to advance the hypothesis that the personages +on the slabs are representatives of the seven tribes and display their totemic devices. +</p> +<p> +I would add a couple of observations which seem to indicate that the language of +the people who sculptured and set up the Santa Lucia slabs was Nahuatl. In the first +case on the long slab, figured by M. Herman Strebel as No. 11, a chieftain in a recumbent +position is conferring with a personage masked as a deer. The date is sculptured +on this slab, recalling the Mexican method of figuring numerals and indicates +that a historical event is being recorded. +</p> +<p> +The Nahuatl word for deer is mazatl and we know that the Mazahuas, or <q>deer-people</q> +is the name of a native tribe which inhabits to this day the coast region of +Guatemala. A town named Mazatenango=the capital or mother-city of the Mazahuas +lies between the lake of Atitlan and the coast (tenan=mother of somebody; +tenamitl=walled city). A small village named Mazahuat also lies farther south and +inland on the Lempa river, in San Salvador. On one of the upright slabs two sculptured +heads resembling dogs' heads are enclosed in circles. The Nahuatl name for +dog is itzcuintl; and a town of the same name, corrupted to Escuintla, lies between +the latitude of Amatitlan and the coast of Guatemala, at about the same distance inland +as the town of Maza-tenango. As both places were within easy reach from Santa +Lucia, it seems possible that the slabs may refer to some conquest or agreement made +with the <q>deer and dog people.</q> At all events the agreement is worth noting as a +hint for future research. +</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> + +<p> +Buschmann has recorded the interesting fact that, in Nahuatl, +the right hand is designated as <q>the good, clever or wise</q>=yec-maitl +or mayectli, also ma-imatca or ma-nematca (from yectli=good +and imati=to be clever or wise). Molina's dictionary furnishes +us with the following Nahuatl names for the left hand, etc. +</p> + +<p> +Opoch maitl, Opuch maitl, Opuch maye: left hand.<lb/> +Opochiuia=v. to do something with the left hand.<lb/> +Topuchcopa, the left, at the left hand, or side. +</p> + +<p> +In Mexico the totemic lord of the chase was named Opochtli. +The much-discussed name Huitzil-opochtli is considered by some to +signify <q>the left-handed humming-bird.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing proves that in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico a +caste-division was associated with left-handedness and that the +expression <q>left-handed</q> was employed as an honorific or distinctive +title. It is obvious that before reaching the point when +the left hand would be invested by a distinctive mark, as in the +Santa Lucia bas-reliefs, the above ideas must have been prevalent +for a very long time. +</p> + +<p> +I have already pointed out that a striking similarity of ideas +survives amongst the Zuñi Indians of to-day. +</p> + +<p> +As to the native tiger's head (puma or ocelot?) we find that it +is the chief symbol of the central human figure on the great monolithic +doorway of Tiahuanaco, Peru, a fact which testifies to a +further community of thought. +</p> + +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> + +<p> +This central figure exhibits two tigers' heads on each shoulder +and six around its head, disposed as rays and interspersed with +what resemble drops of water. The transverse ornament carved +on the breast exhibits four divisions, each of which terminates +with a tiger's head. Four similar heads, looking upwards, are on +the central decoration beneath the figure and the broad band at the +base terminates in two large tigers' heads. What is more, on +the fragment of a finely carved hollow stone object, which is preserved +at the British Museum and was found at Tiahuanaco by +Mr. Richard Inwards, there are the finest representations of the +swastika which have as yet been found on the American Continent, +and each of its branches terminates in a tiger's head, resembling +those sculptured on the +monolithic doorway. The fragment +consists of the half of what +seems to me to have been the top +or handle of a staff or sceptre. +I am indebted to the kindness +of Mr. C. H. Read of the British +Museum, for a rubbing of the +carved fragment and for the permission +to reproduce it here (fig. +49). The central swastika is angular and its form recalls that of the +Mexican Calendar swastika (fig. <ref target='Figure_9'>9</ref>). +At each side of it are portions +of what originally were two rounded swastikas, which also terminate +in tigers' heads. These and the size of the fragment seem to +justify the inference that another square swastika was originally +sculptured on the opposite side, making two rounded and two +square swastikas in all. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_49'/> + <figure url='images/figure-49.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 49.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this +fragment, for it proves to us that in Tiahuanaco, the swastika +was a sacred symbol. Its association with the puma or ocelot, +links it to the central figure on the monolithic doorway and, possibly, +connects this with the Mexican identification of the ocelot +with the Ursa Major, with <q>the lord who walks around,</q> or the +lord of the underworld, Tezcatlipoca. The two forms of swastika +seem to testify that, in Tiahuanaco also, the idea of the Above +and Below prevailed and that the angular form symbolized the subdivision +of the earth and the rounded one that of the heavens. +The rows of personages sculptured on the doorway at each side +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +of and facing the central figure seem to indicate that this commemorates +an establishment of tribal organization. +</p> + +<p> +The distribution of the sculptured figures is as follows: +</p> + +<lg> +<l>8 figures=2×4 } Central { 8 figures</l> +<l>8 figures=2×4 } 6×4 { 8 figures</l> +<l>8 figures=2×4 } figure. { 8 figures.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +The figures on the upper row to the right and left, making sixteen +in all, are all alike—so are the sixteen figures on the second +and the sixteen on the third rows. +</p> + +<p> +Without attempting to describe all the insignia which characterize +the figures on each of the three rows, I refer the reader to the +magnificent plates contained in Drs. Stübel and Uhle's monumental +work on the Ruins of Tiahuanaco, and merely note that +each figure in the uppermost row exhibits a bird's head in front of +its head-dress. All figures in the second row are completely +masked as condors. In the third row a tiger's head decorates each +head-dress. It is curious to find that whilst the birds' and tigers' +heads designate their wearers as heads or chieftains, these emblems +strikingly coincide with the classification of the highest Mexican +warriors into two divisions, known as <q>the ocelots and the eagles.</q> +If attention is bestowed upon the number of emblems or figures +and their distribution it will be seen, in the first case, that the central +figure exhibits on his person twelve tigers' heads in all, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, +six on his head, two on each arm and two on his breast-plate. Sixteen +chieftains exhibit the same emblem and the carved fragment +with the swastika appears to have originally exhibited sixteen +tigers' heads, distributed into homogeneous groups of four. +</p> + +<p> +It cannot be denied that the forty-eight figures on the doorway +are first divided into two groups of twenty-four by being placed to +the right and left of the central figure. Each division of twenty-four +is grouped as 3×8, which is also 6×4, and yielding a +total of 12×4 or 4×12 figures. +</p> + +<p> +Curiously enough the number 12 coincides not only with the number +of heads exhibited by the central figure, but the entire bas-relief +offers a certain agreement with the numerical divisions of +Cuzco which I have summarized as having been divided into two +halves and four quarters and subdivided into 12 wards, the names +of which doubtlessly corresponded with those of their inhabitants. +Personally I am inclined to consider that the purpose of the Tiahuanaco +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +bas-relief was to establish a certain tribal organization +and impose certain distinctive insignia upon each tribe. The inference +that each sculptured figure was differentiated from the other +by being painted in various colors is justified by Molina's account, +already cited, that <q>in Tiahuanaco the <q>Creator</q> had his chief +abode, hence the superb edifices in that place, on which edifices +were painted many dresses of Indians ... thus each nation +uses the dress with which they invest their huaca and they say that +the first that was born [in Tiahuanaco] was there turned into stones, +others say that the first of their lineages were turned into falcons, +condors and other animals and birds.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is with deference, however, that I submit my conclusion and +refer the question to the supreme authority of Drs. Stübel and +Uhle and Mr. Bandelier, whose attainments and exhaustive researches +in the region of Tiahuanaco qualify them to utter a final +judgment upon this interesting subject. According to Dr. Max +Uhle the civilization established at Tiahuanaco antedates that of +the Incas. It may yet be proven that whilst Tiahuanaco was settled +in remote times by colonists from the North, the Inca civilization +was due to a later migration. It certainly appears that, in +Tiahuanaco and Cuzco, the identical fundamental scheme of government +and organization prevailed. +</p> + +<p> +I shall yet have occasion to point out that in Mexico and Yucatan +and Central America there are also monuments exhibiting multiples +of 12 and 4 and also 16 chieftains. Meanwhile it is worth +while to note here briefly, some analogies to Mexican and Maya +antiquities found in Peru. +</p> + +<p> +I am much indebted to Sir Clements D. Markham, the President +of the Royal Geographical Society, for the kind permission to reproduce +here a hasty drawing he made, in 1853, of a gold plaque +(size 5-8/10 inches) found in Cuzco (fig. +<ref target='Figure_50'>50</ref>). It was then in Lima, +being the property of the President of Peru, General Echerrique. +This curious relic exhibits the image of a monstrous face surrounded +by a band with subdivisions containing various signs. The +plaque was looked upon by its owner as a Calendar, but Sir Clements +Markham, after studying its subdivisions with a view of ascertaining +their agreement with the twelve divisions of the Peruvian +year, preferred to let his notes on the subject remain unpublished, +not having come to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject. I am +permitted, however, to state that Sir Clements Markham specially +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> +noted the resemblance of a sign, which is represented on the cheeks +of the central figure and recurs four times on the encircling band, +to the well-known Maya glyph ahau=chief, lord. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_50'/> + <figure url='images/figure-50.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 50.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It is, indeed, a cursive representation of a human head and +moreover resembles those figured on the garment of a gigantic red +sandstone statue found at Ak-Kapana and figured in Stübel and +Uhle's Tiahuanaco. On this garment the heads alternate with +squares and form a close design. This resemblance between the +conventional faces on this archaic statue and those on the gold +plaque has made me attach more importance to the latter and at +all events regard it as preserving ancient native symbolism. In +connection with these I wish to point out that the plaque itself +offers a certain resemblance to well-known Mexican calendars, the +centre of which usually exhibits a face which is surrounded by a +band with day or month signs. It is remarkable that above each +eye there are four dots, especially as the Quechua word for eye=naui +is homonymous with the Nahuatl numeral four=nahui, and +this is so constantly associated with an eye in the Mexican sign +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> +Nahui ollin=four movements (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +fig. <ref target='Figure_2'>2</ref>). As strange a coincidence +as this is furnished by the mark on the forehead of the image, +not because the latter resembles the sect mark of the Vishnu worshippers, +but because it offers a marked analogy to the Mexican +Acatl sign which is frequently carved or painted as a cane standing +in a square receptacle with recurved ends. I am strongly +tempted to interpret this symbol according to the native mode of +thought, as signifying the centre, the union of the Above and Below +and to regard the upper part of the face itself as a representation +of the Above, the heaven, with its two eyes (the Moon and +Sun), whilst the lower part and teeth, as in Mexico, signified the +Below, the earth and underworld. By means of the head on each +cheek and the number four over each eye, the dual and quadruple +rulerships of the empire could well have been expressed. Postponing +a more thorough study of the gold plaque, I merely note +here that it exhibits curious analogies not only to Maya but also +to Mexican symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +Another instance of the same kind is furnished by a possibly +modern but curious small silver pendant of unquestionably native +workmanship. It is preserved at the Ethnographical Museum at +Vienna and is figured in the Report of the International Congress +of Americanists which was held at Berlin in 1888 (pl. 1, fig. 4, p. +96). Reputed to be from Cuzco, it represents a figure of the sun +surrounded by eight straight and intermediate undulating rays. +Two serpents are figured beneath the sun; their bodies extend +across the pendant and their heads with open jaws almost meet in +the centre. A figure, wearing a peculiar head-dress, is kneeling +in worship beneath the symbols, which undoubtedly recall the Mexican +mode of representing two serpents meeting, as on the Calendar +Stone of Mexico, for instance. +</p> + +<p> +As I am tracing analogies at present, I should like to ask the +reader to compare the symbols figured and designated by Salcamayhua +as that of the earth (see his fig. <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>, +pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>lxvi</hi>) with the sacred +vase from the Maya MS. (his fig. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>lix</hi>) and the form of the +Peruvian symbol for the sea (his fig. <hi rend='italic'>e</hi>, +pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>lxvi</hi>) with the peculiar +Mexican shell ornament (fig. 1, no. 10). Insufficient though the +above analogies may seem in themselves, they are valuable in conjunction +with the other data presented and strengthen the conclusion +that the same symbolism prevailed in Peru as in Central +America, Yucatan and Mexico. +</p> + +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> + +<p> +Let us now rapidly journey northwards from Peru to these countries +and briefly record the traces of the existence of the same +ideas and quadruplicate form of government which we may encounter +en route. In the elevated plains of Bogota we find positive +proof that the Muyscas held the same ideas as their southern and +northern neighbors. Their culture hero, Bochica or Ida-can-zas, +was the personification of the Above and of its symbol, the Sun, +whilst his wife was Chia, a name suspiciously like Quilla, the Quechua +for moon. He was high-priest and ruler but counselled the +Muyscas to elect one of themselves, a chief named Hunc-Ahua, to +be their Za-que or civil ruler. Ida-can-zas instituted the Calendar +and taught the Muyscas to appoint four chiefs of tribes whose +names or titles are recorded as Gameza, Busbanca, Pesca and +Toca. The institution of a dual government is indicated by the +record that the high-priest dwelt at the sacred town Aura-ca and +the Za-que at Tunja. +</p> + +<p> +It is extremely curious to notice that Ida-can-zas, in Bogota, did +precisely what Cortés found it expedient to do after the Conquest +of Mexico. The latter assumed the supreme rulership over the +nobility, became the <q>lord of Heaven</q> and instituted a native +chieftain, bearing a female title, as his coadjutor, the lord of the +earth, and the ruler of the people of the lower class. +</p> + +<p> +It may be worth making the passing remark that the title of the +Muysca culture-hero contains the word <q>can</q> and thus recalls the +Maya Kukulcan and that the title Za-que offers a certain resemblance +to the Maya title Chac, whilst the name Hunc-ahua seems +strangely similar to Hun-ahau which in Maya would signify <q>one +lord.</q> It is for Muysca scholars to enlighten us as to the derivation +and meaning of the above titles and name. +</p> + +<p> +Regretting the lack of time and documents which have prevented +me from obtaining further data I now return to Guatemala +and the vicinity of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. Referring to the +introduction to their Annals<note place='foot'>Ed. Brinton. +Library of Aboriginal literature, p. 13.</note> we learn that the Cakchiquel tribe +was but one of four allied nations, each of which had its capital, +named Tecpan, as follows: +</p> + +<p> +Nations: Capitals.<lb/> +Cakchiquel: Tecpan Quauhtemallan,<lb/> +Quiche: Utatlan,<lb/> +Tzutuhil: Atitlan,<lb/> +Akahal: Tezolotlan. +</p> + +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> + +<p> +According to Mr. A. P. Maudslay's authoritative statement, +these nations were engaged in warfare against each other at the +time of the Conquest. Tezolotlan was termed the <q>tierra de +guerra</q> the land of war, and the precise locality of its tecpan or +former capital has not been traced, although it seems to have been +close to Rabinal or in the valley of that name. +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that, under the rulership of Tizoc, the Mexicans +extended their conquests into Guatemala. Buschmann has, moreover, +proven that the foregoing names of the capitals, of what were +at one time four provinces, are pure Nahuatl, which fact establishes +the existence of Nahua supremacy in these regions. +</p> + +<p> +It is curious to find that one of the Santa Lucia slabs seems to +commemorate the existence of a central rulership and that of the +four quarters. It is reproduced in Mr. Strebel's publication already +cited and represents a central personage holding a head and a tecpatl, +whilst four lesser personages, each carrying a head, are figured +as walking away in four opposed directions. As, according +to native symbolism, the head is the symbol for chieftain this slab +seems to commemorate the establishment and at all events testifies +to the existence in Guatemala of the scheme of government now +so familiar. +</p> + +<p> +In their Annals, the Cakchiquels record, as I have already shown, +that they carried their tribute to <q>the enclosure of Tulan,</q> a designation +which supports my inference, previously maintained, that +Tulan was derived from the Maya tulum,=a fortification, an +enclosed place or that which is entire, whole, etc., and applied +always to the metropolis of a state. +</p> + +<p> +An ancient Cakchiquel legend relates, moreover, that, according +to the <q>ancient men,</q> there had been four Tulans: one in the east, +one in the north, one in the west and one <q>where the god dwells.</q> +This would obviously have been situated towards the south in order +to accord with the general scheme. I cannot but think that this +record testifies to the existence of an extremely ancient state which +starting from one metropolis had gradually developed into four +great Tullans, to one of which the four tecpans of Guatemala +pertained. The fact that the Spaniards found the four nations +living close together, with capitals or tecpans bearing Nahuatl names +and in constant warfare with each other, seems to indicate the destruction +of their own ancient metropolis or Tullan by their Mexican +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> +conquerors and the consequent disintegration of their former +government.<note place='foot'>It is to the superior +authority of my distinguished and highly esteemed colleagues +Drs. Otto Stoll and Carl Sapper that I submit the above considerations. It may be +possible for the latter enthusiastic explorer and for Dr. Gustavo Eisen, who is continuing +his valuable researches in Guatemala, to determine the locality of the ancient +Tullan, which should, I imagine, be sought for in a region where the land inhabited +by the Four Nations would converge and at a point almost equidistant from the Four +Tecpans.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The Mendoza Codex teaches us that when the Mexicans conquered +a land they first burnt and utterly destroyed the teocallis +situated in the heart of its central capital. They razed this to +the ground, and carried off to their own metropolis the totemic +images of the rulers of the tribe. The barbarous institution of +human sacrifice, which was only practised to a great extent by the +Mexicans when the necessity to obtain more plentiful food supplies +for their rapidly increasing population forced them to become a +nation of warriors and conquerors, seems indeed to have been +adopted as a fear-inspiring, symbolical rite commemorating the +conquest and destruction of an integral government. +</p> + +<p> +The victim, usually a chieftain taken prisoner in warfare and +clad with his insignia and the raiment of his people, was stretched +on the stone of sacrifice and, figuratively speaking, represented +his country and its four quarters. The tearing out of his heart by +the high-priest, armed with the tecpatl, the emblem of supreme +authority, signified the destruction of the independent life of his +tribe as much as did the burning of the teocalli, and of its capital. +It would seem as though the horrible custom of annually sacrificing +one or more representatives of each conquered tribe, had been +adopted as a means of upholding the assumed authority, inspiring +awe and terror and impressing the realization of conquest and utter +subjection. It is known that sometimes a member of a conquered +tribe voluntarily offered himself as a victim in order to release his +people from their obligation, and thus earned for himself +immortality. +</p> + +<p> +An insight into the native association of ideas is afforded by +Sahagun's note that the lord or chieftain was <q>the heart of his +Pueblo,</q> which means town as well as population. The death +of the sacrificed chief, therefore, actually conveyed the idea of the +destruction of the tribal government to his vanquished subjects. +It remains to be seen whether the subsequent partition of portions +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +of his dead body amongst the priesthood and their ritual cannibalism +did not signify the absorption of the conquered population +into the communal life of their victors. The preservation of the +victim's skull on the Tzompantli, as a register of the conquest of +a chieftain, would also be the logical outcome of the native line of +thought and symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +At the risk of making a somewhat lengthy digression I will +again refer here to a point I have already touched upon, namely, +the Mexican employment of the human figure as an allegorical +image of their Empire or State, the idea being that the four limbs +represented its four governmental and territorial divisions and that +these were governed by the head=the lord of the Above or heaven, +and the heart=the lord of the Below or earth. A careful study +of the native Codices has shown me that such was the native allegory +which indeed can be further traced. The territory of a state +reproduced the organization of the human body with its four limbs, +each of these terminating in minor groups of five. +</p> + +<p> +According to the same set of ideas the cursive image of a state +could be conveyed by a main group of five dots, situated in the +centre of four minor similar groups. Cross-lines expressing the +partition into four quarters would complete such a graphic and cursive +presentation of the scheme and not only signify its territorial +but also its governmental features. It is noteworthy that, in +Nahuatl as in the Quechua, the title for minor chief is homonymous +with the word for fingers. +</p> + +<p> +The Nahuatl pilli is a title for a chieftain or lord and also signifies +child and fingers or toes. A finger is ma-pilli, the prefix ma, +from maitl=hand, designating the fingers as the children of the +hand. The thumb is qualified by the prefix uei=great. +</p> + +<p> +Having gained a recognition of the above facts it is not difficult +to understand the meaning of certain sceptres in the form of an +open hand which occur as symbols of authority borne by chieftains +in the native Codices.<note place='foot'>In the Mexican collection at +the Trocadero Museum in Paris, there is a curious +wooden sceptre in the form of a hand, which has been figured by Dr. Ernest Hamy +in his splendidly illustrated work on this Museum.</note> +I know of one important instance, indeed, +where an arm with an open hand is represented as standing upright +in the centre of a circle divided into sections and zones (similar to +fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, nos. 1, 3, 5, and 6). +</p> + +<p> +The above mentioned examples, which I shall illustrate later, +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> +have led me to infer that whilst the arm symbolized one of the four +divisions of the State, the hand symbolized its capital, the thumb +its central ruler and the fingers his four officers or pilli, the rulers +of the four quarters of the minor seat of government. In another +publication I shall produce illustrations showing that the foot was +also employed as an emblem of rule and that Mexico, Yucatan and +Central America furnish us with actual proofs that the hands and +the feet respectively symbolized the upper and lower divisions of +the State. +</p> + +<p> +It is thus curious to compare the name for thumb=uei-ma-pilli +and the name Uei-mac (literally, great hand) which Sahagun gives +as that of the <q>temporal</q> coadjutor of the Mexican culture-hero +Quetzalcoatl, as well as the term, our toe=totecxopilli with the +well-known title Totec=our chief or lord. In Yucatan the word +for hand=kab is, as I shall demonstrate further on, actually +incorporated in the title of the lords of the four quarters=Bakab. +I am almost inclined to find a trace of a similar association in the +Quechua word for fingers=pallca and the title palla bestowed +upon noble women. +</p> + +<p> +I have already mentioned in the preceding pages that the natural +basis of the all-pervading native numerical division into 4×5=20 +was the finger and toe count. The following table exhibits the +general custom to designate 20 as one man or one count.<note place='foot'>See +Brinton. The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico, p. 49.</note> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Word for Man. Word for 20.</l> +<l>Nahuatl. tlacatl. cem-poualli=one count.</l> +<l>Quiché }</l> +<l>and } uinay=one man. uinay= " "</l> +<l>Cakchiquel }</l> +<l>Tzendal. hun-uinic=one man. hun-uinic= " "</l> +<l>Maya. uinic. hun-kal= " "</l> +</lg> + +<p> +In the latter case the affix kal seems to be derived from the same +source as the verb kal=to close up or fasten something, and to +signify something complete or finished. At the same time the Maya +uinal is the Maya name for the twenty calendar-signs, and the +same association is demonstrated as existing in Mexico by the well-known +picture in the Vatican Codex <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi> (p. 75), which represents a +man surrounded by the twenty Mexican calendar-signs. +</p> + +<p> +As I shall treat of the same subject more fully in another publication, +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> +I shall but briefly touch upon the intimate connection there +existed between these calendar-signs and the twenty classes into +which the population was strictly divided. It is known that an +individual received the name of the day on which he was born and +it is possible to prove that this determined his position in the commonwealth, +his class and his future occupation. Each child was +formally registered by the priestly statisticians at birth, and at +about the age of six, when his name was sometimes changed, he +entered one of the two educational establishments where he was +brought up by the State, under the absolute control of the priesthood +and rulers. It can be gleaned that one of the chief cares +of the latter was to maintain the same average number of individuals +in the distinct classes, to which the various forms of labor +were allotted and who became in time identified with these. In +order to keep the machinery of state in perfect adjustment, individuals +had sometimes to be transferred from the class into which +they were born, to another. In some cases this seems to have been +arbitrarily ordered by the authorities, but the latter appear to have +guided themselves by the position of the parents and to have established +the custom that an individual might alternatively be transferred +into the paternal or maternal class, but not into any other. +As each class was, moreover, divided into an upper and lower one, +it was possible for each person to elevate himself from the lower +to the higher by individual merit or to incur abasement, for unworthy +conduct, and being, as we have already seen, <q>reduced +to the official rank of women.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The direct outcome of such a form of organization was stringent +laws governing marriage, it being expedient that certain classes +only should intermarry, not only to avoid complications but also to +ensure a certain degree of coöperation conducive to the prosperity +of the State. In the tribal laws still existing amongst the native +tribes of North America, I see the logical survivals of an ancient +scheme of organization. +</p> + +<p> +After gaining the above recognition of some of the actual duties +of the priest-rulers of ancient Mexico, it is possible to understand +the meaning of the native sentence, noted by Sahagun, that the +native games of patolli and tlachtli constituted a practice in <q>the +art of government.</q> From this it is clear that the former, played +by two individuals with dice and markers upon a mat in the shape +of a cross, and symbolical of the Four Quarters, was originally +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> +invented by the priest-rulers for an eminently practical purpose. +The mat being an image of the quadruple state and its subdivisions, +it was possible to make it serve as a register-board exhibiting +the distribution of the population, the number of individuals +in each class and its death and birth rates. We are informed that +when parents, according to the inflexible law, carried their newborn +child to the priest, he consulted his books full of day-signs +and foretold what its future was to be. +</p> + +<p> +A proof that it was the positions of the stars which determined +the season and furnished the means of fixing a date, is furnished +by the fact that the stars were also <q>consulted</q> and believed to +exert an influence upon the destiny of the child. +</p> + +<p> +The implicit faith in the predictions of the priests and in the +absolute influence of the position of the heavenly bodies and the +date of its birth upon the individual indicates that the parents were +kept in ignorance as to the workings of the machinery of state and +that the priesthood were reverenced for their power of prophecy. +The belief that they could personally exercise a favorable influence +over the destiny of the child seems also to have been encouraged +in the parents, since an offering of gifts at the period of registration +was customary. After the Conquest, when the native government +had been completely broken up, and the enforced registration +of birth and the prediction of the priest had utterly lost their +original significance, native parents still consulted the surviving +members of the priest-rulers; and these ancient statisticians, in +order to gain a livelihood, continued to consult their books and +uttered predictions as of yore, although their power to control their +fulfilment had vanished forever. Ancient Mexico thus furnishes +us with an interesting and instructive explanation of the origin of +divinatory practices, prognostication at birth, etc. It shows us +that, under the ancient form of established government, the sign +of the date of a child's birth actually did control his future destiny, +while it was unquestionably in the power of the priesthood, not +only to predict his future, but also to exert a favorable or unfavorable +influence upon it. +</p> + +<p> +The above facts help us to understand the origin not only of +divination, propitiation and the belief in the influence of day-signs, +but also of the native games which became popular after the Conquest, +when their original use and meaning had become obsolete. +</p> + +<p> +Deferring further discussion of this interesting matter I will but +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +draw attention to Mr. Stewart Culin's important study of <q>American +Indian Games,</q><note place='foot'>Bulletin of the Museum of +Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, no. 3, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>.</note> +which clearly establishes their <q>interrelation</q> +and at the same time proves that they were based, as first +distinctly insisted upon by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, on the central +idea and that of the four quarters of the world. Mr. Culin has +gone so far as to fix the place of origin of the <q>platter or dice +class of games which he has found recorded as existing among +some 61 American tribes, in the arid region of the southwestern +United States and Northern or Central Mexico,</q> and to conceive +that <q>in ancient Mexico we find traces of its highest development.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I place the utmost value upon Mr. Culin's painstaking and conscientious +researches and regard them as strongly corroborating +my views exposed in the preceding pages. His identification of +the pictured diagram in the Féjérvary Codex, as the counting circuit +of the Four Quarters, with a presiding god in the middle, as +in Zuñi, does credit to his perspicacity. I agree with him in considering +that this chart could have been employed after the Conquest +for a game or for divination, but trust that, upon perusal of +this paper, he will admit that primarily the Féjérvary diagram expressed +the native scheme of government and the calendar, which +was no other than a means of ruling the classes by binding each of +these to a special day and totemic sign. Each of the twenty +classes or clans had its day, known by a particular sign which was +also its totemic mark. As the day-signs recurred periodically, the +chief or head of each clan became its living representative, assumed +a totemistic costume and became the <q>living image of the +ancestral teotl,</q> or god of his people, of whose activity he rendered +account to the central government. It is significant that the common +native title for lords or chieftains was <q>tlatoque,</q> literally, +<q>the speakers,</q> and that they were closely designated as the spokesmen +of his people, who habitually kept silence in his presence. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the names and signs of the days are identical with +the totemic tribal distinctions imposed for governmental reasons, +is one which I shall proceed to demonstrate more fully. Meanwhile +attention is now drawn to the chapter on the 7-day period +in Dr. Daniel G. Brinton's <q>Native Calendar of Central America +and Mexico,</q> in which he surmises that the tribal divisions of the +Cakchiquels <q>were drawn from the numbers of the Calendar.</q> +</p> + +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> + +<p> +According to the native records the institution of the Calendar was +simultaneous with that of tribal organization and a minute study +of both features reveals that it could not have been otherwise. +</p> + +<p> +From the dawn of their history the Cakchiquels, as I have already +shown, were divided into thirteen divisions of warriors +(Khob, constituting the upper class) and seven tribes (Amag, +constituting the lower class). A totem and a day being assigned +to each division and tribe, they were, once and for all time, placed +in a definite position towards each other and towards the state, and +the order in which their chieftains were to sit in general council, and +to assume or perform certain duties, was thus instituted. The +20-day period thus constituted a <q>complete count</q> and synopsis +of the <q>thirteen divisions of warriors and seven tribes,</q> but it +also fulfilled other not less important purposes. +</p> + +<p> +The day-signs were so ordered that the first, eleventh and sixteenth +were major signs employed to designate the years, and +identified with the four quarters, elements and their respective +colors. The 20-day period, consisting as it also did of 4 major +signs and of 4×4=16 minor signs, was as closely linked to the +idea of the Four Quarters as it was to the Above and Below, represented +by the 13+7 division. It is therefore evident that a +simultaneous reckoning of periods consisting of 5, 7, 13, and 20 +days was ingeniously combined. I shall show in my special treatise +how <q>the lords of the Night</q> employed in their astronomical +calendar, 9-night and 9-moon periods for purposes of their own +and how these also served to carry out certain ideas of organization, +controlling persons. Although it embodied the results of +long-standing primitive astronomical observation and accorded +with the seasons and movements of the celestial bodies, the native +Calendar was primarily a governmental institution, designed to +control the actions of human beings and bring their communal life +in accord with the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies. +</p> + +<p> +In my Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, communicated +to the International Congress of Americanists at Stockholm, +in 1894, I stated certain historical and astronomical facts +which showed that the New Cycle, which began in 1507 with the +year Acatl, had commenced on March 14th three days after the +vernal equinox and that this delay had obviously been intentional, +in order to wait for the new moon, which fell on March 13th at +11.40 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a. m.</hi>, and the planet +Venus, <q>which was possibly visible both +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> +as morning and evening star between March 14th and 18th.</q> The +above facts, which have remained unchallenged since their publication, +afford an insight into the astronomical attainments of the +sun-priests and moon and star-priests and show an evident desire +to begin a new era at a favorable time, when there was a conjunction +of the heavenly bodies. Thus the terms of office of the lords +of the Above and Below were entered upon and the machinery of +state set into motion, in unison with striking celestial phenomena. +It is impossible not to realize how great must be the antiquity of +a system which, evolving from the rudimentary, ceremonial division +of a tribe into seven parts, as a consequence of its primitive +observation of the Septentriones, developed into a great and complex +government dominated and pervaded by the abstract conceptions +of the seven-fold divisions of the Above, Below, Middle and +Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p> +Deferring further comment I will proceed to demonstrate the +practical value, for governmental purposes, of the classification of +a community into twenty divisions with as many representative +heads, their localizations at given points of the compass, and association +with a calendar-sign and day, and will only refer to what I +have already published in my Note on the Calendar, namely, how, +by means of the combination of 13 numerals with the 20 signs, a +unit of 260 days was obtained, and how each sign was combined +but once with the same number, and a perfect system of rotation +of periods, regulating office, labor, etc., was instituted. It is not +possible for me to enlarge here upon the features and merits of the +system which I do not hesitate to term one of the most admirable +and perfect achievements of the human intellect. My present +purpose is to lay stress upon the fact that, in Mexico, the major +calendar-signs were borne as titles by the rulers of the four quarters +who presided in rotation over a year—the name of this and +of their title being always in correspondence. +</p> + +<p> +Nezahualcoyotl, the lord of Tezcoco, is recorded as possessing +the title Ome Tochtli=2 Rabbit, and would obviously have presided +over the calendar periods of that name. This inference is +undoubtedly corroborated by Nuñez de la Vega's following statement, +quoted by Boturini:<note place='foot'>Idea de una +nueva historia general, Madrid, 1746, p. 117.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Instead of the Mexican signs Acatl, Tecpatl, Calli and Tochtli, +the Tzendals, inhabiting Chiapas, employed in their Calendar +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> +the names of four of their chieftains: Votan, Lambat, Been and +Chinax.... They also figured a man named Coslahuntax, as +seated in a chair....</q> Boturini remarks that this person should +more correctly be named Imos or Max and was <q>the head of +the 20 lords who were the symbols of the 20 days of the Calendar. +Being the principal and initial sign, Coslahuntax represented in +himself the period of thirteen days.</q> As Dr. Brinton rightly +notes<note place='foot'>Native Calendar, p. 50.</note> +the name of the personage should be Oxlaghun tax, literally signifying +<q>the thirteen divisions or parts.</q> +</p> + +<p> +We thus see that, whilst the names of the chiefs of the four +quarters constituted the four major calendar-signs, one supreme +lord embodied the attributes or <q>powers</q> of the 13 divisions of +warriors and principal division. Thus the 13 divisions seem to +have been regarded as 12 plus an all-embracing 1. +</p> + +<p> +Nuñez de la Vega continues: <q>In the representations of their +calendar they painted seven black persons, corresponding to the +seven days of their reckoning.</q> Boturini adds: these seven black +men were no other than the principal priest-rulers of this nation.... +<q>They held in great veneration the <q>lord of the black +men,</q> who was entitled Yal-ahua.</q> Boturini comments on this +utterance and explains that the latter was no other than the high-priest. +</p> + +<p> +I point out the evident identity of Yal-ahua to the Mexican +Yoal-tecuhtli=the lord of the Night, one of the titles given to +Polaris and to his earthly representative, the high priest of the +Earth and nocturnal cult. As already explained this personage +bore in Mexico the female title, Cihuacoatl=Woman-serpent; +but we also find this name for the earth-mother alternating with +Chicome-coatl=literally, seven serpents. In Beltran de la Rosa's +<q>Arte Maya</q> we find the word <q>Ahaucchapat,</q> translated as +<q>Serpent with seven heads</q> and are thus led to infer that the +Mexicans and Mayas had conceived the image of a <q>serpent with +seven heads</q> as an allegory of the seven tribal divisions united in +one body and bestowed this title to the representative of the Earth-cult, +the high priest of the Below. It follows that, just as the +number 13 resolves itself into 12+1, so the mystic number 7 +proves to have been considered as 6+1, precisely what might +be expected as the natural sequence of the derivation of the number +from a circumpolar constellation, consisting of seven stars, +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +one of which was Polaris. Nuñez de la Vega and Boturini's testimony +teaches us that the Tzendals were organized into twenty +divisions and that thirteen of these were embodied in one chief, +while the seven others, associated with black, were personified by +the high priest. The information that one individual was thus +believed to unite in his person the attributes of several classes +and that the lords of the four quarters and each of the twenty +divisions bore names which were also calendar-signs, gain in value +when it is realized that, in the opinion of Drs. Schellhas and Brinton, +the invention of the native Calendar system may probably be +assigned to the ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, where the Tzendals +now dwell.<note place='foot'>Vergleichende Studien. Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie, bd. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, 1890, +and the Native Calendar, p. 19.</note> +In treating of the ruins of Palenque situated in this +region, I shall again refer to the Tzendals. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile, let us examine the Cakchiquel tradition about Cucumatz, +the sorcerer chief of the Quichés, since it also treats of +the 7-day period. We are told that he <q>ascended to heaven for +seven days and descended into the under world for seven days and +then assumed, in rotation, four different animal forms during as +many periods of seven days.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible not to recognize from this that, like the Zuñis of +to-day, the Quichés <q>symbolized the terrestrial sphere by referring +to the four cardinal points, to the zenith and nadir, the individual +himself making the seventh number,</q> and that Cucumatz, who +was evidently the high priest and head of the seven tribes, assumed +the totemistic attributes of each of these, in rotation, for periods +of seven days each. In this case we have an interesting and suggestive +variant of the scheme and it suggests the possibility that, +possibly actuated by ambition, Cucumatz had grasped and united +in his person the prerogatives of the chiefs or heads of each tribe. +On the other hand, it may be that it was the original custom for +the high priest to be a sort of animated calendar sign in unison +with the separate chiefs of each tribe, who represented, in rotation, +the totemistic ancestors of their people. +</p> + +<p> +Having shown how the lords of the Four Quarters were indissolubly +linked to the four major calendar-signs which also symbolized +the elements, let us examine the data establishing that the +capital of each of the four provinces was named a tecpan. From +Duran I have already quoted that in the Mexican metropolis there +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> +were two tecpans or official houses in which the affairs of the government +were attended to and councils held. It is significant that +one of these was named <q>the tecpan of men</q> and the other <q>the +tecpan of women.</q> Whilst the metropolis, the seat of the dual +government, thus had its two tecpans which were presided over +by the two supreme rulers, we have learned from other sources of +the four tecpans in Guatemala and that Texcoco, near the city of +Mexico, was also termed a tecpan and that its ruler bore as a title +one of the four major calendar-signs. These facts explain his +position and the reason why the <q>lord of Texcoco</q> was one of four +lords who supported Montezuma when he met Cortés in full state. +A careful investigation of the derivation and true significance of +the word tecpan yields interesting results. Cen-tecpan-tli means, +a count of twenty persons; the verb tecpana signifies, <q>to establish +something in concerted order; to establish order amongst +people.</q> The verb tecpancapoa means, to count something in +regular order. +</p> + +<p> +The Maya verb tepal=to govern or reign, or to be <q>one who +mediates,</q> appears to be allied to the above Nahuatl words and it +is not unlikely that the employment of the flint-knife or tecpatl +as an emblem of office had been suggested by the fact that its +Nahuatl name resembles, in sound, the above words formed with +tecpan, and also the Maya verb tepal. It thus constituted a bilingual +rebus, expressing the sense=to govern, to rule, to regulate, +etc., and, employed as the symbol of the North and Polaris, +it conveyed the idea that the latter was not only the producer of +life but the regulator of the Universe. +</p> + +<p> +From the fact that a tecpan constituted a minor integral whole +and comprised the rule over twenty classes of people, we see that +whilst the four provincial tecpans were in themselves miniature +reproductions of the metropolis, they but filled the same position +in relation to this as the four limbs to the body of a man or quadruped. +A final proof of how completely this analogy was recognized +by the native rulers is furnished by the Maya titles which +embody the word kab=arm and hand. +</p> + +<p> +It has already been mentioned in the preceding pages that the +rulers of the four quarters were entitled Ba-cab and that in the +Dresden Codex an image of the four quarters was figured by four +bones. The word for bone being bac and for arm being kab, it is +obvious that the arm-bone or humerus would furnish a rebus, expressing +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> +the title of the four Bacabs—a conclusion which throws +light upon the signification of the cross-bones of native pictography +and also of the incised and decorated human arm and leg bones +which have been found in Mexico and Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +At the same time the word kab also recurs in the title Ah-Cuch-Cab +which signifies <q>the ruler or chief of a town or place,</q> Cuchil +being the name of the latter. Both of these words so closely resemble +cuxabal and cuxtal, the word for <q>life,</q> that it is not impossible +that the native mind often associated the town as a centre +of life, and thought of their chief as one whose symbol was a +<q>life-dispensing hand.</q> In order to grasp the full significance of +the symbol of the hand in Maya sculptured and written records it +is necessary to bear these facts in mind. +</p> + +<p> +In 1895 Mr. Teobert Maler unearthed in the centre of the public +square at <q>El Seibal,</q> Guatemala, a sculptured stela exhibiting +the figures of a chieftain over whose head an open hand was +carved. It is impossible not to interpret this as a mark that the +chieftain had once been the ruler of a town and that this, in turn, +was one of four minor capitals belonging to a central metropolis. +A hand, enclosed in quadrangular lines and represented on the +garment of a chieftain, was found by Dr. Le Plongeon at Uxmal, +and I believe that this should be interpreted in the same manner. +</p> + +<p> +In my essay on Ancient Mexican Shields (Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie, band <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, +1892) I reproduced two interesting instances +of the employment, as the name-sign of a ruler in native +pictography, of a hand on the palm of which an eye is depicted. +The effigy of a hand, the sacred Kab-ul, which was kept in a place +in Yucatan to which people from all quarters resorted regularly +in great numbers, resolves itself into the symbol of an ancient +capital to which great high-roads led from the cardinal points. But +important as this capital may have been, its connection with the +hand-symbol proves that it was originally one of four minor centres +and formed but a part of a greater whole. It would correspond +to the image, in one of the native Codices, of a subdivided circle +with an arm and hand standing in its middle, and its Bacab would +undoubtedly have carried a sceptre in the shape of an open hand, +such as depicted in the Codices as a staff of office. +</p> + +<p> +While we thus find the human figure distinctly associated with +the lords of the four quarters of the Above we find the four lords +of the Below, entitled Chac, symbolized by the quadruped figure +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +of the native jaguar=chacoh, associated with the color red=chac +and with rain, storms, thunder and lightning, all of which +phenomena were, singly and collectively, termed Chác. +</p> + +<p> +If ever there has been an instance where language or the resemblance +in sound of certain words has caused certain symbols +to amalgamate with a name or title, it is surely this, and light is +thereby thrown upon the development of symbolism and associations +of thought amongst primitive people. +</p> + +<p> +The Chacs of Yucatan were identical with the Tlalocs, the octli +or rain lords of Mexico, whose function, as votaries of earth-cult, +was the regulation of agriculture, irrigation and the collection and +distribution of all products of the soil. It is interesting to trace +that, in other regions of Yucatan, presumably where no chacohs +or jaguars existed, the minor rulers of provinces seem to have been +termed ocelots=Balam, a title found associated with Maya rulership. +</p> + +<p> +With the foregoing data in mind it is easy to grasp the meaning +of the talon of a beast of prey, employed as an emblem of rank +or office in the native Codices or bas-reliefs and to perceive that +this was the symbol of a Chac or Balam, one of the four lords of +the earth or Below, just as the hand was that of the lords of the +Above. The complete image of the dual State is thus shown to have +consisted at one time of an ideal group consisting of a man with a +beast of prey, a jaguar or ocelot. In Mexico we have the man-bird +and the man-ocelot respectively representing the rulers of the +two great divisions of the State. +</p> + +<p> +At Chichen-Itza and elsewhere in Yucatan sculptured figures of +ocelots supporting circular vessels have been found and there are +interesting instances of the combination of the human figure with +ocelot=Balam attributes. One monolithic figure, discovered at +Chichen-Itza by Mr. A. P. Maudslay, and belonging to the category +of the recumbent statues bearing circular vase-like receptacles, +already described, exhibits a human head and form, whilst the +body is covered with a spotted skin. In the sculptured image of +Mictlan-tecuhtli (fig. <ref target='Figure_19'>19</ref>) +a human head is accompanied by limbs +of equal length-terminating in wild beasts' talons. The positions +of the limbs are better understood when compared with the following +illustration, to which I shall revert (fig. +<ref target='Figure_51'>51</ref>). Meanwhile, I +shall merely remark that in both of these curious bas-reliefs we +seem to have images of the quadruple terrestrial and celestial +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> +governments. Fig. <ref target='Figure_51'>51</ref>, which is a corrected drawing of one of +those contained in Leon y Gama's <q>Descripcion de las dos Piedras,</q> +furnishes an interesting example, in accord with the image of +Mictlantecuhtli, of the employment of the group of five as a symbol +of the centre and four quarters, and exhibits four limbs associated +with four heads (the quarters and their chiefs), while the +hands hold two other heads, symbolical of the dual rulers of the +State. +</p> + +<p> +Two facts which throw an interesting light upon the growth of +native symbolism are worth mentioning here. As a symbol on the +head of Mictlan-tecuhtli, the lord of the North, two representations +of a centipede are distinguishable. In Nahuatl the name +of this is <q>centzonmaye,</q> literally, +four hundred hands. It can thus be +seen that the idea of one body with +a multitude of hands had occurred to +the native philosophers as a suitable +allegory for their conception of a central +celestial and terrestrial rule which +guided the activity of innumerable appointed +hands and dispensed, through +these, not only life and favors but also +death or chastisement. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_51'/> + <figure url='images/figure-51.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 51.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Before proceeding farther we must +consider tree-symbolism in ancient America. According to Molina +the Inca Yupanqui (surnamed the left-handed) ordered the temple +of Quisuar-cancha to be made: quisuar=a tree, the <hi rend='italic'>Buddleia +Incana</hi>, cancha=place of. Salcamayhua (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, p. 77), who +attributes the building of this temple to Manco Capac, states +that these two trees, which were in the temple, <q>typified his father +and mother ... and he ordered that they should be adorned +with roots of gold and silver and with golden fruit. Hence they +were called Ccurichachac Collquechachac Tampu Yracan, which +means that the two trees typified his parents, that the Incas proceeded +from them like fruit from the trees, and that the two trees +were as the roots and stems of the Incas. All these things were +executed to record their greatness.</q> This passage is of utmost +value, for it conveys to us not only that the Incas kept a record of +their male and female ancestry and respectively associated the male +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> +and female elements with gold and silver, but also establishes the +important point that the tree was employed as an emblem of the +life and growth of a lineage or race. +</p> + +<p> +This fact is particularly interesting if collated with the Mexican +tree-symbols. In the Féjérvary diagram (fig. <ref target='Figure_52'>52</ref>), we find a +different kind of tree and two totemic figures assigned to each +quarter, which indicates that the inhabitants of each of the four +provinces were regarded as of a distinct race. The top of each +tree spreads itself into two branches and, with one exception, each +of these bears three blossoms or leaves denoting, it would seem, +the division of a tribe into 2×3=6 parts. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_52'/> + <figure url='images/figure-52.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 52. Copy of p. 44, Féjérvary Codex.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The majority of tree-symbols, however, exhibit a quadruplicate +division as in fig. <ref target='Figure_53'>53</ref>, +nos. 1, 4 and 7. At the same time it is impossible +not to recognize that each example renders in a graphic +manner the organization of a tribe. In nos. 2 and 8, for instance, +we find that each of the four branches was again subdivided, +yielding eight subdivisions instead of four. In no. 3, we have +quadruple branches, a pair of recurved spikes with buds and a +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +central bud, the idea of duality repeating itself in the trunk of the +tree, one-half of which above ground is white, whilst the other +below ground is dark. The obvious allusion is to the Above and +Below and this idea is further symbolized by the head of the +coatl=serpent or twin. In this figure there is a hint of the existence +of an idea I have found expressed in other cases, namely, +that a mystic line of demarcation existed at the base of a tree, +which separated its upward from its downward growth. This was +the seat of the life of the tree, which sent its trunk and crown +heavenwards and its roots and rootlets earthwards. The fact that +the juice of the agave or maguey was collected from the core of +the plant seems to be at the bottom of its adoption as the sacred +and ceremonial <q>drink of life,</q> which was, subsequently, carefully +prepared and fermented. The idea that a tree enclosed male +and female elements seems to have been also a strong one and +would, in course of time, doubtlessly have led to the conception +of superhuman beings in human form, dwelling in trees. What is +more, the adoption by each tribe of a particular sort of tree, a +custom amply proven, would naturally lead to a species of tree-cult +or veneration which, amongst the uninitiated, might lead to a +form of worship of the tree itself. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_53'/> + <figure url='images/figure-53.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 53.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> + +<p> +The ceremonial presentation of single leaves of the same kinds +as those represented on the trees, as in fig. +<ref target='Figure_53'>53</ref>, no. 6, proves that +underlying these picture-writings there is far more meaning than +has heretofore been suspected or recognized. It is not possible +for me to present here all the material I have collected on this subject +which will be set forth in a future monograph. I will, however, +direct attention to the peculiar treatment in +fig. <ref target='Figure_53'>53</ref>, no. 1, of +the tree trunk which is enlarged and forms a quadriform figure. +In no. 4, the trunk enlarges to the shape of a head; in no. 2 the +tree grows from a human head and two young shoots issue from +each side of the trunk, seemingly indicating a fresh growth in +tribal life. In no. 5, we have an example of a human figure lying +at the base of a tree and a fifth leaf growing in the centre of the +treetop. Directing attention to the evident care taken in representing +an equal number of branches pointing upwards and downwards +I would cite here an extremely interesting representation of +a tree in the Borgian Codex. In this case the trunk issues from +a conventionally drawn heart, figured in the centre of the symbol +for sky or heaven. As the Nahuatl for heart is yul-lotl, from the +verb yuli=to live, to resuscitate, the idea is distinctly conveyed +that the tree was that of life=yuli and proceeded from the celestial +centre of life, Polaris or the Heart of Heaven, a native title +for the Supreme Being.<note place='foot'>See Molina's dictionary +for further meanings of verb yuli, which accounts for another +form of primitive native symbolism.</note> +</p> + +<p> +In the Telleriano-Remensis MS., a <q>tree of Paradise,</q> so +termed in the text, is figured, and there are, in other Codices, +various examples of trees encircled with serpents, where it is obvious +that this combination was made in order to express, phonetically, +that a celestial tree was intended, the word kan=serpent, +being made to express kaan=heaven. A celestial tree, situated +at the pole and bearing in some cases seven and in others five +blossoms, was frequently depicted and its symbolism is obvious. In +my commentary on the Hispano-Mexican MS. <q>The Lyfe of the +Indians,</q> the <q>Gods,</q> <q>Five Flowers,</q> and <q>Seven Flowers,</q> will +be treated in detail. +</p> + +<p> +From Sahagun and Olmos we learn that the Mexicans employed +the image of a tree, metaphorically, to signify a lord, governor, +progenitor, first ancestor. Relations are designated as <q>issuing +from one trunk.</q> A branch is literally termed <q>the arm of the +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +tree,</q> kab-ché. Two kinds of trees, the Puchutl and Aueuetl, signified, +metaphorically, <q>a father, mother, lord, captain or governor +who were, or are, like shade-giving, sheltering trees</q> (Olmos). +</p> + +<p> +The above metaphors explain the frequent association of a head, +the symbol of a chief or lord, with the tree symbols. It is noteworthy +that in Nahuatl, the name for head=quaitl, is singularly +like quauitl=tree, and also recalls the word for serpent=coatl, +facts which may have somewhat guided the choice and association +of these symbols. The native metaphors recorded by Olmos, +moquauhtia=an honored person or lord who has vassals or dependents, +and atlapalli=literally, leaf=a person of the lower +class, a worker, initiate us still further into the meaning of the +native symbolism and prove the antiquity of this, since the designation +of a chief as a tree and a vassal as a leaf was in current +use. The presentation of the tree issuing from a heart=yul-lotl +is moreover, in perfect keeping with native thought, since the +chieftain or lord was entitled <q>the heart, or life of the town or +population.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The meaning of the bird, which is represented as perched on +each of the four trees in the Féjérvary diagram, is likewise explained +by the metaphors recorded by Olmos who states that, <q>a +son or child or a much beloved lord or chieftain was compared to +a beautiful and precious bird, such as the Quetzal, the Roseate +Spoonbill, the Blue-bird, etc., etc.</q> Surmounting the tribal trees +in the diagram, the birds therefore typify the lords of the four +provinces and this is corroborated by the fact that each different +bird is figured again in the corner-loops in combination with the +symbols of the cardinal points. The association of the symbols +for lord or chief=the head, and the precious bird with the tribal +tree also explains the frequent representation, in the native Codices, +of one or two serpents entwined around the tree, since the +serpent was the symbol in Mexico of the dual rulers or high-priests +of the Above and Below. There is ample proof, which shall be +presented in full in my monograph on this subject, that the above +metaphorical images were as intelligible to the Mayas and other +tribes, as to the Mexicans themselves, for the identical metaphors +and imagery were in widespread general use. The following data +will corroborate this statement. +</p> + +<p> +A Maya native drawing, copied by Cogolludo in 1640 from the +MS. of the Chilan Balam or Sacred Book of Man, which relates the +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> +history of the Mayas, has been recently reproduced in Dr. Daniel +G. Brinton's Primer of Maya Hieroglyphics, p. 47. It displays a +rectangular stone slab like a table, on the centre of which rests +a circular bowl, the symbol, as I have shown, of the earth and +centre. Growing from this is a spreading tree. +</p> + +<p> +It is a curious and undeniable fact that the Maya name for table +is mayac, and that the dictionaries contain the words mayac-tun, +stone-table, and mayac-ché, wooden, literally, tree-table. +Familiarity with the native modes of rebus-writing leads to the +inference that this picture of a tree and table, expressing the +sounds mayac-ché, actually signified the tree of the Mayas and +therefore figured in the book relating their history. Bishop Landa +records that the Mayas believed in a beautiful celestial tree, resembling +the ceiba and named yax-ché, literally, green tree, under +whose shade they would repose in after-life. Abbé Brasseur de +Bourbourg surmises that this tree was the same as the beautiful +shade tree which grows in Yucatan and Mexico and is named, in +the latter country, tonacaz-quahuital=tree of our subsistence, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, life. +</p> + +<p> +A Maya name for the <q>tree of life,</q> ua-hom-ché, next claims +our attention.<note place='foot'>See D. G. Brinton (American +Hero-myths, p. 155) who, like other authorities, has +not recognized the difference between native cross-symbols, denoting the four quarters +celestial and terrestrial and the tree of tribal life.</note> +A valuable old manuscript dictionary of the Maya +language, quoted by Dr. Brinton, records that the word uah means +<q>a certain kind of life.</q> The word <foreign rend='italic'>hom</foreign> is an +ancient term for an artificial elevation, mound or pyramid, hence +<foreign rend='italic'>homul</foreign>, the pyramid +on which a temple was built. Combined with ché, tree, the +word seems to signify <q>the elevated or high tree of life,</q> the +idea of the celestial tree <q>on high,</q> being possibly intended. In +connection with this it is interesting to reëxamine fig. +<ref target='Figure_20'>20</ref>, IV, which +represents a flat pyramid from which grows a four-petalled flower +on a stalk with two leaves, the symbolism of which is apparent. +</p> + +<p> +I am inclined to connect another native name translated in the +dictionaries by <q>cross</q>=zin-ché with zihil=to be born, to commence, +zihnal=original, primitive, and zian=origin, generation, +ancestry, and to interpret it <q>the tree of ancestral or tribal life.</q> +On the other hand, there is the adjective zinil=mighty, great, +and the meaning of zin-ché may merely mean <q>the mighty tree.</q> +In treating of the <q>cross tablet</q> of Palenque in the following +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +pages, reference will be made to Dr. Brinton's identification of +the <q>cross</q> as a tree and tree symbolism referred to again. +Although unable to produce here all the data I have collected on +the subject, I think that the foregoing prove that the Peruvians, +Mexicans and Mayas, employed the four-branched tree as an image +of the organization and growth of their communal life, and utilized +it in pictography as a means of recording changes of organization +and statistics of increase or decrease of population. The Maya +word for <q>one generation of men,</q> uinay, literally meaning <q>one +growth,</q> seems to reveal that each generation was popularly +thought of as one growth of leaves on the tree of state—a simile +which is worthy of note. +</p> + +<p> +One more point remains to be considered in reference to the organization +of the population into four parts, each of which consisted +of four minor parts and so on; namely, the employment of +color as a means of differentiation. +</p> + +<p> +In Peru each person wore on the head a twisted cord, of the color +of its quarter, whilst the Inca alone wore these colors combined, +in the band which encircled his brow, as a sign that, in his person +he united the rulership over the four provinces. Molina records +the colors of these as red, yellow, white and black. In the titles +of the Maya Bacabs, or lords of the provinces, as given by Landa, +the words for yellow, red, white and black, are found to be incorporated +and prove to be identical with the arrangement in Peru. +In Mexico, on the other hand, we find red, yellow, green and blue +as the colors of the Four Quarters, white and black being assigned to +the Above and Below. All colors combined are to be found united +in symbols of the Centre and it is known that the use of centzon-tilmatli +and quachtli=mantles of four hundred colors=multicolored +were supplied as tributes to the capital, for the use of a +privileged caste. A somewhat similar arrangement to the Mexican +is that of the Zuñis at the present time. According to Mr. Cushing, +they assign yellow, blue, red and white to the cardinal points, +speckled and black to the Above=zenith and Below=nadir, +and <q>all colours to the Middle or Centre.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In Peru, Mexico and Yucatan I have found scattered notices +proving that individuals habitually painted their bodies with their +respective colors. The Mexican <q>lords of the night</q> smeared +themselves with black. A passage in Sahagun (book <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>) +speaks of the whitening of the <q>face, arms, hands and legs with +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> +<q>tiçatl</q></q>=chalk, as though this were a habit of the <q>noblewomen.</q> +In the Codices some women are, in fact, represented with white +faces, whilst those of the majority are painted yellow and it is +known that yellow ochre was employed in reality. I have, in +preparation, a brief, illustrated monograph showing the various +modes of painting the face represented in the native pictorial records. +In these, men painted red are of frequent occurrence, and +it is known that the <q>red man</q> owed his appellation to the custom +of using red pigment on his body. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now briefly consider some of the results which inevitably +followed the establishment of two diverging cults which were the +outcome of the primitive recognition of duality and the artificial +association of sex with Heaven and Earth, Day and Night, etc. +On pp. <ref target='Pg060'>60-62</ref> I have cited evidence showing that at one time in +the past history of the Aztecs, serious differences arose between the +male and female rulers, and led to a separation of the tribe and the +establishment of two distinct centres of government. +</p> + +<p> +The native languages furnish strong indications that, in ordinary +tribal life, the separation of the sexes must have been generally +enforced from remote antiquity and that male and female communities +existed in various portions of the continent. It is well known +that, to this day, the Nahuatl tongue spoken by the men is different +from that spoken by the women, and that the same duality of +language prevails among other American tribes. When the male +and female portions of the native states separated and founded +separate capitals it is obvious that each would have still further +cultivated a separate language and that the institution of two distinct +cults would have accentuated their differences and given a +fresh impetus to their development. As will be shown, the Maya +chronicles reveal that, in Yucatan, the nocturnal cult of the female +principle degenerated into such abominations that the incensed +population actually rose in revolt, murdered the high-priests and +scattered their votaries. +</p> + +<p> +It was obviously owing to a recognition of the degradation attendant +upon the abuse of intoxicating drinks, which had played +such a rôle in the cult of the earth-mother, that such stern laws +were enforced in Mexico, at the time of the Conquest, restricting +and regulating the use of pulque. This was distributed by the +priests at certain festivals only. These and other rigid measures +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> +evidently dictated by a spirit of reform, as well as the close union +of both cults, seem to have efficiently maintained a certain equilibrium. +At the same time two different moral standards were thus +inevitably evolved by the votaries of both cults and naturally profoundly +affected the position of woman. The dangers and evils +attendant upon the earth-cult became irretrievably associated with +the female sex and the votaries of Heaven naturally came to regard +woman as a source of temptation and degradation. In ancient +Mexico and Peru the celibacy of the sun-priests and of a certain +number of noblewomen, <q>the Virgins of the Sun,</q> was enforced; +thus, whilst the position of woman was being lowered in one caste +by an artificial set of ideas, it was raised in the other by an equally +fictitious association with the Above, which led, however, to her +real elevation of mind and character and finally enforced a recognition +of her individuality. The consecration of her person, which +caused her to assume a position commanding universal homage, +relieved her from heavy labor but caused her to be guarded and +protected. She was thus condemned to a still greater seclusion, the +primary object of which was to remove her from possible contact +with members of the lower earthly caste. For, whilst ceremonial +usage even required that the male members of the upper caste should +associate in certain symbolical rites with the chief women of the +lower order, it was a crime and a desecration for a man of the +latter caste to approach a woman of the nobility. These could +only marry in their own caste or remain celibate and were kept +aloof from all debasing influences, inside of protecting walls. +</p> + +<p> +Reflection shows that such conditions would inevitably lead to +the formation of a nobility whose ideal was celibacy and whose +<q>Virgins of the Sun,</q> by virtue of their consecration, ranked +highest amongst the women of the <q>celestial caste.</q> Those who +married did so in their own caste, led a life of seclusion and +always maintained a position of superiority over all women of the +<q>earthly caste.</q> The latter, on the other hand, had the prerogative +of being the representatives of their caste, since the cult of +the earth-mother necessitated a female representative, high-priestesses +and also female chiefs in their own rights. We know that, +in ancient Mexico, an independent gynocracy had been founded at +one time. From certain native manuscripts and monuments we +have positive evidence that a number of independent female chieftains +ruled over minor communities and represented them officially, +<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/> +their rank and insignia being equal to that of the chiefs of male +communities. At the same time, from the standpoint of the <q>upper +caste,</q> the position and moral code of these <q>votaries of the +earth,</q> were always viewed as inferior. +</p> + +<p> +Another factor also exerted a marked and growing influence +upon the relative positions of the two classes of women. The enforced +seclusion of the noblewomen rendering out-door occupations +or work impossible, it became necessary to relegate such to +members of the lower caste who gradually constituted a class of +domestic slaves, dedicated to the service of the nobility. In ancient +Mexico, as a punishment for various crimes, such as murder, +theft, etc., an individual, even of the upper class, was reduced to +slavery as a punishment for his crime. The ranks of slaves were +also recruited from prisoners of war. On the other hand, the laws +regulating slavery were just and mild, the children of slaves were +born free and various modes of regaining freedom were afforded +to those held in bondage as an expiation for crime. The introduction +of slaves necessitating, as it did, their classification with +the lower class, now associated servitude with the female division +of the community, and the idea arose that women and the lower +class existed for the benefit of the male element of the state and a +favored minority of consecrated women. +</p> + +<p> +If slavery and bondage came to be regarded on the one hand +as a just punishment for crime, the idea of liberty shone as an incentive +to good conduct. An eloquent proof of the high estimate +in which personal freedom was regarded by the ancient Mexicans, +is furnished by the Nahuatl word, recorded by Olmos, for <q>free +man</q>=xoxouhqui-yollotl, literally, <q>fresh or green heart.</q> This +expression is of particular interest because it explains a strange +mortuary custom which consisted in placing a piece of jade, chal-chihuitl, +or precious green stone, in the mouth of a noble person, +after death, saying that it was <q>his heart.</q> In the case of the +lower class a stone of little value, named texaxoctli, was employed. +In ancient Mexico, therefore, the presence of jade or any green +stone, in a grave, proved that the body was that of a free member +of the upper caste. It is evident that the employment of this +significant emblem was suggested by the Nahuatl word for <q>freeman,</q> +and constituted a sort of rebus expressing this title or rank. +</p> + +<p> +In the Peabody Museum there are several specimens of jade celts, +collected by Dr. Earl Flint in Nicaragua, which had been cut into two +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> +or more pieces. Professor Putnam had the satisfaction of discovering +that these pieces from different graves fitted together. His +inference that the stone must have been rare and highly prized, +probably from some motive connected with native ritual, is fully +supported by the explanation afforded by the existence of the +Nahuatl word. It is evident that, in order to provide a dead kinsman +with the mark of his rank, a living chief would gladly have +divided his own celt of jade, if, for some reason or other, no other +green stone was forthcoming at the time of burial. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now rapidly enumerate a few facts which prove that not +only burial customs but also social organization and numerical +divisions were carried northward from the southern cradle of ancient +American civilization. I shall make two statements only, +hoping that competent authorities on North American tribal organization, +and amongst them, my esteemed friend and colleague, Miss +Alice C. Fletcher, will supply a number of authoritative reports on +these matters. +</p> + +<p> +Referring to the writings of Horatio Hale, whose comparatively +recent loss will long be deeply felt by all students of aboriginal +history and languages, I quote the following sentences from his +interesting pamphlet on <q>Four Huron Wampum records,</q> published, +with notes and addenda by Prof. E. B. Tylor of Oxford, +in 1897. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The surviving members of the Huron nation, even in its present +broken, dispersed and half extinct condition, still retain the memory +of their ancient claim to the headship of all the aboriginal +tribes of America north of Mexico.... The Hurons +or Wendat, as they should be properly styled, belonged to the important +group or linguistic stock, commonly known, from its principal +branch, as the Iroquoian family and which includes, besides +the Huron and Iroquois nations, the Attiwendaronks, the Eries, +Andastes, Tuscaroras and Cherokees, all once independent and +powerful nations.</q> (I draw attention to the detail that these +nations were seven in number.) Gallatin, in his <q>Synopsis of +the Indian tribes,</q> notices the remarkable fact that while the <q>Five +Nations</q> or Iroquois proper were found by Champlain, on his arrival +in Canada, to be engaged in deadly warfare with all the Algonquian +tribes within their reach, the Hurons, another Iroquoian +nation, were the head and principal support of the Algonquian confederacy. +In the <q>Fall of Hochelaga,</q> Horatio Hale sets forth +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> +the reasons which led to the division of the Hurons and Iroquois, +who had formerly dwelt together in friendly unison. The latter, +retreating to the south and augmented by other refugees, became +the <q>Five Confederate Nations.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The <q>kingdom of Hochelaga,</q> as Cartier styles it, comprised, besides +the fortified city of that name, the important town of Stadaconé +(commonly known to its people as Canada or <q>the town</q>) +and eight or nine other towns along the great river. According to +their tradition the name of their leader, Sut-staw-ra-tse, had been +kept up by descent for seven or eight hundred years. +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Towards the conclusion of a long and deadly warfare between +the Iroquois confederates and Canada as well as the Hurons a +remarkable change had taken place in their character; a change +which recalls that which is believed to have been developed in the +character of the Spartans under the institutions of Lycurgus, +and the similar change which is known to have appeared in the +character of the Arabians under the influence of Mohammedan +precepts. A great reformer had arisen in the person of the Onondaga +chief, Hiawatha, who, imbued with an overmastering idea, +had inspired his people with a spirit of self-sacrifice, which stopped +at no obstacle in the determination of carrying into effect their +teacher's sublime purpose. This purpose was the establishment of +universal peace.... The Tionontaté or Tobacco Nation +seem to have made an alliance with the Huron nation....</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Eight clans or gentes composed the Huron people and were +found in different proportions in all the tribes. These clans, called +by the Algonquians <q>totems,</q> all bore the names of certain animals, +with which the Indians held themselves to be mythologically +connected—the bear, wolf, deer, porcupine, snake, hawk, large +tortoise and small tortoise. Each clan was more numerous in some +towns than in others, as it was natural that near kindreds should +cluster together.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>The five Iroquois nations also had eight clans.... The +Iroquois league is spoken of in their Book of Rites as kanasta-tsi-koma, +<q>the great framework</q> and the large, bent frame-poles +of their council-house, the exact original shape of which is not +known, were named kan-asta.</q> +</p> + +<p> +An examination of the signs woven in the famous wampum +belts of the Hurons and Iroquois reveals some curious facts. +</p> + +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> + +<p> +One of these treaty belts, described by Horatio Hale, commemorates +an alliance formed between four nations. It exhibits four +squares (fig. <ref target='Figure_54'>54</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <q>which indicate, in the Indian hieroglyphic +system, either towns or tribes with their territory.</q><note place='foot'>Dr. +Hale states that these squares remind us of the similar Chinese character +which represents the word <q>field</q> (p. 241).</note> This mode of +representing a nation is of utmost interest, not only because it coincides +with the Maya conception of <q>the quadrated</q> earth but +because it also reveals that, in North America, the Indians associated +a tribal organization with a quadriform. What is more, an +older belt, which is unfortunately incomplete, exhibits a central +oval (fig. <ref target='Figure_54'>54</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) between a bird and a quadruped and three crosses +with a circle uniting their branches. The cross and circle, being +a native symbol for <q>an integral state,</q> as definitely proven by +the Maya map, justifies the suggestion that this symbol on the wampum +belt may have had the significance of <q>nation</q> and central +government. It is remarkable +that the Iroquois +central capital, +Ho-che-laga, can be analyzed +in the Maya +tongue, as meaning five=<foreign rend='italic'>ho</foreign>, +tree=<foreign rend='italic'>ché</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>hoch</foreign>=vase +(symbol of centre) whilst the terminal <foreign rend='italic'>laga</foreign> might +possibly be a form of <foreign rend='italic'>lacan</foreign>=banner, +an object so frequently associated +with names of towns in Mexico, where it yields the sound pan and +means on or above something. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_54'/> + <figure url='images/figure-54.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 54.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It will be interesting and important to learn what <q>Hochelaga</q> +means in the Iroquois language. The resemblance between the +Maya and Iroquois symbols for nation and tribal territory and of +the names for capital might even be overlooked and treated as a +coincidence merely, if the Iroquois name for the confederacy, +kan-asta-tsik-o-ma did not also begin with the word kan, the Maya +for four and for serpent. The same particle recurs in the Iroquois +name for the town=can-ada, a word which, in Maya, would +describe a metropolis divided into four quarters. +</p> + +<p> +The question naturally suggests itself whether the affix can, +frequently met with in Mexico combined with names of localities, +was not of Maya origin and expressed also a centre of quadruple +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +government. It occurs in the Nahuatl name for metropolis to-tec-ua +can and in Teoti-hua can, for instance. The Nahuatl +scholars have rendered its meaning as <q>place of.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Hale tells us that, amongst the <q>Five Nations,</q> the tradition +exists that the confederacy was originally divided into <q>seven +tribes,</q> each of which was composed of 2×4=8 gentes or +clans. Another wampum belt he figures exhibits a heart between +2×2=4 squares, a symbol which would be interpreted by a Mexican +or Maya as well as by a Huron or Iroquois, as meaning <q>four +nations, one heart,</q> the latter being as common a symbol for +union of rule or government or for chieftain, as a <q>head.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Combined with other testimony it seems impossible to evade the +question whether in remote times the Iroquois and Hurons had not +shared in some way or other the civilization of the Mayas. If so +the ancient earthwork-builders of the Ohio valley, who are authoritatively +regarded as of southern origin by Professor Putnam, and +whose art exhibits a strong resemblance to that of the Mayas, +seem to constitute the missing link between the northeastern and +the southeastern tribes. It is curious to find that the terminal ché, +which occurs in the name Quiché and which signifies in Maya, tree, +and, by extension, tribe, is preserved in the names of the Nat-ché-z +tribe still inhabiting the Mississippi valley. It is also present in +Coman-ché, Apa-che, etc. +</p> + +<p> +It is to be hoped that, before long, authorities who have made +special studies of the above tribes will make searching comparisons +of their languages, social organization and symbolism with +that of the Mayas, in particular, it seeming evident that the coast +communication along the gulf of Mexico, from Yucatan to the +mouth of the Mississippi river, was not only easy but was favored +by sea-currents. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to note that if we now proceed to the southwest +of the United States and study the Pueblo people, we seem to find +not only more distinctly marked affinities between their customs, +etc., and those of the Mexicans, but also traces of similarity with +certain Maya symbols. +</p> + +<p> +In several important publications Dr. J. Walter Fewkes has +made the valuable observation that there are marked <q>resemblances +between a ceremony practised [at the time of the Conquest] +in the heart of Mexico and one still kept up in Arizona,</q> and +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +states that these <q>lead one to look for likenesses in symbolism, +especially that pertaining to the mythological Snake among the two +peoples.</q> He continues as follows: <q>From the speculative side +it seems probable that there is an intimate resemblance between +some of the ceremonials, the symbolism and mythological systems +of the Indians of Tusayan and those of the more cultured stocks of +Central America.... The facts here recorded look as if the +Hopi practise a ceremonial form of worship with strong affinities +to the Nahuatl and Maya.... I have not yet seen enough +evidence to convince me that the Hopi derived their cult and ceremonials +from the Zuñians or from any other single people. It is +probably composite. I am not sure that portions of it were not +brought up from the far south, perhaps from the Salado and Gila +by the Bat-kin-ya-mûh=<q>Water people,</q> whose legendary history +is quite strong that they came from the south.</q><note place='foot'>A Central +American ceremony which suggests the snake dance of the Tusayan +villagers. Reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, +no. 3, July, 1893. <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Bandelier, Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern +United States. Archaeol. Inst. Papers, Am. series, <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, +pp. 586-591.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Fewkes frankly states that he <q>knows next to nothing of +the symbolic characters of the Mexican deities ...</q> and quotes +Mr. Bandelier's opinion that <q>there are traces or tracks of the +same mythological system and symbolism amongst the Indians of +the southwestern United States and the aborigines of Central +America.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Under the leadership of Mr. Frank H. Cushing let us now enter +into the life and thoughts of the modern Zuñis. After having +traced certain ideas in Mexico and Peru, it is possible to recognize +them again when we find them in Mr. Cushing's valuable +work, from which I shall quote somewhat at length, referring the +reader, however, to the original, for a fuller realization of existing +resemblances.<note place='foot'>Thirteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. +Washington, 1896.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The Zuñi creation-myth relates how the light of the Sun-father +and a foam-cap on the sea, caused the Earth-mother to give birth +to twin-brothers, Uanam Achi Piah-<foreign rend='italic'>koa</foreign>, +<q>the Beloved Twain who +descended.</q> The first was Uanam Ehkona=the beloved Preceder, +the second Uanam Yaluna, the beloved Follower; they were twin-brothers +of light, yet elder and younger, the right and left, like +to question and answer in deciding and doing.... The +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> +Sun-father gave them the thunderbolts of the four quarters, two +apiece.... On their cloud-shield, even as a spider in her +web descendeth, they descended into the underworld ... (p. +381). +</p> + +<p> +Pausing here for a moment, we note the curious fact that in the +Zuñi name for the twins we find <foreign rend='italic'>koa</foreign>, +resembling the Nahuatl coatl=twin +or serpent; that the name of one brother Ehk-ona recalls +the Mexican ec-atl=air, wind or breath, and the Maya ik=air, +wind, breath, courage, spirit. The allotment of two quarters to +each and the image of a spider employed to express their descent +from heaven have counterparts in Nahuatl lore. +</p> + +<p> +The <q>Twain</q> ... guided men upwards to become the +fathers of six kinds of men (yellow or tawny, grey, red, white, +mingled and black).... The nation divided itself into the +winter or Macaw and the summer or Raven people.... +<q>The Twain beloved gathered in council for the naming and selection +of man groups and creature kinds, spaces and things. They +determined that the creatures and things of summer and the southern +space pertained to the southern people or children of the producing +Earth-mother; and those of the winter and northern space +to the winter people or children of the Forcing or Quickening +Sky-father.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible to do more than refer the reader to Mr. Cushing's +account of the origin of totem clans and creature-kinds which +bears such an affinity to the Peruvian, and obviously arose for the +same practical reason, to serve as distinction marks for identification +and classification. <q>At first ... there were four bands of +priest-keepers of the mysteries: the Shiwana-kwe=priesthood of +the priest-people; Sa'niah'-ya-kwe=priesthood of the Hunt; Ach-iahya-kwe=great +Knife people; Newe-kwe=keepers of the magic +medicines.</q> Out of these four divisions <q>all societies were formed, +both that of the Middle and the twain for each of all six regions, +constituting the tabooed and sacred 13.</q> In another passage account +is given of the marriage of a brother and sister, which produced +twelve children, the first of which, Hlamon, was man and +woman combined—the 12 thus constituting in reality 13. +</p> + +<p> +One of the most interesting portions of the Zuñi narrative is one +which elucidates the motive which led to the migration of peoples +in ancient America. We are told how generations of the forefathers +of the Zuñis wandered about in search of the stable middle +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> +of the earth, on which they wished to found their sacred city. The +tribe divided; the winter-clan journeyed to the northeast and the +summer-clan to the southwest, a reunion of the people took place, +and a council was held for the determination of the true Middle.... +According to a myth the Sun-father requested the water-skate +to determine the Middle. This mythical monster lifted himself +up, stretched out and then settled downward, calling out: +<q>Where my heart and navel rest beneath them mark ye the spot +and then build ye a town of the midmost, for there shall be the +midmost of the Earth-mother, even the navel.... And when +he descended squatting, his belly rested over the plain and valley +of Zuñi and when he drew in his finger-legs, lo! there were the +trail roads leading out and in like the stays of a spider's net, into +and forth from the place he had covered.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Pausing to point out that fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, +reproduced from Mexican Codices, +shows curious topographical drawings resembling a spider's net, +I will not recount the many disappointments of the wanderers, who +were evidently driven away from several places of settlement by +earthquakes, but will refer to the Zuñi custom of <q>annually testing +the stability of the Middle in middle time ... when the sun +reached the middle between winter and summer ... a shell +was laid by the sacred fire of the north.... When during +solemn chanting no trembling of the earth ensued, the priests cast +new fire and ... dwelt happily feeling sure that their sacred +things were resting in the stable middle of the world.</q> +</p> + +<p> +At the beginning of this paper I referred to the powerful hold +that the realization of the fixity of the pole star would naturally +have exerted upon the mind of primitive man, and I can produce +no more striking illustration of this and of my view that the idea +of central government and organization had been suggested by +Polaris, than this account of the earnest and prolonged search of +these ancient people for the stable centre of the earth, on which to +found a permanent centre of terrestrial rule or the plan of the +celestial government. At the same time it seems to me that the +longing for a stable and fixed residence would naturally have +been most intense amongst people who had experienced terrible +earthquakes and been driven out of their original abodes by their +repeated destruction. It is unnecessary to mention the well-known +fact that whilst earthquakes prevail throughout North and Central +America, the most impressive trace of catastrophes of the kind +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +are connected with the gigantic volcanoes of Central Mexico and +Guatemala. +</p> + +<p> +With a sympathetic insight into the disasters which seem to have +driven the wandering tribes from one region to another and filled +them with a passionate yearning for a centre of rest, let us now +learn from Mr. Cushing how they planned their metropolis and +organized themselves, when they had found the long-looked-for +goal, in the Zuñi valley and <q rend='pre'>settling there, built seven great cities +therein.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>All their subtribes and lesser tribes were distinctively related to +and ruled from a central tribe and town through priest chiefs representatives +of each of these, sitting under supreme council or septuarchy +of the <q>Master priests of the house</q> in the central town +itself, much as were the divisions and cities of the great Inca dominion +in South America represented at and ruled from Cuzco, the +central city and power of them all.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Zuñi is divided, not always clearly to the eye, but very clearly +in the estimation of the people themselves, into seven parts, corresponding +not perhaps in arrangement topographically, but in +scheme to their subdivisions of the worlds or world-quarters of +this world. Thus one division of the town is supposed to be related +to the north and to be centred in its kiva or estufa which +may or may not be at its centre; another division represents the +west, another the south, another the east; yet another the upper +world and another the lower world; while a final division represents +the middle or mother and synthetic combination of the all in the +world.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>By reference to the early Spanish history of the pueblos, it may +be seen that when discovered the Ashiwis or Zuñis were living in +seven quite widely separated towns the celebrated seven cities of +Cibola and that this theoretic subdivision of the only one of these +towns now remaining is in some manner a survival of the original +subdivision of the tribes into seven into as many towns. It is +evident that in both cases, however, the arrangement was and is, +if we may call it such, a mythic organization; hence my use of +the term of mytho-sociologic organization of the tribe. At all +events this is the key to their sociology as well as to their mythic +conception of space and universe.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>... There were nineteen clans, grouped in threes, to correspond +to the mythic subdivision. Three to north, west, south, +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +east, Upper, Lower. The <emph>single</emph> clan of Macaw is midmost or of +middle and also as the all containing and mother clan of the entire +tribe, for in it is <q>the seed of the priesthood of houses</q> supposed +to be preserved.</q><note place='foot'>In abbreviated form I note +here, inviting special comparison with Mexico, that +the Zuñi Upper world was symbolized by the sun, eagle and turquoise; the Lower +world by the rattlesnake, water and toad.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Finally, as produced from all the clans and as representative +alike of all the clans and through a tribal septuarchy of all the +regions and divisions of the midmost and, finally, as representative +of all the cult societies above mentioned, is the Kaka or +A'kâkâ-kwe or Mythic Dance drama people or organization.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>It may be seen of these mytho-sociologic organizations that they +are a system within a system and that it contains systems within +systems all founded on the classification according to the six-fold +division of things and in turn the six-fold division of each of these +divisions of things ... The tribal division made up of the +clans of the north take precedence ceremonially, occupying the position +of elder brother or the oldest ancestor. The west is the +younger brother to this and the south of the west, the east of +south, etc.... while the middle is supposed to be a representative +being, the heart and name of all of the brothers of the regions, +the first and last, as well as elder and younger.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>To such an extent indeed, is this tendency to classify according +to the number of the six regions with its seventh synthesis of them +all (the latter sometimes apparent, sometimes non-appearing) that +not only are the subdivisions of the societies also again subdivided +according to this arrangement, but each clan is subdivided, both +according to the six-fold arrangement and according to the subsidiary +relations of the six parts of its totem....</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>In each clan is to be found a set of names, called the names of +childhood. These names are more of titles than of cognomens. +They are determined upon by sociological divinistic modes and +are bestowed in childhood as the <q>verity names</q> or titles of the +children to whom given. But the body of names relating to any +one totem, for instance, to one of the beast totems, will not be the +name of the totem-beast itself but will be the names of both of the +totems and its various conditions and of the various parts of +the totem or of its functions, or of its attributes, actual or +mythical.</q> +</p> + +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Now these parts or functions, or attributes of the parts or functions, +are subdivided also in a six-fold manner, so that the name +relating to one member of the totem, for example, like the right leg +or arm of the animal thereof, would correspond to the north and +would be the first in honor in a clan (not itself of the northern +group); then the name relating to another member, say the left +leg and its powers, etc., would pertain to the west and would be +second in honor, ... the right foot, pertaining to the south, +would be third in honor, ... the tail to the lower regions and +be sixth in honor; while the heart and navel and centre of the being +would be first as well as last in honor.... In addressing +each other the word symbol for elder or younger is always used.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>With such a system of arrangement as all this maybe seen +to be, with such a facile device for symbolizing the arrangement +(not only according to the number of regions, and their subdivisions +in their relative succession and the succession of their elements +and seasons, but also in the colors attributed to them) and, +finally, with such an arrangement of names, correspondingly classified +and of terms of relation significant of rank rather than of +consanguineal connection, mistake in the order of a ceremonial, a +procession or a council is simply impossible and the people employing +these devices may be said to have written and to be writing +their statutes and laws in all their daily relationship and +utterances.</q> +</p> + +<p> +If this precious exposition of the Zuñi social organization teaches +us more about native method and system than all of the writings +of the Spanish chroniclers put together, there is one important +point which, strangely enough, is not touched upon, namely, the +regulation of time. All information concerning native astronomy, +and the subdivision of the years, the festival periods and the names +of days, seems to have been withheld from Mr. Cushing by the +Zuñi priesthood, if we are to assume that they possess a calendar. +</p> + +<p> +In Mexico, as I have already set forth, the calendar system is +bound up in the scheme of social organization and it is impossible +to separate them. I cannot but think that it must be the same +with the Zuñis but that, as in ancient Mexico, only the priesthood +were acquainted with the existence of a systematic calendar, and +kept it a profound secret from the multitude, although the entire +communal life and activities of the people were guided accordingly +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> +by their rulers, who had arranged a suitable time for all things, at +proper seasons. +</p> + +<p> +Having obtained through Mr. Cushing invaluable material for the +making of a composite image of the ancient American civilization +let us now proceed to Yucatan, bearing in mind the native mode +of thought and master-passion for systematization. +</p> + +<p> +A careful perusal of Cogolludo and Landa's work affords such +interesting glimpses into the past history of the inhabitants of the +Yucatan peninsula, that they merit presentation in a separate publication. +Suffice it for the present to refer more fully to a few leading +facts which will be found to illustrate the development of the +ancient civilization in the preceding pages. +</p> + +<p> +The native opinion already cited was that a great chief or lord, +named Kukulcan, reigned at Chichen-Itza, Yucatan, whilst this +was occupied by the Itza tribe, which was driven from it in about +270 A.D. by the Tutul-xius who were entitled <q>holy men.</q> Their +name justifies Brasseur de Bourbourg's inference that the conquerors +may have been a Nahuatl tribe whose name was that of the +much-prized blue-bird, Xiuh-tototl. +</p> + +<p> +At the same time the fact that the Maya word for supreme lord +and Master (also applied to the divinity) is +<foreign rend='italic'>Ciu-mil</foreign> seems to indicate +that there may be a deeper origin and that the Xiuh-tototl +may have only been a rebus employed by the Mexicans to convey +the sound of a Maya title, possibly <q>Kukul-Ciu,</q> if the above +title <q>holy men</q> is to be regarded as a translation of Tutul-xiu. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Kukulcan had no wife or children and was venerated in Yucatan +as a god because he was a great republican, as was shown by +the order he instituted in Yucatan after the death of the native +rulers. He went to Mexico whence he returned. He was there +named Quetzalcoatl and was venerated by the Mexicans as one of +their gods.</q> When he had entered into treaty with the native chiefs +inhabiting the country, they agreed to join him in founding and +peopling a city which was named Mayapan, but was also known +by the natives as Ichpa, meaning <q>inside of the circles.</q><note place='foot'>Landa +states that Mayapan signified <q>the banner of Maya,</q> the latter being the +name of the <q>tongue of land</q> on which the capital was situated. This explanation +is, however, scarcely satisfactory, for pantli is Nahuatl. If the entire word be regarded +as Nahuatl, we obtain <q>the banner of the hand.</q> As another Maya name for +the capital was Ho and this means five it seems possible that this numeral and sound +were actually expressed by an open hand and that the Nahuatl name thus arose.</note> +<q>They +proceeded, indeed, to build a circular walled enclosure with two entrances +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +only. In its centre, the principal temple was erected and +it was circular, with four doors opening to the cardinal points, like +one which had been built by Kukulcan at Chichen-Itza. The walled +circle also contained other sacred edifices and houses intended to +be inhabited by the lords only, who divided up the entire land +amongst themselves. Towns were assigned to each according to +the antiquity of his lineage and personal distinction. Kukulcan +lived in this town for some years with these lords and leaving them +in amity and peace returned to Mexico by the same way as on his +visit, lingering on the way in order to build a quadriform temple +on an island off the coast.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I know of no more instructive account of aboriginal history than +this simple native record preserved by Landa, which so clearly reveals +amongst other details that the Mexican culture-hero was an +actual personage, a Maya high-priest who had been a ruler at Chichen-Itza. +In this connection it is interesting to collate another +chapter of Landa's work in which he reports what the oldest Indians +narrated to him about Chichen-Itza, of which I give the following +somewhat abbreviated translation: Three brothers came +there in olden times from the west and having assembled together +a large number of people, ruled them for some years with much +justice and peace.<note place='foot'>As throughout America +four brothers are always found associated, in consequence +of the general spread of the quadruple organization, the fact that three rulers only +are mentioned here and that three powerful tribes were found in possession of Yucatan, +indicates that these must have separated themselves from their original State. +The subsequent reduction of their number to two shows further dissension.</note> +They paid great honor to their god and built +many beautiful edifices.... They lived without wives in purity +and virtue and as long as they did this they were esteemed and +obeyed by all. In course of time one of them possibly died, but is +said by the Indians to have gone out of the country. Whatever +may have been the cause of his absence the remaining rulers immediately +began to show partiality and to institute such licentious +and abominable customs that they were finally execrated by the +people who rebelled and killed them, and then disbanded and abandoned +the capital, <q>although this was most beautiful and was surrounded +by fertile provinces.</q><note place='foot'>It seems reasonable to refer +to this date the expulsion of the Maya tribe, the +Huaxtekans, who founded their colony at Panuco, named their capital Tuch-pan and +carried with them their execrable practices and ideas. At the same time they possessed +and handed down such a proficiency in the art of weaving that at the time of +Montezuma the most beautiful textile fabrics, furnished to him as tribute, were the +Huaxtecan <q>centzon-tilmatli</q> or mantles of four hundred colors, <q>finely woven and +covered with intricate and artistic designs.</q> This circumstance points to a possible +connection with Zilan, the reputed Maya centre of female industry. It has been +stated by good authorities that the only antiquities thus far found in America, which +testify to the existence of a degraded and obscene cult, are from the region of +Panuco.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The principal edifice at Chichen-Itza was a pyramid temple which +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> +had four stairways facing the cardinal points. It contained a circular +temple which was named after the builder Kukulcan and had +four doorways opening to the four quarters of heaven. +</p> + +<p> +If I have dwelt again upon Kukulcan=Quetzalcoatl, it is because, +between the writers who interpret the records concerning +him as a sun or star-myth and those who identify him as the abstract +deity whose name he bore as a title only, or as St. Thomas or a +mythical Norseman, ancient America is being deprived of its most +remarkable historical personage. +</p> + +<p> +Collated with the Maya traditional records, the Mexican accounts +agree and supply missing evidence. Whilst the Mayas state that +their ruler and legislator went to Mexico and even record his Mexican +name, Montezuma informs Cortés that <q>his ancestors had been +conducted to Mexico by a ruler, Quetzalcoatl, whose vassals they +were and who having established them in a colony returned to his +native land. Later on he returned and wished them to leave with +him but they chose to remain, having married women of the country, +raised families and built towns. Nor would they institute him +again as their lord, so he went away again toward the east, whence +he had come.</q> It seems nearly proven that Kukulcan was one of +the three rulers who came to Yucatan from the east. The Mexican +tradition that he was driven into exile by his enemies, the followers +of Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the Below, appears to be +corroborated by the Maya record that, after his restraining presence +had been removed, they committed such excesses that the indignant +population arose and murdered their two rulers at Chichen-Itza. +Quetzalcoatl's continued efforts to assemble scattered tribes, +to organize them peacefully under central governments, to found +capitals and erect in the centre of these quadriform pyramids and +circular temples, prove how completely he was possessed by the +idea of spreading the well-known scheme of civilization. His very +name in Maya signified <q>the divine Four</q> and this more profound +signification was hidden under the image of the <q>feathered serpent</q> +employed as a rebus to express the title of the supreme Being +and the high-priest, his earthly representative. +</p> + +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> + +<p> +The Mexican records state that the culture-hero's white robes +were covered with red crosses, and that he set up cross-emblems. +Evidence showing how completely this builder and founder of cities +carried out the idea of the Four Quarters, in the temples he erected +in Mexico, is preserved by the record that for prayer, penitence +and fasting, he prepared four rooms which he occupied in rotation. +These were respectively decorated in blue, green, red and yellow, +by means of precious stones, feather-work and gold. As these +were the colors assigned to the Four Quarters their symbolism and +meaning are obvious, and it may be inferred that the same method +of decorating the sides of buildings or doorways, with these four +colors, may have been carried out in square sacred edifices oriented +to the cardinal points. +</p> + +<p> +It is curious to detect the quadruplicate idea in the title Holcan +given to certain war-chiefs. This name signifies, literally, <q>the +head of four,</q> but could be expressed by the rebus of a <q>serpent's +head,</q> which would obviously have been employed in pictography +to express the title and rank. The existence of the title +<q>Four-head,</q> or <q>the head of four,</q> obviously relates to the rulership +of the Four Quarters, united in one person; and in this connection +the Tiahuanaco swastika (fig. <ref target='Figure_48'>48</ref>), terminating in four +pumas' heads, seems to gain in significance as the expressive symbol of a +central ruler. The recorded custom to cover the body of the Mexican +ruler with the raiment of the <q>four principal gods,</q> proves +the prevalence of analogous symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +From the following data we gain an interesting view of the +events which transpired in former times in the Yucatan peninsula. +Resuming Landa's account we see that, after Kuculcan had departed +for Mexico, the lords of Mayapan decided to confer supreme +rulership upon the Cocomes, this being the most ancient and the +wealthiest lineage and its chief being distinguished for bravery. +They then decided that the inner circle should hold only the temples +and houses for the lords and high-priest. In connection with this +it is well to insert here how Landa states, in another passage, that +there were <q>twelve priests or lords at Mayapan,</q> which with the +high-priest constituted the sacred 13. <q>Outside the wall they built +houses where each lord kept some servitors and where his people +or vassals could resort when they came on business to the town. +Each of these houses had its steward, entitled Caluac, who bore a +staff of office and he kept an account with the towns and with +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> +their local rulers. The Caluac always went to his lord's house, +saw what he required and obtained from the vassals all he needed +in the way of provisions, clothing, etc.</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, pp. 34-44). +</p> + +<p> +The chronicle goes on to relate how the lords of the inner circle +devoted their time to the affairs of government, the regulation of +the calendar and the study of writing, medicine, and the sciences.<note place='foot'>It +is interesting to note in the above description absolutely no mention of woman +in the organization of Mayapan. It is therefore to be presumed that they were excluded +from this capital, and inhabited, as in Mexico, their own town, under female +rulership and that of the <q>lords of the Night.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +It seems significant that, throughout Central America, two ruined +cities of about equal size are usually found in comparatively close +proximity to each other, and seemingly pertaining to the same culture. +Thus we have Quirigua, in the valley of the Motagua river, +and Copan its sister-city, situated at a distance of about twenty-five +miles, but nearly 1,800 feet above it, in the wooded hills. Between +Palenque and Menché (Lorillard City) there are about fifty +miles, whilst Tikal and Ixkun are forty miles apart. In Yucatan, +as we have learned from Bishop Landa's <q>Relacion,</q> there were +Mayapan and Zilan, and as the latter name also signified <q>embroidery</q> +it looks as though it had been a noted centre of female +industry. +</p> + +<p> +Then, after a lapse of years, <q>a large number of tribes, with +their lords, came to Yucatan from the south.</q> Bishop Landa conjectures +that, although his informants did not know this for certain, +<q>these tribes must have come from Chiapas, many words and the +conjugation of some verbs being the same in Yucatan as in Chiapas +where there existed great signs showing that ancient capitals +had been devastated and abandoned,</q> possibly by earthquakes, +famine, disease or warfare. It has been surmised that the venerable +Bishop alluded, in this sentence, to the ruins of Palenque in +Chiapas. +</p> + +<p> +Although not mentioned by Cogolludo or Lizana it is accepted +that the new-comers were the Tutul-xius. According to an ancient +Maya chronicle, <q>at a date corresponding to 401 A.D., the four +Tutul-xius had fled from the house of Nonoual, to the west of +Zuiva and came from the land of Tulapan. Four eras passed before +they reached the peninsula of Yucatan named Chac-noui-tan +under their chieftain, Holon-Chan-Tepeuh,</q> a name which is equally +intelligible in Maya, Tzendal and Nahuatl and means Head-Serpent +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> +and <q>lord of the mountain,</q> according to Brasseur de Bourbourg, +who states that the latter was a sovereign title amongst the +Quichés. +</p> + +<p> +Landa relates that, after wandering about Yucatan for forty +years (possibly in search of the stable centre) these tribes settled +near Mayapan, subjected themselves to its laws and lived in peaceful +friendship with the Cocomes. The new-comers brought with +them the atlatl or spear-thrower which is minutely described but +is evidently regarded as a weapon of the chase.<note place='foot'>See the +Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans. Peabody Museum +Papers, vol. 1, no. 3. Cambridge, 1891.</note> The chronicle +goes on to narrate that the Cocom governor, having become ambitious +for riches, entered into a treaty with Mexican warriors who +were garrisoned at Tabasco and Xicalango by the Mexican ruler +and induced them to come to Mayapan and to aid him in oppressing +the native lords. The latter and the Tutul-xius rebelled against +this action and, having observed the Mexicans and become experts +in the art of using their bow and arrow, lance, hatchet, shield and +other defensive armor, they <q>ceased to admire and fear the Mexicans +and began to make little of them, and in this condition they +remained for some years.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A lapse of years passed and another Cocom chief formed a fresh +league with the Tabasco people. More Mexican warriors came to +Mayapan and supported him in tyrannizing and making slaves of +the lower class. Then the Tutulxiu lords assembled and decided +to murder the Cocom ruler. Having done so they also killed all +his sons with the exception of one who was absent; burnt their +houses and seized their plantations of cocoa and other fruits, saying +that these compensated for what had been stolen from them. +The differences which subsequently arose between the Cocome and +the Xius people resulted in the final destruction and abandonment +of Mayapan after an occupation of more than five hundred years, +both tribes returning to their countries. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The lords who destroyed Mayapan (about 120 years before the +Conquest) carried away with them their books of science.... +The son of the Cocom lord, who being absent had escaped death, +returned and gathered his relations and vassals together and founded +a capital.... Many towns were built by them in the hills +and many families descended from these Cocomes. These lords +of Mayapan did not revenge themselves upon the Mexican warriors +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> +but generously exonerated them from blame because they +were strangers and had been persuaded to come into the land +by its former ruler. They allowed them to remain unmolested in +the country and to found a city on condition that they kept to +themselves and married in their own tribe only. These Mexicans +decided to settle in Yucatan and peopled the province of Can-ul +which was assigned to them and they continued to live there until +the second invasion of the Spaniards.</q> +</p> + +<p> +At Chichen-Itza, situated at about twenty-three leagues from +the ancient site of Mayapan, there exists substantial evidence of +the existence of these Aztec warriors, with indications that they +pertained to the Mexican warrior-caste of the ocelots or tigers. +It is a recognized fact that the remarkable bas-reliefs, which still +cover the walls of the <q>temple of the tigers</q> at Chichen-Itza, are +strikingly Aztec in every detail. The exact counterparts of the +Atlatls, they hold, are visible on the so-called <q>Stone of Tizoc</q> in +the city of Mexico. Sculptured on the wall opposite the entrance +of the temple there are about thirty-six war-chiefs grouped in three +parallel rows of twelve each, the majority of whom are apparently +rendering some form of homage to a seated personage surrounded +by rays, while others are having an encounter with a monstrous serpent. +On the side walls and slanting roofs more warriors are figured, +many accompanied by a rebus or hieroglyph which evidently +records, in Mexican style, individual names. The total number of +sculptured warriors seems to have been about one hundred. If +each of these represented, as may be supposed, a <q>count of men,</q> +it is evident that a large force of Aztec soldiers must have lived +in Yucatan at one time. +</p> + +<p> +Other interesting monuments at Chichen-Itza deserve a passing +mention. Mr. Teobert Maler (Yukatekische Forschungen, Globus, +1895, p. 284) relates that there are two pyramid-temples in the +terraces of which the remains of great stone tables have been +found. He states that one of these tables was originally supported +by two rows of seven sculptured caryatids and by a central +row of plain columns with flat, square tops. Traces of paint showed +that the figures had been painted, that a yellow-brown color had +predominated, but that all ornaments or accessories were either +blue or green. The caryatids exhibited a variety of costume and +of size and each showed a marked individuality. The second table +standing in a larger temple, was originally painted red and supported +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> +by twenty-four caryatid figures which resemble each other +closely, show no individuality and which seem to have been disposed +in two rows of twelve each. Mr. Maler infers from this +that, being more highly conventionalized, they were of a later date +than the previous examples. If it were not for the circumstance +that both tables had the same number of supports their numeral +24 might pass unobserved. As it is, I shall recur to it on mentioning +other monuments with figures yielding the same number and +disposed, in one case, as 6×4. In connection with these stone +tables I recall the fact that, in the Maya language, they were called +Mayac-tun. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. W. H. Holmes (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, p. 134) tells us that in one case the +continuous table had been formed by a series of limestone tablets +averaging three feet square and five or six inches thick, each slab +having been supported by two of the dwarfish figures which stand +with both hands aloft, giving a broad surface of support. He +ascertained that <q>these slabs were wonderfully resonant and when +struck lightly with a hammer or stone, give out tones closely resembling +those of a deeply resonant bell, and the echoes awakened +in the silent forest are exceedingly impressive.</q> Mr. Holmes' account +of these resonant stone tables is of particular value to me +because it throws an interesting light upon the following Maya +words: I have already stated that the native name for table is +Mayac, and that a stone table is Mayac-tun. The word +<foreign rend='italic'>tun</foreign>, however, +not only signifies stone, but also sound and noise. From +this it would seem that stone tables such as Mr. Holmes describes +were made expressly for the purpose of emitting sound and employed +like the huehuetl or wooden drums of the ancient Mexicans +to summon the people to the temple and to guide the sacred +dances. +</p> + +<p> +The existence of the word tun-kul, which is either <q>stone-bowl</q> +or <q>sound-bowl,</q> seems likewise to indicate that hollow +stone vessels were used at one time as gongs. At the present +day the Mayas name the small wooden drum of the Mexicans a +<q>tunkul,</q> whereas its Nahuatl name is <q>te-ponaxtli,</q> the prefix of +which, curiously enough, seems also to be connected with tetl=stone. +A curious light is shed upon the possible use of some of the many +stone vessels found in Mexico and Yucatan by the above linguistic +evidence. +</p> + +<p> +In conclusion I quote Mr. Maler's authority for two points concerning +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +Chichen-Itza which are not generally known. First, that +its name should be pronounced <q>Tsitsen-itsa,</q> and, second, that +he saw there no less than five recumbent statues, holding circular +vessels. Each of these figures exhibits the same form of breast-plate +as the Le Plongeon example now at the National Museum +of Mexico (pl. <ref target='Plate_IV'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi></ref>, +fig. 1). Mr. Maler states that it seems to have +been the tribal mark of the Cocomes, the whilom rulers at Chichen-Itza; +but it is interesting to note the general resemblance of +this ornament to the blue plaque worn by the Mexican <q>Blue +Lord,</q> the Lord of the Year and of Fire, <q>Xiuhtecuhtli,</q> who is +also usually represented with a Xiuh-tototl or <q>blue-bird</q> on the +front of his head-dress. +</p> + +<p> +These facts seem to indicate that the characteristic breast-plate, +instead of being a mark of the Cocomes, may have been that of +the Tutul-Xius, and that this title has some connection with that +of Xiuh-tecuhtli, the Mexican <q>Lord of Fire.</q> It has been already +set forth in the preceding pages that the sacred fire was +kindled in the stone vase held by the recumbent figures, a fact indicating +that the identical form of cult was practised in Mexico +and at Chichen-Itza. This identity is satisfactorily accounted for +and explained if we accept the simple native records of the invitation +extended to Mexican warriors by a Maya chieftain and their +subsequent permanent residence in Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +The limitations of my subject do not allow me to do more than +mention two other important ruined cities of Yucatan, Izamal and +Uxmal. I will however note that, judging from the illustrations +I have seen, Uxmal seems to be the <q>Serpent-city</q> of America, +par excellence, its buildings exhibiting the most elaborate and profuse +employment of the serpent for symbolical decoration. One +inference from this might be that the serpent was the totemic animal +of the ancient builders of this city. The foregoing rapid +review of the native chronicles of Yucatan shows that even the +foundation of Mayapan was comparatively recent; that the peninsula +had, in turn, harbored powerful tribes who had drifted thence +from the southwest and Mexican warriors whose aid had been sought +by consecutive rulers of Chichen-Itza. We see that Yucatan was +the meeting ground for Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people and +that the tendency was to leave the peninsula in search of a more +favorable soil and climate as soon as opportunity was afforded. +</p> + +<p> +Since the cradle of the Maya civilization is evidently not to be +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> +looked for in Yucatan, let us follow the clue afforded by the native +traditions, transport ourselves to some of the most important +ruined cities of Central America and endeavor to wrest from their +monuments some knowledge of the social organization of their +ancient inhabitants. In order to institute this search under the +most favorable circumstances, I ventured to apply for guidance to +Mr. A. P. Maudslay who has made a more thorough, prolonged +and extensive study and exploration of these ruined cities than any +other person. Upon my request to formulate his opinion as to the +respective antiquity and chief characteristics of the most noted +sites, this distinguished explorer has most kindly authorized me to +publish the following note. +</p> + +<p> +<q>But for a brief note in Nature (28th April, 1892), I have +never classified the ruins or attempted to give proofs of differences +in age of the monuments, but roughly you may safely class them +as follows: I am inclined to look on the Motagua river group as +the oldest. The Yucatan group is certainly the youngest. Of course +there are many other smaller differences between the groups and +much overlapping. Whichever group may be the oldest the art +is there already advanced and the decoration has taken forms which +must have occupied many kinds of workers to conventionalize from +natural objects.</q> +</p> + +<p> +1. On Motagua River, Quirigua, Copan. +Large monolithic stelæ and altars +with figures and inscriptions +carved on all four sides in +rather high relief, some groups +pictographic. No weapons of +war portrayed in the sculpture. +</p> + +<p> +2. On Usumacinto River, Menché, Tinamit, Palenque, Ixkun. +Stelæ are usually flat slabs +carved with figures and inscriptions +in low relief on one side +only. External ornament of +the buildings usually moulded in +stucco. War-like weapons but +very scarce. +</p> + +<p> +3. Tikal. Intermediate between Nos. 2 +and 4, but somewhat different +and distinct from either. +</p> + +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> + +<p> +4. Yucatan. Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, etc. Stelæ very few in number and +poorly carved. Inscriptions +carved in stone are very scarce. +Inscriptions were probably +<emph>painted</emph> on the walls of the temples. +External ornament of +buildings formed by a mosaic +of cut stones somewhat resembling +Zapotec or Aztec style. +Every man portrayed as a warrior +[on the bas-reliefs]. +</p> + +<p> +By means of the magnificent set of casts which Mr. A. P. +Maudslay has generously presented to the South Kensington Museum, +London, and with the aid of his monumental and splendidly +illustrated work on the Archaeology of Central America, which has +been appearing as a part of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, edited +by Messrs. Godman and Salvin, I have been able to verify the +following facts which will be found to throw light on the purpose +and meaning of some of the ancient monuments. +</p> + +<p> +Before examining the great, elaborately carved stelæ which are +characteristic of Quirigua and Copan, let us search the native +chronicles for some clue explanatory of the purpose for which they +were erected. +</p> + +<p> +Bishop Landa has transmitted to us some details about the destroyed +metropolis of Mayapan given to him by Yucatec informants +who stated that <q>in the central square of that city there still were +7 or 8 stones, about ten feet high, rounded on one side and well +sculptured, which exhibit several rows of the native characters, +but were so worn that they had become illegible. It is supposed, +however, that they are the record of the foundation and destruction +of that capital. Similar, but higher monuments, are at Zilan, +a town on the coast. Interrogated as to the meaning of these +monoliths the natives answered: It had been or was customary +to erect similar stones at intervals of 20 years which was the number +by which they counted their eras.</q> Bishop Landa subsequently +remarks that <q>this statement is not consistent,</q> for, according to +this <q>there should be many more such stones in existence, and +none exist in any other pueblo but Mayapan and Zilan.</q><note place='foot'>Relacion. +ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 52. In a note the Abbé states that the +above description recalls the monoliths of Copan and Quirigua.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> + +<p> +Disagreeing with the venerable Bishop, I find in the above statements +the most valuable indications of the former existence of two +centres of culture in Yucatan. There is a curious affinity between +the name Zilan (pronounced Dzilan) and Chilan given as <q>the +title of a priestly office which consisted of a juridistic astrology +and divination,</q> by Landa. There may even be a connection +between zilan and zian=origin, commencement; zihnal=original +and primitive, which may be worthy of consideration in association +with the well-known statement, quoted by Dr. Brinton, that +<q>the most venerable traditions of the Maya race claimed for them +a migration from Tollan in Zu-iva—thence we all came forth together, +there was the common parent of our race; thence came we +from amongst the Yagui men, whose god is Yolcuatl Quetzalcoatl.</q> +Dr. Brinton adds that <q>this Tollan is certainly none other than the +abode of Quetzalcoatl named in an Aztec manuscript as <q>Zivena +Uitzcatl.</q></q> Vague as any conjecture must necessarily be, I cannot +but deem it of utmost importance that systematic excavations be +made, some day, at Zilan, for the purpose of bringing to light the +stelæ referred to by the native informants of Bishop Landa. +</p> + +<p> +According to Brasseur de Bourbourg <q>Zilan, situated at about +20-½ leagues from Merida belonged to the Cheles people.<note place='foot'>We are +told that the Cheles inhabited a province named Ah-bin-chel, and that +their capitals were Tikoh and Izamal (literally, Ah=they who are of, kin=sun, +chel=sort of bird and the ancient name of a sacerdotal lineage in Yucatan). +Thence the title Chelekat=holiness, highness, grandeur, given to the head of this +lineage (Brasseur de Bourbourg). Ix-chel=the woman-bird, was the high-priestess +or medicine-woman and midwife. The Cheles, Tutul-xius and Cocomes were the +three most powerful tribes at the time of the Conquest. It is noteworthy that they all +had bird names and that the word chel, the totemic bird of the Cheles, so closely +resembles ché=tree, that the combination of a ché or tree as a symbol of the tribe and +the chel-bird would have been suggested by the language.</note> It is the +seaport of Izamal and contains the ruins of one of the greatest +pyramids or artificial mounds (omul) in Yucatan,</q> a fact which +corroborates the view that it was an ancient important capital. +The northern coast of Yucatan is extremely remarkable for it is +divided from the Gulf of Mexico by a continuous strip of land +between which and the mainland there is a narrow channel of +water. There are two openings only in this zone of land which +afford a passage into the navigable channel. One of these openings +is situated almost opposite to Zilan and is known as the Boca +de Zilan. At a short distance to the east there is a second such +<q>boca</q> opposite to the mouth of the Rio Lagartos, which is a +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> +large estuary and the only river on the northern coast of +Yucatan.<note place='foot'>According to Señor Garcia Cubas, <q>this peninsula of +Yucatan must have been +united at one time, to the island of Cuba, the determining cause of their separation +being the impetuous current of the Gulf of Mexico</q> (Atlas Metodico, Mexico, 1874, +p. 32).</note> +</p> + +<p> +Let us now transport ourselves, mentally, south of the peninsula +to Honduras and, leaving the coast, ascend the Motagua valley +to the ruins of Quirigua and Copan,<note place='foot'>For a general +account of the ruins of Copan and for a plan on which the position +of the different structures, stelæ, altars and prominent sculptures are given, I refer +to the Memoirs of the Peabody Museum vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +no. 1, containing a preliminary report, +of the Explorations by the Museum. Cambridge, 1896.</note> which have impressed Mr. +Maudslay as being of great antiquity. Before examining such of +these monuments as seem to yield the testimony we are seeking, +let us again recall Landa's record that the Mayas erected stelæ as +memorials of each 20-year period. To this statement should be +added, at full length, Cogolludo's record that <q>the Mayas employed +eras of 20 years and lesser periods of 4 years.<note place='foot'>Historia de +la Provincia de Yucathan, by Friar Diego Lopez Cogolludo, Madrid, +1688.</note> The first +of these four years was assigned to the east and was named Cuch-haab; +the second, Hiix, to the west; the third, Cavac, to the south +and the fourth Muluc, to the north, and this served as a <q>Dominical +letter.</q> When five of these four-year periods had passed, which +form twenty years, they called it a Katun and placed one sculptured +stone over another sculptured stone and fixed them with lime and +sand [mortar] to the walls of their temples and houses of the +priests.</q><note place='foot'>It seems to me +that this statement establishes once and for all the order in which +these sculptured glyphs are to be read. It is evident that in fastening them to the +walls the idea was that of building up the calculiform record by placing the stones +above each other, in the same manner that a stone wall would be raised. Accordingly, +the earliest records would form the base and the last be at the top.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The term katun is closely linked to the said employment of +memorial stones, for tun is the Maya for stone and ka seems to +stand for kal or kaal=20. The word hun-kaal=20, means literally, +<q>one complete count,</q> or <q>a count which is closed,</q> since +the verb kaal means to close, shut, or fasten something. According +to the above a katun literally means <q>the 20 (year) stone;</q> +but we know that, by extension, it designated the era itself as well +as war and battle. Thus we find the verb katun-tal=to fight. +</p> + +<p> +Cogolludo continues: <q>In a town named Tixuala-tun, which +signifies <q>the place where they place one stone above another,</q> +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> +they say that they kept their archive, containing records of all +events.... In current speech katun signified era and when +a person wished to say he was sixty years of age, he used the +expression to have three eras of years or three stones. For seventy +they said three and a half stones or four less one-half stone. +From this it may be seen that they were not too barbarous, for it +is said that [by this system] they were able to keep such exact +records that they not only certified an event but also the month +and day on which it took place.</q> +</p> + +<p> +By referring to Maya and Spanish dictionaries we gain supplementary +valuable information about native memorial stones. We +find the name amaytun given as that of <q>a square stone on which +the ancient Indians used to carve the 20 years of the period ahau-katun, +because the four remaining years which completed the +epoch, were placed underneath, so as to form a sort of pedestal +which was called, for this reason, lath oc katun or chek oc katun. +By extension, painted representations [of the epoch] were also +named amaytun.</q> The dictionary further informs us that amayté +was the name for the first twenty years of the ahau katun, which +were carved on the square stone and we see that amayté also +means <q>something square or with corners</q> and is formed of +amay=corner. +</p> + +<p> +Equipped with the foregoing knowledge of the sort of memorial +it was customary for the Mayas to erect, let us now see whether +the ruins of Copan furnish any monuments which would answer to +the description and purpose of <q>amay-tés</q> and <q>ka-tuns.</q> Referring +the reader to parts <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>-<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi> +of Mr. A. P. Maudslay's work +already cited, I draw special attention to the following stelæ and +altars which are so admirably figured therein. +</p> + +<p> +Stela F, which stands at the east side of the Great Plaza at Copan +and faces west, is in a particularly bad state of preservation. +It exhibits a standing figure on one side whose head is surmounted +by an indescribable combination of a mask, a seated figure and +much elaborate feather-work. A noteworthy feature, which recurs +on other stelæ in Copan and Quirigua, is an appendage which appears +like an artificial beard attached to the chin of the personage. +At the sides of the stela serpents' heads alternate with diminutive +grotesque figures. On the back, or east side of the stela, two +cords are represented which appear to have been brought over from +the front and which are tied together so as to form five open loops, +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> +in each of which, as in a frame, there is a group consisting of four +calculiform glyphs. The cord, which is knotted together at the +base of the stela, appears to pass around it. It is impossible +not to recognize that this representation of twenty glyphs, as divided +into five groups of four, exactly agrees with Cogolludo's +records that the Mayas employed 20-year and 4-year eras and that +when five of the 4-year periods had passed they called it a ka-tun, +and made a carved memorial of it. As Landa tells us that they +erected stelæ to commemorate the 20-year period, the inference to +which the Copan Stela F leads us is that it is a katun and that +the twenty glyphs carved on it are year-signs. Examination, however, +shows that, whereas the Maya Calendar had but four year-signs +which would naturally be bound to repeat themselves in each group +of four years, no two glyphs on the Stela F are alike. It is obvious, +therefore, that the glyphs are not the four calendar year-signs +and reflection shows, indeed, that it would have been quite +superfluous to carve these repeatedly on a stela. As each year-sign +was identified with a cardinal point and an element and was +permanently associated with a particular color, the mere employment +of the latter would suffice to convey this association of ideas. +What is more, the relative positions of the four glyphs composing +each group would also indicate the four year-signs and thus the +sculptor of the stela would have been at liberty to record by the +shape of his glyphs any fact he chose to connect with each year +of the era. A curious linguistic fact must also be taken into consideration: +The Maya name for the four year-signs was Ah-cuch-haab +and the title for a chief or ruler of a town was Ah-cuch-cab. +The mere presence on the stela, of the figure of the ruler, would +suffice to convey the certainty that the count of the four year-signs +was understood to be present. On Stelæ F and M, each of +which displays twenty glyphs and one sculptured personage, the +latter is particularly characterized by being associated with head-dresses +and emblems consisting of elaborate conventionalized +plumed serpents' heads. The inference naturally is that the serpent +symbolism, which recurs in some form or other on every stela +effigy, expresses or conveys that the rank and title of the personage +were that of a Kukul-can, the high-priest ruler who impersonated +the <q>Divine Four,</q> or of some lord=Ahau, who was also +<q>ruler of the four regions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It must be recognized that a stone stela, on which is sculptured +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +the image of a lord and a count of 20, answers exactly to the +memorial stone named Ahau-ka-tun, literally, lord, 20 stone, and +it is easy to see how the period or era of twenty-four years should +come to be called by the name of the stone which commemorated +it, and each era to be differentiated by being designated by the +personal name of the ruler who held office during its course. The +result would be practically the same as the allusion to a particular +reign in a nation's history, with the seeming difference that all +ancient American rulers and their subordinates held fixed terms of +office, coinciding with the various periods of the calendar. +</p> + +<p> +The inscriptions on the foregoing stelæ are made of glyphs of +a uniform character. Other stelæ at Copan display the interesting +set of 6+1=7 signs which recur on so many Central American +monuments and strikingly coincide in number with the all-pervading +division into six parts plus the middle and synopsis of all. +Of this <q>septenary set of signs,</q> six are uniform in size and character +whilst the first is more elaborate and important in every respect +and, as I shall set forth by a series of illustrations in another +publication, actually does symbolize the union of the Above and +Below. It is to Mr. Maudslay that we owe the recognition of the +existence of this septenary set of glyphs, which he announced as +follows to the Royal Geographical Society in 1886: +</p> + +<p> +<q>A number of Central American inscriptions are headed by what +I shall call an initial scroll (the style of which is permanent throughout +many variations) and begin with the same formula, usually +extending through six squares of hieroglyphic writing, the sixth +square, or sometimes the latter half of the sixth square, being a +human face, usually in profile, enclosed in a frame or cartouche</q> +(Proceedings, p. 583). +</p> + +<p> +The septenary group occurs on Stelæ A, B, C, E, I, P. It is +curious to find that the initial sign is sometimes, as on two sides +of Stela P, followed not by 6 glyphs only, but by 4×6=24 +glyphs. On the east side of Stela P, it is succeeded by 22 glyphs +and a carved design which seems to indicate the beginning or end +of the count. On Stela I the initial is also followed by 4×6=24 +glyphs, and on Stela A by 12 double (=24) glyphs on side +1, whilst side 2 displays 13 and side 3, 2×13=26. On Stela B +two sides exhibit 13 glyphs each and the back 2+ the initial. On +two sides of Stela C the initial is followed by 2×7=14 glyphs. +It cannot be denied that the foregoing stelæ collectively yield counts +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> +of 4×5, 7, 13, 20 and 24, which undoubtedly coincide with the +well-known numerical organization and prove that this dominated +the people who erected them. +</p> + +<p> +The certainty that the ancient inhabitants of Copan associated +the idea of a central ruler with quadruple power is afforded by a +remarkable bas-relief which Mr. Maudslay has kindly allowed me +to reproduce here (fig. <ref target='Figure_55'>55</ref>), +from a drawing made by Miss Annie +Hunter.<note place='foot'>See Biologia Centrali Americana, +pt. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, Copan <q>a</q> pl. 9. Casts of this sculpture +and of two others nearly identical, from Copan, are in the Peabody Museum.</note> +</p> + +<p> +This carved slab, the size of which is 5' by 4' 6", was found in +four pieces in the western court of the main structure of Copan +and according to Mr. Maudslay's opinion, <q>formed part of the +exterior ornament of temple 11 or the slope on which it stood.</q> +It undoubtedly claims a +minute examination, as it +strikingly illustrates how +the native ideas, I have +been setting forth in the +preceding pages, were originally +suggested by the +observation of Polaris. +Seated cross-legged, and +resting on the centre of +the foliated swastika, is +the figure of a personage +whose titles are clearly +discernible. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_55'/> + <figure url='images/figure-55.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 55.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +He is designated as a +ruler, not only by his attitude +of repose, but by +the fact that he wears a breast ornament in the form of a face +or head (of the sun) and holds in his hand (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> governs) a vase +or bowl (see p. 72). Those show him to be the chief or head of +all and the Cum-ahau, or lord of the sacred vase or bowl (see +p. 93). As the latter contains what appears to be a variant of +the glyph ik and the word ik signifies breath, air and wind, by +extension life, we realize that he is designated as the lord of +breath and life. The glyph which covers his face bears a native +cross-symbol and this, as well as the cruciform figure, the centre of +<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/> +which he occupies, conveys the idea of quadruplicate power. The +double and bent arms of the cross-symbol strikingly resemble the +conventionalized puffs of breath or air which are so frequently depicted +in Mexican Codices, as issuing from the mouths of speakers. +Almost identical representations of curved puffs are figured as +issuing from open serpents' jaws in a bas-relief at Palenque, of +which more anon. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Maudslay has pointed out that on stelæ from Copan and +Quirigua a profusion of analogous curved signs occurs also in +connection with serpents' heads. A special feature of the curved +puffs of breath on the Copan <q>swastika,</q> as it has been named, +are small seed-like balls which are distributed in detached groups +of threes along their inner and outer edges, and are usually accompanied +by what resembles the small calyx of a flower, making +four small objects in all. These balls, which also recur in the Palenque +symbol, forcibly recall a passage of the Zuñi creation myth recounted +by Mr. Cushing. +</p> + +<p> +It relates that, at a certain stage of the creation, <q>the most perfect +of all priests and fathers named Yanáuluha ... brought +up from the underworld, the water of the inner ocean and the +seeds of life production</q> ... Subsequently, on a feathered +staff he carried, <q>appeared 4 round things, seeds of moving beings, +mere eggs they were; two blue like the sky and two red like +the flesh of the earth-mother.</q>... +</p> + +<p> +I cannot but think that these words from a purely native source +explain the Copan sculpture more correctly than any inference +that could be made, and authorize the explanation that the central +figure represents the <q>four times lord,</q> or <q>lord of the four +winds,</q> titles which were applied in Mexico to Quetzalcoatl and +Xiuhtecuhtli. At the same time the bas-relief teaches us that +<q>the four winds</q> had a deeper meaning than has been realized, +for it represents life-giving breath carrying with it the seeds of +the four vital elements, emanating from the central lord of life, +spreading to the four quarters and dividing itself so as to disseminate +vitality throughout the universe. The title Kukulcan=the +Divine Four, also serpent, proves to be even more expressive +of this conception of a central divinity than the Mexican Divine +Twin, or serpent. I am therefore inclined to consider that it +originated with a Maya-speaking people, to whom, more graphically +than to any one else, this bas-relief would have served, as a +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> +joint image of the star-god, the heart of heaven, named Hura-kan; +of the terrestrial lord Ah-cuch-cab, the heart or life of the +State; of the State, with its hun-kaal or one count of twenty subdivisions +of people and its quadruple head and body and, finally, +of the native cosmology. +</p> + +<p> +The Copan swastika enables us to come to another interesting +conclusion. It is a refined representation of the set of thoughts +suggested by Polaris, the idea of a stable centre being graphically +rendered. Movement in four directions is also symbolized. As, +in the latitude of Copan, Ursa Minor is the only circumpolar constellation +which could have been observed in four opposite positions, +it is obvious that Ursa Minor with Polaris must have constituted +the Maya Celestial Heart or Life=cuxabal. The following +points remain to be discussed in connection with the Copan swastika. +</p> + +<p> +1. To be complete and in keeping with native modes of representation +it must have originally been painted with the symbolical +colors of the Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p> +2. It is on a wooden club from Brazil or Guiana that, strange +to say, I find a cross symbol with bifurcated branches, which most +closely resembles the Copan type. Directing the readers to the +illustration of this club as fig. 8, pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xv</hi>, +in Dr. Stolpe's work +already cited, I would ask them to examine also his fig. 7, with a design +expressing dual and quadruple divisions; fig. 9<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, with circles +containing cross lines; 9<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, with what resembles somewhat a Maltese +cross but also conveys duality; fig. 11<hi rend='italic'>b</hi> with a cross in a +scalloped circle and a curious disc between four signs, with a band of alternate +black and white squares and its reverse 11<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, with triangles, to +which I shall revert; and figs. 10<hi rend='italic'>c</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>d</hi>, +each with a mound from +which a tree is growing. Though tempted to refer to many other +symbols I shall limit myself to pointing out that his +fig. 1, pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiv</hi>, +exhibits a group of five circles in a circle which strikingly recall +the Mexican examples and the Maya ho=5. As each of the +foregoing symbols is intelligible and belongs to a group of ideas +which I have shown to have been general throughout America, but +to have necessarily originated in the northern hemisphere, it seems +pretty clear that they must have gradually found their way to +Brazil and Guiana from the north by means of coast navigation +and traffic. +</p> + +<p> +3. Concerning the bowl in the hand of the figure occupying the +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> +middle of the swastika a few remarks should be added to those +already given on pp. <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref> and <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Formed of clay the bowl was an expressive symbol of the earth. +Placed in elevated positions on the terraces of the temples, and +filled by the first annual showers which fell upon the parched +earth, the bowl of celestial water naturally became invested with +peculiar sanctity, and was gradually regarded as containing particular +life-giving qualities. One use to which bowls full of water +were put, in ancient Mexico, seems to explain further the ideas +associated with them. It is well known that bowls of water were +used at night for divination purposes, just as were black obsidian +mirrors. This seems to prove that the latter were a subsequent +invention which was adopted because it permanently afforded a +surface for purposes of reflection. +</p> + +<p> +In the native Maya chronicles the reflection of a star upon the +trembling and moving surface of the water, is given as the image of +the Creator and Former, the Heart of Heaven, and it was believed +that the divine essence of life was thus conveyed to earth by light +shining on and into the waters. It is well known that it was customary +for the priests of the Great Temple of Mexico to bathe at +midnight after fasting, in a sacred pool so deep that the water +appeared to be black. This artificially-produced peculiarity would +have rendered its surface particularly useful for the observation +and registration of the movements of stars by their reflections. +</p> + +<p> +Thomas Gage quaintly tells us, moreover, that at the consecration +of a certain idol <q>made of all kinds of seeds that grow in the +country ... a certain vessell of water was blessed with many +words and ceremonies, and that water was preserved very religiously +at the foot of the Altar for to consecrate the King when he +was crowned and also to blesse any Captain Generall, when he +should be elected for the Warres, with only giving him a draught of +that water</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, p. 53). It is well known that infants +also underwent a form of baptism. +</p> + +<p> +The preceding and other evidence, which is scarcely required, +enables us to realize the full significance which the symbol of a +bowl surmounted by the glyph ik=life, breath, soul, was intended +to express and convey. +</p> + +<p> +The collection of rain-water in vessels, exposed so as to receive +the reflection of the one immovable star-god, was doubtlessly employed +as a test of the stability of the Middle of the Earth by +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> +many generations of priest-astronomers. The sanctity attached +to this water, as having absorbed the divine essence of light and +the attribution of life-giving properties to it, was but the natural +sequence of such star-observation. As the title <q>the lord of the +vase or bowl</q>=Cum-ahau, indicates, the supreme priest of Heaven +alone seems to have attended to all rites concerning the sacred +bowl and the distribution of its celestial life-giving contents. The +symbolical decoration of many native bowls will be found to corroborate +this view of their employment and of the virtue attributed +to their contents. +</p> + +<p> +By this time I trust that my readers will realize with me that, +at Copan, the native set of ideas had long taken deep root and +flourished. We have seen that the identical numerical divisions of +time and tribes and the same symbolism prevailed as have been +traced in Peru, Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc. The +following monuments will still further establish this kinship of +thought. Copan contains two stone slabs which answer to the description +of an amay-tun, inasmuch as they are square and appear +to be memorial stones. Let us see whether some clue to their purpose +can be obtained from the carvings upon them. +</p> + +<p> +On each of the four sides of altar K four personages are carved, +all seeming to be of equal rank. Of these 4×4=16 chieftains, +eight wear a breast ornament in the form of a double serpent, +whilst the remaining eight wear a somewhat plainer kind. On +the west side the two central figures face each other and two diminutive +glyphs are carved in the space between them. The most +striking feature about the representation of these personages is, +that each of them is seated, cross-legged, on a different composite +glyph; some of these exhibit animal forms. This is a fact of utmost +importance, for it definitely connects distinct personalities, +obviously chieftains with composite glyphs, some composite parts +of which are obviously totemic. On the upper surface of this +monolith there are 6×6=36 single glyphs, which yield 9 groups +of 4. If these 9×4 be added to the 4×4 glyphs on which the +chieftains are respectively seated, we obtain 13 groups of 4, equivalent +to 52. It is superfluous to repeat that there are fifty-two +years in the Mexican cycle and that just as this square altar +has 16 figures carved around it, the great monolithic Stone of +Tizoc in the City of Mexico has 16 groups. In the latter case +each group is accompanied by the name of a tribe and its capital. +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> +It looks very much as though the glyphs on which the chieftains +on Altar K are seated also express tribal names. +</p> + +<p> +A careful study of the other square monolith at Copan, known +as the Alligator altar, will enable us to form a better estimate of +the probable meaning of glyphs, employed as seats by chieftains. +The Alligator altar takes its name from the sculptured animal +which is stretched over its upper surface. Human figures are represented +as connected with the different parts of the animal's body, +in a way which forcibly recalls Mr. Cushing's explanation of how +the various members of a tribe were associated with a part only +of their totemic animal and bore the name of this part as their +title of honor, according to a strict order of precedence. +</p> + +<p> +According to Mr. Maudslay's description: <q>Upon the upper +surface of the monument are two apparently human figures seated +upon the arms of the alligator. Both figures are much weather worn; +each has what appears to be a glyph in its hand, which is outstretched +toward the alligator's head. Between the alligator's arms +and legs four human figures are seated in similar positions, two on +each side of the body. These figures have large mask head-dresses +and carry offerings in their hands. There are two figures +on the north side of the monument, one on either side of the tail +of the alligator; each is seated on a glyph. The figures are human, +but in place of a human head each figure is surmounted by a +glyph. Each figure holds a glyph with the numeral ten attached +to it in its outstretched hand.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Since the above partial description of the altar was written, Mr. +Maudslay has found that one of the above glyphs is <q>Mol</q> and +the other <q>Zip,</q> and has identified the glyph used as a head for +each figure as the day-sign Cabal. This fact is of particular interest +as the meaning of this sign seems to be connected with +Caban=the Below, and the two figures with Cabal heads are +sculptured at each side of the alligator's tail which is the part of +least honor, not only according to Zuñi etiquette, but also according +to Mexican ideas, the word for tail being employed, metaphorically, +for vassals. +</p> + +<p> +To this description I would add that a careful study of the cast +of this monument in the South Kensington Museum, and of the +illustrations in Mr. Maudslay's work reveals that, of the four figures +on the west side, one only has a human head, whilst two have +human bodies with animal heads and one a semi-human face and +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +the body of a bird. Of the four figures on the east side, the first +represents a man seated on a glyph, the second a human body with +an animal head and the third and fourth semi-animal, bird and +human figures. Amongst the recognizable animal forms represented, +we distinguish an ocelot, an unmistakable alligator's head +and the head of a monster with huge jaw and serrated teeth which +strongly resembles the Mexican sign Cipactli, a nondescript <q>marine +monster.</q> One detail is worthy of special notice: the left +hand of one of the figures on the east side terminates in a serpent's +head, in a fashion recalling that of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. +</p> + +<p> +The following résumé will make the distribution of the figures +and glyphs on the altar quite clear. Top: outstretched alligator +body, whose legs and claws are sculptured over the corners of the +altar. On each shoulder 1 figure with glyph=2. On each knee +2 figures=4, making a total of 6 figures on the top. On east +and west sides respectively, 4 figures; on north side 2 figures, +on the south side 4 figures on composite glyphs=14. The total +number of figures on top and sides is 20, each of which is intimately +associated with a glyph. Under the snout of the alligator, +on the south side, there are 2×4=8 glyphs. +</p> + +<p> +When carefully analyzed we ultimately find that the surface of the +altar exhibits in the first case two chieftains of equal rank, but respectively +seated on the right and left forelegs of the tribal totem. +To my idea this demonstrates that the dual rulership, such as existed +elsewhere, prevailed at Copan, and that two lords of the alligator +tribe were entitled the right and left forelegs or <q>arms</q> of +the animal totem. It should be noted here that the Maya name +for alligator is chiuan or ain. The dictionaries contain also the +following names for the same or allied species: Sea-lizard, alligator +(?), ixbaan; lizard in general=ix-mech, or mech, ix-be-bech, +ixzeluoh and ix-tulub. Obviously occupying positions of less +honor there are 2×2=4 chiefs of equal rank but seated, respectively, +on the right and left hind legs of the totem. These again +are evidently equivalent to the four sub-rulers of Mexico and +Yucatan, the Maya Bacabs or Chacs. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, the twenty different figures, connected with particular +glyphs, are equivalent to the division of the tribe into as many +portions, minus the head. The eight glyphs associated with this +added to the twelve glyph-figures, complete the numeric organization +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +into twenty. From this monument, the sides of which were +probably painted, originally, in four colors, it would seem that the +alligator clan, ruled by two chiefs and four lesser rulers, was organized +into twelve divisions of people and eight classes of another +kind. A circular tablet at Quirigua, which I shall describe further +on, exhibits a subdivision into 2×6=12+5+3=20. +</p> + +<p> +It is not necessary to emphasize how remarkably the Copan altar +conforms to the Zuñi method of clan-organization. It suffices for +my present purpose merely to establish the community of thought +which existed throughout, but which found its highest artistic expression +and development in Central America. +</p> + +<p> +There are several other smaller carved monoliths, one of which +usually lies in front of a stela. For this reason they have been popularly +named <q>altars,</q> just as the stelæ have been called <q>idols.</q> +The majority of these <q>altars</q> contradict this appellation by +their utterly unsuitable shapes and profuse carvings on their upper, +often irregular, rounded surfaces. Some of these monoliths +consist of a monstrous head, the shape of which is almost lost under +an indescribable mass of ornamentation. In some cases, however, +they recall the semblance of the large glyphs on which chieftains +are represented as seated on the carved sides of the square monoliths +just described. So strongly do some of these resemble certain +forms, that I venture to express my belief that, on ceremonial occasions, +these carved heads may have served as the seats or stools +of honor for chieftains of the rank of those portrayed on the bas-reliefs. +The Maya word tem, the plural form for which is tetem, +seems to be applicable to such totemistic carved stones. It is +translated as stone altar, seat or bench (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Nahuatl word te-tl=stone). +Other minor monoliths are carved with glyphs. <q>Altar +G,</q> illustrated in Mr. Maudslay's work, exhibits four glyphs only—an +interesting number, replete with significance to the native mind. +</p> + +<p> +The number 24 occurs on Altar R on which the glyphs are disposed +as 2×4=8+2×8=24. The number 24 recurs on the +top of Altar U, where the glyphs are disposed in 3 rows of 8 each. +At the same time the back of this altar exhibits 5×10=50 and +its sides 2×2=4 glyphs, which may possibly constitute separate +records. In the majority of foregoing cases the glyphs are single +and comparatively simple. On Altar S, however, we have double +and quadruple glyphs, the latter obviously being a highly developed +cursive method of recording facts, rendered possible by the minute +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +classification of all things in the State into definite divisions with +fixed relationships to each other. +</p> + +<p> +Having lingered so long in Copan we can but glance at Quirigua +and note its most remarkable features. This ruined city lies on +Motagua river, 1,800 feet below and at about a distance of twenty-five +to thirty miles from Copan. It is now subjected to almost +annual inundations from the river and its situation in marshy surroundings +renders it extremely unhealthy. It may have been partly +on this account that the neighboring capital of Copan was founded +in an elevated and salubrious position. +</p> + +<p> +An interesting fact has been pointed out to me by Mr. Maudslay, +namely, that the ground plan of both groups of ruins is almost +exactly the same, Copan being only somewhat the larger of +the two. This identity proves that the same distinct scheme of +orientation was carried out in both places and that importance was +undoubtedly attached to the relative positions of the pyramid-temples, +courts and buildings.<note place='foot'>It is my +intention to reproduce these plans of Copan and Quirigua and of other +ancient American capitals in the publication I have undertaken to make in co-editorship +with Mr. E. W. Dahlgren of Stockholm, of the beautiful map of the City of +Mexico and its surroundings, painted by Alonzo de la Cruz, the cosmographer of +Philip II of Spain. Mr. Dahlgren published an interesting account of this map, +which is preserved in the library of the university at Upsala, in 1889, with its uncolored +reproduction on a reduced scale. In his monumental work on ancient cartography, +Baron Nordenskjöld also published an uncolored production of this map and, +with Dr. Bovallius, exhibited a beautiful facsimile of this precious document, at the +Historical Exposition in Madrid, in October, 1892. During the previous summer at +Stockholm, I had personally superintended the painting of a perfect facsimile copy of +the map which I exhibited in the Anthropological Building of the World's Columbian +Exposition in 1893. The original map was exhibited in Stockholm during the +meeting of the Congress of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894, and I suggested that it +ought to be published in exact facsimile and in colors, particularly on account of the +many hieroglyphic names of localities it exhibits. It was thereupon agreed by Mr. +Dahlgren and myself that we should jointly publish the map with an accompanying +text in English, my share of the work being principally the decipherment of the +hieroglyphs of localities, the classification of the tribes inhabiting them, as well as +the presentation of all historical facts connected with them that I could obtain from the +native and early Spanish chronicles. With characteristic liberality the Duc de Loubat +most kindly supported the proposed publication by subscribing to twenty copies of it +in advance and depositing the payment for these at the Academy of Sciences. The +reproduction of the map has been facilitated by this generous action and I take great +pleasure in expressing here our grateful appreciation to the Duc de Loubat, who +has been patiently awaiting the achievement of our undertaking. Both Mr. Dahlgren +and I have been prevented from completing this up to the present, by work planned +previously to the publication of the map. The present publication will prove, however, +that the social organization of the Mexicans has been the object of my painstaking +study and that, until I had satisfactorily set forth the fundamental principles +which influenced not only the distribution of the population, but the ground-plan of +the capital itself, any text I could publish with the map would be incomplete. As +matters now stand, I propose to treat of the City of Mexico as a type of an ancient +American sacred city, to compare its ground plan with those of other native capitals +and to trace, as far as possible, the localization of the various tribes and classes of +the ancient population, so that we can form an adequate idea of the topography and +machinery of the great state known as the Empire of Montezuma. I hope and expect +to complete this publication in a reasonable period of time but dare not define +its limits, as all scientific research demands more time and strength than can be +determined upon in advance. In conclusion I would state that, at the Congress of +Americanists which took place at the city of Mexico in 1895, the distinguished Mexican +cartographer, Señor Garcia Cubas, whose splendid maps of Mexico are well known, +made an interesting communication on this map, of which he had seen a copy.</note> +A proof that two distinct castes of +rulers existed and were respectively associated with the northern +and southern regions of the capital is furnished by a circumstance +communicated to me by Mr. Maudslay. In Copan, as well as at +Quirigua, some of the individuals sculptured on the stelæ are +beardless, whilst others have beards which seem to be sometimes +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> +artificial. These stelæ usually stood at the sides of the great courts, +and at the bases of the pyramid-temples. Mr. Maudslay has observed +that in both places, all of the bearded effigies are situated +to the north of the beardless ones. The first, for instance, occupy +the northern and the second the southern side of a court; their +respective positions being clearly intentional since it recurs in both +cases. This circumstance furnishes additional proof that, in these +capitals as elsewhere, the same great primary division into the +Above and Below prevailed and shows that the representative +rulers of these two castes respectively wore beards or none. +</p> + +<p> +The beard, as an insignia of rank, occurs in several Mexican +MSS. and careful observation shows that it is most frequently +represented as worn by a high-priest, usually painted black and +sometimes wearing the skin of an ocelot. It is found associated +with advanced age and with red, the color of the north, a fact +which coincides with the position assigned to bearded effigies at +Copan and Quirigua. In Mexican Codices the culture hero, Quetzalcoatl, +is figured with a beard, and tradition records that this was +his distinctive feature. Images of Quetzalcoatl=the air-god, represent +him with a beard, and the calendar-sign Ehecatl=wind, is +composed of an elongated mouth and chin to which a beard is +attached. +</p> + +<p> +Several of the monuments at Quirigua are the largest of the +kind which have been found on the American continent. Stelæ +E and F are twenty-two and twenty-five feet high respectively, +and both exhibit two human effigies standing back to back. In +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> +point of fact, with a few exceptions, amongst which are female +effigies, the majority of stelæ at Quirigua are double, namely, A, C, +D, E, F, K, in Mr. Maudslay's work, part <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi</hi>. I cannot but regard +this as a proof that in a peaceful, flourishing and long-established +state, the dual form of government maintained itself successfully +for an extended period of time. On Stela E is one of the most +remarkable ancient American portrait-statues that has yet been +discovered. It portrays a man with noble and strongly marked +features, an aquiline nose and a narrow chin beard, like a goatee. +</p> + +<p> +The Maya dictionaries supply us with the clue to the meaning +attached to the beard in pictorial art. The word for beard is meex +and for <q>bearded man,</q> ah-meex, or ah-meexnal, if the beard +was long. On the other hand, ah-mek-tancal is the Maya name for +<q>governor and ruler of people or of a town,</q> and ah-mektanpixan +means high priest. The first two syllables of these titles, being +identical with the word for a <q>bearded man,</q> seem to explain the +reason for the association of rank with a beard, and <hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>. +Added to preceding data it aids in forming the conclusion that +the bearded personages on the stelæ were <q>high-priests or rulers of +people and of towns,</q> that the beard or goatee was the mark of +supreme rank and that artificial ones were sometimes worn. +</p> + +<p> +The beardless effigies, on the other hand, obviously represent +individuals belonging to a different caste; and the fact that stelæ +exist at Copan and Quirigua on which two figures are carved, back +to back, proves that the assignment of the effigies of the two types +to separate sides of the courts was preceded by a time when a +closer unity prevailed between the dual rulers. The existence of +stelæ with female figures proves that here, as well as in Mexico +and Peru, there had been a period when <q>the Below and the cult of +the Earth-mother were presided over by a woman.</q> +</p> + +<p> +On each side of the great Stela F is carved the initial followed +by 6×6=36 glyphs, which fact seems to indicate that six glyphs +pertained to each of the six regions and recorded facts relating +thereunto. On the sides of Stela F, each initial is followed by +34 glyphs only, the count being shorter than that of Stela E +by 2×2=4. One side of Stela C exhibits the initial followed by +2×13 glyphs grouped in parallel lines, then a horizontal band +with 4 glyphs; the other side the initial followed by 4×6=24 +and a group of 4 glyphs. Stela D is particularly remarkable on +account of the six squares of pictorial glyphs which follow the +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +<q>Initial</q> which, in this case, exhibits the head and body of a +jaguar in its centre. I refer to Mr. Maudslay's interesting conclusion +that these pictorial glyphs preceded, in date, the more cursive +method of representing the initial series. In consequence of +this jaguar initial, Stela A becomes particularly noticeable, because +one of the personages upon it has a beard, whilst the other +is masked as an ocelot or jaguar. +</p> + +<p> +A vivid sense of the actuality of the bond that existed between +the ancient dwellers at Copan and Quirigua, their totemic animals +and symbolic coloring, is obtained on reading Mr. Maudslay's following +description of the excavation of mound 4 at Copan (Report +Proceedings Geographical Society, 1886, p. 578).... <q>The +excavation was then continued ... when more traces of +[human] bones were found mixed with red powder and sand.... +Continuing the excavation ... a skeleton of a jaguar was +found lying under a layer of charcoal ... the teeth and part +of the skeleton had been painted red. At about 100 yards to the +south of this mound I shortly afterwards opened another ... +mound ... and found a few small fragments of human +bones, two small stone axes and portions of another jaguar's +skeleton and some dog's teeth, showing that the interment of animals +was not a matter of chance.</q> +</p> + +<p> +If we add this to the accumulation of evidence I have presented, +showing that in Mexico and Yucatan the ocelot was associated +with the north, the color red, the underworld, the nocturnal cult +and with bearded priests, we must admit that there is hope that, +some day, we may be as familiar with the life and customs of the +ancient Americans as we are now with those of the ancient Egyptians, +Greeks and Romans. +</p> + +<p> +Strange animal effigies in stone have been found at Quirigua: +one (B) somewhat resembles a dragon and exhibits complex glyphs; +another (G) has been named an armadillo and has 2×8=16 +glyphs carved on its lower and 2×20=40 on its upper sides. +</p> + +<p> +A circular slab deserves special mention: in its centre is a +seated figure. Forming a band around the edge, to the right of +the figure are 6 glyphs and 6 others are to his left=12 in all. +Above him to his left are 5 and to his left are 3 glyphs. This +peculiar distribution of 20 glyphs is of peculiar interest. +</p> + +<p> +The crowning glory of Quirigua, however, is the gigantic block +of stone, completely covered with intricate carvings and glyphs, +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +which is known as the <q>Great Turtle,</q> and of which splendid +casts, made from Mr. Maudslay's moulds, are now exhibited in +the South Kensington Museum, London, and in the American Museum +of Natural History, New York. Of the many features of +this remarkable monument, which can be studied in Mr. Maudslay's +forthcoming part <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi</hi> of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, the +seated figure, occupying a prominent place and obviously representing the +central ruler, deserves special mention. In his right hand he holds +a peculiar sceptre similar to that held by the personage on Stela E. +His left hand is concealed under a carved face, a detail which recalls +the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. +</p> + +<p> +Palenque and its group of sister cities now claim our notice. Of +the latter Men-ché particularly arrests our attention on account of +its name, the second part of which means tree and by extension, +tribe. The word <foreign rend='italic'>men</foreign> +is of particular interest, for it is not only the +name of a dog in the Maya Calendar but signifies precisely the +same as the Mexican word toltecatl, namely, master-builder, artificer +or artisan, an adept in manufacture. The habitual form of +employing the word would be ah-men, meaning he who is a master +builder, etc.; while men-ah or men-yah signifies work or production +of manual labor. The first part of the Nahuatl word aman-teca, +signifying artisan, artificer, seems to be a corrupt rendering of +the Maya ah-men. That Men-ché, which is also known as Lorillard +City, was a centre of the highest development of native-sculpture +and art seems proven by the truly admirable and exquisitely +fine workmanship of the bas-reliefs obtained there by +Mr. Maudslay, and now exhibited at the British Museum. In execution +and finish they undoubtedly surpass any specimens of ancient +American art I have ever seen. +</p> + +<p> +A search for the possible derivation of the word men leads to +mehen, the name for <q>sons or nephews in the male line,</q> mehen-ob, +the descendants, mehen-tzilaan=genealogy and parentage (a +word which sheds some light on the meaning of the ancient capital +Tzilan in Yucatan). Mehen is also employed as meaning something +little, small or minute. +</p> + +<p> +From the above data it may be inferred that Men-ché may have +originally signified <q>the tree or tribe of the sons or nephews in +the male line,</q> and that these people may have so identified themselves +with the arts of building and working in precious metals and +stone, etc., that their title was used as a designation for these industries. +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +It is certainly remarkable that, situated at an easy distance +on the same river Usumacinto, there is the great ruined city +of Palenque<note place='foot'>It has been +surmised that the name Palenque is of Spanish origin and means <q>a +palisade;</q> but it seems far more likely to be the approximate rendering of the sound +of the old native word by a Spanish word, in the same way that the Nahuatl Quauh-nahuac +became the Spanish Cuerna-vaca, literally cow's horn.</note> +(pronounced by the natives Pa-lem-ke) which seems +also to have originally terminated in ché=tree or tribe and to be +derived from palil, pal or palal=vassal, servant, subject, also +small child. Let us see how far the monuments of Palenque +justify and support this translation of its name. +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to Mr. Maudslay's Biologia, and to Mr. +Holmes' Archæological Studies, Pt. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +and other well-known works +on the ruins of Palenque, I shall confine myself to a cursory examination +of the four principal isolated pyramid-temples, known, +respectively, as the temples of the Inscriptions, of the Sun, of +the Cross and of the Cross No. 2. Although the orientation of +these edifices is not accurate they may be roughly said to face the +cardinal points as follows:— +</p> + +<p> +The temple <q>of the Inscriptions</q> faces the north, that <q>of +the Sun</q> the east, whilst the temple <q>of the Cross</q> faces the +south and that <q>of Cross 2,</q> the west. Dr. Brinton has already +shown that the well-known symbol on the famous <q>Tablet of the +Cross</q> is not a cross, but the conventional symbol for <q>tree</q> of +the type I have illustrated in the preceding +fig. <ref target='Figure_53'>53</ref>. As Cross +No. 2 unquestionably belongs to the same category, it results that +these two temples would be more correctly designated as <q>of the +Tree</q> and that they furnish us with an interesting parallel of the +Peruvian quisuar can-cha, or <q>place of the tree,</q> where the Inca +erected two trees which typified his father and mother and were +<q>as the root and stems of the Incas.</q> The Palenque <q>trees,</q> +moreover, closely resemble those on the Mexican Féjérvary chart +(fig. <ref target='Figure_52'>52</ref>) inasmuch as, in each case, the tree is surmounted +by a bird and is flanked by two human figures. +</p> + +<p> +It has already been shown in the preceding pages that in ancient +America the tree was generally employed as a symbol for tribe and +that the Maya word for tree=ché occurs as an affix signifying +tribe or people not only in Qui-ché, Man-ché (the latter a tribe inhabiting +the region of Menché and Palenque) etc., but also in the +names of tribes inhabiting the southern regions of North America. +</p> + +<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/> + +<p> +Assuming, therefore, upon convincing and substantial evidence +which will be further corroborated, that the <q>Tablet of the Cross</q> +represents a tree, the symbol of tribal life, the next step is to interpret +the bird perched upon it and generally acknowledged to be +a quetzal (pronounced kay-tzal) as the totem of the tribe, which +also probably expresses its name. The tree is represented as +associated with serpent symbolism and as growing from a vase=ho-och +placed on a monstrous head=ho-ol, the idea conveyed +being that it flourished in the centre or middle, while the head +signifies, as has been shown, the capital and also the chief. On +the vase is carved a symbol to which I draw special attention, as +it recurs on the right hand end of the carved band below the tree, +is met with in Maya calculiform glyphs and is also frequently employed +in ancient Mexico. It represents the corolla of a four-petalled +flower which obviously symbolized the Four-in-One, which +permeated the native civilizations. +</p> + +<p> +The word for <q>flower</q> being nic in Maya and xochitl (pronounced +hoochitl) in Nahuatl, it must be admitted that the symbol +of a vase with a flower seems to afford an instance of a bilingual +rebus, as the Maya hooch is identical in sound to the Nahuatl +xoch-itl. Even without this, however, the meaning of the tree and +serpent, the bird, the vase, the quadripartite flower, and the head, +would have been generally and equally intelligible to native tribes, +being familiar symbols constantly employed in metaphorical speech. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Maudslay has pointed out and illustrated in his work +(Biologia, pl. 92, pt. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>) that the side branches of the +<q>cross</q> simulate bearded serpents' heads, whilst their recurved upper +jaws are covered with what resemble buds of flowers, seeds or +beads. The Palenque <q>cross</q> is indeed characterized by being +profusely decorated with <q>bead or seed-like ornaments and appendages</q> +some of which resemble beads or seeds, figured in some +instances, like those on the Copan swastika, the meaning of which +seems supplied by the previously cited Zuñi text. It does not +appear to be a mere matter of chance that the following Maya +words, culled from the dictionaries, are so closely connected: +yax-ché=a sort of ceiba tree, the emblem of celestial life of +the Mayas; yax-chumil and yax-pa-ibe=adjectives primitive, +original; adverb firstly, at the beginning; yaxil, verb=to make +something new, to commence, begin; yaxil-tun=bead or pearl; +yax-mehen-tzil=eldest son. +</p> + +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> + +<p> +According to this incontrovertible evidence we find that the +sacred tree of life of the Mayas was designated by the word yax, +signifying first, original, new, etc.; that the same root enters into +the composition of the word for eldest son and finally for <q>bead.</q> +The latter curious agreement is accentuated by the well-known +fact that the Mexicans employed in metaphorical speech the word +cuzcatl=bead made of some precious stone, to designate +<q>father, mother, lord, captain, governor; those who are like a +sheltering tree to the people</q> (Olmos, cap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi>). +A term of particular +endearment for a son was <q>gold-bead</q> (teocuitla-cuzcatl). +Olmos moreover records no less than eight metaphorical designations +for a <q>Tree, or first father, origin of generation, lord or +governor,</q> and appellations for twenty-nine <q>Relatives who issue +from one stem or trunk.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Collectively, the evidence set forth in the preceding pages identifies +the image on the famous <q>Tablet of the Cross,</q> as a symbolical +representation of the <q>Tree of Life of the Eldest Sons,</q> chiefs +or nobility of a tribe, whose totemic bird was the quetzal.<note place='foot'>Brasseur +de Bourbourg's Maya Vocabulary contains an interesting instance of a +native tribe or lineage bearing the name of a bird: <q>Chel: name of a kind of bird; +ancient name of a great sacerdotal family reigning at Tecoh (near Izamal, Yucatan). +Thence the title <q>Chelekat,</q> which meant holy, exalted, great, and was applied to +the head of this family.</q></note> +Before completing the description of this tablet, the analogous +representation of a tree on the <q>Temple of the Cross 2</q> should be +examined. This is generally known as the foliated Cross and like +its counterpart it issues from a vase with a quadriform emblem, +and a monstrous head. Its branches are composed of conventionalized +maize plants on which human heads and faces occupy the +places of the corn-cobs whilst their hanging hair simulates the +tassels of the ripe corn. The maize-leaves are decorated with +groups of seed-like beads amongst which distinct representations of +maize seeds are discernible. These form, indeed, the leading motif +of the seed decorations and indicate that the <q>appendages</q> to the +groups of seed-like beads on the Copan swastika were but conventionalized +maize-seeds. The branches of the maize-tree are surmounted +by a conventionally ornamented head from which hangs +a necklace of beads with a medallion consisting of a face surrounded +by a beaded frame. Above the head the totemic quetzal +bird is repeated under almost precisely the same form but in a +<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/> +reversed position. It is interesting to note that the Maya name +for maize is ixim, which added to the ché=tree, yields ixim-ché, +a word which actually occurs as the local name of the ancient capital +of Guatemala, named <q>Iximché-tecpan.</q> To this curious fact +should be also added that <q>ix</q> is the prefix employed to designate +the feminine gender and that Ix-chel is <q>the name of the Maya +goddess of medicine and of child-birth.</q> +</p> + +<p> +An extremely interesting composite symbol is carved under the +feet of the personage standing next to the <q>maize-tree,</q> to the +right of the spectator. It consists of the realistically carved large +convolute sea-shell such as constituted the Mexican symbol of +parturition. An almost grotesque human figure is represented as +issuing from it and holding in its hand a maize plant which bends +upwards and curves over the shell. Its leaves are drawn with +maize-seeds on and amongst them, in the same conventional way +that has been noticed on the central tree, and human heads again +simulate the corn-cob. An acquaintance with Mexican and Zuñi +symbolism enables us to grasp the significance of this composite +symbol which figuratively expresses the common birth and growth +of the substance of plant and human life. The personage who +stands over this symbol, facing the tree and the tail of the bird +which surmounts it, holds a curiously decorated emblem in his +hand, of which more anon. A small twig bearing three terminal +leaves issues from his head. Behind him are 4 perpendicular columns +with 17 glyphs in each; whilst a detached series, consisting of 13 +smaller glyphs, is carved in front and above him. +</p> + +<p> +At the opposite side of the tree, facing the almost unrecognizable +head of the bird, a personage stands on an elaborately carved +monstrous head, covered with a maize-plant. He is wearing a necklace +and medallion like that on the tree itself. His head is surmounted +by a high cap bearing a conventionalized flower-bud. A +belt in the form of a serpent with open jaws, encircles his waist +and he is holding aloft in his hands, a miniature, human, seated +figure with folded arms, a bead necklace and an indescribable +head-dress and masked face. His attitude indicates that, by +offering this figure, he is performing some rite. On the other +hand, a conventionalized sign for water seems to be issuing from +the bird's head and descending upon the figure whilst puffs of +breath and seeds issuing from its beak seem to be directed towards +the tiny effigy of a human being. +</p> + +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> + +<p> +Reverting now to the <q>Tablet of the Cross I,</q> we find precisely +analogous figures at its sides, only in reversed positions. To the +right of the spectator stands the priest with a tall hat surmounted +by the flower-bud, somewhat resembling a fleur-de-lis. The small +human figure he is offering is recumbent and is being held out so +as to come in contact with the pendant issuing from the bird's +head. +</p> + +<p> +The figure on the opposite side, with the head-dress and twig +with three leaves, is facing the central tree and holding a staff +which, in this case although combined with other emblems, clearly +appears to represent a young maize plant, with its roots below, +and growing shoot with leaves above. As on the other tablets +there are columns of glyphs behind each figure, whilst the personage +holding the maize-plant is associated with a detached group, +in two portions, consisting of 10+4 glyphs, and is standing on +a large glyph associated with a numeral. +</p> + +<p> +Having thus cursorily brought out some special points observable +on both <q>Cross Tablets,</q> let us now glance at the tablet in +the <q>Temple of the Sun.</q> On this we again find columns of +glyphs and a personage at each side of a central figure. The +same peculiarities and differences of costume are observable here +as on the preceding tablets; but each personage holds a small, +grotesque human figure with a long nose, and each stands on the +back of a human being, that to the left of the spectator especially +appearing to be a conquered enemy.<note place='foot'>On a large +tablet at Ixkun, the cast of which is now in Mr. Maudslay's collection +at the South Kensington Museum, similarly placed figures support on their bent backs +and shoulders standing personages, facing each other, and surrounded by glyphs. +In this case, however, the men who serve as footstools, are bound and distinctly +show a difference of type and costume, so that there can be no doubt that the tablet +commemorated the conquest of an alien tribe.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Two over-burdened-looking seated figures, one of which is clothed +in a spotted ocelot's skin, occupy the centre and support, on their +bowed shoulders, a curious emblem terminating in open serpents' +jaws. The large head (of a jaguar?) is in the centre and above this +issue two puffs of breath with seeds, forming a double recurved figure +so identical in shape and detail to a single branch of the Copan +swastika that one might imagine it was carved by the same hand. +On this tablet, instead of a tree, the centre is occupied by a shield, +exhibiting a face and having tufts of feathers at its four rounded +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> +corners. This rests on two crossed lances with decorated handles +surmounted by large points. +</p> + +<p> +In this connection it is interesting and important to note that, +in ancient Mexico, lands conquered and acquired in warfare were +termed <q>mil chimalli,</q> literally, <q>field of the shield,</q> a metaphor +which was also probably known to the Mayas. +</p> + +<p> +Glancing next at the <q>Temple of Inscriptions,</q> the fourth of the +large detached temples of Palenque, we find that its interior is +characterized by the most extensive mural inscriptions found in +America, consisting entirely of hieroglyphics. Four exterior free +pillars, however, <q>contain on their outer faces, modelled in bold +relief, life-sized figures of women holding children in their arms</q> +(Holmes). +</p> + +<p> +Having brought out the particular point that, in each of the four +temples described, adults are represented in the act of carrying +or offering children or diminutive and strangely grotesque conventionalized +effigies of human beings, I would note that the only analogous +grotesque figures with long noses, I know of, are those on +the sceptres held in the hand by the seated personage on the +<q>Great Turtle</q> and by the individual carved on Stela E at Quirigua. +It is noteworthy that the left hand of the latter personage +holds a shield displaying a face and recalling that carved on the +tablet of the Palenque <q>Temple of the Sun.</q> Analogous grotesque +figures also surround the personage carved on Stela F at Copan. +These facts indicate that the Quirigua <q>Great Turtle,</q> the stelæ +at Quirigua and Copan and the Palenque tablets, were erected by +people sharing the same cult and ritual observance, one feature of +which was the carrying of diminutive human effigies, with exaggerated +and almost grotesque noses. +</p> + +<p> +A clue to the significance of this rite is supplied by the text of +the Codex Telleriano-Remensis (Kingsborough, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, p. 134) +relating to the Mexican 20-day period Iz-calli, the last of the year. +<q>It was the feast of Fire, because at this season the trees became +warmed and began to bud. In it was celebrated the festival Pil-quixtia, +meaning <q>human life or nature which had always escaped +destruction although the world itself had been destroyed several +times.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Izcalli signifies as much as liveliness, and in this 20-day period +all mothers lifted their children by their heads and holding them +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> +aloft called out, Izcalli, Izcalli, as though they said 'aviva'=live, +live.... This was the period of production ... thanks +were rendered to the nature which is the cause of the production.... +Every four years they feasted for 8 days in memory of the +three times that the world was destroyed. They name this <q>four +times Lord,</q> because this escaped destruction, although all was +destroyed. They designated the festival as that of <q>renovation</q> +and said that when it and the fast came to an end the bodies of +men became like those of children. Therefore, in order to figure +[or symbolize] this festival, adults led certain children by the hand, +in the sacred dance.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Slightly incoherent though this text may be, it furnishes a most +valuable supplement to the descriptions of the same festival by +other authorities. As this is exhaustively treated in my forthcoming +text to the <q>Life of the Indians </q> in which all available +authorities are quoted and collated, I shall confine myself here to +some facts which bear a special relation to the subject of this +paper. In Mexico another name for the festival period Izcalli, +was Xilomaniztli=the birth or sprouting of the young maize. +According to Duran, izcalli signified <q>the creating or bringing up</q> +and in order to make the growth of children coincide with that of +the young maize, parents, during this period, stretched the limbs +and every part of the bodies of all infants of tender age. +</p> + +<p> +Another observance which was held at this time was in anticipation +of the New Year and consisted in the raising and planting +of high poles or wands with branches, in the courtyards of the +temples and in the streets. These typified the new life; <q>the +budding and rejoicing of the trees.</q> Another New Year custom +was that of carrying budding branches or young shoots of maize +in the hand, on a particular day named Xiuh-Tzitzquilo, literally, +<q>the taking of the year in one's hands.</q> The explanation of this +metaphor is given by Duran who states that <q>the natives consider +that the year, with its months and days, is like a branch with its +twigs and leaves.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A passing mention must be moreover made of the two movable +festivals celebrated by the Mexicans, in which they scattered +broken egg-shells on the roads and streets as a rite of thanksgiving +for <q>the life bestowed upon the chicken in the shell</q> by the +divine power. In the image of this festival contained in the <q>Life +of the Indians,</q> the egg-shells are represented at the foot of a +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> +tree bearing seven blossoms; the seated divinity in front of this +wears a bird-mask and carries a staff with a heart in his hand. +These festivals were named respectively, seven flowers and one +flower. +</p> + +<p> +Briefly summarizing the foregoing data, we find it proven that, +deeply impressed with the wonderful renewal of life in nature, the +ancient Mexicans rendered periodical thanksgiving for this in its +various forms. The budding tree, the young shoots of the maize, +all seedlings, the broken egg-shells from which the young chickens +had emerged, were adopted as emblems of the renewal of life. +The child was likewise looked upon as the renewal of the human +race and every four years a thanksgiving festival <q>of renovation</q> +was solemnized in which children took a special part. In my +work on the Calendar system I shall show how far this festival <q>of +new birth</q> coincided with astronomical phenomena. From Landa +we learn that in the Maya months <q>Chen or Yax,</q> on a day designated +by the priest, a festival was celebrated named Ocna: <q>the +renovation of the temple in honour of the Chacs, the gods of the +maize-fields.</q> This was held each year ... all idols and +incense-burners were renewed and if necessary the building was +rebuilt or renovated and, <q>in commemoration of this, an inscription +in the native characters was fixed to the walls.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Referring to other chapters of Landa's work we find that, as in +Mexico, the Yucatec children received a <q>child's name</q> at birth +which was changed when, having accomplished the third year, they +were <q>reborn</q> and received a new name, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the combined name +of their father and mother. On attaining puberty they obtained +an individual name which they preserved during life-time. A +knowledge of the social organization of these people enables one +to grasp the full importance and significance of these changes of +name, which were accompanied by ritual observances and betokened +the enrolment of the children into their respective classes +and sub-classes and a consequent reorganization of certain departments +of the State. It appears that in ancient times the ceremonial +of the <q>new birth,</q> or re-naming of the children, took +place every four years, simultaneously with the thanksgiving feast +for the <q>continuation of the human race.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A careful analysis of native words and metaphors tends to show, +moreover, that the children born within each four-year-period were +collectively regarded as <q>a fresh growth upon the tribal tree.</q> In +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> +Mexico the word for leaf=atlapalli, was employed as a metaphor +for the lower class, whilst in Peru the male and female descendants +of the Incas were represented by gold and silver fruits upon the +trees of their male and female ancestry. The collection of such +scattered scraps of testimony enables us to reconstruct the drift of +native thought and realize that the registration of individuals was +associated with the conception of a tribal tree bearing four branches +and covered with blossoms, fruits and leaves which faded and fell +but were replaced by fresh growths. +</p> + +<p> +We learn from Duran that so careful a record was kept of the +population, by the Mexican priesthood, <q>that not even a newborn +babe could escape detection.</q> The reason for this strict +vigilance is clear, for the welfare of the community and the harmonious +working of the complex machinery of state depended +upon the constant renewal of vacancies caused by deaths in each +department of industry and government. +</p> + +<p> +After this excursion into the realm of native thought let us now +return to the Palenque tablets, placed in detached temples which +approximately face the four cardinal points. On the tablet of the +<q>Temple of the Cross</q> we have a tribal tree with symbols of the +Middle and of the Four Quarters and of duality. A priest with a +flower on his head presents a diminutive human figure to the totemic +bird perched on the tree. Another, with a leafy branch on +his head-dress, holds a conventional sceptre simulating a young +growing shoot of maize. Behind each figure are rows of glyphs +and in the upper corner to the left of the spectator is the septenary +series headed by the initial-sign. +</p> + +<p> +In the <q>Temple of Cross II</q> we have a variant of the identical +representation in which the maize plant and the sea shell are +prominent. If I may hazard a suggestion of the meaning of +these two tablets, I should say that they appear to be tribal registers +most probably relating to the increase and decrease of the +male and female population in all divisions and classes, during a +fixed period of time. Both seem to commemorate the <q>renovation</q> +or <q>new growth</q> of the tribal tree in a mode which would +have been as intelligible to a Mexican, for instance, as to a Maya. +The fact that the <q>Temple of the Sun</q> and that of the <q>Inscriptions</q> +obviously held analogous registers, points to the alternative +possibilities (1) that each temple was destined to preserve +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +the register of the population and social organization, etc., of one +of the four quarters of the capital and state, according to years; +(2) that the trees in the <q>Cross temples</q> figured the male and +female lineages of the ruling caste, whilst the tablet in the <q>Temple +of the Sun</q> recorded the numbers of conquered people reduced +to slavery and the <q>Temple of Inscriptions</q> preserved the register +of female children or of vassals; (3) that each of the four temples +preserved a complete register of the entire state and had been +erected consecutively at the conclusion or beginning of eras, the +difference observable in the central motif conveying the salient +feature or event marking each special epoch and recording, according +to years, the organization of the state during its course. +</p> + +<p> +In the face of this possibility as well as the probability that each +glyph was painted and implied a year, it is interesting to note +that, including the initial glyph, the <q>Tablet of the Cross</q> exhibits +108 glyphs on the side to the left and 124 on the side to the right +of the spectator=a total of 232; the <q>Tablet of the Cross II</q> +exhibits 76 to the left and 83 to the right=159; and that in the +<q>Temple of the Sun,</q> 70 to the left, 159 to the right and 12 in the +middle=241. The <q>Temple of Inscriptions</q> exhibits the initial +series (see Maudslay, Biologia, pt. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, pl. 82) and entire walls +covered with glyphs, some of which, as on the tablets enumerated +above, are accompanied by numerals whilst others are not. +</p> + +<p> +In a future publication I shall submit illustrations of these monuments +with the ripened results of my investigations concerning +them. For my present purpose it suffices to have produced substantial +proofs that the ancient dwellers in Palenque employed the +same metaphors, the same cursive method of registration and held +the same fundamental principles of organization that have been +shown to underlie the civilizations of Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, +and Mexico and still survive amongst the Zuñis and more northern +tribes. It is obvious that, at Palenque and the neighboring Menché +and Ixkun, an integral civilization, based on these principles, had +existed for an incalculable length of time. Strangely enough it +seems to form so close a link between Maya and Mexican culture +that it almost seems justifiable to surmise that both Maya and +Nahuatl languages were spoken in these ancient ruined cities. +</p> + +<p> +Proceeding mentally northwards we will not linger at the ruins +of Mitla, the name of which seems to indicate that it had lain to +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +the north of a great ancient centre of government, since Mictlan +in Nahuatl and Mitnal in Maya both designate the region of the +underworld and the north. +</p> + +<p> +Reaching the ultimate stage of our mental exploration of the +American Continent we now transport ourselves to the Valley of +Mexico and, on the site of the ancient capital of Montezuma and +his coadjutor, face the three great monolithic monuments which +are popularly known as the Calendar Stone, the Stone of Tizoc and +Huitzilopochtli. In 1886, at the Buffalo Meeting of the American +Association for the Advancement of Science, I presented a <q>Preliminary +Note of an Analysis of the Mexican Codices and Graven +Inscriptions,</q> in which the opinion was advanced that the <q>Calendar +Stone</q> was identical with the <q>circular elaborately carved tablets +which, according to Padre Duran, were erected in each market-place +in ancient Mexico, and were held in great veneration. They were +frequently consulted and by them the market-days were regulated.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>All writers concur in stating that the market was held on each +fifth day, when all adults were obliged by law to resort to the appointed +market-place. The entire produce and manufacture of the +state were brought there, even from great distances, severe penalties +being incurred by those who bartered the products of agriculture +or manual labor on the highway or elsewhere. On the broad, straight, +cemented roads which led from the four quarters to the heart of the +capital, <q>resting places</q> for the wayfarers and carriers were provided +at fixed intervals. The enormous concourse of people, the +variety of produce exhibited in the market-places of Montezuma's +capital filled the conquerors with wonder and admiration. From +Cortés, Bernal Diaz, Sahagun and others we learn that the market +was a special charge of the supreme chief of Mexico; that appointed +officers presided in state over it whilst others moved among +the throng superintending the traffic. Standard measures were kept +and rigorous punishment awaited those who sold by false measure +or bartered stolen property.</q> +</p> + +<p> +After making the preceding statements I advanced the opinion +<q>that the periodical market-day was the most important regulator +of the Mexican social organization and that the monolith generally +known as the Calendar-stone was the Market-stone of the City of +Mexico. It bears the record of fixed market days; and I venture +to suggest that from these the formation of the Mexican Calendar +system originated. The stone shows the existence of communal +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +property and of an equal division of general contributions into certain +portions....</q> +</p> + +<p> +I concluded the above communication with the statement: <q>Before +publishing my final results I shall submit them to a searching +and prolonged investigation. An examination of the originals of +many of the Codices reproduced in Lord Kingsborough's <q>Mexican +Antiquities</q> will be necessary to determine important points and +during the forthcoming year my line of researches will be in this +direction.</q> In my youthful enthusiasm and inexperience I little +foresaw, when I wrote the above sentences, that I should spend thirteen +years in diligent research before I felt ready to express my +ripened conclusions concerning the Calendar-stone. Although the +results I am about to submit are final they are necessarily incomplete, +their full presentation with adequate illustrations being included +in my forthcoming special work on the Social and Calendaric +system of ancient America. For the present I have limited myself +to the reproduction of the outline drawing of the monolith made by +the late Dionysio Abadiano of Mexico and published in his somewhat +fanciful work on this subject.<note place='foot'>Estudio arqueologico y +jeroglifico del Calendario o gran libro astronomico.... +Mexico. 1889.</note> No one, however, had studied +the Calendar-stone more carefully than he; and, besides being +extremely accurate in outline, his drawing has the merit of including +the eight deep circular holes which were drilled at regular +intervals outside of the worked border of the stone as well as the +groups of smaller circular and shallow depressions which Señor +Abadiano discovered on the outer unworked portion of the monolithic +block. Without discussing here the question whether the eight +drill holes were intended to support a species of gnomon, as Leon +y Gama first maintained, or merely served for the guidance of those +who carved this marvel of accurate workmanship and symmetrical +design, I shall merely point out that, although the group of circular +depressions in the block, in the lower corner to the left of the spectator, +offers a certain resemblance to the form of the constellation +of Ursa Major, this may be merely the result of chance. +</p> + +<p> +Facing the problem of the meaning and purpose of the <q>Calendar-stone,</q> +after thirteen years of assiduous study, I find that the +interpretation I suggested in 1886, is substantially strengthened +and corroborated by freshly accumulated evidence. The difference +is that I now lay less stress upon the phonetic elements and +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> +values of the symbols, although, as I shall set forth in the special +publication alluded to, no study of the monument can be considered +complete unless these be carefully analyzed and understood. +The one great stride in advance that I think I have made is the +recognition that the monolith is an image of the Great Plan or +Scheme of Organization which has been expounded in the preceding +pages and which permeated every branch of native thought. +</p> + +<p> +The monument represents the high-water mark reached in the +evolution of a set of ideas, which were suggested to primitive man +by long-continued observation of the phenomena of Nature and +by the momentous recognition of the +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l rend='margin-left: 24'><q rend='pre'>northern star,</q></l> +<l>Of whose true-fixed, and resting quality,</l> +<l>There is no fellow in the firmament.</l> +<l>The skies are painted with unnumber'd sparks,</l> +<l>They are all fire, and every one doth shine;</l> +<l><q rend='post'>But there's but one in all doth hold his +place.</q><note place='foot'>Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, 1, 60.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +This inscribed tablet, which constitutes one of the most important +documents in the history of the human race, is as clearly an image +of the nocturnal heaven as it is of a vast terrestrial state which +once existed in the valley of Mexico, and had been established as +a reproduction upon earth of the harmonious order and fixed laws +which apparently governed the heavens. +</p> + +<p> +The monument exposes these laws, the dominion of which probably +extended throughout the American Continent, and still faintly +survive in some existing aboriginal communities. It not only sets +forth the organization of state government and the subdivision of +the people into classes bearing a fixed relation to each other, but +also serves as a chart of the territory of the State, its capital and +its four provinces, and minor topographical divisions. Finally, it +reveals that the progress of time, the succession of days, years and +epochs, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the Calendar, was conceived as a reproduction of the +wheel of sinistral revolution described by the circumpolar constellations +around Polaris. The Septentriones served as an indicator, +composed of stars, the motive power of which emanated from +the central luminary. This marked not only the march of time +each night, but also the progress of the season by the four contrapositions +apparent in the course of a year, if observed at a fixed +hour of the night. +</p> + +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> + +<p> +The twenty familiar day and year signs of the native calendar are +carved on a band which encircles the central figure on the stone. +I am now in a position to prove satisfactorily that these signs were +not merely calendaric and that they equally designated four principal +and 4×4=16 minor groups of stars; four chiefs and +4×4=16 minor tribal groups or divisions of men. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_56'/> + <figure url='images/figure-56.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 56.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Merely a few indications will suffice to prove how completely +and unmistakably the symmetrical design on the monolith +(fig. <ref target='Figure_56'>56</ref>) +expounds the great plan which had impressed itself so deeply and +indelibly upon the minds of the native philosophers and influenced +all their thoughts and speculations. +</p> + +<p> +The head and face in the middle of the monument conveys the +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> +idea of duality, being masked, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> doubled-faced and bearing the +number 2 carved on its forehead. It conveyed the conception of +a divine power who ruled heaven and earth from a changeless and +fixed centre in the heaven; expressed the dual government of the +earth by twin-rulers who dwelt in a central capital. It typified +light and the heaven itself with its two eyes; the sun and moon +and darkness and the earth by the mouth; whilst the symbols for +breath issuing from both nostrils and the tongue protruding from +the mouth denoted the power of speech, which was so indissolubly +connected with the idea of chieftainship by the Mexicans that a +title for the chief was <q>the Speaker.</q> The central head likewise +denoted a <q>complete count</q>=one man, and was expressive of a +great era of time, embodying twenty epochs. +</p> + +<p> +As a synopsis of the whole, the following titles recorded in the +chronicles would be applicable to the central ruler, celestial or terrestrial: +the two lord, the divine twin; the two-lord and two +lady; the quadruple lord, <q>He who looks in four directions;</q> +the lord of the thirteen powers; the one lord, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> embodying a +complete count=20; the lord of five (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> of the Middle and +Four Quarters); of seven, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> of the Middle, Above, Below, and +Four Quarters; of thirteen, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> of the duplication or male and +female or celestial and terrestrial divisions of the Above, Below and +Four Quarters plus the Middle. +</p> + +<p> +Surrounding the central head are four square divisions arranged +in two separate parts, each of which includes what appears to be +in one case the right, and in the other the left, conventionalized claw +(forepaw?) of an animal armed with hooked nails, such as Mictlantecuhtli, +the lord of the North, is represented with. +</p> + +<p> +The square compartments contain symbols of the four elements +so disposed that air and water are appropriately associated with +the hand to the right (=male region) and fire and earth with the +hand to the left side (=the female region) of the central head. +But this is not all, for another carefully devised relation between +the elements likewise appears upon careful examination. In the +middle, carved above the central face and between the symbols +for air and fire, is the conventionalized <q>ray of the Sun,</q> or +pyramid which typifies <q>that which ascends or is above</q> the upper +elements and the Above. As its opposite we find below, situated +between the symbols of earth and water, a ring with a +concentric circle representing the drop of water=<q>that which +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> +descends.</q> As the Moon was inseparably associated with water +and the Below, it is doubtlessly included in the symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +One more point which will receive due attention in my monograph +remains to be briefly noticed. As the symbol for air=east +is situated to the right of the symbol for north, and the earth=west +is to its left, it is clear that the central face is conceived as looking +down from above upon the spectator. It is only when the stone +is considered as placed face downward that the symbols assume +their proper positions as regards the cardinal points. This reversal, +which is the natural result of the association of the east and +south with the right hand of the middle personage, suggests that +the monolith may have been originally designed to be let into the +flat or slanting ceiling of a building. As a parallel instance I will +state that, some years ago, Señor Troncoso pointed out to me a +fact he had noticed, namely, that the relative positions of the cardinal +points on the Féjérvary chart were reversed and that it must +have been intended to be looked at from underneath. +</p> + +<p> +Each of the element symbols is accompanied by four numerals +placed in the angles of the squares, with one exception, where one +numeral was obviously dislodged from its proper position by an +encroaching emblematic ornament. The positions of these numerals +and of their square enclosures are what recalled to my mind +the opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major in its annual rotation +around the axis of the heaven. Just as the central face +primarily represented Polaris, so these squares figured the four contrapositions +of the great constellation. The peculiar, almost cross-shaped +figure resulting from the union and association of the symbols +of the Centre, and of the Above, Below, Right, Left=Four +Quarters, is a well-known conventional sign, generally known as a +<q>nahui-ollin.</q> The accepted translation of this name is <q>four +movements,</q> from olinia, verb=to move, and no name could +be more appropriate for a symbol which, to my idea, like the +swastika, actually represents the movement of the most conspicuous +of septentrional constellations to four opposite places. +</p> + +<p> +At the same time, as the nahui-ollin on the stone encloses +symbols of the four elements, the union of which was believed by +the native philosophers to be essential for the production and +maintenance of life, I was led to observe also the fact that the +words for life and heart, and the verbs to be alive, to live, to resuscitate, +etc., are all derivatives from the root yuli, or yoli, which +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> +undoubtedly has a common origin with the verb olinia=to move. +It therefore not only appears that, to the native mind, motion and +life were indissolubly linked together, but that the name nahui-ollin +must have signified four-fold life as well as movement. It +likewise typified the four sides of the great pyramid which formed +the nucleus of the capital and was crowned by two temples, respectively +occupied by symbolical images of the <q>Divine Twins.</q> +It is impossible not to realize that, in ancient Mexico, the pyramid +constituted an image of the entire system. +</p> + +<p> +Each of its sides obviously pertained to one of the four regions +and was probably painted with its symbolical color.<note place='foot'>A somewhat +disheartening consideration concerning the Stone of the Great Plan +deserves mention. The probability is that it was originally painted with the colors +of the four quarters and that some of the records thus made are irretrievably lost. +On taking the first impressions with gelatine, in order to make his admirable cast of +the monolith, Señor Abadiano discovered many traces of color, lodged in small crevices +and corners of the carvings. Moreover, the use of the symbolical colors on +stone monuments is vouched for by the great painted monolith which was, strange to +say, re-interred after having been discovered in the City of Mexico some years ago. +The reproduction of an obviously incorrect drawing made of this stone during its +uncovered state, has been published in vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> +of the Annals of the National Museum +of Mexico.</note> It seems +safe to assume that the pyramid was originally erected by the coöperation +of people from the four quarters of the capital and +state and was possibly added to at fixed intervals so that it represented +not only the constitution of the commonwealth, but testified +to its age and growth. The widely-prevalent primitive custom +that each individual should add one or more stones to a heap of +stones, as an individual contribution, may have been carried out +in the building of pyramids, the origin of which will be discussed +further on. +</p> + +<p> +Although it is almost superfluous to do so, as by this time the +set of associated ideas must be familiar to the reader, I shall +briefly summarize some of the chief four-fold division or organization +of which the nahui-ollin was the graphic symbol. It represented: +</p> + +<p> +1. The four elements or substances and kinds of life. +</p> + +<p> +2. The four regions of the heaven, each composed, in turn, +of four sub-regions. +</p> + +<p> +3. The four provinces of the state, each containing four districts. +</p> + +<p> +4. The four quarters of the capital, each of which had four +wards. +</p> + +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> + +<p> +Like the nahui-ollin the pyramid was an image or embodiment +of the fundamental all-pervading principle. Both therefore equally +expressed further meanings which I shall proceed to enumerate. +</p> + +<p> +5. Four stars and also four star-groups or planets which seem +to have been associated with the cardinal points and are indicated +by four discs exhibiting two concentric circles and four glyphs +placed around them. Although at a disadvantage, not being able +to substantiate my statement here, I shall mention that, amongst +the above, the Pleiades and the planets Venus and Jupiter doubtlessly +figure, the latter as two evening and two morning stars. +</p> + +<p> +6. The human lords of the four regions who respectively governed +the four divisions of the population, who were classified as +the Fire, Air, Water and Earth people, the identical classification +being applied in turn to each class and so on <hi rend='italic'>ad infinitum</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +7. Rotation or a movement encircling the four quarters imagined +as <q>quadruple motion.</q> This was not confined to the Septentriones, +for the ancient Mexican astronomers had recognized +what they termed the <q>four movements of the Sun</q>—namely, +its apparent rising in the east and progress to the north; and setting +in the west and progress to the south. According to Leon y +Gama, the first to describe the stone in 1832, the central <q>nahui +ollin</q> portrayed the <q>four movements of the sun</q> and recorded +the solstices and equinoxes. His opinion has since been shared +by other writers, amongst whom I cite Señor Troncoso. According +to Sir Norman Lockyer, moreover, the symbol does correctly +and appropriately figure the annual course of the sun. It must +be admitted that the invention of a figurative symbol which not +only records the annual rotation of the circumpolar star-groups +but also the annual apparent course of the sun is an achievement +which has never been surpassed in primitive astronomy and merits +admiration and recognition. The record of the periodical movements +of the heavenly bodies, constitutes, at the same time naturally +a register of the four seasons. +</p> + +<p> +8. Simultaneously with the division of the year into four equal +parts, the ollin (and pyramid) typified the division of the 20-day +period into four quarters as well as the four 13 year periods which +constituted the epoch of fifty-two years. As the Calendar periods +will be discussed in my monograph on the subject, I shall only +mention here a fact showing how completely the quadruplicate idea +had influenced native speculation. The Mexicans believed that +<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/> +four great eras had passed since the creation of the world and +designated these as the earth, air, fire and water eras. They +believed that, although humanity had always escaped utter annihilation, +the world had been almost completely destroyed by three +of the elements in succession at the end of three of these eras. +At the time of the Conquest, the Mexicans supposed themselves to +be living in a fourth age which was doomed to perish by fire. +</p> + +<p> +9. According to the distinguished Mexican scholar Señor Alfredo +Chavero, the symbols in the nahui-ollin commemorated the +four epochs of the world's history and I readily accept this as one +of the many significations of the quadruplicate figure. +</p> + +<p> +Leaving the nahui-ollin for the present, let us next consider the +band, with compartments, which encloses it and exhibits the twenty +symbols hitherto only known as calendaric signs,—four of which +were year- as well as day-signs, whilst sixteen were day-signs only. +Their relative positions show that they were intended to be read +from right to left. +</p> + +<p> +A profusion of evidence, however, exists showing that individuals +bore the day-names as personal appellations, not only in Mexico +but also in Central America. Amongst the Quichés for instance, +members of the <q>Royal house of Cavek</q> are designated in the +Popol Vuh, as three deer, nine dog, etc. +</p> + +<p> +It thus follows that the twenty signs were not merely names of +years and days, but also designated the tribes and clans. The +element-symbols which marked every fifth day and the years and +constitute the major signs, likewise were the names of the four +great divisions of the people, and of their respective chieftains. +On the other hand the 4×4=16 minor signs, applied not only to +days but to the 4×4=16 clans. At the same time the element +names conveyed in a general way the occupation of each of the +four divisions of people as well as their places of abode in reference +to the capital. Accordingly, the earth people would specially +attend to agriculture, mining, the manufacture of pottery, +etc.; water people to irrigation, the furnishing of drinks, fishing, +etc.; the fire people to all occupations which had to do with fire: +the procuring of combustibles for fire and lighting, cooking, the +working in metals, etc. +</p> + +<p> +As on the stone, the sign calli=house is in juxtaposition to +the symbol for air, it may be inferred that the air people were the +builders, the masons, the artificers, the Nahuatl name for which +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +was <q>toltecatl.</q> As the air symbol occupies the place of highest +honor in reference to the central face, namely, above the right hand, +it is evident that the builders, or <q>toltecas,</q> were the caste which +enjoyed the highest consideration. Their totem was the bird, the +inhabitant of the air. The second rank in honor was held by the +fire people placed to the left, above. Their totem was the ocelot. +</p> + +<p> +Without going further into details for the present, I merely point +out that the identical division of the members of each community +and association with the elements, etc., was carried out throughout +the state. This method clearly established the relation and +also determined the geographical position of each class of people +in reference to the whole. +</p> + +<p> +The carved band on the Calendar-stone, with its twenty signs, +determined once and for all time the exact position to be taken up +in all public assemblages, in councils, sacred dances, and likewise +controlled the exposition of the products of the land in the great +market-place. What is more: each division of the people, by reason +of its indissoluble union to one element and one region, also +had its own season during which it led in ceremonial observances. +So skilfully was the lunar ceremonial or religious year devised that +each sign, without any distinction, ruled a period of thirteen days. +At the same time the period fell into four divisions headed by the +four principal or element signs. +</p> + +<p> +In the solar or civil year, each sign had its day, but as the computation +of years passed by, each sign in due rotation ruled during +one year. It was only when each sign had had an equal rule that +the cycle completed itself, and, in turn, became a part of a greater +cycle of time. To realize the marvellous ingenuity with which the +rotation of days and consequently the working of the entire machinery +of state was carried on, it is necessary to have before one's +eyes, a series of reconstructive tables, such as I have prepared for +my paper on the subject. For the present, however, I trust that +some idea of the harmonious organization of the state may have +been conveyed to the reader. +</p> + +<p> +One important feature remains for consideration. As already +mentioned, one of the four annual midnight positions of the Bear +star-groups, and presumably a <q>royal star,</q> pertained to each cardinal-point +and consequently to each of the four divisions of people. +To this statement, which can be supported by substantial +evidence, I must add that each of the sixteen minor signs likewise +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> +designated constellations, of which there were thus four in each +region of the heaven. The twenty familiar day-signs thus actually +constituted also the native zodiac. As the region to which each +constellation pertains is clearly designated by the cardinal-point +signs, their identification is merely a matter of time. Since ten of +the signs represent animals, and these were the clan totems, it is +easy to realize how animal forms, composed of stars, came to be +traced in the heavens. +</p> + +<p> +Deferring further discussion of the native zodiac I will but point +out what an intimate relation was thus established and maintained +between star-groups and human beings; and how the periodical +rotation and stations of the celestial bodies actually guided or, at +all events, coincided with the periods of human activity in various +branches. +</p> + +<p> +I am not, as yet, prepared to formulate a final opinion on the +meaning of the narrow band that surrounds the zodiacal belt, which +is at the same time the list of years and days and of tribes and +clans, but shall merely note that it exhibits four large and four +lesser rays which designate the quarters and half-quarters of the +whole. A few words concerning the symbolism of these rays +should find place here. In Nahuatl the ray was named <q>tona-mitl,</q> +literally <q>the shining arrow,</q> <q>shaft of light.</q> Ixtlilxochitl +tells us that it was an ancient custom of his people on taking +possession of new territory <q>to shoot with utmost force four arrows, +in the directions of the four regions of the world.</q><note place='foot'>Relacion, +p. 339, Kingsborough, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ix</hi>.</note> This interesting +passage shows us that the rays, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> arrows of light, carved +on the stone, conveyed the idea of possession of the four regions +and four sub-regions by the central power. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to an examination of the concentric band to which the +rays are attached: It exhibits also 4×10 groups of five dots, two +of which groups are almost concealed by star-symbols on the recurved +open jaws of the serpents' heads which meet at the bottom +of the stone. Above this band and placed exactly between +the larger and lesser rays are single compartments with five-dot +groups. It has been interesting to detect the reason why two five-dot +groups were carved, as I have already pointed out, immediately +under the central head. They evidently supply the missing groups +whose places are filled up by the recurved upper jaws of the serpents, +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> +heads at the bottom of the monolith. From the care taken +to preserve a visible record of these two groups, it is obvious that +a special importance was attached to the recording of eight five-dot +groups besides the forty in the band, making a total of 4×12=48 +groups, or 10+2=12 to each quarter. +</p> + +<p> +As the Mexican name for market was macuil-tianquiztli, literally +the <q>Five (day) market</q> and the Maya word for capital +was homonymous with five=ho, it is evident that these five dot +groups would have conveyed the idea of <q>market,</q> market-day +and possibly market-town, to a Mexican. To a Maya-speaking +people they would have appeared to express practically the same +thought, since all capitals, large or small, were market-places and +absorbed and redistributed the product of quadruple provinces +within the radius of its jurisdiction. The inference that the five-dot +groups may have served as a topographical register of the +larger and minor capitals existing in each quarter of the state, is +substantiated by more evidence than can be produced here. I have +moreover found indications that this belt may have served as a sort +of moon-calendar which was also an attempt at an adjustment of +lunar to solar periods.<note place='foot'><p>Leon y Gama +advanced the opinion that the stone, supplemented by a gnomon, +served as a solar clock or dial, to mark the hours of the days and the seasons, etc. He +added that the stone may have served further purposes than those he enumerated and +hints that it may have also recorded lunar periods. This distinguished scholar concludes +by acknowledging that the ancient Mexicans possessed enlightened knowledge +of the movements of the principal planets and methods of observing them, in +order to divide time for the purposes of civil and religious government (Description +de las dos Piedras. Mexico, 1852, p. 110). +</p> +<p> +The late Doctor Philip Valentini, in a learned discourse on the Calendar-stone, read +at New York in 1878, expressed his view that it contained a complete and plastic +representation of the division of time employed in ancient Mexico. +</p> +<p> +The distinguished Mexican scholar, Señor Alfredo Chavero, has published the most +elaborate treatise which has been written on the subject and discusses the views of +Gama and Valentini with much erudition. Referring the reader to his publications in +the Annals of the National Museum of Mexico I shall but mention his views that the +four symbols, contained in the quadruplicate central figure, record four epochs of the +native cosmogony, that the central head is an image of the sun and that the monument +itself is a votive tablet which was erected to the Sun in historical time, two conclusions +to which I cannot subscribe. It is impossible to discuss fully the valuable +publications of Señores Troncoso and Chavero in these cursive remarks, but I shall +do so on another occasion. Meanwhile there is one point upon which both of these +authorities agree, namely, in admitting the possible connection between the civilization +of Mexico and Peru and in recognizing that various ancient people of America +had the nahui-ollin in common. A passage in Señor Chavero's work claims moreover +special mention, as it contains his supposition that the sign nahui-ollin may have +symbolized not only the four movements of the sun, but also those of the moon, which +the writer seems to regard as the nocturnal or dark sun. I am quite ready to agree +with the above authorities on some of the points mentioned, conflicting as their views +appear to be at first sight. Inasmuch as I regard the monument as the image of a +plan or theoretical scheme which colored and influenced all native thought, I hail +any recognition made by other students of its all-pervading presence in the Calendar +and in the cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans. On the other hand I maintain a view +which materially differs from those of previous writers, namely, that the entire plan +was originally based on the primitive observation of Polaris and in the conception +of a stable centre: the seat of a power extending over the Four Quarters and the +Above and Below.</p></note> Before, however, an estimate can be made +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +of the full meaning of this belt formed by the two great serpents +which encircle the entire monument, more time and labor will have +to be expended. +</p> + +<p> +One point about the twin serpents is clear; they are represented +as springing from a square enclosing the symbol Acatl accompanied +by 13 which has been generally interpreted as a calendar +date. It seems to me to be more deeply significant than a mere +date, especially as it appears to designate the point of departure +for the progressive movement of the two serpents whose open jaws +enclose human heads in profile which together form one face. The +upper jaws end in two recurved appendages, each exhibiting seven +star symbols. As these obviously typify night or darkness and the +open jaws seem to threaten to absorb or engulf the ray of the sun +pointing downwards, it appears as though these typified a disappearance +of light into the underworld of darkness and destruction. +</p> + +<p> +The symbolical surroundings of the downward ray are in striking +contrast to its opposite, the upward ray, which reaches to the 13 +Acatl sign and points to what appears to be the place of origin or +birth of the twin serpents. It certainly seems that this all-embracing +and enfolding twin pair are designed to typify the dual forces +of nature under a form which would also express quadruplication. +By what must be termed a stroke of genius the designer of the monolith +chose to represent the forms of two serpents, relying upon the +fact that Nahuatl-speaking people would see in each serpent (=coatl) +a twin (=coatl). Did he not also realize that to a Maya +each serpent (=can) would mean 4 (=can) and that the pair +would appear to embody or express the numerals 4 and also 8? +</p> + +<p> +It is noteworthy that each serpent is represented with one claw +and that these two added to those contained in the central nahui-ollin +complete the four-limbed figure which was essentially the image +of a complete count=the state, the nation, the era, etc. In +this monument, as elsewhere, it is possible to follow the development +of the symbolism expressed by two heads which form but one, +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> +twin-bodies which mean four and of four limbs which represent the +digital count=20. +</p> + +<p> +Under different aspects the same theme repeats itself again and +again upon the stone, which proves that the master minds who +planned and wrought it destined it to be the image of a plan based +on the idea of a central and yet all-embracing, dual, yet quadruple +force or power. +</p> + +<p> +The preceding rapid sketch I have given of the wide-reaching +significance of this remarkable monument will, I hope, be found to +amply support and corroborate the view I advanced in 1886, when +I pointed out that the <q>Calendar-stone</q> answered to the description +given by Duran, of the <q>circular elaborately carved tablets +which were kept in each market-place and were held in great veneration.</q> +I trust that it is now clear why it should have been frequently +consulted and why the market-days were regulated according +to the carved indications upon the surface. Engraved upon it +were the Great Plan and its laws of organization and rotation. It +clearly determined, once and for all, the sequence of the days; the +relation of all classes of the population to each other and to the +whole, and set forth not only the place each group should occupy in +the market-place, but also the product or industry with which it +was associated and the periods when its contributions to the commonwealth +should be forthcoming in regular rotation. The stone +was therefore not only the tablet but the wheel of the law of the +State and it can be conjectured that its full interpretation was more +or less beyond the capacity of all but an initiated minority, consisting +of the elders, chiefs and priests. +</p> + +<p> +Postponing for the present further discussion of this, the most +precious and remarkable monument which has ever been unearthed +on the American Continent, let us briefly bestow attention upon +the two other monoliths which may be said to be its companions +and obviously belong to the same period and civilization. In 1886, +in the preliminary note cited above, I advanced the view that the +first of these, generally known as the <q>Sacrificial stone,</q> was a +<q>law-stone of a similar nature [to the Calendar-stone] which recorded, +however, the periodical collection of certain tributes paid by +subjugated tribes and others whose obligation it was to contribute +to the commonwealth of Mexico.</q> I pointed out that the <q>frieze +around the stone consists of groups, placed at intervals, of the +flint-knives (tecpatl) with conventionally carved teeth (tlantli) +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +giving in combination the word <q>tecpatlantli.</q> This occurs in +Sahagun's Historia, as the name given to the <q>lands of the tecpan +or palace,</q> and in one of the native works I find designated the +four channels into which the produce of these lands was diverted.</q> +I likewise noted that <q>the periods indicated on it differ from those +on the Calendar-stone,</q> which might more appropriately be designated +as the ancient Mexican wheel of the law or of the Great +Universal Plan. +</p> + +<p> +Thirteen years of painstaking research have only served to +strengthen me in my interpretation of the <q>Sacrificial-stone.</q> +The frieze around it exhibits sixteen groups, each consisting of the +repeated representation of a warrior characterized by having one +foot only. In each case he is figured as seizing by the hair a different +individual, who bows his head and offers the weapon he +holds in his right hand to his victor. Amongst the sixteen subjugated +personages are two women and above each are hieroglyphs +expressing the names of well-known localities, some of which are +mentioned in native chronicles as having been conquered in historical +times by Mexican rulers. +</p> + +<p> +In my account of the Plan of the Ancient City of Mexico, I +shall illustrate these hieroglyphs, locate the places to which they refer +and further discuss this monument. Meanwhile I shall but state +that it undoubtedly belongs to the same category of monuments as +the tablets in the <q>Temple of the Sun</q> at Palenque; the bas-relief +at Ixkun and that in the house of the <q>Tennis-court</q> at Chichen-Itza +where warriors in a procession render homage to a seated personage, +by presenting their spear-throwers to him in precisely the +same manner as shown on the Mexican Tribute-Stone. +</p> + +<p> +The upper surface of this exhibits the same division into eight +parts, marked by four large and four smaller rays, pointing to the +quarters and half-quarters. Observation shows that of the sixteen +localities four were assigned to each quarter and it is evident +that the monument determined the time and the order in which the +tribute for each was paid and collected at the capital. The one-footed +man again graphically symbolizes axial rotation and conveys +the idea of a central ruler who in turn seizes and exerts +control upon 4×4 tribal chiefs. The monument establishes, +moreover, the interesting fact that amongst the subjugated communities +were two gynocracies, represented by women who, instead +of spear-throwers, present their weaving shuttle to the victor. +</p> + +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> + +<p> +We shall next consider a monument whose uncouth and ugly +form embodies a deep and nobly planned conception of the <q>divine +twin,</q> or <q>divine Four,</q> that so completely dominated the +minds of the native philosophers. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now carefully examine the monolith now preserved in the +National Museum of Mexico (fig. <ref target='Figure_57'>57</ref>). Leon y Gama, having +observed that what appeared +to be the foundation +of the statue was +carved and that massive +projections existed under +its so-called arms, +logically concluded that +the original design had +been to support the figure +from the sides, so +that its base was lifted +from the ground and +the figure upon it exposed +to view from underneath. +His inference +is borne out by the carving +on the base which +belongs to the same category +as the image of +Mictlan-tecuhtli, and +represents a semi-human +body, of quadriform +shape soaring +downward. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_57'/> + <figure url='images/figure-57.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 57.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The centre (fig. <ref target='Figure_51'>51</ref>) +exhibits on a square the +five-dot figure, and the +square, in turn, is enclosed +in a circle; the whole symbolism relating to the now well-worn +theme of the centre and four quarters and the union of the +earth=the square and the heaven=the circle. It clearly exhibits +a skull attached to each limb, typifying the four quarters +or the clans and their chiefs, whilst the hands hold the larger +heads, emblematic of supreme dual rulership. It is interesting to +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +find that the above carving, under the feet of the sculptured figure, +embodies the entire meaning of the statue, which is but a variation +of the native philosophical theme of <q>Divine Twain</q> or Quetzalcoatl. +Two serpents' heads surmount a semi-human body and +meeting form the semblance of two single faces turned to the front +and back of the statue. By this ingenious device the unity, yet +duality of the divine twin is graphically rendered and one-half of +each countenance is represented as belonging to each serpent. +These are thus shown to be indissolubly linked together, yet distinct. +Their single, yet dual head has four eyes, eight fangs and +two forked tongues. The figure and skirt composed of intertwined +rattlesnakes, constitute feminine attributes given to the symbolical +figure of the <q>twin-lord and twin-lady,</q> the <q>father and mother +of all.</q> Instead of hands the arms terminate in serpents' heads +and the huge feet in great claws. +</p> + +<p> +Between these, in the front and at the back, a rattlesnake's body +and head appear. The belt consists of a large snake whose head +and tail hang down in front, as the ends of a bow. A skull is +attached to the front and another to the back of the belt. In the +latter case it surmounts a fan-shaped, curiously plaited ornamental +appendage partly decorated with feathers. Forming a sort of +necklace in front are four hands, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> 4×5=20 and two +conventionalized hearts. At the back there are two hands and two +hearts and an intricate knot which fastens the necklace, the real +meaning of which is far from what it may appear to be. It +probably signified the same as the painted hearts and hands on +ceremonial garments of which Sahagun tells us that <q>they meant +that the people who wore them lifted their hearts and hands to the +Creator to implore for rain and food.</q> At the same time, the arrangement +in front clearly reveals the sculptor's allusion to the +head, two hearts, four hands and twenty fingers, which symbolize +these familiar numerical divisions. An indication that this symbolical +statue was probably designed and executed by the same +master who made the circular stone of the Great Plan, is furnished +by the calendar sign 13 Acatl, which is carved under the +skull at the back of the figure. +</p> + +<p> +Deferring an investigation of the significance of this date, I +shall now draw attention to what is to me the most interesting and +important feature of the whole image. The view of the top of +the two heads, as may be seen by the accompanying reproduction +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +from a photograph (fig. <ref target='Figure_58'>58</ref>) exhibits, at their line of +union, a small square with diagonal cross-lines. The position of this symbol +which resembles the top view of a pyramid and forms, as it +were, the apex of the statue, every detail of which is deeply symbolical, +clearly reveals the sanctity and importance attached to this +graphic image of the Centre, the union of four in one or <hi rend='italic'>vice +versa</hi>, the theme on which the native mind played numberless and +endless variations. +</p> + +<p> +A reflection, again forced upon one in studying the monumental +composite image of the dual and quadruple forces of nature, is +that it must have been as intelligible to a Maya as to a Mexican, +and conveyed the conception of Kukulcan to the one and Quetzalcoatl +to the other. Several facts point, however, to the greater +probability that the original conception of the monument must +have arisen amongst Maya-speaking people. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_58'/> + <figure url='images/figure-58.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 58.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The divided square, simulating a pyramid and so obviously a +symbol of four=can, carved on the head of a serpent=can, +throws an interesting light upon the probable derivation of the +affix=can, which occurs in certain names of localities in Mexico, +and in some cases distinctly stands for <q>mountain.</q> It is a fact +which has already been cited in Señor Antonio Penafiel's useful +work on the Geographical names of Mexico that, in the pictographic +hieroglyphs of localities the affix can signifies a town, being +synonymous with the <hi rend='italic'>tepec</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> tepetl, +the Nahuatl name for +mountain or town. One of many similar instances, which could +be produced, is illustrated in his fig. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxiii</hi>, +1, where <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> obviously +stands for the mountain which is represented as twisted or bent +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> +over (colhua), in the hieroglyph for Colhuacan. The hieroglyphs +for the towns Acayocan and Tenayocan, furnish a similar employment +of the mountain to express the sound can. The sense of +the affix <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>, +meaning a town, only becomes clear when we interpret +it as the name of the artificial mountain with four sides, the +pyramid, which was the symbol of four=the Maya <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign>, and +was the emblem of a central capital. This is convincingly proven by +the Codex Mendoza for instance, in which it is shown that the +Mexican mode of recording the conquest of a tribe was to paint +their hieroglyphic name and a picture of the destruction of the +pyramid temple which had stood in the centre of their capital. In +other words, the conquered town ceased to be a centre of rule—its +captive chieftain was taken to the capital, where the horrible +rite of sacrifice performed upon him and the tearing out of his +heart likewise symbolized the destruction of the independent life +of the tribe or integral whole he represented in his person. It +was thus brought home to the conquered people that they had +ceased to exist as an independent body, and the distribution of the +chieftain's flesh to the ritualistic cannibals graphically symbolized +its absorption into the great central state. It is necessary to emphasize +here that these horrible rites were of comparatively recent +origin and had been invented by the Mexicans for the purpose of +intimidating their vassals, after a prolonged period of wars and +bloodshed, which menaced the very existence of the integral state. +The presence in Mexico of numerous names of towns, ending in +can, seems to indicate the influence, in ancient times, of the Maya-speaking +civilization to which the origin of the pyramid must be +assigned. The association of the latter with the word +<foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> is strikingly +illustrated in the name of Teotihua-Can, where stand the +ruins of two of the largest and most imposing pyramids of ancient +America. The base of the larger of the two has been estimated +at about 700 feet square, it being impossible to take an exact measurement +owing to the mass of accumulated débris which covers +the lower part of the structure. +</p> + +<p> +The base of the second pyramid measures about 475 feet square. +The sides of both pyramids rose at an angle of about 45 degrees +and were in each case interrupted by four terraces. This double +application of a quadruple division merits special attention, as it +produced besides the four great 4×4 lesser sections, the sacred +centre of the terraces, which crowned each structure. Historical +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +tradition relates that the larger pyramid, known as the <q>Enclosure +of the Sun (=Tonatiuh-I-Tzacual),</q> originally bore on +its summit a colossal image of the sun, covered with plates of +gold, whilst the other, the <q>Enclosure of the Moon</q> exhibited a +similar image, covered with silver. The distinguished and reliable +historian Orozco y Berra quotes this tradition adding that the +soldiers of Cortés despoiled the images of their precious metals +and that the Bishop Zumarraga ordered a further destruction of +all monuments at Teotihuacan. +</p> + +<p> +The tradition which records the existence of a silver and of a +gold image, cannot be dismissed as unfounded, because it meets +with a certain amount of corroboration by other data. In the first +case the so-called <q>battered goddess,</q> a mutilated stone image, +which was found in the courtyard at the base of the <q>Pyramid of +the Moon,</q> looks as though it may have been the very monument +which was once plated with silver. Traces of concentric bands +of ornamentation seem to indicate that its round face had originally +occupied the centre of a sculptured disc, in which case this +must have had a diameter of about twelve feet. In Peru, as already +stated, a silver image of the moon, associated with the female +sovereign, was the complement to the golden effigy of the sun, +associated with the Inca. +</p> + +<p> +Even if data had not already been produced which establishes +the existence of two religious cults in ancient Mexico, the respective +symbols of which were the sun and the moon, the presence of +two pyramids at Teotihuacan would suggest the existence of a +division of some sort. The origin of these great and imposing +structures is shrouded in mystery, but it is generally conceded that +they must have been built long before the comparatively modern +inhabitants of the valley of Mexico, the wandering Aztecs, had +taken up their abode in the midst of the salt lagoons. The erection +of two pyramids, however, proves that their builders had +already practised the cult of the middle of heaven and earth, or +Above and Below, and of the Four Quarters for so long a time, that +there had been a separation of religions and government into two +almost independent parts, each complete in itself. In the light of +the testimony produced it is safe to infer that for an indefinite +time the rival cults developed side by side until dissension and consequent +disintegration followed. The Mexican state was the outcome +of a later effort to reorganize and rebuild an integral whole +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +on the ancient plan, the knowledge of which had been preserved +and handed down. As time went on it was inevitable that the +same causes which had caused the more ancient and greater state +to crumble away, should be actively at work on the second. +</p> + +<p> +It has already been shown that two religions existed in Montezuma's +time the respective embodiments of which were Huitzilopochtli +and Tezcatlipoca. It is an interesting fact, related by Bernal +Diaz, that the idols of both stood together in one tower at the +summit of the great temple and were alike, <q>because they were +brothers.</q> At the same time whilst Tezcatlipoca's image was decorated +with obsidian (=tezcatl) Huitzilopochtli's was encrusted +with turquoises. It is curious to note how closely the old soldier's +description of these idols answers to that of the great dualistic +statue which has been discussed in the preceding pages. His account +contains the following details: <q>In this hall were what resembled +two altars with very richly [ornamented or carved] platforms +on the top of the roof or ceiling. On each altar was a statue, +as of a giant, very tall in body and very stout. The first, which +represented Huitzilopochtli, had a very wide, deformed or monstrous +face and forehead, and terrifying eyes ... around his neck +were faces of Indians and what were hearts. These were of gold +whilst the former were of silver inlaid with blue mosaic-work. The +entire body was covered with mosaic-work, gold and beads and +misshapen pearls, all fastened to it with a kind of cement or glue. +Encircling the body were what were like huge serpents made of +gold and mosaic.... The idol was of Tezcatlipoca, and its eyes +were made of shining black stone [obsidian] called Tezcat. The +statues were alike because they were said to be brothers. Tezcatlipoca +was the lord of the Underworld ... and around his body +were figures like small devils with tails like serpents.</q><note place='foot'>In the +text, as published, Bernal Diaz states that this statue had a face like that of a +bear <q>un rostro, como de osso,</q> but goes on to say that it was decorated according to +the same mode as the other <q>del otro.</q> I am inclined to think it more than probable +that instead of <q>de osso </q> the text should also read <q>del otro,</q> as among the +many images of Tezcatlipoca that are extant, none show him connected with the bear in +any form or shape.</note> But for the +fact that Bernal Diaz mentions a plurality of faces in Huitzilopochtli's +necklace, whereas our monument exhibits but one skull, +in front, his description strikingly coincides with the monolith now +existing. Considering that thirty years had elapsed before he wrote +this description allowance must be made for this and other slight +<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/> +lapses. On the other hand, dual statues, exactly alike, but with +differently colored ornamentation, are precisely what we should +expect to find on the summit of the great pyramid-temple of +Mexico. With our present knowledge and comprehension of native +symbolism, moreover, we see that two statues, each of which figured +twin-serpents, would best express the native idea of the dual +and quadruple principles and elements. What is more, two dual +statues, each surmounted by a square, diagonally crossed, like a +pyramid, would correspond, in symbolism, to the two great pyramids +of Teotihuacan and carry out, on a small scale, the idea of a +dual government. +</p> + +<p> +Valuable and reliable evidence, showing to what an extent the +Mexicans regarded their government as dual and quadruple, can be +gleaned from the records of the presents sent by Montezuma to +Cortés, under the impression that the bearded Spaniards were the +descendants of the ancient founders of their civilization. The native +ruler sent the complete ceremonial dress of the four lords of +the four regions denoting by that act of homage that he acknowledged +Cortés as his equal, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the supreme central lord who united +the four-fold power in his person. <q>He likewise sent him a large +wheel of pure gold, covered with designs and with the image of a +monster in its centre.</q> Its weight was estimated at 3,800 <q>pesas</q> +and it was considered <q>the finest and best of all the presents.</q> +It was accompanied by <q>a large wheel of silver,</q> weighing forty-eight +marcos. By the light of our present knowledge it may be that +both <q>wheels</q> were images of the Great Plan and that whilst the +gold one set forth the constitution and organization of the Upper +division of the State and possibly conveyed the statistics of its +members, the silver wheel was a record of the Lower division. The +gift of these tablets must have been intended as an act of subservience +and an acknowledgment of Cortés as the lord of the +Above and Below, as well as of the Four Quarters. The utter lack +of understanding for the symbolism of these gifts on the part of the +recipient, can scarcely have escaped the notice of Montezuma's +messengers and must have sorely puzzled their unfortunate master. +</p> + +<p> +The existence in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, of a dual +state, suggests the possibility that, in some way, the pyramids of +Teotihuacan continued to be connected with the opposite and rival +cults of the Sun and the Nocturnal Heaven, although their origin +was shrouded in the past. It is known that their site was venerated: +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> +besides, the name Teotihuacan, which Orozco y Berra translated +as <q>the place of the masters as keepers of the gods</q> or +<q>the place where the gods were adored,</q> most probably really +meant <q>the divine four-sided mountains or pyramids</q> or, possibly, +<q>the sacred pyramids of the lords.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Until an extensive, carefully-planned and systematical exploration +has been carried out at Teotihuacan, it is impossible to form +any definite conclusions concerning its past history. Cherishing +the hope that such an exploration may yet be made during +my lifetime, I shall merely make a few remarks concerning the +ruins, which I visited many years ago. Approaching them from +the south one enters a broad straight road, several miles in length +and about 250 feet wide, which is bordered at each side by a series +of irregular mounds, probably covering ruined structures. This +imposing road leads directly into the vast courtyard which stretches +across the base of the great pyramid of the Moon. As the City +of Mexico lies to the south of Teotihuacan it is significant to find +that this road leads from that direction to a vast pyramid situated +at the north, which was, according to the ancient Mexicans, +the region of the Underworld, darkness and death. It is not surprising, +therefore, to find that the ancient native name which still +clings to the roadway is <q>the path of the dead.</q> The presence, +moreover, of innumerable small clay heads which are, undoubtedly, +portraits or effigies of persons represented as dead, points to the +alternative that Teotihuacan may have been the necropolis of an +ancient civilization or that it was, even at the time of the Conquest, +the place where a register of deaths was kept by the priest-rulers, +by means of small clay effigies. +</p> + +<p> +Considering the native idea, it seems more than probable that +all matters pertaining to the dead should be relegated to the northern +region and the fact that the road from the south leads to a pyramid +which tradition associates with the moon, the symbol of the +nocturnal cult of the <q>Below,</q> lends color to these views. +</p> + +<p> +There is a temptation to imagine that possibly after the adoption +of two distinct cults of which the second pyramid seems to +furnish incontrovertible proof, a further divergence ensued resulting +in the ultimate abandonment of the capital by the votaries of +the Sun, the male principle and the Above. As the native civilizations +were based on such a plan that dissension and disorganization +inevitably led to utter downfall and ruin, it is easy to see +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +that a gynocracy and the cult of the earth and underworld should +gradually become extinct. At the zenith of its power, however, +it may safely be inferred, that Teotihuacan was a great centre +where astronomical observation and agriculture flourished, these +being the natural outcome of the cult of mother-earth and the +nocturnal heaven. Whilst all conjecture must necessarily be hypothetical, +it is a comfort to reflect that, locked in the ruins themselves, +lies guarded the past history of Teotihuacan, which was +shrouded in a mist of uncertainty even at the time of the Conquest. +</p> + +<p> +The pyramids themselves, however, openly reveal the fact, that +their builders possessed a knowledge of the great plan, and that, +at some time, a single central pyramid not being sufficient, two, +of unequal sizes, arose to bear lasting testimony not only of past +greatness, but of long-forgotten rivalry and dissension. Finally, +there is one thing certain, namely, that the building of the pyramids +at Teotihuacan must have been preceded by an extremely +long period during which the native ideas, of which they were the +expression and image, had developed and taken definite shape. If +Teotihuacan yields evidence of an advanced stage in the history +of the intellectual development of the native race, it also marks +the beginning of the disintegration of the state of which it was +the central capital. On the other hand, at Cholula, also situated +in the high plateau of Mexico, to the east of its present capital +stands, in ruined solitary grandeur, the largest pyramid on the +American continent, whose base is twice as large as that of the +pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +The name of the ancient capital of which it formed the nucleus +was Tullan Cholollan Tlachiuhaltepec.<note place='foot'>In Tullan we seem +to find the Maya equivalent to the Mexican Itzacual=enclosure, +by which the Teotihuacan pyramids are popularly designated, as may be verified by the +discussion of the Maya word in the preceding pages (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> tulum, +tulul, tuliz, tulacal), which conveys the idea of something enclosed, entire, whole and +universal and will be reverted to. Cholol-lan seems to be connected with the verb +cholol-tia=to escape (like game from a snare or net) to fly, or to spring away. According +to this, Cholol-lan would mean <q>the place of escape or flight</q> and it will be seen +that this designation will be found to agree with the native tradition concerning the +purpose of the pyramid, which will be cited presently. It is not impossible, however, +that Cholol-lan may be bilingual and also be a corrupt rendering of the Maya +<foreign rend='italic'>ho</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>hool</foreign>=head, also +capital. This supposition receives a certain support from Padre Rios' statement that +<q>the inhabitants of Cholula, in their sacred festivals, performed a solemn dance around +the pyramid chanting a song which began with the words Tulanian Hulaez.</q> These, he +states, <q>belonged to none of the languages now spoken in Mexico</q> (Orozco y Berra +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 363). The name Tlachiuhaltepetl is translated by +Orozcoy Berra by <q>mountain made by hand,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> artificial +mountain or pyramid; from tlachiuhaliztli, +the act of accomplishing some work forming or creating something. As the origin of +primitive symbolism is a question of such deep interest I shall mention here some +curious data in connection with the pyramid. The word Tlachiuhale was a title or +name applied to the <q>Creator or Former of living creatures.</q> In order to express the +sound of this word in the picture-writings, it is obvious that a pyramid could have +been employed, since it graphically and phonetically conveyed the desired sound +tlachiual-tepetl. At the same time a complementary sign would be necessary so as to +obtain a symbol which would specially apply to the Creator alone. The word +tlachia=to look, see, watch, naturally suggests itself, as a complement to the sound +tlach; and to express, in a cursive way, the action of seeing, an eye sufficed. We +thus see that an artificial mountain or pyramid and an eye formed a hieroglyph which +expressed the sound <q>Tlachiuale</q> and signified the <q>Creator.</q> As the eye by +itself was the sign for star, and the idea of a central star, as frequently depicted in +the nahui-ollin sign, was an emblem of the creative and central power, it is evident that, +besides its literal meaning, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> an artificial or created +mountain, a <q>tlachiuhaltepetl</q> +would have been regarded by the initiated as the Mountain of the Creator, the +sacred pyramid, which was the image of central, dual and quadruple power.</note> +Boturini (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 113) +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> +cites an old native manuscript on which a picture of the pyramid +of Cholula was painted with the note that, in ancient times, it was +named Tultecatl Chalchihuatl On Azia Ecatepec, which he translates +as <q>the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, which +rears itself in the region of the air.</q> As eca-tepec literally means +air-mountain, Boturini's translation may seem somewhat exaggerated; +on the other hand, the Spaniards, who knew the Nahuatl +language best, repeatedly state that its words were so replete with +significance that it would sometimes require several Spanish sentences +to set forth the meaning of a single native word. Boturini, +who had exceptional opportunities for obtaining information, adds +to the above the following translation of a Nahuatl inscription +which had been written by the native scribe below the drawing +which unfortunately is now lost. <q>Nobles and Lords: Here you +have your documents, the mirror of your past, the history of +your ancestors who, out of fear for a deluge, constructed this place +of refuge or asylum for the possibility of the recurrence of such a +calamity.</q> +</p> + +<p> +After citing the opinions of various authors concerning the origin +of the pyramid, Orozco y Berra concludes that <q>there is no +certainty about its age, but instinctively it is supposed to be extremely +ancient and to pertain to pre-historic times. According to +my judgment the people who constructed it belonged to the same +civilization as the builders of Teotihuacan and possibly were their +contemporaries. Cholollan was also a venerated sanctuary, in +which the religious idea predominated</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 363). <q>At +the time of the Conquest a temple stood on the summit of the +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> +pyramid and contained an image of Quetzalcoatl (the Divine Twain, +the Creator, the Father and Mother of all) as well as an aerolite, +shaped like a frog which had fallen from heaven, wrapped in a +ball of flame.</q> In the Vatican MS. of Padre Rios there is another +version of the tradition that the pyramid had been erected by giants +after a deluge, which had destroyed everything, ... and that +before it was finished, fire fell upon it causing the death of its +builders and the abandonment of the work. +</p> + +<p> +Allusion has already been made, in the preceding pages, to the +native traditions according to which, <q>there had been three memorable +epochs in the history of mankind, which lasted for centuries +and were abruptly terminated, each time by a mighty convulsion +of nature. The majority of human beings perished in +each of these, but a remnant survived and thus the race was preserved.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The periodical festival of thanksgiving, which was still observed +at the time of the Conquest by the native races, abundantly testifies +to the reality of their belief in these great catastrophes and the +preservation of their ancestors from utter extermination. It was +doubtless in order to make their past history conform with the +quadruple organization of all epochs of their native Calendar that +the native sages assigned their successive destructions to the separate +agencies of fire, water and air, in the form of violent tempests +and cyclones. From descriptions contained in the Mexican +Codex Chimalpopoca and in the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the +Quichés, it will be seen that the phenomena described are such as +would naturally accompany a volcanic outbreak on a great scale. +Considering that, in Mexico alone, there are no less than nine +monster volcanoes, of which two are not yet extinct, and that in +Guatemala, in historical times, whole cities have been destroyed by +earthquakes and volcanic action, it is not at all astonishing to find +traditions of great catastrophes amongst the inhabitants of these +regions. +</p> + +<p> +No one can look upon the grand snow-clad peaks of the great +volcanoes, which surround the high central plateau of Mexico, +without realizing that mighty upheavals and disturbances, such as +the world has seldom seen, must have attended the formation of +the huge craters next to which Vesuvius seems but a hillock. A +volcanic outbreak amongst these elevated peaks, which range from +15,000 to 19,000 feet above the sea-level, would obviously be accompanied +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> +by great inundations caused by the melting of the +masses of snow which crown their heights. The valley of Mexico +in which the large lagoons lie, as in a basin without an outlet, and +the plains which surround Cholula and stretch to the base of the +volcanoes must repeatedly have been the scene of ruin and desolation, +lasting for many centuries. As the Abbé Bourbourg justly +remarks: <q>The majority of the edifices in the City of Mexico are +built of volcanic tufa, said to have been formed by the small volcanoes +which lie at the southeast of the valley of Mexico. At various +periods of antiquity great masses of lava have descended into +this valley, in which one extensive ancient lava-field is now known +as the <q>Pedregal de San Augustin.</q></q> Another great flow of lava has +actually been traced from its apparent source, the now extinct volcano +of Ajusco, at the south of the valley of Mexico, to Acapulco, +on the Pacific coast. +</p> + +<p> +The Mexican chronicles describe as follows the destruction of +the earth by fire: <q>... there came a rain of fire: all that existed +was burnt and a rain composed of sand-stone fell. It is said +that whilst the sand-stone we now see was being formed the tet-zontli +[<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> volcanic tufa], boiled with great noise. Then the red +mountains also lifted themselves up ... the sun consumed +itself [was darkened], all houses were destroyed and all the lords +or chiefs perished....</q> +</p> + +<p> +The same author relates how, after the repeated destruction +by water, obscurity reigned for twenty-five years. This cataclysm +is also described in the sacred book of the Quichés as follows: +<q>Then ... the waters became swollen by the mere will of the +Heart of Heaven and there came a great inundation from above +and descended upon the people ... they were deluged and +then a thick resinous substance fell from the sky. The face of the +earth was obscured and a dark rain commenced and fell during +the day and during the night ... there was great sound of +fire overhead. Then the people ran pushing each other and filled +with despair: they endeavoured to mount upon the houses and +these, falling in, threw them again to earth. They wished to climb +the trees, but these swayed and cast the people from them; they +tried to enter caves, but these shut themselves before them....</q> +It was after this universal ruin and destruction that, according to +native tradition, the pyramid of Cholula was erected, as a place of +refuge for the remnant of the native race which had escaped destruction +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> +and returned to the scene of desolation, lured by the richness +of the fertile soil, just as the Italian peasants return to their +vineyards on Vesuvius after each eruption. All things considered +there seems to be no ground for rejecting the native tradition +which affirms that the great pyramid of Cholula was erected as a +place of refuge from inundations, especially as no more plausible +explanation of the origin of the pyramid can be imagined. Any +primitive people, inhabiting fertile plains which abounded in game +and fish, and food-plants, but were exposed to frequent inundations, +could not fail to recognize the advantages of an elevated +piece of ground as a place of safety. It is easy to imagine the intermediate +stages in the transition from this simple recognition to +the final determination to build a compact, high and spacious elevation, +within the reach of all inhabitants of a settlement, on which +these could not only find refuge from the dangers of floods and +volcanic disturbances, but also store their harvest, and possibly +some form of raft or boat which they might employ as a last means +of escape. +</p> + +<p> +Irrefutable proof that the maize had been cultivated from remote +antiquity in this region, and had even become identified with it, is +furnished by the fact that the name of the small republic of Tlaxcalla, +which lies in the neighboring foot-hills, signifies bread, and +that its hieroglyphic sign consists of two hands holding a tortilla, +or maize-cake. +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that botanists have not yet succeeded in identifying, +amongst the native grasses of America, the ancestor of the +cultivated maize-plant. They assert, however, that the development +of what is now the world's largest cereal, from a wild native +species, must have required incalculable time. +</p> + +<p> +It must be admitted that no factor could possibly have more +speedily impressed upon primitive men the benefits of concerted +action and of organization and communal life than the occasional +recurrence of a great and imminent peril which was shared by all +alike, and for which there was but one visible means of escape. +It is equally clear that, once a concerted and united undertaking +had been determined upon, some sort of plan and organization +must have naturally evolved itself. The mere building of such a +gigantic structure as the pyramid of Cholula, which may well have +absorbed the energies of several generations of men, or, at all +events that of innumerable workmen, could well have been an +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> +abiding and most powerful factor in establishing their social organization. +Its erection must indeed have marked an epoch in the +lives of the inhabitants of this region, because, during many years +it created a bond of common interest which, of itself, might well +have laid the foundation of a permanent communal life, in which +responsibility and labor were equally distributed. The mere necessity +to expend an equal amount of material and labor upon the +building of each side of the pyramid, would naturally lead to the +formation of pathways traced by the feet of the carriers of earth +and stone from different directions, and ultimately to a division of +the workers into four bands, each associated with a different cardinal +point. Practice would demand that each band should be under +leadership, and be divided into those who collected and carried +material, and those who placed it in position, at each side of the +pyramid. The necessity for general supervision and directorship, +extending over the four bands of workers alike, would, of itself, +create central rulership upon which would devolve the duty of enforcing +an equal division of labor, which would create, in turn, +some form of systematic routine and rotation. It can thus be understood +how, by slow degrees, each side of the pyramid would become +permanently identified with a cardinal point; and associated +with a division of workmen under its leader and a fixed period of +time. It may likewise be seen how a separate caste would slowly +develop itself, consisting of the trained architects and builders, +the descendants of the first organizers of human labor, and systematical +rulers of men.<note place='foot'>The testimony of +early Spanish missionaries established the fact that in ancient +Mexico a caste of master builders and masons existed, whose name, Tulteca, identified +them with the ancient centre of civilization and integral state of Tullan. +<q>Whenever the natives were asked who had constructed certain edifices, passes and +roads, etc., they invariably answered the <q>tultecas,</q> a Nahuatl word in current use, +which signified <q>the skilled artificers or workers in stone, etc., the master-masons or +builders.</q></q></note> +</p> + +<p> +It may thus be seen how the realization of frequent danger, the +necessity to provide an escape and insure the safety of the race, +aided by experience, might lead to the conception of a vast pyramid, +the mere building of which would create and establish the +fundamental principles of organization and government. +</p> + +<p> +The simultaneous development of the ideas suggested by Polaris +would inevitably lead to a comparison and association of the terrestrial +centre of communal activity with the polar axis, and to +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> +the conception of an earthly government in which human affairs +were adjusted so as to be in seeming harmony with the movements +of celestial bodies. The blending of the conclusions attained by +the astronomer-priests, and the practical system adopted by the +master builders, could not fail ultimately to cause the pyramid to +appear as the sacred visible sign or image of the single, central +power and quadruple government which extended its rule throughout +heaven and earth. I venture to point out that, if carefully +analyzed, the pyramid seems to be but a later development +of precisely the same ideas which are expressed by the swastika. +</p> + +<p> +Pausing now to review preceding data we find it demonstrated +that the geographical position of Tullan Cholollan and its pyramid +designates it as an ancient seat of civilization where the native +scheme of organization may have evolved itself, and the source +whence the native traditions concerning successive destructive cataclysms +and convulsions of nature may have spread. +</p> + +<p> +What is more, the peculiar conditions existing at Tullan Cholollan, +situated in the heart of a volcanic region, would amply explain +the traditional destruction and abandonment of the most ancient +centre of native civilization and the spread throughout the continent +of the identical scheme of government, etc., it being most +natural that each band of fugitives, on finding what appeared to +be a favorably situated region, should settle there and carry out +the inherited plan of organization, etc., which would naturally +become slightly modified under altered conditions. Fresh colonies +on the pattern of the ruined metropolis and integral state +would successively be founded far and wide and as examples of +such I venture to designate Tulantzinco, literally the title Tullan, +and possibly Teotihuacan, where the native civilization seems to +have undergone its more advanced stages of evolution, and to +have risen in power, developed divergent cults with separate languages +(the Maya and the Nahuatl) and instituted the two religions +and dual rulership which eventually led to dissension and the +dissolution of the integral state at a period anterior to historical +times. +</p> + +<p> +The assumption that the most ancient centre of native civilization +lay in a volcanic region affords a plausible explanation of +how an inordinate value would naturally be placed on stability, +<hi rend='italic'>per se</hi>, and the feelings of veneration for Polaris and a passionate +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> +longing for a place of terrestrial and celestial rest would become +strongly developed. Indeed, it is only possible to understand the +reason why various American tribes wandered about in ardent +and earnest search for the stable middle of the earth, when it +is assumed that they must have been driven from their former +place of residence by volcanic disturbances which made a firm +piece of ground under foot seem to be the most desirable of all +earthly benefits. I venture to assert that this search and the ideal +of stability would not have been suggested so forcibly to people +who had never experienced a long succession of more or less +terrible earthquakes. +</p> + +<p> +Although widely different opinions concerning the identification +of the ancient Tullan are held by American archæologists they +will all doubtlessly admit that at Cholollan we have, in the first +case, a locality to which the natives assign the name of Tollan, +and a pyramid, the largest on the American continent, which testifies +that, in prehistoric times, this place was inhabited for a prolonged +period, by a numerous and organized community. +</p> + +<p> +The fertility of the surrounding plains now known as the +Campiña de Puebla and the ancient name of Tlaxcalla yield evidence +that, from time immemorial, this district was associated +with maize cultivation. +</p> + +<p> +The vicinity of the giant volcanoes of Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl +and Orizaba<note place='foot'>The ancient native +name of this volcano was Citlal-tepetl, literally the Star +Mountain, from which it may, perhaps, be inferred that, from the plains, its high +and sharp peak served as a means of registering the movements of certain stars and +planets.</note> sufficiently demonstrate that they must repeatedly +have been the scene of violent disturbances which would fully +account for the tradition of successive cataclysms which destroyed +a vast state and almost annihilated the native race. +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing unassailable facts undoubtedly justify the conclusion +that the giant pyramid of Cholula marks the site of the +great and ancient Tollan whose destruction was the theme of the +plaintive native songs of lamentation even at the time of the Spanish +Conquest. That the natives have ever regarded Cholula as a place +of particular sanctity is shown by the following statement by +Fray Geronimo Roman y Zamorra (1569-1575) (Republicas de Indias, +ed. Suarez, Madrid, 1888): <q>It was Colola or Cholola, +which was the ancient metropolis or head of all the native religion, +so much so that all the great chiefs or lords had their own +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> +chapels and dwelling houses there because they used to perform +pilgrimages to its great temple this being the most revered [in the +<emph>land</emph>].</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is also reasonable to infer that the region of the high plateau +and valley of Mexico, possibly before the formation of the great +lagoons, was the cradle of ancient American civilization, where, +during countless centuries, the native race literally and figuratively +cultivated its own maize and simultaneously developed the set of +ideas which formed the basis of its intellectual evolution. +</p> + +<p> +In this connection it is interesting to reflect that, as clearly +shown by ceremonial usages which existed throughout our continent +and survive to the present day amongst the Pueblo Indians, +it is to the fostering care, forethought and labor of countless generations +of women, the <q>Corn Maidens and Mothers,</q> that America +owes the priceless legacy of a food-plant which has already sustained +untold millions of lives. Thus, whilst the ancient <q>Daughters +of the Earth</q> have given their country a gift which will +last for all time, the pyramids, temples and cities, reared by the +<q>Sons of Heaven,</q> have fallen into ruin, and the great edifice of +human thought that they reared, their complex social organization, +government and calendar now lie superseded under the dust of +time. +</p> + +<p> +At this point of investigation the question naturally arises, +Whence came the founders of the native civilization, who established +themselves and peopled the central region of Mexico and +doubtlessly dwelt there for a prolonged period prior to the first of +the traditional cataclysms which nearly proved destructive to their +race? +</p> + +<p> +It is obvious that, before this interesting question can be satisfactorily +discussed, a minute analysis and investigation should be +made of all other ancient civilizations of the world in which the +swastika was employed as a sacred symbol. A comparative research +on such a scale could only be effectively carried out with the +active coöperation of orientalists, archæologists and philologists in +all departments of research. Taking, as an index, the presence in +old centres of civilization of the most ancient sacred symbol of the +world, the swastika, the aim of the joint investigation should be to +trace how far it was accompanied, in each country, by pole-star +worship and the set of ideas, symbols and words to which it is so +indissolubly linked in ancient America and China. By this means +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +only can a final conclusion be reached as to whether this symbol +spread over the earth from one original centre of civilization, or +whether it suggested itself to primitive observers of Septentriones +in various localities and at different times, as the natural outcome +of star-observation. If the swastika and the septentrional set of +ideas spread from one centre then we should expect to find them +accompanied by traces of a common language. I shall have contributed +my share to the joint investigation when, in addition to +the preceding data, I present the following list of Maya and Mexican +names intimately associated with the native symbols and set +of ideas. In presenting them I once more draw attention to the +resemblance of sound in words which obviously influenced the choice +of certain symbols just as, for instance, loose-skinned oranges are +now given as presents at New Year in China, because their native +name has exactly the same sound as the word meaning <q>good +fortune.</q> The use, especially on porcelain, of the bat=fuh, to +signify <q>happiness,</q> also fuh, and of the sonorous stone <q>King</q> +to emblematize <q>prosperity,</q><note place='foot'>China, +Prof. Rob. Douglas, p. 259.</note> are other instances which shed much +light upon the origin of primitive symbolism in China and elsewhere. +</p> + +<p> +Symbols And Names Connected With Middle Or Centre. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Maya.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Ho, or Ti-hoo=name of ancient capital of Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +Ho-m, or ho-mul=artificial mound or pyramid. +</p> + +<p> +Ho-mtanil=belly. +</p> + +<p> +Ho-bnel=entrails. +</p> + +<p> +Ho=five, symbolized by hand=kab, also by five-dot group. +</p> + +<p> +Ci-hom=sacred tree, the leaves of which were scattered in the +temple court-yard at the baptism of children (Landa). +</p> + +<p> +Ho-l=head (symbol). +</p> + +<p> +Ho-och=vase in general. +</p> + +<p> +Cuxabel=heart or life, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ah-cuch-cab=heart of the state, +title of lord or chieftain. +</p> + +<p> +Nic, or nic-té=flower, usually represented as consisting of five +parts, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the centre and four petals. +</p> + +<p> +Tem=the square altar. +</p> + +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> + +<p> +Names Of Symbols Connected With Four Quarters, Above And +Below. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Maya.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Can=four, serpent. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>{Caan=sky, cord.</l> +<l>{Canalil=adj. grandeur, elevation.</l> +<l>{Canal=on top of, on; also yellow.</l> +<l>{Canal-cun-zaal=to exalt, elevate, aggrandize, praise.</l> +<l>{Cananil=necessity, need.</l> +<l>{Canaan=adj. necessary, needed.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +Ché=tree. +</p> + +<p> +Zin-ché=cross, literally tree of life or of power. +</p> + +<p> +Zin-il=powerful, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> zihnal=original, primitive. +</p> + +<p> +Zihzabal=creation. +</p> + +<p> +Zian=the beginning, origin, generation. +</p> + +<p> +Zihil=to commence, or be born. +</p> + +<p> +Zinan=scorpion, symbol. +</p> + +<p> +Name And Symbol Of North. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Maya.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Am=spider. +</p> + +<p> +Aman=the north. +</p> + +<p> +Star-Names. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Maya.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Ek=star, black. +</p> + +<p> +Ek-chuah=name of the patron divinity of travellers and traders, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the pole-star. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ikal, native word adopted by Spanish missionaries to denote +<q>a spirit.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I have already pointed out how a minute comparison of the +equivalent Mexican symbols and their names shows that the latter +often seem to be mere translations from the Maya and that the +same identity of sound does not always exist between the Nahuatl +symbol, its name and true significance. On the other hand in the +much-used Mexican symbol for the centre and four quarters, the +flower, pronounced ho-chitl, but written xo-chitl, the archaic Maya +syllable ho, so intimately connected with the centre, recurs. It also +appears in the name of the constellation Ursa Minor, xo-necuilli, +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> +in the word xoch-ayotl=tortoise, employed as a symbol, and in +the name xolotl=something double or dual, sometimes employed +as a synonym of coatl=twin, serpent. The hand=maitl was +employed to express the numeral five=macuilli. It is particularly +interesting to note that in order to express the word tlachi-ual-tepetl +or <q>artificial mound</q> (the Maya hom) in Nahuatl, the +scribes had to paint a mountain surmounted by an eye, a symbol +also employed to designate stars=the eyes of night. The Nahuatl +for tree=quahuitl is almost homonymous with quaitl=head +and both were employed as symbols of the centre. +</p> + +<p> +The following Nahuatl words claim special attention. The first +is teotl, which was adopted as the equivalent of the Greek Theos by +the Spanish missionaries, but which appears to have been originally +used in the sense of a <q>Divinity,</q> or <q>divine lord,</q> and was also +applied to all lords or rulers. +The second is the verb yoli or +yolinia=to live and yollotl=heart. +A special interest attaches +itself, however, to the +noun yauatl=circle and the +verb yaualoa=to go around in +a circle many times, because +there is good ground for identifying, +as the Ursa Major, the +star-god mentioned as Youal-tecuhtli +by Sahagun. As youalli +means night, the title literally +signifies <q>the lord of the night,</q> +while yaual=tecuhtli would +mean the lord of the circle or wheel, the most appropriate name +for Ursa Major. The actual representation, in the <q>Lyfe of the +Indians,</q> of the <q>Lord of Night,</q> within a wheel or circle composed +of his own footsteps, so strikingly corroborates this view, +that further comment appears unnecessary (fig. <ref target='Figure_59'>59</ref>). +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_59'/> + <figure url='images/figure-59.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 59.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In conclusion the exact meaning of the most important native +symbols is here recapitulated so as to facilitate comparative +research. +</p> + +<p> +THE SWASTIKA OR CROSS +</p> + +<p> +the most ancient of primitive symbols was primarily a graphic +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> +representation of the annual rotation of the Septentriones around +Polaris. It thus constituted not only an image of the most impressive +of celestial phenomena but also a year-symbol. The +most highly-developed forms of the swastika found in Mexico are +associated with calendar-signs. In Mexico and in the Ohio Valley +it is linked with the serpent, to the symbolism of which reference +should be made. In Copan the cross symbol is associated with the +image of a figure in repose, occupying the Middle, and four puffs of +breath or air, laden with life-seeds, emanating from this. +</p> + +<p> +Considering that the cross ultimately became the symbol of the +union of the four elements or two principles of nature in one and +that the production of life-producing rain was attributed to the +union of heaven and earth, it is evident why the Cozumel cross +was described to its Spanish discoverers, by the natives, as a symbol +of the <q>rain-god.</q> +</p> + +<p> +THE SACRED FIRE +</p> + +<p> +which was kept perpetually burning on the summit of the pyramid +was the graphic and appropriate image of the central light of +heaven that most naturally suggested itself to the native mind. +Its origin was attributed to supernatural agency and it was under +the special care of the priesthood. A deeply symbolical meaning +was obviously attached to the ceremonial kindling of the sacred +fire by means of the reed fire-drill which was held perpendicularly +and inserted into a horizontally-placed piece of dry wood. A +noteworthy resemblance to a tau-shaped figure was thus formed, +which is interesting in connection with the fact that the ceremony +of kindling the sacred fire was undoubtedly regarded by the ancient +Mexicans as emblematical of the productive and life-giving +union of the dual principles of nature. The acatl or reedstalk, +inserted into the vase-like symbol of the earth, such as is carved +on the centre of the upper edge of the calendar-stone, is but +another hieratic form of the same symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +The annual re-distribution of the sacred fire to the entire population, +a fresh gift from heaven obtained by the mediation of the +high-priest, was particularly impressive and emphasized the idea +of all fire and light and life proceeding from a common centre. +</p> + +<p> +It is noticeable that the reed or acatl is also intimately associated +with the east, the masculine or life-giving region. The +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +Maya name for tortoise=ac, is a curious homonym of the Nahuatl +word ac-atl. +</p> + +<p> +THE SERPENT +</p> + +<p> +emblematizes and expresses the sound of quadruple power in +Maya and duality in Nahuatl. It was employed as an image or +embodiment in a single form of the two principles of nature or +the four elements. It was usually accompanied by the adjective +heavenly or divine and symbolized reproduction, being the union +of the masculine or heavenly and feminine or earthly principles. +In this connection it should be noted that the numeral two in Nahuatl +is ome, and in Maya, ca. A native mode of expressing duality, +by means of two horn-like projections on the heads of allegorical +personages, is exemplified in fig. <ref target='Figure_29'>29</ref>, p. 92. +</p> + +<p> +THE TREE +</p> + +<p> +was the emblem of life, of hidden and visible growth which extended +downward into the earth and upward into heaven and sent forth its +four branches towards the cardinal points. It typified tribal life +because its various parts were identified with the different members +of the community and, metaphorically, the lord was spoken of as +the trunk or main stem; the minor chiefs as branches and twigs; +the men or vassals as leaves; the maidens as flowers, and the +women as fruit, etc. The name <q>atlapalli</q> was, for instance, +the current Nahuatl appellation for vassals. +</p> + +<p> +As the conventionalized trees in the native picture-writings are +usually figured with four equal branches they formed an appropriate +image of the living state, and of all directions in space. +The <q>tree of life</q> thus formed a swastika or cross and both +symbols were indissolubly linked together. The names of two trees, +considered particularly sacred by the Mayas, were the ci-hom and +the yax-ché, a sort of ceiba which was termed <q>the tree of celestial +life</q> (Landa). +</p> + +<p> +THE HUMAN FACE +</p> + +<p> +was an image of the duality and unity of nature. The upper half +of the face symbolized heaven with its two eyes, the sun and +moon. The mouth and teeth, the Nahuatl name for which=tlan-tli +was homonymous with the affix tlan=land or earth=tlalli, +emblematized earth, darkness and the Below. The nose with its +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> +two nostrils emblematized inhalation and exhalation. The sanctity +attached to this mystic union of two streams of breath led to +the consecration of the nose by the wearing of a symbolical ornament +attached to it. +</p> + +<p> +THE HUMAN FORM +</p> + +<p> +expressed <q>a complete count</q> and was employed as an image of +the entire constitution, and of the calendar system; each part of +the government administration and calendar sign being identified +with one of the twenty digits, four limbs, body and head of the +human form. +</p> + +<p> +THE QUADRUPED +</p> + +<p> +usually the ocelot, or puma, was the symbol of the government of +the Below and nocturnal cult of the earth as opposed to +</p> + +<p> +THE BIRD OR EAGLE +</p> + +<p> +which typified the upper state and diurnal cult of Heaven. Chiefs, +who united dual powers in their persons, wore, as an emblem, the +serpent, or a combination of ocelot-skin and feather ornaments. +</p> + +<p> +THE HAND +</p> + +<p> +expressed <hi rend='italic'>per se</hi>, in Maya, the numeral ho=five, which was also +the name of a state which invariably consisted of the central +capital and four provinces. As such it was carried as an emblem +of power by the central ruler, as may be seen in the native codices. +The thumb being regarded as the principal or ruling finger, the +chief lord was metaphorically spoken of as the thumb, whilst the +minor lords were entitled fingers=pilli. +</p> + +<p> +THE PYRAMID AND SACRED MOUNTAIN +</p> + +<p> +was primarily an artificial elevation destined to be a place of refuge +in times of inundation; the pyramid ultimately symbolized: (1) the +sacred stable centre of the world and the Four Quarters; (2) central +power and its four manifestations or elements. The great +pyramid of the ancient City of Mexico which was crowned by two +chapels, respectively containing symbolical images of the two +principles of nature, is a striking illustration of the employment +of the pyramid to express the dual centre (the Above and Below, +etc.) and the quadruple organization of all things which was +expressed not only by the four sides of the structure but by its +four superposed terraces. The fact recorded by Friar Duran, that +<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/> +the flight of steps which led to the summit of the pyramid on its +eastern side consisted of 365 steps, and that the annual ceremony +of ascending these, performed by a consecrated individual, <q>signified +the course of the sun in a year,</q> indicates that the pyramid +was also associated with the idea of the quadruplicate division of +time which pervaded the entire calendar system. +</p> + +<p> +It should also be borne in mind that in ancient Mexico the summits +of high mountains were regarded as sacred, <q>because it was +there that Heaven and Earth met and generated fructifying showers.</q> +As religious cult developed, the rites performed on the summit +of the pyramid or artificial mound were for the purpose of +evoking rain and the renewal of life upon earth, and symbolized +the union of heaven and earth. To the native mind the pyramid +thus represented the consecrated meeting-place of heaven and +earth, the Above and Below, the masculine and feminine elements, +the <q>divine twins,</q> as well as universal, all-pervading, quadruplicate +organization. The massive pyramid likewise typified, in an impressive +manner, the main idea connected with the Middle: that of +stability, immutability, quietude and repose, combined with power. +</p> + +<p> +In some localities a remarkable rock or massive block of stone +was adopted as the mark of the sacred centre and became the +altar on which offerings or sacrifices were made, or the throne on +which the terrestrial central ruler seated himself on ceremonial +occasions and assumed an attitude of absolute repose. It is interesting +to collate the Nahuatl words Te-otl, divinity or divine lord, +with te-tl=stone and the Maya te-m=stone seat or altar, of +which many carved examples exist in the ruined Central American +cities, and to observe that principal personages, such as are represented +on the carved altars and in the middle of the Copan swastika, +are represented as seated cross-legged, as though this attitude +were specially indicative of repose on the stable centre of the four +quarters. As the natives usually squat or sit on their heels, the +cross-legged attitude is particularly noteworthy in connection with +the omnipresent set of ideas. +</p> + +<p> +THE BOWL OR VASE +</p> + +<p> +was the emblem of earth, the receptacle of fructifying showers, +and of the terrestrial centre. Filled with rain-water, on the surface +of which the radiance of a star—the pole-star—reflected itself, +the bowl was supposed to typify the union of heaven and earth by +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> +means of the divine essence of light and life, proceeding from the +<q>Heart of Heaven.</q> +</p> + +<p> +THE FLOWER +</p> + +<p> +was another symbol of the earth and of the state and its divisions. +It occurs as a composite flower consisting of a yellow centre surrounded +by multicolored petals. The usual form is of a flower +with four equal petals, bearing a circle or dot in the centre and one +on each petal, the Middle and Four Quarters being thus expressed. +</p> + +<milestone unit='tb' rend='rule: 50%'/> + +<p> +A closing allusion should be briefly made to the native association +of the square with the earth and the circle with the heaven +and to the influence exerted by these ideas combined with those of +light and darkness upon primitive architecture and symbolical +ornamental designs. +</p> + +<p> +Pointing out that all of the above symbols are but variations +on the fundamental theme of the <q>Middle, Four Quarters, Above +and Below,</q> I also emphasize the fact that, in ancient America, +language powerfully influenced the choice of symbols, as may +be particularly seen in the case of the serpent, the Nahuatl and +Maya names for which are homonymous with duality and +quadruplicity. +</p> + +<p> +The origin and meaning of the ancient American symbols of the +cross, the serpent, the tree, etc., are clearly apparent. It remains +to be seen how far this is the case in other countries where the +identical symbols were or are employed, and it is to my fellow +archæologists that I look for final authoritative statements on this +important subject, in their special lines of research. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile I shall present some facts which are accessible to the +general reader and suffice for the purpose of my present investigation. +</p> + +<p> +CHINA. +</p> + +<p> +Pole-star worship and determination of time by Ursa Major existed +in China from remote antiquity. The Chinese name for the +pole-star is Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of +the Heaven. In China <q>the pole-star, round which the entire +firmament appears to turn, ought to be considered as the Sovereign +of the Heavens, and as the most venerated divinity</q> (G. Schlegel, +Uranographie Chinoise, p. 524). The sacred central forbidden +enclosure, at Peking, contains a temple of the North Star God. In +the description of the imperial worship held at the winter and summer +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> +solstices, in James Edkins' Religion in China (London, 1878, +p. 24) it is stated: <q>On the second terrace of the east side, +the tablet of the Sun is placed, and also that of <hi rend='italic'>the Great Bear</hi>, +the five of the 28 constellations and one for all the other stars.</q> The +following passage shows the origin of the Chinese year: +</p> + +<p> +1. <q>The months and seasons are determined by the revolution +of Ursa Major (the Chinese name for which is Pek-tao the +<q>Seven Directors</q>). The tail of the constellation pointing to the +east at nightfall announces the arrival of spring; pointing to +the south the arrival of summer; pointing to the west the arrival +of autumn and pointing to the north the arrival of winter. This +means of calculating the seasons becomes more intelligible when +it is remembered that in ancient times the Bear was much nearer +the north pole than now and revolved around it like the hand of a +clock</q> (Prof. Rob. K. Douglass, China. London, 1887, p. 418). +The Chinese zodiac is represented with the pole-star and circumpolar +constellations in the centre (Astronomy of the Chinese, Ancient +China, W. H. Medhurst, Shanghae, 1846). +</p> + +<p> +2. The determination and designation of six directions in +space. In Chinese the six ho or ki designate the limits of space, +the zenith, nadir and four quarters (Mayer's Manual, pp. 306, +312 and 321). <q>The term Liu-ho also applies to the six pairs of +cyclical signs and means <q>Universe,</q> that is, Heaven and Earth +[being Above and Below] and the Four Quarters.</q><note place='foot'>The +Chinese designation ho, applied to the limits of space, is particularly interesting +in connection with the Maya ho and its homonyms.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The syllable ho also occurs in the following words which deserve +to be collated with the Maya list: Hô=river, hu=lake. C-hó-o=master, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Maya hol=head. Hó-o=resident, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Maya ho=capital. +Shó-o=tree, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Maya ci-hom=tree. Pih-shó-o=cypress. +Kwó=country, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> mouth, symbol for land or below. +Kòw=mouth, etc. Chow=name of ancient metropolis. +</p> + +<p> +3. The conception of the Above and Below=duality. The +zenith is naturally associated with heaven and the nadir with +earth. Heaven is father and earth is mother. Heaven is figured +by a circle and earth by a square. <q>The marriage of Heaven +and Earth produces all things.</q> The association of heaven with +the male and earth with the female principles is shown by (1) +the injunction: <q>Thou shalt honor thy father as the heaven and thy +mother as the earth.</q> (2) In Pekin, the Emperor, termed <q>the +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> +Son of Heaven,</q> inhabits the <q>Palace of Heaven</q> whilst the +Empress inhabits the <q>Palace of Earth's repose.</q> The sun is +male and the <q>Temple of the Sun</q> is situated to the east. The +moon is female and the <q>Temple of the Moon</q> is situated to the +west in the sacred enclosure at Pekin. The emblematic color of +the heaven is naturally azure; of the sun, red; of the earth, yellow; +and of the moon, white. It is thus evident that the cult of +heaven and earth is indissolubly linked to that of the Yang and +Yin, the male and the female principle, and that in China the following +chains of association concerning duality were formed: +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{3cm} p{3cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(20) lw(20)'"> +<row><cell>Zenith.</cell><cell>Nadir.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Above.</cell><cell>Below.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Tien=Heaven.</cell><cell>Tec=Earth.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Father.</cell><cell>Mother.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Yang.</cell><cell>Yin.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Color: Azure.</cell><cell>Yellow.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Emblem: Sun.</cell><cell>Moon.</cell></row> +<row><cell>East=place of rising.</cell><cell>West, place of setting.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Light.</cell><cell>Darkness.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Day.</cell><cell>Night.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Personification: the Shang-ti=</cell><cell>The Earth-Mother.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Emperor=Above, The Lord of Heaven or Universe.</cell> + <cell>The Empress=Below?</cell></row> +<row><cell>Earthly representative: the Light Emperor.</cell> + <cell>The Empress? or Sombre Emperor?</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +An interesting addition to this dual list is the view of a modern +Chinaman, that the Yang and Yin principles refer to positive and +negative electricity! (Legge). A striking result of the association +of woman with the nadir and earth is the fact that in Thibet, +according to Rockhill, woman is designated as Smanba or Manba: +<q>low creature.</q> +</p> + +<p> +THE MIDDLE AND FOUR QUARTERS. +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that the Chinese designate their empire as the +<q>Middle Kingdom.</q> Another native name for China is <q>Chung-ho-a,</q> +which I find translated as <q>the Flower of the Middle.</q> The +empire is likewise designated as <q>the Four Seas</q>=ssu-hai and +<q>the Four Mountains,</q> and it was actually divided by the emperor +Yaou or Yāo (B.C. 2357) into four provinces converging at +the capital, the central enclosure of which was considered as the +centre of heaven and earth. It is extremely significant that, in this +central enclosure there is a temple, consecrated to the god of the +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> +north star=The Imperial Ruler of Heaven, whereas altars only are +dedicated to the sun and moon respectively. The existence in the +central enclosure, or the <q>Carnation prohibited city,</q> of the Temple +of Earth's Repose, reveals that the idea of stability was associated +with this terrestrial centre. The fact that the Empress and +the female portion of the Imperial family resided in the <q>Palace of +Earth's Repose</q> affords an explanation of the possible origin of +deforming the feet of noble women, this being a means of enforcing +comparative repose upon them, in keeping with the symbolism +of their surroundings. +</p> + +<p> +The most striking structure in this sacred enclosure is <q>an +artificial mound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, having +five summits, crowned with as many temples. Its height allows +the spectator to overlook the whole city, whilst, too, it is itself a +conspicuous object from every direction.</q> This sacred mound or +pyramid actually marks the centre of the empire. From the surrounding +walls of the sacred city four roads diverge towards the +cardinal points, dividing the capital into four quarters. Each +province was ruled by an official and both province and ruler seem +to have been anciently designated by the term Mountain=Yo or +Kan. A superior official, entitled the <q>President of the Four Mountains</q> +is mentioned as the counsellor of Emperor Yaou in the Shu +King. One name for mountain is yo, another is kan, a word +which resembles k'an=water and kwăn=earth, which forms the +name of the earth mother=Kwan-yin. Without drawing any +hasty conclusions, I merely note the curious fact that the title +<q>the President of the Four Mountains,</q> must sometimes have +been rendered as Kan and as Yo, and that a variant the name of +<q>four seas</q> may well have been <q>four <foreign rend='italic'>ho</foreign></q> +or lakes or rivers. +The title kan, meaning mountain or eminence, and the idea of four +rivers flowing from a common centre or spring, may well have developed +themselves among Chinese-speaking people. It may be +an odd coincidence only that the word kan=mountain, should be +so intimately connected with the numeral four in the Chinese title; +while it is a synonym for four in the Maya, it is also found employed +in the honorific Maya title Kukul-kan=the divine Kan, and as +a synonym for mountain in certain names of localities in the valley +of Mexico. An interesting but little known fact is that the peak +of the mighty Kulkun mountain in China is designated as the +<q>King of Mountains, the summit of the earth, the supporter of +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> +heaven and the axis which touches the pole</q> (Meyer's +Conversations-Lexikon). +</p> + +<p> +I should much like to know whether the name kul-kun is a +variant of kul-kan, and literally signifies <q>divine mountain.</q> In +this case it would strangely resemble the Maya Kukulkan and the +Nahuatl Cul-hua-can, the name of the fabulous recurved mountain +of Aztec tradition. Feeling that I am here treading upon extremely +dangerous ground I shall abandon further comparisons and conclusions +to philologists and Chinese scholars and merely conclude +by stating the certain facts, that in Chinese and Maya alike the +syllable <foreign rend='italic'>ho</foreign> seems +to be associated with the Middle; while <foreign rend='italic'>can</foreign> is +connected with four-fold division. I may perhaps venture to add +that, in Chinese, Maya and Nahuatl alike, the particles te and ti +seem closely connected with Heaven; while the Chinese kwan=earth, +offers a certain resemblance to the Nahuatl affix tlan, meaning +land, and kan, sometimes used for mountain. +</p> + +<p> +Since the Chow Dynasty, the empire was spoken of as having +five instead of four mountains, which leads to the inference that +reference was thus made to the central metropolis also, the most +sacred feature of which was its central artificial mountain or +pyramid. It is obvious that the empire was governed from the +central chief capital and from minor capitals situated in the four +provinces and built on the pattern of Peking. In an extremely +interesting and clever paper<note place='foot'><q>The Mongol-Mayan +Constitution,</q> The American Antiquarian, May and June, +1898. It is with all the more genuine appreciation that I point out how Mr. Wickersham, +anticipating my publication of the same conclusion, has recognized that the +Zuñis, Mexicans and Peruvians as well as the Chinese, were ruled by what he aptly +terms the <q>Quadriform Constitution,</q> since it has taken me years of hard study to +perceive this common basis. I likewise draw attention to his study in primitive law, +<q>The Constitution of China (Olympia, 1898),</q> but must remark that I strongly differ +from his conclusions in the recently published Answer to Major Powell's inquiry +<q>Whence came the American Indians?</q> (Tacoma, 1899.)</note> +Mr. James Wickersham has recently +remarked that <q>the arrangement of cities after the cardinal-points +plan was the rule not only in America but in China</q> and gives the +following quotations: <q>Mukden, the metropolis and ancient +capital of Manchuria, was a walled city like Peking. Main +streets ran across the city from gate to gate, with narrow roads, +called Hu-ting, intersecting them. The palace of the early Manchu +sovereigns occupies the centre</q> (The Middle Kingdom, +Williams, vol. I, pp. 192-198). The Manchurian city of Kirin is +also divided into four quarters: <q>Two great streets cross each +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> +other at right angles, one of them running far out into the river +on the west supported by piles.</q> Peune, another large city, is +similarly divided. <q>It consists of two main streets with the chief +market [place] at their crossing. This plan is the rule in the +cities of northern China; the large cities are walled and divided by +cross streets emerging from the city gates at the cardinal points</q> +(Coxe's Russia, pp. 316-17). The relation of the central seat of +government to its provinces is thus recorded in the Canon of +Shun.<note place='foot'>Shu King. The +Chinese Classics, Legge. Book <hi rend='smallcaps'>I</hi>, p. 37.</note> +<q>In five years there was one tour of inspection (performed +by the emperor) and four appearances at court of the +nobles. They set forth a report of their government in words. +This was clearly tested by their works. They received chariots +and robes according to their services.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The order of rotation in which the emperor visited in one year +the capital of each quarter, returning after each absence to the +metropolis, is given as follows: <q>In the second month the tour +was to the east. In the fifth month ... to the south. In +the eighth month ... to the west. In the eleventh month ... +to the north.</q> During the next year the nobles of +the eastern province made their appearance at court, and the +south, west and north provinces followed in turn, it being noticeable +that, in each case, the circle started at the east, the place of +rising. +</p> + +<p> +The institution of the calendar by the Emperor Yaou is described +at length in the Shu King.<note place='foot'>Sacred Books of the +East, Legge, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, Shû King; also W. H. Medhurst, +Shanghai, 1846.</note> Confucius said of this remarkable +personage, <q>Heaven alone is great, but Yaou is able to +imitate Heaven.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Emperor Yaou <q>... harmonized the various states +of the empire and the black-haired people, oh! how they were +reformed by this cordial agreement. He commanded He and Ho +(officers superintending the calendar and astronomical instruments) +in reverent accordance with the motions of the expansive heavens, +to arrange by numbers and represent the revolutions of the sun +and moon and stars with the lunar mansions and then respectfully +communicate to the people the seasons adapted for labor. He then +separately directed He's younger brother to reside at Yu-e (the +modern Tang-chow in Shan-tung), called the Orient Valley, where +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> +he might respectfully hail the rising sun, adjust and arrange the +eastern (and vernal) undertakings and notice the equalization of +days and whether the star (culminating at nightfall) was the +middle constellation of the bird, in order to hit the centre of mid-spring; +he might also observe whether the people began to disperse +abroad and whether birds and beasts were beginning to pair. +He commanded He's third brother to reside at the southern border +(the region of Cochin-China) and adjust and arrange the southern +or summer transformation and respectfully notice the extreme +limit of the shadow when the days attain their utmost length and +the star in the zenith that is denominated Fire (heart of Scorpio, +culminated on eve of summer solstice), in order to fix the exact +period of mid-summer, when the people disperse themselves more +widely and the birds and beasts begin to moult and cast their +skins. He then distinctly commanded Ho's youngest brother to +dwell in the west, at a place called the Dark Valley, where he +might respectfully attend the setting sun and equalize and adjust +the western (or autumnal) completions, notice the equalizations of +the nights and see whether the culminating star was Emptiness +(Beta in Aquarius, which culminated at autumnal equinox which +was the period at the centre of the dark principle in nature) in +order to adjust the mid-autumn, when the people would be more at +ease and the birds and beasts would be sleek and plump. He +further directed Ho's third brother to dwell at the northern region, +called the dismal city, where he might properly examine the reiterations +and alterations and see whether, when the days were +shortest, the culminating star was Pleiades (this culminates in the +evening at winter solstice, which is the extreme of dark principle +in nature and midnight seat of that principle) in order to adjust +midwinter, when the people would remain at home and the birds +and beasts get their down and hair. Thus careful was the sage in +reverently observing heaven and labouring diligently for the people, +in order that his plans might not contradict the designs of heaven +nor the government miss the proper season for human labour.</q> It +is further said that <q>the bright influence (of Yaou's qualities) +was felt through the four quarters (of the land) and reached to +(heaven) above and (earth) beneath</q> (Shu King, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 32). Legge cites Pritchard's (Savilian Professor, Oxford University) +chart as a proof of the correctness of the chronology which places +Yâou in the 24th century B.C. The precession of the equinoxes +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> +was not known in China until more than 2,500 years after the +time assigned to Yaou. +</p> + +<p> +Pausing to renew the foregoing data, it is with particular satisfaction +that I point out how clearly they reveal the basis and +origin of the <q>Quadriform Constitution</q> and idea of central +government. In China the pole star is designated as the Imperial +Ruler of Heaven and a temple to the God of the North Star stands +in the sacred enclosure which marks the centre of the empire. +The opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major at nightfall divide +the year into four quarters and this quadruplicate division caused +by rotation, assuming absolute dominion over the native mind, is +applied to heaven and earth and pervades every detail of civil and +religious government, as in ancient America. +</p> + +<p> +Forced to recognize that the primitive inhabitants of China and +America derived their first principles of organization from the +identical light-giving source, a fact which also indicates a community +of race and of place of origin, let us now review some data +which prove that the two civilizations must have been separated +and isolated from each other at an extremely remote period of time. +</p> + +<p> +Certain conceptions, common to all primitive people, were shared +by the Chinese and Mexicans, one of these being the belief that the +earth was flat and square. The name for a year in ancient Mexican +was xiuitl, literally, grass, and this was represented in the picture +writings by a bunch of young blades of some sort of grass, possibly +maize-shoots. <q>The earliest written Chinese character for +a year represented a stalk of wheat.... In the ancient +work entitled the San Fun, part of which was probably written in +the 23d century B.C., there is evidence that among some of the +aboriginal tribes of China the year, as among the Egyptians and +some of the people of India, was divided into three periods, known +as the grass-springing, tree-reigning and tree-decaying periods. +Under the higher culture of the Chinese these divisions disappeared +and the twelve months became the recognized parts of the +year</q> (Douglas, China, pp. 269 and 310). Amongst the Mexican +month-names there are also some which allude to such regularly +recurring and impressive natural phenomena as the sprouting of +trees and the appearance of verdure or springing of the maize, etc. +</p> + +<p> +An indication as to what was the most ancient and primitive +method of rotation employed seems afforded by the Chinese description +how, for governmental purposes, the five-year period was +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> +adopted, one year pertaining to the emperor or central ruler and +the following four to the quarters of the empire. An analogous +employment of a quinary period as a means of obtaining a rotation +of contribution from the four quarters of the empire to its +metropolis, identified with the first day, is discernible in the Mexican +institution of the macuil-tianquiztli, or five-day market, by +which means the entire year was divided into five-day groups. +</p> + +<p> +A study of the ancient Chinese calendar furnishes, moreover, an +indication of the way in which the numeral 12 came to be recognized +and adopted by primitive people. It is obvious that the +early astronomers, having determined the length of the year by +observing Ursa Major at nightfall, recognized that, during the +period required for its annual complete revolution around the pole +star, there regularly appeared twelve new moons. In China, at a +remote period, a division of the year into <q>months was adopted, +the early names of which have, according to the author of the +earliest Chinese dictionary, the Urhye, been lost.</q> <q>The modern +Chinese year is lunar in its divisions, though regulated by the sun +in so far that New Year's day is made to fall on the first new moon +after the sun enters Aquarius and varies between 21st January and +19th of February</q> (Douglas, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 258). It would seem +as though some fresh impulse, or institution of moon-cult, had +influenced Shun, Yaou's successor, to reorganize the empire, which +had been simply divided into quarters, and subdivide it into 4×3=12 +districts. +</p> + +<p> +Another interesting evolution of a numerical system, the origin +of which can be traced to the four positions and seven stars of +Ursa Major, is discernible in the Chinese zodiac. This, the earliest +division of the ecliptic in China, consists of <q>28 lunar mansions, +which are grouped together in four classes of seven each, assigned +to the four quarters of heaven</q> (Legge, vol. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, p. 24, Introduction +to Shu-King). It is to the observation of precisely the same +impressive phenomena that the universal adoption of the numbers +12, 4 and 7 may safely be attributed. The further division, by +Emperor Yu, of the Chinese Empire into five domains or zones, +finds an interesting parallelism in Mexico and Central America. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Wickersham describes Yu's division in the following concise +manner: <q>The Imperial domain extended five hundred le in every +direction from the capital, north, south, east and west, and was +therefore one thousand le square, with its sides facing the cardinal +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> +points; the domain of the Nobles was an additional territory +five hundred le broad on each of the four sides; the Peace-securing +domain was then added, beyond which came the domain of +Restraint, and at the greatest extremity the Wild domain. By this +arrangement, the sacred center, the capital where the <q>Son of +Heaven</q> resided, was completely surrounded by loyal officials and +subjects; the most loyal were nearest the center while at the farthest +extremity were the wild and dangerous tribes and criminals +undergoing the greater banishment. By this square method of disposing +of the population, the quiet and orderly members of society +were required to reside near the capital, while the turbulent were +placed toward the outer limits, serving to free the center from +turmoil and to act as a barrier to the inroads of outside barbarians.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Among the Zuñis and Mexicans the spider's web is met with as +an image of the division of their territory into quarters, half-quarters +and concentric circles. +</p> + +<p> +In Peru a record exists of a system of irrigation by which means +the territory surrounding the capital was divided into alternate +zones of land and water. Mexico and Central America furnish +records too scattered to be compiled here, showing that somewhat +as in China, the territory of the state was divided into the domains +of the rulers, the lords, the people, and the territory of war. +</p> + +<p> +After having duly considered some salient points of fundamental +agreement which are to be found underlying the widely different +later growths of the Chinese and ancient American systems, let us +now examine and analyze some of the most remarkable points of +divergence. +</p> + +<p> +The following tables, placed in juxtaposition, afford an opportunity +of recognizing the striking and significant fact that, whereas +the Mexicans and Zuñis classified air, water, fire and earth as +<q>elements,</q> the Chinese ignored air and identified wood and metal +as their fourth and fifth elements. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{1cm} p{2cm} p{2cm} p{2cm}'; + tblcolumns: 'lw(10) lw(15) lw(15) lw(15)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Mexico.</cell><cell>Zuni.</cell><cell>China.</cell></row> +<row><cell><hi rend='italic'>North</hi>.</cell><cell>Red, Fire.</cell> + <cell>Yellow, Air.</cell><cell>Black, Water.</cell></row> +<row><cell><hi rend='italic'>West</hi>.</cell><cell>Yellow, Earth.</cell> + <cell>Blue, Water.</cell><cell>White, Metal.</cell></row> +<row><cell><hi rend='italic'>South</hi>.</cell><cell>Blue, Air.</cell> + <cell>Red, Fire.</cell><cell>Red, Fire.</cell></row> +<row><cell><hi rend='italic'>East</hi>.</cell><cell>Green, Water.</cell> + <cell>White, Earth.</cell><cell>Blue, Wood.</cell></row> +<row><cell><hi rend='italic'>Middle</hi>.</cell><cell>Many colors.</cell> + <cell>Middle, All colors.</cell><cell>Yellow, Earth.</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> + +<p> +A deep-seated analogy may, however, be traced between the +Chinese assignment of <q>wood</q> to the Middle and the Maya-Mexican +employment of the tree as a symbol of life proceeding +from the centre, stretching above and below and spreading its +branches to the four quarters. It remains to be seen how far the +Chinese assignment of <q>wood</q> to the Middle approached the +American tree-symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +The marked differentiation in the assignment of colors to the +cardinal points in the above comparative table leads to the conclusion +that their choice had been arbitrary and was possibly influenced +by local environment, the possibility of obtaining certain +pigments in given directions, or by language, the names of certain +colors or elements resembling in sound those of the cardinal +points, etc.<note place='foot'>An interesting note +in connection with the assignment of color to the cardinal +points in Asia, is given by Schlagintweit (Buddhism in Thibet, 27, 3), who relates +that <q>the walls of the temples look towards the 4 quarters of heaven and each side +should be painted with its particular colour, viz.: north=green, east=white, south=yellow, +west=red, but this rule is not strictly adhered to; most, indeed, are painted +red.</q> As a parallel to this I refer to Sahagun's description of the temple of the +high-priest Quetzalcoatl at Tula, which held four chambers facing the cardinal points; +<q>The east chamber was termed the golden house and was lined with plates of gold; +the west chamber was termed the house of emeralds and turquoises; the south +chamber was inlaid with silver and mother of pearl and the north chamber with red +jasper and shells.</q> Sahagun describes also a second building of the same kind, in +which the decoration of the four rooms was carried out in the same colors, in +feather-mosaic (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> Book <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxix</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +After studying the above comparative lists it becomes clear that, +whilst the fundamental principle of the system was identical, the +mode of carrying it out was different in China and America, a fact +which indicates independence and isolation at the period when elements +and colors, etc., were chosen and assigned to the directions +in space. An analogous instance of divergence is shown in the +following assignment of parts of the body to the cardinal points: +</p> + +<p> +CHINESE. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{2cm} p{2cm}'; + tblcolumns: 'lw(10) lw(15)'"> +<row><cell>North</cell><cell>Kidneys.</cell></row> +<row><cell>West</cell><cell>Lungs.</cell></row> +<row><cell>South</cell><cell>Heart.</cell></row> +<row><cell>East</cell><cell>Liver.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Middle</cell><cell>Stomach.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Zenith</cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Nadir</cell><cell>——</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> + +<p> +Although it differs in detail, an analogous association of various +parts of the body with the directions in space and the twenty calendar-signs, +may be seen in a Mexican Codex. In this case, however, +it is clear that the origin of this assignment was the natural +association between the <q>complete finger-and-toe count=a complete +man=20=with the 20 or complete count of the day signs.</q> +I have already produced evidences showing that the human figure +was employed in primitive times to represent <q>a complete count, +or 20 years.</q> When chieftains were elected for a term of twenty +years and their names were given to their period of office, the full-length +portrait of the chief was sculptured on a stela and he thus +represented, primarily, <q>a complete count,</q> an epoch (see p. +<ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>). +Portraiture and accompanying inscriptions were obviously later +developments, but the primitive employment of the human form as +a means of expressing a fixed number, is one that claims consideration +and will undoubtedly lead to a wider comprehension of the +significance of the human form in aboriginal archaic sculpture. +The curious conventionalized representations of Mictlantecuhtli, +in which the body and limbs almost simulate a swastika, have already +been discussed, as well as the inference that they symbolized +Polaris and the four positions of Ursa Major=the Middle and +Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p> +The most striking confirmation of this inference is furnished by +Mr. Cushing's account that the Zuñis associated the directions in +space with the imaginary form of a quadruped as follows: +</p> + +<p> +ZUNI. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{2cm} p{2cm}'; + tblcolumns: 'lw(10) lw(15)'"> +<row><cell>North</cell><cell>Right fore foot.</cell></row> +<row><cell>West</cell><cell>Left fore foot.</cell></row> +<row><cell>South</cell><cell>Right hind leg.</cell></row> +<row><cell>East</cell><cell>Left hind leg.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Middle</cell><cell>Heart.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Zenith</cell><cell>Head.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Nadir</cell><cell>Tail.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +It is obvious from this that, to a Zuñi, the State and its subdivisions +appear under the allegorical form of a quadruped and I +have traced the identical mode of thought in Mexico and Central +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> +America<note place='foot'>The alligator-altar +of Copan and the <q>Great Turtle</q> of Quirigua, on which four +limbs may be discerned, are the most remarkable examples of the native employment +of the quadruped figure as a symbol of clan-organization and the great Quadruplicate +Plan. An interesting instance of the association, in China, of the form of a four-footed +animal with numerical divisions is furnished by the following passage from +the Book of Yu, Shoo-King, ed. Legge. Khung-she has said that <q>Heaven conferred +on Yü the divine tortoise bearing a book out of the river; on its back were various +numbers, up to nine. Yü arranged them and completed the 9 species. On the head +of the tortoise was 9, on the tail 1, on the left side 3, on the right 7. The shoulders +were formed by 2 and 4, the thighs by 6 and 8.</q></note> +where, owing to linguistic associations, an ocelot is in some +instances employed as a symbol for a State whilst in others the form +of an eagle was adopted for the same purpose (see Appendix +<ref target='Appendix_I'>I</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +To sum up: in ancient America the human form was employed +to represent quadripartite division and the complete finger-and-toe +count=20, and as such became emblematic of the quadriform +plan of universal application. Owing to a variety of circumstances +and suggestions arising from language, the figure of a quadruped=ocelot +was adopted as a symbol of the State by some tribes and the +form of an eagle by others, the inference being that the ocelot was +identified with the cult of the earth and night and the eagle with +the cult of heaven and day. While the ocelot and eagle occur in +the codices as representative of two distinct classes or divisions of +the State, there are some interesting and suggestive representations, +to which I shall revert, of figures combining the form and claws +of an ocelot with the wings and head of a bird, evidently symbolical +of a union of the Above and Below, or Heaven and Earth. +</p> + +<p> +Having furnished the explanation that ancient America affords +of the origin of the primitive employment of the human body, the +quadruped and bird in allegory and the assignment of their various +parts to points in space, it is to Chinese scholars that I appeal for +enlightenment as to the origin and development of the same idea +in China. To me one point of difference between the Chinese and +American list is very striking. In America although the navel was +also regarded as a symbol, the heart, associated with the Middle, +had obviously been recognized as the centre or seat of life, and the +tearing out of the heart had become the salient feature in human +sacrifices. In China the stomach is assigned to the Middle, and +death by disembowelling was customary. +</p> + +<p> +An analysis of the Chinese and Mexican numerical systems +likewise proves that their ultimate development was strikingly +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> +different, although it is easy to recognize how both might have +arisen from the same source. Thus whilst the Mexican and Central +American calendar (and social organization) is based on the +combination of 20 characters with 13 numerals, the Chinese <q>took +two sets of 12 and 10 characters respectively and combined them.</q> +The outcome of the combination of 20 with 13 affords a marked +contrast to that of 12 with 10. In the Mexican calendar, as I +have shown, there were fixed periods of 5 days (associated with +the Middle and Four Quarters) and of 20 days, the latter being +<q>one complete count</q> of days, based on the primitive finger-and-toe +count. In the Mexican social organization there were 4 principal +and 16 minor clans of people, known by 20 signs. Each of +these in turn was subdivided into 13 categories associated with the +directions in space. By mentioning a sign and a numeral, up to +13, the exact subdivision of a clan was clearly designated while +the direction of its residence, as regards the capital, was likewise +conveyed. A day was associated with each of these 20 clans and +their respective 13 subdivisions, and the unit of time produced by +the combination of the 20 day-signs and 13 numerals was the +period of 260 days, which held 4×65 days and was approximately +equivalent to nine lunations and to the period of human +gestation. The 260-day period, as will be more clearly shown in +my monograph on the Mexican Calendar System, constituted the +religious year of the <q>Sons or Lords of Night</q> in their cult of the +Moon, the Nocturnal Heaven, Earth and the Female principle. +</p> + +<p> +Simultaneously with this lunar calendar, in which each moon had +a different name, a civil or solar calendar was employed consisting +of 365 days, divided into 17 periods of 20 and 1 period of 25 +days. These years bore the names of four different signs in rotation +combined with 13 numerals.<note place='foot'>As Prof. E. B. Taylor +has aptly pointed out: <q>By accident the [Mexican] Calendar +may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of cards laid out in rotation of +the four suits, as an ace of hearts, 2 of spades, 3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of +hearts, etc.... This system [of combining signs with numerals] is similar to +that of central southwestern Asia where, among the Mongols, Tibetans and Chinese, +etc., series of signs are thus combined to reckon years, months and days.... +Humboldt makes this comparison in his Vue des Cordillères, p. 212</q>.... (Article +<q>Mexico,</q> Ency. Brit.).</note> The cycles, thus produced, consisted +of 4×13=52 years, 20, or a <q>complete count</q> of which, +produced the great cycle of 1040 years. +</p> + +<p> +Totally different from this numerical system is that of the Chinese, +who <q>divided the year into 12 months of 29 and 30 days each and +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> +as these periods represent with sufficient exactness the lunar month, +it follows that the new moon falls on the 1st of every month and +that on the 15th the moon is at its full. The month is thus associated +with the moon and is called by the same name and written +with the same hieroglyphic.... The Chinese also divide the year +by seasons and recognize 8 main divisions and 16 subsidiary ones, +which correspond to the days on which the sun enters the 1st and +15th degrees of a zodiacal sign ...</q> (Douglas, China, p. 269). +Whilst it is customary in China for years to be designated at times +by the Neen-haou or title of an emperor and an event to be alluded +to as having occurred in such or such a year of a certain ruler's +reign, the mode of computing years is by reckoning by sexagenary +cycles. According to native historians this system was introduced +by the emperor Hwang-te in the year 2637 B.C. which was the +first year of the first cycle, and it has continued in use until the +present day. In this system a group of ten characters, termed +the <q>celestial stems</q> and associated with the male principle, is +combined with a group of twelve characters, named the <q>terrestrial +branches</q> and associated with the female principle. An unbroken +series of sixty-year cycles have thus been formed, in the +seventy-sixth of which the Chinese are now living. According to +Biot, the calendar instituted by Hwang-te was a day-count only, +and year-cycles were not in use until after the Christian era, having +been introduced from India. +</p> + +<p> +There are indications which will be more fully discussed further +on, showing that the primitive day-count consisted of the seven-day +period, each day being consecrated to one of the seven bright +stars of Ursa Major, called the <q>Seven Regulators.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that Taouism was founded by Laou-tsze, who +was a contemporary of Confucius and thus <q>lived in the sixth +century before Christ, a hundred years later than Buddha and a +hundred years earlier than Socrates. A mystery hangs over Laou-tsze's +history ... and there is the possibility that he was a foreigner, +or perhaps a member of an aboriginal frontier tribe</q> +(Legge). +</p> + +<p> +The Shoo-king, the national book of history edited by Confucius, +enables us to follow the development of the state religion and government, +the basis of which was Heaven and its imperial ruler, the +pole-star. The almost mythical emperor Yaou, whose reign began +in B.C. 2357, <q>imitated Heaven, harmonized the various states of +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> +the empire and divided it into four quarters.</q> His successor, Shun, +extended its organization, but it was Yü, the third ruler, in the +thirteenth year of his reign (B.C. 1121), who, acknowledging his +ignorance of them <q>went to inquire of Kê-tsze</q> about <q>the great +plan of the 9 classifications and the arrangement of the invariable +principles.</q> It is also stated in the Shoo-King, that it was +<q>Heaven [who] gave to Yü the great plan and the 9 classifications, +so that the invariable principles were arranged, consisting of the +5 elements, the 8 regulations, and the 5 arrangers.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In China the day is divided into periods equivalent to 120 minutes=2 +hours. <q>In speaking of these periods, however, the +practice which was originally introduced into China by the Mongols, +of substituting for the twelve stems, the names of the twelve animals +which are supposed to be symbolical of them, is commonly +adopted. Thus the 1st period, that between 11 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>p. m.</hi> and 1 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a. m.</hi>, +is known as the Rat, period 2 as the Ox, 3 Tiger, 4 Hare, 5 Dragon, +6 Serpent, 7 Horse, 8 Sheep, 9 Monkey, 10 Cock, 11 Dog, 12 +Boar. The night is divided into five watches, each of two hours +duration....</q> (Douglas, China, p. 296). +</p> + +<p> +The ancient Mexican priest-astronomers marked three divisions +of the night by burning incense in honor of certain stars, after +dusk, at midnight and at break of day. +</p> + +<p> +The mention of the introduction into China of the Mongolian +hour-computation leads to a consideration of the origin of what is +known as the Chinese civilization. It is, of course, impossible to do +more here than touch upon the various and opposite views held on +this important question by leading European and Chinese scholars. +On the one hand, <q>the existence of the Chinese civilization in +the east of Asia, separated from early centres by the whole width +of Asia and intervening trackless deserts, has seemed a problem +to many students and led to the conclusion of its sporadic growth, +an idea which is fostered by Chinese historians.</q> (See Douglas on +Chinese Culture and Civilization, 1890.) On the other hand, it is +maintained that the Chinese entered China from Tartary and were +emigrants from Babylonia who abandoned their country when +Nakhunte, king of Susiana, conquered Babylon in 2295 B.C. +</p> + +<p> +According to Legge, the Chinese came through central Asia about +2200 B.C. and founded colonies on the banks of the Yellow river +and its tributaries. These colonists founded a Middle Kingdom +in China, a federation of states with a chief supreme ruler, on the +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> +pattern of Babylonia. They introduced the art of writing and established +a calendar with a year of 360 days and an intercalary +month. +</p> + +<p> +It is stated that the names of the five planets of the Chinese, +besides the Sun and Moon, were called by the same names as in +Babylon. (See Edkins <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, also The old Babylonian characters +and their derivatives, Terrien de Lacouperie, Babylonian and +Oriental Record, March, 1888.) Some authorities are inclined to +consider Chinese astronomy as derived from the Chaldean; whilst +others have instituted comparisons between it and the Hindoo +system. The results of the latter line of investigation are set +forth by J. F. Davis in the following passage of his work on the +Chinese (London, 1836, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +p. 304): <q>A comparison between +the ancient system of the Chinese and of Hindoo astronomy is +rendered somewhat perplexing by the fact that, while there are +some points of resemblance there are others in which they essentially +differ. Both of them have twenty-eight lunar mansions and +a cycle of sixty years, but a careful observation detects some important +distinctions: the Hindoo cycle is a cycle of Jupiter while +that of the Chinese is a solar cycle, and the twenty-eight constellations +of the Hindoos are nearly all of them equal divisions of +the great circle, consisting of about 13° each, while the Chinese +constellations are extremely unequal, varying from 30° to less than +1°. The author's father, in conjunction with Sir William Jones +and Messrs. Colebrook and Bentley, proved that the Hindoo astronomy +did not go farther than the calculation of eclipses and +some other changes with the rules and tables for performing the +same. Besides their lunar zodiac of twenty-eight mansions, the +Hindoos (unlike the Chinese) have the solar, including twelve signs +perfectly identical with ours, and demonstrating, in that respect, a +common origin.</q> +</p> + +<p> +As we know from Herodotus, the Egyptians had a week of seven +days and it is remarkable that the Hindoos had anciently the +same, the planetary names being given to the days in exactly +the same order as among ourselves, except that Friday was the first. +The Chinese reckon five planets to the exclusion of the sun and +moon, but they give the name of one of their twenty-eight lunar +mansions successively to each day of the year in a perpetual rotation, +without regard to the moon's changes; so that the same +four out of the twenty-eight invariably fall on our Sundays and +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> +constitute, as it were, perpetual <hi rend='italic'>Sunday letters</hi>. A native Chinese +first remarked this odd fact to the author, and on examination it +proved perfectly correct. +</p> + +<p> +To the above it may be well to add the following comparison +between the Chinese, Tibetan and Indian systems: <q>The Tibetans +received astronomical science from India and China ... +the Chinese taught them the science of divination. Both systems +are based upon a unit of sixty years, differing, however, in +modes of denominating years. In these cycles of sixty years, +when numbered according to the Indian principle, each year has a +particular name; but in the Chinese method the names used in the +Chinese duodecimal cycle are used five times, coupled with the +five elements or their respective colors, each of the latter introduced +in the series twice in immediate succession</q> (Schlagintweit, +Buddhism in Thibet, p. 27). According to Humboldt, <q>the Tzihichen, +or public calculators of Lhassa take pride in the fact that +years of the same name only return about every two centuries. +They combine 15 signs: five masculine, five feminine and five +neuter, with twelve signs of the zodiac</q> (Monuments des peuples +de l'Amérique <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 386). +</p> + +<p> +With regard to the ancient connection between China and India +it is well to recall the well-known fact that Buddhism did not enter +China from India until the first century of the Christian era and +had a prolonged struggle for existence and influence in the country +during several centuries. +</p> + +<p> +The Buddhist missionaries introduced the mode of calculating +cycles of years into China, according to Biot, who states that the +primitive calendar of the Chinese, instituted by Hwang-te, the +first king of the <q>Flowery land,</q> was a day-count only. +</p> + +<p> +Let us briefly enumerate some bare facts bearing upon the age +and development of the state, religion and government of ancient +China. In 2697 B.C. Hwang-te (the Babylonian?) erected a +temple to the honor of Shang-te, the deity associated with the +earliest traditions of the Chinese race. Upon the authority of a +Chinaman of the present day it is stated that <q>the word Shang-te +means supreme ruler; but, as it is not lawful to use this name +lightly, Chinamen usually name the supreme ruler by his residence, +which is Tien=heaven</q> (Edkins, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 71). +</p> + +<p> +An extremely instructive light is thrown upon the Taouist conception +of a supreme being or ruler, by the following episode +<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/> +related by Mr. Edkins in his <q>Religion in China</q> (p. 109). <q>I +met [in 1872] on one occasion a schoolmaster from the neighborhood +of Chapoo.... The inquiry was put to him, Who is +the Lord of heaven and earth? He replied that he knew none +but the pole-star, called in the Chinese language Teen-hwang-ta-te, +the great imperial ruler of heaven. It was stated to him that +it was a matter very much to be regretted that he should hold such +views as this of the Supreme Being.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In this connection and with special reference to the title Tien=heaven, +employed by the Chinese in addressing the supreme ruler, +I must quote T. de Lacouperie's opinion that the Akkadian name=Din-gira +and symbol for God, the eight-pointed star, was the origin +of Ti, a Chinese character with the same meaning and sound. +Mr. C. J. Ball (The New Akkadian Proceedings of the Society of +Biblical Archaeology) explains the Akkadian Din-gira as composed +of di=to shine and gira=heaven and that thus the Accadian +name for God is <q>the shining one of heaven,</q> which explains why +the ideogram is a star. According to Mr. K. Douglas (p. 171) +<q>Mr. Ball has practically demonstrated that the Chinese and +Akkadian are the same tongue and that everywhere in China we +are reminded of that great centre of civilization in Babylonia.</q> +</p> + +<p> +An investigation of the Taouist religion reveals that it consists +chiefly of star-worship, stars being deemed <q>divine.</q> <q>Among the +liturgical works used by the priests of Taou, one of the commonest +consists of prayers to Tow-moo, a female divinity supposed to +reside in the Great Bear. A part of the same constellation is +worshipped as a male spirit under the name of Kwei-sing</q> (Edkins). +</p> + +<p> +A name closely resembling the latter in sound, Tseih-ching, and +meaning the <q>Seven Regulators</q> is now applied to the Sun, Moon, +Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In ancient times, +however, according to native authorities, <q>this term was used to +designate the seven bright stars of Ursa Major which subsequently, +by an astrological device, were associated with the seven planets; +so, that, by metonymy, the latter became the established +meaning.</q><note place='foot'>The +following passages contain interesting evidences of the ancient application +of the number seven to tribal organization in China. <q>In the time of the Suy dynasty +Manchuria went by the name of Mo-ho in China ... the people being <emph>then +divided into seven tribes</emph>.... Towards the end of the eleventh century one Yang-ko +was elected as their chief ... and he organized something of a regular government +throughout the various tribes of Jou-tchi or Niô-tchi's and collected taxes +from them. The highest of his officers were all styled po-k-eih-lee and <emph>were +distinguished by the names of the sun, planets and 28 constellations of the +Zodiac</emph>. Every five, every ten and every hundred men had their special +officers.... From the chief of five to the chief of ten thousand, each trained his +dependents in military art....</q> Wylie: On the origin of the Manchus (Chinese +Researches, p. 244).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> + +<p> +The association of the term <q>Regulators</q> with Septentriones +is particularly interesting because the seven-day period has been +employed in China from time immemorial, the seventh day being +invariably marked by the ancient character mih, which means +<q>quiet, secret or silent.</q> In the modern Chinese almanacs and +astrological works <q>the mih days are marked by the four constellations +which correspond among the seven planets to the principal +one among them, the Sun</q> (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Wylie, On the Knowledge of a +weekly Sabbath in China, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 86). I am strongly tempted +to refer the origin of the Chinese mih or quiet day, on which rest +was generally observed, to that remote period of time when, to +primitive observers, one of the stars in Ursa Major would have +appeared more closely associated with immovability and nearer the +polar axis than its companions (see pp. 20 and 21). +</p> + +<p> +If we pause here to review the preceding data we are particularly +struck at the unanimity of evidence establishing that even the +most ancient form of civilization and religion was not indigenous +to China, but was carried there by colonists from distant parts, +presumably from Babylonia. The latter conclusion finds a strong +support in the undeniable fact that during subsequent centuries a +steady stream of emigration has carried colonists of different +nationalities into the heart of China. +</p> + +<p> +Buddhism entered China from India in the first century of the +Christian era. Alexander Wylie tells us that <q>according to the +testimony of one of the stone tablets in the synagogue at Kai-fung +foo, the Israelites first entered China during the Han dynasty</q> +and we are further told in the letters of the Jesuits that <q>they +came during the reign of Ming-ti (A.D. 58-75) from Si-yih, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +the western regions. It appears by all that can be gathered from +them that this western country is Persia and that they came by +Khorasan and Samarcand. They have many Persian words in +their language and they long preserved a great intercourse with +that country</q> (The Israelites in China, Wylie's Chinese Researches, +Shanghai, 1897). +</p> + +<p> +Some other interesting facts related by Wylie deserve mention +here. In translating the name of Jehovah into Chinese, the Israelites +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> +in China, to the present day, say Teen, <q>just as the scholars +of China do when they explain their term Shang-te.</q> We thus +observe a growing practice in western Asia, among the Hebrews, of +designating Jehovah as the God of Heaven and sometimes as +Heaven. In Chinese history distinct mention is made of a foreign +sect distinguished as the <q>worshippers of Heaven,</q> spoken of as +existing in China at the beginning of the sixth century. Wylie +has surmised that the Hebrews were thus designated and remarks +<q>that this name, as the designation of a foreign sect, is the more +remarkable inasmuch as the state ritual of China has designated +the Supreme by the name of Heaven, from the earliest times down +to the present day.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is a curious reflection that it may possibly have been due to a +gross misconception of the Hebrew religion on the part of the +Chinese and a supposed identity of worship that caused the Israelites +to be treated with such tolerance and hospitality in China that +their colony situated in the heart of the country still exists to the +present day. It is, in fact, related of the Dowager Empress Ling, +in the first half of the sixth century, that she <q>abolished the various +corrupt systems of religious worship, excepting that of the +foreign tien-spirit.</q> A strange insight into the Chinese view of +the Christian religion is likewise afforded by the following native +documents cited by Wylie: <q>Now Jesus, the Lord of Heaven, is +worshipped by the Europeans. They say that this is the ancient +religion of Ta-tsin (Syria).</q> +</p> + +<p> +The following remarkable passages occur on the famous Nestorian +tablet, dated A.D. 781, which eulogizes the propagation of +the <q>Illustrious [Christian] Religion</q> in China. This tablet was +discovered by the Jesuit fathers in 1625 and, after its authenticity +had been violently assailed, Wylie's painstaking researches have +now vindicated its genuineness.<note place='foot'>The Nestorian +Tablet in Si-ngan-foo (p. 24, Chinese Researches. Shanghai, 1897).</note> +The following extracts are from +the preface engraved upon it and composed by King-tsing, a priest +of the Syrian Church: <q>... Our eternal, true lord God.... He +appointed the cross as the means of determining the four cardinal +points, he moved the original spirit and produced the two principles +of nature; the sombre void was changed and heaven and +earth were opened out; the sun and moon revolved and day and +night commenced; having perfected all inferior objects, he then +made the first man ... the illustrious and honorable Messiah, +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> +veiling his true dignity, appeared in the world as a man ... +a bright star announced the felicitous event [of his birth] ... +he fixed the extent of the eight boundaries.... As a seal +[his disciples] hold the cross, whose influence is reflected in every +direction uniting all without distinction. As they strike the wood +the fame of their benevolence is diffused abroad; worshipping towards +the east they hasten on the way to life and glory ... +they do not keep slaves, but put noble and mean all on an equality; +they do not amass wealth but cast all their property into the common +stock.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Referring the matter to oriental scholars for further discussion +I merely note here the astonishing fact that in China, in the +seventh century of our era, the supreme God of the Hebrews and +Christians was spoken of as the God of Heaven, or Heaven, that +He is credited with having created the two principles of nature +besides heaven and earth and instituted the cross as <q>a means of +determining the cardinal points.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is likewise strange to find the <q>Heen or Toen foreigners</q> +credited in a sixteenth-century native cyclopædia, with having +introduced into China a system of astronomy denominated the +<q>Four Heavens,</q> and obviously based on a quadruplicate division +of the Heaven similar to the division of the empire instituted by +Yaou (Wylie, Israelites in China, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 19). +</p> + +<p> +The current Chinese name for Christians has been <q>Cross-worshippers,</q> +and it is odd to note that the ancient Chinese seem to +have regarded the symbolism of the Christian cross as closely +identical with that of their swastika, and to have concluded that +the foreign <q>Heaven</q> religion rested on the same basis as theirs. +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to Wylie's valuable researches and Edkins' +Religion in China for information concerning the establishment of +colonies of Manicheans, Mohammedans and of successive Christian +missions, etc., in China, I shall but quote the following passage +from Marco Polo's travels (pp. 167 and 168) because it shows +how the doctrine of the quadruplicate division of all things, celestial +and terrestrial, led to a broad tolerance of opinion in the famous +Tartar prince, Kubla Khan, who, in 1260, at Kanbalu=Peking, +honored the Christian festivals. <q>And he observed the same at +the festivals of the Saracens, Jews and idolaters. Upon being +asked his motive for this conduct, he said: <q>There are four great +Prophets who are reverenced and worshipped by the different +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> +classes of mankind. The Christians regard Jesus Christ as their +divinity; the Saracens, Mahomet; the Jews, Moses; and the idolaters +Sagomombarkan (Buddha) the most eminent amongst their +idols. I do honor and show respect to all of the four, and invoke +to my aid whichever of them is in truth supreme in heaven.</q></q> +This attitude of mind and that of the Chinese towards the Christian +Cross can only be fully understood and appreciated when it +is realized that their <q>imperial ruler of Heaven</q> was the pole-star +and that the Ursa Major described each year the sign of a +cross in the heaven which ever impressed upon them quadruplicate +division and differentiation and the union of four in one. It is +doubtlessly owing to the same reason that the Chinaman of today +finds it possible to believe in, at once, the three great national +religions which exist in China. Edkins has explained that, +whereas <q>Confucianism speaks to the moral nature, Taouism is +materialistic and Buddhism is metaphysical; thus, they are supplemental +to each other and are able to co-exist without being mutually +destructive</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 60). Somewhat apart from these +three state religions and embodying the most ancient ideas and +traditions of the race, exists the elaborate and solemn <q>Imperial +worship,</q> the study of which Edkins designates as <q>specially +interesting because it takes us back to the early history of +the Chinese people and introduces us to many striking points of +comparison with the patriarchal religion of the Old Testament and +with the worship of the kings of Nineveh, Babylon and Egypt.</q> +The same authority states that <q>the account given by Herodotus +of the religion of the ancient Persians shows that it consisted in +much the same usages as those now found in Chinese Imperial +worship</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 6, 22, 18 and 30). In the preceding pages +it has been shown that the fundamental principles of the primitive +religions of China and America were identical, but that their subsequent +stages of development or evolution were strikingly divergent. +The following study of certain details connected with the +<q>Imperial worship</q> brings out a marked differentiation in the +Chinese and Mexican cult of heaven and earth. +</p> + +<p> +The altar of Heaven at Peking consists of three circular marble +terraces, the uppermost of which is paved with eighty-one stones +arranged in circles. It is on a round stone in the centre of these +circles that the Emperor kneels and is considered to occupy the +centre of the earth. In the worship of Heaven, offerings are made +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> +to the heavenly bodies, the Sun, Moon, the Pole-star, Great Bear, +five planets and twenty-eight constellations. The worship at the +altar of Earth consists of offerings to the mountains, rivers and +seas. +</p> + +<p> +This arrangement is strikingly unlike that of the ancient Mexicans, +who associated the sun only with the Above, the male +principle and the blue heaven, and worshipped the nocturnal +heaven, the moon and stars, with the earth, darkness and the female +principle. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to note the marked effect, produced by the two +different modes of classification, upon the subsequent development +of the state religions of China and Mexico. In the latter country +where the contrast of light and darkness and of the duality of +nature seems to have been most powerfully felt, the gradual institution, +on a footing of equality of a diurnal masculine and nocturnal +feminine cult or of a separate sun and moon worship, led to the +formation of two equally powerful castes of priest-astronomers +who devised their respective calendars and cults and ultimately +stood in open rivalry and antagonism towards each other, as children +of heaven and light: sun worshippers; and children of earth +and darkness: moon worshippers. In China, as the cult of earth +was subordinate from the first and all heavenly bodies were included +in the worship of Heaven, there was no opportunity for +any rivalry to develop in the superior caste of astronomers who +jointly ruled, instituted their calendar and altered it under influences +emanating from India. +</p> + +<p> +Heaven and Earth were jointly worshipped at the same altar +until A.D. 1531, when it was decreed that there should be separate +altars and that the worship of Earth should be separately conducted +(Edkins). At the same time, while the Emperor acts as the +high-priest of Heaven, we find associated with him, from remote +antiquity, the Empress, the representative of the Earth-mother. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the roll of Chinese emperors records heavenly and +earthly, light and sombre, emperors, and that empresses have repeatedly +occupied the throne, seems to indicate that, in remote +antiquity, a male and a female line of rulers, personifying the dual +principles of nature, alternately assumed prominence in power. +This natural outgrowth of the cult of heaven and earth, which has +its parallel in Mexico, seems to afford an explanation of the usurpation +and retention of power exercised by the present Empress +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> +of China, who is probably ruling in her own right, as the representative +of the earth or dark principle. As such she is the exact +equivalent to the ancient Mexican Cihua-coatl, or <q>Woman-serpent;</q> +and modern China supplies us with an episode in the development +of the fundamental set of ideas it holds in common with +ancient America, closely resembling the historical dissension which +led in ancient Mexico to a separation of the two cults and the +establishment of two separate governments, under their respective +male and female rulers. +</p> + +<p> +Although the difference in primitive Chinese and Mexican definitions +of heaven and earth worship is evidently accountable for +this fact, it is nevertheless interesting to note that it was in A.D. +1531 only that the Chinese cult of heaven and earth separated and +the process of disintegration began to be set into activity. From +an evolutionary point of view, the imperial religion of China stands +to-day at a far less advanced stage of development than the prehistoric +Mexican state religion. This circumstance might be passed +over without comment did it not strikingly coincide with the undeniable +fact that the essentially inorganic and monosyllabic Chinese +language stands far lower in the scale of linguistic development than +the incorporative and polysynthetic American languages, the most +perfected types of which are the Maya and the beautiful and refined +Nahuatl which abounds in delicate metaphors and formulas of +exquisite politeness, indicative of the high degree of culture and +antiquity of the native race. +</p> + +<p> +If the preceding comparative study of the Chinese and ancient +Mexican civilizations be briefly summarized, the result is as +follows: Both civilizations alike rest on a foundation of pole-star +worship and the set of ideas which naturally proceed from +this <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, central impartial power extending in constant rotation +to the four quarters, figured by the swastika, and the recognition +of the all-pervading duality of nature. These primitive +concepts and their inevitable outgrowths, which might naturally +occur to human beings of the same grade of intellect in similar +conditions and circumstances and be most powerfully impressed +upon the mind of man in circumpolar latitudes beside a few resemblances +in names, which I shall proceed to point out, are nearly +all that the Chinese and ancient Mexicans may be safely said +to have had in common. At a date obviously anterior to 2356 +B.C., when they were formulated, the Chinese had made definitions +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +of heaven and earth and of the five elements which radically differ +from those of the ancient Mexicans and Mayas. +</p> + +<p> +The Chinese numerical system or calendar, though equally based +on rotation, and known to have been modified by contact with India, +is essentially different from the American. When carefully +compared it must be acknowledged that the Mexican is by far the +more complex and highly developed, and the same may be said of +the social organization, which was controlled by the calendar. A +comparison between the Chinese and American languages in general +proves, moreover, that they differ not only in sound, but in +form and in grade of development, the Chinese being the lower in +the scale. To the above divergences we must add the fact that +each people evolved distinct national customs and costumes, foods +and drinks, industries, arts and forms of architecture, so markedly +characteristic as to be clearly distinguishable. +</p> + +<p> +In conclusion a few words about the swastika in China (ouan). +Its Chinese name is wan, which signifies <q>ten thousand,</q> or <q>all,</q> +also <q>many,</q> a great number. At the time of the Empress Wu +(A.D. 684-704) the swastika in a circle signified <q>the sun;</q> half +a swastika in the circle <q>the moon,</q> and the plain circle <q>the +star.</q> Deferring comment I emphasize here the fact that the +word wan resembles kwan=equal earth or land, and that it signifies +an entity composed of ten thousand parts. A proof that the +wan was also associated with the idea of time is given by the +modern use of the Chinese swastika to signify <q>long life,</q> <q>many +years,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, a complete life, a complete cycle of years. +</p> + +<p> +A prolonged study of the most ancient civilization of America, +which centred in Mexico and Central America and thence spread +northward and southward, has so deeply convinced me of its great +antiquity, isolation and prolonged period of independent evolution +that, when Asiatic origin and influence are discussed, I am tempted +to take the national food-plant of America, the maize, and, placing +it beside the rice-plant of China, invite comparisons to be made +between them. +</p> + +<p> +JAPAN. +</p> + +<p> +It is a curious fact that, although it is recognized that the +junks which have been repeatedly driven by storms upon the Pacific +coast have generally been Japanese, no searching comparison +between the culture of ancient America and that of Japan +<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/> +has as yet been published; although it is believed by many that +it may have been to the occupants of the wrecked junks that the +American race owed its civilization. The curious idea seems to +prevail among some writers, that purely Chinese influence was +conveyed by Japanese fishermen and sailors to the dwellers on +American soil. It does not seem to be sufficiently recognized that +the differences between Japanese and Chinese civilizations are as +great as that between their different languages and writings, and +that direct influence derived from Japan, for many centuries back +would have left traces so characteristic as to be easily distinguished +from the effects of direct influence from China. +</p> + +<p> +In the third century of the Christian era the Japanese empire +was founded on a plan derived from Corea and soon became known +to the Chinese and dwellers on the main land as Dschi-Poennkwo, +or Zipanco, the <q>land of the east, or of the rising sun.</q> The +Japanese themselves, however, regarded their empire as the <q>great +centre of the world,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> a <q>Middle Kingdom.</q> The +mythical birthplace of the Japanese race and the cradle of its civilization +is said to have been the island of the Congealed Drop, which was +formerly at the North Pole, but subsequently removed to its present +position. How this happened is not told.<note place='foot'>(The +Religion of Japan, Wm. Elliott Griffis. London, 1895, p. 67 and note 9.) +This curious agreement between the Japanese and other ethnic traditions, in locating +Paradise, the origin of the human family and of civilization at the north pole, +has not escaped the attention of Dr. W. F. Warren, President of Boston University, +who makes extended reference to it in his suggestive book, <q>Paradise Found, The +Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. A Study of the Prehistoric World. +Boston, 1885.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +The most superficial examination shows that the fundamental +scheme of the Japanese empire was the same as that of China +and other Asiatic countries. Its centre was the island Hon-shiu, +Hondo or Nippon, on which was situated the ancient Fu or capital, +named Yedo; the modern Tokio in the vicinity of Fusiyama, the +sacred mountain and reputed centre of the world. The entire land +or Han was originally divided into five provinces collectively named +the Go-kinai (the word go like the Maya ho, signifying five), the +territorial divisions and presumably consisting of four quarters and +the capital. Light is thrown upon the extent of this quinary organization +by the fact that, in ancient Japan, time was divided +into five-day periods, by official days of rest, which fell on the +1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st, and 26th days of each month. The +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> +computation of time by cycles, which will be treated further in a +separate monograph, also prevailed in Japan, as might be expected, +since this method was a main feature of the definite scheme +on which the entire empire was founded. +</p> + +<p> +In accord with this plan the population was divided into four +classes, consisting of the Haimin=the people; the warriors or +Samurai, the Kazoku, literally the flower of families, the nobility. +All members of the imperial family formed a fourth caste and +above all stood the Emperor, the central ruler, the divine descendant +of the sun-goddess Amaterasu. Evidences that an extension and +fresh territorial division of the empire took place at one time seem +preserved in the ancient Japanese name for Japan: Oya-shima=the +eight islands. It is likewise related that the Japanese creators, +Izanajo and Izanami, built, in the centre of the world, an octagonal +palace around a central pillar, the octagonal form having +reference to the eight holy corners or points, the <q>Hak-kaku,</q> or +the cardinal points and half cardinal points. It is impossible to +overlook the fact that by a similar method, but by means of four +larger and four smaller rays, the field of the Mexican calendar +star is divided into eight equal portions. It is a well-known fact +that, in 1854, Japan was practically governed by two rulers: +the Mikado or Tenno, of divine or <q>heavenly</q> descent, who led +so secluded an existence that he was becoming a shadowy and +invisible ruler, and the Shogun, the civil governor, who had become +the terrestrial ruler <hi rend='italic'>par excellence</hi>, and whose power was +in the ascendant. This state of affairs affords a most interesting +object lesson, teaching how ancient empires gradually become divided +and disintegrated under dual government and under the +influence of rival cults. The ancient state religion or <q>Imperial +worship</q> of Japan, the Shinto, was becoming as obsolete as the +worldly power of its high-priest the Mikado, next to the growing +ascendancy of Buddhism, supported by the Shogunate. The original +meaning of the Shinto sacred symbols appears to be lost. +The mirror, placed on the altar, usually constituted the only visible +sacred emblem. Another was the sword. It is claimed that the +swastika came into Japan with Buddhism, but this is a point which +demands a serious investigation of competent specialists. The +above data, which are absurdly inadequate to the interest and importance +of Japan, the seat of the most intellectual and progressive +culture of Asia, are sufficient to show that in Japan, where the +<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/> +swastika is found, the quadruplicate state organization and fundamental +plan were also carried out. My full purpose will only be +fulfilled when the present deficient notes shall have stimulated the +enquiry and research of students and Japanese scholars and led +to the publication of all traces extant of the most ancient scheme +of organization, government and calendar, as compared with those +of ancient America. +</p> + +<p> +As it is maintained that the Chinese and other eastern Asiatic +people did not originate, but received their civilization from Babylonia, +or another ancient centre, situated in western Asia, it +obviously becomes an imperative necessity to carry the present +investigation across the Asiatic continent into the heart of the +Euphratean valley. +</p> + +<p> +INDIA. +</p> + +<p> +Being one of the ancient centres of civilization from which the +Chinese are said to have derived theirs, India, the country where +the swastika abounds, first arrests our attention. In support of +the assertion I have already advanced, that the primitive symbol is +always found accompanied by a set of ideas almost as ancient as +itself, I have pleasure in transcribing the following detached but +instructive and suggestive extracts from my note-book. +</p> + +<p> +The fair Arya or Aryans, after about 2,000 B.C., penetrated +India from the northwest. Arya means <q>those who command</q> +or <q>the venerable.</q> The name Hindu or Sindu was given to the +Indian Aryans. Our knowledge of Hindu art begins in the third +century B.C. and none of the present popular forms of Hindu +religion are presumed to be earlier than the ninth century A.D. +<q>It is well known that the Brahman system and faith were not +developed by the Hindus till they had conquered the Ganges, +Western and Southern India and there is no trace of this tradition +or even of Brahma as a deity in the Vedas.</q>... +</p> + +<p> +<q>The supreme god of antiquity was Indra ... next to and +above whom was the mysterious god Varuna, the creator, who +gave eternal laws which god and men were obliged to follow. He +showed the stars their paths and gave each creature his qualities.... +He is the sun by day and the stars at night</q>.... From +these statements the duality of the creator and his power over +both light and darkness alike, stand out clearly. +</p> + +<p> +Another form of the supreme being was the sun god Surya, who +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> +was also named Savitri, the generator, Pushan=the feeder and +Mithra=the light-god, who is called the watcher and ruler of +the world and was associated with the wheel, which is termed <q>the +most ancient symbol of divine power and dominion.</q><note place='foot'>An +interesting parallelism in the development or evolution of the idea of rotation +around a central pole was brought to my notice by a model in the Indian Department +of the South Kensington Museum. It represents the Hindu fanatical +religious rite known as the <q>Churruck Puja.</q> Four individuals are suspended by +cords, with hooks drawn through their flesh, to a movable wooden structure like a +wheel surmounting a high pole, similar to that used by the Ancient Mexican <q>flyers</q> +(see p. 24) which likewise served as a pivot for the circling motion of the performers. +The torture voluntarily endured by the latter recalls that accompanying the sacred +sun pole-dance of certain North American Indian tribes. It is interesting to contrast +the ancient Mexican refined and intellectual symbolization of circumpolar motion +with the fanatical and hideous self-torture associated with the North American +and Hindu modes of representing the same phenomena, as it throws much light on +the development of certain sides of human nature.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q>In India the wheel was, moreover, connected with the title of +a chakrayartin (from chakra=a wheel), the title meaning a supreme +ruler or universal monarch, who ruled the four quarters of +the world and on his coronation he had to drive his chariot or wheel +to the four cardinal points to signify his conquest of them</q> (Wm. +Simpson, Quarterly statement of Palestine Expl. Fund, 1895, +p. 84). It is significant that <q>Mithra,</q> the god of the wheel, who +was, as I shall show later on, likewise associated with the serpent, +is represented with a chariot pulled by seven horses and thus to +find the idea of centrifugal power, combined with the numeral +seven and the conception of central rulership extending to the four +quarters. +</p> + +<p> +While the above passages afford an interesting insight into the +ancient significance and symbolism of the chariot, the use of which, +with that of the throne was, originally, exclusively confined to the +central supreme ruler, they also furnish a curious parallelism to the +Chinese tours of inspection performed, by the emperor, to the four +provinces in rotation. +</p> + +<p> +The general application of the quadruplicate system is moreover +shown by the fact that, from time immemorial, the population +of India has been divided into four great castes, and these are +associated with distinctive colors, the Sanscrit word for color, +<foreign rend='italic'>varna</foreign>, signifying also caste. According to the native +myth, Brahma created the Brahmin or ruling caste from his mouth, the +warrior caste from his arms and hands, the merchant and agricultural +caste from his hips and the artisan or lowest caste from the +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> +soles of his feet. The warrior caste was named Kschatria; the +people the yellow, or Vaicya; the original, conquered inhabitants +of India were named the black, or Sudra. The Brahman caste was +above all these. +</p> + +<p> +Concerning the origin of the Brahmans, it is related that <q>Manu +was created ... he, in turn created ten great sages, the ancestors +of the Brahmans. These created <emph>seven</emph> other Manus or +spiritual princes, the preservers of moral orders in the world</q> +(Goodyear). Pointing out that the seven Manus evidently constituted +a septarchy, let us now study the Brahmanistic conception of +a supreme divinity. From various authorities we learn that, in +later times <q>the Brahmans invented a new god, the impersonal +Brahma, who only appears in the youngest portion of the Vedas.</q> +He is described as <q>the supreme One who alone exists really and +absolutely,</q> and is represented with four heads and four arms, the +idea of four-fold power and rule being thus expressed. The proof +that, at the same time, the idea of duality existed, is furnished by +the invention of a female counterpart of Brahma, namely, his consort +Sarawati and the later development of the rival religions which +now exist side by side and divide the population of India into +halves. The cult of Vishnu, associated with the male principle, +though curiously blended with the principle of preservation, is obviously +a parallel form of the American and Chinese cult of the +Above or Heaven; while that of Siva, or the female principle, +strongly mingled with the idea of destruction, forms a parallel to +the cult of the Earth-mother and of darkness and the nocturnal +heaven. Brahma was born of an egg and is also figured as springing +from a lotus which, in turn rises from the navel of Vishnu or +Narayana, <q>the Spirit moving on the waters.</q>...<note place='foot'>Mr. +Wm. H. Goodyear, from whose admirable work, the Grammar of the Lotus, +the above quotations are taken, remarks that <q>the myth of Horus rising from the +lotus, as found in the Egyptian texts, is the exact counterpart of this idea and as far +as Brahmanism is concerned, is much the older;</q> also that <q>it is possible that the +lotus symbolism of Egypt and India dates from a race which divided into separate +branches; it is also possible that the people of India experienced the influence, direct +or indirect, of Egypt.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +In modern Buddhism the identical fundamental ideas continue +to exist in a slightly different form; the six directions in space are +known and elaborately worshipped. The embodiment of central +power is Buddha, seated cross-legged on a lotus flower. According +to Birdwood, cited by Mr. Goodyear, <q>In the Hindu cosmogony +<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/> +the world is likened to a lotus flower, floating in the centre +of a shallow circular vessel, which has for its stalk an elephant and +for its pedestal a tortoise. The seven petals of the lotus flower +represent the seven divisions of the world as known to the ancient +Hindus and the tabular torus (<hi rend='italic'>Nelumbium speciosum</hi>) which rises +from their centre represents Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In the statues of Buddha, thus associated with the centre of +the world, we have what may be termed the highest development +of the idea of stability, quietude and absolute repose which impressed +itself upon the human mind by the observation of Polaris. +The abstract conception of Nirvana, <q>the state in which all individuality +and consciousness are lost, and life and death, good and evil, +and every other possible antithesis disappear in absolute unity,</q> +appears to me to be the natural ultimate outgrowth of the primitive +appreciation of stability and repose as the most desirable of +conditions. +</p> + +<p> +An ancient American priest-astronomer, imbued with the native +ideas, would doubtlessly see in the modern figures of Buddha a +more perfect artistic rendition of the same conception which was +expressed in the Copan swastika. He might remark that, in the +statues of Buddha, the human form is intended to convey the idea +of quadruple organization and that in certain images the primitive +symbols of the centre, <q>the belly and navel,</q> are obviously emphasized. +In the fakirs, who cultivate immobility, he might see +people who are under the absolute dominion of the ideal of stability +and detect the origin of this suggestion from the fact that +the swastika position of either arms or legs is a favorite one +among Hindoo fanatics, just as, out of devotion, many persons +have swastikas painted or tattooed upon their limbs. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to note the peculiar result attained by the Buddhists +in their development of the twin idea of permanence, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +immutability or immortality, as shown in the following quotation: +<q>There is a remarkable distinction between the Buddhism of China +and of Tibet. In regard to philosophy there is little or no difference, +but in Tibet there is a hierarchy which exercises political +power. In China this could not be. The Grand Lama and many +other lamas in Mongolia and Tibet assume the title of <q>Living +Buddha.</q> In him, most of all, Buddha is incarnate, as the people +are taught to think. He never dies. When the body, in which +Buddha is for the time incarnate, ceases to perform its functions, +<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/> +some infant is chosen by the priests, who are intrusted with the +duty of selecting, to become the residence of Buddha until, in +turn, it grows up to manhood and dies. No Buddhist priest in +China pretends to be a <q>living Buddha</q> or to have a right to the +exercise of political power. In Tibet, on the other hand, the +Grand Lama, as chief of the <q>living Buddhas,</q> not only holds +the place of the historical Buddha long since dead, acting as a sort +of high-priest, but he also exercises sovereignty over the country +of Tibet ruling the laity as well as the clergy and being only subordinate +to the lord paramount, the Emperor of China</q> (Edkins, +Religion in China, p. 8). +</p> + +<p> +<q>The form of the Buddhist temples exemplifies in a striking manner +the relative positions of Buddha and the gods. Four kings of +the gods are represented in the vestibule. Their office is to guard +the door by which entrance is obtained to the presence of Buddha.... +The central position is that of Buddha, who is seated on +the lotus flower in the attitude of a teacher....</q> (Edkins). +In this attitude an ancient American high-priest would see the +graphic representation of one of the titles of the star-god Polaris, +<q>the teacher of the world.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The association of Buddha with the north and with the number +seven is curiously shown in the mythical account that <q>when Buddha +was born a lotus blossomed where he touched the ground; he +stepped seven steps northward and a lotus marked each footfall.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Distinct evidence of the ancient cult of Polaris is yielded by +the Hindu marriage custom, which I have found described thus in +Meyer's conversations Lexikon: <q>In the evening the bride and +bridegroom seat themselves on the hide of a red ox, after making +the usual offerings.... Then the bridegroom points out the +pole-star to the bride and says: <q>the heaven is firm, also the +earth; the universe is stedfast, so mayest thou be stedfast in our +family</q>....</q> The symbolism of the act of sharing the ox-hide +as a seat becomes apparent when it is realized that the name for +cow or ox=go, also signifies possessions and riches, a conception +which is traceable to a period when cattle constituted the chief +and most valued possession of pastoral tribes. The veneration +accorded in India to the cow is well known and travellers have +frequently described the sacred statue of a cow, which is seven +feet in height and stands next to the sacred well of the temple at +Benares. +</p> + +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> + +<p> +In connection with the reference to the pole-star made by the +Hindu bridegroom, it is noteworthy that the Sanscrit for star is +stri, tara, for stara; Hindu sitara, tara and Bengal stara and that +variants of the same word constitute the name for star in Latin, +Greek, Gothic, Old and Anglo Saxon, Welsh, Icelandic, Swedish, +Danish and Basque, in which language it appears as izarra, recalling +the Hindu sitara and, if I may venture to say so, the Nahuatl +word for star, citlallin. +</p> + +<p> +The supreme veneration and importance accorded in India to the +North, from time immemorial, are shown by passages of the book +of Manu, which prescribe the severe penances which were to be +performed by the Brahmans who attained advanced age. He <q>is +to inflict all sorts of tortures upon himself and when he falls ill in +consequence, he is to set out to walk to the northwest, towards the +holy mountain Meru, until his mortal frame breaks down and he +unites himself with Brahma.</q> It is likewise stated that when a +Brahman king grew old and ill he was obliged to abdicate in favor +of his son and voluntarily seek death in battle or by starvation, +whilst wandering towards the holy mountain Meru, in the northwest. +I point out the curious parallelism of this custom, which +was carried out during countless centuries and determined a periodical +migration towards the northwest of venerable sages, presumably +accompanied by faithful followers, and the search for the +stable centre of the world which caused the wanderings of American +tribes under their chiefs. +</p> + +<p> +According to various encyclopædias and general works of reference, +Brahma is said to have made the world in two parts, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, +heaven and earth; placed air between both and made the eight regions, +fire and the eternal waters. The mythical mountain Meru, +on the summit of which the supreme power is said to be enthroned +in eternal majesty, is the traditional paradise and is supposed +to lie somewhere in the northwest of the Himalayas. It is +situated in the centre of the seven zones in which the earth is divided, +thence its name Meru=the Middle. The association of the +central mountain with divinity and eternal stability is further shown +by the statement that the sun, moon and stars circled about it +and that it supported the heaven. +</p> + +<p> +As the natural complement to the above, I can cite the following +evidences of an all-pervading quadruplicate division and organization, +as set forth in an ancient manuscript which was brought +<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/> +from India by Count Angelo de Gubernatis and exhibited in +Florence in 1898, by Mr. Pullé, in an extremely instructive series +of native maps of India: 1. In the oldest maps, the empire of +India was represented as a disk, divided into a number of concentric +zones, in the centre of which arose the sacred mountain. 2. +These representations were, in several cases, accompanied by representations +of the swastika obviously representing quadruplicate +territorial division. +</p> + +<p> +On Mount Meru itself there were four lakes respectively filled +with milk, butter, coagulated milk and sugar. Four great rivers +flowed from the mountain towards the cardinal points, namely, the +Ganges, issuing from the mouth of a cow, the Sita from the head +of the elephant; the Bhadra from a tiger or lion and the Chaksu +from a horse. According to Buddhistic mythology, the sacred +mountain Meru, which constitutes the centre of the world, is +guarded by four hero <q>kings of demons.</q> Their names are as follows: +1. Kubera or Vaisrānana, the god of wealth, who lives in +the north, whose attributes are the lance and banner, the rat which +throws forth jewels from its mouth. 2. Virūdhaka, who rules the +south, and whose attributes are the helmet in the form of an elephant's +head, and a long sword. 3. Virūpāksha, the guardian of +the west: attributes, the jewel and the serpent. 4 Dhrtarāshtra, +the ruler of the east: attribute, the mandoline. +</p> + +<p> +An interesting parallelism is brought out by a comparison between +the ancient Mexican mode of producing the sacred fire by +means of a reed and a piece of wood and its symbolism of the +mystic union of the two principles of nature, to the origin of fire +as told in the Veda and the ceremonial mode employed in India to +produce the sacred fire by means of the mystic arani and the pramantha. +The difference between the ancient American and Indian +apparatus should be noticed. The two arani, made of the wood of +<hi rend='italic'>Ficus religiosa</hi>, were placed crosswise. <q>At their junction was a +fossette or cup-like hole and there they placed a piece of wood +upright, in the form of a lance (the pramantha), violent rotation +of which by means of whipping, produced fire, as did Prometheus, +the bearer of fire in Greece</q> (Bournouf, Des Sciences et Religions +and Prof. Thomas Wilson, The Swastika, p. 777). A remarkable +relation unquestionably exists between the two mystic arani, which, +crossed, form a four-branched cross from the centre of which fire is +produced by rotation and the almost universal identification of +<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/> +Polaris and Ursa Major, as the central source of life, power extending +to four directions, rotation and duality underlying quadruplicity. +In my opinion no more graphic presentation of the rotation +of Ursa Major around Polaris, the central ruler of heaven, +could have been devised than the cross figure from the centre of +which fire was perpetually obtained. +</p> + +<p> +It is all the more significant, therefore, to find it stated that the +ancient Aryan light-god, Mithra, was worshipped under the form of +fire. I point out that, in a representation published by Layard in his +Culte de Mithra and reproduced here (fig. <ref target='Figure_72'>72</ref>, +1) from Mr. Goodyear's +work, a man and a woman are represented as worshipping a star, +the scene so strongly recalling the portion of the Hindu marriage +ceremony where the pole-star is pointed out, that an identity of scene +suggests itself. Returning to the swastika: its meaning in India +appears to be forgotten; but, according to Professor Thomas Wilson, +a follower of the Jain religion expressed the opinion that <q>the +original idea was very high, but later on some persons thought the +swastika represented only the combination of the male and female +principles</q> (Thomas Wilson, On the Swastika, p. 803). +</p> + +<p> +To the Hindu, holding this view and also accustomed to associate +the pole-star with the marriage rite, there must exist a curious +band of union and identity between Polaris and the swastika, both +connected with the combination of the male and female principles. +</p> + +<p> +To treat of the Hindu calendar and division of time would be +to transgress beyond the limits of the present investigation which +has already assumed unforeseen dimensions. As I shall discuss +it in detail in my monograph on the ancient Mexican Calendar +system, it will suffice to recall here that Humboldt pointed out the +resemblance between the latter and the Hindu system, and that +this has been further dwelt upon for instance in the article on the +subject in the Encyclopædia Britannica. In the same work of +reference it is also stated that, <q>according to the conclusions of +Delambre, the Hindoo knowledge of astronomy was greatly inferior +to that of the Greeks, and it has been argued by Laplace, in opposition +to the previous opinions of Bailly, that the Indian astronomy +is not of the highest antiquity, but must have been imperfectly +borrowed from the Greeks.</q> I may as well state here, however, +that, in India as in Mexico, the divisions of time were in accordance +with the general scheme, and enabled human activity and labor to +<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/> +be controlled and carried out by means of rotation, and with +strict impartial law, order and harmony. +</p> + +<p> +Pausing here and with a clear realization of probable omissions +and deficiencies of material, I venture to believe that the foregoing +data suffice to establish beyond a doubt the point which is the +main object of the present essay, namely, that in India the swastika +is found accompanied by the primordial set of ideas which +also form the basis of the Chinese and ancient American civilizations. +The Middle is, moreover, associated in India with the idea +of immovability, repose and centrifugal power and rule, incorporated +in the supreme divinity whose symbol is the wheel and who +is represented as dual and quadruple in nature, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> with four +hands (as two persons), and with four heads (four persons), the six persons +thus symbolized being united in the person of the seventh, +the synopsis of them all. The seven-day period; the seven zones +of the earth; the seven divine footsteps towards the north; the +seven councillors of the Brahmin king, etc., all prove that, whereas +six directions in space were worshipped in India, they were inseparable +from the sacred seventh which united all of them. The mythical +sacred mountain Meru, the throne of the supreme eternal power, +constituted the fixed centre of the world and strikingly exemplified +quadruplicate division and organization, being associated with four +lakes and four rivers; four mythical animals and four guardians. In +consonance with this plan Brahma was endowed with four heads and +four hands; the empire was divided into four quarters and seven +zones, and the population into four castes identified with four +colors, and governed by a king and seven councillors. The wheel, +associated in the case of Mithra with the serpent, constituted the +emblem of supreme dominion and rule which was connected with +the idea of an extension to the four quarters. The swastika was +but another expression of the same idea and represented also an +image of the universal scheme. This sign and the pole-star were +both associated, in the native mind, with the life-producing union +of the male and female principles of nature and the sacred element +fire, under which form the supreme god was anciently worshipped. +The lotus flower symbolized the universe, its unity and complexity; +the number of petals represented usually agreeing with +the number of the cosmical divisions. Two points should further +be briefly referred to: The division of time into seven-day periods +<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/> +coincides with the septenary scheme of organization resting upon +the seven directions in space. The sacred soma tree, the hom, was +an object of cult in India. The custom of planting a Bodhi tree +wherever Buddhist missionaries established their doctrine indicates +its association with the idea of an established centre. The +employment of wooden sticks for the production of the sacred fire +under which form the supreme central god was anciently worshipped, +also connected wood and the tree with the sacred Centre. Deferring +a discussion of the different and yet analogous way in which the +fundamental set of ideas was worked out in America and India, I +shall but mention here how clearly, in each case, the ultimate results +can be traced back to a common primitive and natural origin. +</p> + +<p> +MESOPOTAMIA. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now carry our research into that region whence civilization +spread through western Asia, and is said to have been carried +to Egypt, Greece and Rome. It may be a surprise to many to +learn that, at the present day, on the banks of the Euphrates, in +Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, pure and simple, is openly professed +by the Mandaïtes who are reputed to be the descendants of +the famous Magi of ancient Chaldea, and are termed Sabba or +Sabans by the Moslems. It will be seen that these star-watchers +have preserved intact an extremely ancient form of the archaic +cult which contains the living germ of all primitive religions and +represents an evolutionary stage which they must all have +undergone. +</p> + +<p> +It is to the kindness of a friend that I owe the knowledge of an +article on a Mandaïte New Year festival which appeared in the +<q>Standard</q> some years ago and which I reproduce in full as +Appendix <ref target='Appendix_II'>II</ref>. As might be expected, the Euphratean +star-gazers, like the Chinese, determined midnight by the position of the Great +Bear. It is interesting to find, moreover, that the spiritual head +of the sect is entitled Gan-zivro, and is closely escorted by four +young deacons, named sh-kan-dos, as well as by four priests=tarmidos, +and four sub-deacons. The circumstance that the +consecrated group of officiants consists of 12+1=13 individuals +is particularly suggestive. Not less so are the employment of the +tau-shaped cross and the sacrifice of a quadruped to the lord of the +underworld and his companion (the lord of the upper world?). +The ceremonial immersion in the starlit river is a curious parallel +<pb n='322'/><anchor id='Pg322'/> +to the midnight bathing in the sacred pool attached to the ancient +Mexican temple. +</p> + +<p> +The formulas employed in addressing the pole-star deserve special +consideration. In the designation of the stable centre of heaven +as <q>the abode of the pious hereafter and the paradise of the elect,</q> +the natural longings of the human race for stability, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> safety +and repose, find an expression and in this we can detect the germ +of thought whose extreme development, in India, produced the +comparatively philosophical doctrine of Nirvana. The title of +<q>Primitive Sun</q> enlightens us as to the original use of the word sun +and the supreme importance accorded by the ancient star-gazers to +the <q>Imperial ruler of heaven,</q> as the Chinese term the pole-star. +This application of the word sun will be found particularly interesting +to those who, having found the swastika termed a <q>sun-symbol,</q> +have naturally been led to associate it with the diurnal sun, +although they found it difficult to understand its connection with +the rotatory motion so clearly discernible in the form of the primitive +symbol. +</p> + +<p> +Having ascertained that the Mandaïte pole-star worship of the +present day embodies the cult of the sacred centre and of dual principles +(one of which is designated as the lord of the underworld) +and is associated with quadruple organization and a form of +cross, let us now make a great stride backwards and note some +details concerning ancient Sabæan star-worship. +</p> + +<p> +ARABIA. +</p> + +<p> +In remote antiquity, star-worship prevailed throughout Arabia +and one of its great centres was the flourishing land of Saba +or Sheba, whose queen visited Solomon at Jerusalem. The star-cult +of the Sabæans is acknowledged to have resembled that +of the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and +India. We are told that a certain sect amongst them <q>believed in +a great cycle of time in which certain epochs of the world's history +recurred</q>—an idea akin to ancient Mexican speculative philosophy. +It is also stated that one of the chief centres of Sabæism +was the town of Harran in Mesopotamia and that, although surrounded +by Christianity, this ancient form of star-worship maintained +itself here until the Middle Ages. The possibility that the +Mandaïtes of to-day may be the descendants of the ancient inhabitants +of Harran is naturally suggested by this historical fact. +<pb n='323'/><anchor id='Pg323'/> +A curious detail concerning monarchical succession in Sheba has +been preserved to us. The king was kept in an enforced seclusion +in his palace and incurred the penalty of death if he left it. His +office was not hereditary but fell to the first son who was born +amongst the nobility, after a king's accession to the throne. In +this custom, a curious parallel of which is furnished by the Thibetan +mode of electing the <q>living Buddha,</q> some readers may be +inclined to find an explanation for the massacre of the babes ordered +by Herod when he learned that the wise men of the East, +guided by a star, had designated <q>a young child</q> as the future +<q>King of the Jews.</q> It is an interesting reflection that, to many +of his contemporaries, the establishment of the <q>Kingdom of +Heaven,</q> announced by the Messiah, may have appeared as a +movement to revive the most ancient form of government and to +reinstate Jerusalem as the central metropolis of an empire, the +organization of which would have resembled the Chinese and ancient +American forms of <q>Middle Kingdoms,</q> or <q>Celestial Empires.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The ideal of many of these descendants of ancient pole-star +worshippers may well have been the reversion to the primitive, +pure type of single central, celestial and terrestrial rule which had +been superseded in western Asia by the pernicious growth of the +utterly abasing and demoralizing separate cults of the dual principles +of nature. +</p> + +<p> +A curious remnant of the worship of the Earth-mother and of +the stable centre of the world, recalling ancient American symbolism, +exists in Arabia and merits a passing notice. <q>The great holy +place of Jiddah, the principal landing place of the pilgrims to +Mecca, on the eastern coast of the Red sea, is the singular tomb of +<q>our mother Eve</q> surrounded by the principal cemetery. The tomb +is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the body +about 200 paces long and 15 feet wide. At the head is a small +erection where gifts are deposited and rather more than half way +down a whitewashed dome encloses a small, dark chapel, within +which is the black stone known as el-surrah=the navel. The +grave of Eve is mentioned by Edrisi but, except the black stone, +nothing bears any aspect of antiquity</q> (Encycl. Brit., article +Jiddah). +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the Arabian appellation for Mecca is om-el-kora=<q>the +mother of cities</q> deserves special attention. Exactly in the +centre of the city is the mosque enclosing the kaaba, a structure +<pb n='324'/><anchor id='Pg324'/> +the only door of which opens to the north. It contains the celebrated +black sacred stone and a trough, reputed to be of pure +gold, which conducts freshly fallen rain water to the interior of +the building and pours it upon its floor of dark earth. The following +details are given in a recently published account by an +anonymous visitor: +</p> + +<p> +<q>The Moslems believe that the original Kaaba was built in heaven +two thousand years before the creation of the world and that, at +the command of the Almighty, angels walked around it in adoration. +Furthermore, they said that Adam built the first Kaaba on +earth on its present site, directly under the one in heaven.... +Long before the time of Mahomet, the Kaaba was a place of worship +for the idolatrous Arabs and in it they had no less than 360 +idols, one for each day of the Arabian year. These were destroyed +by Mahomet....</q> Beside the pilgrimages to the Kaaba pious +Mussulmans also visit the sacred granite mountains the <q>Arafat +where Adam is supposed to have met Eve after a long separation.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Summarized, the preceding facts clearly show that, from a remote +antiquity, the Arabians have preserved the conception of (1) +a divine, celestial, stable sanctuary around which <q>angels</q> walked +in a circle. (2) A terrestrial sanctuary built by man directly beneath +the heavenly one and associated with the period of a year, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> 360 days. (3) In the sacred terrestrial kaaba the mystic +union of rain and earth is made to take place, while (4) Mount +Arafat is connected with the traditional reunion of Adam and Eve. +</p> + +<p> +It is unnecessary to point out the significant association of an +annual count of days with the stable centre and its importance as +an indication that the ancient Arabian star-gazers originally associated +the year period with circumpolar rotation. The analogy between +the Arabian ideas concerning the dual principles of nature +and those of other nations is also too marked to be easily overlooked. +</p> + +<p> +Nor need I emphasize how strikingly the imagery of the celestial +kaaba suits Polaris and the circumpolar constellations. But I shall +now proceed to point out that the word kaaba itself curiously resembles +star-names which are given by Mr. Robert Brown in his +recent valuable publication to which I shall revert, namely, the +Akkadian name for constellation in general=kakkab and the Babylonian +and Assyrian name for the pole-star=Kakkabu. In this connection +and upon Professor Sayce's authority I cite the significant +<pb n='325'/><anchor id='Pg325'/> +fact that the word for north and for the empire and capital of northern +Babylonia was Akkad, and that we thus find in North Babylonia +a great centre of government the name of which contains the +syllables ak-ka which recur in the appellations for north and for +Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +The following star-names, given by Mr. Robert Brown, are of +utmost interest considering that a star in Draconis was the pole-star +of 2170 B.C. and that in general the serpent was indissolubly +connected with the pole-star. <q>The constellation Drakon is Phœnician=Kanaanite +in origin and represented primarily the nâkkâsch +qodmun (old serpent)=the guardian of the stars (golden apples) +which hang from the pole tree. It is called the crooked serpent=nakkasch +in Job <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxvi</hi>:13 ...</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, p. 29). I further +cite Mr. Brown's authority for the fact that in Phœnicia A.D., 1200, +the name for Ursa Major was Dubkabir and for Ursa Minor, Dub. +</p> + +<p> +Before returning to the Euphratean valley let us note some facts +concerning the ancient religion of +</p> + +<p> +PERSIA. +</p> + +<p> +The swastika is found in Persia as well as a sacred mountain, +the Elburl. The supreme divinity was the invisible Ahuramazda, +the <q>creator of heaven and earth,</q> who was associated with +<q>eternal light</q> and appears to be identical with the ancient Aryan +god of light, Mithra, the watcher and ruler of the world, who was +worshipped under the form of fire. +</p> + +<p> +Mithra and Ahuramazda alike are associated with six spirits +named the Amesha-zpenta, who are said, in the first case, to be +personifications of the sun, moon, fire, earth, water and air, and +in the second, of certain qualities of the supreme power, namely, +law, power, goodness, piety, health and immortality, abstract conceptions +which evidently pertain to a more advanced intellectual +stage. The septarchy thus formed by Mithra and his Amesha +appears to assign the Middle to him and to associate the sun with +the day, heaven, light and the Above, the moon with the night and +darkness and the Below, and the elements with the Four Quarters. +It is suggestive of four-fold rule and power to find, on a bas-relief +found at the ancient holy city Pasargada, the Persian king Cyrus +represented with four wings and a diadem with two uræus +serpents like that of Egyptian kings. +</p> + +<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/> + +<p> +The most ancient Persian monarch is said to have been Haha-manis +or Akhamanis, who was termed <q>the king of Anshan.</q> +Subsequent kings bore the title of Hakhamanisija, as for instance, +Cyrus and Darius I (520-486 B.C.). At the present day, the +title Charkan is that employed to designate the Shah, whereas +goda or khoda signifies lord, master, prince or ruler. +</p> + +<p> +In a bas-relief published by Spamer, whose work of reference +will be referred to again later on, Darius is represented as standing +under the image of Ahuramazda, the supreme deity, who, like +the Assyrian god Assur, is figured as a king wearing the royal +cap, and issuing from the centre of a winged ring or circlet. In +Persia the god holds another ring in his hand (fig. <ref target='Figure_71'>71</ref>, 1). +It seems impossible to emphasize more strongly or express more clearly the +idea that Ahuramazda was the lord of the circle and of the Above, +the wings being emblematic of air or heaven and of motion. +</p> + +<p> +The signification of the symbolical representation of the supreme +power and the adoption of fire by the founders of the ancient +Parsee religion as the most appropriate image of their highest god, +become clear when interpreted as the outcome of pole-star worship. +Resisting the temptation to prolong the study of ancient Persia, +let us now hasten to the reputed cradle of the civilization of Western +Asia. +</p> + +<p> +BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The Babylonians were from the first a nation of star gazers.... +The cuneiform character which denotes a god is the picture +of a star</q> (Sayce <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>). <q>The Babylonian and Assyrian-name +for Ursa Minor was Kakkabu; the Hebrew, Kokhâbh; and +the Euphratean, Kochab, which means, <q><emph>the</emph> star <emph>present</emph>,</q> +a title which reminds us of its former supreme importance as the pole-star.... +In various Babylonian tablets we meet a star-god +called Imina-bi=the seven-fold one.</q><note place='foot'>Researches into the +origin of the primitive constellations of the Greeks, Phœnicians +and Babylonians (Robert Brown, jun., F. S. A., M. R. A. S., vol. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, 1899, p. 357).</note> Although Mr. Brown +has reached no definite conclusion as to the identity of this star-god, +I venture to maintain that the original <q>seven-fold one</q> +could have been no other than Ursa Major and that this and +<q>the ever-present star</q> are identical with what the Chinese termed +<q>the Imperial Ruler of Heaven</q> and the <q>Seven Regulators.</q> +The following passages furnish ample evidence of the suggestive +<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/> +influence that <q>the seven-fold one</q> exerted upon the minds of the +ancient Babylonian star-gazers. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The institution of the sabbath went back to the Sumerian days +of Chaldea—the name itself is Babylonian</q> (Sayce, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>). +<q>The seventh month (=Sept.-Oct.) in Akkadian is named Tul-ku=the +holy altar.... The seventh month of Tasritutisri was +also connected with the building of the tower of Babel, said to +have been the special work of the <q>King of the Holy Mound,</q> +Sar-tuli-elli, and its erection placed in the seventh month at the +autumnal equinox. It was a zikkurâtú with seven steps, a circumstance +connected with planetary [? stellar] symbolism. This +style of building is reduplicated in the oldest Egyptian pyramids, +<hi rend='italic'>e. g.</hi> the pyramid of Sakkârah, which had seven steps like the +Babylonian towers. This circumstance, one amongst many such, supplies +a most interesting illustration of the fact that the Egyptian +civilization was mainly Euphratean in origin</q> (Robert Brown, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The following facts contained in Prof. Morris Jastrow's admirable +hand book on the <q>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria,</q> further +establish the pervading influence of the number seven. <q>The two +most famous zikkurats of seven stages were those in Babylon and +Borsippa, opposite Babylon. The latter bears the significant name +E-ur-imin-an-ki, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, <q>the house of seven divisions of heaven +and earth.</q> Two much older towers than those of Babylon and Borsippa +bear names in which <q>seven</q> is introduced. One of these is the +zikkurat to Nin-girsu at Lagash, which Gudea describes as <q>the +house of seven divisions of the world,</q> the other the tower at Uruk, +which bore the name <q>house of seven zones.</q> The reference in +both cases is, as Jensen has shown, to the seven concentric zones +into which the earth was divided by the Babylonians.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In a standard German book of reference (Spamer's Illustrierte +Weltgeschichte I Theil, Alterthum, I Theil, s. 371), I find the +statement that the zikkurat of the temple I-zidda at Borsippa, was +called <q>the temple of the seven lights of heaven and earth,</q> which +seem to have been symbolized also by the seven-branched candlestick +of the Hebrews. Considering that other sacred symbols +which were employed in Solomon's temple are believed by Professor +Jastrow to be <q>imitations of Babylonian models,</q> it seems justifiable +to endeavor to trace to the same source the origin of the +Hebrew <q>seven-branched candlestick,</q> to which I shall revert later +<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/> +on. Prof. Morris Jastrow offers the suggestion that the name +<q>seven directions of heaven and earth</q> may point to a conception +of seven zones dividing the heavens as well as the earth, and states +that the <q>seven divisions</q> and <q>seven zones</q> are merely terms +equivalent to universe. He explains that the seven directions were +interpreted by the Babylonian theologians as a reference to the +seven great celestial bodies, the sun and moon, Ishtar, Marduk, +Ninib, Nergal and Nabu. To each of these one story was supposed +to be dedicated and the tower thus became a cosmological +symbol. Moreover, from Herodotus' description of the seven concentric +walls of Ecbatana, in which each wall was distinguished +by a certain color, the conclusion has been drawn that the same +colors—white, black, scarlet, blue, orange, silver and gold—were +employed by the Babylonians for the stages of their towers. +</p> + +<p> +Professor Jastrow draws attention to the fact that the division of +the earth into seven zones is a <q>conception that we encounter in +India and Persia, and that survives in the seven <q>climates</q> into +which the world was divided by Greek and Arabic geographers. It +seems clear that this interpretation of the number seven is older than +the one that identified each story with one of the planets. Both interpretations +have a scholastic aspect, however, and the very fact that +there are two interpretations justifies the suspicion that neither furnishes +the <emph>real</emph> explanation why the number seven was chosen ... +it is because seven was popularly sacred that the world +was divided into seven zones and that the planets were fixed at +seven, not <hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi></q> (p. 620). +</p> + +<p> +The preceding statements lead to the conclusion that, among +Assyriologists there is no current, generally-accepted view as to the +origin of the <q>sacred seven</q> of the Babylonians. The following +details concerning the zikkurat and the sanctuaries of Babylon will +be found to furnish evidence that their builders were imbued with +the identical primitive set of ideas or seven-fold division of the cosmos +that is now so familiar to the reader and is traceable to the +observation of Polaris and Septentriones. +</p> + +<p> +The astronomical association and cosmological symbolism of the +zikkurat become more and more evident when all evidence concerning +it is carefully sifted. According to the cosmogony of the +Babylonians the earth was pictured as a huge mountain. Khar-sag-gal-kurkura=the +mountain of all lands, is a designation for +the earth. E-kur=mountain house, another name for the earth, +<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/> +became one of the names for temple and, by extension, for the +sacred precinct which enclosed the zikkurat and sacred edifices.<note place='foot'>In +Assyria we find one of the oldest temples bearing the name E-kharsag-kurkura, +that stamps the edifice as the reproduction of the <q>mountain of all lands</q> and there +are other temples that likewise bear names in which the idea of a mountain is +introduced.... The zikkurat or <q>mountain-house</q>=E-kur was at Nippur, Sippar, Uruk, +Ur and Larsa, <q>the centre of a considerable group of buildings; while at Babylon ... +the temple area of E-sagila must have presented the appearance of a little city +of itself, shut off from the rest of the town by a wall which invariably enclosed the +sacred quarter.</q> The name E-kur was used at Nippur, by extension, to denote the +entire sacred precinct which contained the zikkurat or staged tower, the great court +where worshippers assembled, shrines and other minor structures. The excavations at +Nippur have afforded us, for the first time, a general view of a sacred quarter in an +ancient Babylonian city. The extent of the quarter was considerable. Dr. Peters' +estimate is eight acres for the zikkurat and surrounding structures.... <q>A +factor that contributed largely to the growth of the sacred precinct in the large centres +was the circumstance that the political importance of such centres as Nippur, +Lagash, Ur, Babylon and Nineveh led the rulers to group around the worship of the +chief deity, the cult of the minor ones who constituted the family or court of the chief +god.</q> A <q>list of temples in Lagash, recently published by Scheil, ... furnishes +the name of no less than thirteen sacred edifices, and we are certain that as many as +four or five smaller chapels surrounded the precinct in which stood the great temple +E-ninnu ...</q> (Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +A plural formed of the word E-kur,=Ekurrati, was used for +divinities, and this association of the word mountain with the name +for a god is particularly interesting when it is also remembered +that the cuneiform character for god is a star and that therefore +either a mountain, or a star, signified a god in Babylonian and +Assyrian inscriptions. Bel, the supreme star god of the Babylonians, +whose name literally signifies merely <q>lord or king,</q> and +under the form Ah-baal became current throughout Asia Minor, +was, as Professor Jastrow states (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +p. 435), actually identified with the polar star, +and sometimes addressed as the <q>great mountain.</q><note place='foot'>These facts +shed additional light and interest upon the Mt. Meru of India, where +the Brahmans sought union with their god Brahma.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The famous temple, the E-kur of Babylonian history, is described +by Herodotus, Strabo and other pagan authorities, as consisting +of seven stories and being surmounted by a sanctuary which +was under the charge of a virgin priestess and contained a couch +(resting-place) for the god.<note place='foot'><q>Diodorus Siculus +maintains that the E-kur was employed as an astronomical observatory. +The antiquity of Babylonian astronomy is indicated by the testimony of +Simplicius and Porphyrius who relate that Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander +the Great during his campaigns, brought back from Babylon and communicated to +Aristoteles a series of observations which had been made there for a period of 1,903 +years. Accordingly, the Chaldæans must have begun to make astronomical notes +more than 2,200 years before the Christian era. It stands indeed to reason that they +must have made observations during countless centuries, since they discovered the +Saros, known as the Chaldæan period of 6583-1/3 days, which served for the prediction +of eclipses and were also acquainted with the precession of the equinoxes.</q></note> +It is amply demonstrated, moreover, +that the central zikkurat was regarded as the permanent resting +and dwelling place of <emph>the</emph> lord or god, par excellence, and in +this connection it is significant that among the names of sanctuaries +<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/> +enumerated by Professor Jastrow there occur such as <q>the true +or fixed house,</q> the house of the established seat, the sacred dwelling, +the permanent dwelling, etc. +</p> + +<p> +The Babylonian ideas connected with the supreme god and his +temple are, moreover, sufficiently apparent in the prayers to Marduk, +from which I extract the following detached passages: <q>Marduk, +king of heaven and earth.... Look favorably upon the city, +<emph>O lord of rest</emph>!... May the gods of heaven and earth speak to +thee <emph>O lord of rest</emph>!... A resting-place for the lord of +E-sagila is thy house, E-sagila, the house of thy sovereignty, is +thy house....</q> +</p> + +<p> +The sanctuary surmounting the zikkurat, is also termed <q>the +high place par excellence, or the lofty house, the high edifice, +the tower of the great dwelling, the great palace, the house of +the glorious mountain [or god] the house of him who gives the +sceptre of the world; also the house of light, the house of great +splendor, the house without rival, the gate of widespread splendor, +the light of Shamash, the heart of Shamash, the life of the world.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The idea that the <q>mountain house</q> or <q>high place</q> was the +consecrated centre where the union of heaven and earth took place, +is apparent from the following names: <q>the house of heavenly +construction, the heavenly house, the house reaching to heaven, the +point of heaven and earth, the link of heaven and earth, the foundation +stone of heaven and earth.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Complementing,</q> as Professor Jastrow says, <q>the cosmological +associations that have been noted in connection with the zikkurat,</q> +we find the inner room or sanctuary of the Babylonian and Assyrian +temple named Papakhu, from the verb pakhu=to close. +It was also known as the parakhu, from parâku=to shut off, to +lock. <q>Gudea describes the papakhu as <q>the dark chamber.</q> +Professor Jastrow states that it was regarded as an imitation of a +cosmical <q>sacred chamber,</q> and from his book we learn that it was +employed as an assembly room, or council chamber by the priesthood. +It was indeed termed <q>the assembly room</q> the <q>place of +<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/> +fates,</q> <q>the court of the world,</q> <q>the house of oracle,</q> also as the +<q>sacred room where the gods assembled in solemn council</q> and +<q>the chamber of fates</q> where the chief god sits on New Year's +day and decides the fate of mankind for the ensuing year</q> (Jastrow, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 423). +</p> + +<p> +The Babylonian and Assyrian kings were the living representatives +of the chief god and Professor Jastrow states that <q>it was into +the papakhu that the priests retired when they desired to obtain +an oracle direct from the god.... It is particularly interesting +to collate the statements <q>that the New Year's day was the +occasion of a symbolical marriage between a god and goddess,</q> +and that <q>the New Year's festival came to be the season most appropriate +for approaching the oracular chamber.</q></q> It thus appears +that the papakhu was the sacred and secret chamber where the ancient +kings and their councillors united to confer upon the government +of the nation and decreed the irrevocable laws which decided +the fate of individuals. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The <q>decision of fates</q> is, in Babylonian theology, one of +the chief functions of the gods. It constitutes the mainspring of +their power. To decide fates is to control the arrangement +of the universe—to establish order.</q> The <q>tablets of fate</q> are +repeatedly mentioned in the Assyrian epics where it is described how +one god addressing another, <q>gives him the tablets of fate, hangs +them on his breast and dismisses him,</q> with the words: <q>thy +command be invincible, thy order authoritative</q> (Jastrow, pp. +420 and 424). It is evident that these words were supposed to +convey the power to establish order and issue irrevocable laws. +</p> + +<p> +The temple of Shamash (who, like Marduk, was evidently identical +with Bel), situated in Babylon, was termed <q>the house of the universal judge,</q> +and it is extremely interesting to find this <q>god</q><note place='foot'>Professor +Jastrow tells us that the name Shamash merely signifies vassal or servitor. +I venture to point out what is doubtlessly a fact familiar to Assyriologists, that +the name closely resembles the Babylonian-Assyrian name Shame=heaven, the +equivalent of the Sumerian an, a word of which the most ancient cuneiform signs +were four crossed lines, forming eight lines proceeding from a common centre.</note> +represented on a stone tablet found at Sippar, as seated on a low +throne in the sanctuary or papakkhu, of the temple El-bab-bara, +while in front of him on an altar rests what Professor Jastrow +describes as <q>a wheel with radiant spokes.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A fine illustration of this tablet which bears an inscription by the +<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/> +king Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.) being published in Spamer's +standard work already cited, I have been able to note the interesting +fact that the <q>wheel with radiant spokes</q> exhibits four +pointed rays, directed outwards and forming a cruciform figure, +which, by the way, it is interesting to compare with the Mexican +Calendar stone and its four rays. Each of the spaces between +these pointed rays is filled by a group of wavy lines which appears +to simulate some fluid flowing from the centre, which is formed by +a series of concentric circles. The quadruplicate peculiar partition +of the disk assumes special importance when it is realized that, +in the niche above the head of Shamash, a miniature production of +the <emph>disk recurs between the familiar conventional images of the +moon and a disk containing eight rays or spokes</emph>. According to Dr. +Felix von Luschan (Mitth. aus der vorderasiat. Abth. der Kgl. +Museen, Heft <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi</hi>, p. 24), the inscription opens with the +invocation to <q>ilu Sin, ilu Shamash u ilu Ishtar,</q> a fact of double interest, +because Ishtar is termed the <q>twin-sister of Shamash</q> in an Assyrian +hymn, and because the inscription obviously identifies the +moon as the symbol of Sin, the four-spoked wheel as that of +Shamash and the eight-spoked wheel as that of Ishtar. As the +king, in his inscriptions expressly states that he has restored on +the tablet the image of Shamash according to an ancient model, +for the guidance of future artists, it is evident that departures +from the original cult of Shamash had taken place in his time and +that he was making an attempt to reëstablish it. The extreme +antiquity of the cult of Shamash may, indeed, be inferred from the +fact that about B.C. 1850, the king, Shamsi-ramann, bore the god's +name as a divine title. About B.C. 1350, moreover, a temple was +built to Shamash in Ashur. +</p> + +<p> +I shall treat, further on, of the evidences showing that the cult of +Polaris gradually became a secret one known to the initiated only, +while popular worship was directed to the sun, moon, and morning +and evening stars, etc. Meanwhile the following passages from +Professor Jastrow's hand-book will elucidate the Babylonian Assyrian +cult of the Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The zikkurat was quadrangular in shape. The orientation of +the four corners towards the four cardinal points was approximate. +Inasmuch as the rulers of Babylon from a very early period call +themselves <q>king of the four regions,</q> it has been supposed that +<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/> +the quadrangular shape was chosen designedly.</q>... +<q>The title <q>king of the four regions</q> was an old one that pertained +to the kings of Agade.... The city of Arbela, at +one time the seat of the cult of Ishtar, was named <q>the four-god +city.</q></q> This name is particularly interesting when it is remembered +that the Babylonian and Assyrian word for god and mountain was +identical and that this identity may account for the Chinese employment +of the term <q>four mountains,</q> to express also the four +provinces and their chiefs. Professor Jastrow informs us, in a note, +that the name Arbela is, more precisely, Arba-ilu, signifying <q>city +of the four-fold divinity</q> or <q>four-god</q> city and invites comparison +to the Palestinian form Kiryath-arba, <q>four-city.</q> He suggests +that this name may perhaps likewise signify a city of four +gods, but adds that it has commonly been explained as meaning +four roads or four quarters (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 203). +</p> + +<p> +The ancient pagan authorities inform us that the ancient city +of Babylon was laid out in the form of a perfect square, the +sides of which were oriented to the cardinal points. A massive +wall enclosed the entire city and the river Euphrates divided it +into halves, united by a bridge, each half being again subdivided +by the main street leading to the bridge. A series of streets ran +parallel to the river through the city and were crossed at right +angles by others, the result being that 625 blocks or squares of +building were thus formed. +</p> + +<p> +There is positive evidence that the capital city of Lagash or +Shir-pur-la was divided into four sections, the separate names of +which were Girsu, Uru-alaga, Ninâ and Gish-Galla or Erim, the +reading of the latter name being doubtful. The circumstance that +each of these quarters had its <q>divinity</q> and was ruled by its earthly +representative, explains the term <q>four-god city</q> or <q>four city</q> +found associated with other capitals of Babylonia. +</p> + +<p> +The existence of a central ruler who exercised supreme authority +over the four quarters of the capital, and by extension over the +<q>four provinces</q> is amply proven by the title of the Babylonian +kings, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the <q>king of the four regions.</q> An interesting +oracle, addressed to king Esar-Haddon is found to contain the statement +that <q>Ashur has given him the four ends of the earth</q> (Jastrow, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 345). +</p> + +<p> +Evidence that while the capital and entire state consisted of +four quarters, the whole was also divided theoretically and practically +<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/> +into halves, is furnished by the significant fact that, from +remote antiquity, the rulers of Babylonia also bore the title of <q>lord +of Akkad and Sumer</q>=North and South, this term being, like +that of <q>Four Regions,</q> a general designation for the whole of +Babylonia and the first being obviously analogous to the Egyptian +royal title: <q>King of upper and lower Egypt.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I can but briefly indicate here some facts which prove that this +ancient Babylonian centre of civilization underwent precisely the +same evolution as that I have traced in America and India. +</p> + +<p> +Assyriologists agree in stating that, at the beginning of Babylonian +history, about 4,000 B.C., Akkad and Sumer, or North and +South Babylonia, already existed and were inhabited by two distinct +races of people: the non-Semitic Sumerians and the Semitic +Akkadians or later Babylonians. In later times we find the region +embraced by the Euphrates and Tigris inhabited by descendants +of both races and forming the Babylonian empire in the south, the +Assyrian empire to the northeast, while in the northwestern part +of Mesopotamia, was the seat of various empires that were alternately +the rivals and subjects of either Babylonia or Assyria +(Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 26). +</p> + +<p> +Three distinct and rival cults are indeed found associated with +these three centres of government, and when examined by the light +of our knowledge of a parallel process of evolution elsewhere, their +origin can be traced back to elementary pole-star heaven and earth +worship, and what is termed the establishment of the districts of +Anu, Bel and Ea. That at one period these separate cults peacefully +existed alongside of each other is indicated by the joint worship +of pairs and triads of divinities who were personifications of +central powers, of the upper and of the lower regions. In order +to demonstrate this statement I shall briefly cite some references to +such divinities from Professor Jastrow's hand-book, taking them in +the order in which they are enumerated in the famous Babylonian +version of the creation of the world, contained in the fragment +known as the <q>Creation epic</q> which begins thus: +</p> + +<p> +<q>There was a time where Above, the heaven, was not named. +Below, the earth, bore no name. Apsu was there from the first, the +source of both (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, heaven and earth). And raging Tiamat, the +mother of both (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, heaven and earth).</q> Apsu and Tiamat are +synonymous and are personifications of the watery deep or abyss. +<q>Apsu represents the male and Tiamat the female principle of the +<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/> +primæval universe ... the embrace of Apsu and Tiamat +became a symbol of <q>sexual</q> union.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Tiamat was popularly pictured as a huge serpent-like monster, +a fact of utmost interest when connected with the name Nakkash, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, crooked serpent, bestowed upon the constellation Draconis +which contained the pole-star of 2170 B.C. Abstaining from +comment I merely establish here the interesting point that in ancient +Babylonia the serpent is found distinctly associated with +Polaris as well as with the dual creative principle. The divine +pairs Lakhmu and Lakhamu and Anshar and Kishar were then +created. By an arbitrary division of his name into An and shar, +the deity becomes the <q>one that embraces all that is above.</q> +The element An is the same that we have in Anu and is the ideographic +form for <q>high</q> and <q>heaven.</q> Ki is the ideographic +form for earth and the natural consort to an all-embracing upper +power is a power that <q>embraces all that is below.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting thus to ascertain that on another tablet by the +side of these personifications of heaven and earth are enumerated +a series of names which certainly appear to be merely variations +on the names or titles of the divine pairs. Lakhumu and Lakhamu +occur on the list, and Anshar and Kishar recur as Anshar-gal, +<q>great totality of what is on high,</q> and Kishar-gal, <q>great totality +of what is below.</q> Then there are En-shar and Nin-shar, +<q>lord and mistress</q> and a <q>Father-Mother of Anu,</q> titles +which furnish an interesting comparison with the list printed on +page 42 of this investigation. +</p> + +<p> +Pagan authorities, cited by Professor Jastrow, relate that the first +result of the union of Apsu and Tiamat was the production of +<q>strange monsters, human beings with wings, beings with two +heads, male and female, hybrid formations, half man, half animal, +with horns of rams and horses' hoofs, bulls with human faces, dogs +with four-fold bodies ending in fish tails.</q> Seen in the light of +the present investigation these accounts and the sculptured images +of such monstrosities, many of which have been preserved to the +present day, may be accounted for in a very simple and natural +manner. It is obvious that, once the Babylonian theologians +had definitely adopted the theory and creed that the universe had +been created by the union of the Above and Below, Male and Female +principle, Heaven and Earth, or Upper and Lower Firmament, +the production of allegorical images personifying or symbolizing this +<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/> +union would inevitably follow in course of time. The somewhat +naïve but expressive combination of the form of a quadruped or +serpent with that of a bird, and the adoption of winged bulls, lions +and serpents, would have seemed a most appropriate rendering of +the current idea of the dual, creative power, which might also be +conveyed by two heads, or two horns. From Professor Jastrow's +description of the case of a single monster, with four bodies and with +attributes of the elements earth and water, we learn that not only +the union of heaven and earth but also of earth and water was at +times the task imposed upon the native artists by the fancy and +imagination of minds dwelling upon the subject of the creative +first cause. Postponing further discussion of the Babylonian and +Assyrian symbolism of the Middle, Above and Below and Four +Quarters or the <q>seven directions of Heaven and Earth,</q> I shall +now direct attention to the most famous triad of Babylonian cosmology +which figures at the end of the Creation epic. It consisted +of Anu, Ea and Bel<note place='foot'>A striking corroboration +of the view that China derived its civilization from Asia +Minor is afforded by the resemblance between the Assyrian Anu and the Chinese +Shang, both signifying Heaven, and the Assyrian Ea and Chinese Lea, both applied +to <q>the Below.</q></note> and obviously personified the Above and +Below and the link or central meeting place of these, the earth +named Esharra, <q>the house of fertility</q> or E-kur <q>the mountain +house.</q> We learn from Professor Jastrow's handbook that whereas +Bel=the polar star (the secret god) and Nibir=the planet +Jupiter (the later popular personification of Bel) were associated +with the North, Ea was identified with the South (p. 435). +Elsewhere we are told that Anu was identified with the North, Bel +with the equator and Ea with the South (p. 460), a fact to which I +shall again recur in treating of the territorial divisions of the state, +which corresponded to the three divisions of the universe, the +Above, Middle and Below. +</p> + +<p> +The following detached statements concerning Babylonian divinities +drawn from Professor Jastrow's handbook, show with what +activity the fundamental set of ideas was developed by the native +theologians and philosophers. Bel-arduk became the chief god +of Babylon, the title <q>Belu-rabu</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, <q>great lord,</q> +becoming identified with Marduk. As such he is termed <q>the king of +heaven and earth</q> and the <q>lord of the four regions.</q> His dwelling +was on the sacred <q>mountain-house,</q> the zikkurat, and is represented +<q>with a crown with high horns, a symbol of dual rulership. +<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/> +As the supreme ruler, life and death are in his hands and he guides +the decrees of the deities of the Above and Below.</q> <q>The first +part of the name Marduk is also used to designate the <q>young bullock,</q> +and it is possible that the god was pictured in this way.</q> +It should be remembered here, however, that on page 89 Professor +Jastrow tells us how Nannar=the one who furnishes light=the +moon, was invoked as <q>the powerful bull of Anu,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, +heaven. In this connection it is interesting to learn that in Canaan, Astarte, +the goddess of night, was also worshipped under the form of a cow, +and that in Phœnicia she was sometimes figured with horns, symbolizing +the moon. In Assyria, four horns, denoting four-fold +rulership, usually encircle the high conical cap of sovereignty, +which also crowns the human heads of the winged bulls. It may +be permissible to point out here what an appropriate and expressive +embodiment of symbolism the winged bull appears to be; the form +of the quadruped, combined with wings, clearly symbolizes a union +of the Above and Below; the control over both being expressed +by the human head which completes the allegorical figure. The +high cap, with which the head was crowned, exhibits the form of a +mound, and combined or partly encircled by two or sometimes +four horns, obviously symbolizes dual or quadruple rulership. It +thus appears evident that the winged bull of Assyria expressed, +almost as clearly as the seven-staged towers of Babylon, the +<q>seven directions of heaven and earth,</q> and was as appropriate +an allegorical image of Assur the god, as of Assur the state, and +of the royal power which conferred upon the supreme lords of +Babylonia and Assyria the titles: <q>lord of the holy mound,</q> <q>lord +of Akkad and Sumer,</q> and <q>lord of the four regions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The idea that some of the Assyrian kings actually embodied +seven-fold power, or ruled the <q>seven divisions,</q> is further conveyed +by curious groups of seven symbols, accompanied by the +numeral seven, expressed by seven dots, which occur above their +portraits on tablets which will be described further on. Whilst +analyzing the royal titles and insignia represented on the stelæ of +Assyrian kings, I shall likewise show how these complete the +foregoing evidence and indicate that in Babylonia and Assyria, the +seven-fold division was applied not only to the Cosmos, but to +the territory of the State, to its social organization, to its calendar; +and that the seven-storied zikkurat, the winged bulls, etc., and indeed, +<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/> +the seven-branched candlestick, were apparently designed as +expressive of the general seven-fold scheme of organization. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now examine some data which shed light upon the various +and curious phases of evolution undergone by the growing and diverging +cults of Heaven and Earth in Babylonia and Assyria. +Going back to the dawn of astronomy in Babylonia let us note +some facts which show that, as elsewhere, in remotest antiquity the +periodical disappearance and reappearance of the Pleiades produced +a deep impression upon the primitive star-gazers. These phenomena +marked natural divisions of the year and the constellation appeared +to belong alternately to the visible or upper world and to +the invisible or lower region. A recognition that the Pleaid was <emph>the</emph> +constellation at that remote period when Taurus led the year, may +be established by the common Euphratean name by which it is said +to have been designated: Kakkab-mul=<emph>the</emph> constellation or star. +The Akkadian and Assyrian names which had probably also originally +designated Polaris signified that it and the Hyades were +the foundation stars or constellations. In the Ptolemy star charts, +the Pleiades are designated by the name Ki mah (see Robert +Brown, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 57). While it appears that whereas the Pleiades +long exerted its influence and, with Polaris and the circumpolar +constellations, regulated and marked the primitive year, its +cult was gradually superseded by that of morning and evening +stars and of the sun and moon which became the emblems of the +rapidly developing divergent cults of the diurnal and nocturnal +heavens, of light and darkness, of the Above and Below.<note place='foot'><p>An +analytical study of the Babylonian and Assyrian divinities enumerated in Professor +Jastrow's hand-book enables us to detect some of the natural associations of +ideas that influenced the formation of one artificial theological system after another, +all springing from a single root. +</p> +<p> +The fundamental realization of the antithesis of light and darkness giving rise to +the division of the universe into two distinct parts, the conception of an eternal +antagonism between both followed and led to the stage of thought set forth by Mr. Robert +Brown who tells us (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>) that <q>the original twins were the +Sun and Moon</q> and +that an archaic cosmogonic legend attached to the third month of Kas (twins) is that +of two hostile brethren and the building of the first city. The great twin-brethren +who join together to build the city are the Sun and Moon, engaged in preserving cosmic +order yet also constantly antagonistic to each other and who constantly chase each +other, one being up when the other is down. Mr. Brown also relates the myth of +antagonistic satraps Namaros and Parsondas and states that, in the twin stars, Castor +and Pollux, named by the Euphrateans the great Twins=Mastab-bagal-gal, the Sun +and Moon were re-duplicated. The Euphratean abbreviation is mas=twin or mas-mas, +and Pollux is equated with the fourth antediluvian king Ammenon, a name derived +from Akkadian: umun=offspring, an=heaven <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the Sun, <q>the +son or offspring of heaven.</q></p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/> + +<p> +In connection with the cult of the Pleiades I draw attention to +R. G. Haliburton's interesting investigations on this particular +subject, and to his publication in the Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. +1895, on <q>Dwarf survivals and traditions as to pigmy races,</q> +which contains the following statements: <q>We find that the Atlas +dwarfs and the Nanos predict the future by watching the reflection +of the <q>Seven Stars</q> in a bowl. The famous cup of Nestor, +supposed to have been a divining cup, had two groups of Pleiades +on its handle....</q> On examining the archaic designs engraved +in the centre of the fine collection of Phœnician and +Assyrian bronze bowls, which were found in the S. E. Palace, Nimroud, +and are exhibited at the British Museum, I recently ascertained +that they appear to be mostly variations on the theme of the +centre and four or seven-fold division, some exhibiting a marked +quadruplicate division, others a seven-pointed star surrounded by +seven smaller stars. In one case a face is repeated four times, in +opposite positions, on the central design which is surrounded by +four large and four lesser conventionally drawn mountains. The +head-dress with lappets which encloses each face recalls the familiar +Egyptian form, and on two bowls images of scarabs are engraved. +On one of these the beetle is drawn in such a way that its +four legs, two of which turn upwards and two downwards, suggest +the form of a swastika. +</p> + +<p> +The peculiarities of these designs and the knowledge that star-worship +prevailed in Assyria and Phœnicia suggest the inference +that the Nimroud Palace bowls were employed for the observation +of the positions of certain stars which marked the seasons and regulated +the calendar, by means of which the priest-kings controlled +the working of the system of state. Doubtlessly the constellations +originally and principally observed besides Polaris were the three +great <q>seven-fold ones,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the Ursa Major which marked the +Four Quarters; the Pleiades which pertained to the Above and Below +and marked the division of the year into halves, and Orion +which also may well have appeared to be a composite image of +the sacred, equal Four, and the central triad composed of the +Above, Middle and Below. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to note that in the Euphratean and other myths +the antagonism between sun and moon, etc., coincides with traditions +of actual warfare between their earthly representatives and that it +is the record of a combat between the followers of light and of +<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/> +darkness that seems to have been thus preserved. The Babylonian +Creation epic teaches us that, in remotest antiquity, the association +of light and life with the male, and darkness and death with +the female principle had become current. A mighty war takes +place between the female serpent Tiamat, associated with evil, +and the male god Marduk, the champion of the gods of the upper +realm, which ends in her overthrow. It was then that Marduk +<q>established the districts or cities of Anu, Bel and Ea,</q> identified +with the North, Middle and South. It is remarkable that this +mythical establishment of three cities exactly coincides with the +conclusions reached by recent investigators as to the existence +during centuries, of three rival states, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> Babylonia in the +south and Assyria in the northeast, who, during centuries, were in continual +warfare with each other and with a third disintegrated power +inhabiting the northwest which was alternately rival or vassal. +This condition of affairs, and the facts enumerated in Professor +Jastrow's handbook, chapter II, are precisely what would naturally +develop from the formation and adoption of three distinct cults and +their ultimate separate establishment in as many centres of government. +The following data will suffice to reveal some of the curious +results obtained by the logical working out of certain associations +of ideas and these results are the more interesting and intelligible +because they are analogous to those I have traced elsewhere. +</p> + +<p> +One point deserves special note: directly opposite views, not +only as to the relative supremacy of the Middle, Above and Below, +but also as to the relation of the sexes to the upper and lower +worlds, seem to have been held at different times and in different +places; and this particular division of opinion appears to have +given rise to endless dissension, strife and warfare, to the separation +of sectarians from the main state and the foundation of numberless +minor centres of government on the old plan, but with +fresh forms of cult embodying a new artificial combination of +ideas. +</p> + +<p> +The shifting of supremacy from one <q>god</q> to another explains +moreover the transference of the title <q>Bel</q>=Lord, or Chief of +Gods, from the personification of one region to another. <q>In +remotest antiquity we find En-lil designated as the <q>lord of the +lower world</q> and bearing the title Bel. En-lil represents the +unification of the various forces whose seat or sphere of action is +among the inhabited parts of the globe, both on the surface and +<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/> +beneath, for the term <q>lower world</q> is here used in contrast to +the upper or heavenly world.... As <q>lord of the lower world,</q> +En-lil is contrasted to a god, Anu, who presides over heavenly +bodies. The age of Sargon (3800 B.C.), in whose inscriptions +En-lil already occurs, is one of considerable culture and there +can, therefore, be no objection against the assumption that at this +early period a theological system should have been evolved which +gave rise to beliefs in great powers whose dominion embraces the +<q>upper</q> and <q>lower</q> worlds</q> +(Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 52-55). +</p> + +<p> +A consort, Nin-lil, a <q>mistress of the lower world,</q> was assigned +to En-lil and was known also as Belit, the feminine form of Bel, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the lady <hi rend='italic'>par excellence</hi>. +She too had her temple at Nippur, +the age of which goes back, at least, to the first dynasty of Ur. +She was also known as Nin-khar-sag, the <q>lady of the high or +great mountain,</q> as the <q>mother of the gods.</q> The assignment +by Sargon, of the northern gates of his palace to Bel, who lays +foundations, and Belit, who brings fertility, affords evidence that +the goddess was the feminine form of Polaris. In Assyria, Belit +appears, either as the wife of Bel, as the consort of Ashur, as +the consort of Ea, or simply as a designation for Ishtar, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +<q>the goddess,</q> the <q>mistress of countries, or of mountains,</q> in +which connection it is interesting to note that the ideographs for +country and mountain are identical in Assyrian. +</p> + +<p> +If the attributes of the goddesses of the Babylonian and Assyrian +pantheon be carefully examined, they will be found to associate +the female principle with fertility, abundance and with water, +the source of plant life. Two divergent views appear to have influenced +the artificial formation of personifications of the female +principle in nature. According to one the goddess is termed the +<q>lady of the deep, the mistress of the place where the fish dwell</q> +(Sarpanitam-erua) and in other cases is linked to the lower firmament +to subterraneous regions, to darkness, death, destructiveness +and hence to evil, thus representing the complement to the male +personification of the upper realm of daylight and the preservative +and beneficent life-giving principles. The other tendency, which +almost appears as a reaction or protest against the previous view, +led to the ultimate adoption of an ideal goddess of the nocturnal +heaven, who was <q>bountiful, offspring-producing, silvery bright</q> +and was in one instance addressed as <q>the lady of shining waters,</q> +of <q>purification</q> and of <q>incantations.</q> In the period of Hammurabi, +<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/> +devotion went so far as to cause the goddess Gula, termed +the <q>bride of the earth,</q> to be invoked as the <q>creator of mankind,</q> +the <q>great physician</q> and <q>life-giver</q> and <q>the one who +leads the dead to a new life</q> (Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 175). +</p> + +<p> +As an interesting outcome of an adjustment of both trains of +thought stands Ishtar-Belit=the lady <hi rend='italic'>par excellence</hi> and +consequently, the feminine personification of Polaris, the supreme goddess +whom Tiglath-pileser termed <q>the first among the gods.</q> +She is the mild and gracious mother of creation, <q>loves the king +and his priesthood,</q> but is also the mighty commanding goddess +of war who clothes herself in fiery flame, appears as a violent destroyer +and sends down streams of fire upon her enemies. <q>The +distinguishing position of both the Babylonian and Assyrian Ishtar +is her independent position. Though at times brought into close +contact with Ashur she is not regarded as the mere consort to any +god—no mere reflection of a male deity, but ruling in her own +right on a perfect par with the great gods of the pantheon. She +is coequal in rank and splendor with Ashur. Her name becomes +synonymous for goddess as Marduk becomes the synonym for +god. The female deities, both foreign and native, came to be regarded +as so many forms of Ishtar.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A curious fact connected with Ishtar, which proves that she had +developed from an original divinity, conceived as dual or bi-sexual, +is that among Semites Ishtar appears both as a male and female +deity. This seems to show that at a certain stage of thought Ishtar +was also a centralization of attributes, a fact which undoubtedly +explains the supreme position accorded to this divinity at one time +as the feminine form of Polaris. The most striking illustration +of this supremacy is furnished by the famous bas-relief figured by +Layard (<q>Ninive and its remains</q> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, 238), which +represents Ishtar, the mother-goddess, the female form of Assur, as seated on a +throne which is borne on the back of a lion in the procession formed +by the seven chief divinities of the Assyrian pantheon, six of +whom are figured as bearded men standing on different animals. +On the fine stela of Esarhaddon, discovered by Dr. von Luschan +at Sendschirli, the goddess, accompanied in this case by three +standing gods, is likewise represented as seated on a throne holding +a large ring or circle in her left hand. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the <q>All-mother, the female creator of mankind,</q> +is represented as the only occupant of the throne, reveals a distinct +<pb n='343'/><anchor id='Pg343'/> +phase in the evolution of the Babylonian state religion, which +curiously concurs with the supremacy of female sovereignty at +Babylon, at the period of its greatest power under Semiramis. It +may be safely assumed that it was at this time, when the queen +represented the goddess, that the cult of the female principle of +nature reached its highest development. +</p> + +<p> +At Nippur the clay images chiefly represent Bel and Belit either +separately or in combination, but figurines of Ishtar have also been +found, in some cases representing her as nursing a child (Jastrow, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 674). It is probable that the symbols of duality +connected with Ishtar had some reference to the mystic unity and +duality of the mother and unborn child, and suggested the installation +of the goddess as the most appropriate personification of +creative and life-giving central power.<note place='foot'><p><q>There +are reasons for believing, however, that Sarpanitum, the offspring-producing +goddess once enjoyed considerable importance of her own; that, prior to the rise +of Marduk to his supreme position, a goddess was worshipped in Babylon, one of +whose special functions it was to protect the progeny while still in the mother's +womb. A late king of Babylon, the great Nebuchadnezzar, appeals to this attribute +of the goddess. To her was also attributed the possession of knowledge concealed +from men.... A late ruler of Babylon, Shamash-Shumu-kin, calls her +<q>the queen of the gods</q> and declares himself to have been nominated by her to +lord it over men</q> (Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 122). +</p> +<p> +The following extracts from Assyrian prayers addressed to Ishtar further define +her position at one time: <q>The producer, queen of heaven, the glorious lady. To +the one who dwells in E-babbara.... To the queen of the gods to whom has +been entrusted the commands of the great gods. To the lady of Nineveh.... To +the daughter of Sin, <emph>the twin-sister of Shamash</emph>, ruling over all kingdoms. +Who issues decrees, the goddess of the universe.... <emph>Besides thee there is no guiding +deity</emph>....</q></p></note> +</p> + +<p> +It is as interesting to follow the complex train of thought which +created an Ishtar as it is to realize that curious fact that, contrary +to views held elsewhere, it was the male principle that was at one +time most distinctly associated with earth in Babylonia-Assyria, +while femininity was linked to the nocturnal heaven. It is probable +that priesthood encouraged the popular adoption of Bel, the +masculine Polaris, as an earth, sun and morning-star god, while +his consort Belit became a heaven, moon and evening-star goddess. +Doubtlessly at an early period the cult of Polaris and the registration +of circumpolar rotation was guarded in secrecy by the astronomer-priests. +Tempting as it is to linger among the gods and goddesses +of the Babylonian-Assyrian pantheon and to follow the spread +of their influence, I shall limit myself to pointing out the change of +<pb n='344'/><anchor id='Pg344'/> +government that accompanied the development and establishment +of various divergent cults. +</p> + +<p> +Indications that, as in China at the present day, a combined +heaven and earth cult was practised in Babylonia-Assyria by male +and female representatives of heaven and earth, are furnished by +various detached pieces of information gleaned from Professor +Jastrow's work. The priest-king was the <q>child</q> of Bel, and his +living representative. As such he bore the divine titles of supreme +lord, ruled the four regions of the earth, and became the representative +of earth. Pagan authorities state that a virgin priestess +officiated at times in the sanctuary of Bel and that there were three +classes of priestesses devoted to the cult of Ishtar. They were +called <q>the sacred ones</q> and carried out a mysterious ritual which +had, however, originated <q>from naïve conceptions connected with +the worship of the goddess of fertility.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The use of sacred water and of fermented intoxicating wine +entered into the cult of the life-giving principle and Babylonia ultimately +becomes associated with <q>Mystery</q> and <q>the golden cup +full of abominations</q> (Revelations <hi rend='smallcaps'>xvii</hi>). Large terra cotta +vases or jars have been found at Nippur and elsewhere, standing +in front of the altar, and <q>the depth at which they were found is +an indication of the antiquity and stability of the forms of worship +in Babylonian temples. It may be proper to recall that, in the +Solomonic temple likewise, there were a series of jars that stood +near the great altar in the court</q> (Jastrow, p. 653). One of the +oldest sacred basins found in the ruins of a Babylonian temple <q>has +a frieze of female figures in it, holding in their outstretched hands +flagons from which they pour water,</q> a fact which establishes the +ritualistic association of female priestesses with water. +</p> + +<p> +The later association of Ishtar with the moon and with the +evening star, <q>the leader of the heavenly procession of stars,</q> naturally +exerted an influence over the ceremonial rites performed by +the high priestess or queen, the living image of the goddess. +<q>Mythological associations appear to have played a part in identifying +the planet Venus with the goddess.... A widely spread +nature myth, symbolizing the change of seasons, represents Ishtar +the personification of fertility, the great mother of all that manifests +life, as proceeding to the region of darkness and remaining +there for some time. The disappearance of the planet Venus at +<pb n='345'/><anchor id='Pg345'/> +certain seasons ... [and re-appearance] ... suggested the +identification of this planet with Ishtar.</q> The foregoing affords +an explanation why Ishtar should have become identified with +the west and also naturally suggests the probability that the cult +of Ishtar gradually imposed upon its priestesses and its votaries +of the female sex, the ceremonial observance of periods of retirement +and seclusion, coinciding with the disappearance of the moon +and evening star. +</p> + +<p> +A critical examination of the accounts preserved of the Phœnician +or Canaanite religion reveals that it consisted of an idealistic +development of the Ishtar cult of Assyria. The fact that, +ultimately, in Phœnicia, the cult of the female Astarte almost superseded +that of the male Baal and that their joint cult, introduced +into Palestine, seriously rivalled the monotheism of the Israelites, +furnishes another indication that we have to deal here with the +same marked divergence of cults which we have seen to result +from a common basis in ancient America. In studying the Phœnician +conception of Astarte as recorded by various authors, one +is struck by its comparative refinement and ideality although, as in +ancient America, the cult of the female principle of nature was also +accompanied by secret licentious ceremonials. +</p> + +<p> +In the Astarte cult of Phœnicia we have precisely what might be +expected to have been evolved by the descendants of an ancient +race of star-watchers who, powerfully impressed by the antithesis +of light and darkness and having become a nation of traders and +seafarers, naturally adopted the nocturnal heaven and guiding +stars as their chief object of worship. It does not seem improbable +that it was to the less degrading association of the female +principle with the nocturnal heaven<note place='foot'>As an +illustration of the ideas connected with Astarte it is interesting to note that +fish and doves, inhabitants of the sea and air, became her sacred emblems. The +horns which she is sometimes represented as wearing seem to be not only symbolical +of the moon, but also to be a remnant of a more ancient form of symbolism +which associated the goddess with the cow. It is stated that, in Canaan, Astarte was +represented under the form of a cow and it will be shown that, in the Egyptian +zodiac Polaris and Ursa Major were represented under the form of a bull or cow or +its thigh. The eye painted on the prow of the ship was also a symbol of the goddess, +an interesting fact considering that the eye expresses a star among other primitive +people.</note> that woman owed, in lapse of +time, the higher position she was accorded in the countries directly +influenced by the Phœnician civilization, and notably in Greece +and Rome. +</p> + +<pb n='346'/><anchor id='Pg346'/> + +<p> +In Phœnicia, Astarte-Ishtar became the goddess of love and +marriage. In Babylonia-Assyria the high-priestess, the living +representative of the goddess, who, like the planet-goddess, periodically +retired into darkness and seclusion and led a shadowy +existence, appears to have originally shared equal honors with the +<q>lord of earth</q> and to have delivered oracular utterances in subterraneous +chambers. Throughout Babylonia, New Year's Day, +which coincided with the beginning of the rainy season, was the +occasion of <q>the marriage of the god and the goddess</q> <hi rend='italic'>par +excellence</hi>, a rite which symbolized the <q>meeting of Heaven and +Earth.</q> Circumstantial evidence seems to prove, moreover, that, +as in Peru, the annual consecrated union of the male and female +personification of heaven and earth was followed by the marriage +of young persons throughout the land, a custom which furnishes +another indication of the original existence of an annual mating +season for the human race. As it was at this period also that the +priesthood approached the papakhu, the inner sanctuary, also +termed the <q>assembly-room,</q> <q>chamber of the oracle</q> and <q>of +fates,</q> and transmitted to the people the irrevocable decrees of +Marduk, it seems as though these ancient rulers practised a similar +<q>abundance of lying and deceit for the advantage of the governed</q> +as that advocated by Plato in his Republic;<note place='foot'>Book +<hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, Chaps. <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii-x</hi>.</note> +exerted a stern control +over the alliances formed and the number of marriages celebrated +and endeavored to make these, as far as possible, sacred. +The mere record that the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal claims to +be the offspring of a pair of divinities personifying heaven and +earth, appears to show that he was the offspring of the sacred divine +union of the high priest and priestess, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> of divine birth. +It is interesting to collate a few disconnected facts which appear +to illustrate the natural and inevitable result of the institution of +two cults ruled by separate representatives. +</p> + +<p> +Sin-Gashid, of the dynasty of Uruk, mentions a temple built +for the god and his consort, as <q>the seat of their joy.</q> At Babylon, +the <q>mother of great gods</q> dwelt within the precincts of +the temple on the east side of the Euphrates known as Esagila, +<q>the lofty house.</q> When the city of Babylon extended as far as +to include Borsippa, the temple known as Ezida, <q>the true house,</q> +was built for Marduk=Bel. At Lagash the temple of the <q>good +lady</q> and mother stood in one quarter known as the <q>brilliant +<pb n='347'/><anchor id='Pg347'/> +town</q> while the temple of her consort stood in the other of the +two most ancient quarters of the town. The above facts acquire +double significance when collated with the well-known fact that the +palace of Semiramis, the great queen of Babylon, was built on +the west bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ancient palace of +the king. A bridge united these royal residences which were +otherwise separated by the river. +</p> + +<p> +Under Semiramis, Babylonia was a nation under a single female +ruler and this usurpation of power by a woman, accompanied as +it was by the predominance of the originally naïve cult which had +unconsciously fostered and ministered to perversion and depravity, +preceded the decadence, disintegration and ultimate downfall of +the empire. Many centuries previous, the instalment of a female +sovereign preceded the ruin of another empire in what we may +assume to have been precisely the same way. +</p> + +<p> +Professor Sayce informs us that, <q>about 3800 B.C., in northern +Babylonia and in the city of Agadê or Akkad, arose the empire +of Sargani-sarali=Sargon, and that Sargon's son, Naram-Sin, +succeeded him in 3750 B.C. and continued the conquests of his +grandfather.... Naram-Sin's son was Bingam-sar-ali. +A queen, Ellat-gula, seems to have sat upon the throne not much +later, and with her the dynasty may have come to an end. At any +rate the empire of Akkad is heard of no more. But it left behind +it a profound impression in western Asia, whose art and culture +became Babylonian</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The process of disintegration, which caused the Babylonian empire +to crumble away, was doubtlessly hastened by its division into four +regions, each of which in latter times possessed its capital and +became the centre of various independent forms of rival cults. +During many centuries Babylonia was closely associated with the +cult of Marduk-Bel, the <q>lord of rest;</q> while Shamash, another +form of the central supreme lord, was the deity of Larsa and +Sippar. +</p> + +<p> +At one time Ur became the headquarters for the cult of the moon-god +Sin or Nannar. As, according to Babylonian notions, the sun +does not properly belong to the heavens and plays an insignificant +part in the calendrical system in comparison with the moon, sun-worship +proper does not seem to have existed in Babylonia. At +the same time it would seem as though when the <q>primitive sun</q>=Polaris +became the hidden, secret god of the priest-astronomers, +<pb n='348'/><anchor id='Pg348'/> +who determined the seasons by Ursa Major, the populace was +taught to regard Bel as the personification of the diurnal sun and +of the herald of day, the morning star. +</p> + +<p> +When it is borne in mind how, as the empire spread, new cities +were founded on the plan of the metropolis, that each of these +must therefore have been, in turn, governed by a pair of minor +rulers, and had its own minor zikkurat, we can understand the +various indications that exist showing how the ancient sacred capital +of the state became the place of reunion for the minor <q>gods,</q> +who assembled there annually in the main sanctuary, and the fact +that each minor chief necessarily required his dwelling place and +tribal council-chamber, would account for the <q>references to zikkurats +... or special sanctuaries of some kind, which were +erected within the sacred precinct of the main capital ...</q> +(Jastrow, p. 637). +</p> + +<p> +When it is realized that each zikkurat was an artificial <q>mountain</q> +the description of Babylon in Revelations <hi rend='smallcaps'>xviii</hi> becomes +clearly intelligible and is seen to apply to the seven-fold organization +of the ancient empire which had become the centre of the +debasing earth-worship ultimately identified with a female goddess. +<q>And the woman which thou sawest is that great city which reigneth +over the kings of the earth.... I saw a woman sit upon a +scarlet colored beast ... having seven heads.... The seven +heads are seven <emph>mountains</emph>, on which the woman sitteth ... +and there are seven kings</q>.... +</p> + +<p> +Future investigation will doubtlessly furnish us with exact knowledge +concerning the original relation of the governors of the <q>four +regions</q> to the central ruler and of the <q>seven divisions</q> of the +state to each other. It would be desirable to establish whether +each territorial division and tribe bore the name of its tribal ancestor +and whether these names agree with those of the seven chief +<q>gods</q> of the pantheon, each of whom is associated with a celestial +body, a day of the seven-day period and, as shown in the bas-relief +already cited, with a different animal. I am strongly tempted +to see in the latter traces of tribal totems and to connect the days +of the week with the seven divisions of the population and some +established form of rotation, employed for the government of the +state, analogous to that I have found out in Ancient Mexico. +With regard to the regulation of the calendar by certain officials, +the following facts are important: Professor Sayce tells us that, +<pb n='349'/><anchor id='Pg349'/> +<q>in Assyria, the high-priest was the equal of the king and the king +himself was a priest and the adopted child of Bel.</q> Under him were +a number of grades of officials and officers. The land was divided +into provinces whose <q>governors were selected from the highest +aristocracy and who alone had the privilege of sharing with the king +the office of limmu or eponymous archon after whom the year was +named.</q> This office, which finds its analogy in China and Central +America, is more clearly explained in the following passage: <q>The +Assyrians were endowed with a keen sense of history and had invented +a system of reckoning time by means of certain officers called +limmi, who gave their names to the year</q> (Sayce, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +255). +</p> + +<p> +Venturing to make a general statement, as a suggestion for +future investigation, I should say that the ultimate result of the +institution of two cults which were bound to grow in opposite directions, +was the fall of the Babylonian empire under the degrading +growth of perversion and depravity, linked to the cult of earth and +night and bi-sexuality, and the rise of the Assyrian empire with a +cult in which the ideas of light and darkness, night and day preponderated +over those of sex. It may possibly have been as a reaction +and protest against the prevailing rites of Babylonia that influenced +the Assyrians in their adoption of two male rulers, the high-priest +and the king. On the other hand, there are indications showing +that possibly, in order to evade the ceremonial obligations of their +position as the representative of the principle of fertility, several +<q>goddesses</q> or female rulers of Babylonia transferred their seat +of government, or placed the reins of government into the hands +of a king. Thus Hammurabi tells us that he has restored the +temple of the <q>lady</q> or <q>great lady</q> of Hallabi, a town near +Sippar and that she had conferred upon him supreme authority over +the Babylonian states, then engaged in fighting with each other. +It is obvious that, as soon as concealment and mystery increasingly +surrounded the cult of the female principle, and warfare became +habitual, the power and rôle of the female ruler must have become +more and more <q>shadowy</q> and finally dwindled to the utterance +of sacred oracles in dark concealed places of retirement and safety. +Ultimately the cult of Ishtar appears to have become absolutely +secret and hidden and shrouded in mystery and darkness. Its priestesses +became the most famous oracle-givers of Assyria who imparted +<q>divine knowledge concealed from men.</q> In the eighth century +B.C., Arbela became the centre of the cult of Ishtar and <q>developed +<pb n='350'/><anchor id='Pg350'/> +a special school of theology marked by the attempt to accord a superior +position to the goddess. In a series of eight oracles addressed +to Esarhaddon six are given forth by women</q> (Jastrow, p. 342). +</p> + +<p> +Inevitable as was the disintegration of the original state and religion, +continual efforts appear to have been made even in Babylonia +itself, to check the growth of a debasing ritual and the constant +increase of the gods and goddesses which were installed as the +rulers of each new town that was founded on the plan of the metropolis. +Professor Jastrow tells us that <q>whenever the kings in +their inscriptions mention the regular sacrifices, it is in almost all +cases with reference to their re-institution of an old custom that +had been allowed to fall into neglect (owing to the political disturbances +which always affected the temples) and not as an innovation</q> +... (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 667). The tablet of Sippara, on +which the image of Shamash is restored by the king on an ancient +model, has already been described and on it appears the four-spoked +wheel, the expressive symbol of a <q>primitive Sun.</q> The primeval +conception of a single, stable, changeless and central celestial +power was evidently adhered to in ancient Babylonia by a small +but faithful minority, and the constant growth of debasing practices +and the manufacture of symbolical images to which reverence +was paid and which were ultimately worshipped, awakened +its constant disapproval and abhorrence. At a remote period we +find the adherents to a stern monotheism establishing the Babylonian +province of +</p> + +<p> +CANAAN. +</p> + +<p> +The following account of the Hebrew religion, translated from +Spamer's work (p. 297) already cited, will be found instructive: +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Originally there was no difference between the religion of the +Hebrews and that of the neighboring tribes. The lord=Baal of +Moab was named Kamosh, that of the Hebrews Yahwe. Yahwe +was the national god, above all the god of battle.... Altars +made of earth or unhewn stone were erected for him on +mountains, hills or under green trees; next to the altar stood +either a stone column (Masseba) or a sacred tree (Ashera). In +the temple the image of Yahwe represented him in human form or, +as in Dan or Bethel, in that of a bull. Next to Yahwe were other +gods: first, Baal, the supreme lord of the world, who had a +special temple in Jerusalem; secondly, Astarte, to whom Solomon +built an altar near Jerusalem.</q> +</p> + +<pb n='351'/><anchor id='Pg351'/> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Solomon had also built altars to Kamosh, the god of the Moabites, +to Milkom, the god of the Ammonites and in his temple +other gods beside Yahwe were worshipped; amongst them a demi-god +and a serpent of brass (Neshushtan) which was abolished later +on by Hiskia. All of these gods, who were also worshipped by +the neighbors of the enemies of Israel, became secondary to the +tribal god to whom Israel owed its greatness.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Yahwe becomes the first and mightiest, and is identified with +El, the supreme god of the Semites, whose individuality is vague. +On the other hand <q>the Baal,</q> the principal god of all neighboring +people, especially of the Phœnicians, possesses a marked individuality +which excludes his identification with other gods. He +is worshipped in separate centres of cult and becomes the rival +of Yahwe....</q> The rivalry and the struggle for religious and +political supremacy between the priests, prophets and followers of +Yahwe, the god of heaven, and Baal, the lord of earth, culminated +in about B.C. 837, when the temple of the latter was destroyed +and his priesthood killed. +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>It was not until about 750 B.C., however, that the national god +Yahwe became the acknowledged sole god of the universe next to +whom all other gods were as mere phantoms.... A remarkable +transformation took place about this time in the conception +of a divinity and of morality; the moral precepts of religion were +developed and clearly formulated and the ten commandments promulgated. +As time progressed the voices of prophets and priesthood +became more and more loud in condemnation of the use of +idols and symbols of divinity. Hosea especially denounced the +cult of Yahwe under the form of a bull; Jeremias went so far as +to disapprove of the holy ark itself which stood in the temple of +Jerusalem.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Later on, when, about B.C. 621, one of the most important +events in the history of mankind had taken place and the book of +the law, the Sepher Hathora, was discovered by the high priest in +the temple of Jerusalem, during its restoration, the Hebrew religion +was reformed, reorganized and reëstablished on lines which +favored the development of more refined and elevated religious +teachings. All idols and symbols were abolished. Naught could +destroy, however, the deeply rooted idea that it was in Jerusalem +alone, or Mount Sion, that Yahwe was to be worshipped. This +<pb n='352'/><anchor id='Pg352'/> +was the chosen site to which offerings and tithes were to be carried. +As the chosen people of Yahwe, Israel was also to be a holy nation +which was to distinguish itself by its superior religion and +morality and, in order to do so, was to keep itself rigidly apart and +aloof from other people.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Thus this little nation cultivated and perfected the religious +capabilities of the human race and laid the foundation for Christianity +and the Islam.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Jerusalem, the ancient capital, occupied almost the centre of Canaan +and was founded on Mount Zion, the highest elevation in the +district. From time immemorial Jerusalem has indeed contained a +spot reputed to mark the centre of the world and a sacred stone is +also venerated there to this day and is now associated, in a curious +way, with the biblical account of Jacob's dream of a ladder reaching +from earth to heaven. +</p> + +<p> +It was obviously as a result of their deeply ingrained ideal of +central power that the Israelites who migrated from Ur, the seat +of moon-worship, and wandered into Palestine, engaged in a long +struggle which ended in their successful capture, in 1050 B.C., of +Jerusalem, the sacred city, situated in the centre of the land. The +importance of this conquest to the Israelites can only be rightly estimated +when it is realized that, during countless centuries, this single +branch of the Semitic race had adhered to the cult of the central, +changeless, ever-present and light-giving guiding star, and gradually +developed the higher conception of an invisible, omnipotent +and omniscient God. It will be seen that, while other branches of +their race gradually developed separate cults of the dual principles +of nature, they had remained faithful to the primeval recognition +of a single pole-star and, rising to a loftier conception, constituted +themselves the champions of a pure monotheism, disconnected from +the cult of heaven and earth or sun and moon which, associated +with dual reproductive principles, justly became the horror and +abomination of the Israelites. It is interesting to recall the fact +that, about 908 B.C., Jezebel, the wife of Ahab and daughter +of the king of Tyre, set up the cult of the dual principles of nature +in Israel and, destroying the priests and prophets of Jehovah, +built a temple to Baal and Astarte and appointed 450 priests and +500 prophets to the respective service of these divinities. This historical +incident furnishes a striking instance of the united cult of +<pb n='353'/><anchor id='Pg353'/> +the Above and Below in direct antagonism to that of the Centre which +had already developed into a definite and pure monotheism.<note place='foot'><q>That +the Hebrew and Babylonian traditions [of the Creation] spring from a common +source is so evident as to require no further proof. The agreements are too +close to be accidental. At the same time the variations in detail point to an independent +elaboration of the traditions on the part of the Hebrews and Babylonians.... +It is in Babylonia that the thought would naturally arise of making +the world begin with the close of the storms and rains in the spring. The Terahites +must, therefore, have brought those cosmological traditions with them upon migrating +from the Euphrates Valley to the Jordan district.... The intercourse, political +and commercial, between Palestine and Mesopotamia was uninterrupted.... +The so-called Babylonian exile brought Hebrews and Babylonians once more side +by side.... A direct borrowing [of traditions] from the Babylonians has not +taken place and while the Babylonian records are in all probability much older than +the Hebrew, the latter again contain elements, as Gunkel has shown, of a more primitive +character than the Babylonian production. This relationship can only satisfactorily +be explained on the assumption that the Hebrews possessed the traditions +upon which Genesis narrative rests, long before the Babylonian exile, when the +story appears, indeed, to have received its final and present shape.... Yahwe +is assigned the rôle of Bel-Marduk, the division of the work of creation into six days +is definitely made and some further modifications introduced ...</q> (Jastrow, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 452-453).</note> +</p> + +<p> +ASSYRIA. +</p> + +<p> +A study of the Assyrian symbols of royalty, which I recently +had an opportunity of making at the British Museum, has led me +to the conclusion that, in Assyria, during many centuries, a perfect +equilibrium was maintained throughout the state which, by a strict +coördination of all its parts, represented a harmonious entity. +</p> + +<p> +An observation I have made, which may be worth noting, is that +Assyria seems to occupy, in relation to Babylonia, somewhat the +same position as Peru to the more ancient and greater centres of +culture in Mexico and Central America. In the latter the original +ground-plan of the archaic civilization seems to be lost and hidden +under the ruin and devastation caused by the growth of diverging +cults. In Peru and Assyria alike we seem to have examples of +organizations starting afresh on the old plan or reversions to the +primitive type of civil and religious government in which simplicity, +order, balance and harmony were again restored and maintained. +If I may venture to hazard a general observation about the ancient +civilizations of Western Asia I should say that, whereas the primeval +centre of primitive pole-star worship in Babylonia had, in +course of time, brought forth as its highest development the monotheism +of the Israelites, and as its lowest the cults of Ishtar and +<pb n='354'/><anchor id='Pg354'/> +Bel, it also appears to have given birth to a reproduction of its +former self, to the Assyrian empire, in which the most ancient form +of culture was preserved intact, and in time spread its influence +not only to other nations but also back to Babylonia itself. +</p> + +<p> +As in Peru, it appears to have been the policy of the kings of +Assyria, who had before them the results of an opposite course +pursued at Babylonia, to discountenance the manufacture of symbolical +images and the establishment of minor centres of government, +the leading motive being to maintain the ideal of an absolute +centralization of temporal and spiritual government and power. +It is the opinion of leading Assyriologists that Assyria was a +colony founded by Semitic Babylonians and this conclusion is corroborated +by the view I have advanced, namely, that, as Babylonia +degenerated and abandoned the primeval ideas which nourished +the germ of monotheism, those who adhered to this ideal after prolonged +struggles separated themselves from their ancient mother, +and founded new colonies, the administration and religion of which +they established according to their wider experience and more advanced +intellectual and moral development. A characteristic of +Assyria seems to have been the institution of two male rulers, the +high-priest and the king and the cult of the diurnal and nocturnal +heaven, of day and night. As these features are in marked contrast +to the Babylonian male and female rulers and the cult of heaven and +earth and the reproductive principles, it would seem as though they +had developed themselves from a prolonged cult of heaven alone +by the inhabitants of Northern Babylonia, or that they were the +result of a reform led about by the abuses to which the Babylonian +cult had led. A curious development worth mentioning, even out +of its chronological order, was when the Assyrian king Esarhaddon +placed his two sons as single rulers upon the thrones of Babylonia +and Assyria. It is known that these two brothers ruled in +peace during twenty years and that then a great rebellion against +the Assyrian rule took place, which ended in the conquest and destruction +of Babylonia and the death of its king, whose half-brother, +the Assyrian ruler Asurbanipal, thus became the sole ruler of Assyria +and Babylonia. +</p> + +<p> +Professor Jastrow tells us that, <q>as compared with Babylonia, +Assyria was poor in the number of her temples.... The +Assyrian rulers were much more concerned in rearing grand edifices +for themselves. While the gods were not neglected in +<pb n='355'/><anchor id='Pg355'/> +Assyria, one hears much more of the magnificent palaces erected +by the kings than of temples and shrines.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The above data suffice to show that the tendency of the Assyrian +monarchs was to indulge in self-glorification and to forget +what some of his subjects never could: that his position had originally +been that of an earthly representative only of a higher central, +celestial power. As among some branches of the Semitic +race, the conception of a divinity became more and more elevated +until it reached the ideal of the Yahwe, <q>the only true god who +was jealous of other gods and could brook none beside him.</q> To +these uncompromising adherents of pure monotheism the royal +titles of the Assyrian kings who styled themselves the rulers of the +centre, of the four quarters of the earth and of the heavens, must +indeed have appeared as a sacrilege. +</p> + +<p> +The existence of such opposite views clearly explains the ultimate +outbreak of hatred and war between monotheistic Israel and +Juda and the ancient empires of Western Asia which shared, +with them, a remote but common origin. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to Assyria we find that this empire also, as it extended +its four-fold capital Assur into four provinces and developed +the cult of the high central power and the Heaven and Earth, +gradually prepared in turn its own downfall by an inevitable +process of disintegration. In time two great capitals grew up, +situated to the northeast and northwest of the ancient metropolis +of Assur, the original seat of the <q>kings of the four regions.</q> +These capitals were Ninive, divided into four cities, and Arbela, +also a <q>four-city.</q> The fact that the latter capital was the seat +of Ishtar worship, further proves that, at one time, a definite separation +of cults had also supervened in Assyria and that Assur +and Ninive may at one time have been respectively centres of +Polaris and sun worship. It is well known that when about B.C. +606 the great Assyrian empire was destroyed, it had four royal +residences: Ninive, Dûr-Sarrukîn, Kalash and Assur, which were +then burnt and levelled to the ground, never to be rebuilt. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now examine the emblems of <q>divine royalty</q> exhibited +on the famous portrait stelæ of Assyrian kings preserved at the +British Museum which strikingly confirm the view I advanced that +the four-spoked wheel of Shamash on the Sippara tablet was the +ancient restored image of the <q>primitive sun</q> Polaris and of circumpolar +rotation. +</p> + +<pb n='356'/><anchor id='Pg356'/> + +<p> +The Assyrian kings on the British Museum stelæ are represented +as wearing the cross, between the signs for the moon and planet +Venus, that occurs on the Sippara tablet. The four-spoked wheel +thus explains itself as a <q>wheel-cross</q> and is found to have been +employed in Assyria alternately with the plain cross; for the +portrait statue of Asurnasirpal (about B.C. 880) represents the +king wearing a chain about his neck from which hangs a cross between +the Ishtar and moon emblems, and next to a symbol representing +the lightning bolt of Ramman. In the background, next +to the king's head, five emblems are sculptured, three of which are +identical with those hanging from the chain, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the eight-rayed +<q>sun</q> of Ishtar, the moon Sin and the lightning bolt of Ramman. +The <emph>fifth emblem</emph> consists of the royal conical cap with four horns +and is represented separately to the right while the other four +symbols form a compact group. +</p> + +<p> +In the text Assur, Ramman, Sin, Shamash and Ishtar are invoked. +As the symbols of Ishtar and Sin can be identified by +the Sippara tablet, and the winged disk unquestionably pertains +to Assur and the lightning bolt to Ramman, we find that the cap, +simulating the central <q>holy mound</q> with four horns, must be the +symbol of the remaining god Shamash. This inference appears to +be corroborated by the circumstance that the <emph>seventh</emph> month was +sacred to Shamash and that it was in this month that the lord of +the holy mound built the seven-staged tower of Babylon. These +facts authorize us to formulate the conclusion that the four-spoked +wheel of the Sippara tablet, the cross hanging to the king's chain +and the four-horned cap which, like the <q>square altar with four +horns,</q> simulated the <q>holy mound,</q> were alike symbols of Shamash, +the <q>primitive Sun.</q> +</p> + +<p> +On his portrait-stela king Shamsi-Rammanu the younger (B.C. +825-812), the grandson of Asurnasirpal, wears the cross only, +hanging from his neck-chain and in the text invokes, according to +Dr. von Luschan, only Nindar, who has been proven to be Shamash +under another name or title. Nindar is identified in Professor Jastrow's +hand-book with Ninsia, <q>a god of considerable importance, +imported perhaps from some ancient site of Lagash</q> ... who +<q>disappeared from the later pantheon.</q> ... +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 90 and +91). It is interesting to find that the king, who like his ancient predecessor +the Patesi or religious chief Shamsi-Ramman (B.C. 1850) +bears the name of the god Shamash, wears as his only ornament +<pb n='357'/><anchor id='Pg357'/> +the cross which so obviously expresses the royal title, <q>lord of +the four regions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +From Professor Jastrow (p. 107), we learn that it was customary +for the early rulers of Babylon, at the beginning or the close +of their dedicatory inscriptions, to parade a list of the divinities +associated with the districts that they controlled. Gudea, for instance, +enumerates eighteen deities, and these may be taken as +indicative of the territorial extent of Gudea's jurisdiction. This +custom affords an interesting explanation of the sculptured emblems +of divinities and the invocations of their names on the above stelæ +and shows that Asurnasirpal and his grandson ruled four districts +from a fifth situated in the centre, whose emblem was the mound +with four horns or the cross, both emblems of the royal <q>lord of +the four regions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Bearing this custom in mind, we next note that, on his stela at the +British Museum, Shalmaneser II, the son of Asurnasirpal, invokes +not only three different divinities, but also one more than his +father or son. His invocation is to Ashur, Shamash and Ishtar +and to the Babylonian triad Anu, Bel and Ea. The emblems +of the first three divinities are the same as on the stelæ of his +father and son, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the winged disk, the mound-shaped, horned +cap and the eight-rayed star. To Anu, Bel and Ea pertain the +emblematic lightning bolt and moon which are clearly visible; and +a third, almost effaced, group which, upon examination by Mr. +Pinches, revealed the presence of six stars or circles. Dr. von +Luschan infers that originally the group consisted of seven circles +and was the same as that sculptured on the stelæ of Sargon (at +Berlin), the bas-reliefs at Nahr-el-Kelb and at Bavian. On each +of these the circles are grouped in two horizontal rows of three +circles while the seventh circle stands to the right, in front and +midway between both rows. +</p> + +<p> +If we assume that the lightning bolt pertained to Anu, the upper, +and the moon, the emblem of Night, to Ea, the lower firmament, +we find that the seven-fold group falls to the lot of Bel and seems +to coincide exactly with the recorded fact that the famous +zikkurat of Bel at Babylon, for instance, consisted of seven +stories; and that it was known as <q>the house of the seven divisions +[regions] of the world,</q> and that Babylon actually was at one +time a seven-fold state, with seven <q>mountains</q>=gods=earthly +rulers. +</p> + +<pb n='358'/><anchor id='Pg358'/> + +<p> +Final, positive proof that Assyria, under Sargon II and Esarhaddon, +like ancient Babylon, was organized into seven <q>districts,</q> +seems to be furnished by the seven symbols carved on their stelæ, +accompanied by the group of seven circles which obviously expresses +the same as the cuneiform character in the inscribed invocation, +namely, the word <q>seven-fold-one</q> or <q>seven in one,</q><note place='foot'>Dr. +von Luschan (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 22) translates this cuneiform sign, +which exists in Babylonian and Assyrian forms, as <q>Siebeneinigkeit</q> and emphasizes +the fact that it is employed in the singular form. The inference that it may designate +not only the Pleiades but more probably Ursa Major corroborates the view that the mystic +number seven impressed itself upon the human mind by its association with the +Septentriones.</note> +which was obviously an appropriate designation for the empire as +a whole, consisting as it did of seven tribal districts, associated +with the seven directions in space to each of which was assigned a +god, a mountain house, a color, an animal, a celestial body, a day +and a symbol. +</p> + +<p> +An extremely suggestive juxtaposition of the numeral seven and +a circle containing a group of five circles, resembling a flower with +four petals, occurs on the Bavian tablet already cited, on which +are also carved two emblems: the moon and winged disk; one compact +detached group consisting of four altars (three surrounded by +horns and one surmounted by a ram's head) and a second detached +group consisting of a base into which four staffs or sceptres +are inserted. These recur on the fine Sendschirli stela of +Esarhaddon about which a few words remain to be said. It exhibits +the numeral seven=the <q>seven in one</q> sign before the king, +accompanied by four divinities mounted on animals, the first two +being the god riding a double monster, and the seated goddess, +both wearing the cone on the high royal cap. Carved close to the +king's hand is the group of four staffs or sceptres, inserted in a +horizontal base, which appear to be the emblems of his lordship +over the four regions. Three of these are the same as on the +Bavian relief: the first surmounted by a cone-shaped object<note place='foot'>The +fact that the mountain was the symbol of the centre of the earth and of Bel, +throws light upon the meaning of the clay cones which were <q>very common votive +objects in Babylonia especially in the earlier periods.</q> They would have been +appropriately used in the cult of Baal, the personification of the male principle, and +are indeed usually represented as offered by male worshippers. That the cones +in some cases represented the conical bunch of the male blossom of the palm tree may +also be conjectured.</note> beneath +which are two hanging ends of ribbons; the second consisting +of a plain single staff, split so as to form two; the third surmounted +by two animal heads, each with a single horn. The fourth +<pb n='359'/><anchor id='Pg359'/> +sceptre on Esarhaddon's stela is like that represented as inserted +into one of the altars on the Bavian stela, and terminates in a recurved +ram's head. The fourth in the Bavian group of sceptres +somewhat resembles the trident tripartite emblem which occurs on +the Sargon stela and the Esarhaddon stela of Nahr-el-Kelb (<emph>figured</emph> +by Dr. Luschan, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 20). +</p> + +<p> +A fresh examination of the bas-relief of Maltaya, described by +Layard and already alluded to, reveals a suggestive differentiation +in the representations of the seven divinities in a row, at each end +of which, facing the procession, stands a king. Considering that +in Assyria there were governors, the <foreign rend='italic'>limmi</foreign>, +who held offices of +limited duration and gave their names to their years of office, the +query naturally suggests itself whether the two <q>kings</q> may not +also have ruled for fixed periods of seven years, each one of which +bore the name of one of the seven divisions. +</p> + +<p> +It being an accepted fact that the institution of the Sabbath was +of Chaldean and Babylonian origin, it is permissible to assign to +the same source the institution of the seven-year period described in +Leviticus <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxv</hi>: <q>But the seventh year shall be a sabbath of +rest unto the land.... And thou shalt number seven Sabbaths +of years unto thee, seven times seven years; and the space of the +seven sabbaths of years shall be unto thee forty-nine years.... +And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year</q>.... +</p> + +<p> +Addressing to Assyriologists an appeal for fuller knowledge concerning +the ancient calendar periods of Babylonia-Assyria, I now +revert to the Maltaya bas-relief and point out that, of the seven divinities, +the two principal ones, a god and goddess, wear a form of +cap encircled by horns and surmounted by a cone. One of these two +deities is distinguished from all others by his larger size and by +the fact that he stands on a double animal and heads the procession +holding a recurved sceptre in his hand. Behind him follows the +goddess Ishtar, holding a large ring in her right hand. Her throne, +as on the Sendschirli stela, exhibits a ring surmounting its high +back, to the side of which a group of four circles or disks are attached. +As several centres of Ishtar cult, already mentioned, +have been designated as fourfold cities it seems possible that the +four disks alluded to this fact, while the ring crowning the top of +the throne, and that she holds, constitutes one of her emblems.... +However this may be, both monuments exhibit kings associated +with the number seven and Ishtar, the seated goddess, associated +<pb n='360'/><anchor id='Pg360'/> +with the number four; facts which claim further investigation and +may lead to interesting verifications of the numerical systems of +the Assyrians. It should be mentioned here that the heads of the +five remaining divinities, on the Maltaya bas-relief, are surmounted +by a wheel with spokes and that one holds a recurved sceptre, like +that of the first, another bears the lightning bolt of Ramman, +while three carry the same peculiar double symbol also held by +Shamash on the Sippara tablet. It consists of a large ring like +that held by Ishtar and a short staff possibly a fire-stick. In +each case the fingers of the right hand of the deity clasp the +middle of the staff and the ring and the appearance of the combined +rod and circle closely resembles the upper portion of the +Egyptian crux ansata. Professor von Luschan has, indeed, expressed +the opinion that the ring or circle (of Ishtar) the rod and +circle (of Shamash) and the crux ansata must have analogous +meanings, a view I fully share and shall further support in dealing +with the Egyptian symbol. +</p> + +<p> +The following data will be found to substantiate further the evidence +produced concerning the seven-fold organization of Babylonia-Assyria. +One of the finest bas-relief tablets at the British +Museum excavated by Layard from the ruins of Asurnasirpal's +palace at Nimroud represents in its centre the sacred conventionalized +ashera=tree, above which is the winged circle, from the +centre of which issues the half figure of the god Assur (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> fig. +<ref target='Figure_71'>71</ref>, 1). To its right stand two winged figures wearing the +conical crown with four horns, and necklaces from which hang its reproduction +in miniature, also the cross, the symbol of Ishtar and the +moon. To the left of the tree stand two personages, wearing the +high cap with a flat top, central cone and hanging ends, such as are +frequently represented as worn by the kings. The natural inference +would be that the winged figures wearing the cap with horns represent +high-priests and that a double hierarchy corresponding to the +dual monarchy probably existed at one time, the result being <q>four +lords,</q> two celestial and two terrestrial, corresponding to the +<q>four regions,</q> two of which pertained to the Above or the +heaven and two to the Below or earth. A curious indication that +at one time there were four separate rulers of the four regions is +furnished by the cap with four horns and the altar whose four corners +terminated in horns, when they are connected with the passage +in Revelations <hi rend='smallcaps'>xvii</hi>, which refers to Babylonian symbolism and +<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/> +states: <q>And the ten horns that thou sawest are ten kings.</q> Professor +Jastrow states that <q>similar horns existed on the Hebrew +and Phœnician altars,</q> and that <q>if we may believe Herodotus, +the great altars at Babylon were made of gold</q> (p. 652). +</p> + +<p> +Doubtlessly, Assyrian texts contain a fund of information yet +inaccessible to students, concerning the constitution of the state +and the modifications it may have undergone in course of time. +An exhaustive study of the symbols connected with Assyrian kings +at different dates, in connection with the text relating his conquests +and foundations of temples, may yet reveal the occasional assumption +or usurpation by a single individual of different degrees of +power and, possibly, the ultimate separation and antagonism of +hierarchy and monarchy. +</p> + +<p> +The employment in Assyria and Babylonia of the tree, as a sacred +symbol, should next be considered, first, in relation to the other +symbols to which great religious importance was attached. The +significance of the zikkurat, or seven-staged tower, has already been +discussed. Another feature was <q>the great basin known as <q>Apsu,</q> +the name, it will be recalled, for <q>the deep</q> +[<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the lower firmament]. +The name indicates that it was a symbolical representation +of the domain of Ea. The zikkurat itself being an attempt +to reproduce the shape of the earth, the representation of the +<q>apsu</q> would suggest itself as a natural accessory to the temple. +The zikkurat and the basin together would thus become the living +symbols of the current cosmological conceptions. The comparison +with the great 'sea' that stood in the court of Solomon's +temple, naturally suggests itself, and there can be little doubt that +the latter is an imitation of a Babylonian model</q> (Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> 653). It is evident from the above that the adoption of the +sacred basin as the symbol of Ea would naturally be simultaneous +with that of miniature <q>basins</q> and water bowls and jars, employed +for holding the sacred water used in the cult of the Below. +Reflection shows that, in the zikkurat, the seat of Bel=the image +of the earth, and in the <q>Apsu</q> the watery deep and lower firmament +of Ea, we have the sacred emblems of two deities of the +Babylonian triad only. The emblem of Anu, the Heaven or upper +firmament, is missing and it is naturally in the cult of Anshar=Ashur +that it must be sought for. The following data will sufficiently +show that it was the tree or pole and, in all probability, the +fire-stick that were connected with the cult of An-shar=<q>all that +<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/> +is above,</q> or <q>on high.</q> The resemblance of the name Ashur to +the word for tree or pole, the <q>Ashera</q> of the Phœnicians and +Hebrews, suggests, moreover, the probability of their common +origin. +</p> + +<p> +An interesting question on which I have not, as yet, been able +to obtain information, relates to the mode of producing fire, resorted +to by the Babylonian-Assyrians. The element was, of +course, associated with heaven, and the fire-god under the name of +Gibil or Nusku was termed the <q>son of Anu.</q> Shamash himself +also figures as a personification of fire and it seems probable that, +in the Babylonian temples in the centre of the square altar, a fire +was originally kept perpetually burning as an image of Polaris. +As great stress is laid upon the purifying effect of fire as on that +of water in Babylonian literature, it is easy to trace the origin +of the offering of burnt sacrifices to the idea that, cast into the sacred +fire, they became purified and absorbed into its essence, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +accepted by the sacred living image of the central star-god. It +seems extremely probable that the primitive employment of a fire-stick +by the priesthood, for the production of <q>celestial fire,</q> may +have played an important rôle in causing the stick, and thence the +pole and tree, to have become the adopted symbol of Anu. So +little is known even about the origin of <q>tree-worship</q> itself in +ancient Babylonia-Assyria that Professor Jastrow advances the +following statement (p. 689). +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>On the seal cylinders there is frequently represented a pole or +a conventionalized form of a tree, generally in connection with a +design illustrating the worship of a deity. This symbol is clearly +a survival of some tree worship that was once popular. The comparison +with the <foreign rend='italic'>ashera</foreign> and pole worship among Phœnicians and +Hebrews is fully justified and is a proof of the great antiquity +of the symbols which, without becoming a formal part of the later +cult, retained in some measure a hold upon the popular mind.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q><q>Ashur</q> became the god of Assyria as the rulers of the city +of Ashur grew in power ... in the various changes of official +residences that took place in the course of Assyrian history ... +the god took part and his central seat of worship depended upon +the place that the kings chose for their official residence ... +there was always one place—the official residence—which formed +the central spot of worship. There the god was supposed to dwell +for the time being. One factor, perhaps, that ought to be taken +<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/> +into consideration, in accounting for this movable disposition of the +god was that he was not symbolized exclusively by a statue.... +His chief symbol was a standard that could be carried from place +to place.... The standard consisted of <emph>a pole</emph> surrounded by a +disk enclosed within two wings, while above the disk stood the +figure of a warrior in the act of shooting an arrow +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> fig. <ref target='Figure_65'>65</ref>, 5).... +The standard ... which was so made that it could be +carried into the thick of the fray in order to assure the army of the +god's presence<note place='foot'>An interesting complement +to this is furnished by the texts of oracular messages +sent by the goddess Ishtar to King Ashurbanapal who seems to have been a fervent +disciple of the theological school of Arbela. On one occasion, when the king's army +was in a predicament, Ishtar appears at night and declares: <q>I walk in front of +Ashurbanapal, the king, who is the creation of my hands.</q> On another occasion the +oracle-giving medium reports to the king: <q>Ishtar, dwelling in Arbela, came with +quivers hung on her right and left sides with a bow in her hand and girded with a +pointed unsheathed sword. Before thee [<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the king] she stood +and like the mother +that bore thee [with maternal kindness] Ishtar, supreme among the gods, addressed +thee commanding: <q>Be encouraged [literally, look up] for the fray. Wherever +thou art, I am.</q></q> The images of Ashur aiming his arrow and Ishtar with an unsheathed +pointed sword recall the biblical description of the flaming sword which +turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life (Genesis +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>).</note> ... followed the camp everywhere and when the +kings chose to fix upon a new place for their military encampment +... the standard would repose in the place selected</q> (Jastrow, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 194). To one who like myself has devoted years to the +study of the symbolism of primitive people and is familiar with the +ancient Mexican image of the <q>lord of the North</q> standing in the +centre of a horizontally-placed cross-figure, and with the Chichimecan +custom, on taking possession of new territory, to shoot arrows +towards the cardinal points, the Ashur standard suggests a single +explanation, namely, that it was the symbol of celestial, central +rulership and that the god, standing on a staff which could be +turned and aiming his arrow towards the four directions in succession, +was an expressive image of Polaris and Septentriones. +</p> + +<p> +Further ideas associated with the tree by the Babylonian-Assyrians +are clear since Professor E. B. Tylor has so conclusively +shown that certain bas-reliefs represent the act of artificially fertilizing +the palm tree by scattering the male blossom from its cone-shaped +bunch, over the female palm. In each case this rite is +being performed by figures with human bodies and large wings, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +high priests of heaven, and it seems evident that it symbolized +the mystic life-producing union of heaven and earth or of the +male and female principles of nature which marked the Babylonian-Assyrian +<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/> +New Year's Day. Given these associations of thought, +it is easy to see how the New Year became the festival of New +Life and how the fertilized tree became the <q>tree of life,</q> and its +sculptured image a memorial of a new year, possibly recording +some record of the actual marriages which took place in the state +on that day. The decipherment and comparison of the inscriptions +on such tablets, by skilled Assyriologists, can alone enlighten +us on this point, but enough appears apparent to explain how the +tree could have become associated in Assyria not only with life, +but with the life and growth of the state. Moreover the tree or +pole itself, named ashera, may well have appeared to some Euphratean +people, to express the name Ashur sufficiently clear to +become its symbol and <q>canting arms.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The adoption of the shaft or pole, as a symbol of the Celestial +Centre, may easily be explained by the fact that, stuck into the +ground and watched from a certain position, its upper end would +seem to touch Polaris and it thus supplied wandering star-observers +with a point of fixity in space which, being transportable, facilitated +the registration of circumpolar rotation. During many +centuries the image of the <q>crooked serpent,</q> Nakkasch, the constellation +which could be seen each night winding its way around the +pole, must have deeply impressed itself upon the minds of the +primitive star gazers of the Euphratean valley, and conveyed +suggestions of imagery, one of which may have created the Phœnician +caduceus. At a later period when Ursa Major became circumpolar, +the <q>seven lights of heaven</q> became in turn associated +with the stable centre and suggested, in time, the seven-branched +candlestick of the Hebrews which is to this day constructed with +a central or principal holder, associated with stability. It is remarkable +to note the same ancient fundamental association in the +elevated and beautiful imagery employed by the descendant of +ancient Euphratean star-worshippers, in Revelation <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, in +describing his vision: <q>... And, behold, a throne <emph>was set</emph> in heaven, and +<emph>one</emph> sat on the throne.... And there were seven lamps of fire +burning before the throne.... And before the throne there was +a sea of glass like unto crystal: and in the midst of the throne and +round about the throne were four beasts....</q> +</p> + +<p> +The idea cited by Mr. Robert Brown, of the sacred pole-tree +with golden apples guarded by the constellation Nakkasch, has +already been mentioned and to this ancient image should be added +<pb n='365'/><anchor id='Pg365'/> +the celestial tree of life set in the midst of the garden of Paradise, +whence <q>went out a river to water the garden and from thence it +was parted and became four heads.</q>... It is as easy to see +how the standard of Assur, which always marked the central place +of worship, should have been evolved, as it is to realize why the +fire-stick, rod or sceptre should have been adopted by monarchs +as an emblem of central rulership, and why, finally, each centre +of government should have adopted some specific symbol which, +mounted on the staff, became its tribal or national emblem. It +does not appear hazardous to designate as such the ornamented +staffs already described, which are represented on the bas-reliefs, +in groups of four, a number agreeing with that of the <q>four regions.</q> +It has already been pointed out that a group of four sceptres, +corresponding to the royal title <q>lord of four regions,</q> is carved +close to the hand of Esarhaddon on the fine Sendschirli tablet at +Berlin. +</p> + +<p> +In Babylonia, the local deity of Girsu was entitled <q>the lord of +the true sceptre,</q> <q>the lord of the right-hand sceptre,</q> a name +which implies that, where dual rulership prevailed, a distinction +was made between right-hand and left-hand sceptres, a point to +which I shall revert later on in dealing with Egypt. In Northern +Assyria when the cult of Nabu superseded that of Marduk, his temple +was named <q>the house of the sceptre of the world</q> and Nebuchadnezzar +declares that it is he <q>who gives the sceptre of sovereignty +to kings to rule over the land</q> (Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 129). +</p> + +<p> +Simultaneously with the staff, the cross and wheel also became +emblems of sovereignty. It has already been shown that the cross +and four-spoked wheel of Shamash were synonymous signs. It +remains to be shown how the wheel was employed in Babylonia and +Assyria as an emblem of royalty. The representation of Shamash +at Sippar exhibits his wheel resting, in a perpendicular position, on +a table. Attached to the wheel are two cords which are held by a +<q>god</q> and his consort, who appear to be directing the course of +the wheel. We thus see that, whereas the disk or wheel of Assur, +the central god, revolved on its own axis, and was provided with +wings, signifying aërial and celestial motion, the wheel of Shamash +was associated with a <q>lord and lady,</q> and the symbolism appears +to express that they were the directors of the <q>wheel of the law</q> +of terrestrial government. It is well known that, beside the throne, +<pb n='366'/><anchor id='Pg366'/> +the emblem of permanent repose, the Assyrian monarchs also used +the chariot as a royal prerogative. +</p> + +<p> +In the Gilgamesh epic the goddess Ishtar, on conferring sovereignty +upon Gilgamesh, says: <q>I will place thee on a chariot of +lapis-lazuli and gold, with wheels of gold....</q> On +studying the Nimroud bas-reliefs in the British Museum I noted +the fact that the trappings of the horse driven by king Asurnasirpal, +who is represented as standing in his two-wheeled chariot, are +decorated with crosses. It is impossible not to recognize the affinity +of the <q>wheel of the law</q> and the <q>lord of the wheel</q> of +India with the Assyrian symbols of Polaris and of central rulership +and to appreciate the naïve ingenuity of the idea of making +the driving of the chariot by the king represent his control of the +rotating wheels of state and government of the four quarters from +a stable centre.<note place='foot'>It is interesting +to trace to the same origin the <q>quadriga</q> which may well have +been associated with the <q>primitive sun</q>=Polaris, before supreme sovereignty was +transferred to Phœbus, the diurnal sun, by the votaries of the cult of Light.</note> +</p> + +<p> +As another example of the Assyrian employment of the cross-symbol, +the bas-relief at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, should +be mentioned, as it displays a winged bird-headed human figure, +whose garments are embroidered with crosses. +</p> + +<p> +King Asurnasirpal, who is alternately figured on his throne or +in his chariot, is frequently represented as wearing on his garments +and bracelets another familiar and expressive emblem of centralization +and unity in diversity, the composite flower or rosette. +</p> + +<p> +The sacred ship or ark of the Babylonian temple remains to be +discussed. Diodorus Seculus says that, according to Babylonian +notions, <q>the world is <q>a boat turned upside down</q> and resting on +the waters. The appearance in outline of this image presented the +three divisions of the universe: the heavens=Anu upheld by +the serpent body of Tiamat; the earth, the dwelling of Bel-Marduk, +the <q>chief of gods;</q> and the watery deep or <q>Apsu</q> beneath, +the dwelling of Ea</q> (Jastrow). This imagery authorizes +the inference that the sacred ship or ark was associated with this +conception of the earth as a boat resting on the line dividing the +sky from the watery deep. It can readily be seen how a maritime +people would be inclined to fancy that the celestial bodies floated +in the sky on invisible boats and that a single one among them was +apparently resting on a stable rock or mountain around which other +<pb n='367'/><anchor id='Pg367'/> +stars circled perpetually. That an analogous train of thought +should have caused the ultimate consecration of a tabernacle in +the form of a ship, to the central deity, entitled <q>the great +mountain,</q> appears as inevitable as the idea that all life proceeded +from this source. Professor Jastrow tells us that the early significance +of the custom of carrying the gods in consecrated ships +became lost, but that it survived in Babylonia and Egypt and that +the ark of the Hebrews appears, similarly, to have been originally +a ship of some kind. I am indebted to Dr. Wallis Budge for the +interesting information that each day, in the temple of Ptah at +Memphis, an image of the god Seker was dragged around the altar +by the priests. +</p> + +<p> +Bringing the preceding tentative study of the ancient civilization +of Babylonia-Assyria to a close, I venture to affirm that, imperfect +as it is, it clearly establishes certain important points connected +with the present investigation. It demonstrates that a primitive +pole-star worship existed and still exists in the Euphratean valley, +accompanied by the employment of the swastika or cross-symbol +and by the identical fundamental set of ideas which form the basis +not only of other Asiatic, but also of the American civilizations. +The Middle is associated with special sanctity, fixity and supremacy +of power and rule, extending in rotation over the Above and Below +and Four Quarters. This seven-fold division of the universe extended +throughout the entire organization of the state and gave rise +to certain logical developments of thought and symbolism, analogous +to those which have been traced elsewhere. +</p> + +<p> +Postponing further comment, investigation will next be transferred +to the valley of the Nile, whose inhabitants, at various +periods of their history, came closely into contact with the people +of Asia Minor. +</p> + +<p> +EGYPT. +</p> + +<p> +Pausing at the entrance to a much explored domain with a fitting +realization of being a novice and an intruder therein, I find myself +encouraged to advance by the frank admission recently made +by one of the leading authorities in Egyptology. In his <q>Notes +for travellers in Egypt,</q> Dr. Wallis Budge, the Assistant in the +Department of Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, of the British +Museum, openly states that <q>the religion of the ancient Egyptians +is one of the most difficult problems of Egyptology and though a +<pb n='368'/><anchor id='Pg368'/> +great deal has been written about it during the last few years and +many difficulties have been satisfactorily explained, there still remain +unanswered a large number of questions connected with it. +In all religious texts the reader is always assumed to have a knowledge +of the subject treated of by the writer, and no definite statement +is made on the subject concerning which very little, comparatively, +is known by students of to-day</q> (The Nile, London, +1890, p. 71). +</p> + +<p> +After having traced, as I have done, throughout ancient America, +China, India and Babylonia-Assyria, one and the same fundamental, +artificial scheme of state organization, it was with keenest +interest and a new sense of comprehension of the ancient Egyptian +civilization that I noted certain facts which I shall now proceed to +present. +</p> + +<p> +They will be found to show that ancient Egypt supplies us with +the instance of a civilization in which the fundamental set of ideas, +developed from primitive pole-star worship, prevailed during thousands +of years and had reached a high stage of evolution at a period +anterior to about B.C. 4000. +</p> + +<p> +TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. +</p> + +<p> +According to Dr. Wallis Budge, the ancient Egyptians called +their land Bak or Baket, Ta-Mera and Khem or Kamt, also Ta-Nehat, +<q>the land of the sycamore</q> and the land of <q>the eye of +Horus.</q> It was divided into two parts: Upper Egypt, Ta-res or +Ta-kema=<q>the southern land,</q> symbolized by the vulture; and +Lower Egypt, Ta-Meh, Mah-Ti or Meh-Ta, literally, <q>North-land,</q> +symbolized by the serpent. Two great ancient cities or capitals +were respectively known as Annu Meht, <q>Annu of the North,</q> +and Annu Qemat, <q>Annu of the South.</q> The kings of Egypt +styled themselves Suten-Net, <q>King of the North and South</q> and +Nebtaui, <q>lord of the two earths.</q> As such the king wore the +double crown made up of the tesher or net, the red crown of Northern +or Lower Egypt and the hetet or het, the white crown of Southern +or Upper Egypt (The Nile, p. 27). +</p> + +<p> +It will be shown further on that the high white and low red +crowns were respectively worn by the king and the queen at a certain +period of Egyptian history. It is well known that, in numerous +pictorial representations, the Egyptian men are painted with red, +but the women with white skins. The above facts show that there +<pb n='369'/><anchor id='Pg369'/> +existed a curious association of red with the north and the male +sex, and of white with the south and the female sex.<note place='foot'>I am +pleased to be able, at the last moment, to insert the following interesting +points personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis Budge: In remotest antiquity +two mythical mountains marked the two divisions of the land: Bakhan, situated to +the southeast, and Manu, situated to the northwest. The latter, like the mountain +Meru of India, was the abode of the blessed, towards which the souls of the dead set +out from Abydos and where eternal rest was to be found. The curious connection +between the north=mehta and the west=amenta, which I have shown to have +prevailed in ancient Mexico where the north is named Mictlan and in Yucatan where +Aman signifies north, is particularly interesting in connection with the exclamation +or exhortation to the soul, constantly met with in the Egyptian Book of the Dead: +Er-amentet=to the hidden land! <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the northwest.</note> +</p> + +<p> +It is a familiar fact that the Egyptian hieroglyph and determinative +sign for town, city or village consisted of a circle with four +divisions. The usual form of this sign, the phonetic value of +which is nu or nut, is shown as fig. +<ref target='Figure_60'>60</ref>, 1, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi>. On a bas-relief preserved +at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, I noted the variant 1, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. +It is interesting to collate these signs with the cross-symbols +(2) which express the sound of uu, un, and ur, and to note that the +sign for a capital in Egypt contains a division into four=un or ur, +and that the latter word is actually the familiar name of the famous +centre in Babylonia where cities laid out in the form of a square +and <q>four-god cities</q> existed, and the kings were termed <q>lords of +the four regions</q> and <q>kings of Sumer and Akkad,</q> the two ancient +divisions of the Babylonian state. +</p> + +<p> +It thus appears doubly significant that, in Egyptian, the word ur +signifies <q>great, great one</q> and is also the name of a god, which +is expressed in hieroglyphic writing by the cross, a mouth and a +seated god, the determinative for divinity. What is more, ur-u=chiefs, +ur-t=the name of a crown and ur-t=those who rest, +all of which words show that the Egyptian ur was associated with +the idea of divinity, greatness, crowned chieftainship, repose and +the cross-symbol which is incorporated in nut, the sign for capital +or city. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the symbols for the two great divisions of ancient +Egypt, the red crown of Northern or Lower Egypt, and the white +crown of Southern or Upper Egypt, are found surmounting the +sign nut (3), sufficiently shows that this symbol also stood for +an extended capital, a state, and that both <q>lands</q> constituted +at one time separate units or reproductions of the identical +plan. Returning to the ancient capitals known as the <q>Annu of +<pb n='370'/><anchor id='Pg370'/> +the North</q> and the <q>Annu of the South:</q> according to Dr. +Wallis Budge the first occupied the site of Heliopolis and was +identical with the city of On mentioned in Genesis +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>xli</hi>: 45). The +Annu Qemat was Hermonthis, the modern Menth, Armant or Erment, +situated on the west bank of the Nile a little to the south +of the ruins of Thebes. It is noteworthy that the name for Thebes, +given in the cuneiform inscriptions and Hebrew scriptures, No +(Ezek. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxx</hi>:4) and +No-am-on (Nahum <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>:8), is in one case the +simple inversion of On, the Hebrew name of Heliopolis, the Northern +Annu, while in the second instance the name of Thebes incorporates +both forms. +</p> + +<p> +The allusion to the <q>square of the city of Edfu,</q> and to buildings +laid out on a square ground-plan, contained in inscriptions +cited by Brugsch,<note place='foot'>Thesaurus Inscriptionem Ægyptiacarum +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 212.</note> +also furnishes an indication, which can doubtless +be multiplied, that, as in Babylonia, Egyptian cities were sometimes +built in the form of a square. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, +the square (slightly elongated) is employed to express the consonant +<hi rend='italic'>p</hi>. The sign appears to have been cryptic and to have constituted +the symbol of the god Ptah, <q>The Opener,</q> considered +as the most ancient of Egyptian gods. According to Dr. Wallis +Budge, <q>the sign is the picture of a door made up of a number of +boards fastened together by three cross-pieces at the back, and +there can be no doubt that the word for door was connected with +the verb pth=to open, and that it was pronounced something like +ptah (compare the Hebrew pethah). The sound of the first letter +of ptah being <hi rend='italic'>p</hi>, the phonetic +value of the door became <hi rend='italic'>p</hi></q> (First +steps in Egyptian, p. 5). To the above I add the observation +that the plain square or outline of the door, without indications of +boards and cross-pieces, is usually employed in the published texts. +The association of the square, representing a door with three +cross-beams, and expressing the sound ptah is particularly interesting +when connected with the word for earth or land=ta, and the +method of expressing the word universe=taui, by the threefold +repetition of the sign ta, which resembles a cross-beam +(fig. <ref target='Figure_60'>60</ref>, 5). +An interesting association of the square with earth or land is seen +in one of the signs for province or nome=sept or hesp, which +consists of a series of squares, evidently representing theoretical +territorial divisions and possibly a system of canal-irrigation. +Other suggestive signs for sep consist of a circle containing two +<pb n='371'/><anchor id='Pg371'/> +strokes; a circle enclosing four dots and a double +circle (fig. <ref target='Figure_60'>60</ref>, 4). +It is interesting to find an isosceles triangle employed, with a slight +addition, to express the word ta=land, as well as sept=province +(fig. <ref target='Figure_60'>60</ref>, 4 and 5), and +to find on analyzing the circular sign for nut=sky, +which is likewise the determinative for city, that it contains +four triangles. These converge towards the centre, as do the triangular +sides of the square pyramid, and thus the sign nut and the +pyramid clearly appear to express a whole divided into four parts, +the square form being connected with earth and the circle with +the sky. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_60'/> + <figure url='images/figure-60.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 60.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +A proof that the quadriform organization was extensively employed +in ancient Egypt, is furnished by Dr. Wallis Budge's statement +that each nome or province was divided into four parts, and +had its capital or <q>nut.</q> The inference is that each nome constituted +a miniature reproduction of the state and that the sign +nut represented its theoretical plan. On the other hand, the fact +that the triangle constitutes one sign for the nome itself, indicates +that, originally, the nome was identified as one of four divisions of +the state only and that, like Babylon, Egypt must have been theoretically +<pb n='372'/><anchor id='Pg372'/> +divided, not only into two main divisions, but also into +four regions, corresponding to the +</p> + +<lg> +<l>North=Meh-ta, literally North land.</l> +<l>West=Amen-ta, literally Hidden land.</l> +<l>South=Resu.</l> +<l>East=Aba.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +In the extracts from the Pyramid texts published by Dr. Wallis +Budge (Pyramid of Unas, Fifth dynasty), the following invocation +occurs: <q>O gods of the west, O gods of the east, O gods of the +south, O gods of the north, four these, who embrace <emph>the four quarters +of the earth holy</emph>.</q> These four quarters are represented in +hieroglyphics by the sign for land=ta, repeated four times, which +thus express, literally, <q>the four lands</q> or regions. Allusion is also made +in the same inscription, to the <q>four fields of heaven.</q><note place='foot'>First +Steps in Egyptian, London, 1898. I am mainly indebted to this useful book +and other publications by the same author for the Egyptian words cited in the following +pages. An interesting point, personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis +Budge, is that the cardinal points in Egypt were located diagonally, a method +which is shown to have also existed in Central America by the diagonal orientation +of numberless pyramids and buildings.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The four gods, termed by Egyptologists the <q>genii of the dead,</q> +were Amset or Mestha, Hapi, Tuaumutef and Kebhsenuf, and it +was the custom to place the canopic vases representing them under +the bier. The canopic vases were, however, also supposed to +be under the protection of four sky goddesses, identified with the +cardinal points, whose names are usually given as Isis, Nephthys, +Neith and Serk-t(?). A particularly interesting instance of the +employment of the cross-symbol in connection with the four <q>gods +of the horizon,</q> as they are termed, is to be found in the Book +of the Dead, published by Lepsius and reproduced by Dr. Wallis +Budge (Dwellers on the Nile, p. 158). The four gods in mummy +form, stand in a line behind a table laden with offerings. A large +crux decussata (St. Andrew's cross) is painted on the right shoulder +of the foremost god, a fact to which I shall revert and discuss +further in dealing with the cross-symbol and swastika in +Egypt. Having traced quadruplicate territorial divisions and +quaternions of gods, let us next present proofs of an organization +of the population into four <q>races.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Wallis Budge, referring to Chabas and Naville, states that +<q>the Egyptians of the later empire believed that Ra-Harmachis, attacked +<pb n='373'/><anchor id='Pg373'/> +his foes, who fled in all directions from before him. Those +who came to the south became the Cushites, those who came to +the north became the Amu, those who came to the west the Libyans +and those who came to the east the Shasu, and thus were the +four races of mankind made</q> (The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 53). +</p> + +<p> +The fact that the Sphinx has been designated as the image of +Ra-Harmachis <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> Heru-em-chut and of his human representative, +and that the distribution of people to the cardinal points and the +origin of four races of men is assigned to him, are particularly interesting +and suggestive, especially in connection with the familiar +table of nations given by Moses, who says <q>and the sons of Ham, +Cush and Mizraim and Phut and Canaan</q> (Gen. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>:6). Dr. Wallis +Budge states that Ham or Kham is the same as Khem and is the +name Kamt, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> black, by which the Egyptians generally called +their land. I venture to point out that in the following passages +the name Ham seems to be more applicable to a deity such as +Amen-Ra or to his human representative a king, than to Egypt itself: +<q>And smote all the firstborn in Egypt and the chief of their +strength <emph>in the tabernacles of Ham</emph></q> and again <q>Wondrous works +<emph>in the land of Ham</emph>.</q>... +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that Mizraim, the second name given above, +was employed by the Hebrews as a designation for Egypt. The +inhabitants of the region of Cush are represented on Egyptian +monuments and we are told that <q>at the outset they appear to +have had a religion and speech akin to that of the Egyptians. +We find Phut most probably, in the Punt of the inscriptions, the +land ... situated to the south of Egypt on both sides of +the Red sea. The fourth son [of Ham], Canaan, is represented +by the original inhabitants of Canaan, who were probably near +relations of the Egyptians</q> (Wallis Budge, The Dwellers on the +Nile, p. 52). While tradition and documentary evidence thus associates +the four sons of Ham with certain regions and cardinal +points, Egyptian monuments exhibit representations of people of +four different colors, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> red, yellow, black and white. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The ancient Egyptians ... recognized four races of men. +They themselves belonged to the <q>Rot</q> or red men; the yellow +men they called <q>Namu</q>—it included the Asiatic races; the +black men were called <q>Nahsu,</q> and the white men <q>Tam-hu.</q> +The following figures (fig. <ref target='Figure_61'>61</ref>) +are copied from Nott and Gliddon's +<pb n='374'/><anchor id='Pg374'/> +<q>Types of Mankind,</q> p. 85, and were taken by them from the great +works of Belzoni, Champollion and Lepsius</q> (Donelly, Atlantis, +p. 195). +</p> + +<p> +Pursuing our investigations of the territorial divisions of Egypt, +we learn, from Mr. Wallis Budge, that collectively there were 42 +nomes in Upper and Lower Egypt. This number is identical with +that of the 42 gods represented in the Book of the Dead as being +with Osiris in the hall of Two Truths where the dead were judged. +The 42 <q>judges of the dead</q> are represented as seated figures, +with human or animal heads, and are equally divided into two +groups. From the <q>negative confession</q> which the deceased +makes to his judges, we learn that each god was identified with a +locality, some amongst them being addressed as <q>coming out from</q> +such important cities as Heliopolis, Sais, Bubastis, etc. The inference +I venture to make is that these 42 judges were the gods of +the 42 nomes who, with Osiris, the chief god and the <q>President,</q> +formed the council of gods, which judged and ordered the affairs +of men. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_61'/> + <figure url='images/figure-61.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 61. The Races Of Men According To The Egyptians.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It is moreover natural to suppose that terrestrial administrations +of justice must also have been executed by a supreme council of +men, composed of the king, the living image of Osiris, and the +chiefs of the 42 nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt, who personified, +<pb n='375'/><anchor id='Pg375'/> +as elsewhere, the totemic divinity of tribe or district. Postponing +further discussion of the number 42, associated with nomes +and gods, let us examine further data concerning the territorial +organization of ancient Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Wallis Budge tells us that, <q>during the rule of the Greeks +(B.C. 342-332), Egypt was divided into three parts: Upper, Central +and Lower Egypt. Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, +and was called Heptanomis</q> (Nile, p. 28). The seven-storied +pyramid of Sâkkarah and the employment of the signs expressing +<q>three regions</q> and <q>four regions or lands,</q> to signify the whole +land or universe, prove that, long before Greek rule, the ancient +Egyptians, like the Babylonians, employed the heptameredal system. +Thus, according to Herodotus, <q>There are seven classes of +Egyptians, and of these some are called priests, others warriors, +others herdsmen, others swineherds, others tradesmen, others interpreters +and lastly pilots; such are the classes of Egyptians; +they take their names from the employments they exercise</q> +(Euterpe <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, 164). Passages from Prof. Flinders Petrie's History +of Egypt (Vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, pp. 156 +and 185) afford, moreover, instances of +the conquest of a heptarchic government by an Egyptian king and +the employment, in about B.C. 1500, of the number seven, as a +mystic or sacred number, in a letter from a Syrian prince to the +Egyptian king. +</p> + +<p> +In the record of the triumphal return of Aa-kheperu-ra, the +seventh king of the eighteenth dynasty (B.C. 1449-1423), it is +said: <q>His Majesty returned in joy of heart to his father Amen; +his own hand, with his mace, had struck down the seven chiefs, +which were of the territory of Pakhsi (near Aleppo)</q>.... +<q>Six of these enemies were hanged in front of the walls of Thebes; +the seventh [probably the chief of chiefs], was brought to Nubin +and was hanged on the wall of the town of Napata, to show +forth for all time the victories of the king among all people of +the negro land, inasmuch as he had taken possession of the nations +of the south and he had bound the nations of the north and +the ends of the whole extent of the earth on which the sun rises and +sets, without finding any opposition, according to the command of +his father Amen-ra of Thebes.</q> A letter from a Syrian prince to +Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379), opens thus: <q>To the king, +my master, my god, my sun, this is said: Yatibiri, the servant, +<pb n='376'/><anchor id='Pg376'/> +the dust of thy feet, at the feet of my king, my master, my god, +my sun, seven times, and seven times more, I fall down.<note place='foot'>A History +of Egypt, Vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>. London, 1896.</note></q>... +</p> + +<p> +While the above data suffice to establish that more than a thousand +years before Greek rule was established in Egypt its inhabitants +were familiar with the seven-fold scheme of organization, the +following extremely interesting portion of Brugsch's monumental +work, already cited, indirectly teaches much concerning the divisions +of the land of Egypt. The ancient Egyptian astronomers regarded +the nocturnal heaven as the exact counterpart of the land of Egypt +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 176). In +the inscriptions, the firmament is frequently considered +geographically, as a region comprising countries surrounded +by seas and traversed by rivers and canals, and covered with cities +and houses and divided into nomes which corresponded to those of +Egypt, excepting in point of number, there being thirty-six celestial +nomes. According to the inscriptions and pictures in the royal +tombs at Thebes, there was a celestial eastern sea (uat-ura abti), +a western sea (uat-ura amentti) and a northern sea (uat-ura mahtet +or mehtat). Special mention is made of <q>the waters</q> and +land of the <q>northern place of light above the constellation of +the Great Bear.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The lands of Punet (Punt?), Uthenet, Kenemti and Sa-nutart-mahti, +<q>the northern land of God</q> are designated, beside other +names which correspond to the terrestrial geographical situation of +outlying foreign countries known to the Egyptians. There was a +celestial city, <q>Anu or On,</q> whose eastern and western sides or +places of light are frequently mentioned. The mention of a single +Anu or On, names which are found applied to the most ancient +capitals of the land of Egypt, is particularly noteworthy. It will +be shown further on, upon Sir Norman Lockyer's authority, that, +in the exact centre of the circular zodiac at Denderah, the jackal, +expressing the name Anubis, <q>is located at the pole of the equator +and obviously represents the present Little Bear.</q> This and +other data establish beyond a doubt that the celestial Anu, On or +No, was supposed to be situated in Polaris and that the terrestrial +capital was intended to be the counterpart of the apparent seat of +central rule and government according to fixed laws and order of rotation. +The idea that, after death, the human soul lived again in +the celestial sphere is shown in the following address to a departed +<pb n='377'/><anchor id='Pg377'/> +spirit contained in the Bulak papyrus cited by Brugsch: <q>The images +of the gods of the Southern and Northern countries appear +to thee in the thirty-six nomes; thou goest where they are as a +perfect soul, thou doest what pleases thee in the heaven, thou art +amongst the constellations of the thirty-six Beka.</q> +</p> + +<p> +This word is rendered by Brugsch as the <q>Dekane</q> in German +and I have been unable to find its exact equivalent in English. +The Dekanes are alluded to in an inscription from the Ptolemaic +period cited by Brugsch (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 135) as follows: <q>They shine +forth after the sun has set. They <emph>run in a circle</emph>, and continually +release each other. They become apparent at sunset at hours varying +with the seasons.</q> The Dekane constellations or stars were +those which rose at the beginning of each decade or period of ten +days, which constituted the Egyptian <q>week.</q> There were thirty-six +or 4×9 of these in the Egyptian year, at the end of which +an epact of five days was added, each day being consecrated to +one of the five chief gods. Deferring the discussion of the Egyptian +numerical calendaric system, I merely point out here the obvious +agreement between the number of celestial nomes = 36, the +number of decades in the year of 360 days to which should be +added the familiar fact that each day and decade had its special +<q>god.</q> Laying stress upon the point that in ancient Egypt we +find thirty-six celestial, geographical districts, corresponding to +the thirty-six decades of the year and to thirty-six gods, I take +pleasure in pointing out how clearly the following passages of Sir +Norman Lockyer's <q>Dawn of Astronomy</q> show that the thirty-six +gods had as many human representatives, priests, who performed +certain religious rites and homage in the chief temple in a +fixed order of rotation. <q>Even at Philæ in late times, in the temple +of Osiris, there were 360 bowls for sacrifices, which were filled +daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests. At Acanthus +there was a perforated cask into which one of the 360 priests +poured water from the Nile daily;</q> an enforced act of obedience +recalling the punishment of the daughters of Danaë. As Sir +Norman Lockyer justly remarks <q>these temple ceremonials are +an evidence of their antiquity and may be regarded as traditions +preserved by the conservative priesthood.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I am inclined to regard the above mentioned acts of empty homage +as survivals of conditions strictly analogous to those which +existed in ancient America, where each geographical district of the +<pb n='378'/><anchor id='Pg378'/> +state was associated with a class of people under their representative, +and a day of the calendar on which obligations towards the +central government, such as the paying of tribute, had to be performed +in a fixed order of rotation, corresponding to the annual +circuit of the circumpolar constellations around the pole star. +</p> + +<p> +During centuries the most remarkable of these, Ursa Major, +like the hand of a great celestial dial, moved by an unseen ruling +power apparently located in Polaris, became visible after dusk +and pointed towards the four quarters of heaven in succession, +at intervals of nine decades of days. As in China and elsewhere +at the present day, its position was referred to as a guide in +determining time, during the night, and the seasons; and mankind +became familiarized with the idea of a changeless inexorable law +and order governing the universe and determining human periodical +activities, and thus directly influencing individual lives. Added +to this the idea of a heavenly kingdom, traversed by the celestial +Nile, the Milky Way, and in which each familiar locality in Egypt +had its counterpart, it is easy to follow the spread of the belief +that there was a close connection between the stars and their terrestrial +counterparts and that they directly influenced the destinies +of individuals, each of which had its particular star in the sky. +</p> + +<p> +The following portions of the decree inscribed B.C. 238 on +the famous trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, contain +what appear to me to be distinct allusions to the ideal of a terrestrial +kingdom, laid out and governed in accordance with the system +and fixed laws observed as existing in the heavens and governing +the movements of celestial bodies. The hieroglyphic text records +the establishment of festivals <q>in accord with the existing fundamental +laws upon which the heavens [the movements of heavenly +bodies] are established.</q>... The Greek translation of this +passage reads: <q>according to the now existing order of the world +[universe]</q> and the demotic version is: <q>in accordance with the +scheme, upon which the heaven is established </q> (Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 180). +Further facts concerning celestial and terrestrial territorial +divisions remain to be examined and discussed. +</p> + +<p> +A number of representations exist in which the figure of the sky-goddess, +Nut, appears as though stretched across the vault of +heaven, her feet resting on the earth in the east and the tips of her +fingers touching the horizon in the west. A study of certain texts +cited by Brugsch clearly shows that it was for very practical and +<pb n='379'/><anchor id='Pg379'/> +sensible reasons that the Egyptian astronomers had adopted the +plan of an imaginary human form stretched across the nocturnal +heaven, as it enabled the position of constellations and stars to be +definitely located. Lepsius has shown that, in a series of inscriptions +in the tombs of Ramses VI and Ramses IX, the movements +and positions of stars are given in connection with the parts of an +imaginary human form in the sky. It is thus said of a star that +it was situated: <q>in the middle of the breast, in the right eye, +the left eye, the right ear, the left ear, the right arm, the left arm, +the left thigh.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Brugsch (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 187) quotes the opinion of Lepsius that +the parts alluded to in the above inscriptions, referred to an imaginary +male figure stretched across the firmament and viewed <hi rend='italic'>en +face</hi>, and publishes a theoretical reconstruction of this imaginary +figure. It recalls that of a Buddha and suggests the idea that the +Egyptian schematical figure must have also been imagined as seated +on the stable centre of the heaven. Egyptian astronomical texts, +which I shall cite further on, appear to me to show distinctly that +the lotus flower (the name for flower being ankh) was employed +to express the sound ankh, which means <q>life</q> and that it occurs +in connection with other symbols of the pole-star god. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to the representations of Nut stretched across the +sky, it should be noted that this employment of the human form +belongs to the same category as the Sphinx, which appears to have +been the terrestrial counterpart of the celestial schematical figure. +On the other hand, the sign nut, consisting of a circle with four +divisions, like the pyramid, represents the successful attempt to +express the same thought in abstract, geometrical form, such as +would be intelligible to an initiated, intellectual minority only. +</p> + +<p> +It will be seen further on that I advance the view that the pyramid, +being a miniature reproduction of the scheme of the universe, +contained a sacred central chamber, representing the sacred Middle, +and that this was destined to be the <q>house of eternal repose</q> +for the dead king, the representative of the universal god. +</p> + +<p> +As Dr. Wallis Budge tells us: <q>If the deceased succeeds in +passing the ordeal [of judgment after death] satisfactorily, he +comes forth at once as a god (there is no place of probation), he +becomes identified with Osiris, in whose shape his mummy is made</q> +(The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 177). +</p> + +<p> +The following text, from the inscription on an amulet found on +<pb n='380'/><anchor id='Pg380'/> +the neck of the mummy of a young girl, preserved at the Berlin +Museum, is explained in the official catalogue of the museum +(p. 343), as signifying that <q>the mummy was supposed to lie in +the centre of the whole world:</q> <q>The sky is locked over the +earth, the earth is locked over the beyond and the beyond is locked +over this strong mummy-case of the departed Osiris-Hathor-tsen-usire....</q> +As the <q>beyond</q> in the inscription evidently +signifies the <q>underworld,</q> the idea that the mummy case, resting +on the earth, was being pressed upon from beneath by the underworld, +and from above by the sky, is clearly conveyed and is +in keeping with the sign for universe, already alluded to, which +represents three regions superposed. The <q>deification</q> of the +mummy, which is named <q>Osiris-Hathor,</q> is an interesting instance +of the idea that the mummy became the image not only of +the goddess Hathor but also of the god Osiris, or Ptah, who is +usually represented in the form of a mummy. +</p> + +<p> +A remarkable instance of a king in a pyramid being actually +worshipped and bearing the name of Ptah, added to his own, is +given by Professor Flinders Petrie (<hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 257). <q>... The +figure of the king Teta, entitled Teta-mer-en-ptah, is placed in a +triangle, which is suggestive of a pyramid (as Men-nefer is written +with the same triangle on this naos). Rather than suppose a new +king at this period, we should see in this the worship of a pyramid +king, Teta, of the sixth dynasty....</q> The association of +Ptah, who is regarded as perhaps the oldest of all gods of Egypt, +with the square=ptah and the pyramid and the mummy, is of extreme +interest, especially as Egyptian texts contain references to +<q>a single god, who becomes a quaternary of gods</q> (Brugsch II, +408), and we therefore see that the idea of Four in One was a +familiar one. The personification of Ptah usually consists of a +mummy holding a sceptre, expressing strength, life and stability. +Under the form of Osiris he usually holds the curved sceptre denoting +dominion, beside the symbols for life, rule and power, and +is entitled the <q>lord of the holy land, lord of eternity, prince of +everlasting, the president of the gods, and the head of the corridor +of the tomb.</q> Considering that in all pyramids hitherto explored, +the corridor of the tomb is directed towards Polaris, it +appears obvious that the supreme god of <q>life, strength, eternity, +rule and power,</q> was a personification of Polaris, the stability of +which was naïvely expressed by the body in mummy form symbolizing +<pb n='381'/><anchor id='Pg381'/> +the absolute repose and immobility of death, combined with +an animated face and the symbols of living, active power. +</p> + +<p> +As the divine land is expressly designated as the divine land of +the north in astronomical texts and that this celestial region had +its terrestrial counterpart, it is naturally in Lower Egypt, that the +holy land of the north must be sought. +</p> + +<p> +Investigation speedily proves that the most ancient vestiges of +civilization are situated in the neighborhood of Memphis which, +under the kings of the fourth and the sixth dynasties, reached its +height of splendor. It is in the land of the north, Meh-ta, that the +extremely ancient seven-storied pyramid of Sakkârah lies, and that +there exists the area of about thirty kilometers in which eighty +pyramids are concentrated, and which constitutes the great burial +ground of countless generations of Egyptians of all periods. A +curious detail, to which I shall refer again, is the affinity in sound +of the name for <q>north land,</q> Meh-ta, and mit=death or the dead, +and the undeniable resemblance of both words to the Nahuatl, +ancient Mexican mictlan=the North, or underworld, from mic-quiztli=death +and tlan=land (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Egyptian ta=land). +</p> + +<p> +In Egypt, as elsewhere, the western horizon, below which sun, +moon and stars disappeared, was naturally regarded as the entrance +to the region of the underworld. The west being therefore designated +amen-ta, <q>the hidden or concealed land or region,</q> it is +all the more significant to find the single entrance and exit corridor +of each pyramid directed, not towards the west, the underworld, +but towards the stable centre of the northern region of the sky. +It would therefore seem as though the intention had been to establish +a direct line of communication between the tomb chamber in +the centre of the pyramid and the divine <q>northern land of God,</q> +the sacred mountain Manu and the shining celestial city Anu, +lying <q>between the east and west,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> in the Middle, +where the supreme star-god dwelt in eternal repose. An interesting proof +that the longing of the souls of the dead tended towards the north +is furnished by the common prayer-formula: <q>may my soul ... +inhale the north-wind and drink from the stream.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Before advancing further, the following authoritative statements, +establishing the supremacy of pole-star cult in ancient Egypt, +should be presented. +</p> + +<p> +According to Sir Norman Lockyer, <q>It seems extremely probable +that the worship of circumpolar constellations went on in +<pb n='382'/><anchor id='Pg382'/> +Babylonia as well as in Egypt in the earliest times we can get at</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 363). <q>There can be no question that the chief +ancient constellation in the North was the Great Bear or, as it was +then pictured, the Thigh (Meskhet)</q> (p. 216). <q>In the exact centre +of the circular zodiac of Denderah we find the jackal [Anubis] +located at the pole of the equator: it obviously represents the +present Little Bear</q> (p. 362). +</p> + +<p> +<q>With regard to Anubis, it is quite certain that the seven stars +in Ursa Minor make a very good jackal with pendent tail, as generally +represented by the Egyptians and that they form the nearest +compact constellation to the pole of the ecliptic....</q> +</p> + +<p> +Sir Norman Lockyer adds that he is informed by Dr. Wallis +Budge that <q>An was an old name of the sun-god,</q> but also states, +in another page of his work that <q>the worship of Anubis, as god +of the dead or the night god ... was supreme until the +time of Men-kau-ra, the builder of the third pyramid of Gizeh</q> +(B.C. 3633, Brugsch; B.C. 4100, Mariette; p. 363). +</p> + +<p> +Pending the production of astronomical texts which amply demonstrate +that An was a name of a god of the night sun, Polaris, +the following establishes that, at Annu or Heliopolis, in remotest +antiquity and amongst the pyramid builders, the cult of a northern +star prevailed. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The first civilization as yet glimpsed, so far as temple building +goes, in Northern Egypt, represented by that at Annu, or Heliopolis, +was a civilization which combined the cult of a northern +star with a non-equinoctial solar worship</q>.... <q>I know not +whether the similarity in the words Anu, Annu and An results +merely from a coincidence, but it is certainly singular that the +most ancient temples in Lower Egypt (Heliopolis and Denderah) +should be called Annu or An, if there be no connection with the +Babylonian god Anu</q> (Lockyer, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 321). +</p> + +<p> +The well-known fact that the entrance passage to the earliest +pyramid known, that of Medum, and of all pyramids hitherto explored, +has not only been found on the north face of the structure +but is also believed to have oriented towards <q>Sut-anup,</q> the +pole-star (of the period of its construction), unquestionably proves +that the pyramid builders assigned a particular importance to the +north. Referring the reader to Sir Norman Lockyer's work for a +mass of valuable and interesting information concerning the orientation +of Egyptian temples, I merely quote the following statements +<pb n='383'/><anchor id='Pg383'/> +which not only show that throughout Lower Egypt north-star worship +existed, but also establish the interesting and important fact +that in Upper Egypt a totally different astronomical cult was carried +out during an unknown length of time. +</p> + +<p> +<q>It is an important fact to bear in mind that in the North of +Egypt, in early times, the stellar temples were more particularly +directed to the north, while south of Thebes, so far as I know, +there is only one temple so directed</q> (p. 225).... <q>From the astronomical +point of view ... there are distinctly two series +[of temples and monuments in general], (leaving out of consideration +the great pyramid builders at Gizeh) absolutely dissimilar +astronomically; ... there are at least two sets [of temple-builders], +one going <emph>up</emph> the river building temples to the north +stars, the other going down the river building temples to the south +stars; and the two streams practically met at Thebes, or at all +events they were both very fully represented there either together +or successively.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Sir Norman Lockyer proceeds to say: <q>The double origin of +the people thus suggested on astronomical grounds may be the reason +of the name of <q>double country,</q> used especially in the titles +of kings, of the employment of two crowns, and finally of the +supposed sovereignty of Set over the north, and of Horus over +the south divisions of the kingdom</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 345). <q>In +short, in Lower Egypt the temples are pointed to rising stars near +the north point of the horizon, or setting north of west. In Upper +Egypt we deal chiefly with temples directed to stars rising in +the southeast, or setting low in the southwest. Here again we are +in presence of ... distinct differences of astronomical thought....</q> +(p. 341). <q>With regard to the northern stars observed +rising in high amplitudes, we have found traces of their worship in +times so remote that in all probability at Annu and Denderah +α Ursæ Majoris was used before it became circumpolar. We deal +almost certainly with 5000 B.C.... <emph>New</emph> temples with nearly +similar amplitudes ... were built at later times ... it may +be suggested that the stellar observations made in them had ultimately +to do with the determination of the hours of the night; +this seems probable, for in Nubia at present, time at night is thus +told.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>It is possible that observations of these stars [which are nearest +the pole and move most slowly] might have been made in such a +<pb n='384'/><anchor id='Pg384'/> +way that, at the beginning of the evening the particular position +of γ Draconis, for instance, might have been noted with regard +to the pole-star; and seeing that the Egyptians thoroughly knew +the length of the night and of the day in the different portions of +the year, they could at once, the moment they had the starting-point +afforded by the position of this star, practically use the circle +of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of +celestial clock. May not this really have been the clock with which +they have been credited? However long or short the night, the +star which was at first above the pole-star after it had got round +so that it was on a level with it, would have gone through a quarter +of its revolution. In low northern latitudes, however, the +southern stars would serve better for this purpose, since the circle +of northern circumpolar stars would be much restricted. Hence +there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring southern stars. +With regard both to high north and south stars, then, we may in +both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the +time at night. So that the worship of Set, the determination of +the time at night by means of the northern stars, might have been +little popular with those who at Gebel Barkal and elsewhere in the +south had used the southern ones for the same purpose ...</q> +(p. 344). +</p> + +<p> +Valuable and suggestive as these observations are, I venture to +point out that the following texts appear to indicate very clearly +that, as in China and Mesopotamia, in the present day, the ancient +Egyptian high-priest and king on important public occasions simply +utilized the conspicuous constellation of Ursa Major as a +measurer of time. +</p> + +<p> +In the account of the ceremonial used at the laying of the foundation +of the temple at Edfû, it is stated that the king's glance +was directed to the Ak or <q>Middle</q> and to Meskhet=Ursa Major. +A part of the full translation of the inscription quoted from +Nissen by Sir Norman Lockyer (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, pp. 176 and 179) represents +the king as speaking, thus: <q>Looking to the sky and recognizing +the 'ak' of the Bull's Thigh constellation, I establish +the corners of the temple of Her Majesty.</q> It is further said +<q>With his glance directed towards the <q>ak</q> of the Bull's Thigh +constellation he [the king] establishes the temple house of the +mistress of Denderak, as took place there before.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Having found out, by referring to Egyptian dictionaries, that +<pb n='385'/><anchor id='Pg385'/> +er-ak means <q>in the middle,</q> and em-aka <q>in the midst or middle,</q> +while Hak was a word employed for <q>king,</q> I suggest that +these meanings afford a different and much more simple explanation +of the <q>ak</q> mentioned in the inscription than that given by +Sir Norman Lockyer and Dümichen. In dealing, further on, with +the astronomical signs and names associated with the pole of the +ecliptic, I shall, moreover, point out that the bull=ka, employed as +an astronomical symbol of Ursa Major, may have been adopted +as a cryptic sign for Polaris, merely because its name contained +the letters of the word ak=the Middle. The recurrence of the +same letters in Hak=king seems to explain also why the king of +Egypt was entitled <q>the bull.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Returning to the inscription relating to the ceremony of laying +the foundation stone; in other texts cited by Sir Norman Lockyer +we find the king saying: <q>I have grasped the wooden peg [stake] +and the handle of the club; I hold the rope with Sesheta [his female +consort]. My glance follows the course of the stars; my +eye is on Meskhet; standing as divider of time by his measuring +instrument</q> (Duemichen's version) or <q>mine is the part of time of +the number of the hour-clock </q> (Brugsch's version). In another +part the king says <q>... I let my glance enter the constellation +of the Thigh (representing the divider of time at his +measuring instrument)</q> (Duemichen's translation) or <q>the part of +my time stands in the place of his hour-clock</q> (Brugsch's translation). +Sir Norman Lockyer notes that <q>the word merech or merechet, +in which Brugsch suspects hour or water-clock, does not occur +elsewhere.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Whatever differences there may be in the Brugsch and Duemichen +translations and the interpretations of the word ak, the above texts +establish that the Egyptian king directed his glance to <q>the Middle</q> +and that the constellation Meskhet=Ursa Major was connected +with time-measurement and the establishment of the four +quarters of the temple. +</p> + +<p> +As I shall show further on, the <q>Sesheta,</q> mentioned in the text +as performing the ceremony with the king, appears to be not a +<q>mythical goddess,</q> as Sir Norman Lockyer infers, but the living +<q>divine queen,</q> and consort of the king. She is represented with +the insignia of Isis, whereas he wears the crown of Osiris, and I +note that while she holds her stake in her left, he holds his in his +right hand. Deferring a discussion of the position of Egyptian +<pb n='386'/><anchor id='Pg386'/> +queens, I point out here that, in the interesting description of a +foundation ceremonial, preserved in an inscription relating to the +rebuilding of a temple at Abydos, about B.C. 1380, the Sesheta, +entitled the <q>mistress of the laying of the foundation stone,</q> +seems to have been the chief actor, since it is she who addresses +the king, as follows: <q>The hammer in my hand was of gold, as +I struck the peg with it, and thou wast with me in thy capacity of +Harpedonapt [?]. Thy hand held the spade during the fixing of +its [the temple's] four corners with accuracy by the four supports +of heaven</q> (Lockyer, p. 175). +</p> + +<p> +The <q>four supports of heaven</q> referred to here are obviously +<q>the gods Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf,</q> who are +recorded in the Book of the Dead (chapter 17) as being <q>those +which find themselves behind the constellation of the Thigh in +the northern heaven.</q> In an inscription in the kings' graves at +Thebes mention is made of the <q>four Northern Genii who are the +four gods of <q>the follower</q> [obviously a circumpolar constellation]</q> +(Lockyer, p. 147). They seem to be also identical with +the <q>four constellations [Akhemusek] which are found in the northern +heavens,</q> and the <q>sailors or oarsmen in the bark of Ra,</q> mentioned +in the same and in many other inscriptions. The four +<q>gods</q> are represented with human bodies respectively surmounted +by the head of a man, an ape, a jackal and a hawk and are +identical with the <q>genii of the dead,</q> represented on the canopic +vases placed at the four corners of the bier. In this connection +attention is drawn to how clearly the symbolism of the mortuary +customs becomes apparent when it is realized that the mummy, the +image of Ptah-Osiris, and of the pole-star god, was laid to <q>eternal +rest</q> in an imaginary <q>sacred centre,</q> obtained by naïvely placing +the effigies of the gods of the cardinal points, the personifications +of the <q>four stars of the northern heaven,</q> at the corners +of the bier. The same dominant thought which underlies the popular +use of the canopic vases clearly led to the building of the +vast pyramids which constituted the sacred <q>centres of the world</q> +par excellence, the square base typifying the four regions and +<q>corners</q> of the earth; the triangular sides the four divisions +of the sky, which converge to a single Middle, associated with +Polaris, the sacred pole or ak of the Cosmos. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to the subject of the measurement of time by means +of the circumpolar constellations, it is instructive to find that the +<pb n='387'/><anchor id='Pg387'/> +Egyptian determinative sign for <q>time</q> consists of a central dot +with a circle drawn around it and to note that the only celestial body +that could be accurately figured as occupying the centre of a circle +described around it is the primitive sun, Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +The Egyptian for <q>time</q> is rek, an inversion of ker=the +night, the common sign for which is a band, figuring the sky, from +the centre of which a star is suspended by a thread. As the star +is usually formed by two lines, diagonally crossed, at the end of +the thread, there is a strong temptation to see in the hanging single +star an actual representation of a cross symbol. It is particularly +striking to find in Brugsch's work, that the determinative for +time is actually represented, in numerous cases, as close to the +single hanging star (fig. <ref target='Figure_62'>62</ref>, 9). I leave it to the reader +to form his own conclusions whether this group represents Polaris and the +circuit of time measured by the circumpolar constellations, or +whether it merely represents, as Brugsch states, the winter solstice, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the day sun in the nocturnal sky. +</p> + +<p> +There exists a remarkable variant of the determinative of time, +which I shall discuss more fully further on. Instead of a mere +dot, a five-pointed star is distinctly figured in the centre of the circle +(fig. <ref target='Figure_62'>62</ref>, 12). This variant furnishes, in my opinion, +convincing proof of the meaning of the determinative for time, which also +constituted the well-known sign for Ra=god, and forms a part of +the name of the supreme divinity of Egypt, Amen, or Amon or +Amun Ra, the <q>hidden or secret god,</q> whose name contradicts +the current assumption that Ra signifies the diurnal sun merely, +and that Amen-Ra was a <q>solar</q> deity. +</p> + +<p> +The following texts relating to the <q>supreme true but hidden +god</q> amply demonstrate that the chief characteristic of his cult was +that it was shrouded in secrecy and mystification. Others, which +I shall quote farther on, allow us clearly to perceive that individuals +were obliged to pass through a series of initiations into the +meanings of cabalistic signs and symbols of the divinity before +they attained the pure knowledge of the nature of the mysterious, +<q>hidden divinity.</q> On reading the texts of the famous <q>Book of +the Dead</q> it has frequently occurred to me that the negative confession +and judgment of the soul of the departed may originally +signify the actual confession and judgment of an applicant for +initiation into the secrets of the priesthood and the astronomical +and theological knowledge they so rigidly guarded from the ignorant +<pb n='388'/><anchor id='Pg388'/> +multitude. The highest knowledge and most profound secret +they could impart was doubtlessly the acknowledgment and perception +of the existence of a supreme power which governed the +universe on a certain plan, which the rulers of the land of Egypt +endeavored to apply to its organization and government in order +to make it a celestial kingdom upon earth. +</p> + +<p> +The rigidly-adhered-to policy of the ruling caste was, however, +the shrouding and concealment of their store of knowledge from the +uninitiated and the gradual admission of select individuals to the +inner chambers of secrecy. The following texts show that even +the true name of the supreme divinity was wrapped in impenetrable +mystery, but the assumption that we are dealing with a pole-star +god seems to enable us to penetrate the obscurity of the formulæ +employed by the scribes to veil the true meaning of the texts. +</p> + +<p> +Beginning with the hymn published by Mr. Wallis Budge, in his +useful handbook, <q>The Nile,</q><note place='foot'>Reference is made to +another translation of the hymn in the <q>Records of the Past,</q> +Vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, pp. 127-136, and to Grébaut, Hymne à +Ammon Ra.</note> we find Amen-Ra addressed as +<q>King, <emph>One</emph> among the gods, <emph>myriad are his names, how many are +they, is not known</emph> ... the lord of Law, <emph>whose shrine is hidden, ... +whose name is hidden from his children in his name Amen</emph>.</q>... +In the legend of Ra and Isis (<hi rend='smallcaps'>xx</hi>th dynasty) he is designated +as <q>the god divine, the creator of himself, the creator of heaven, +earth, breath of life, fire, gods, men, beasts, cattle, reptiles, fowl +of the air, fish, king of men and gods, <hi rend='italic'>in form one</hi>, to whom +periods are as years, <emph>many of names, not known are they, not know +them the gods</emph>.</q><note place='foot'>First steps in Egyptian, Mr. Wallis +Budge, p. 235.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The mysterious supreme god is further spoken of in the hymn +as ... <q>the lord of the uræus crown, exalted of the plumes; +the serpent Mehen, and the two uræi are the (ornaments) of his +face....</q> Mention is likewise made of his lordship over +the Sekti boat (which sailed from the place of rising in the East) +and the Atet boat (which sailed to the place of setting in the West); +he is also addressed as the <q>god Khepera in his boat.</q> In many +passages he is apparently identified with the sun, <q>the eye of +Horus,</q> but is at the same time, also addressed as Ani, the lord of +the New Moon festival and he is termed <q><emph>the lord of all the gods</emph> +whose appearances are in the horizon.</q> His all-embracing nature +is clearly conveyed by the passages terming him <q>the maker and +<pb n='389'/><anchor id='Pg389'/> +lord of things which are below and of things which are above;</q> +<q>of the heaven and earth.</q> The above evidence suffices to show +that, on the one hand, Amen-Ra is constantly referred to as the +<q>One god, without a second, the knowledge of whose nature is +concealed from men and gods, who reveals himself in innumerable +forms; who exerts hidden control and universal dominion and is +associated with stability and power, time and eternity.</q> On the +other hand, stress is laid on his dual nature: Amen-Ra is bi-sexual +and self-creative; alternately becomes light and darkness; and +the sun and moon are the eyes of his <q>hidden face,</q> which, literally +translated, yields Amen-Hra. +</p> + +<p> +In the hymn previously cited he is also termed the <q>lord of the +sky, the establisher of all things, ... the extender of foot-steps.... +<emph>One</emph> in his times as among the gods....</q> He is apostrophized +as <q>the maker of the gods, who hast stretched out the heavens +and founded the earth,</q> <q>the chief who makest the earth like unto +himself,</q>.... <q>President of the great cycle of the gods, <emph>only one +without his second</emph> ... living in Law every day.... O Form, +<emph>one</emph>, creator of all things, O <emph>one</emph> only, maker of existences +... he giveth the breath of life to (the germ) in the egg.... +Hail to thee, thou <emph>only one</emph>!... <emph>He watches all people +who sleep</emph> ... all people adore thee.... O thou ... +<emph>the untiring watcher</emph>, Amsu-amen lord of eternity, the Maker of +Law....</q> Another passage states: <q>the aten (disk) is thy +body</q> (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> image or symbol). In the legend of Ra and Isis, +quoted above, the god is made to say of himself: <q>I am the maker +of the hours, the creator of days, I am the opener of the festivals +of the year.... I am he who when he opens his eyes [<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the +sun and moon] becometh light, when he shutteth his two eyes, becometh +darkness.</q> Brugsch tells us that Ra, whom he accepts as +the day-sun, was addressed as the master of double or two-fold +force, who illuminates the world with his two eyes and <q>was symbolized +by two lions.</q> Further on I shall quote facts establishing +that the king and queen of Egypt were respectively named the right +and left eye of Amen-Ra, were associated with sun and moon, regarded +as the personifications of Osiris and Isis, and that these +deities were represented in the form of uræus serpents with human +heads, and that the two serpents were employed as symbols of +Upper and Lower Egypt. Mr. Wallis Budge informs us that +Amen-Ra was named <q>bull ... in thy name of <q>Amen bull of +<pb n='390'/><anchor id='Pg390'/> +his mother,</q> and that he was entitled <q>lord of the thrones of the +two lands;</q> <q>king of the gods;</q> <q>maker of mortals;</q> <q>mighty law.</q></q> +In one of his forms he is represented as wearing horns (an allusion +to duality and the title of bull) and feathers (=mat=maat=law) +and holding the emblems of stability, power, dominion and rule. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_62'/> + <figure url='images/figure-62.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 62.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Before demonstrating that the chief astronomical signs of the +Egyptian zodiac partake of the nature of a rebus and express the +sound of the various attributes and titles and some of the <q>myriad +of names</q> of the <q>hidden god,</q> contained in the preceding texts, +I point out how clearly the conception of Amen-Ra, as shown in +these hymns and invocations, is consistent with a pole-star origin. +We have, moreover, the authoritative opinion of Brugsch that <q>the +hieroglyph and name Ra did not only refer to the day-sun, but also +designated certain brilliant stars,</q> which he presumes to be the +planets (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 79). This identification of the name Ra +with stars involuntarily obliges one to recall the Sanscrit tara=star +<pb n='391'/><anchor id='Pg391'/> +while the Chinese employment of a plain circle to designate +<q>star,</q> also finds its analogy. Let us now examine the hieroglyphic +signs and symbols of Ra and note how intelligible they become +when the god is identified as Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +The following (fig. <ref target='Figure_62'>62</ref>) are some of the modes in which the +name Ra is found expressed in texts published in Mr. Wallis +Budge's <q>First steps in Egyptian:</q> +</p> + +<p> +Fig. <ref target='Figure_62'>62</ref>, 1. By a dot +in the centre of a circle, the determinative +of <q>time.</q> +</p> + +<p> +2. By the latter accompanied by the image of a seated +god and the numeral 1. +</p> + +<p> +3. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, partly surrounded by a serpent in motion and +accompanied by the numeral 1. +</p> + +<p> +4. The serpent and circle on the head of a hawk-headed +seated god. +</p> + +<p> +To these are added for purposes of comparison +</p> + +<p> +5. The circle with two uræi. +</p> + +<p> +6. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, to which a single uræus and a wing are attached. +</p> + +<p> +7. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, with two uræi and two wings. +</p> + +<p> +8. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, with one wing. +</p> + +<p> +9. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, accompanied by the numeral one and the sign +for heaven, to which a cross-shaped star is hanging. +</p> + +<p> +10. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, resting in the centre of the summit of a twin +mountain. +</p> + +<p> +11. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, resting in the centre of a boat. +</p> + +<p> +12. <hi rend='italic'>Idem</hi>, with a central star instead of a dot constituting +the word duat=<q>lower hemisphere</q> (Brugsch). +</p> + +<p> +13. The variant of this, cited by Brugsch. +</p> + +<p> +14. The disk containing a single eye. +</p> + +<p> +My prolonged study of the ancient Mexican picture-writings +having given me the habit of regarding each primitive symbol as +a possible rebus led me to look up the phonetic values of the symbols +combined with the Ra sign and to note that some of them +were actually mentioned in connection with Amen-Ra in the texts +cited above, namely: the face, the eye, the egg, the uræus, the +disk, the <q>serpent Mehen.</q> It was a surprise to find, on simply +referring to the glossaries, that the name for uræus=ara and +that eye=ari; an egg=ar (also sa, se, and suht); face=hra; +<pb n='392'/><anchor id='Pg392'/> +each word thus containing the name Ra=god, in simple or inverted +form (see fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 1-4). The natural inference was that I +had obtained an insight into the method devised by the ingenious Egyptian +priesthood, to express, in cryptic form, the name of the <q>hidden +god.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_63'/> + <figure url='images/figure-63.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 63.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Further glimpses of light seemed obtained when I found that, +as written by German Egyptologists, the determinative for divinity, +the banner=nutar, notar, netar, or neter, not only expressed +the same sound as the word nut, but also contained the letters <q>r</q> +and <q>a</q> (5). The disk=atun, aton or aten might also be regarded +<pb n='393'/><anchor id='Pg393'/> +as an anagram, being the inverted form of nutar, minus the last +letter (6). The names for wing (7) being tun, ton or ten, the +wing attached to the disk constituted a complementary sign, duplicating +the final syllable. At the same time, as a second name for +wing was meh, or mah (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> mat and its synonym su=feather), +there seemed to be an explanation of the <q>serpent mehen</q> applied +to Amen-Ra and the possibility that it signified the <q>winged +serpent,</q> such as is frequently depicted in texts published by +Brugsch (8). It was obvious that the uræus=ara and the wing +meh, would form an ingenious anagram expressing, by means of +the signs, a-meh-ra, the name Amen-Ra. +</p> + +<p> +The constantly recurring form of the Ra sign, in which the serpent +is represented as gliding around the circle, enclosing the central +point of fixity, naturally suggests the inference that this +variant must have been adopted at a time when the constellation +Draco, the <q>Old serpent,</q> or <q>Nakkasch qodmun,</q> was circumpolar +and was equally familiar, under this name, to the Egyptian +and Euphratean astronomers. This inference seems to be confirmed +by the fact that, in the hymn to Amen-Ra, cited above, +the name Nak is given to <q>the serpent with knives stuck in his +back,</q> who, according to the myth, was the demon of night and +the enemy of the sun-god, the ruler of day. The fact that, in the +temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes, a service was recited daily for the +destruction of the serpent Nak by Horus, appears to indicate +the growth of the idea of a combat between light and darkness +and the dual forces of nature, which would naturally tend to create +the thought of an antagonism existing not only between the sexes, +but also between the two divisions of Egypt and the separate cults +of the nocturnal heaven (Polaris and the moon) and the diurnal +heaven (the sun). +</p> + +<p> +In the list of festivals, dating from the Ptolemaic period and inscribed +in the temple at Edfu, there are mentioned: <q>the festival +of the end or point of the triangle,</q> simultaneous with that of +<q>the serpent Nai or Na,</q> immediately followed by <q>the festivals +of the <q>tena</q>=[aten?], and of the great serpent Na,</q> and <q>of +the Ken=the festival of darkness, and of the red serpent Na</q> +(Brugsch <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 51). Commenting upon the above names I +draw attention to the curious fact that in the above word ken, we +seem to have the inversion of nak, the name of the <q>night-serpent</q> +and that na is actually the inversion of the word an, which +<pb n='394'/><anchor id='Pg394'/> +signifies <q>he who turns or winds himself around.</q> I shall show +further on, in astronomical texts, that this name is actually identified +with the pole. +</p> + +<p> +When these facts are borne in mind the full import of the familiar +Egyptian symbol for eternity=tet, becomes clear. It consists +of the image of a mummy, symbolizing fixity, around which +a great serpent is winding itself, conveying the idea of circling +motion (fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 9 and 10). It is well known that this +group symbolized eternity=tet and the sign is always interpreted as expressing +the sound tet. If analyzed more closely, however, and +interpreted as a rebus, it appears to yield a fund of deeper +meaning. +</p> + +<p> +The serpent Na furnishes the word An=the winder or he who +moves around. Linked to one of the names for mummy=sah, +the group might be read as An-sah, a name which invites comparison +with Anshar, the Assyrian pole-star god who was said to shoot +arrows in all directions, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> to turn around, and the Akkadian +title for Ursa Major, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven. The second +name for mummy, given in Mr. Wallis Budge's Nile, is tut, the +exact word which signifies <q>to engender,</q> which explains why +images of the creator should have been made in mummy form. The +word tut directs attention to the name of the god Tehuti=Thoth, +<q>the Measurer,</q> a name to be weighed in connection with the fact +that time was measured by the circumpolar constellations. It does +not appear impossible that the word khat=corpse may also have +been brought into use in the rebus and furnished an anagram or +allusion to the ak or centre. +</p> + +<p> +The other well-known symbol for eternity, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> stability, is the +column tet, representing a pillar usually consisting of four or five +parts (fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 11). It appears hitherto to have escaped +attention that the Egyptian for hand being tet, the hand, employed as a rebus, +would actually express the name for eternity and may well have +been employed as a secret sign for the divine centre, eternal stability +and the sacred number five, consisting of the Middle and the Four +Quarters, symbolized by the fingers and thumb (fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 12). +To this must be added the interesting fact that, in hieratic script, +the hand expressed the sound <q>a</q> which means <q>power</q> while +aa=great, aat=great and mighty, aa=mighty one. To those +initiated in the mysteries of hieroglyphic writing the hand thus +clearly constituted a rebus, expressing the eternal, permanent, stable, +<pb n='395'/><anchor id='Pg395'/> +great, mighty power, one yet double and fourfold, the sacred +five in one, the Middle and Four Quarters.<note place='foot'>An extremely +interesting instance of the hand being actually figured between the +sun and the moon, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> as the symbol of the Middle, is to be seen +on the Phœnician tablet to Baal Hamman and Tanitla, from Carthage, preserved at the +British Museum and figured by Mr. Goodyear, fig. <ref target='Figure_64'>64</ref>, 1. +Above the hand is a group of symbols consisting +of two S-shaped signs, resembling the Mexican picture of Ursa Major. Between +these is a pyramid and above this a seven-petalled conventionalized flower, +which should be compared with fig. +<ref target='Figure_64'>64</ref>, 3, a copy of the familiar flower on the sacred +tree of the Assyrians. In fig. <ref target='Figure_64'>64</ref>, +2, copied from another Phœnician tablet (Goodyear), +the flower occupies the central position between two hands; the latter taking +the places of sun and moon in the tablet 1, an interesting detail considering the +instances cited, showing that dual rulership was indiscriminately associated with +<q>right and left hand</q> or <q>the sun and moon.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +The following is a group of animal and other figures, which are +repeated, with variations of form, combination and position, in the +different zodiacs. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_64'/> + <figure url='images/figure-64.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 64.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The principal and the phonetic values of their names are figured +as follows: the thigh=uart, khepes or maskhet; the bull, ox or +cow=ka, ah, aua; the hawk=bak, designated as an, kher or +heu=Horus; the cynocephalus ape and phallus=aaani and ka; +the lion=mahes; the jackal (anubis) uher or sabi; the scorpion=tart +or serkhet; the crocodile=sebek, also amsuk or emsuh, +and seta; the vase or jar=nu (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> nut); the female +hippopotamus=tebt, +shown by Dr. Gensler to have been associated with +the name menat=nurse, she who nurses (see Brugsch <hi rend='smallcaps'>I</hi>, p. 130). +</p> + +<pb n='396'/><anchor id='Pg396'/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_V'/> + <figure url='images/plate-v.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate V.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='397'/><anchor id='Pg397'/> + +<p> +In the Edfu zodiac, the latter, whose name furnishes an anagram +of amen=hidden, is represented with the Ra sign on her head +and holds a cord to which the constellation of Ursa Major is +attached. This is figured, with its seven stars, as the thigh (pl. +<ref target='Plate_V'>V</ref>, 2), +with the head of a bull, elements which furnish the phonetic values +of uart, khepes or maskhet and aua, ka or ah, to which should +be added that the Egyptian mode of saying <q>a bull</q>=ua en ka, +literally <q>one of bull,</q> the female form being <q>uat en ka</q> (see +Wallis Budge, First steps in Egyptian). +</p> + +<p> +After having studied the hymns and invocations to Amen-Ra we +are aware, not only that the <q>hidden god</q> is named <q>the bull,</q> +but that great stress is laid upon his being <q>One</q>=ua, yet double=ka. +It therefore appears very significant to find these words +incorporated in the name for Ursa Major=thigh, uart, and this +combined with bull=ua or ka which furnishes the anagram ak=middle. +What is more, the second name for thigh being khepes, +this might form a rebus for the common name for (1) luminary or +star in general=khebs or khabs, literally, lights, lamps, flames, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> seb=star; (2) kheper=life, existence, to come into existence, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> khepdes=uterus, kher khepd=the navel, khepesh=power. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that one title of Amen-Ra was Khepera=the creator, +lends additional interest to the association of his secret sign, the +hippopotamus, with the constellation Ursa Major, which he apparently +holds and guides and which emblematizes life, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +motion—The thigh=khepes, scarab=kheper, fish, khepanen, crocodile=seta +or sebek, which, inverted, yields the word khebes=star, +and royal sickle=khepes, thus appear to have been but different +modes of expressing the same meaning and the title of Khepera +(fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 13-16). It can be readily understood why the +scarab beetle, which encloses its egg in a ball of mud and rolls this to a +safe hatching place, became the favorite secret sign for the <q>hidden +god,</q> since none but the initiated would see in the beetle, holding +the ball of earth enclosing its egg, the actual rebus of Khepera, +the creator, expressed by the kheper; and the circle or disk, the +sign of Ra, containing the germ of life. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to an examination of the signs for Ursa Major employed +by the Egyptian astronomer scribes, we find, beside the +more elaborate form given by Mr. Wallis Budge (pl. <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, 3), the +variants (4 and 5) which constantly recur in the texts published by +Brugsch, and which reveal that the thigh, accompanied by a single +<pb n='398'/><anchor id='Pg398'/> +star, constituted the essential elements of the sign. It is one of +the curiosities of Egyptian hieroglyphics that the image of a star +may express either seb=star, or the numeral five=tuau. This +being the case, and the word for thigh being either khepes or uart, it +is obvious that the thigh and star yield more than one interpretation +from the rebus point of view, and may either be read as seb +khepdes, seb-uart or tuau-uart—in one case containing the divine +title <q>creator</q> and in the second a play upon the name ua=One, +the favorite appellation given to Amen-Ra. +</p> + +<p> +The following star names contained in the Brugsch texts, and +which have avowedly not been satisfactorily identified, up to the +present, will speak for themselves and will be found to be comprehensible +and appropriate only when identified with Polaris: Seb-uati=the +lone, single, only, or sole star (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> title <q>One</q> given to +Amen-Ra); Seb-seta=the hidden star, in Greek texts, sebkhes, +sebkhe, the sebses, anagrams of khebs, or khepdes (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +<q>hidden</q> god). This star is found pictured in the astronomical texts by a +turtle, the name for which is seta, sita, sit or set; in Greek texts +cit. +</p> + +<p> +To me it seems clear that the turtle constituted a rebus sign for +the <q>hidden star</q> and concealed god, and I find that another +Egyptian word could have served equally well for the same purpose, +viz., seta=the vulture. What is more, the following names, +mentioned in the astronomical texts, yield the sound of the first +vowel of the words seb=star and seta=hidden, and attention +is drawn to the fact that, as the goose and egg, for instance, +were known under several names, the secrecy of the true meaning +of these sacred symbols was insured: goose=se, ser, sar, seb, +smen, apt, aq; egg=se, sa, ser, sar, ar, suht; nest=ses; +pool of water=se; heron=sent. +</p> + +<p> +A curious double similarity of sound exists between the name +for turtle and one of the names for goose, inasmuch as the turtle=seta +is also called aps, and the goose=se is named apt (fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, +17-18). Another name for goose being aq or ak, we find that +its value as a rebus must have been supreme, since it so perfectly +expressed the word ak=middle. A proof that its merits were +duly appreciated by the ancient scribes, is its constant and widespread +employment in decorative art as a so-called <q>solar symbol,</q> +in association with the circle or disk and the swastika. +Through its name se, the goose-symbol likewise expressed the +<pb n='399'/><anchor id='Pg399'/> +same meaning as the egg and the first syllable of seta=hidden; +perhaps also ne-se-r=flame, the synonym of khebs=luminary or +star (Brugsch). Through its name ak, the goose symbol became +the synonym of all ak or ka words. Finally, through its name apt, +it became related to the whole series of anagrams of ptah and the +synonym of the pair of horns which express ap in hieratic script. +</p> + +<p> +The association of the syllable ap with the bull=uau and ka, is +proven by the name Apis given to the living, sacred bull, under +which form the supreme divinity was worshipped from earliest +times, at or before the building of the pyramids at Memphis. The +explanation that, just as sacred bull was merely a living rebus expressing +by the sound of its names, the words <q>the one, the double, +the middle of the central two-fold one,</q> or <q>divine twain,</q> fully +explains why, in time, the bull itself came to be chosen, revered and +worshipped as the living image of the <q>hidden god.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The marks of the sacred calf Apis, described by Herodotus, +appear to become intelligible, when translated as follows and then +analyzed: <q>It is black (khem or kam) and has a square (ptah) +spot of white (hetet) on the forehead (tehen). On the back (of +the head) (makha or at) the figure of an eagle=vulture (seta). +In the tail (peh?) double (ka) hairs (anem). On the tongue (nes) +a beetle (kheper).</q> +</p> + +<p> +Feeling convinced that Egyptologists could find further phonetic +elements and hidden meaning in the above material, it is with diffidence +that I point out some of the meaning I am able to discern +with the simple aid of <q>First steps in Egyptian.</q> Besides being +the image of Amen-Ra Polaris, the one and divine twain, the black +(khem) skin (annu) of the sacred bull appears to contain an allusion +to Egypt, known as <q>khem</q> and its central capital Annu, +besides that to the nocturnal heaven and its shining city. The +square ptah of white=hetet (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> hetet, and chut=light) appears +to symbolize the quadriform plan of the celestial and terrestrial +kingdom and its position on the head (tep) between the two horns +(ap) gains in significance when it is realized that, in astronomical +texts, the square (designated above as hetet=white) is as frequently +pictured between a pair of horns as the pillar=tet, that +both square and pillar appear thus to have expressed the same +sound=tet, which signifies eternity. The bird of prey=seta +on the bull's back (makha) evidently signified the hidden=seta, +centre, m-akh-a, further significance being lent to the syllable akh +<pb n='400'/><anchor id='Pg400'/> +by the fact that it also means <q>to support,</q> and that <q>the support +of heaven</q> was a divine title contained in the hieratic texts. The +double hair=anem, ka, appears as another mode of expressing +the <q>hidden</q> ka=double or ak=centre. The word for tongue +(nes) being the reversal of sen=two, the kheper=life, on the +tongue, appears as an allusion to dual principles or powers of nature. +The giving forth and drawing in of breath by the living +Apis bull must doubtlessly have seemed, to the Egyptian priesthood, +emblematical of the giving and taking away of breath of life, +by the creator, Khepera, over whose emblem, on the tongue of the +animal, each breath necessarily passed. +</p> + +<p> +An insight may thus be gained of the method by means of which +primitive, naïve picture-writing could have become more ingenious +and intricate until, as actually stated in the hymns, the name of +the supreme divinity became <q>hidden from his children in the +name Amen</q> [literally=hidden], and a <q>myriad of names, how +many are they is not known</q> had been invented by the scribes, to +designate the King (Hak), <q>one among gods, in form one, the lord +of eternity, stability and law.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Before making a cursory examination of the following lists of +homonyms of the names for bull=ah, uau and ka, I must revert +to astronomical pictures and signs and make some statements concerning +the hawk-headed human form found represented in the +zodiacs in close association with the image of Ursa Major, the bull; +(see pl. <ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, +1, from Denderah). The presence of the hawk=bak in +the centre of the polar region, with the bull ka, assumes significance +in connection with the word ak=middle and the name for <q>the +middle of the heavens,</q> cited by Sir Norman Lockyer; <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, +kabal sami, and all of these words are particularly interesting when +it is remembered that the Babylonian name for north was akkad, +the Akkadian title for Ursa Major was Akanna, while Ursa Minor +was named Kakkabu in Babylonia and Assyria. The Arabian +kaaba is recalled here. +</p> + +<p> +The inscriptions accompanying the zodiacs published by Brugsch +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 127) designate this +hawk-headed personage, who, in +each case, holds either a spear or a plain staff, by the following +names, of which I give Brugsch's translation, followed by my own +commentary. An=he who turns or winds himself around. In +this connection I point out that the name Na, given to the serpent, +is the inversion of an. Kher-an=he who fights and turns or +<pb n='401'/><anchor id='Pg401'/> +winds himself around. As kher is likewise the word for ring or +circle (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Greek kirkos, Latin circus or circulus, Scand. kring), +it is evident that the name Kher-an admits of being interpreted as +<q>he who winds or turns around in a ring or circle,</q> kher=the +fighter or combatant. At the same time, the word kher likewise +signifies ring or circle; moreover ker=night and rek=time. +Therefore the name Neb-kher, cited by Brugsch +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, 176), +as one of those given to the god of the city of At-Nebes, besides +signifying, as he says, the <q>lord of strife or fighting,</q> clearly +means <q>the lord of the circle or ring.</q> This is undoubtedly one +of the most appropriate of names for the god of the pole star and +Ursa Major and is, besides, the Egyptian equivalent for the Hindu +<q>lord of the wheel,</q> the Persian <q>god of the ring,</q> and the Mexican +<q>lord of the circle and of the night</q>=Yaual or Yohual-tecuhtli. +The other titles of the same god recorded by Brugsch are +<q>the flame or light</q>=Neser, and <q>the lord of life</q>=Neb-ankh. +</p> + +<p> +I merely point out here what I shall discuss more fully later on, +that, in the Egyptian An, <q>he who turns himself around,</q> we have +the counterpart, not only of the Assyrian An-shar +(fig. <ref target='Figure_65'>65</ref>, 5) who +shoots his darts in all directions, but also of the <q>North god</q> of +the ancient Mexicans, who, fully armed is held by one foot, by the +sign of the North, to the centre of the cross, the symbol of the +Four Quarters, and like the Akkadian <q>lord of heaven,</q> Akanna, +is identified with Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p> +I note, moreover, that, whereas the common name for hawk is +bak, that employed by Brugsch is hru (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> inversion ur=the Egyptian +name for cross symbol) which is sometimes transcribed as +hur, her or heru, hor or har=and translated as Horus or Ra Harmachis. +An interesting image of the hawk god is found in another +inscription in the temple of Denderah containing the group (pl. +<ref target='Plate_V'>V</ref>, +6) consisting of a single star, the bull and hawk, transcribed by +Brugsch as <q>Hru-Ka</q> and translated as <q>the bull (of) Horus</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 7). Another interesting case of the combination of +the bull and hawk is the hawk with a bull's head also figured by +Brugsch, and which is obviously a variant of <q>hru-ka.</q> A curious +instance which seems to contain a reversal of these syllables +is the bull, repeated in inverted positions, with the cross-sign=ur, +a group which might well have been employed as a rebus expressing +the sound ur-ak-ka, a combination which I shall discuss +further on. +</p> + +<pb n='402'/><anchor id='Pg402'/> + +<p> +The identity of Horus as a form of Polaris is hinted at in the +following inscription in the temple at Denderah (pl. +<ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, 10) which +Brugsch translates: <q>Ra Horchuti (=hur-chuti) the shining Horus, +the ray of light in the night</q> ... (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 16). The <q>god</q> +is figured in mummy form, holding the sceptre tam (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> mat=justice, +truth) and the sign ankh (life), with the head of a hawk=bak +or hru (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ur=four, and head=tep or tepet, also name for +<q>chief</q>), the head conveying idea of four-fold chieftainship, surmounted +by the horns=ap and circle or disk=ra. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_65'/> + <figure url='images/figure-65.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 65.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +An extremely suggestive astronomical picture (pl. +<ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, 13) contains +<pb n='403'/><anchor id='Pg403'/> +the combination of Horus, the An, in the form of the human-headed +hawk, with a serpent Na, the boat (uaa, am or makhen) +and the circle enclosing a single star, duat (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ua=one). The +complete group thus conveys a wealth of hidden meaning which is +perfectly intelligible when interpreted as pole-star symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +The reader is now invited to take a preliminary look at the +columns of signs included in figs. <ref target='Figure_66'>66</ref>, +<ref target='Figure_67'>67</ref>, <ref target='Figure_68'>68</ref>, some of which will +be recognized as primitive pole-star symbols already discussed, +and which will respectively be found to contain homonyms of ua=One +and uahi=permanent; ak and kabal=centre, ka=double, +an=he who turns and ankh=life, etc. Special attention is also +drawn to the modes of expressing the syllable am by the homonyms +boy or child, boat and tree (fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 20-22). +</p> + +<p> +Different combinations of identical phonetic elements are found +in the following groups which prove to be but different ingenious +figures expressing the same sounds, with more or less the same +meanings: pl. <ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, +15, represents the boat, whose phonetic values +are given above, with a flower=ankh, the homonym of life, containing +the names an and na, from which the uræus=ara, is rising. +Later on the deeper symbolism of this and fig. <ref target='Figure_12'>12</ref>, +pl. <ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, +will be further discussed. In the latter, instead of the flower the +boat contains the ara and a boy=ah or aah, whose name is the +homonym for great, mighty, powerful, etc. Assuming that the boat +expressed its particular name uaa=ua=one, we thus have a +rendering of the appellation so constantly given to Amen-Ra in the +hymns and invocations: <q>One, great, powerful, mighty god,</q> accompanied +by a whole series of secondary meaning and symbolism. +In pl. <ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, +9, the boat containing the bull or cow, is accompanied by +stars which reproduce Ursa Major exactly, minus one star, the head +of the animal occupying the centre of the four stars forming the +inverted square of <q>the dipper.</q> In this case the boat seems to +express its name makhen, incorporating ak, the name for the sacred +centre of the sky, which is repeated in the name ka=bull, whose +image, like that of the boat, conveys the allusion to ua=one, by +their respective double names, aua and uaa. +</p> + +<p> +What appears to me to contain the most convincing proof of +the identity of Amen-Ra with Polaris is 11, pl. +<ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, which shows us +a boat in which lies a mummy, above which is a row of seven stars +under an oval, containing two eyes. The oval ring is evidently +the image of Amen-Ra, who united in his person the dual principles +<pb n='404'/><anchor id='Pg404'/> +of nature symbolized by sun and moon=his <q>two eyes.</q> +The symbolism of the boat and mummy has already been sufficiently +discussed to enable the reader to discern its association +with the idea of oneness, of stability and centrality. Further light +is thrown upon the connection of the two eyes with the sacred +centre by pl. <ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, +14, from the Book of the Dead, where the chosen +place of sepulchre for the dead person, mentioned in the text, is +the temple pyramid, the apex of which is rendered prominent by +being painted black and suggestively occupies a central position +between two eyes. After the periods of Greek rule in Egypt, the +point of the pyramid must have been associated with the Greek +words, akra=hill-top and aku=point, which recurs in the Latin +name acacia, by which the thorny tree, originally found in Egypt, +is still known. It can readily be seen how this tree would have been +chosen as a symbol of the ak=middle and it is possible that its +name may originally have been that also given to the olive tree=bak. +The inscription on the famous obelisks erected by queen +Hat-shepsut contains a special mention of the point of the obelisk, +as being made of precious material: <q>two great obelisks of hard +granite of the south, the point of each is of electrum, the tribute +of the best quality of all countries</q> (Flinders Petrie, History of +Egypt, Vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 86). +</p> + +<p> +The many variants of the constellation or star termed <q>the +divine triangle</q> or <q>the triangle of the god</q> next claim attention. +An extremely interesting variant of this constellation represents a +hawk-headed sphinx, next to the triangle (pl. +<ref target='Plate_VI'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi></ref>, 1); 2-4 represent +the common form expressing the name Sopedet. As Brugsch +informs us, the above name was changed at a more recent period +into Satit (6-8), which he translates as <q>she who shoots, the +archeress</q> or <q>she who causes the Nile to rise.</q> In these cases +the written name either contains an arrow (6), the pyramid symbol +for earth (7), or a seated figure above whose head is a single star +(8). A rarer form of representing the same constellation is 9 +and 10, the group being transcribed by <q>Satit Hont Khabsu</q> +which Brugsch translates as <q>Sothis, the Queen of the ... stars.</q> +From the feminine terminations employed in the text it is clear +that it is a cow which figures here in the boat, with a single star +between its horns and it appears to me to be obvious that we have +to deal here with the feminine form of Polaris, with Auset=Isis, +closely related to the Assyrian <q>goddess of battle,</q> Ishtar, the +<pb n='406'/><anchor id='Pg406'/> +female counterpart of Ausar=Osiris, the Assyrian Anshar, or +Ashur, the <q>god of battle.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_VI'/> + <figure url='images/plate-vi.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate VI.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +This view is confirmed by further astronomical pictures published +by Brugsch, which appear to me not merely to signify the constellations +Orion and Sirius as Brugsch infers, but to be hieroglyphs +intended to be understood by the initiated only, representing two +or more of the forms under which Amen-Ra was figured. At Edfu +(pl. <ref target='Plate_VI'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi></ref>, +11) the boat=au, uaa, and the mummy=sah form a fair +rebus for Ausar=Osiris, while the boat alongside of it contains +the cow, a form under which Isis=Hathor was worshipped in +Egypt during centuries. At Denderah (12) there is a cow in one +boat=Isis; and a man in another who holds the sceptre tam, emblematic +of power, and turns his head around, an evident allusion +to the action an=he who turns himself around, or to sah=one +who turns away. Between both is the hawk=bak or Hur-chuti=Horus, +standing on the sceptre named aut, composed of the lotus +flower=ankh. A variant of the same group (13) also symbolizing +the <q>Above, Below and Middle,</q> and from Denderah, represents +Isis only in the celestial boat and Osiris standing (on earth) holding, +beside the tam, the whip=nekhe khu, emblematic of rule. +In 14, a female figure stands in the boat under the written name +Auset=Isis and bears in her hand the ankh sign and the lotus +flower=ankh sceptre. In the second boat the figure of a boy +(ahi) turning (an or sah) his head, holds up the ankh. In 15, +we seem to have an evidence of the ascendancy of Isis worship, +for the boat contains not only the cow, under the name satit=she +who shoots, or the archeress, but also the standing figure of +the goddess, crowned by the disk or circle between two horns. +</p> + +<p> +A striking proof that the knowledge of the true, hidden meaning +of the signs just discussed was regarded by those who possessed +it as an evidence of an advanced stage of initiation in the +mysteries of the priesthood, is furnished by the following text, +which accompanies pl. <ref target='Plate_VI'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi></ref>, 16: +</p> + +<p> +In the Book of the Dead (Leyden, Papyrus, p. 16), in a chapter +entitled: <q>Chapter of the knowledge of the eastern spirits, +ro en rex biu abti,</q> the dead person utters the following words: <q>I +know that eastern mountainous region of the heaven whose south +is at the sea Kharo and the north at the river of Ro, at the place +where the day-god Ra drives around amidst storm-winds. I am a +welcome comrade in the boat and I row without tiring in the bark +<pb n='407'/><anchor id='Pg407'/> +of Ra. I know that tree of emerald green brandies amongst which +Ra shows himself when he goes over the layer of clouds of the +god Su. I know that gate out of which Ra issues. I know the +meadow of alo, whose wall is of iron.... <emph>I know the eastern +spirits, namely the god Hur-Chuti, the calf next to this god and +the god of the morning</emph>,</q> the original text of the latter sentence +being: <q>au-a-rekh-ku-a biu abti Hur-chuti pu behsu kher nutar +pen nutar duaut pu</q> (Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 72). +</p> + +<p> +The evasion and caution with which the speaker alludes to +his knowledge of the meaning of the signs, without betraying +the latter, sufficiently indicate the obligation of absolute secrecy +which bound him, and it may be inferred that several of the words +he employed were intended to be misleading to an outsider just as +the astronomical pictures, exposed to public view, were purposely +made to seem to relate to the more familiar sun, moon and constellations, +the mind being thus led away from the hidden but true +star-god=Polaris. The circumstance that, on the body of the +young bull in the boat, there are seven dots and above it a single +star and that the hawk-headed seated deity behind it is crowned +by the serpent circle or disk of Amen-Ra, sufficiently enlightens +us as to the true, veiled significance which represents different +forms of the <q>hidden god,</q> of the group. A careful analysis of +this and of the astronomical images suffices, however, to disclose the +limited scope of the meaning of such groups, each one being but +a different rebus containing the same phonetic elements. Let us +now briefly indicate what appear to have been the essential components +which all images contain and a few of the myriad of ways +by which they were expressed. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Uahi=permanent, and Ua=One. Represented by</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Fig. <ref target='Figure_66'>66</ref>. 1. An arrow=au +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> abau=to fight), an arm=a, +and the numerical one=ua. +</p> + +<p> +2. The cow=ah, aua, the latter name incorporating +the adjective a=mighty, powerful, etc. +</p> + +<p> +3. The thigh=uart. +</p> + +<p> +4. The boat=uaa. +</p> + +<p> +5. The numeral five=tuau. +</p> + +<p> +6. The throne, seat or place=auset, which constitutes +the name Auset=Isis, the consort of +Ausar=Osiris. +</p> + +<pb n='408'/><anchor id='Pg408'/> + +<p> +7. The bowl=au. +</p> + +<p> +8 and 9. Two forms of sceptre or bent staff=au, uat, +<emph>also</emph> aam. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_66'/> + <figure url='images/figure-66.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 66.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Besides these signs, well known as sacred symbols, we find that +the following names also contain the sacred title Ua: uatet=greenstone, +emerald, aut=quadrupeds, au=heir, also dog, maau=rays +of light, mau=lion, also cat. The reason why certain +quadrupeds, and particularly the cow, lion, and the cat, should +have become sacred animals in Egypt, seems to be satisfactorily +explained by the fact that each constituted a rebus and could +therefore be employed as an <q>image</q> of the One god. It is obvious +that locality would necessarily influence the choice of the +<pb n='409'/><anchor id='Pg409'/> +sacred animal and that while one city might adopt the cow, another +would be obliged to adopt the cat, etc, as the living rebus. The +adoption of <q>the heir,</q> or first-born of the sacramental union of +king and queen, as the living image of the deity, throws an unexpected +light on the reason why members of the royal line were +treated with divine honors. While persons, animals and objects +whose names contained the divine Ua=one, would thus be chosen, +others containing the word Ra=god, would also be adopted. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Ra=god.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Of these I have already pointed out the uræus=ara, the eye=ari, +face=hra and egg=ar, also se or sa and suht. To these +may also be added the date palm or dates=ben-ra; grain=nepra; +the vine=aarer and grapes=aarer, each of which is to +be found associated with sacred symbolism. +</p> + +<p> +The veneration accorded in different localities to the pig=re-ra +and the horse, may thus be accounted for, especially as the name +for the latter, het-ra, consists of het=light or fair, and ra=god, +and the horse is actually found associated with the light-gods +of antiquity and with so-called solar symbols and the swastika. +</p> + +<p> +Food for reflection is afforded by the Egyptian name for mirror, +which literally signifies to see, or the seer=maa, of the face=hra, +but which furnishes, as a rebus, the word maat=law, which +is usually expressed by the feather=mat, connected with hra=<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +ra=god (fig. <ref target='Figure_66'>66</ref>, 10). The employment of the mirror as an +image of the god of law would thus naturally have been suggested +by its name. The presence of the eye=ari (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ra) in the centre +of a mirror which is being worshipped, also suggests that in ancient +Egypt the mirror was employed in the temple to hold the reflection +of Polaris=Amen-Ra, <q>the untiring watcher, the lord of eternity +and the maker of law</q> (see fig. <ref target='Figure_66'>66</ref>, 11). It is obvious +that the habitual employment, by the astronomer priests, of a mirror so +placed in the sanctuary as to catch the reflection of the pole-star +through an open doorway, would lead to the discovery of the +movements of the sun and the positions it assumes during the year. +The flashing of a beam of sunlight once a year, at the period +of the summer solstice, upon the mirror which constantly reflected +the pole-star, would naturally suggest the idea of <q>the union of +the day-sun with the night-sun</q> and seem particularly impressive +as it was at this period that the Nile began to rise. In dealing +<pb n='410'/><anchor id='Pg410'/> +with the religious festivals held at this period more will be said +on this subject. +</p> + +<p> +The word maat=law, besides being expressed by the feather=mat, +could also have been indicated to those initiated in the mysteries +of hieratic rebus-writing, by the lion=ma hes; the antelope=ma-het, +which also contains the sacred attribute light=het, +the synonym of khu, thus expresses the idea of the <q>light of +the law.</q> The musical instrument named mat may also have +originally been, like the tam sceptre, a symbol of lawful power and +conveyed an allusion to meht or maht=north. To this series +the word am should be added, signifying child, tree and boat, each +of which has already been treated of in connection with pole-star +symbolism and Amen-Ra (fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 20-22). +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Duality=ka=double; and the Middle=ak.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +The name for bull=ka (fig. <ref target='Figure_67'>67</ref>, 1) incorporates, as has +already been shown, not only duality and middle, but also, through its +other names, the idea of oneness and of power. This appears to +explain clearly why the bull was chosen as the image or rebus of +Polaris and Ursa Major, which appear to have been regarded as a +single combination of stars. The fact that in the hymns Amen-Ra +is addressed as <q>the bull,</q> constitutes a convincing corroboration +of the identification of the <q>hidden god</q> with Polaris. A +line of connection seems, moreover, to exist between the Egyptian +kabal sami=the middle of heaven, the image of a bull in the +centre of the zodiacs, and the bull of Assyria, under which image +Baal was worshipped. +</p> + +<p> +Hieratic signs, expressing the word for middle and double appear +to have been: the mummy which, although named sah or tut, +also signified khat=corpse (2) and conveyed an allusion to mit=death, +the homonym of met=north. +</p> + +<p> +A certain form of fish expressed the syllable kha (3). A cone-shaped +object named khaker appears to have served as a rebus for +the middle and double as well as night=ker and time=rek (4). +In pl. <ref target='Plate_VII'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi></ref>, +12, the khaker figures behind the seated image of a deity +with the head of a ram=ser or sar, holding the ankh in his hand, +the whole forming a rebus for Ansar, and containing much meaning +besides. +</p> + +<p> +Kha-ut (fig. <ref target='Figure_67'>67</ref>, 5) is the name for the sacrificial +offering laid on +<pb n='411'/><anchor id='Pg411'/> +the utu=altar, which is shaped like the tau and symbolizes the +above and below by its perpendicular and horizontal lines. In the +centre of this is the bread=ta (the homonym of ta=earth, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +neb-at=fire), which is remarkable on account of its division into +four parts analogous to that of nut=city, a feature which justifies +the inference that the word for cake=sen-nu made with honey=bat +or net, is intended to be expressed here. A jar stands at each +side of the cake, which is placed on edge so as to exhibit the sacred +design upon it. It is significant that, if the jars contained wine=arp, +milk=art, the name of the liquid constituted an anagram +of ra, if perfume=anta was present, this furnished the syllables +an and ta=earth. It is, of course, impossible to surmise how far +such resemblances of sounds influenced the choice of sacred offerings. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_67'/> + <figure url='images/figure-67.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 67.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='412'/><anchor id='Pg412'/> + +<p> +The kha (fig. <ref target='Figure_67'>67</ref>, 6)=crown is particularly interesting as +Amen-Ra is addressed as <q>crowned form,</q> the lord of the ureret crown, +... beautiful of tiara, exalted of the white crown ... on whose +brow the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt is established. +It appears, therefore, evident that the crown=kha was but another +mode of expressing ka=double. At the same time it likewise +conveyed the idea of ak=the centre and the act of crowning a +sovereign appears as vested with deep symbolical meaning when +it is realized that, according to the primitive modes of thought I +have been tracing, by enclosing the head of the king in a circlet +he was constituted the hak, regent or central chief, the living +image of Ra, whose sign was the star or dot in the circle or ring. +</p> + +<p> +Ka (duality) is commonly expressed by an uplifted pair of +arms; a variant being the whole figure of a man with raised arms +(7 and 8). The fact that the name for phallus was also ka, explains +its employment as a sacred symbol, recorded by Herodotus, +which proves to what extremes the ancient rebus-writers went +in their naïve invention and multiplication of secret signs and modes +of expressing the names and attributes of their <q>hidden god.</q> +The hatred and disgust conceived by the great reformer Amenophis +IV, against all that pertained to the cult of Amen-Ra, his +destruction of all images devised by the priesthood and adoption of +a pure image of the supreme divinity of a plain disk or circle, +with rays terminating in hands, are readily understood in connection +with the above. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to our list of akh words: the akh or centre is figured +by a man between two signs for heaven=pet, supporting the +upper heaven with both hands; the idea ka=double or dual, +being simultaneously expressed (9). +</p> + +<p> +The hawk=bak (10) constitutes so perfect a rebus or anagram +of middle=ak and kabal, as well as for khab=star, that the reason +why the hawk was chosen as an image or form of Amen-Ra is +as reasonably accounted for as the choice of the bull. Before +supporting this assertion by a series of convincing proofs, the +following list must be studied: +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>An=he who turns himself around (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> who +performs a circuit=the circuiteer) and ankh=life.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +In the <q>First steps in Egyptian</q> I find the word <q>an</q> expressed +by (fig. <ref target='Figure_68'>68</ref>, 1) a man in the act of turning around, +resembling the position +<pb n='413'/><anchor id='Pg413'/> +of the male deity in the boat, already discussed and represented +in the astronomical texts (fig. <ref target='Figure_68'>68</ref>, 2) by an +eye, the form of which differs from that of the eye=ari; +(3) by a fish, also different in form from the +fish=kha, and particularly interesting if compared +to the fish khepanen, figured in the kheper series, +which constitutes a rebus combining the titles khepera=creator +and an=the circuiteer; (4) by a +stone=aner, also by hair=anem; (5) by two +arms spread outwards, recalling the position of the +front legs of quadrupeds; (6) by a spear whose +shaft is inserted in a double stand; which sign recurs +in the name of the city Annu, expressed by the +an=spear, the vase=nu and the nut determinative +for city or capital (7). It is extremely interesting +to compare, at this point, the Greek polus=a pole +or axis, and polis=city or capital, and to realize +that, in Egypt and Greece alike, the names for capital +are associated with the idea of centrifugal power +and rule. +</p> + +<p> +The signification of all the above <q>an</q> signs becomes +intensified when it is realized that they conveyed +also the first two letters of the word ankh=life, +which was usually expressed by the familiar +symbol expressing the union of the dualities of +nature (8). +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_68'/> + <figure url='images/figure-68.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 68.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Amongst the many surprises received during the +course of this investigation, few have given me as +much satisfaction and light, as the observation of +the fact that the Egyptian name for flower, ankh (9), +was the same as that for <q>life.</q> The full significance +of the lotus blossom as a symbol became clear +to me, and my attention having been called by a +friend to Mr. William H. Goodyear's admirable +work <q>The Grammar of the Lotus,</q> London, 1891, +I was able to obtain from it the series of Egyptian +symbols which I now present and shall proceed to +interpret according to the method set forth in the +preceding pages. The interesting observation was +by Mr. Goodyear that <q>the ankh was the exact counterpart +<pb n='414'/><anchor id='Pg414'/> +of the lotus as regards solar association</q> and in his work, on pl. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>lxv</hi> and elsewhere, this close observer publishes several +instances illustrating this view. Of these I reproduce but two, which suffice, +feeling convinced that Mr. Goodyear will be as interested as I was +to hear that the ankh and lotus were homonyms of ankh=life. +This fact of itself fully explains why the lotus flower was employed +by the ancient Egyptians, as Mr. Goodyear states, as the <q>symbol +of life, immortality and of renaissance and resurrection and of +fecundity.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_69'/> + <figure url='images/figure-69.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 69.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In fig. <ref target='Figure_69'>69</ref>, 1, two (ka) fishes (khepanen or an) hold the +lotus, ankh, and thus constitute a sacred rebus, the profound meaning of +which can be surmised by studying the preceding pages. In 2, one +(ua) fish holds the ankh instead of the lotus. Both signs obviously +express precisely the same meaning with the difference that, in one +case duality is expressed by two fishes, and in the other by the ankh +symbol which emblematizes the union of nature's dualities. +</p> + +<p> +Fig. <ref target='Figure_69'>69</ref>, 3, shows the bull, carrying the circle of Ra +between its +<pb n='415'/><anchor id='Pg415'/> +horns and wearing the ankh symbol hanging from its neck. The +lotus replaces this in 4, where the circle is missing and one bull +(ua en ka) expresses the mystic sacred words ua=One and ka=double +or <q>the divine Twain.</q> It is evident that it is only when +it is assumed that pole-star worship constituted the basis of the +natural religion of the ancient Egyptians that their sacred symbols +become intelligible. +</p> + +<p> +Though a novice in Egyptology and with extremely limited works +of reference at hand, which facts will, I trust, excuse faults and +omissions, I perceive so much that is clear and simple in the following +series of Egyptian sacred symbols, culled from Mr. Goodyear's +work, that I am tempted to submit my interpretation of their +meaning, thereby putting my view and method to a crucial test. +</p> + +<p> +In pl. <ref target='Plate_VII'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi></ref>, +2, we have an interesting group uniting the boat, the +meaning of which has been discussed, a seated figure on a square +pedestal, a column, the upper portion of which is separate and +simulates the bowl or cup=au, the dot and circle, the sign of +Amen-Ra, and a single flower. As a rebus, some of the words expressed +are am, uaa or makhen=boat, tet=column, Ra=dot +and circle, also seated figure, determinative of god=Ra, and ua en +ankh=one flower. While the rebus supplies the words ua=one, +uahi=permanent, ra=god, an=the circuiteer, ankh=life, +tet=eternal, it is only when identified as pole-star symbolism that +the group becomes comprehensible. +</p> + +<p> +Pointing out that, in the above, we have a clear case of the flower +in association with the Ra sign and other symbols which have been +discussed as pole-star signs, let us next examine 1, 3, 4, 6 and 8, +in each of which one blossom=ua en ankh, constitutes the emblem +for the sacred Middle, and openly conveys the idea of the +verb an, to perform a circuit and ankh=life. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that, in 6, the flower consists of five petals, on four +of which the genii of the four quarters stand, sufficiently proves +that the flower, like the five-dot group, constituted a symbol of +the four quarters and centre, the latter being figured as a pyramid-shaped +petal. Interesting variants of this group are 5, with +the four genii standing on seven of the nine petals of the flower, +which is placed between two buds, the idea of centrality being thus +conveyed; and 7 where an inverted triangle replaces the flower +and reveals some of the deeper meaning attached to this symbol. +In 1 and 3 the flower is surmounted by the hawk crowned with +<pb n='417'/><anchor id='Pg417'/> +the Ra sign which, as has already been stated, symbolizes circuition +around a central point of fixity. The names for hawk=hak +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ak and cabal=middle, +also hak=king) and her or hur (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +hru=upper, the above, and ur=four=Horus) reveal its appropriate +use as rebus and symbol of the central <q>sun</q> god. In +8, instead of the Ra sign, the hawk wears the peculiar double +diadem with a circle at its base, which is the particular attribute of +the images of the ram-headed god Amon who is represented in no. +12, holding the ankh sign and accompanied by the kheper sign, +composed of a circle, surmounted by a cone and supported by a +pedestal. It is well known that the ram=ser, sart or sar, was the +form under which the supreme divinity was worshipped at Thebes, the real +metropolis of the whole land of Egypt, during many centuries.<note place='foot'><p>It +is remarkable that the sound of the Latin word for ram=aries, so closely resembles +the Egyptian symbols for Amen-Ra (see fig. <ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, 1-4) +and that the am and ar syllables occur in the following names for ram or sheep, applied +to the zodiacal constellation: +</p> +<p> +Al Hamal=the sheep (Arabic).<lb/> +Bara=the ram (Persian).<lb/> +Amru=the ram (Syrian).<lb/> +Varak=the ram (Parsi). +</p></note> +The name Amon, also given as Ammon, Amoun, Hammon, +resembles Amen closely enough to justify the identification of +Amon as a form of Amen-Ra, the concealed god. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Plate_VII'/> + <figure url='images/plate-vii.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Plate VII.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In this connection it is noteworthy that the ram=sar or sart +conveys the same sound as the goose=sar or sa, the employment +of which, as a pole-star symbol, will be discussed further on, +and that the king of Egypt was termed <q>the living ram (of Amon) +on earth</q> and <q>the engendering ram.</q> From Mr. J. P. Mahaffy +we learn that, under the Ptolemaic rule, <q>it seems likely that among +the strict prescriptions for all the solemn acts of the king, it was +directed that he should assume the insignia of the god Amon, his +ram's horns, fleece, etc, when visiting the queen</q> (History of Egypt, +London, 1899). +</p> + +<p> +Under the Ptolemaic dynasty, the identification of Amon with +Amen-Ra receives support from the magnificent monumental votive +ram, preserved at the Berlin Museum, which was dedicated by king +Amenophis III, which bears on his head, the disk with the uræus +serpent, the familiar sign of the <q>hidden god.</q><note place='foot'>The +inscription on this monument, which also exhibits the portrait statue of +Amenophis III, is of particular interest as it states that the temple of Saleb, built by +the king, was <q>very wide and large ... its towers reached to the sky, and <emph>the +flagstaffs united themselves with the stars of heaven</emph></q> (see official +catalogue of the Berlin +Museum, p. 122). This appears to indicate that the flagstaffs were employed for purposes +of astronomical observations.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='418'/><anchor id='Pg418'/> + +<p> +While the diadem of Amen-Ra sufficiently identifies the hawk +on the lotus as a form of the <q>hidden god,</q> the following extracts +from Mr. Goodyear's work will be found to confirm this and throw +further light on the subject. <q>The hawk represented Ra, Horus +and all solar gods....</q> A text at Denderah says: <q>The sun +which was from the beginning rises (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> comes forth, appears, +see Brugsch for meaning of Egyptian equivalent) like a hawk from +the midst of its lotus bud....</q> At Denderah the king makes offering +of the lotus to the sun-god Horus with the words: <q>I offer thee +the flower which was in the beginning the glorious lily of the great +water....</q> In the boat of the dead the soul says, <q>I am a pure +lotus (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> life) issue of the field of the sun.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The circumstance that, in 4, the flower is surmounted by a goose, +one name for which being aq=ak, shows that, like the hawk, +bak, it may well have served as a rebus for ak=the middle. An +instance of the direct association of the sacred goose with the +four quarters is given in the bas-relief at Medinet-Abu, described +by Brugsch (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 297). This represents <q>Ramses III ... +offering sacrifice to the god <q>Khimti,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> Pan of Panopolis, the +Theban form of which was Amon Generator.... A white bull +(the symbol of Pan) and four geese, which are represented as +flying towards the cardinal points, constitute the sacrifice.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The striking association of the goose with the bull=Apis, the +astronomical symbolism of which has been shown, gains in significance +when it is realized that another name for goose is apt and +that this also constitutes an anagram of pta=ptah, one form of +Amen-Ra. It is a curious fact that the third name for goose, se +or sa, combined with ankh=flower, as in pl. +<ref target='Plate_VII'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi></ref>, 4, furnishes the +word ankh-sa, which recalls the word An-sah obtained by the +mummy and serpent rebus and the name of the god of Assyria, +Anshar. +</p> + +<p> +In connection with the above Egyptian rebus, expressing the +syllables ankh and sa, it surprised me, to find that the Sanscrit +name for goose is hangsa, while in ancient Hindu it is hamsa and +in modern Hindu hanassa. It is well known that in Hindu mythology +the goose was <q>the bird of Brahma,</q> the <q>supreme one who +alone exists really and absolutely,</q> that the birth of Brahma from +the lotus is frequently represented in Hindu religious art, and that +the lotus is the attribute of the <q>sun-god</q> Surya, termed the <q>lord +of the lotus, father, friend and king.</q> What is more, the goose, +<pb n='419'/><anchor id='Pg419'/> +associated with <q>solar</q> symbolism, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> with the circle and +central dot, with the swastika, four-petalled flower and the wheel, occurs +on the oldest monuments of Greek art; on the prehistoric +bronzes and pottery of Italy (where the sacred geese were kept on +the Capitoline at Rome); on the bronzes of Hallstatt, of ancient +Gaul and of prehistoric Sweden. Pointing out that we thus obtain +a whole chain of associations which link the syllables am and an +to deities and pole-star symbolism, I next present, for reference, +the names for the bird given in Webster's dictionary. +</p> + +<p> +Sanscrit, hangsa; Latin, anser, for hanser; German, gans (in +Germany, according to Pliny, the small, white geese were called +ganzoe al. gantoe lib. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, 22); Greek, khen; Danish, gaas; +Swedish, gos; Welsh, gwydd; Anglo-Saxon, gos; Irish, geadh; +Icelandic, gas; Slavonic, gusj and gonsj. Noting that in the Sanscrit, +Latin, Greek and German alike, the syllable an or en is present +in the name for goose, I return to the Egyptian symbols which +express the words an and ankh, and, bearing the <q>birth of Brahma +from a lotus</q> in mind, refer again to the Egyptian title Neb-ankh, +<q>lord of life,</q> which, as I point out, also signified <q>the +lord of the lotus flower.</q> Let us now briefly examine some Egyptian +texts relating to pl. <ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, +12 and 15, which represent the boat +(am and its synonyms) and the flower=ankh, associated with the +boy and the serpent. +</p> + +<p> +In an astronomical text from Edfu, published by Brugsch, +New Year's day is mentioned in connection with the <q>coming forth +of the great lotus blossom in the form of a bud in its symbolical +interpretation as the god ahi (literally, boy).... The count of +his rulership begins from the first day of his rising or birth....</q> +In another text it is said: <q>New Year's day, the sun (Ra) comes +forth from a lotus flower in the great sea,</q> and there are numerous +allusions in other inscriptions to <q>the lotus blossom in the great +waters, from which the sun-child arises in radiance towards +heaven.</q> The text accompanying (pl. +<ref target='Plate_V'><hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi></ref>, 15), where a serpent +rises from the lotus in the boat, states <q>the sun, uniter of the +world, in Tentyra</q>=the New Year. +</p> + +<p> +In another inscription it is said: <q>thou risest like the sacred +serpent, as a living spirit, in thy glorious form in the bark of the +sunrise;</q> and this passage forms an interesting parallel to that +already cited where the sun is said to rise <q>like a hawk from the +midst of its lotus bud.</q> Pl. +<ref target='Plate_VII'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi></ref>, +14, exhibits a nine-petalled lotus +<pb n='420'/><anchor id='Pg420'/> +growing from a pedestal and a head issuing from it. As the name +for head tep (also tap or tpa, and apt <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> pta), signifies chief, +or beginning, we must accept this as another variant of the previous +signs. +</p> + +<p> +Deferring the discussion of the so-called <q>birth</q> and cult of +the diurnal sun, as one form of Amen-Ra, let us now rapidly survey +the following figures copied from Mr. Goodyear's work. +</p> + +<p> +Pl. <ref target='Plate_VII'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi></ref>, +9. A circle encloses a group consisting of the five-petalled +lotus between two buds and the hawk-headed sphinx, which has +already been met with in the astronomical texts and, according to +Egyptologists, represents Horus, the sun, <q>who lights the world +with two eyes</q> and is addressed as <q>a powerful lion,</q> <q>the master +of double force.</q><note place='foot'>The ideas associated +with the form of a lion couchant are best learned from the +following passages from the Bible: <q>He couched, he lay down as a lion and as a +great lion; who shall stir him up?</q> (Numbers +<hi rend='smallcaps'>xxiv</hi>, 9, see also Genesis +<hi rend='smallcaps'>xlix</hi>, 9). It is +only by the light afforded by such insights into eastern contemporaneous thought that +the meaning of the Egyptian sphinx can be in some measure understood.</note> +I need scarcely recall here that the combination +of a bird and quadruped would naturally symbolize air and +earth, the Above and Below and that the hawk-headed sphinx, +seated on four petals, clearly expresses the idea of the <q>lord of +Heaven and Earth, the father and mother of all, the ruler of the +Four Quarters and lord of the circle.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Pl. <ref target='Plate_VII'><hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi></ref>, +10. The plain circle or disk, supported by two uplifted +arms=ka, arising from (akh) the ankh sign, is another ingenious +mode of expressing the idea of the Middle, the circle, duality and +life. +</p> + +<p> +No. 13 constitutes as charming and ingenious a play upon the +word ankh=life as can be imagined, and a close examination reveals +its subtle, hidden and deep significance. It exhibits, in +the first case, the ankh sign combined with the flower=ankh, +which might, at a first glance, be taken as an example of purely +decorative art. But the ever-present thought of the duality of +nature manifests itself in the arrangement of the two flowers +towards each other and enclosed in the open ring of the ankh sign, +and it is evident that the artist took pains to draw the central +petal of the lower blossom in the form of a triangle, below which +an oblong square and a square may be distinguished. +</p> + +<p> +After the foregoing attempt to show how, even with my rudimentary +and limited knowledge of their language, the sacred +symbols of the Egyptians become intelligible and full of significance +<pb n='421'/><anchor id='Pg421'/> +when studied as examples of pole-star symbolism and primitive +rebus writing, I draw attention to the limited number of +syllables employed in the astronomical texts; to the ingenuity displayed +in expressing the same sound over and over again by means +of different words possessing the same sound and to the fact I shall +hereafter set forth, that the syllables and rebus-figures employed +are found indissolubly linked to pole-star and sacred symbolism. +Referring a demonstration of these conclusions to the end of the +present investigation, I shall next discuss the forms which the cult +of the dualities of nature seemingly assumed in ancient Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +As an introduction I present in fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, the copy of the +upper portion of a funeral stela preserved at Bûlâk and published by +Perrot and Chipiez (Ægypten, Leipzig, 1884). It exhibits the +head or face of Hathor surmounting the tet column and supporting, +in turn, the image of a small house or temple, at each side of which +is a peculiar projection recalling the circinate line issuing from the +red crown of lower Egypt (see fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 9, 10). In another +Hathor stela, figured in the same work (pp. 510 and 780), the same characteristic +circinate projections recur. The image of the house, always +represented with a single doorway, is obviously a rebus of the +name Hathor, explained by Egyptologists as Het-heru, literally +<q>the house of Horus.</q> <q>Athor or Hathor of Thebes, identified with +Nut, the sky ... was the female power of nature and is often +represented under the form of a cow, ... as a woman with a +cow's head, with horns and the disk, or wearing a head-dress in the +shape of a vulture and above it the disk and horns.</q> In the familiar +representation of the mask of Hathor on columns, the association +with the cow is conveyed by large cow's ears=setem, +projecting at each side of the face=hra. +</p> + +<p> +A feature generally present in the miniature doorway of the +house, is a single erect head of a uræus, bearing the disk or circle +on its head and usually exhibiting a distinctly cross-shaped mark on its neck. +The latter peculiarity is clearly shown in fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 1, +which exhibits moreover a seated divinity at each side of the doorway, +each bearing the throne or seat (auset) on its head, and the ankh +sign on its knee. Close examination reveals that one of these deities +is Ausar=Osiris, whose name is generally written by means of +the throne=auset, and the eye=ari, with or without the determinative +for god, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the seated figure +(fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 1 <hi rend='italic'>a</hi> and 1 +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>). Opposite +to Osiris is Auset=Isis, whose name is usually written as in +<pb n='422'/><anchor id='Pg422'/> +fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, +1 <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>, where the auset, the egg=se, and the seated image of +a goddess bearing a bowl=neb, on her head, may be distinguished. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_70'/> + <figure url='images/figure-70.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 70.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +An idea of the import of fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 1, seems gained when it +is remembered that in Egyptian the word house=pi, pir or per, was +<pb n='423'/><anchor id='Pg423'/> +associated with the title of ruler, the name Pharaoh being derived +from per=āa=great house. What is more, the word house=pir +or pi, is used in astronomical texts, like the Arabian beth, in relation +to stars, it being said of a star that <q>it ever comes forth +from its house</q>=appears (Brugsch). +</p> + +<p> +The permanent image of the disk and serpent, a form of the +Ra sign, in the doorway of the sculptured house, would thus convey +the idea of the eternal presence of Amen-Ra, the pole-star +god. The accentuation of the cross lines on the neck of the ara +indicates, moreover, the intentional allusion to four-fold and two-fold +force, the latter being expressed by the eyes of the serpent. +The door=ptah, which is open, expresses the name Ptah=the +Opener, well known as that of the <q>father of the gods</q> and a +form of Amen-Ra. +</p> + +<p> +The positions assigned to Osiris and Isis, at either side of the +<q>hidden god,</q> sufficiently shows that they were intended to represent +separate incorporations of the male and female principles +which were united in Amen-Ra, the <q>divine Twain.</q> The association +of both deities with the throne, the eternal seat of repose, identifies +both alike with Polaris. A monument in the Berlin Museum +(no. 261) which was found in the temple of Isis at Ben-naga, in +Nubia, and was a votive offering made by the Ethiopian king Netek-Amen +and his consort Amen-Tari, contains the following +formula, translated by Lepsius, which associates Isis with eternal +enthronement. <q>Thou remainest, thou remainest, on thy great +throne, O Isis, queen of Au-ker, like the sun (Ra) that lives in +the horizon ... and thou lettest thy son Netek-Amen flourish on +his throne....</q> +</p> + +<p> +The fact I am about to demonstrate, that the king and queen of +Egypt were the respective, <q>the living images</q> of Osiris and Isis, +proves that, as in ancient Peru and China, the sovereigns, who were +at the same time high priest and priestess, were considered as +the sacred embodiments of the dual principles of nature. As elsewhere +also, a chain of associations became attached to each of the +dualities; but in Egypt, as may be clearly discerned, during the +lapse of centuries great transformations of thought took place and +alternately the male and female elements seem to have been associated +with the cults of heaven and earth, light and darkness, sun +or moon, morning or evening stars, the southeast and the northwest. +</p> + +<pb n='424'/><anchor id='Pg424'/> + +<p> +In the sacred writings the sun is usually termed <q>the right eye</q> +and the moon <q>the left eye</q> of Ra (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> hra=the (divine) face). +Brugsch points out that, in certain inscriptions at Denderah translated +by Mariette, <q>the Sothis star of Hathor-Isis is designated as +<q>the right eye of Ra</q> while the sun is termed the left eye.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Brugsch states, moreover, that, according to Sextus Empiricus, +<q>the Egyptians compared the king to the <q>right eye</q> or the sun; +while the queen was compared to the <q>left eye</q> or the moon.</q> +The two eyes, often with the designation of <q>right</q> or <q>left,</q> +constitute a favorite decoration on funeral stelæ. In some instances +the image of the solar disk, with one wing and one serpent +only, is figured as a substitute for the right eye +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, 436, +see fig. <ref target='Figure_62'>62</ref>, 6). The +established fact that the eyes of Ra were the +equivalents of the uræi usually accompanying the circle of Ra, +the so-called <q>solar disk,</q> is further explained by the following +data. +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that the two uræi on the royal diadem denote +sovereignty over Upper and Lower Egypt. In the bas-relief published +by Brugsch, the circle or Ra-sign is represented with two +uræi, which respectively wear the crowns of Upper and Lower +Egypt (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 7). The crowned uræi recur in the emblems of +Upper and Lower Egypt published by Mr. Goodyear, the first accompanied +by the lotus flower and the second by what Egyptologists +usually identify as the papyrus, but which appears to be the +ripened pod of the lotus (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 9 and 10). While the +two uræi thus emblematized the two divisions of the land of Egypt they are +found as distinctly associated with Osiris and Isis, and their living +images the king and queen, or the high priest and high priestess +of Amen-Ra. The Berlin Museum contains several representations +of Isis under the form of a serpent with a woman's head +(see official catalogue, nos. 7740, 870 and 2529). Osiris is also +represented as a serpent with the head of a bearded man. +</p> + +<p> +A small shrine in the form of a temple, and decorated with royal +serpents, is preserved at the Berlin Museum (catalogue no. 8164) +and contains the effigies of two uræi, one of which, to the left +of the spectator, exhibits the head of Isis, the second, to the right, +the features of Osiris. Between them stands the vase or bowl +which was a constant feature of Isis cult. +</p> + +<p> +In connection with this monument it is interesting to examine +an inscription published by Brugsch (<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 108) in which occur two +<pb n='425'/><anchor id='Pg425'/> +serpents who are pouring liquid into a bowl placed between them and +the divided halves of the sky-sign (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 8). The text +connects this with the New Year festival when the Nile began to +rise <q>from its two sources</q> and the <q>union of heaven and earth</q> +took place, which will be discussed later. The following temporary +list briefly presents a summary of the preceding data which is +rendered more complete by the addition of the signs and emblems of +the festivals, when the <q>conjunction of sun and moon took place,</q> +figured by the picture of two persons united by their respective +right and left hands (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 5) or by the tet column +placed between two horns (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 4). As +may be seen by numerous examples in Brugsch (vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>), +the great Sed festival is figured by the image +of the small sanctuary which existed on the flat roof of the great +temple at Denderah, and resembled an open pavilion with four +columns which is usually represented as containing two seats +placed back to back (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 2, 3). A small picture in +Mr. Wallis Budge's Nile exhibits the king and queen occupying such a double +throne, respectively, wearing the insignia and crowns of Osiris and +Isis and holding their sceptres, as in the representations of the +ceremony of laying the foundation of a temple, in their right and +left hands (fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 6). The résumé of the preceding +material produces the following list: +</p> + +<p> +Right eye of Ra: Left eye of Ra.<lb/> +Sun: Moon.<lb/> +King: Queen.<lb/> +Osiris: Isis.<lb/> +High priest: High priestess.<lb/> +Right hand sceptre: Left hand sceptre.<lb/> +North: South.<lb/> +Red crown: White crown. +</p> + +<p> +The following data, gleaned from the valuable works of Prof. +A. H. Sayce and the serial History of Egypt, written by Prof. +Flinders Petrie, J. P. Mahaffy and J. G. Milne, furnish strong +indications that, in the remotest past, the two divisions of the land +of Egypt were respectively governed by a male and female sovereign; +a proof that, before the time of Menes, the ancient empire +had become disintegrated, and undergone a long period of intense +strife and warfare. We learn from Professor Sayce of the probability +that <q>the city of Nek-hen was once the capital of the south +and that the vulture, the symbol of the south, was also the emblem +<pb n='426'/><anchor id='Pg426'/> +of Nekheb, the goddess of the great fortress, the ruins of which +lie opposite to Nekhen on the eastern bank of the Nile</q> (Sayce, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 152, 191). +</p> + +<p> +While the capital and the emblem of southern or Upper Egypt are +thus directly associated with a <q>goddess,</q> further data show us +that the ancient queens of Egypt were termed <q>god-women or goddesses.</q> +When the New Empire was founded (1600-1100 B.C.) +with its capital at Thebes, King Ahmes assumed the sovereignty of +the whole of Egypt, but seems to have shared supreme authority +with his consort Ah-mes-nefretere=divine- or god-woman, also +termed <q>the high priestess of Amen.</q> From the honors accorded +to her and to her son Amen-hetep or Amenophis I, it must indeed +be inferred that she possessed some inherited sovereign right to +one of the ancient divisions of the empire. +</p> + +<p> +During the period of the 26th dynasty, of Saïs, we find Upper +Egypt governed by a <q>god-woman,</q> Shep-en-upet, who remained +in power, even after the land had been conquered by Psammetichus +I. The latter obtained, however, that his daughter Nitocris +was adopted as the successor to the <q>divine-woman</q> ruler of +Thebes, and she in turn adopted the daughter of Psammetichus II +(B.C. 594-589), whose name was Anches-nefer-eb-re. A tablet +from the temple of Karnak, preserved at the Berlin Museum (catalogue +no. 2112) represents this female sovereign of Thebes accompanied +by her prime minister, and standing in the presence of +the gods Amen and Chon. +</p> + +<p> +Another remarkable monument at the Berlin Museum (no. 7972) +figures the <q>god-woman</q> Shep-en-upet, under the form of a +sphinx holding a vase, and records that she had inherited the sovereignty +of Thebes from her aunt, the consort of an Ethiopian king. +An extremely interesting proof that the beard, <hi rend='italic'>per se</hi>, constituted +an emblem of sovereignty, is furnished by a beautiful portrait statue +of the <q>divine woman,</q> Hat-shepset (Berlin Museum, no. 2299). +She is figured as a sphinx and wears a beard suspended from her +head-dress.<note place='foot'>I address the +query to Egyptologists: whether there are any indications of a common +identity of sound in the Egyptian word for beard and same name, denoting rule +or power, similar to that existing in the Maya language between <q>ah-meex</q>=bearded +man and <q>ah-mek-tan</q> governor, ruler (see p. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>).</note> +The serpent decorates her diadem. On other monuments +this remarkable queen, who built the temple of Der-el-Bahari, +is figured with the crown of Upper Egypt (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> no. 2279, Berlin +Museum). By good fortune the personal gold ornaments of a +<pb n='427'/><anchor id='Pg427'/> +<q>divine woman,</q> an Ethiopian princess, were discovered by Ferlini +in the pyramid of Begerauie, enclosed in a plain bronze vase. +These precious objects are now exhibited in the Berlin Museum, +where I have examined them and noted with interest that the central +ornament of two finely worked, broad gold bracelets, is a female +figure with the royal diadem and four outstretched arms, to +which wings are attached. This furnishes us with an instance of +a queen being represented with four wings, in exactly the same +manner as the Assyrian king Sargon, on the seal from the time of +Sennacherib (fig. <ref target='Figure_65'>65</ref>, 6), namely, as a <q>ruler of the +four quarters,</q> which indicates that she held the position of a <q>central ruler.</q> +As might be expected in the case of a queen who personified Isis, +frequently represented under the form of a <q>woman-serpent,</q> the +uræus is a favorite motif on other gold ornaments belonging to +the Ethiopian queen. +</p> + +<p> +Certain passages in Prof. Flinders Petrie's History of Egypt +afford a curious insight into the prerogatives of Egyptian queens +as far back as about B.C. 2684. The consort of Usertesen II, the +fourth king of the twelfth dynasty was named Nefert,of whom a grey +granite statue is preserved at the Ghizeh Museum and represents +her as seated on a throne. On this are the titles <q>The hereditary +princess, the great favorite, the greatly praised, the beloved consort +of the king, <emph>the ruler of all women</emph>, the king's daughter of +his body, Nefert.</q> Prof. Flinders Petrie adds: <q>The title ruler +or princess of all women is peculiar, and suggests that the queen +had some prerogatives of government as regards the female half +of the population.</q> The title in question reappears four centuries +later in connection with Nubkhas, the queen of Sebek=Emsaup, +of the 13th dynasty and her stele in the Louvre entitles her the +<q>great heiress, the greatly favored, <emph>the ruler of all women</emph>, the +great royal wife, united to the crown Nub-kha-s</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, vol. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, pp. 175 and 225). +</p> + +<p> +Between B.C. 1423-1414 queen Mutemua-arat appears as <q>the +goddess queen</q> and <q>great royal wife</q> +(Flinders Petrie <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +p. 174). The consort of Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379) the +celebrated Tyi, the daughter of Yuaa and Thuaa, is entitled +<q>princess of both lands,</q> and <q>chief heiress, princess of all +lands.</q> Her successor Nefertiti is called <q>princess of south and +north, lady of both lands,</q> which titles, as Prof. Flinders Petrie +comments, <q>like the titles of Tyi, imply a hereditary right to +<pb n='428'/><anchor id='Pg428'/> +rule Egypt.</q> They undoubtedly place her on a footing of equality +with the king, which is, however, comprehensible when it is explained +that she was the ruler of all women, while he was the ruler +of all men. The position of the Egyptian queen would thus prove +to have been analogous to that of the ancient Mexican Quilaztli +(see pp. <ref target='Pg061'>61-67</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +The analogy is all the more striking when it is realized that the +titles of the Mexican chieftainess were: <q>the Woman warrior, +the Woman of the Underworld or Below, the Woman serpent or +female twin and the Eagle woman,</q> while the emblem of the Egyptian +goddess-queen of the south was the vulture and she was the +personification of Isis, represented under the form of a serpent, +the twin of the male serpent, Osiris. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_71'/> + <figure url='images/figure-71.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 71.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Much food for thought is furnished by a Syrian relief sculpture +from Amrit (published by Spamer, see fig. <ref target='Figure_71'>71</ref>, 2), which +exhibits a vulture or eagle with outstretched wings, in juxtaposition to a +winged disk which appears to combine features of the Assyrian +winged disk (the bird's tail and two appendages, see fig. +<ref target='Figure_71'>71</ref>,1) +with the two uræi of the Egyptian form (fig. <ref target='Figure_71'>71</ref>, 3). It is +striking how clear the symbolism of the latter becomes when interpreted +(1) as the symbol of the hidden god and his male and female form, +Osiris and Isis, accompanied by the wings symbolizing air and the +<pb n='429'/><anchor id='Pg429'/> +idea that the deity was invisible and immaterial; (2) as the symbol +of Egypt itself—an entity, a complete circle, divided into two +parts, under two rulers. The pair of antelope horns above emphasize +the fact that the twain were as a single pair. The combined +crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, the latter exhibiting a serpent's +head and the first, what appears to be its tail, constitute the symbol +of joint rulership which, in this case, is accompanied by the feather, +the rebus expressing the words <q>truth and justice.</q> +</p> + +<p> +While the Syrian bas-relief conveys the idea of two separate +kingdoms, one conveying the idea of single rulership, by the +form of an eagle; the other of dual rulership, by the two uræi, +each of which is crowned by a small disk; the Egyptian symbol +distinctly conveys the idea of a close union of two distinct parts. +The historical fact that Menes succeeded in uniting both lands +under a single crown, indicates clearly enough that the ancient +empire had become disintegrated and that by marrying the female +ruler of the south he had reinstated the dual government on its +original primitive basis. That, during the period of separation +and independence, a powerful gynocracy had been formed seems +more than probable. Just as evidences are met with in ancient +Mexico of the existence of female communities, so the Old World +furnishes accounts, deemed fabulous, of powerful gynocracies. +Thus we have heard of the Amazons, the fabulous race of women +warriors who are supposed to have founded a powerful empire on +the coast of the Euxine. +</p> + +<p> +A searching analysis of the texts translated by Brugsch, relating +to the ceremonies performed at the New Year and famous Sed +festivals, as well as historical facts gleaned from the works of +living authorities, throw a light upon the position and sacred duties +of the Egyptian queens during many centuries. The critical examination +of a number of inscriptions, translated by Brugsch, is +found to show that the queen was the high priestess and living +image of Hathor-Isis and the personification of the female principle +of nature, associated in Egypt with the nocturnal Heaven and +the Above, and their symbols, the bird or vulture, the cow, the +female serpent, the moon, the stars, and in particular Sirius-Sothis. +In remotest historical times the goddess-queen seems to have resided +in her own capital, a fortress. The universal necessity to +insure the safety of women and children in times of warfare may +well have originally led to the assignment of a separate, permanent +<pb n='430'/><anchor id='Pg430'/> +place of residence, to the female portion of the population. The +New Year festival, which coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius +(20th July, Jul. Cal.) and the overflow of the Nile, which +suspended outdoor activity, was generally celebrated throughout +the land as the <q>union of heaven and earth,</q> or the conjunction +of <q>the sun and the moon, or Sirius.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It was customary that, at this period, the queen, personifying the +Sothis star, should come forth from her retirement and, surrounded +by pomp and majesty, meet the king in solemn state, publicly +occupy her place on the double throne, and share in the performance +of sacred religious rites. It is easy to see that the idea underlying +the entire ceremonial was the harmonizing of the actions +of the sacred personifications of the dual principles of nature with +the natural phenomena, from which arose a strange confusion of +ideas concerning the relationship between these consecrated individuals +and the powers of nature, which culminated in the artificial +belief that they were divinely appointed mediators between +humanity and the supreme power. +</p> + +<p> +There are clear indications that the consecrated nuptials of king +and queen marked the Sed festival which was celebrated, at the beginning +of every fourth year, at Denderah. Brugsch tells us that +the place on the roof of the Hathor temple, where the celebration +of the Sed festival took place, is specially designated as <q>the place +of the first feast</q> and in many cases this is shown to have been +the small open temple, whose roof is supported by four columns +(fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 2 and 3). In one passage it is expressly stated +that <q>she, Isis-Sothis, consorts with her father, the sun, at <q>the place +of the first feast,</q></q> represented by a picture of the said temple +(fig. <ref target='Figure_70'>70</ref>, 6). +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to compare the following passage with the successive +one, as they exhibit different phases of religious cult. <q>In +solemn procession statues of the god Ra and of Hathor-Isis +(Sothis-Sirius) were carried up the stairs from the interior of the +temple to its roof (the tep-hat or head of the house) where, under +the open sky or in the small open temple on the roof designated +as Hait at Denderah, the idols were unveiled at a given time....</q> +<q>On the morn of the New Year Isis-Sothis <q>beheld her father +on the beautiful day of the birth of the disk</q> (mas-aten) or +<q>the birth of the sun</q> (mas-ra).</q> It is described how <q>the goddess +was led upon the roof so that she might behold the rays of her +<pb n='431'/><anchor id='Pg431'/> +father on his rising.... She is sometimes addressed directly, +being told <q>that thou shouldst see thy father on the day of the +New Year.</q></q> In other texts allusion is made to the approach of +Sirius to the sun on New Year's day: <q>her rays join (heter) with +those of the radiant god on that beautiful day of the birth of the +sun's disk in the morning of New Year's day:</q> or <q>thou consortest +with thy father Ra in thy open temple, thy beautiful face being +turned towards the south;</q> and elsewhere, <q>she comes on her +beautiful festival of the New Year, to unite her greatness in heaven +with that of her father; the gods are festive and the goddesses are +full of joy when the right eye (Sirius) unites itself with the left +eye (the sun). She rests upon her throne in the place where the +disk of the sun can be seen and the radiant one (Isis-Sothis) combines +herself with the radiant one (the sun).</q> +</p> + +<p> +On one of the columns of the roof-temple at Denderah, the following +text is inscribed: <q>This temple of Rekhit flourishes in +possession of a lion (mahes) and of his daughter ... of the +Horus of the east and of the goddess Khont-abut. They assume her +heavenly form on New Year's day and each one consorts with his +neighbor.</q> Preceding inscriptions are made more clear by the following +detached passages translated by Brugsch, which merit careful +study. <q>An inscription at Abydos makes the goddess Safkhet +say to the king: <q>thou didst appear as king upon thy throne on +the feast hib-seb; like the god Ra at the beginning of the year.</q></q> +<q>The high-priest of Ptah at Memphis was charged with the celebration +of the Sed festival, which was a general festival throughout +the land.</q> <q>The annual going of the Hathor of Denderah to +Edfu took place in the month Epiphi.</q> <q>The goddess Hathor-Isis +of Denderah is frequently called the second female sun next to +the sun's disk, the many colored, feathered goddess, and is identified +with Isis-Sothis.</q> +</p> + +<p> +According to an extremely ancient belief it was the goddess +Hathor Isis-Sothis who caused the inundation of the Nile which, +according to the inscriptions, coincided with the heliacal rising of +Sirius. Owing to this circumstance she is called, <q>Isis the great, +the mother of god, who causes the Nile to overflow when she shines +at the commencement of the year,</q> or <q>the female sun who appears +at the beginning of the year in the heaven as the divine +Sothis star, the queen of the decan stars, whose rays illuminate the +earth like those of the sun which appears in the morning. She is +<pb n='432'/><anchor id='Pg432'/> +the mistress of the commencement of the year, who draws the +Nile out of its source and thus confers life upon living human beings.</q> +Elsewhere she is termed <q>the mistress of the commencement +of the year, who makes the Nile rise at its period.</q> It is +likewise said of her <q>on her beautiful feast of beholding her father, +the heaven unites itself with the earth and the right eye unites itself +with the left eye, at the beginning of the year.</q> She is described +as Isis the great, the mother of god, the lady of Adut +in Anet, the mistress of the beginning of the year, the monarch +of the Sema? who appears on New Year's day to usher in the new +year. (She is) the goddess Ament (the hidden one) in Thebes, +Menat (the nurse) in Heliopolis, Renpit (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the year) in +Memphis, the divine star Sothis in Elephantine, the radiant one in Apollinopolis +magna, etc. +</p> + +<p> +In another passage Hathor-Isis is spoken of as <q>the goddess +Mehen-net of the light-god and his Ar-hatef=(she who acts as +pilot) in the boat sektet, which eternally passes through the heaven +over the head of her father.</q> On the north wall of the Prondos of +the Denderah temple Isis-Hathor is called <q>Hathor, the lady of +Anet; Isis herself; the eye of Ra; the great one of Tentyra; the +lady of heaven; the queen of gods and goddesses; the great Mat +... the female sun; the first in Tentyra; the true one amongst +gods; the young; the daughter of a young ... [?] the beauty who +appears in heaven; the truth which regulates the world at the prow +of the bark of the sun; the queen and mistress of awe; the mistress +of goddesses, Isis, the great, the mother of the god.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The following texts from Brugsch are explicit enough: <q>The +temple of Tentyra is fitted up for a bride, and is occupied by a +bride.</q> <q>The temple of Tentyra is in bridal array and contains +a bride on the beautiful festival of the birth of the sun.</q> <q>The +temple of Tentyra is fitted up for a bridal and is in possession of +a bride on her beautiful festival of the birth of the sun (mas-ra).</q> +</p> + +<p> +The birth of a male or female Horus, of a young sun or moon, +is alluded to in other texts as the <q>feast of the child in its cradle,</q> +and coincided with New Year's day. According to Brugsch, the +festival of the child in its ses=cradle, nest, or couch, undoubtedly +coincided with New Year's day, as is proven by the following inscription: +<q>The bringing of the band of stuff to the great Isis, +the mother of the god, for the obtainment of a happy year. Receive, +receive happy years on the day of the night of the child in +<pb n='433'/><anchor id='Pg433'/> +its cradle!</q>... It is usual to interpret the birth of the +young child, or sun of the New Year as a mere allegory of the +astronomical fact and it may have been thus in later times. On +the other hand, historical data prove that the actual birth of a +<q>child,</q> the offspring of a royal sacramental marriage, did take +place in the temple and that children, thus born, afterwards became +the rulers of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +<q>At Luqsor, ... a great temple was built by Amenhotep III +(B.C. 1414-1379) to <q>his father Amen,</q> with special reference to +the divine conception of the king.... His birth is the great +subject of the temple ... and his mother Mut-em-ua is the prominent +figure in those scenes, pointing to her being important as +queen-mother....</q> Of the later king Hor-em-heb (B.C. 1332-1328) +it is inscribed: <q>Amen, king of the gods, dandled him ... +when he came forth from the womb he was enveloped in reverence, +the aspect of a god was upon him; the arm was bowed to him +as a child and great and small did obeisance before him </q> (Flinders +Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 177, 190 and 248). +</p> + +<p> +The small Isis temple to the east of the great temple of Hathor +at Denderah is specially designated as the lying-in chamber, or +sacred house of birth. An inscription dating from the Roman +period, on the outer eastern wall of this building reads: <q>Life! +the female Horus, the youthful, the daughter of a hak (regent, +Brugsch), Isis, the great, the mother of the Ra=god, is born in +Tentyra in the <q>night of the child in its cradle,</q> at the west side +of the temple of Hat-seses (the great temple of Hathor).</q> It is, +moreover, stated that <q>Horus, in female form, is the princess, the +powerful, the heiress to the throne and the daughter of an heir to +the throne.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In another inscription, on the south wall of the small temple of +Isis, the birth of Isis is described thus: <q>On this beautiful day, +<q>of the night of the child in its cradle,</q> on the great festival during +which the world is re-adjusted, or balanced (sekhek en ta), the +bringing forth of Isis takes place in the interior or centre of Anet +(Tentyra) by the goddess Ap, the great, in the chamber of Ap, +in the form of a dark red female person, the Khnum ankh, the +lovely. Her mother, Nut, exclaimed at the sight of her: behold, +(As is) I have become a mother. Thence the origin of the name +Isis.... The south, towards the place of rising of the sun's +disk, has been given over to her, and the north, towards.... +<pb n='434'/><anchor id='Pg434'/> +She is, namely, the mistress of both sides of Egypt, with her son +Horus and her brother Osiris.</q> +</p> + +<p> +On the east side of the wall of the terrace at Denderah a similar +inscription reads: <q>Uar-kher-ta is the name of this locality. The +name of the place of the cradle of Isis is named Adut, which is the +house where the <q>accouchement</q> of Nut, the goddess of heaven, +takes place. It is here that, at the time of the <q>night of the +child in its cradle,</q> the god-mother is brought into the world, in +the form of a dark female, named Khnum-ankhet, the lady of love +and the queen of the gods and goddesses. On seeing her, her +mother exclaimed: As, îs <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> lo, or behold, I have become a +mother! Thence the origin of her name Isis.... She is the +lady of the temple of Egypt with her son Horus and brother +Osiris, now and forever into eternity.</q> The most instructive account +of the festival which has come under my notice is the following, +contained in another inscription in the temple at Denderah. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The fourth day, supplementary to the year (of 360 days, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +the 364th day) is the beautiful day of the <q>night of the child in +its cradle</q> and is a great festival of preparation. During the night +preceding this day there takes place the procession of the goddess +Hathor and the divinities with her. The circuit of her temple is +made and all is duly fulfilled according to the custom. Upon this +follows the return to their places (chambers in the temple). The +golden one (Nubet, the ordinary appellation of Hathor-Isis as the +star Sothis-Sirius, Brugsch) rises, shining, above the brow of her +progenitor, and her mysterious (literally, full of secrets) form is at +the prow of the boat of the sun. As soon as she reaches the āk +(centre) of her city in the presence of her Nomos, she beholds her +dwelling with the most joyful feelings. When she enters her +house her body is full of delight. When she has taken possession +of her exalted dwelling, surrounded by her fellow-gods, who stand +at each side of her, her soul in her body is full of rejoicings. When +they join the rays of her father (the sun god) and are united to +the radiance of his disk, the city Anet (Tentyra) is happy. Adoration +is made in Adut (the lying-in chamber) and Pi-anet is in +festive state, when it beholds the great, the powerful leader, she +who creates the festival in the holy city on that beautiful day of +the New Year.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Elsewhere we read: <q>The city of Anet is in a constant exaltation +when the goddess Isis is born in it (in the small Isis temple) in the +<pb n='435'/><anchor id='Pg435'/> +form of a dark red woman, whose name is Khnum-Ankhet, the +lady of love, the queen of goddesses and women, the bride. It is +beautiful to see the shining appearance of the ray of light in the +heaven, in the dusk, at the time when she is born in this city.... +A flying beetle (?) is born in the sky in the primæval city of Tentyra +at the period of <q>the night of the child in its cradle.</q> The +sun shines in the heaven at dusk when her birth has taken place. +Gods and goddesses praise the name of her majesty....</q> <q>Ra-Hur +of Apollinopolis magna, god Sam-ta, comes forth, or arises, in +the dawn (akhekh) when the birth takes place in <q>the night of the +child in its cradle,</q> on the great festival of the entire world (or the +entire land). He shines for her majesty when she has brought +forth (the child). Her child is in the form of a beautiful boy, +who is the lord of Tentyra. The gods and goddesses came to her +carrying the symbol of life (the ankh) and the sceptre of power +(the tam) so as to fulfil their desire and her wish</q> (p. 103). +</p> + +<p> +The following extract from a papyrus which belonged to a priest +of Amon, named Horsiesis of Thebes, of the time of Augustus, +affords an extremely interesting insight of the mysterious ceremonial +which had gradually developed. It is evident that the text, +though apparently clear, must have been intelligible to the initiated +only, who alone were able to understand the allusions to +secret, sacred rites and their symbolical meaning. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Thou raisest thyself to heaven, in the region of the city Ka ... +thou goest with the king when he goes to Thebes ... thou +seest the Sktt bark on its arrival in the city of Thebes and the +two sisters united in Pi-ubkt ... thou seest the goddess Hathor +who becomes the mother of her own mother<note place='foot'>The somewhat +perplexing allusions to the <q>divine marriage</q> of Isis to her father +or brother and to her giving birth to her own mother, as in the above text, are very +naturally explained by the fact that the successive officiating king-high-priest always +personified Ra-Osiris or the Sun and the queen Isis-Sothis-Hathor and the Moon or +Sirius. The female child to whom the queen gives birth was destined to be her successor +and another personification of Isis, therefore she could be said to have given +birth to her own mother, since, like the latter, the child would be an Isis. In the same +way the queen could be said to marry her father and brother, as, like herself, the king +was the offspring of a divine union and bore his father's title. In connection with +the custom of the male Horus naming the <q>young sun</q> and the female Horus the +young star or moon, it is noteworthy that the son and daughter of Anthony and +Cleopatra, who used to assume the insignia of Isis on state occasions, were given the +Greek surnames of Helios and Selene.</note> on the day ... of the +Tx festival ... thy name is called amongst those of the judges +on the great Hermopolis in the night of the festival of <emph>he who remains +<pb n='436'/><anchor id='Pg436'/> +in the middle or centre of his city</emph> ... thou seest the immovable +ones united into a quatuor, in form like a young bull +... thou seest their wives united together in the form of the +goddess Anthat ... thou visitest the caves of Thebes when +his majesty betakes himself to the zone of Smu.... The mistress +of heaven comes to her house ... thou receivest a cloak +from his hand ... the divine eye ... thou watchest at night in +the chamber of birth on the day of the [lying in] birth of the +goddess Mut....[Nut?] Thou goest in with those who go in +and comest out with those who come out like the great Horus in +his temple ... thou seest in her domain(?) mysterious actions +performed by the Pastophores. No one sees, no one hears (of +them) ... thou hearest the voice of the singer in the temple, +in varied modulations ... thou ascendest the stairway of the +eternal circle of light, thou seest the strong ram in its domain ... +thou seest ... in his first form, Osiris, in the house of purification.</q> +(Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, pp. 518 and 520). +</p> + +<p> +A careful perusal of the preceding texts conveys an idea of the +immense lapse of time it must have required for the state religion +of Egypt to have developed itself and crystallized into a complicated +ritual, the true significance of which, doubtlessly, gradually +receded from view. The naïve primitive symbolization of the union +of heaven and earth by the actual marriage of king and queen, +followed by general marriage festivities, had naturally created, +in course of time, a distinct privileged caste rendered <q>divine</q> +by the circumstances attending their conception and birth. Once +in existence the maintenance and insurance of the divine line of +descent would naturally enforce the intermarriage of its members +and the sequestration and guarded seclusion of the royal women +and the virgin priestesses from whose ranks the destined mothers +of the divine children were selected. +</p> + +<p> +A more ancient form of symbolizing the union of heaven and +earth seems to have been the cult of Apis, which, according to +Maspero, preceded the building of the pyramids and could scarcely +have arisen before the adoption of the cow or bull, ua, as the rebus +of Polaris, the One=ua. A survival of Apis cult seems to be the +allegorical sacred title <q>bull</q> (Osiris-Apis) bestowed upon the +king, of <q>cow</q> upon the queen and <q>calf</q> upon their offspring, +the young Horus. In later times the king was entitled <q>the ram</q> +and wore his fleece and horns on visiting the queen. As a natural +<pb n='437'/><anchor id='Pg437'/> +sequence, the fruit of their union was spoken of as <q>the lamb.</q> +According to Herodotus (<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +pp. 27-29, Cary's translation), <q>the +sacred Apis, or Epaphus is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving +another offspring; and the Egyptians say that lightning +descends upon the cow from heaven and that from thence it brings +forth Apis.</q> <q>The Egyptian magistrates said ... the god [in the +form of Apis] manifested himself at distant intervals ... and +when this manifestation took place the Egyptians immediately put +on their richest apparel and kept festive holiday.</q> +</p> + +<p> +As stated by Mr. Wallis Budge, Apis worship was established +at Memphis by Ka-kau, the second king of the second dynasty +B.C. 4100. The veneration accorded to the bull, cow and calf, +as embodiments of the dual principles of nature, in separate and in +single form, seems to have been accorded in other localities to +different animal forms and to have been replaced, in later times, +by triads, composed of a god, goddess and their offspring, each +great centre ultimately possessing their particular triad, the living +images of which were the high-priest, high-priestess and their +<q>divine</q> offspring. It should be noted that a group consisting +of 8+1=nine gods, high priests or prophets, accompanied the +triad, the result being twelve <q>deities</q> in all, of which one=the +child, was an embodiment of two principles and was the ka=the +divine twain. +</p> + +<p> +The transition of Apis worship from the animal to the human +form was accomplished during the reign of the Ptolemies (B.C. +305-42) when Serapis or Osiris-Apis was introduced into Egypt +and represented as a man with the head of a bull, wearing a disk +and uræus. Long before this, however, androsphinxes and other +combinations of the human and animal form had existed in Egypt. +At Thebes the divine triad was formed by Amen-Ra, Mut-Hathor +and Chonsu; at Edfu and Denderah we find Osiris, Isis-Sothis-Hathor +and Horus. On the other hand, a curious inscription in +the temple at Denderah, translated by Brugsch (<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +p. 512), actually +describes Amen-Ra as <q>the great god in Denderah, who +periodically rejuvenates himself and <emph>becomes a beautiful boy, who +is the concealed or hidden god, whose name is hidden</emph>; who is the +Horus with colored wings, coming forth in the upper hemisphere +of Edfu, the lord of the double heaven.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The inference one might be tempted to make from this and +other texts is that, at one period, a human babe, the fruit of a +<pb n='438'/><anchor id='Pg438'/> +royal or sacerdotal union, was born in the temple on what constituted +New Year's Day and was secretly worshipped there during +the ensuing year, as the living image of Amen-Ra, the hidden god +and <q>divine twain.</q> I venture to point out that the adoption of +the child as the image of the divinity was the logical sequence to +the preceding employment of the bull as a rebus for the words +ua=one and ka=twain; that the consecration of the human +form must, undoubtedly, have given a strong impulse to statuary, +and that the sanctification of the child correspondingly exalted +motherhood and lent a particular consecration to the marriage of +its <q>divine parents.</q> The following facts, culled at random, +afford a limit of the transitions and further developments which +took place in Egypt in course of time. +</p> + +<p> +Before proceeding, special mention must be made of one important +point which throws a flood of light upon the extent of the development +of separate cults of sun and moon and the institution of +solar and lunar calendars which respectively governed the activities +of the male and female populations. As this matter will be fully +treated in my calendar monograph I shall merely note here that +Brugsch cites texts proving the existence and simultaneous use of +the two calendars, and the supreme importance accorded to the +new moon of the month Epiphi on whose appearance the <q>goddess +Isis-Hathor of Denderah embarked on her sacred barge and proceeded +up the river, from her city to Edfu (Apollinopolis magna) +where she joined his majesty ..., her father, ... the incomparable +sun-god Ra, the first of Apollinopolis, the golden disk, whose +children are numerous....</q> It is further stated that the god and +goddess became inseparable like sun and moon. Brugsch states +that the appearance of the said new moon, which was also associated +with the heliacal rising of Sirius, would range from Aug. 18 to +Sept. 16, Jul. Cal. (see <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +pp. 282-1). The appearance +of the goddess was the signal for the opening of a season of general +<q>feasting and drinking, rejoicing, singing and dancing</q> +throughout the land, to which the name Tekhu is given in some +texts. This is translated by Brugsch as <q>the intoxication of gladness +or joy;</q> it <q>coincided with the highest level attained by the +overflow of the Nile,</q> and its modern survival is the annual <q>marriage +of the Nile</q> which takes place on the 23d of August. +</p> + +<p> +It is curious to note how the original carrying out of primitive +and naïve rites by the queen and high-priestess gradually caused +<pb n='439'/><anchor id='Pg439'/> +her presence to be regarded as essential for the <q>drawing out of +the Nile from its source</q> and her person to be surrounded with +utmost veneration and sanctity. As Prof. Flinders Petrie states, +speaking of as far back as B.C. 1383-1365: <q>The marriage to a +royal high priestess of Amen was, of course, purely a political +necessity to legitimate the king's position.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>It would seem that Hor-em-heb was not married to Nezem-mut +until his accession, when he legalized his position by becoming +husband of the high-priestess of Amen, as in the arrangement of +the later dynasties. This marriage was an affair of politics solely, +considering the age of the parties; Horemheb was probably between +fifty and sixty at the time and if the queen was the same +as Nefertiti's sister Nezem-mut, she must have been about the +same age as Horemheb</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 183, 250). How long the +female Egyptian ruler maintained her sway may, perhaps, best be +seen by the following texts describing the political homage paid to +the living goddess of the Egyptians under Ptolemaic and Roman +rules. +</p> + +<p> +One inscription clearly shows that, at the time of Ptolemy IX, +Euergetes II, the living Isis was acknowledged as the sole ruler of +the land of the south by the king and his wife, queen Cleopatra III, +who jointly occupied the throne of northern Egypt. Jointly the +latter dedicated a beautiful hall to the goddess Isis, as a place in +which to celebrate the Tekhu feast and in which she might linger +at this season (Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 284). I have found indications +in other works that, in other localities, the goddess entered +a secret chamber in the earth or pyramid or celebrated her sacred +mysteries and festival on the sacred boat of the sun, in the sacred +sea or lake belonging to the temple. In these cases it is obvious +that the dominant idea was the performance of the sacred rites in +the sacred centre or middle. +</p> + +<p> +At a later period Cleopatra VII ascended the female throne at the +age of seventeen and became high-priestess of Amen, the living +image of Isis. It was understood that as soon as her brother +Ptolemy XIV, then aged twelve, should come of age, she was to +marry him. Partly for political reasons, akin to those which had +caused king Horemheb, on his accession, to marry the high priestess +of Amen, Julius Cæsar and Mark Antony become in succession +the consorts of Cleopatra, after whose death Egypt became +a Roman province. But the <q>land of the south,</q> and traditional, +<pb n='440'/><anchor id='Pg440'/> +divine, feminine rulership, lingered on. Under the third prefect, +Ælius Gallus, Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, invades Egypt at +the head of her army. She was defeated, but the position of the +high-priestess of Amen, the living Isis, continued to be such as to +exact the homage and an act of propitiation from the Roman +Emperor. +</p> + +<p> +An inscription, from the time of Augustus, records that a beautiful +monument, or <q>house,</q> had been erected by the <q>lord of the +land, the autocrator, the son of the sun, Cæsar,</q> and was presented, +at the time of the Isis festival, to its possessor, the great +Isis, the mother of the god, the mistress of the lying-in-house, the +splendid and mighty queen of Philæ, the benevolent princess of +Abaton, the daughter of the sun. She is likewise named <q>she +who is great or whose greatness extends towards the four quarters</q> +and is designated as <q>the royal wife of the majesty of Osiris and +the royal mother of Horus, the victorious bull,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the ka. +It is stated that <q>she found the house of birth brilliantly adorned +and well arranged in every way</q> and she installed herself in its interior +on a given day, so as to bring forth her son in these surroundings. +One of the rewards promised to Cæsar for the delicate +attention and gift bestowed upon the goddess is <q>eternal and permanent +occupation of the throne of Horus, the first of the living +ones.</q> According to the Esne calendar a <q>divine birth</q> actually +took place on a given date. Brugsch, referring to Plutarch and +calendar texts, shows that the commencement of the Isis festival +dated from the time when Isis assumed a phylactery, or amulet, +to indicate that she had conceived. +</p> + +<p> +Another inscription shows that Tiberius Claudius had caused the +house to be renovated for <q>the mighty goddess Isis, the life giving +mistress of Abaton, the good Hathor, the queen of the land of +Nubia, the divine mother of the golden (Nub) Horus, the benevolent +sister of Osiris, the great protectress who guards his son.</q> +As Tiberius Claudius, in this text named himself her loving son, +it is obvious that the day had passed away when solely her own +divine son Horus would be the one legitimate and divine heir to the +Egyptian throne. It is interesting to surmise what became of the +children whose <q>divine births</q> continued to be celebrated as a +sacred occurrence to which even a Roman Emperor yielded homage. +The natural sequence would have been that, accompanied by +a band of devoted followers, the sons of the sun, the young bulls, +<pb n='441'/><anchor id='Pg441'/> +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the ka, or divine twain, and their sisters, would seek +distant lands in which jointly to establish new kingdoms on the ancient, +familiar plan. +</p> + +<p> +Collectively, the preceding evidence has afforded a realization of +some of the curious but natural results of the prolonged cult of the +dual principles of nature in Egypt, the most remarkable being, perhaps, +the creation of a distinct, <q>divine</q> caste of individuals, from +the naïve adoption of marriage and birth as consecrated religious +rites, symbolical of the union of heaven and earth and the production +of new life. While at one time, and in certain localities, this mode of +symbolism obviously took the upper hand and fostered the growth +of the artificial idea of the <q>divine rights of royalty,</q> there are +evidences that, simultaneously, the union of the dual principles +of nature was symbolized in one or more different archaic and +primitive ways. These appear to have been separately adopted in +various centres of thought where the disastrous and debasing consequences +of the association of the idea of sex with the cult of +heaven and earth, light and darkness, etc., were realized with +disapproval. +</p> + +<p> +We thus find that, even at Edfu, the ceremonial rite of lighting +new sacred fire by means of a wooden instrument and friction was +performed on the great Isis festival which was marked by the +<q>divine birth.</q> According to the calendar of Canopus this fell +on the first day of Payni, and a prescribed illumination of the temples +and palace was kept up until the 30th or last day of the month. +In the most ancient Egyptian calendars the <q>lighting of light</q> at +the same period is also recorded (Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 470) and, +according to Herodotus, the festival was named <q>the lighting of +lamps</q> and was observed throughout all Egypt. He adds that +<q>a religious reason is given why this night is illuminated and so +honored</q> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, 61 and 62). +</p> + +<p> +The influence of increasing astronomical knowledge likewise +shows itself in the joint observation of the movements of sun, +moon and stars and the determination of the relative positions +of the latter to the sun at the periods of the equinoxes and solstices. +Without taking period or sequence into consideration for +the present, I merely note that we find evidence that, at one time, +images of sun and moon, of the right and left eyes of Ra, or +statues of Hathor-Isis and Osiris, replaced their living images in +religious ceremonies. +</p> + +<pb n='442'/><anchor id='Pg442'/> + +<p> +Sometimes the entire ritual seems to have consisted in the union +of water, the produce of heaven, with seeds, the produce of earth; +the ensuing germination and production of young shoots being +deemed sacred and symbolical of the renewal of life. The fact +that statuettes of Osiris have actually been found, made of paste +containing various seeds, distinctly shows that, like the Babylonian +Baal, the Egyptian male divinity was identified with the earth. +Another indication of this is furnished by the descriptions of the +feast of Pan, which fell at the period of the spring equinox. At +this period the crop of dura, which had been sown by the king in +the sacred fields at Denderah, at the time of the <q>Osiris mysteries,</q> +immediately after the inundation had receded and <q>the earth was +laid bare,</q> became ripe. The ceremony of cutting the first sheaf +of dura was performed by the king, with the silex sickle=khepes. +</p> + +<p> +While Osiris was thus directly associated with the produce of +the earth there are also evidences that, just as Isis became identified +with birth and life, her consort became the lord of death and +of the underworld. Mysterious rites and human sacrifices seem +to have been instituted in his honor. According to obscure myths +Osiris himself had been foully murdered, his body cut into fourteen +pieces and cast over the length and breadth of the land. His +head was supposed to be preserved at Abydos, the chief centre of +his worship, and shrines were erected over the other portions of +his body. It will be a matter for further research to investigate +whether the <q>mysteries of Osiris</q> did not include the dramatization +of the death of Osiris, in which a human victim personified +the god and was actually killed and dismembered. +</p> + +<p> +It is, perhaps, worth noting here, as an analogy, how appropriately +the ancient Mexican annual sacrifice of a youth, chosen +among the most perfect, might have answered as a rendition of +the drama of Osiris. The body of the victim was divided and the +pieces distributed to a fixed number of priests and chieftains, who +partook of them as sacred food. The head was preserved in the +Great Temple itself, on the Tzompantli, and the large number +of skulls seen there by the Spaniards constituted a proof of the +great antiquity of the custom. The blood of the victim, poured +upon seeds, seems to have been considered essential for bringing +about the germination of the sacred shoots and typical of the +union of the dual principles of nature and of life springing from +death. Idols, formed of seeds moistened with human blood, were +<pb n='443'/><anchor id='Pg443'/> +distributed to the participants in the ceremony. According to some +authors this sacred paste, and not pieces of human flesh, constituted +the consecrated food, eaten according to the prescribed ritual. +</p> + +<p> +How far analogous rites were performed in Egypt remains to be +seen; it is, at all events, certain that, by slow degrees, the cult of +the dual principles of nature gave rise to the institution of strange +unnatural rites, the original naïve meanings of which became obscured, +debased or lost. While various localities of Egypt, notably +Thebes and Abydos, appear to have become the birthplace of curious +aberrations of the human intellect, there was one ancient +and great centre of learning where monotheism and the knowledge +of the fundamental scheme appear to have been preserved intact, +namely, at Heliopolis, the ancient On or Anu of the North, named +the <q>House of the Sun</q> by Jeremiah and <q>the Eye or Fountain +of the Sun</q> by the Arabs. According to Mr. Wallis Budge, <q>its +ruins cover an area three miles square ... the greatest and oldest +Egyptian College or University for the education of the priesthood +and laity stood here.... During the <hi rend='smallcaps'>xx</hi>th dynasty the temple of +Heliopolis was one of the largest and wealthiest of all Egypt and +its staff was numbered by thousands. When Cambyses visited +Egypt the glory of Heliopolis was well on the wane and, after the +removal of the priesthood and sages of the temple to Alexandria, +by Ptolemy II (B.C. 286), its downfall was well assured. When +Strabo visited it (B.C. 24) the greater part of it was in ruins.... +Heliopolis had a large population of Jews and it will be remembered +that Joseph married the daughter of a priest of On (Annu).... +Macrobius says that the Heliopolis of Syria or Baalbek, was +founded by a body of priests who left the ancient city of Heliopolis +of Egypt</q> (The Nile, p. 132). +</p> + +<p> +Indirectly we learn the tenor of the doctrines and ideas held by +the sages of Heliopolis at one period by the remarkable attempt to +reform the religion of Egypt, carried out by their pupil, Amenhotep +IV (about B.C. 1450). Evidently realizing, with his masters, +the extent to which the ancient fundamental religion had +become obscured and debased by the multiplication of images of +the deity, and the institution of rival cults, which were shrouded +in mystery and darkness, the young prince boldly made war against +the priesthood of Amen-Ra and the cult of a <q>hidden god.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Destroying the monstrous images which had originally been +rebus figures only, and represented the supreme deity in partly +<pb n='444'/><anchor id='Pg444'/> +human and animal form, he instituted the disk or circle as the +simple and purer form under which the divinity was to be revered.<note place='foot'>It +is extremely curious and interesting that the Incas, the civilizers of Peru, also +set up a disk of gold as the image of the Creator and placed it between images of the +sun and moon. We also find the Inca Ccapac Yupanqui, like Amenhotep, deploring the +spread of idolatry and image-worship as a misfortune to his vassals and a sorrow to +himself. It is recorded of another Inca that, as a wise measure he destroyed all writing, +presumably picture and rebus writing, as calculated to mislead his people by a +multiplication of symbols. It is an interesting reflection which our increased knowledge +of the primitive civilization of Egypt enables us to make, that the organization +of Peru, under Inca rule, must have closely resembled that of Egypt in remotest antiquity, +at its primitive stage of development, when simplicity, harmony and equilibrium +existed throughout the <q>celestial kingdom.</q></note> +Animated by the clear realization to what an extent the original communal +or republican scheme of organization was being departed +from by the artificial creation of a <q>divine</q> race of kings who +claimed to be gods, he caused himself and his queen to be portrayed +as simple mortals, and not as the deities Osiris and Isis. Choosing +the sun as his emblem, this champion of pure light and open truth +fought the Egyptian votaries of darkness. He erased the word +Amen=hidden, from public monuments, changed his own name +from Amenhotep to Chu-en-Aten=the brilliance or glory of the +disk and founded a city also named Chu-aten, which was to be the +centre of a new and reformed state. It seems evident that this +was instituted on the familiar archaic plan and that the so-called +<q>heresy of Amenhotep</q> was but an attempt, backed by the sages +and philosophers of Heliopolis, to abolish the artificialities and +abuses which had come into existence and destroyed the order of +the state and the harmony of the primitive plan. It is well known +that gradually Amenhotep's successors were obliged to yield to the +hostility of the priesthood of the <q>hidden god</q> and that these, in +turn, erased or defaced all images of the disk or aten within their +reach. +</p> + +<p> +Ineffectual though the grand attempt had been to reorganize +state and religion and reëstablish republican principles, on the original +plan, the knowledge of the original scheme seems to have been +preserved intact during the following centuries, by the sages and +philosophers of Heliopolis, by whom the primitive set of ideas +seems to have been gradually developed into an abstract philosophical +system. Reminding the reader that Plato spent <q>thirteen +years in Egypt, in gaining an insight into the mysterious doctrines +and priest-lore of the sacerdotal caste,</q> I also draw attention to +the passage in his <q>Timæus,</q> in which Critias makes the statement +<pb n='445'/><anchor id='Pg445'/> +that when Plato's ideal republic ... was being discoursed +upon, he was reminded, to his surprise, of the account of a state +given to the Greek sage, Solon, by the priests of Saïs, and perceived +how, <q>in most respects, the republic described coincided +with Solon's statements.</q> It is indeed striking how clearly we can +recognize, in Plato's republic, the underlying, primitive, universal +scheme in this case, highly developed, elaborated, transfigured and +transformed into the philosophical ideal of a great intellect. +</p> + +<p> +Before demonstrating which of the main features of Plato's cosmogony +and ideal republic we have found actually carried out in +practice, let us briefly refer to the most ancient descriptions of the +primitive government of Greece, preserved in the Timæus and +Critias, where the conversations held, by Solon, with the priests of +Saïs are recorded. Solon (about 594 B.C.) on his arrival (at Saïs) +<q>was very honorably received; and especially, on his inquiring +about ancient affairs of those priests who possessed superior knowledge +in such matters, he perceived that neither himself nor any +one of the Greeks (so to speak) had any antiquarian knowledge +at all.... One of their extremely ancient priests said to Solon: +<q>you (Greeks) are all youths in intelligence, for you hold no ancient +opinions derived from remote tradition <emph>nor any system of +discipline</emph> that can boast of a hoary old age.... In this our +country, ... the most ancient things are said to be here preserved +... and all the noble, great or otherwise distinguished +achievements, performed either by ourselves, by you or elsewhere, +of which we have heard the report, all these have been engraved in +our temples in very remote times and preserved to the present day. +The annals of our own city (Saïs) have been preserved eight +thousand years in our sacred writings ... your state has a priority +over ours of a thousand years.... I will briefly describe +the law and more illustrious actions of those states which have +existed nine thousand years ...</q></q> (Timæus). It is interesting +at this point to recall also the familiar statements made by the +priests of Saïs to Solon, concerning the immense antiquity of the +human race and the <q>multitude and variety of destructions which +have been and will be undergone by the human race ... after +which nations become young again, as at first, knowing nothing of +the events of ancient times</q> (Timæus, <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to the original text I merely point out here +that the priest of Saïs, referring to the sacred writings themselves, +<pb n='446'/><anchor id='Pg446'/> +assigned to remotest antiquity the principle of distribution and +arrangement on which the state had originally been founded and +established. In the Critias the description of the Athenian state, +which <q>had been founded nine thousand</q> years before, contains the +following particulars which will appear familiar to the reader. +<q>To the gods was once locally allotted the whole earth.... +Obtaining a country agreeable to them by just allotment, they +chose regions for their habitations.... Different gods received +by lot different regions.... Hephaestus and Athene, a brother +and sister, both received one region as their common allotment ... +their temple was built on the Acropolis ... whose northern and +southern slopes were respectively associated with separate winter +and summer residences.</q> The population was divided into classes +and each caste occupied a fixed place of residence. <q>The outer +parts, down the flanks (of the Acropolis) were inhabited by craftsmen +and husbandmen who tilled the neighboring land; the warrior-classes +lived separately, by themselves, in the more elevated +parts around the temple of Athene and Hephaestus, which they +had formed, as it were, into the garden of a single dwelling by +encircling it with one enclosure</q> (The Critias, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>). <q>... On this +site was a single fountain which furnished every part with abundant +water....</q> <q>The <q>guardians of the state</q> were the <q>leaders</q> of +the Greeks and as to their number they paid special attention that +they should always have the same number of men and women +that might serve in war, the whole being about twenty thousand.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In the description given, in the Critias, of the state of Atlantis, +the identical features recur, but are more fully described. In +the centre of the island of Atlantis stood a mountain, surrounded +by a plain, which was ultimately made square. The mountain was +the residence of a pair of mythical lovers, consisting of a god and +of a mortal woman, and became the birthplace of their offspring, +<q>a divine race of kings.</q> <q>The god ... with his divine power, +agreeably adorned the centre of the island, causing two fountains +of water to shoot upwards from beneath the earth, one cold and +the other hot, and making every variety of food to spring abundantly +from the earth.</q> The central hill, from which thus proceeded +all life and festivity, was at first <q>circularly enclosed, the +land and sea being formed into alternate zones, greater and less, +two out of land and three out of sea, from the centre of the island +all equally distant.</q> The ten kings, born of the <q>divine union, +<pb n='447'/><anchor id='Pg447'/> +lived each in his own district and city, and ruled supreme over his +people. The government and commonwealth in each case was, by +the injunction of the god, according to the laws which were handed +down. The latter were inscribed on a column of orichalcum which +was deposited in the centre of the island, in the temple of the god, +where the ten kings originally assembled every fifth year. A fire +burned near the column and a bull was sacrificed at its base, after +which a sacred cup was filled with its blood and this was poured +into the fire by way of purifying the column</q> +(Critias, <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii-xvi</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +The above mention of a column is of interest when it is realized +that, in historical times, the laws of Solon were actually inscribed +on a square wooden pillar which was made to revolve or turn and +was placed on the Acropolis. The presence of a revolving pillar +on the Acropolis, the sacred centre of the Athenian state, is, moreover, +curiously in keeping with the conception of axial energy set +forth by Plato and awakens the desire to learn from Greek scholars +what relationship, if any, there was between the Sanscrit aksa=axle +or axis, the Greek akra (akris=summit, akros=most +high, supreme, akrisios=mountain-top god) and the Egyptian +ak=the Centre, and hak=a king; and whether the word polis=city +was connected with polos=the pole-star, an axis, pivot or +pole, from polein=to turn, and may be interpreted as the equivalent +of the Egyptian An and Annu. It would also be important +to learn whether the name of the principal ancient god of Greece, +Apollo, who was revered under the form of a column at Delphi, +can also be connected with the verb polein or pelein=to turn, as +well as the name Polias <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the goddess protecting the city, a +surname for Minerva (Athene) at Athens, where she was worshipped +at one time as the protecting divinity of the Acropolis. The title +Poliuchus, <q>protecting the city,</q> occurs as a surname of several +divinities and particularly of Minerva Chalchioecus, <q>of the brazen +house,</q> at Sparta and Athens. It is instructive likewise to compare +the Greek words for axis=axon, and polis=city, with Helice, +the name for Ursa Major and for a town in Arcadia, with the Egyptian +Annu, An or On, the names of capitals, and the Egyptian word +an=that which turns around. It will be for Greek and Egyptian +scholars to enlighten us as to whether the Egyptian an and the +Greek polis are synonyms; in which connection I draw their attention +to the following suggestive passage of the Critias (<hi rend='smallcaps'>vii</hi>).... +<q>Yet before we narrate this we must briefly warn you not to +<pb n='448'/><anchor id='Pg448'/> +be surprised at hearing Hellenic names given to barbarians ... +and the cause of this you shall now hear. Solon made an investigation +into the power of names and found that the early Egyptians, +who committed these facts to writing, transferred these +names into their own language; and he again, receiving the meaning +of each name, introduced it by writing into our language.</q> +While, on one hand, it is certain that the Egyptian astronomer-priests +associated the pole star with the words An, Anu, Anubis, +on the other, the following passages from Plato's works clearly +demonstrate his views concerning axial rotation.<note place='foot'><p>The +following detached extracts, partly from Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen's valuable +work, should be carefully studied in connection with the above text, as they +throw further light upon the ideas associated with the sacred centres of heaven and +earth by nations with whom the Greeks were in touch. +</p> +<p> +<q>To the whole Arabian nation, heathen or Mahommedan, Polaris was Alfass, the +hole in which the earth's axle found its bearing</q> (p. 451). +</p> +<p> +The following important material pertains to the chapter on India, of whose insufficiency +I am painfully aware. <q>In earliest Northern India the star nearest the +pole was known as Grahadhara, <q>the pivot of the planets,</q> representing the great +god Dhruva, and Al Biruni said that among the Hindus of his time it was Dhruva +himself. It was an object of their worship</q> (p. 456). +</p> +<p> +In Bournouf's Bhagavata-pûrana (chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>) +it is said that <q>Dhruva, meditating on +Brahma, stood on one foot, motionless as a post; while he did so half the world, +wounded by his big toe, bent over under his weight like a boat which, bearing a vigorous +elephant, leans at each step he takes, from left to right.</q> O'Neil, citing the +same source continues: <q>In consequence of his austerities Bhagavat said <q>I grant +thee virtuous Child, a Spot which has never yet been occupied by any being, a Spot +blazing with splendor, of which the ground is firm, where is fixed the circus of the +celestial lights, of the planets, constellations and stars; which turn all around like +oxen round their stake, and which [the Spot] subsists motionless even after the +Dwellers of a Kalpa [a day and night of Brahmâ +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> 4,320,000,000 years] have disappeared. +Around this Spot there turn with the stars and leaving it on their right, +Dharma, Agni, Kasyapa and Sakra and the Solitaries who live in the Forest</q> ...</q> +(p. 801). According to the Vishnu-purâna: <q>As Dhruva turns, he causes sun, moon +and other planets to turn round also, and the lunar asterisms follow in his circular +course, for all the celestial lights are in fact bound to the Polar star by aërial +cords</q> (Vishnu-purâna, see O'Neil, p. 503). It is instructive to compare these +descriptions of Dhruva with the Akkadian-Sumerian hymn to Ishtar, whom I have identified +as the female form of Polaris (p. <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>). According to +Professor Sayce it begins: <q>Thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the +dwellings of the earth her name revolves</q> (O'Neil, p. 715). +</p> +<p> +O'Neil further notes that <q>Dhruva is named the sun of Uttâna-Pâda</q> and that this +name is connected with uttarat=north and also signifies outstretched, supine. He +also states that <q>Uttara and Uttarâ was the dual god of the north, the son and daughter +of Virâta, and expresses the opinion that the age of the Dhruva legend is unutterable</q> +(p. 503). +</p> +<p> +According to another Sanscrit legend: <q>At one time in the history of the creation +an attempt was made by Visvamitra to locate a southern pole and another bear in +positions corresponding to the northern, this pole passing through the island Lumka +or Vadavāmukha (Ceylon)</q> (Allen, p. 436). Professor Sayce writes: <q>In early Sumerian +days, the heaven was believed to rest upon the peak of <q>the mountain of the +world</q> in the far northeast, where the gods had their habitations +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Isa. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiv</hi>, 13) +[the mount of congregation in the uttermost parts of the north], while an ocean or +<q>deep</q> encircled the earth which rested upon its surface.</q> Von Herder referred to +it as <q>Albordz, the dazzling mountain on which was held the assembly of the gods, +and identified it with the holy mountain of God,</q> alluded to in the Book of the Prophet +Ezekiel <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxviii</hi>, 14; and Professor Whitney quoted from the +sixty-second verse of the first chapter of the Surya Siddhanta, <q>the mountain which is +the seat of the gods</q> +and from the thirty-fourth verse of the twelfth chapter: <q>A collection of manifold +jewels, a mountain of gold, is Meru, passing through the middle of the earth-globe, +and protruding on either side;</q> commenting on which he says: the <q>seat of +the gods</q> is Mount Meru, situated at the North Pole (p. 452).</p></note> +A fresh interest +is undoubtedly added to Plato's philosophy when it is regarded as +the possible result of the thirteen years spent by him with the +Egyptian priesthood, who may possibly have confided to him the +entire sum of their ancient philosophy and accumulated store of +knowledge, and who certainly seem to have imposed upon him the +reticence and obscurity noticeable in the Republic, the Critias and +the Timæus. +</p> + +<p> +To those who have followed my investigation of the ancient state +organization and cosmical conceptions of the ancient Egyptians, +and noted the interpretation given to the pyramid and the fact that +Amenophis instituted the disk as the image of the Supreme Being, +the following detached extracts from Plato's Timæus will appear +<pb n='449'/><anchor id='Pg449'/> +familiar and full of fresh significance. <q>To discover the Father +and Creator of this universe (also called the heaven or the world) or +his work is indeed difficult; <emph>and when discovered it is impossible to +reveal him to mankind at large</emph>.... The composing (or framing) +Artificer constituted the universe from entire elements of fire, +water, air and earth and ... considering that it would thus be a +whole animal.... He gave it also a figure becoming and allied +to its nature; and to the animal destined to comprehend all others +within itself that figure as the most becoming which includes within +itself every sort of figure whatever. Hence he fashioned it in the +shape of a sphere, perfectly round, having its centre everywhere +equally distant from the bounding extremities.... He assigned +to it a motion peculiar to itself ... making the world to turn +constantly on itself and on same point, he gave it a circular motion +... he assigned to it a motion peculiar to itself, being that of +all the seven kinds of motion.... As for the soul, he fixed it in the +middle, extended it throughout the whole and likewise surrounded +it with its entire surface ... and so, causing a circle to revolve +in a circle, he established the world as one substantive, solitary +object.... <emph>Let the universe be called heaven or the world or by +any other name it usually receives</emph>.... The soul of this universe +<pb n='450'/><anchor id='Pg450'/> +... being composed of three parts ... being interwoven throughout +from the middle to the very extremities of space and covering +it even all around externally, though at the same time herself revolving +within herself, originated the divine commencement of an +unceasing and wise life throughout all time.... Time ... was +generated with the universe.... Time ... an eternal image <emph>on +the principles of numbers</emph> ... the perfect number of time completes +a perfect year ... for this purpose ... were formed <emph>such +of the stars as moved circularly through the universe</emph>....</q> +</p> + +<p> +While a careful study of Plato's work will further elucidate his +views concerning the quadruplicate nature of the universe, of its +comprehensive unity, of axial rotation, the generation of time +and of the principle of numbers, I point out that the following +passage conveys the idea of applying the universal plan to the +regulation of human thought: <q>This, however, we may assert, +that God invented and bestowed sight upon us for the express +purpose, that on <emph>surveying the circles of intelligence in the heavens</emph>, +we might properly employ those of our minds, which, though disturbed +when compared with the others that are uniform, are still +allied to their circulation and that, having thus learned and being +naturally possessed of a correct reasoning faculty, we might, <emph>by +imitating the uniform revolutions of divinity</emph>, set right our own silly +wanderings and blunders.</q> +</p> + +<p> +There are two portions of Plato's cosmology to which I wish +particularly to draw attention, because of the striking examples +that exist, showing that the views therein expressed and suggestions +given, were independently carried into practice in ancient +times, in widely separated countries. One is the suggestive attempt +to figure the Cosmos by geometrical images, a method which +had been carried out by the pyramid-builders and Amenophis III +and suggests an explanation for the origin and meaning of the +geometrical decoration that prevailed at one period of antiquity. +The other is the association of time with the principles of numbers, +the most remarkable exemplifications of which are furnished by +the Egyptian, Hindu, Chinese, Mexican and Maya cyclical systems, +founded upon the associations of divisions of time and numerals, +and even and uneven numbers with day-names, etc. +</p> + +<p> +Having hastily noted some features of Plato's Cosmos let us +next obtain an insight into the ideas associated with Polaris and +the Septentriones by the ancient Greeks and their neighbors, before +<pb n='451'/><anchor id='Pg451'/> +and after Plato's time. I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness +to Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen's <q>Star-names and their meanings</q> +(New York, 1899), for the following valuable information and at +the same time express my regret that his useful work was unknown +to me when I wrote the preceding portion of my investigation.<note place='foot'>I +likewise deeply regret that it is only since the last pages of the present investigation +have been in proof, that a remarkable work, full of valuable material relating +to the universal spread of pole-star worship and symbolism, was particularly +recommended to me by a distinguished fellow archæologist. Had I realized before +this the great value of the late John O'Neil's <q>The Night of the Gods</q> (David Nutt, +London, 1897), as a compendium, the result of years of conscientious and painstaking +labor, I should have made extensive use of it and should have been able to +make my survey of the ancient civilizations of the Old World far more complete +and my material more convincing. As it is, I can only warmly recommend the work +to all interested in the present investigation, who will see for themselves the widely +different points of view from which our respective researches have been carried out +but will probably be struck with the identity of some of our views. I should like to +express here my keen realization of the many blunders and omissions I have +probably made in the course of the present investigation, which carried me, reluctantly, +into fields of research where I felt myself to be a stranger. In view of the +disadvantages under which I have labored, under pressure of time and a frequent inability +to obtain all the books I wished to consult, I rely upon the leniency of specialists +and upon their kindly communicating to me the faults they detect, so that I +may avoid them in future publications.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Ursa Minor was not mentioned by Homer or Hesiod for, according +to Strabo, it was not admitted among the constellations of +the Greeks until about 600 B.C. when Thales, inspired by its use +in Phœnicia, his probable birthplace, suggested it to the Greek +mariners in place of its greater neighbor which till then had been +their sailing guide. Thence its title Phœnice and Ursa Phœnicia. +But it also shared, with Ursa Major, the titles Septentrio, Aratos, +Amaxa, Aganna and Helice. It also bore the <q>early and universal +title</q> Kynosura or Cynosura, usually translated <q>the Dog's Tail,</q> +the origin of which is uncertain, Bournouf asserting that <q>it is in +no way associated with the Greek word for dog.</q> Cox identified the +word with Lycosura (meaning tail or trail of light), which recalls +the city of that name in Arcadia considered, by Pausanias, the +most ancient in the world, having been founded by Lycaon some +time before the Deluge of Deucalion.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Euclid said in his Phainomena: <q>A star is visible between +the Bears, not changing its place, <emph>but always revolving upon itself</emph></q> +(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Plato's Cosmos). Hipparchus, that the pole was <q>in a vacant +spot forming a quadrangle with three other stars,</q> both writers +calling this Polos, the Polus of Lucan, Ovid and other classical +Latins, and Euphratean observers had called their pole-star Pūl or +<pb n='452'/><anchor id='Pg452'/> +Bil. But, although other astronomical writers used these words +for some individual star, there is no certainty as to which was intended, +for it should be remembered that, during many millenniums, +the polar point has gradually been approaching our pole-star which, +2000 years ago, was far removed from it, in Hipparchus' time 12° +24' away, according to his own statement, quoted by Marinus of +Tyre and cited by Ptolemy. Heraclitus, the Ionian philosopher +of Ephesus of about 500 B.C., asserted that this constellation +marked the boundary between the east and the west, which it may +be regarded as doing when on the horizon.</q> This statement is of +extreme importance as it proves an orientation of the north by the +pole-star and not by the solstitial position of the sun. <q>Another +name for it, πλενθιον, used for it or its quarter of the sky, was from +the Greek, as seen in Plutarch's αἰ τῶν πλινθίων ὀπογραφαί the +<q>fields</q> or <q>spaces</q> into which the augurs divided the heavens, +the templa, or regiones cœli of the Latins....</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>In Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the use of the seven stars of +Ursa Major in Greek navigation is clearly shown. The constellation +is entitled the Bear=arctos, described, according to different +translators, as <q>circling on high,</q> <q>wheeling round,</q> or <q>revolving +around the axle of the sky.</q><note place='foot'><q>The Century +Dictionary has a theory as to the origin of the idea of a Bear for the +seven stars, doubtless from its editor, Professor Whitney, that seems plausible, at all +events scholarly. It is that their Sanscrit designation, Riksha, signifies, in two +different genders, <q>a bear</q> and <q>a star,</q> <q>bright</q> or <q>to shine;</q> +hence a title, the Seven +Shiners,—to that it would appear to have come, by some confusion of sound of the two +words, among a people not familiar with the sound</q> (p. 424). <q>Later on Riksha was +confounded with Rishi, and so connected with the Seven Sages or Poets of India. +Al Biruni devoted a chapter of his work on India to the seven stars [of Ursa Major] +known as Saptar Shayar, the seven Anchorites</q> (Allen). I draw attention here to +the curious fact that the Sanscrit verb to see=iksh is nearly homonymous with +riksha and that therefore, in Sanscrit, the association of a star with the eye=akshan, +that sees=iksh, must have been a very close one and suggested the employment +of the eye as a symbol for star. In connection with the Sanscrit riksha it is curious +to note that, in Japanese, riki means power, viz., jin-riki-sha=man—power-wagon; +and hasha or rinsha=wagon or wain. The following extract from one of +the hymns in the oldest Veda, the Brahmâna, which <q>mark the beginning of the +philosophical creed of the Vedic period,</q> is particularly significant when compared, +not only with the preceding association of Ursa Major with the seven sages of India, but +also with Plato's cosmological doctrines: <q>I have beheld the Lord of Men,</q> one poet +writes, <q>with seven sons, of which delightful and benevolent [deity] who is the object +of our invocation, there is <hi rend='italic'>an all-pervading middle brother</hi> and a +third brother.... They yoke the seven to the one wheeled car; <emph>one horse named +seven</emph> bears it along; the three-axled <emph>wheel is undecaying, never loosened +and in it all these regions of the universe abide</emph>.... Immature, undiscerning in +mind, I inquire of those things <emph>which are hidden from the gods</emph> +[<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Hymn to Amen-Ra, p. 388, where the same expression +is used], the seven threads which the sages <emph>have spread to envelop the sun in whom +all abide</emph></q> (Chambers' Encyclopædia, article India).</note> +Homer used, equally with Arctos, +<pb n='453'/><anchor id='Pg453'/> +the name Amaxa=the wain or wagon, to designate the seven +stars. Aratos called the constellation the <q>Wain-like Bear;</q> and, +alluding to the title Amaxa, asserted that the word was from ama=together, +the Amaxai thus circling together around the pole; +but no philologist accepts this and it might as well have come from +axion=axle, referring to the axis of the heavens. In fact +Hewitt goes far back of Aratos in his statement that the Sanscrit +god Akshivan, the Driver of the Axle (aksha), was adopted in +Greece as Ixion, whose well-known wheel was merely the circling +course of this constellation. Anacreon mentioned it as a Chariot +as well as a Bear; and Hesychius had it Aganna, an archaic word +from agein, <q>to carry,</q> singularly like, in orthography at least, +the Akkadian title for the Wain stars, Aganna or Akanna, the +Lord of Heaven; and Aben Ezra called it Ajala, the Hebrew word +for <q>waggon.</q> The name Helice from Ελιξ, the Curved, or Spiral +One, apparently first used by Aratos and Apollonius Rhodius, +became common as descriptive of its twisting around the pole, ... +Sophocles having the same thought in his mention of <q>the +circling paths of the Bear.</q> Some, however, derived the name +from the curved or twisted positions of the chief stars.... +Helice was also the name of a city in Arcadia, the country so intimately +connected with the Bears, whose inhabitants were called +the Bear race.</q> +</p> + +<p> +As far back as Hesiod's time the constellation was associated in +myth, with the name Kallisto, <q>the beautiful,</q> which <q>La Lande +referred to the Phœnician Kalitsah or Chalitsa, Safety, as its observation +helped to a safe voyage. Another version of the Grecian +myth associated the constellation with Artemis, the Roman +Diana [<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the huntress, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ishtar and Isis-Satit].</q> The apparent +connection of the name Artemis with Themis=<q>law and justice +personified,</q> should be noted here. +</p> + +<p> +The preceding statements establish that, in ancient Greece, +Polaris was identified with the celestial Polos and was described as +a star, not changing its place, but always <emph>revolving on itself</emph> and it +appears superfluous to point out how closely Plato's Cosmos agrees +with the current astronomical theories. The Ursæ, on the other hand, +were identified with the titles Helice, referring to axial rotation, and +with the names Aganna (Akanna) Arctos and Amaxa, which are +identical in sound with the words we have found associated with +Polaris and the Septentriones in the ancient Egyptian texts. +</p> + +<pb n='454'/><anchor id='Pg454'/> + +<p> +Deferring the demonstration that a number of the natural objects +or animals represented in the Egyptian rebus signs, which +were merely employed in hieratic script to express the syllables +an, am, ar, ak, etc., are to be found as actual names for Polaris +and the Ursæ in different western Asiatic and other countries, I +shall now briefly show that, in remotest historical times, the +Grecian states were established upon the model of an ideal republic +such as is outlined in Plato's works, in accordance with current +cosmological conceptions. According to ancient tradition the aborigines +of Attica were first civilized under Cecrops who is said to +have come hither from Saïs, Egypt, about 1500 B.C. +</p> + +<p> +Turning to Iwan Mueller's monumental <q>Alterthumswissenschaft</q> +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> Handbuch der Griechische Alterthümer), let us examine +the data he presents concerning the beginnings of Athenian +culture. +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>The historical inhabitants of Attica belonged to the Ionic race +and claimed to be autochthonous.... They were grouped into +four tribes: the Geleontes, Argadeis, Aigikoreis and Hopletes. +The existence of these four tribes is usually connected with a territorial +division of Attica into four parts and their names are supposed +to have been derived from the location and occupation of +each tribe. The Geleontæ=the shining ones, are said to have +formed the priest or warrior caste and to have lived in Pedion. +The Argadæi were the agriculturists and were situated in the plain +of Thriasis. The Aigikoræi or goatherds were assigned to Diakria. +Authorities still disagree about the habitation of the Hopletes, +<q>the armed ones.</q> The interpretation of these names is still open +to doubt. An ancient tradition attributes to them an Ionic derivation.... +On the other hand, it is probable that when they emigrated +to Attica the tribe remained separate and became associated +with their place of residence ... at a later period the phratries +were associated with localities.... Each of the four castes +had its chieftain and an equality of rank seems to have been maintained. +In ancient times the citizens were divided into three +classes: the Eupatridæ or nobility; the Geomoræ or farmers; and +the Demiurgæ or artisans, merchants, potters or fishermen,—in +fact all who exercised some occupation.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>The political unity of Attica was centred in the plain of Cephisos, +which was the kernel of the country. In the lower part of +the plain, about a mile from the sea, situated on a plateau, and +<pb n='455'/><anchor id='Pg455'/> +crowning a high rocky elevation, lay the ancient fortress Cekropia, +the residence of Cecrops and Erechtheus, the mythical, earth-born +forefathers of the Athenians. At the foot of the fortress, a lower +town gradually grew up and spread itself towards the south. This +primitive Athens originally formed only the nucleus of a small +kingdom situated in the plains and surrounded by enemies.... +According to an Attic tradition Cecrops collected the inhabitants +of Attica into 12 ... tribes, states or communities.... +The names of several of these have been shown to have also been +applied to capitals which were independent centres of government. +Athens, the centre of the state, developed into a large city in which +the nobility of the whole country resided and where many artisans +also settled. The majority of the citizens lived, however, in the surrounding +country.... The harvest festival, held at ancient +Athens, in honor of the goddess Athene, the patroness of agriculture, +was also a general feast for all inhabitants of Attica ...</q> +(pp. 104-108). +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing suffices to establish that, in remotest antiquity, +Attica was divided into four territorial divisions, with a central +seat of government, the capital, which formed the fifth division. +The inhabitants of the four regions constituted four tribes, each +under its own chieftain. Each tribe became identified with a different +occupation and ultimately constituted castes which remained +associated with their place of residence. Simultaneously with this +territorial distribution, another classification of the population was +evolved, which divided it into three strata, corresponding to the +upper, central and lower caste and thus yielded a total of seven +great divisions of the state, which thus reveals itself as having +been a heptarchy and explains the constitution of the Heptanomis, +which existed in Central Egypt under Greek rule. +</p> + +<p> +From the preceding material it appears that when Solon divided +the people into four classes, he merely reinstated the most ancient +form of state organization known in Greece. It would be interesting +to learn how far the following offices had been previously known. +It is well known that Solon instituted nine archons (literally +leaders), which seem to have been the equivalents to the group of +<q>nine gods</q> mentioned in Egypt in association with the supreme +god or goddess. The characteristic feature of the archons appears +to have been the fact that they were elected and that the first +archon was surnamed Eponymos and gave his name to the year; +<pb n='456'/><anchor id='Pg456'/> +the second archon, entitled Basileus, was the king, and the third, +Polemarchas, was a warrior. The remaining six were collectively +called Thesmothetes, administrators of right or justice. Under the +above was the Council of Four Hundred. Each of the four phylæ +fell into three parts or thirds, producing a total of 12, a number +corresponding to the organization of twelve tribes, communities +or states. Each of these was divided into 4 Naucrariæ, under 48 +captaincies. The following extracts from Iwan Müller's work supply +us with further details concerning the Athenian government +and show that variants of the same existed at different periods, +throughout ancient Greece. +</p> + +<p> +<q>At Athens, in historical times, the members of one tribe formed +a corporation, recognized a common ancestor, observed a form of +ancestral cult and kept a tribal register with the names of all newly +born children (p. 20). The tribes formed corporations within the +state, and each had its own cult and chieftain.... The Doric +nation consisted of three such tribes.... In Ephesus the citizens +were divided into five <q>gens</q> (<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, four quarters and +centre). It is certain that in Athens, Cyrene, and Chios, the phratries were +communities with separate forms of cult, who worshipped beside +their tribal deities, Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria ...</q> +(pp. 20 and 21). +</p> + +<p> +<q>In Teos the towns inhabited by a <q>gens</q> were divided into +at least seven quarters.... In Tenos each gens was known as +<q>a tower,</q> and each individual bore the name of his tower and his +gens.</q> Pausing here for an instant, I draw attention to the recurrence +in Greece of certain features of the Great Plan which must +now be familiar to the reader: the association of divisions of people +with a <q>tower,</q> an artificial <q>high place</q> or mountain, the +development and existence of separate forms of cult, corresponding +to tribal and territorial divisions; the supreme cult of a male +and female divinity, corresponding to the traditions that the state +was founded by two individuals and was governed by two rulers. +An illustration of this is furnished by Sparta, which <q>was governed +by two kings, belonging to two different royal families ... +the origin of this custom is unknown ... these kings usually +were at enmity with each other....</q> <q>The population of Sparta +was primarily divided into five <q>phyles,</q> identified with five local +districts. The names of the latter, Pitane, Mesoa, Limnai, +Konoura and Dyme, were identical with those of the five Comes or +<pb n='457'/><anchor id='Pg457'/> +group of separate communities which had constituted the state of +Sparta at the time of Thucydides.</q> It will be perceived that this +organization corresponds to that of a capital and four provinces. +Simultaneously the population was grouped into three main classes +and twenty-seven phratries. +</p> + +<p> +Considering that in ancient times the belief prevailed, and was +shared by the Spartans themselves, that Lycurgus had introduced +his scheme of organization from Crete, it is interesting to learn that +<q>the Cretans themselves claimed that their laws dated from a remote +antiquity and had been communicated to Minos and Rhadamanthus +by Zeus himself.</q> In one of the most ancient portions of +the Odysseus, Idomeneus is represented as ruling in particular over +cities situated in <emph>the middle</emph> of the island. In historical times the +central rulership or monarchy had been abolished and <q>the state +was ruled by ten chiefs of tribal divisions, who bore in common +the title Cosmos and held office for the limit of one year.</q> Although +the most ancient accounts of the maritime supremacy of Crete +under its king Minos, the <q>son of Zeus,</q> are regarded as grossly +exaggerated, modern authorities agree that, on account of its geographical +position, Crete must undoubtedly have been an extremely +important centre of maritime commerce, during a prolonged period. +</p> + +<p> +On this account, and because the Spartans acknowledged to +have received their scheme of organization from Crete, I draw +particular attention to the design on a coin from Cnossus, the most +important capital of Crete, which recently arrested my attention. +It is preserved at the Berlin Museum and is reproduced in Spamer's +work, already cited (fig. <ref target='Figure_72'>72</ref>, 14 and 15). On the obverse, +it exhibits the fabulous Minotaurus the monster, half man and half bull, +who is stated to have ruled the island. On the reverse, is a geometrical +figure, representing a swastika, in the centre of which is +the five-dot group. A similar coin also found on the site of Cnossus, +and assigned to B.C. 700, is preserved at the British Museum. +Its reverse exhibits also the five-dot group and the swastika, between +whose branches are four large dots or circles. In the Berlin +Museum specimen the latter are replaced by squares containing +cross lines. To any one familiar, in the first case, with the scheme +of organization into five Comes, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> 4+1, such as has been shown +to have been adopted in Sparta and elsewhere in Greece, the design +on the reverse of both coins appears perfectly intelligible. +No geometrical or cursive sign could more clearly express the +<pb n='458'/><anchor id='Pg458'/> +scheme or ground-plan upon which the most ancient form of government +in Greece has been shown to have also rested. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_72'/> + <figure url='images/figure-72.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 72.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +As to the image of the Minotaurus on the obverse of the Berlin +coin: to any one familiar with the widespread system of figuring +the state under the form of a human being or of a quadruped, and +of symbolizing its ruler as its head, the image appears intelligible +as that of the quadruplicate state. The circumstance that the +head is that of a bull seems to indicate that, like the Egyptians, the +Cretans applied the title <q>bull</q> to their king; thence perhaps +the fable that the island was at one time governed by the monster +<pb n='459'/><anchor id='Pg459'/> +Minotaurus who claimed as annual tribute, from conquered tribes, +seven youths and maidens. It is striking how perfectly the geometrical +figures on the reverse of both coins, which I hold to represent +territorial divisions, seem to form the complement to the +image of the state represented in semi-human and semi-animal +form. Interesting variants of the same design appear on two coins +of the same period in the British Museum collection. One of these, +from Syracuse, exhibits a swastika, in the centre of which is a +human head—a sign which I should interpret as the image of a +state and its single central ruler. A coin from Corinth displays +a plain swastika only, which suffices to indicate, however, that +its state organization was on the familiar plan. +</p> + +<p> +In connection with the swastika and five-dot group it is interesting +to examine some ancient Egyptian seals exhibiting crosses +with four dots or strokes (fig. <ref target='Figure_72'>72</ref>, 3-5), and to compare +these with Rhodian specimens (10-13). On vases found by Schliemann +on the site of Troy (8 and 9), we find, in one case a swastika +and in the other a cross and four dots in a circle forming the nave. +It is interesting to compare the Athenian nos. 6 and 7, one being +a swastika and the other a cross in a lozenge.<note place='foot'>Fig. +<ref target='Figure_72'>72</ref>, 1, is referred to on p. +<ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>.</note> An extremely +curious instance of an entire decoration of a building consisting of +crosses and five-dot groups, is furnished by the cenotaph erected by +a late king in honor of Midas, king of Phrygia (fig. <ref target='Figure_72'>72</ref>, +2), which, curiously enough, offers much resemblance to the geometrical style +of stucco decorations of the ruins of Mitla, Mexico.<note place='foot'>The +original name for Phrygia is said to have been Askanios, from Askanios its +first ruler. The cenotaph of Midas is built in the rock at Jazylykaia, in the vicinity +of Kumbet, where other similarly decorated royal tombs exist.</note> The presence +of the swastika on coins assigned to about B.C. 700 and its +use in Greece, where plain cross-symbols had previously been employed, +naturally leads to the inquiry as to the oldest-dated swastikas +which have hitherto been found in Greece and Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +In his important work on the subject already referred to, Prof. +Thomas Wilson (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 806 and 833), cites the opinions of +Prof. Max Müller and Count Goblet d'Alviella as agreeing with +that of Waring, who states that <q>the swastika is sought for in +vain in Babylonia, Assyria and Phœnicia,</q> and <q>had no foothold +in Egypt.</q> The same authority says that: <q>the only sign approaching +the fylfot in Egyptian hieroglyphics ... is not very +similar to our fylfot ... and forms one of the hieroglyphs of Isis</q> +<pb n='460'/><anchor id='Pg460'/> +(Ceramic Art in Remote Ages, p. 82). On the other hand, Professor +Goodyear says (Grammar of the Lotus, p. 356): <q>The +earliest dated swastikas, hitherto found in Egypt, occur on the +foreign Cyprian and Carian [?] pottery fragments of the time of +the twelfth dynasty [B.C. 2466-2266] discovered by Mr. Flinders +Petrie in 1889. In the Third Memoir of the Egypt Exploration +Fund, Prof. Flinders Petrie published illustrations of Greek vases +showing unmistakable swastikas which, though found at Naukratis +in Egypt, are not Egyptian, but Greek.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The only other examples of the swastika in Egypt cited by Prof. +Thomas Wilson are those woven on Coptic grave cloths made of +linen and reproduced in <q>Die Gräber- und Textilfunde von Achmim-Panopolis +by R. Forrer.</q> These grave cloths pertained to the +Christian Greeks who migrated from their country during the first +centuries of our era and settled in Upper Egypt, in Coptos and +the surrounding cities. I am able to add another instance of the +employment of the swastika in Egypt, which, although of Coptic +origin, attaches itself to ancient Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +I have already pointed out that, in Lepsius' Book of the Dead, +the foremost of the gods of the four quarters, represented in +mummy form, exhibited a cross on his right shoulder. During a +recent visit to the Berlin Museum, my attention was arrested by +seeing a swastika painted in precisely the same position, on the +right shoulder of the stucco mummy case of a man, from Hermopolis, +dated from the second century after Christ (Catalogue No. +11649). This remarkable coincidence seems to furnish conclusive +evidence that, long before the introduction of Greek culture and +Christian influence, the plain cross was employed by the ancient +Egyptians in precisely the same way as, subsequently, the swastika +by the Copts. To some of my readers the question will perhaps +suggest itself whether some early Christian sects and, amongst +them, communities of Greek Copts, did not interpret the mission of +Christ literally, as an attempt to reëstablish an earthly <q>kingdom +of heaven</q> on the ancient plan, the knowledge of which had been +preserved at Heliopolis, by the sages and philosophers of Egypt +and the large Hebrew colony established there. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to the swastika: From the account given by Prof. +Thomas Wilson (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, 810) of Schliemann's observations on the +swastikas he discovered, during his excavations on the site of Troy, +we learn that, whereas the swastika occurs on thousands of whorls +<pb n='461'/><anchor id='Pg461'/> +found in the third, fourth and fifth cities, but few whorls were found +in the first and second cities, which were the deepest and oldest +and <emph>none of these bore the swastika mark</emph>. These observations, +added to the appearance of the swastika in Egypt at a comparatively +late period, appear to prove that, whereas the cross-symbol +was known in remotest antiquity in Asia Minor and Egypt and +expressed the same meaning as the swastika, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> Polaris and +circumpolar rotation and the quadruplicate organization of the Cosmos +suggested by these natural phenomena, it was only the form +or shape of the cross which underwent a change at a certain +period. The earliest-dated specimens of this new form, given to +a more ancient symbol, occur on the pottery fragments found in +Egypt by Prof. Flinders Petrie. The presence of the swastika, on +the whorls found in the ruins of the third city built on the site of +Troy, also indicates that its adoption occurred at a fixed date and +marked a new departure. +</p> + +<p> +Referring back to page <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, where I show that the observations +which led to the adoption of the swastika as a symbol could not +possibly have been made until after Ursa Major had become circumpolar, +about B.C. 4000, I point out that the oldest swastikas +which have hitherto been found corroborate this view, since they +are all posterior to the time when Ursa Major became circumpolar. +Long anterior to its adoption, however, the primordial set of ideas, +suggested to the human mind by the observation of natural phenomena, +had reached an advanced stage of development, and had +been worked out, applied to the regulation of human life and +symbolized, in various ways, in widely separated countries. +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible to conclude my comparative research, which has +been rewarded by a most unexpected wealth of material, without +enumerating a few facts connected with the earliest histories of +Rome, ancient Ireland, Britain, Wales and Scandinavia. These +brief and doubtlessly imperfect résumés will have fulfilled their +purpose if they stimulate inquiry and evoke authoritative statements +by learned specialists. +</p> + +<p> +ANCIENT ROME. +</p> + +<p> +Whether Rome <q>was founded by the common resolve of a Latin +confederacy or by the enterprise of an individual chief, is beyond +the reach even of conjecture. The date fixed upon for the commencement +of the city is, of course, perfectly valueless in its +<pb n='462'/><anchor id='Pg462'/> +precision</q> (Chambers' Encyclopædia). <q rend='pre'>According to Varro the +city of Rome was founded B.C. 753, but Cato places the event +four years later.... The day of its foundation was the 21st of +April, which was sacred to the rural goddess Pales. There seems +to be some uncertainty whether Romulus gave his name to the +city or derived his own from it, but those who ascribe to the city +a Grecian origin ... assert that Romulus and Roma are both derived +from the Greek word for <q>strength.</q> The city, we are +assured, had another name which the priests were forbidden to +divulge; but what that was it is now impossible to discover.<note place='foot'>It +would be interesting to learn whether the Arabian title Om-al-kara, <q>the +mother of cities,</q> has ever been connected with Roma by investigators.</note> +There is, however, some plausibility in the conjecture that it was +Pallanteum, and from the great care with which the Palladium, or +image of Pallas, was preserved, it seems probable that the city +was supposed to be under the care of that deity. If this conjecture +be correct, the Pelasgic origin of Rome cannot be doubted, +for Pallas was a Pelasgic deity....</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>The institution of the vestal virgins was older than the city itself +and was regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their +religious system. In the time of Numa there were but four ... +their duty was to keep the sacred fire on the altar in the temple +of Vesta from being extinguished and to preserve a certain sacred +pledge on which the very existence of Rome was supposed to depend.<note place='foot'>It +is recalled here that the twin brothers Romulus and Remus are supposed to +have been the issue of the union, in the temple of Mars, of the vestal virgin Rhea +Silvia with a personification of the god Mars.</note> +What this pledge was we have no means of discovering; +some supposed that it was the Trojan Palladium; others, some +traditional mystery brought by the Pelasgi from Samothrace. +One fact is certain: that the Palatine is regarded as the oldest +portion of the city and the original site and centre of the embryo +mistress of the world and mother of cities, the <hi rend='italic'>Roma quadrata</hi>, +fragments of whose walls have been brought to light.</q><note place='foot'>The +recurrence of the square plan, employed in Babylonia and Egypt (see pp. +<ref target='Pg333'>333</ref> and <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref>), is noteworthy.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Tradition relates that it was on the Palatine that Romulus +marked out the Pomœrium, a space around the walls of the city, on +which it was unlawful to erect buildings.... The next ceremony +was the consecration of the comitium, or place of public assembly. +A vault was built under ground and filled with the firstlings +of all the natural productions that sustain human life and with +<pb n='463'/><anchor id='Pg463'/> +earth which each foreign settler had brought from his home. This +place was called <hi rend='italic'>Mundus</hi></q> (History of Rome, Goldsmith's +abridgment, 21st edition, by W. C. Taylor, p. 13). +</p> + +<p> +This fact furnishes evidence that the sacred central cosmical +vault over which a mound may have been formed by the earth contributed +from different quarters, was regarded as a synopsis of +all, and that sanctity was also attached to the central place of assembly +where justice was administered at regular intervals, weekly +markets were held and religious rites were celebrated.<note place='foot'>In +course of time each Roman civitas, or political canton or community, possessed +such <q>a centre, which was termed capitolium, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +the height, from being originally +fixed on a height or hill-top, corresponding to the Greek akra. Round this stronghold +of the canton, which formed the nucleus of the earliest Latin towns, houses +sprang up, which were in turn surrounded by the oppidum or the urbs (ring-wall +connected with urbus, curvus, orbis); hence, in later times, oppidum and urbs became, +naturally enough, the recognized designations of town and city.</q>—Chambers' +Encyclopædia.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Tradition relates that, after the foundation of the central <q>Mundus,</q> +the founder of Rome established the Sabine town which +occupied the Quirinal and part of the Capitoline hills. <q>The name +of this town most probably was Quirium ... the two cities were +united on terms of equality and the double-faced Janus, stamped +on the earliest Roman coins was probably a symbol of the double +state.</q> It is significant to find not only that Janus was sometimes +depicted with four faces instead of two, in which case he +was called Janus Quadrifrontis, but that references are also made +to the female form of Janus=Jana, the latter being identified +with Diana. Considering that it was from Quirium that the Roman +youths obtained Sabine wives by force, which had been refused to +their entreaties, it would seem as though, originally, as elsewhere, +the men and women of the community resided separately and that +stringent laws regulated their intercourse. In other ancient communities +it has been shown how the separation of the sexes created +in time an upper and lower class, and to the same origin may perhaps +be assigned the most remarkable feature of the Roman constitution, +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the two-fold division of the people into patricians +and plebeians. +</p> + +<p> +While the foregoing statements throw light upon the ideas associated +with the Middle and show that Rome was originally a dual +state, the following facts furnish indications of a quadruplicate +division. At an early period Rome was laid out and enclosed in +a square, the population <emph>was divided into four tribes</emph> and mention +<pb n='464'/><anchor id='Pg464'/> +is made of <q>the state, under Servius Tullius, being an entity +divided into <emph>four cities</emph> and twenty-six tribes ... this being strictly +a geographical division analogous to our parishes. The division +of the city into four tribes continued until the reign of Augustus +(B.C. 29)....</q><note place='foot'>Diocletian (A.D. 292) +revived dual rulership and quadruplicate organization by +instituting the quadruple hierarchy of two Augusti and two Cæsars. The prevalence +of quadruplicate division with current cosmical conceptions is shown by the following +text: <q>The usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur ascending +a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a +<foreign rend='italic'>litus</foreign>. He turned his face to +the east and marked out some distant objects as the limits within which he would make +his observations and <emph>divided mentally the enclosed space into four +divisions</emph>.... He +next ... prayed and offered sacrifices....</q> <q>We learn from ... the augur Cicero +that while the Romans only had four divisions to their heavens-templum, the Etruscans +had sixteen, obtained by bisecting and rebisecting the four angles</q> (O'Neil, +p. 433).</note> +</p> + +<p> +The four chief religious corporations of ancient Rome, mentioned +in the Century Dictionary, evidently correspond to this fourfold +division and it is specially stated of one of these corporations that it +was represented and governed by a group consisting of seven <q>septemvir +epulones</q> who formed a <q>septemvirate.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The number of septemvirs corresponded to the <q>seven hills</q> +which were enclosed by Tullus Hostilius, and it is stated that there +were seven places of worship in ancient Rome. It is interesting +to find that between A.D. 193 and 211, Septimius Severus, a +native of an ancient Punic colony in Africa, erected a Septizonium +(an edifice consisting, like the Babylonian zikkurat, of seven stories) +on the Palatine, where a large temple of Apollo had previously +been built.<note place='foot'><p>The cult of +Ishtar=Isis, associated with mystery and of Serapis=Osiris, had +been instituted in Rome by Domitian (A.D. 82) who caused temples to be built for +them. Curious instances of the spread of the cults of other countries throughout +the Roman empire have come under my personal notice. In the Museum at Bonn, +Germany, there is a Roman tombstone the inscription on which consists of a wheel +above the name Jovis, the association of Jove with the wheel, being very remarkable +and significant in connection with the present subject. +</p> +<p> +At Nîmes in the South of France, a curious statue of Mithra was found in the +ruins of the Roman city. It consists of a Hermes, surmounted by a hairy, dog-like +face. A great serpent is wound around the Hermes, the signs of the zodiac being +sculptured between the coils. In the light of the present investigation the meaning +of the symbolical statue seems too obvious to require explanation. It is strange +that the recollection of seeing this statue at the age of nine with my father, who +pointed out and explained the signs of the zodiac to me, is one of the most vivid +of my childhood.</p></note> +</p> + +<p> +Although it is thus evident that, at different periods, seven-fold +division was carried out in ancient Rome, it was not until after the +reign of Theodosius, according to some authors, that the seven-day +<pb n='465'/><anchor id='Pg465'/> +period was imported from Alexandria and the term <q>septimana</q> +adopted in Rome. <q>Previously to this Rome had counted her +periods by eight days, the eighth day itself being originally called +Nundinæ—a term later applied to the whole cycle</q> (Chambers' +Encyclopædia). Noting that the period of eight (=2×4) +days accords with the quadruplicate system applied to the primitive +state, I draw attention to the numerical classification of the +citizens of Rome employed during centuries, which so curiously +agrees with the system carried out in Peru at a widely sundered +period (see p. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +Ten households formed a gens (clan or family); ten clans or +one hundred households formed a curia or wardship; and ten wardships, +or one hundred clans, or one thousand households formed +a populus, civitas or community. As it is stated that, at one time, +Rome consisted of four cities, it is obvious that the above numbers, +quadrupled, constituted the state which thus included forty wardships, +four hundred gentes and four thousand households. As each +gens possessed a chieftain, endowed with paternal authority over +its members, there must, at one time, have been four hundred of +these <q>patricians,</q> whose number is thus found to correspond to +the Greek <q>Council of 400</q> and curiously enough to the <q>four hundred +Tochtli</q> or governors of the ancient Mexican commonwealth. +</p> + +<p> +A noteworthy feature of the attempt to institute the Decemvirate +in Rome (5th century B.C.) was the arrangement that the ten +chosen men exercised office in prescribed rotation for one day, each +ruling, in consequence, for thirty-six days in the year which, like +the Egyptian, then consisted of three hundred and sixty days and +of an epact of five days. The assignment of a day to each chieftain +finds its parallel not only in Assyria but also in ancient +America (see p. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +In connection with the Roman communal organization, attention +is drawn to what appears to be a remarkable survival of an extremely +ancient and natural mode of distinguishing the wardships. +It is well known that, according to tradition, the republic of Siena, +Italy, was founded at a remote period <q>by the sons of Remus, the +twin brother of Romulus.</q> The following facts prove that, to this +day, certain features of its social organization exhibit an affinity +to that of primitive Rome. <q>Siena, from the earliest day, has +been divided into contrade or parishes. Each contrada has its special +church, generally of great antiquity, and each contrada is +<pb n='466'/><anchor id='Pg466'/> +named after some animal, or natural object, these names being +symbolical of certain trades or customs. There are now the wolf, +giraffe, owl, snail, tower, wave, goose, tortoise, etc., in all seventeen. +Each has its colors, heralds, pages, music, flags; all the mediæval +paraphernalia of republican subdivision</q> (Frances Eliot, +Diary of an idle woman in Italy <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 19). +</p> + +<p> +The employment of the names of animals and natural objects +as distinctive marks for a wardship offers a curious analogy to the +American institution of tribal names and totems. +</p> + +<p> +The circumstance that, in remotest times, the king of Rome, the +acknowledged metropolis or mother city, was accompanied, on public +occasions, by <emph>twelve</emph> lictors or administrators of justice, each +carrying the axe tied in a bundle of rods, shows that, at one time, +the government was administered by thirteen individuals—a method +we shall find again in ancient Ireland and Scandinavia. The history +of Rome reveals that the different variants of governmental +scheme adopted, one after the other, under influences emanating +from Greece and Egypt, were reared upon the familiar universal +plan. The most striking instance of this is, however, furnished +by the details preserved of the groundwork on which Constantine +founded (A.D. 330) the city he intended to be the capital of a +universal empire, and named the New or Second Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Historians relate that the peninsula of Byzantium offered striking +resemblances to the sites of Carthage and Rome. The design +of Constantine embraced the entire peninsula with the seven hills +upon it. <q>On foot, with a lance in his hand, professing to be +under the guidance of divine inspiration, the emperor directed +the line which was traced as the boundary of the destined capital.</q> +... <q>In imitation of Rome at that period, the city was divided +into 2×7=fourteen wards (regiones).... Its centre was +marked by a column ... surmounted by a bronze colossus of +Apollo. The church of S. Sophia, built on the site of an ancient +temple of Wisdom, was subsequently dedicated to 'the Holy +Eternal Wisdom' by Justinian. In the court called the Forum +Augusteum, one side of which was formed by the palace and the +other by the church, stood the Milliarium Aureum, not, as at +Rome, a gilt marble pillar, but a spacious edifice, the centre from +which all the roads of the empire were measured and on the walls +of which the distances to all the chief places were inscribed.... In +the new reunited empire quadruple division was maintained, <emph>the +<pb n='467'/><anchor id='Pg467'/> +empire being divided into four parts</emph>, each forming a prætorian +prefecture under a prætorian prefect, who, being the lieutenant of +the emperor, ruled over the governors and people of the province +with absolute power. The four prefectures were subdivided into +thirteen dioceses, each governed by a vice-prefect named vicarius, +the total number of dioceses being fifty-two.</q> +</p> + +<p> +This system of numeration is of particular interest as it is not +only identical with the system of a modern pack of cards, the +origin of which is unknown, but is also the same as the Mexican +year cycle (see p. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>). Vestiges of sevenfold organization are +traceable in the appointment by Constantine, of <q>seven ministers +of the palace</q> who exercised <q>sacred</q> functions about the +person of the emperor, and the division of all Gaul into seven +provinces placed under the governorship of the Vicar of the Seven +Provinces. In conclusion I venture to point out that the four-storied +amphitheatre of Vespasian (A.D. 71), the Pantheon of +Agrippa (A.D. 23) and the Mausoleum of Hadrian (A.D. 138) +appear to have a cosmical character, the first having been planned +to hold the entire population of Rome, around a central space in +which, originally, the circling chariot simulated the circuit of the +celestial <q>plaustrum</q> or <q>carro</q>=chariot, the Latin name given +to Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p> +While, on public festivals, the amphitheatre must have appeared +as a synopsis of the whole empire and may also have been originally +used for nocturnal, religious or political assemblages, the +great Pantheon enclosing the images of twelve deities, may well +have been a conscious attempt to represent the all-embracing Cosmos +of Egyptian and Greek philosophy, the framed view of the +heaven, seen through the central opening in the dome, being the +symbol of the <q>hidden and invisible god,</q> of the initiated. To +Hadrian, who visited Egypt twice and was undoubtedly acquainted +with the idea of Plato's Cosmos or Theos, the idea of building a +great circular structure in the centre of which he would be laid to +rest, would naturally have suggested itself. Passing from a consideration +of the buildings which, with the pyramids, appear to be +among the grandest exponents of natural philosophy and religion +ever reared by the hand of man, and clearly appear to have been +planned under the direct influence of Egyptian and Greek philosophy, +let us briefly glance at the mode in which the identical fundamental +scheme was perpetuated among some northern peoples. +</p> + +<pb n='468'/><anchor id='Pg468'/> + +<p> +ANCIENT IRELAND, BRITAIN AND WALES. +</p> + +<p> +It is a remarkable fact that, in ancient Ireland, we find distinct +traces of a state, founded on the same crystallized artificial system +that has been found at the basis of the most ancient civilizations +of the world. <q>There is really no authentic history of Ireland +before the introduction of Christianity into the country, but there +are some genuine traditions which appear based upon truth, because +they accord with and explain the peculiar customs which were found +to prevail in the island at the time of the English invasion. These +traditions declare, that the original Celtic inhabitants were subdued +by an Asiatic colony, or at least by the descendants of some Eastern +people at a very remote period; they aver that the conquerors +were as inferior to the original inhabitants in numbers as they +were superior in military discipline and the arts of social life; they +describe the conquest as a work of time and trouble and assert +that, after its completion, an hereditary monarchy and hereditary +aristocracy were for the first time established in Ireland....</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>At some unknown period Ireland was divided into five kingdoms, +Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Munster and Meath ... the latter +being the property of the paramount sovereign ...</q> (W. C. +Taylor, History of Ireland, 1837). +</p> + +<p> +John O'Neil cites <q>the very oldest Irish books, according to +which two brothers, the leaders of the Milesian colonization, +divided Ireland into Northern and Southern kingdom.</q> Elsewhere +he relates how a prince of the north had been united in marriage +to the princess of the south and that <q>the mythical Niall-Navi-giallach +of the nine treasures had had a Northern king for father +and a Southern princess for mother.</q> Besides this subdivision +which strikingly recalls the ancient Egyptian, O'Neil brings out the +remarkable fact that definite positions in relation to each other +and the cardinal points were assigned to the five Irish kings and tells +us that <q>we have a fuller and later division when, in the central +hall, the miodh-chuarta of Tara, the king of Erinn sat in the centre, +with his face to the East, the king of Ulster being at his +North, the king of Munster at his South, while the king of Leinster +sat opposite to him and the king of Connaught behind him</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, 463). +</p> + +<p> +I refer the reader to his extremely interesting comparison (<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +p. 369) of ancient Ireland being <q>an Irish instance of a Chinese +<pb n='469'/><anchor id='Pg469'/> +<q>Middle Kingdom,</q></q> and to the data given in connection with the +great hall of Tara, which was called Meath or Mid-court, Miodchuarta +(pronounced Micôrta), and the Northern hill of Miodhchaoinn +(or Midkena), guarded by Miodhchaoinn and his three sons, the +guardians of the hill being thus four in all. O'Neil also refers to +<q>the great idol or castrum of Kilair ... which was surrounded +by twelve smaller ones and was called the stone and umbilicus of +Hibernia and, as if placed in the midst and middle of the land, +<q>medio et meditullio</q>....</q> <q>Meath itself, where this Kilair navel +stood, was anciently the central one of the five divisions of Ireland +and is called Media by Giraldus Cambrensis, ... and connected +with the words medi-tullium and medi-tullus.</q> The legend states +that <q>the castrum of Kilair and the stones around it were transported +by Merlin to Stonehenge and <q>set up in the same order.</q></q><note place='foot'>The +curious association of the number seven with Stonehenge in gypsy folk-lore, +which possibly contains vestiges of Druidical folk-lore, is brought out by R. G. +Haliburton in his paper on <q>Gypsy folk-lore as to Stonehenge,</q> to which I refer the +reader.</note> +<q>At Mag Slecht was the chief idol of Ireland, called Cenn Craich +(Mound-chief) covered with gold and silver, and twelve other idols +about it, covered with brass</q> (O'Neil, p. 273). +</p> + +<p> +<q>The five Irish kingdoms were again subdivided into several +principalities inhabited by distinct <q>septs,</q> each ruled by its own +carfinny or chieftain. The obedience of these local rulers or toparchs +to the provincial sovereign was regulated, like his to the +general monarch, by the powers that he possessed for enforcing +authority.... The succession to every degree of sovereignty +was regulated by the law of tanistry, which limited heredity right +to the family but not to the individual.... Each district was +deemed the common property of the entire sept; but the distribution +of the several shares was entrusted to the toparch.... +The lower orders were divided into freemen and hetages, or as +they were called by the Normans, villanis. The former had the +privilege of choosing their tribe; the latter were bound to the soil +and transferred with it in any grant or deed of sale.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ruined groups of buildings, consisting of seven sanctuaries or +churches, situated around a round, high tower, usually with four +windows near the top, opening to the cardinal points, exist in various +parts of Ireland, the Seven Churches in County Wicklow +being the most famous example. The cosmical character of the +<pb n='470'/><anchor id='Pg470'/> +round towers has been set forth by John O'Neil, to whose work I +refer the reader. According to my views the groups testify to the +establishment, at one time, of several septarchies in Ireland, the +geographical centres of which, as in Assyria and elsewhere, were +marked in this case by the cosmical round tower, figuring the axis +or spindle, around which each sept built its council house, for religious +and political assemblies.<note place='foot'>In the case +of Mayapan, Yucatan, the practical use of analogous council-houses is +described (p. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>). +The Irish tower and seven houses are remarkably in accord with +the scheme of organization used in ancient Greece where, at Tenos, each gens was +known as <q>a tower</q> and each gens, as well as its town, was divided into at least +seven parts (p. <ref target='Pg456'>456</ref>).</note> +In connection with such it is interesting +to read what Cæsar says of the priests and judges of +Gaul, which was organized into seven provinces, as late as at the +time of Constantine: <q>These Druids held a meeting at a certain +time of the year in a consecrated place in the country of the Carnutes +[modern Chartres] which country is considered to be in the +centre of all Gaul.</q> It is well known that anterior to the Roman +Conquest there existed in Britain a long-established, seven-fold +state, governed by seven kings, compared by John Speed (1630) to +seven crowned pillars. +</p> + +<p> +The kingdom of Mercia included the counties in the centre of +the kingdom and is said to have been founded by Crida or Creoda. +The central and chief ruler of Britain was styled Bretwalda. It is +well known that Stonehenge, which is associated in folk-lore with +the number seven, is situated in the heart of the plain region of +England and is supposed to have been the seat of central religion +and government.<note place='foot'>John Speed relates +that one of the kings of Kent, named Catigera, <q>was interred +upon a plain where his monument vulgarly called <q>citscotehouse,</q> consisted of four +stones pitched in the manner of the stonehenge.</q> It is tempting to see in the four +stones <q>pitched</q> around the grave, the underlying thought of a resting-place in the +cosmical centre, of the symbolized four quarters, and to view the prehistoric crosses +of Ireland and Scotland as emblematic of the Middle and Four Quarters, associated +with secret pole-star and cosmical cult and employed as symbols of time and of +quadruplicate government.</note> +</p> + +<p> +It is moreover acknowledged by Knight that the ancient Britons +were a people who evidently had some great principle of association +in their religion as in their industry. The familiar fact, that +at one period the ancient Kent, Cantium, was governed by four +kings, also styled <q>the four princes of Cantii,</q> furnishes an indication +that quadruplicate division was also known to the ancient +Britons. +</p> + +<pb n='471'/><anchor id='Pg471'/> + +<p> +A few instructive facts concerning Welsh Druidism may be appropriately +cited here. +</p> + +<p> +Morien has pointed out that the Druidic Celi Ced corresponds +to Amen-Ra, the Egyptian Hidden Sun. According to Welsh +system the universe was born of Celi-Ced, a dual power, Celi +being the masculine and Ced the feminine principle. Ceridwen is +termed the Welsh Isis, and her name translated as <q>the producing +woman.</q> Celi is invariably represented as <emph>hidden</emph>, the three +Hus representing him in manifestation. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The three Hus are: Hu cylch y Cengant=the Hu of the circle +of infinitude; Hu cylch y Sidydd=the Hu of the circle of the +zodiac and Hu yn Nghnawd=Hu incarnate. The latter was incarnate +in the Arch Druid. He, standing in the middle of the +Gorsedd circle, where the triple life lines met, implied by his action +that the three emanations which had their root in the dual Ced-Celi, +focussed themselves in him. He stood facing the east where +the sun rises</q> (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> the ceremonial position assumed by the king +of Erin in council and that of the Roman augur on drawing his +templum). <q>The name for the physical sun was Huan, translated +as <q>the abode of divinity.</q></q> <q>The Druidic bards of N. Wales +worshipped Beli.</q><note place='foot'>Celi-Ced and +the cult of the wren. Theosophical review, June 15, 1900.</note> +</p> + +<p> +In Welsh legend a god named Peredur Paladye Hir (of the long +spear or pal) is associated with his brother, both sons of Eliffer, +one of the <emph>thirteen princes of the north</emph>. Peredur is one of seven +brothers; there were seven profound mysteries of Druidism, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +seven divisions of the reverberations of the Word, emanating from +Ced, and the seven Tattaras or seven rays. +</p> + +<p> +SCANDINAVIA. +</p> + +<p> +According to the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturlesson, whose +opinion was the re-echo of ancient traditional beliefs, Odin and his +eight sons and four companions, twelve in all, were earthly kings +and priests of a sacerdotal caste, who had emigrated from Asia—perhaps +from Troy—and who conquered and ruled over various +parts of Scandinavia and Northern Germany where, after their +death, they were regarded by the people as deities (Chambers' +Encyclopædia). +</p> + +<p> +O'Neil states <q>that Odin was named Mith-Odinn (Mid-Odin?) +<pb n='472'/><anchor id='Pg472'/> +by Saxo Grammaticus,</q> and quotes the following: <q>Odinn died +in his bed, in Sweden, and when he was near his death he made +himself be marked with the point of a spear and said he was going +to Godheim</q> (Ingliga Saga). <q>The twelve <foreign rend='italic'>godes</foreign> +or diar or drotnar +of Odin were obviously cognate to our <emph>god</emph> as a name of a +deity. They (or the priests who represented them) directed sacrifices +and judged the people, and all the people served and obeyed +them</q> (O'Neil <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, p. 76). +</p> + +<p> +A strange reality is given to Odin and his twelve <q>godes,</q> when +it is realized that at Mora, near Upsala, Sweden, there exists the +ancient stone throne on which the ancient kings of Sweden were +crowned and this central stone is surrounded by twelve lesser +stones, just as the Irish <q>Mound-chief</q> was surrounded by +twelve idols. +</p> + +<p> +While the above facts suffice to indicate that, in remotest antiquity, +the government of the state was vested in one supreme and +twelve minor chiefs, the following brief extracts from the Eddas +reveal the cosmical beliefs of the Norsemen: <q>In the cold north +existed Niflheim in the middle of which was a well from which +sprang twelve rivers. In the south existed the warm Muspelheim. +There was a contention between both of these worlds.... The +union of heat and cold produced Oergelmer or Chaos, and the first +human being, Ymir. The revolving eye of the Norse world-millstone +was directly above Oergelmer and through it the waters +flowed to and from the great fountain of the Universe waters.</q> +Ymir drew his nourishment from four streams of milk proceeding +from the mythical cow Aedhumla. Subsequently he was slain by +three divine brothers who carried his body to the <emph>middle</emph> of Ginnungagap, +and formed from it the earth and the heavens ... +of his skull they formed the heavens, at each of the four corners +of which stood a dwarf, viz: Austri at the East, Vestri at the west, +Northri at the north and Suthri at the south.... When +heaven and earth were formed, the chief gods or Oesir, of whom +there were twelve, met in the Centre of the world and built Midgardr +or Asgard, the yard, city or stronghold of the Middle and of +the Asen=the gods. It was situated on the Himinbiorg, or Hill +of Heaven, on the summit of which was the ash-tree, Yggdrasil, +whose branches spread over the whole world and tower over the +heavens. +</p> + +<p> +The following is from the prose Edda: <q>Then the sons of +<pb n='473'/><anchor id='Pg473'/> +Bõr built in the middle of the universe the city called Asgard, +where dwell the gods and their kindred, and <emph>from that abode work +out so many wondrous things both on earth and in the heavens above +it</emph>. There is in that city a place called Hlidskjalf, and when Odin +is seated there upon his lofty throne, he sees over the whole world.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In the Eddas we find evidences that while Odin or All-fader +was the ruler of heaven, his powerful son Thor was <q>the ruler of +Thrudheim and drove through the world in a chariot and became +the supreme god.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The following facts, taken from Mr. Allen's <q>Star-names,</q> established +the association of Thor with Polaris and the Ursæ. +<q>In ancient times the northern nations termed Ursa Major <q>the +wagon of Odin, Woden or Wuotan, the father of Thor.</q><note place='foot'>Light +is thrown upon the possible conception of Ursa Major as Thor's wagon and +the most primitive form of chariots in general by the archaic chariot of state used, +to this day, in Corea and formerly in Japan. It is one-wheeled and the seat, destined +for one person, is placed high above the single wheel and rests upon two long poles, +the ends of which project in front and behind. Four men are required to support +and push this chariot of state, a fine example of which has lately been secured for +the Museum of Salem, Mass., by Prof. E. S. Morse.</note> The +Danes, Swedes and Icelanders also knew it as Stori Vagn, the +Great Wagon and as Karl's Vagn; Karl being Thor, their chief +god of whom the old Swedish Rhyme Chronicle of Upsala says +<q>... The god Thor was the highest of them. He sat naked as a +child, seven stars in his hand and Charles' Wain.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +The <q>throne of Thor</q> or <q>Smaller Chariot,</q> was the name given +to Polaris (Ursa Minor) by the early Danes and Icelanders and +their descendants still call it the <q>Litli Vagn,</q> the little wagon. +The Finns, apparently alone among the northern nations of Europe +in this conception, named Ursa Minor, Vähä Otawa, the Little +Bear. They, however, termed Polaris, Taehti, <q>the star at the top +of the heavenly mountain.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is striking how clearly, in Scandinavia, the Middle is associated +with a sacred mountain and tree, the world axis, a heavenly +city, an enthroned central god, and with Polaris, Ursa Major and +the idea of eternal circumpolar rotation expressed by the wain +eternally wheeled around the throne of Thor. To any one imbued +with the ideas set forth above, the signification of the Scandinavian, +Druidic, New Year festival, the name for which was <q>the +wheel</q> (yule, yeol, yeul, hjol, hiugl, hjul), must clearly appear as +the date on which the complete circuit of the Ursæ around the +<pb n='474'/><anchor id='Pg474'/> +pole, was ceremonially registered. It is obvious that this could +best be expressed by a circle being drawn around the swastika or +cross, to which the fourth arm would be added, completing thus +the registration of the four seasons, marked by the opposite positions +assumed by the Ursæ at nightfall. It is well known that the +wheel-cross, swastika, triskeles and S-figure constitute, with the +winding serpent and the tau, named Thor's hammer, the main symbols +of ancient Scandinavia (see fig. <ref target='Figure_13'>13</ref>, +p. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> and fig. <ref target='Figure_38'>38</ref>, p. +<ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>). I +venture to point out how obviously Thor's hammer symbolizes the +union of the Above and Below, the heaven represented by the horizontal +line resting on the perpendicular support, symbolizing the +sacred pole, column, mountain and tree intimately associated with +Polaris, the world axis. +</p> + +<p> +As a suggestion only, I venture to point out how, the old Norse +name for star being tjara and for tree=tar, the rôle of the tree +in Druidic cult would be fully accounted for, the initiated only +being aware that it was but a rebus symbol of the secret or hidden +star-god Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +It can readily be seen how natural or artificial elevations and +erected stones, trees, staffs or poles must have been used as means +of determining the positions of the Ursæ at the public celebration +of the Yule festival and that the ceremony of kindling of new fire +was observed at the time when the <q>wheel</q> was supposed to begin +its new annual revolution. +</p> + +<p> +Reflection clearly shows that pole-star worship must have taken a +stronger hold upon the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia and their +descendants, the seafaring Vikings, than upon any other nation. +We are compelled to admit that the recognition that Polaris formed +the centre of axial rotation and the middle of the sky, would have +impressed itself most profoundly upon observers stationed in the +latitude where winter darkness prevailed and the pole-star appeared +to be nearly overhead. Under such conditions the association +of the opposite positions of the Septentriones with directions +in space, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, the cardinal points, would be most striking. +</p> + +<p> +What is more: the re-appearance of the sun, after the long darkness +of a northern winter, must have established the idea of a +fixed relationship between certain positions of Ursa Major and +the solstitial position of the sun. It may indeed be said that the +observation of the solstices and equinoxes was forced upon the +inhabitants of the north as nowhere else on the globe and that it +<pb n='475'/><anchor id='Pg475'/> +may perhaps be therefore designated as the birthplace of primitive +astronomy. +</p> + +<p> +The origin of the idea of an all-pervading duality and the chains +of association which linked Light and the Sun to air and water, +and to the male element, whilst Darkness and the Nocturnal +Heaven became connected with earth, fire and woman, are clearly +accounted for in the circumpolar regions only, where the year divides +itself into a period of light in which independent and roaming +out-door life was possible, and a period of darkness during +which family life, in underground fire-lit dwellings, was compulsory. +If fathomed, the mind of the Eskimo to-day may possibly +reveal the germs of identical associations of ideas, for it would +seem as though existence in the polar regions would infallibly stamp +them indelibly upon the consciousness of all living creatures, until +they unconsciously pervaded their entire being and even affected +the structural organization of the human brain.<note place='foot'>It +is with keenest interest that I look forward to learning, from the distinguished +archæologists of Sweden, among whom I have the honor of having highly-esteemed, +personal friends, how far their observation and deeper knowledge lead them to entertain +views I have advanced concerning the origin of the swastika and the influence +of pole-star worship upon the development of primitive religion and social organization. +It is from them that I expect information as to the relation of the prehistoric +inhabitants of Scandinavia to the ancient centres of civilization which have been +discussed.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The tendency to believe that the human race must have spent +its infancy near the pole and received there an intellectual stamp, +which could not have been conveyed to it so clearly in any other +latitude, is undoubtedly encouraged by the opinion of various authorities, +that <q>all forms of life must have originated at the pole, +this having been the first habitable portion of our world.</q> This +view is exhaustively treated in William Fairfield Warren's <q>Paradise +Found, the cradle of the human race at the North Pole</q> +(Boston, 1885), to which I refer the reader and which contains +much valuable data which I would have incorporated in the present +investigation had I had earlier access to the volume. It would seem +as though Warren's conclusions were in perfect accord with the +conclusions arrived at by some leading palæontologists, geologists +and botanists, concerning the distribution of life on the globe. +These are conveniently summarized in the article on <q>Distribution</q> +in the Encyclopædia Britannica, from which the following detached +excerpts are made for the benefit of the reader. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The general result arrived at is that the great northern continents +<pb n='476'/><anchor id='Pg476'/> +represent the original seat of mammalian life and the regions +of its highest development.... The tertiary fauna of North +America, compared with that of Europe, exhibits proofs of a former +communication between the two northern continents both in the +North Atlantic and North Pacific, but always, probably, in rather +high latitudes. This is indicated both by the groups which appear +to have originated in one continent and then to have passed across +to the other and also by the entire absence from America of many +important groups which abounded in Europe (and <hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>) +indicating that the communication between the two hemispheres was +always imperfect and of limited duration.... On the other +hand, the marked continuity of the Northern Flora (with only +a gradual east and west change in the arctic regions, but with an +increased divergency southwards) requires it to be treated as a +whole, although it has long been divided into that of the old and +new world by the severance of North America from Northern Asia +and by the barrier to an interchange of vegetation in the upheaval +of the Rocky Mountain range. The old and new world divisions +of the flora which, no doubt, began to diverge from the mere influence +of distance, have now had that divergence immensely +increased by isolation.... Large American genera (of the +intermediate flora) have sent off offsets into Eastern Asia which, +gradually diminishing in number of species and sometimes slightly +modifying their character, have spread over the whole of Asia and +invaded almost every part of Europe.... With regard to +the arctic alpine flora, Hooker found that, estimating the whole +arctic flora at 762 species, arctic East America possessed 379 of +which 269 are common to Scandinavia. Of the whole flora 616 +species are found in arctic Europe and of these 586 are Scandinavian +and this leads Hooker to the striking observation that <q>the +Scandinavian flora is present in every latitude of the globe and +is the only one that is so.</q> According to Bentham, Scandinavia, +which would, according to older rules, have been termed the centre +of creation for the arctic regions, may now be termed the chief +centre of preservation within the arctic circle owing, perhaps, to +its more broken conformation and partly to that warmer climate +... which was, during the glacial period a means of preservation +of some colder species which were everywhere expelled or +destroyed.... We may infer that, towards the close of the +Tertiary epoch, the continuous circumpolar land was covered with +<pb n='477'/><anchor id='Pg477'/> +a vegetation also largely composed of identical plants, but adapted +to a warmer climate. As the climate became less warm there +would commence a migration southwards which would result in +the modified descendants of these plants being now blended with +the vegetation of central Europe and the United States. As the +glacial period gradually advanced, the tropical plants will have retreated +from both sides towards the equator followed in the rear +by the temperate productions and these by the arctic. When the +climate of the earth again ameliorated, the migration took place +in a reverse direction and in this way mountain ranges became the +havens of refuge for the fragments of the original arctic flora +which were exterminated on the lowlands. An indication of the +great antiquity of the arctic alpine flora is afforded by the fact of +its absence in the comparatively modern volcanic mountains of +France.... If it be granted that the polar area was once +occupied by the Scandinavian flora and that the cold of the glacial +epoch did drive this vegetation downwards ... in arctic America +... where there was a free southern extension and dilatation +of land for the same Scandinavian plants to occupy, these would +multiply enormously in individuals....</q> +</p> + +<p> +The following remarkable results of recent botanical research +will be found to be of profound interest to investigators and to +support the foregoing conclusions. Amongst the many important +discoveries of hitherto undescribed species of plants, made by the +distinguished botanists Mr. Stephen Sommier and Dr. Emile Levier +during their expedition in the Caucasus mountains, in 1890, was +that of a species of fungus named <hi rend='italic'>Exobasidium discoideum</hi> Ell., +which was found growing on the <hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron flaro</hi> L. This +fungus was submitted to Prof. P. Magnus of Berlin, who pronounced +it to be the identical Exobasidium which has been found +growing on the <hi rend='italic'>Azalea viscosa</hi> L. in New Jersey, U. S. A. +The following is the authoritative statement of Prof. P. Magnus +which appears in Messrs. S. Sommier and E. Levier's Enumeratorio +plantarum caucas: acta horti petropolitani, vol. XVI. St. +Petersburg, 1899. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The occurrence of the identical species of fungus on two closely +related plants, which respectively grow in the Caucasus and in +North America and are missing in intermediate countries, deserves +our deepest interest.... These plants are relics of the +Tertiary period, during which North America and Europe still +<pb n='478'/><anchor id='Pg478'/> +formed a continuous floral area. While the plants, on which the +fungus grew, differentiated into two closely related species, in two +at present widely separated but formerly connected radii of distribution, +the parasitical Exobasidium remained outwardly unaltered. +This is exactly like the case of another fungus, <hi rend='italic'>Uromyces +glycyrrhizæ</hi>, which I have described and explained in the +<q>Berichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft</q> (Bd. VII, +1890, S. 377-384). <hi rend='italic'>Exobasidium disc.</hi> is also a parasitical fungus +which has been growing on the parent form of <hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron viscosum</hi> +and <hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron flavum</hi> ever since that period when North +America and Europe were continuous and possessed the same flora.</q> +</p> + +<p> +I am also indebted to Professor Magnus and to Dr. Levier for +the following names of closely allied species of plants which are +found in America and Asia only, it being particularly noticeable +that it is in Asia Minor and the Caucasus mountains that the relatives +of the American species are most frequently met with. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Platanus occidentalis</hi>: North America.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Platanus orientalis</hi>: Asia Minor.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Liquidambar styraciflua</hi>: North America.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Liquidambar styraciflua</hi>: Asia.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron viscosum</hi>: North America.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron flavum</hi>: Caucasus Mts.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron maximum</hi>: North America.<lb/> +<hi rend='italic'>Rhododendron ponticum</hi>: Causasus Mts. +</p> + +<p> +Professor Magnus has, moreover, recently pointed out that the +fungus Uropyxis, which is a widespread American species and +grows in Mexico, has a representative in Manchuria. In his monograph +on Uropyxis, Professor Magnus enumerates further species +of fungi which occur in America and Asia only and are missing in +other portions of the world (P. Magnus, Berichten der Deutschen +Botanischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang 1899. Band <hi rend='smallcaps'>xvii</hi>, Heft 3). +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to Professor Edward S. Morse's trite article, +Was Middle America peopled from Asia? (Appleton's Popular Science +Monthly, November, 1898), I cite, from this, the following +authoritative statements: <q>From the naturalist's standpoint the +avenues have been quite as open for the circumpolar distribution of +man as they have been for the circumpolar distribution of other +animals and plants, down to the minutest land snail and low fungus. +The ethnic resemblances supposed to exist between the peoples of +<pb n='479'/><anchor id='Pg479'/> +the two sides of the Pacific may be the result of an ancient distribution +around the northern regions of the globe.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The very remarkable survival of certain plants and fungi, dating +from the Tertiary period, in two such widely sundered countries as +Asia Minor and North America, certainly finds a curious and striking +parallel in the analogy of the cosmical ideas and social organization +of Babylonia and Assyria with those of Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +What is more: A cosmical scheme, attributable to a prolonged +observation of natural celestial phenomena, such as could best +have been carried on in circumpolar regions, has been shown to be +as widespread as the Scandinavian flora which <q>is present in every +latitude and is the only one that is so.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Many of my readers will doubtless be inclined to explain the +identity of cosmical and religious conceptions, social organization, +and architectural plans shown to have existed in the past between +the inhabitants of both hemispheres, as the result of independent +evolution, dating from the period when primitive man, emerging +from savagery, was driven southward from circumpolar regions, +carrying with him a set of indelible impressions which, under the +influence of constant pole-star worship, sooner or later developed +and brought forth identical or analogous results. +</p> + +<p> +Those who hold this view may perhaps go so far as to consider +the possibility that, before drifting asunder, the human race had already +discovered, for instance, the art of fire-making and of working +in stone, had adopted the sign of the cross as a year-register, +and evolved an archaic form of social organization. To many this +view may furnish a satisfactory explanation of the universal spread +of identical ideas and the differentiation of their subsequently independent +evolution. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, another class of readers may prefer to think +that, while both hemispheres may have originally been populated +by branches of the same race, at an extremely low stage of intellectual +development, civilization and a plan of social organization +may have developed and been formulated sooner in one locality +than in another, owing to more favorable conditions and thence have +been spread to both continents by a race, more intelligent and enterprising +than others, who became the intermediaries of ancient +civilization. +</p> + +<p> +The great problem of the origin of American peoples lies far +beyond the scope of the present work and its final solution can +<pb n='480'/><anchor id='Pg480'/> +only be obtained at some future day by the joint coöperation of +Americanists and Orientalists. On the other hand certain incontrovertible +facts which throw light upon the question of prehistoric +contact have been coming under my observation during my prolonged +course of study and the presentation of these may advance +knowledge by acting as a stimulus to discussion, inquiry and research +by learned specialists. +</p> + +<p> +For ready reference I submit the following tabulated record of +the widely sundered countries in which are found, applied to the +governmental scheme, the same cosmical divisions, respectively +consisting of four, seven and thirteen parts, the group being invariably +associated with the idea of an all-embracing One, constituting +the Four in One, Seven in One and Thirteen in One. It is superfluous +to add that, in each country enumerated, the existence of more +or less distinct traces of an ancient pole-star worship and the cult +of the sacred Middle, the Above and Below and Four Quarters, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, +the four, seven and thirteen directions in space, have been recorded +in the preceding pages. Important additional facts, acquired by +reference to Hewitt's Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, to which +my attention was directed by Mr. Stansbury Hagar, and to other +valuable works, will be found included in the following summary. +</p> + +<p> +It would be of utmost assistance to me in my future researches +and I would regard it as a personal favor if specialists would draw +my attention to any deficiencies they may detect, and inform me +of the latest results of their individual investigations bearing upon +the subjects under consideration. +</p> + +<p> +INDIA. +</p> + +<p> +Seven zones, seven directions in space, seven sages. +</p> + +<p> +<q>The conception of the confederated kingdom formed of six dependent +and allied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in +the centre.</q>... <q>It is this conception which is worked out in +the six kingdoms surrounding the central kingdom of Jambudvipa, +into which they divided India. This form of kingdom still survives +in those which form the tributary states of Chota Nagpore, for in +all of these the central province is ruled by the king and those surrounding +it by his subordinate chiefs ...</q><note place='foot'><p>Hewitt states +(p. 90) that, <q>it was successively immigrating races from the North +... who placed a king at the head of the confederated provinces formed from their +confederated villages.... The confederate form of these kingdoms is shown in +such names as Chuttisgurh which means the 36 gurhs or united provinces. But the +final consolidated form of the pre-Aryan Indian village was that framed by the Kushites. +It was they who placed the royal province in the centre of the kingdom.... +It was on these principles that the government of the Ooraon village of Chota +Nagpore was constructed. The Ooraon form of village government is that which has +been preserved with less alteration from subsequent invaders than that of any other +part of India, for the Ooraons, Mundas, Ho-kals and Bhuyas have always been able, +under the protection of their mountain fastnesses, their political organization and +their natural love of independence, to keep their country free from the interference +of the hated Sadhs, the name by which they call the Hindus. But these people, who +repelled and held themselves aloof from later invaders were of no less foreign origin +than those who succeeded them, for they were all formed by the union with the matriarchal +Australioids <emph>and patriarchal Mongols or Finnish and other Northern stocks</emph>, +most of whom were formed into confederated tribes of artisans and agriculturists in +Asia Minor and it was from the southern part of Asia Minor or Northern Palestine, +that the Ooraons came. They themselves say that they came from Western India, +from the land of Ruhidas [the land of the red men], but this means Syria, the country +whose people were called Rotou by the Egyptians, and they were the race who introduced +barley and plough-tillage into India and Chota Nagpore.</q> +</p> +<p> +Particular attention is drawn to Wylie's statements, quoted on p. +<ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, concerning +the migration of Israelites to China, via Persia (about A.D. 58-75) and the native +record that Christianity was the ancient religion of Ta-Tsin=Syria. Hewitt's +identification of Syria as the <q>red land</q> causes the Ooraon and Chinese traditions to +agree in assigning it as the common source of origin of their civilization. According +to Professor Sayce it was <q>about B.C. 600 that the Phœnicians penetrated to the +northwest coast of India,</q> and <q>tradition brought them originally from the +Persian Gulf</q> (Ancient Empire of the East, p. 183).</p></note> (Hewitt, Ruling +Races of Prehistoric Times, p. 256). +</p> + +<pb n='481'/><anchor id='Pg481'/> + +<p> +Four lakes, four rivers, four cosmical divisions, four guardians, +p. <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>In the Gond <q>Song of Lingal,</q> it is related how, Lingal, having +been slain by the confederacy [of six kingdoms surrounding +seventh], came to life again, and with four new-born Gonds, +founded a new race of Gonds; taught them to build houses and +to grow millets.... He divided the people into <emph>four tribes</emph>.... +With these he united the four tribes descended from the Gonds he +had brought down in his first avatar.... These formed the eight +united races of the tortoise-earth.... Lingal placed among them +priests ... who married the new-comers to the daughters of +the previous immigrants.... This ... marks the first stage of +the union of the Kushikas and the Maghadas, the latter being the +race who worshipped the mother-Maga as the sacred alligator</q> +(Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +<q>According to the Mahābhārata the two races of Kushikas and +Maghadas were united under one king.... This land was called +by Hindu geographers Saka-dvipa, said in the Mataya Purana to +be the land of the mountain whence Indra gets the rain;</q> that is +of the mountain called Khar-sah-kurra, Ushidhan and Savkanta. +<q>This mountain stood as the meeting point of the two confederacies +<pb n='482'/><anchor id='Pg482'/> +of the patriarchal tribes and the matriarchal races.... Each +confederacy is formed by six kingdoms surrounding a seventh or +ruling kingdom in the centre.... This, in the Iranian federation, +is Khavaniras or Huaniratha and in India, Jambu-dvipa, the land +of the Jambu tree.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Hewitt publishes an interesting drawing (reproduced as fig. +<ref target='Figure_73'>73</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>), +formed <q>by the union of the four triangles representing +the Southeastern and Northwestern races, who all looked on the +mother mountain of the East, whence Indra gets the rain, as their +national birthplace, where they became united as the Kushite race, +the confederation of civilized man. It represents the Greek cross +and the double dorje or thunderbolt of Vishnu and Indra and also +a map of the Indian races, as distributed at the time of the union. +It also forms, with spaces left open for the parent rivers, ... an +octahedron or eight-sided figure ... and the angles of the tribal +angles form the swastika ... the sign of the rain-god ..., the +great Sar of the Phœnicians....</q> Referring the reader to Hewitt's +interesting discussion of this figure with which he associates the +origin of the swastika, I point out a fact he barely notices, namely +that the figure coincides with the description of Mt. Meru, associated +with four lakes, four rivers, four mythical animals and four +guardians (p. <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref>). It is in connection with the cosmical Middle +Mountain that the foundation of an earthly kingdom on the same +plan becomes significant and the distribution of races figured by +Mr. Hewitt assumes utmost importance. The representation of +the four races by <q>tribal triangles,</q> is of special interest when +collated with the Egyptian sign for city or state and the pyramid, +the building of which I have several times alluded to as an event +facilitating, symbolizing and commemorating the foundation of a +quadruplicate state (pp. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> and +<ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +ARABIA. +</p> + +<p> +<q>In the land of Arabia, of the irrigating and building Minyans +and star-worshipping Sabæans, the land of the Queen of Sheba, +or the number seven (sheba) ... a fresh confederacy was formed, +to rival that of the Kushite mountain of the East ...</q> (Hewitt, +p. 291). +</p> + +<p> +It is significant that among the Sabæans the seven-day period +prevailed. +</p> + +<pb n='483'/><anchor id='Pg483'/> + +<p> +ASSYRIA. +</p> + +<p> +Seven directions of heaven and earth, seven territorial districts, +seven mountains, seven kings, seven-staged towers, seven year +and day periods, etc., pp. <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>, +<ref target='Pg348'>348</ref> and <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Four-god cities, square cities, square four-storied towers, four +cities, four regions or provinces, four-fold power embodied in king +wearing cross, tetrarchies (?). +</p> + +<p> +EGYPT. +</p> + +<p> +Seven classes of people, seven districts, seven-day period, pp. +<ref target='Pg300'>300</ref> and <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>.<note place='foot'>The +recent discovery, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, of the mummy of Aha-Mena, and +of six other kings of the first dynasty, suggests the possibility that they may have +reigned simultaneously and constituted a heptarchy(?). Although it would materially +affect Egyptian and Babylonian-Assyrian chronology as it now stands, historians +may yet find it necessary to make a revision taking into deeper consideration the +existence of tetrarchies and heptarchies in which a number of kings and subrulers +reigned simultaneously.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Quadruplicate division of capital and state, four fields of heaven, +p. <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Sacerdotal group consisting of 12+1=13 individuals, p. <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Division of the country, at one time, into twelve parts (Ast). +</p> + +<p> +CHINA. +</p> + +<p> +Seven Manchurian tribes, p. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Four provinces, four mountains, four seas, p. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>; four classes +of seven each, p. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +At the summit of the present administration in Pekin, Four +Grand Secretaries, two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese.<note place='foot'>To +assist these four principal secretaries are two under-secretaries, one Manchu +and one Chinese, and a board of ten assistants. Together, these sixteen secretaries +divided between two races, constitute a grand secretariat, which acts as nearly as +possible as the cabinet of the Emperor. (Missions in China. Jas. S. Dennis, D.D.)</note> +</p> + +<p> +Twelve districts, p. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +ANCIENT JAPAN. +</p> + +<p> +The <q>Seven divine generations,</q> each consisting of a god and +goddess. +</p> + +<p> +Four classes of people, 2×4=8 holy quarters, eight great +islands. +</p> + +<p> +Imperial council of twelve divided into the higher council of five +called Golosew=<q>Imperial Old Men</q> and the lower council of +<pb n='484'/><anchor id='Pg484'/> +seven members termed Waka Tosiyori=<q>Junior Old Men</q> +(Chambers' Encyclopædia). The imperial council, with the emperor, +thus constituted the sacred thirteen. +</p> + +<p> +PERSIA. +</p> + +<p> +Seven divisions of Cosmos, seven regions, seven spirits personifying +celestial bodies and moral qualities. +</p> + +<p> +Ancient confederacy of Iran consisted of six kingdoms grouped +around the central royal province, <q>situated under the pole-star,</q> +and called Kwan-iras or Hvan-iratha, ruled by Susi-nag, the original +father-god of the model state identified with the pole-star, Draconis, +the serpent (Hewitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 253), see also +Appendix <ref target='Appendix_III'>III</ref>, list II. +</p> + +<p> +Four-fold rule embodied in king, p. <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>. Darius distributed +Persian empire into 4×5=20 satrapies, each including a certain +continuous territory (Grote). +</p> + +<p> +GREECE. +</p> + +<p> +Tenos divided into seven quarters, seven divisions of state.<note place='foot'><p>This +association of Tenos with seven-fold division is particularly suggestive because, +in Pythagorean philosophy, the number seven was named Parthenos, Athene, +also Apollo, Hermes, Hephaistos, Heracles, Dionysius, Rex, etc. These divinities, +the second and third of which are specially known as patrons of cities, appear in a +new light when it is realized that they were personifications of the number seven +and, by extension, of the seven-fold cosmos, state and city. On p. +<ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>, Plato's division +of the Cosmos is cited. Reference to the history of Greek philosophy shows, however +that the spurious existence of four or five elements had not always been accepted in +Greece, that Thalês (640-550 B.C.) had laid down the doctrine of a single eternal, +original element, water or fluid substance, and <q>assimilated the universe to an +organized body or system.</q> Xenophanës (570-480 B.C.) conceived <q>nature as one +unchangeable and indivisible whole, spherical, animated ... penetrated by or indeed +identical with God.</q> It is usually accepted that it was Empedocles (444 B.C.) who +first formulated the elements, earth, air, fire and water, to which later philosophers +added a fifth, the all-embracing æther. +</p> +<p> +In a luminous monograph (Pythagoras und die Inder, Leipzig, 1884.), +Professor L. von Schroeder, of Dorpat, Russia, quoting +the authority of Professor Max Müller, Edward Zeller and Oldenburg, has conclusively +shown that the five elements, earth, fire, water, air and æther (Sanskrit ākaçā) +already occur in the Brahmanas; were taught in the Sāmkhya philosophy of the +Kapila and were therefore known in India at least as far back as in the seventh century +B.C. The idea of the five elements is so familiar to the Hindus at the present +time that death is usually spoken of as <q>a dissolution into the five elements,</q> or a +<q>going over into the Five.</q> Professor von Schroeder's conclusion is that Pythagorean +philosophy derived the elemental divisions from India as well as its doctrine of +transmigration, etc., and its science of geometry and of number, mentioning, in support +of the latter assertion, the fact that Sâmkya, the name of the ancient Indian +school of philosophy, signifies <q>number,</q> that its followers were therefore +designated as <q>philosophers or teachers of numbers.</q> At the same time I point out +that, according to Oliver, <q>a large portion of Egyptian philosophy and religion was +constructed almost wholly upon the science of numbers and we are assured by +Kircher (Oedip. Egypt, <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, 2) that everything in nature was +explained on this principle alone.</q> +</p> +<p> +Returning to Professor von Schroeder's work I refer the reader to pp. 59 and 65, and +notes for an extremely interesting discussion of the Greek name of the fifth element +that figures in the work of Philolaus, the first who wrote a treatise on the Pythagorean +system of philosophy. The name employed has been deciphered by different authorities +as ὅλχας, ὁλχας, χυχλάς, ογχος, ὁγοτας, or ὅλας. The interpretation given is that the +name (the first syllable of which recurs in the word Olympus) signified <q>that which +moves or carries with it the universe.</q> Professor von Schroeder suggests that the +name may be a corruption of the Sanscrit name for æther, the all-embracing element, +âkâça. I venture to recall here the curious fact that, in ancient Mexico, the symbol, +enclosing the four elements, is always designated as the ollin, a word associated +with the idea of <q>movement</q> and of life=yoli. +</p> +<p> +In his work on the <q>Pythagorean Triangle,</q> the Rev. G. Oliver gives an extremely +clear account of the Pythagorean philosophy and tells us that its central thought is +the idea of number, the recognition of the <q>numerical and mathematical relations of +things....</q> <q>The Pythagoreans seem,</q> says Aristotle, <q>to have looked upon +number as the principle and, so to speak, the matter of which existences consist;</q> +and again <q>they supposed the elements of number to be the elements of existence, +and pronounced the whole heaven to be harmony and number.</q> +</p> +<p> +Concerning the universe, like many early thinkers, as a sphere, they placed in the +heart of it the central fire to which they gave the name of Hestia, the hearth or altar +of the universe, the citadel or throne of Zeus. Around this move the ten heavenly +bodies ... the earth revolved on its own axis.... +</p> +<p> +They developed a list of ten fundamental oppositions: 1, limited and unlimited; +2, odd and even; 3, one and many; 4, right and left; 5, masculine and feminine; 6, rest +and motion; 7, straight and crooked; 8, light and darkness; 9, good and evil.... The +union of opposites in which consists the existence of things is harmony; hence the +expression that the whole heaven or the whole universe is harmony. Pointing out +that it is only by a combination of odd and even numbers that a harmonious cycle +is created, I continue to cite from Mr. Oliver's work: <q rend='pre'>The decade, as the +basis of the numerical system, appeared to them to comprehend all other numbers in itself, +and to it are applied, therefore, the epithets quoted above of number in general. +Similar language is held of the number <q>four</q> because it is the first square number +and is also the potential decade (1+2+3+4=10). Pythagoras is celebrated as the +discoverer of the holy <q>Tetraktos</q> the fountain and root of ever-living nature, or +the Cosmos consisting of Fire, Air, Earth, Water, the four roots of all existing +things.</q> +</p> +<p> +<q>Number,</q> says Philolaus, <q>is great and perfect and omnipotent, and the principle +and guide of divine and human life. Number then is the principle of order, the +principle on which cosmos or ordered world exists.</q> Without number and the limitation +which number brings, there would only be chaos and the illimitable, a thought +abhorrent to the Greek mind. +</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='485'/><anchor id='Pg485'/> + +<p> +Four tribes,<note place='foot'><p><q>The four +Ionic tribes were abolished by Kleisthenes (510 B.C.) who created, in +their place, ten new tribes founded on a new principle, independent of the gentes and +phratries. Each new tribe comprised a certain number of demes or cantons with the +enrolled proprietors and residents in each of them. Each tribe had a chapel, sacred +rites and festivals and a common fund for such meetings, in honor of its eponymous +hero, administered by members of its own choice; and the statues of all the ten +eponymous heroes, fraternal patrons of the democracy, were planted in the most conspicuous +part of the agora of Athens.... The demes taken altogether, included +the entire surface of Attica. Simultaneously Kleisthenes divided the year into ten +portions called Prytanies,—the fifty senators of each tribe taking by turns the +duty of constant attendance during one prytany and receiving during that time, the title +of The Prytanes. The order of precedence among the tribes in these duties was annually +determined by lot.... Moreover, a further subdivision of the prytany into +five periods of seven days each and of the fifty tribe-senators into five bodies of ten +each, was recognized; each body of ten presided in the senate for one period of seven +days, drawing lots every day among their number for a new chairman called Epistates, +to whom, during his day of office were confided the keys of the acropolis and the +treasury, together with the city seal.</q> The remaining senators, not belonging to the +prytanizing tribe, might of course attend if they chose, but the attendance of nine +among them, one from each of the remaining nine tribes, was imperatively necessary +to constitute a valid meeting and to insure a constant representation of the collective +people. During those later times—the ekklesia or formal assembly of the +citizens, was convened four times regularly during each prytany ... +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, p. +138). Special attention is drawn here to the intimate association of the system of +government and the calendar, analogous to the ancient Mexican system. +</p> +<p> +<q>The number of inhabitants an ideal state should contain and their numerical +organization were evidently subjects of supreme interest to Greek statesmen and +philosophers. The great work by Aristoteles (384-322 B.C.) on Politics, <q>according to +Grote,</q> was based on a collection made by himself, of 158 different constitutions of +states, which collection has, unfortunately, been lost.</q> <q>The purpose of comfortable +subsistence for which commonwealths are instituted, requiring a minute subdivision +of labor,</q> Aristotle says, that <q>in this particular view, the more populous the +community its end will be the more completely attained.... All things considered he +declares in favour of what would be now deemed a very small commonwealth, consisting of +15,000 or 20,000 citizens....</q> +</p> +<p> +<q>In his <q>Book of Laws</q> Plato intended to delineate a more practicable scheme of +government than that of his first.... His two republics nearly agree in form, though +they differ in magnitude; the first containing one thousand and the second five thousand +and forty men bearing arms.... In his second republic he equalizes estates but +leaves population unlimited.... A regulation directly the reverse of this is introduced +by one of the most ancient writers on the subject of politics, Pheidon of Corinth, +who limits population, but does not equalize possessions.... The republic, planned +by the architect Hippodamus, consisted of ten thousand men, divided into the three +classes of artificers, husbandmen and soldiers. The territory he likewise divides into +three portions: the sacred, destined for the various exigencies of public worship; +the common, to be cultivated for the common benefit of the soldiers; and the private, +to be separately appropriated by the husbandmen. His laws were also divided into +three kinds....</q> (Aristotle's Ethics and Politics, John Gillies, LL.D., London +1804). +</p> +<p> +The knowledge that a republic was actually planned on the scheme of three-fold +division naturally suggests the possibility that the Sicilian coat of arms, the triskeles, +may be a survival of a period when a similar republic existed in Sicily and the year +was divided into three seasons only. +(For interesting details concerning the employment and spread of a year of three seasons +in ancient times, see Hewitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> Preface +<hi rend='smallcaps'>xvi</hi>, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>.) +</p> +<p> +In Grote's history we learn that after the establishment of the first Athenian democracy +by Kleisthenes and the victory they gained over the Bœotians and Chalkidians, +the Athenians <emph>planted a body of four thousand</emph> of their citizens as kleruchs +(lot-holders) or settlers upon the lands of the wealthy conquered Chalkidians. This is a +system which we shall find hereafter extensively followed out by the Athenians in the +days of their power; partly with a view of providing for their poorer citizens, partly to +serve as garrison among a population either hostile or of doubtful fidelity. These Attic +kleruchs did not lose their birthright as Athenian citizens: they were not colonists in +the Grecian sense and they are known by a totally different name—but they +corresponded very nearly to the colonies formally planted out on the conquered lands by +Rome. The increase of the poorer population was always more or less painfully felt +in every Grecian city ... the numerous kleruchies sent out by Athens, of +which this to Eubœa was the first, arose in a great measure out of the multiplication +of the poorer population, which her extended power was employed in providing for +... (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vol. 4, p. 171). The number <q>four thousand</q> +specially designated is of +particular interest because the letter of the Greek alphabet expressing it was the +delta, in the form of a triangle or pyramid, which also signified <q>the fourth</q> or +<q>a quarter.</q> The ideas suggested by these facts are: that the foundation of such a +colony would have been commemorated by the building of a pyramid by the conquered +race, the division of labor amongst them preparing the way for the institution of a +social organization on the familiar plan (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> p. 273). It is +only when we reflect what +an admirable means of establishing communal life and activity the mere act of building +under direction and guidance must have been, that we appreciate the fine wisdom +of the ancient kings, civilizers and culture-heroes, who were, first of all, master +builders, architects and masons and who began the work of rearing an empire by +directing the erection of a monument which, by its form, expressed the all-pervading +plan of organization.</p></note> four castes, territorial division of Attica into four +parts, institution of tetrarchies. Thessaly anciently divided into +four tetrarchies. Institution (between 600-560 B.C.) of cycle +or period, marked by the four sacred Olympic games, one of which +took place in one of four cities each year in rotation. Pisistratus +added the quadrennial or greater Panathenæa to the ancient annual +and lesser Panathenæa (Grote, History of Greece, vol. 4). +</p> + +<pb n='486'/><anchor id='Pg486'/> + +<p> +Twelve tribes formed by Cecrops—represented by twelve chiefs, ++Cecrops=thirteen. +</p> + +<p> +It is most interesting to find this division adopted in Plato's de +Legibus, in which it is imagined that three elderly statesmen come +together, belonging respectively to Athens, Crete and Lacedæmon, +to discuss the reëstablishment of the depopulated city of Magnesia +in Crete. Aristotle has insinuated that the scheme proposed by +Plato was not original and had been actually realized at Lacedæmon. +Mr. George Burger, the able translator of Bohn's edition +of Plato's Works, in his introduction to vol. V, remarks that, if that +were the case, Plato would never have wasted his time in writing +two elaborate treatises on matters already well known, when it +<pb n='487'/><anchor id='Pg487'/> +would have been sufficient to point out ... the institutions of +Lycurgus as the pattern, if not of a faultless government, at least +of one, that approached the nearest to perfection. Plato might +have replied to the charge made by Aristotle by saying that his +notions were all the better for not being original, for it was thus +shown that, as some of them were practicable, since they had already +been put into practice—the rest, which were a reform rather +of existing institutions than the construction of a code perfectly +novel, would be equally practicable if they were submitted to the +same test. In his Protagoras, Plato distinctly states that in Crete +and Lacedæmon a most beautiful philosophy was to be found, +which had been handed down from ancient times.... Let us now +examine the plan discussed by the three statesmen and submitted +<pb n='488'/><anchor id='Pg488'/> +to them by the anonymous Athenian who, according to Cicero, +Plutarch and Boeckh, was Plato himself. +</p> + +<p> +In the case of <q>the Magnesians, whom a god is again raising +up and settling into a colony ... a divine polity....</q> Plato says: +... <q>It is meet, in the first place, to build the city as much as +possible in the middle of the country.... After this to divide it +into twelve parts<note place='foot'><p><q>Taylor says that +the reason Plato adopted this division is because the number 12, +the image of all-perfect progression, is the product of 3 by 4, both of which numbers, +according to the Pythagoreans, are images of perfection. On the other hand, Ast +conceives that Plato had in mind the division of the country in twelve parts found in +Egypt and elsewhere, and which seems, as may be inferred from other portions of +his work, to have been connected with the division of the year into twelve months, +each under the superintendence of one of the twelve greater gods.</q> To this note I +add the remark that, in B. <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi</hi>, +C. 8, Plato distinctly refers to the twelve tribes as <q>the +thrice four tribes, recommending that they should appoint thrice four interpreters,</q> +one for each tribe. It should also be recalled that Cecrops is said to have employed +the division into twelve and is supposed to have brought it from Egypt. In the present +summary the employment of the same division in other countries can be verified. +</p> +<p> +It may be of interest to note here that, like the Egyptians, the Greeks divided their +month into 3 decades. The year consequently contained 3×12=36 decades+5 days.</p></note> +and placing first the temple of Hestia, and Zeus +and Athene, to call it the Acropolis and to throw around a circular +enclosure and from it to cut the city and all the country into +twelve parts. But the twelve parts ought to be equalized ... and +the allotments to be five thousand and forty.... After +this to assign the twelve allotments to the twelve gods and to +call them by their names and to consecrate to each the portion attained +by lot and to call it a phyle; and again to divide the +twelve sections of the city in the same manner as they divided the +rest of the country, and that each should possess two habitations, +one near the centre and the other near the extremity, and thus let +the method end ... (B. <hi rend='smallcaps'>v</hi>, C. 14).... We ought, in +the first place, to resume the number five thousand and forty +because it had and has now convenient distributions, both the +whole number and that which was assigned to the wards, which +we laid down as the twelfth part of the whole, being exactly four +hundred and twenty. And as the whole number has twelve divisions, +so also has that of the wards. Now it is meet to consider +each division as a sacred gift of a deity through its <emph>following both +the months and revolutions of the universe</emph>. (By this is meant, says +Ast, the twelve signs of the zodiac.) <emph>Hence that which is inherent +leads every state, making them holy</emph>.... Some persons indeed +have made a more correct distribution than others, and with +<pb n='489'/><anchor id='Pg489'/> +better fortune have dedicated the distribution to the gods. But we +now assert that the number five thousand and forty has been +chosen most correctly, as it has all divisions as far as twelve, +beginning from one, except that by eleven; ... +let us distribute this number; and dedicating to a god ... +each portion, and giving the altars ... let us institute monthly +two meetings relating to sacrifices ... twelve according to the +divisions of the wards and twelve to that of the city ... for +the sake of every kind of intercourse.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It should be noted here that, as in his Republic, Plato provides +his ideal state with female as well as male guardians, and with +priestesses as well as priests, whose duty it was to fulfil sacerdotal +functions. Special attention is drawn to this point, as in +practice, it naturally signifies a dual government, such as I have +traced in ancient Egypt, Babylonia-Assyria, and also in Mexico +and Peru. +</p> + +<p> +<q>As regards the number of ... festivals ... let there +be three hundred and sixty-five ... so that some one of the magistrates +may always sacrifice ... there are to be twelve +festivals to the twelve gods from whom each tribe has its name +... and twelve guardians of the law.... There +ought to be twelve hamlets, one in the middle of each twelfth part, +and in each hamlet to be selected first, a market place and temples +... prepare all the rest of the country by it into thirteen parts +for the handicraftsmen and to cause one portion of these to reside +in the city by distributing this portion among the twelve parts of +the whole city ... to have other persons distributed out of the +city, in a circle around it.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The portions of Plato's work dealing with the appointment of the +governors and guardians of the state and their rotations in office +and imposed tours of inspection, are of such particular interest in +connection with the present comparative research, that I am impelled +to quote them here. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Let each (of the twelve) phyles furnish for the year five Rural +Stewards (in all sixty) ... each of whom is to choose twelve +young men ... to the latter let there be allotted portions of +the country during a month ... so that all of them may have +a practical knowledge of every part of the country.... But +let the governorship and guardianship continue to the guards and +governors for two years, and let those who first obtain by lot their +<pb n='490'/><anchor id='Pg490'/> +respective portions, the guard officers, lead out, <emph>changing the places +of the country constantly by going to the place next in order towards +the right in a circle, and let the right be that which is in the east</emph>. +But as the years come around, in the second year, in order that +the greatest portion of the guards may become acquainted with +the country, not only at one season of the year, but that as many +as possible may know thoroughly in addition to the country, at the +same time what occurs relatively to each spot in the country at +each season, let the officers <emph>lead them out again to the left, constantly +changing the place until they go through the second year</emph>. In the +third year it is meet to choose other rural stewards and guard +officers as the five curators of the twelve young men.... +There were to be three city stewards, dividing the twelve parts of +the city into three ... and five Market-Stewards, to be +chosen from ten elected</q>....<note place='foot'>Considering that +the employment of silver or gold currency among the nations of +antiquity has been regarded, by some, as a proof of advanced culture, it is interesting +to learn, from the following passage, that, as a result of experience and with wisdom +and foresight, Plato recommended the adoption of different forms of currency in each +different state, in order to avert the dangers resulting from the accumulation of +riches. <q>A law ... that no private person be permitted to possess any gold or silver; +but that there be a coin for the sake of daily exchange, which it is almost necessary +for handicrafts to change and for all who have need of such things to pay the +wages due to hired persons, be they slaves or domestic servants. On which account +we say that <emph>they must possess coin which is of value to themselves, but of no +worth amongst the rest of mankind</emph>.</q> +It is curious to note how closely the employment of the cocoa +bean, in ancient Mexico and of wampum in North America, as the staple currency, +fulfilled the purpose recognized as desirable, by Plato.</note> +</p> + +<p> +It is deeply interesting to consider from the standpoint of comparative +study the principal features of the perfected scheme proposed +by Plato, in the fifth century B. C, for the establishment of +an ideal colony, which is designated as a <q>divine polity</q> or a +<q>holy land.</q> This is especially the case when we see that Plato +himself states that it is the conformity of the states to the inherent +laws of nature, that confers upon it divinity or holiness. It seems +impossible not to recognize that both ideal republics of Plato were +intended to be <q>celestial kingdoms</q> or <q>kingdoms of heaven</q> +and that he expounded and doubtlessly perfected, an ancient ideal +which had been more or less successfully carried out in different +countries during many centuries before his time. +</p> + +<p> +Having studied the proposed scheme for the foundation of a +new colony of the Greeks, who proudly maintained that <q>it was +meet that the Greeks should rule barbarians,</q> and pursued a regular +<pb n='491'/><anchor id='Pg491'/> +system of colonization, let us now obtain an idea of the mode in +which Greeks had previously founded colonies by reading the following +passage from Grote's History of Greece, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, +chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxvii</hi>: +</p> + +<p> +<q>Under reign of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, about the middle +of seventh century B.C., Grecian mercenaries were first established +in Egypt and Grecian traders admitted ... into the Nile.<note place='foot'>At +the last moment I learn that fragments of Ægean pottery lately found at Abydos +in tombs of the Egyptian kings of the first dynasty, by Prof. Flinders Petrie are +considered to prove that, <q>Grecian merchants sailed the seas in 4500 B.C., ... a +conclusion further borne-out by the pictures of vessels with 60 oarsmen, vessels quite +large enough for crossing the Mediterranean, which have been seen on prehistoric +memorials of the oldest inhabitants of Egypt</q> (Rawnsley). In this connection it is +interesting to learn, from Professor Sayce, that the Phœnician galley was the model +of the Greek one, that it was at Carthage that a ship, with more than three banks of +oars, was first built, and that its pilots steered by the pole star, not, like the +Greeks, by the Great Bear (Ancient Empires of the East, p. 205).</note> The +opening of this new market emboldened them to traverse the direct +sea which separates Krête from Egypt—a dangerous voyage +with vessels which rarely ventured to lose sight of land—and seems +to have first made them acquainted with the neighboring coast of +Libya ... hence arose the foundation of the important colony +called Kyrênê</q> ... about 630 B.C. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Thêra was the mother-city, herself a colony from Lacedæmon +... political dissension among its inhabitants ... bad seasons, +distress and over-population led to the emigration that founded +Kyrênê.... The oekist Battus was selected and consecrated +to work of founding the colony.... <emph>From the seven districts into +which Thêra was divided, emigrants were drafted for the colony, one +brother being singled out by lot from the different families</emph>.... +The band which accompanied Battus was generally supplied with +provisions for one year and was all conveyed in two pentekonters—armed +ships with fifty rowers each. Thus humble was the +start of the mighty Kyrênê. After six years residence in one spot +they abandoned it and were conducted to a better site by guides, +saying: <q>Here, men of Hellas, is the place for you to dwell, for +here the sky is perforated.</q></q><note place='foot'><p>An interesting +interpretation of this somewhat obscure sentence is obtained by +collating it with the conception of <q>the revolving eye of the Norse world mill-stone +which was directly above Oergelmer and through which the waters flowed to and +fro from the great fountain of the Universe mountains</q> (p. 472). The analogy is +strengthened by the fact that the mountainous region in which Kyrênê was situated +has always been noted for its fertility, the water, from the mountains enclosing its +plains, settling in pools and lakes, affording a constant supply, during the summer +months, to the Arabs who frequent it. The feature of Kyrênê, most renowned in +antiquity, was its inexhaustible Fountain of Apollo, and travellers describe how, to +this day, the Bedouin Arabs flock to it when their supply of water and herbage fails +in the interior. Grote states that the same circumstance must have operated in +ancient times to hold the nomadic Libyans in a sort of dependence upon Kyrênê +(Grote, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, p. 37). +</p> +<p> +The realization that an inexhaustible fountain of water meant life to primitive nomadic +people, enables us to understand the expression <q>fountain of life</q> and the +constant associations of the sacred central mountain with pools of water and streams +flowing in four directions. It is remarkable and highly suggestive how closely the +following topographical details, given by Grote, of the original seat of the Macedonians +(which were in the regions east of the chain of Skardus, north of the chain +which connects Olympus with Pindus and which forms the northwestern boundary +of Thessaly), coincide with the conception of Mt. Meru, for instance. +</p> +<p> +<q>Reckoning the basin of Thessaly as a fourth, here are four distinct inclosed plains +on the east side of this long range of Skardus and Pindus,—each generally bounded +by mountains which rise precipitously to an alpine height, and each leaving only +one cleft for drainage by a single river,—the Axius, the Erigōn, the Haliakmōn and +the Peneius respectively. All four plains ... are of distinguished fertility ...</q> +(Grote, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, p. 10). The +close vicinity of Olympus, the Grecian <q>divine +mountain,</q> is particularly suggestive, inasmuch as it proves to be geographically +associated with four remarkable plains and rivers.</p></note> The small force brought +over by +<pb n='492'/><anchor id='Pg492'/> +Battus was enabled at first to fraternize with the indigenous Libyans,—next, +reinforced by additional colonists and availing themselves +of the power of native chiefs, to overawe and subjugate +them.... +</p> + +<p> +<q>The Theræan colonists seem to have married Libyan wives, +whence Herodotus describes the women of Kyrênê and Barka as +following, even in his time, religious observances indigenous and +not Hellenic. Even the descendants of the primitive oekist Battus +were semi-Libyan.... We must bear in mind that the +population of the [Græco-Libyan] cities was not pure Greek, but +more or less mixed, like that of the colonies in Italy, Sicily or +Ionia.... Isokrates praises the well-chosen site of the colony of +Kyrênê because it was planted in the midst of indigenous natives +apt for subjection and far distant from any formidable enemies.... We +are then to conceive the first Theræan colonists as established +in their lofty fortified post Kyrênê, in the centre of Libyan +Perioeki, till then strangers to walls, to arts and perhaps even +to cultivated land.... To these rude men the Theræans communicated +the elements of Hellenism and civilization, not without +receiving themselves much that was non-Hellenic in return, and +perhaps the reactionary influence of the Libyan element against +the Hellenic might have proved the stronger of the two had they +not been reinforced by new-comers from Greece.... About +543 B.C. owing to discontent, etc., the regal prerogative of the +Battiad line was terminated and a republican government established; +<pb n='493'/><anchor id='Pg493'/> +the dispossessed prince retaining both the landed domains +and various sacerdotal functions which had belonged to his predecessors.</q> +</p> + +<p> +ROME. +</p> + +<p> +Seven hills, seven places of worship, septemvirate, seven ministers, +Septizonium, p. <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Roman quadrata, Janus quadrifrontis, quadruplicate territorial +division carried out. Palestine, for instance, divided into four +tetrarchies under Roman rule. +</p> + +<p> +Twelve gods, twelve months, etc. +</p> + +<p> +New Rome divided into four parts, each consisting of thirteen +prefectures <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> fifty-two prefectures in all. +</p> + +<p> +GAUL. +</p> + +<p> +Seven provinces. +</p> + +<p> +BRITAIN. +</p> + +<p> +Seven kings=heptarchy. +</p> + +<p> +Four kings of Kent=tetrarchy. +</p> + +<p> +IRELAND. +</p> + +<p> +Seven sanctuaries grouped around central tower. +</p> + +<p> +Four associates of king of Erin. +</p> + +<p> +Group consisting of 12+1=13 stone figures, p. <ref target='Pg469'>469</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +SCANDINAVIA. +</p> + +<p> +Four guardians of four quarters. +</p> + +<p> +Thor, supreme divinity, pole-star god, seated and holding <q>seven +stars,</q> the symbol of seven-fold power, in his hand. +</p> + +<p> +Group consisting of royal throne surrounded by 12 stones. Odin +associated with twelve <q>godes,</q> p. <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +NORTH AMERICA. +</p> + +<p> +Huron confederacy=seven tribes, quadriform city, 2×4=8 +gentes, p. <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +ZUNI. +</p> + +<p> +Seven directions in space, seven quarters of city, seven tribes, +seven towns. +</p> + +<p> +Four bands of priests, p. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Twelve, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, thirteen priesthoods, p. +<ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>. +</p> + +<pb n='494'/><anchor id='Pg494'/> + +<p> +MEXICO. +</p> + +<p> +Seven tribes issued from seven caves, seven gods or chiefs, p. +<ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Four quarters of city, represented by four chieftains, four subrulers, +four divisions of army, four year signs, four tribes, four +tribal trees (fig. <ref target='Figure_52'>52</ref>), four storied pyramids. +</p> + +<p> +Thirteen divisions or parts, p. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Calendar and state organized into 4×13=52 parts. +</p> + +<p> +YUCATAN. +</p> + +<p> +Title of ruler, <q>the divine Four,</q> four sub-rulers, four royal +brothers, four-year periods, p. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, +four quarters, p. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, four +year signs. +</p> + +<p> +Twelve <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> thirteen priest-rulers of Mayapan, p. +<ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +GUATEMALA. +</p> + +<p> +Seven tribes, seven day period, p. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Four nations, four provinces, four capitals, four Tullans, pp. +<ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Thirteen divisions of warriors, p. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +PERU. +</p> + +<p> +Empire named <q>Four in one,</q> Creator named <q>Earth, air, +fire and water in One,</q> four provinces, four viceroys. +</p> + +<p> +Twelve <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> thirteen wards in Cuzco, twelve divisions of year, +p. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Before commenting upon the above summary, and as its necessary +complement, a brief examination must be made of the various modes +in which the phenomenon of celestial axial rotation figured in the +rituals of primitive people. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +The lighting of <q>sacred fire,</q> by means of the wooden fire-drill +and the wooden socket block, appears as the most ancient and +widespread ritualistic performance. +</p> + +<p> +To begin with, the reader is requested to read carefully the following +detached extracts from Hewitt's work: +</p> + +<p> +<q>In the Rig-Veda the Aryan invaders of Lydia are called the +Tritsu, <q>the boring people,</q> who used the fire-drill; also Arna, <q>sons +<pb n='495'/><anchor id='Pg495'/> +of Arani,</q> the fire-drill, whose sacred number is four</q>.... +<q>In India, from time immemorial, by a process like churning, +fire has been produced by the Arani, made of the Ashvattha (<hi rend='italic'>Ficus +religiosa</hi>) wood, being twirled repeatedly round till the fire is +lighted, by a string fixed in the cross-bar at its top,</q> a method, I +may add, which is a later development of the more primitive mode +of twirling the fire-drill by hand. <q>The Kushites ... believed +that life was generated by the union of heat with water ... and +that heat was, in the astronomical myth, engendered by the revolution +of the Great Bear and the connection between it, the vital +heat and the creating water is shown in one of its Akkadian names, +Bel-a-sar-a, which means <q>the fire god who measures the water yoke</q> +(R. Brown and Sayce), or, in other words, Bel, the distributor of the +water allotted to the earth. From this heavenly cistern and fire-drill, +in which marichi, the fire-spark, is hidden, the water of life +is distributed.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Compare the preceding with the following statements: <q>According +to the Arab doctrine of the pole, the seven stars of the Great +Bear and the star Canopus [?] formed the fire-drill.</q> According to +Hewitt <q>... It was the Ashvins, ... the twin brothers of day and +night, ... identified with the twin stars in Gemini, who twirled round +the fire drill of the northern pole ... or, according to a later hymn, +drove through the seas with one of the wheels of their chariot in +Ursa Major and one in heaven,—that is, to drive around the pole.</q> +A deeper comprehension seems to be afforded by this association +of the Ashvins with the axis, of the significance of the two figures +(of a god and his consort) who, in the Sippar tablet, appear +to be directing the wheel of Shamash—the world-axis and symbol +of quadruplicate terrestrial government (see p. <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>). Reference +should also be repeated here, to Al-kuth and Al-fass, the Arabian +names for Polaris, respectively signifying the axle and the hole of +the axle, also to the pole star of Northern India—Grahadhara,—the +<q>pivot of heaven,</q> and to the significant fact that in Egyptian +hieratic script the word an=the Akkadian and Sumerian word for +heaven, and Babylonian-Assyrian word for god, is found rendered +by a man <q>turning around,</q> an action expressing the verb an. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to collate these statements with the descriptions +of Dhruva (see p. <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, note 1), the personification of +centrifugal power, who, as he turns, causes the heaven to revolve around the +fixed centre on which he stands, resting on one foot only, and to +<pb n='496'/><anchor id='Pg496'/> +note how the two distinct ideas of central stability and rotation +influenced the making of pagan divinities. The idea of stability +was perpetuated in the house-pole which sustained Aman, the roof +of primitive dwellings in the column an, which supported the +temple roof and in time was transformed into a hermes, or, in +Egypt, into a statue of Amen-ra, and in the mythical mountain of +the North, Sama, which supported the heaven (Sama). Dhruva's +turning round on one foot, which implies the use of the other, reappears +in the Hephaistos of Greek mythology, who was, as Hewitt +tells us (p. 504), <q>the fire-drill and its driver, and was called +Amphi-Guēeis, or he who halts on both legs, ... was cast from +heaven by Zeus, and was the husband of the fire-socket, the first +form of the Greek goddess Aphrodite.</q> +</p> + +<p> +For information regarding the cult of the fire-socket, the construction +of the Hindu fire-altars in the form of a woman, representing +<q>mother-earth</q> or <q>the primæval mother,</q> Aditi, I refer +the reader to Hewitt's work, and also to p. <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref> of the present +publication, where the description of the Jiddah sanctuary proves +the existence of the same ancient form of cult in Arabia. Hewitt +relates on page 170 that, on the fire-altar, the central fire called +Agni jatavedas is kindled when the officiating priest addresses in +the words of Rig-Veda <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, +29, 4: <q>We place thee, O Jatavedas, in +the place of Ida (the mountain daughter of Manu) in the navel +(nabha) of the altar, to carry our offerings.</q> +In Rig-Veda, <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, 61, +we are also told how Nabha-Nedishtha (that which is nearest to +the navel) was born from the union of celestial lightning flash +with the earth, and how, on his birth, he claimed to be the supreme +god, saying: <q>This, our navel, is the highest. I am his +son.... I am the twice-born son of the law (of nature)....</q> Hewitt +(p. 171) regards, moreover, the image of the goddess of the +earth altar found by Schliemann in the second city from the bottom +of the six cities, built one over another on the site of Troy, a +counterpart of the Hindu fire-altar. It is significant that the +Trojan image exhibits a triangle surrounded by seven disks, and +containing the swastika, which Hewitt designates as <q>the holy fire, +the sun of the revolving year,</q> a view curiously, though indistinctly, +analogous and parallel to that I have formulated in the present +research. +</p> + +<p> +<q>In the Brahmanas the Try-Ambika offering, a very ancient form +of the rain festival, is described.... Its sanctity dated from the +<pb n='497'/><anchor id='Pg497'/> +days of primeval theology, for the offerings were made on a spot +outside and <emph>to the north</emph> of the consecrated area, and on one intersected +by cross-roads, and thus marked by the cross sacred to the +rain-god, which is said to be Rudra's favorite haunts, and the +halting place of the Agnis.... Hence the festival is dedicated to +Rud-ra, the red (rud) god, the father of the seven Marut stars.... +He is called the red god from the spark of fire kindled by him in +the fire socket when he was the fire-drill, and from being reddened +by the blood of the victim slain in his sacrifices when he was the +sacrificial stake to which the annual victims, whose blood fertilized +the ground, were bound, and this name was continued to him when +he became the red cloud of the thunderstorm which infused the +soil of life into the earth by pouring on it the life-giving rain, the +blood of the creating god....</q> +</p> + +<p> +In the Rig-Veda the rain-god is termed Ushana, the <q>lord of +fire,</q> who is made to exclaim: <q>It is I who pour down rain for +the good of creatures.</q> It was he who was also known as Varuna, +the Greek Ourauos, who ... became the god of the dark night.... +The union [in India] of the patriarchal worshippers of the Northern +father-god, with the matriarchal races of the south was followed +by the miners, metal-workers and artisans of the early +bronze age, who looked on fire and the life-giving heat as the +author of life. These were the people (of Finnic origin) who employed +the word ku for god, in Asia Minor became the worshippers +of the mother goddess Magha, the socket block from which fire +was generated by the fire-drill, and it was they, <q>the Sons of +Magha</q> that became the Maghi of Persia and the Maghadas of Indian +history. +</p> + +<p> +In connection with the union of a northern patriarchal and a +southern matriarchal race, an astronomical myth deserves particular +attention, as it commemorates the combination of a feminine cult +of the Pleiades, the <q>spinning stars,</q> with a masculine cult of +Ursa Major. According to this myth, related by Hewitt, the +<q>Spinners</q>=Krittakas (from krit, to spin) were <q>the mother-stars +of the earth,</q> who were married to the seven stars of the +Great <q>Bear, the father-stars of the North.</q><note place='foot'><q>This +metaphorical name (the Krittakas) was derived from the vocabulary of the +Northern races, who had learned in Asia Minor and the neighborhood of the Caspian +Sea to spin thread and weave cloth from the flax of Asia Minor, and the hemp of +the shores of the Caspian Sea, and who had taken their knowledge with them when +emigrating to the villages of the Neolithic life in Europe and to the Kushite Empire +in India, where they divided the people into guilds or trade unions, founded on +community of function, and discovered how to use cotton thread for weaving. The +reverence of the Ashura Kushika for the Pleiades, whose mother star is Amba, also +proves them to be connected with the southwestern Semites, the Himydritic Arabs +of Southern Arabia, the land of Sheba, meaning <emph>seven</emph>, meaning the seven +stars of the constellation of the Great Bear, called by the Arabs Al-suha, who first +worshipped the Pleiades with its 6 stars, the sacred number of the Ashura, as their mother +constellation, under the name of Tur-ayya, or children of the father-pole (tur, of the +Turanian race) ...</q> (Hewitt).</note> Remarking how +<pb n='498'/><anchor id='Pg498'/> +curiously the assignment of the north to the male and the south +to the female element coincides with what has been noted in +Egypt, I note here the interesting detail recorded by Hewitt (p. +379) that to this day the Hindu bride and bridegroom respectively +pay reverence to the Pleiades and Ursa Major, before worshipping +the pole-star, <q>the spotted bull,</q> on entering their house. It +would seem as though the fulfilment of this ritual might limit the +Hindu marriage season to some particular time of the year, marked +by the position of the Pleiades; in which connection it is interesting +to remember that, in Mexico, the culmination of the Pleiades +at midnight marked the New Year festival, when sacred fire was +rekindled and the union of Heaven and Earth took place. On pp. +130-132 of Hewitt's work, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +the reader will find instructive +data regarding Pleiades festivals. +</p> + +<p> +The preceding details appear to show that whereas a northern +patriarchal race would naturally symbolize axial rotation by the +fire-drill, a southern matriarchal race would adopt the spindle for +the same purpose. Such a ritualistic use of the spindle would +undoubtedly afford a very simple explanation for the presence of +cross-symbols and swastikas and other designs of religious significance +upon the terra-cotta spinning whorls found in such quantities +in Troy, for instance, and the cited allusion on one of these, +to the pole-star god, Tur, corroborates this view.<note place='foot'>Various +writers have observed and pointed out the close resemblance in form and +decoration, between the terra-cotta whorls found, in profusion, in Mexico and those +of Troy.</note> +</p> + +<p> +It is instructive to trace how, amongst primitive agricultural +races, the art of spinning, the employment of beasts of burden, the +invention of the oil-press which <q>was used in Asia Minor as it has +been used for time immemorial in India to extract the oil of the +sesame seeds,</q> and of the wheel and cart, influenced their respective +adoption of symbols of axial rotation. In turn, these symbols +suggested and created divergent forms of ritual and religious cult. +<q>The Turanians ... when they had evolved the idea of the god +<pb n='499'/><anchor id='Pg499'/> +of heaven as the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks +symbolized it as the pole of the threshing floors around which the +oxen were driven.</q> The reader is referred here to the passages +from the Bhagavata-purana quoted in the present work (note 1, p. +<ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>), in which axial rotation is compared to <q>oxen turning +around their stakes,</q> to which must be added the Vedic <q>one-wheeled car +to which one horse named seven was yoked</q> (see p. <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>, note +1), and the revolving wheel and the revolving measuring pole of the +potter and builder castes, which united formed the Telis caste. +</p> + +<p> +In the Vaya Purana, <q>the seven Maruts drive the stars which +are bound to it by ties invisible to man, round the pole. They +move round like the beam in the oil-press, for its bottom is, as it +were, standing still, while its end moves round</q>.... +In the ritual <q>the Sanscrit Isha or the beam which turns this pole +of heavenly oil-pressing mill, is the husband and father.</q> A +diverging view, which developed and combined the ideas of fixity +and circular motion with the kindling of the vital spark by the +wooden fire-drill, caused the living tree to become the emblem of +the tribal father or mother. The custom, still in use among some +primitive people, of drilling for fire in the dry, inflammable bark of +dead trees of a particular species, may have forcibly directed the +choice of tribal trees. At all events, in India, we find the mango +or Am tree, which recurs in Egyptian script (see fig. +<ref target='Figure_63'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>), the +fig-tree, the udumbara, the date-palm and other trees established +as the parent trees of different tribes, who made their respective +house-poles and presumably their fire-drills and sockets, from their +wood. The curious ritual of marrying men and women to their +respective mother or father tribal trees, before they are wedded +to their respective husbands and wives is mentioned by Hewitt +on p. 237, etc. This close bond between some special kind of +tree and a tribe is a point which I particularly emphasize on account +of its analogy to ancient Mexican, Maya and Peruvian tribal +trees. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to a study of the pole and the beam of the oil-press we +find that, in Essay <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +Hewitt traces the Greek myths of Ixion and +Koronis to the Hindu comparison of the heavens to a revolving oil-press +and, in the ritual of the Vajapeya sacrifice, refers the dawn of +astronomy to the observation of the revolutions of the pole and the +reckoning of the seven days of the week.... <q>Ixion, when raised +to heaven, was the rain-god, who turned one wheel, to which his +<pb n='500'/><anchor id='Pg500'/> +hands and feet were fixed by Hermes, the fire-god, continuously +in the air, and this is merely a mythic way of saying that he +was the fire-drill, made as the revolving pole to rotate perpetually, +and by being turned to every side in his winged course, to produce +life-giving heat, the generator of rain.... The Greek Ixion is the +same word as the Sanscrit Akshivan, the driver of the axle (aksha).... +Ixion is also, according to Bopp and Pott, connected with +the root ik, pouring water, which appears in ichor, <q>the blood of +the gods,</q> the water of life.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Moreover, the Sanscrit aksha is a word of which the original is +found in the Gond akkha, an axle. In the summer festival of the +agricultural Gonds, called Akkhadi or Akhtuj, the worship of +the cart axle or Akkha takes place and is associated with Nagur, the +rain snake.... In the Vajapeya sacrifice ... the Soma priest consecrates +two cups of the sacred drink Soma above the axle, at the +same time as the Neskti priest consecrates two cups of Sura below +it. In this ceremony we see a reminiscence of the days when +the axle was the upright revolving pole pressing out the heavenly +rain.... It also shows us how it was that the axle became the +sacred part of the Soma cart ... and the revolving pole became +the axle of the car of time and of the cart of the agricultural +Gonds....</q> +</p> + +<p> +It seems easy to trace from the rude one-wheeled cart, the evolution +of the two-wheeled chariot, the prerogative of royalty in +India and Assyria, employed simultaneously with the regal umbrella, +which, when twirled, symbolized celestial axial rotation and +suggested the idea of a protective deity. The transition from the +<q>one-wheeled car</q> of the oldest Veda, to which <q>one horse named +seven was yoked</q> to the chariot of Apollo=<q>Seven,</q> whose lyre, +with seven chords, struck the divine heptachord of the Pythagoreans, +and who drove seven horses, coincides with that of the umbrella +which, in Greece, was borne at the period of the summer solstice in +the Skirophoria or <q>festival of the umbrella,</q> in honor of Athene. +</p> + +<p> +It is particularly gratifying to me, as it so forcibly substantiates +the views I have been enlarging upon in this investigation, to refer +here to Hewitt's quotations (p. 7, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>) +from the Rig-Veda, in +which the wheeled chariot, closely identified with the year, is said +to be drawn by the father-horse, with seven names, the seven days +of the week, etc. Hewitt likewise cites passages of the Rig-Veda +containing the conception of year wheels, the varying number of +<pb n='501'/><anchor id='Pg501'/> +whose spokes agree with different divisions of the year. Thus one +year-wheel exhibits twelve spokes, denoting months, another five +spokes denoting five seasons. A chariot, with seven wheels with six +spokes, is explained as meaning the seven days of the week and the +six seasons of the southern year. <q>All living beings rest on the +five-spoked wheel, ... the horses draw the never-aging wheel +through space, whence the eye of the sun on which all life depends, +looks down. The seventh of those born together they call <q>that +born alone</q>: this is the self-created thirteenth or central month; +the six twinned months are said to be those begotten of the gods. +They are arranged in their order, six on each side of the central +month, by the leader who dwells above.</q> A striking analogy to +the ideas I detected, as associated with central rulership, in ancient +America, is set forth in Hewitt's statement that, it was to the +one wheel year <q>that the Hindus likened their universal monarch, +the Chakravarta or king, who sits, like the Kushite monarch, as the +father of his subject tribes, in the central province of his dominions, +and directs his satellites, the rulers of the seasons, who became +the ruling stars of the frontier provinces—the Nakshatra +stars—to turn the wheel (chakra) of time in its yearly round</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 31, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +see also p. 314.)<note place='foot'>There is, however, a +wide difference between Hewitt's views and mine concerning +the stars associated with the year wheel and the origin and meaning of the primitive +cross-symbols and swastika, although at times they partially agree. As Hewitt gives +several totally distinct and different explanations of the origin and significance of +crosses and swastikas, it is difficult to understand clearly his standpoint. On p. 9, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, he makes +an interesting differentiation between a diagonal or transverse and +upright cross, respectively designating them as rain-cross and fire-cross, and states that +their superposition forms the eight-rayed star, the Akkadian and early Indian sign of +Anu=god. On p. 145, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> +he names the transverse cross a sun-cross and says it describes +the track of the sun across the heavens, on solstitial days and distinctly describes +the swastika in the centre of the triangle on the Hindu altar, as <q>a symbolic +picture of the sun rising at midsummer in the N. E. and setting in the N. W., and at +the winter solstice rising in the S. E. and setting in the S. W.</q> On the other hand +Hewitt associates the right-angled cross with the fire-god and the pole-star (p. 191, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>), and +the five-rayed star of Horus as the rain or meridian pole, or mountain +standing in the midst of the four stars marking the four quarters of the heavens +(p. 9, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> and +p. 17, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>). +I recommend a careful re-perusal of all of Hewitt's +interpretations of cross-symbols and swastika and a close comparison of these with +my views, as set forth in the beginning of the present publication, to Mr. Stansbury +Hagar who, somewhat hastily, upon hearing my brief communication to Section H of +the A. A. A. S. in New York, June 1900, stated (in the October number of the Folklore +Journal) that my view concerning the origin of the swastika was the same as +that suggested by Hewitt.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The single wheel, without any indication of an utilitarian employment, +is found directly associated with the pole-star in Japan, +where, as in China, the use of the wheel has been known from earliest +<pb n='502'/><anchor id='Pg502'/> +times. It will be for Scandinavian archaeologists to enlighten +us as to the earliest traces of the use, by northern races, not only +of the wheeled chariot, familiar to those who named Ursa Major, +Thor's wagon, but also that of the mill-stone. The employment +of the latter in the description of the <q>revolving world mill-stone +through which the waters of the Universe fountain flowed,</q> is a +proof that the Eddas were written by an agricultural people, possessing +advanced methods of grinding or of extracting oil or juice +from food stuffs. The association of the Norse mill-stone with the +distribution of liquid, appearing to indicate that, like the oil-press +of ancient India, the stone-mill of Scandinavia had been employed +to extract fluids, challenges investigation as to the original home +of the mill-stone and chariot of the Eddas. +</p> + +<p> +Personally I am inclined to regard the term <q>world mill-stone</q> +as a modernized transcription of the term <q>axle,</q> and the whole +as a rendering of the archaic idea that <q>heat was engendered by +the revolution of the Great Bear</q> and that the axle of heaven was +the distribution of vital heat and vivifying water. I shall await +enlightenment as to the relationship of the Norse tree of the pole +and Thor, with the creating fire-drill of Tur, the father-god; and +the connection of the Norse <q>mill-stone</q> and fountain, to the +fire-socket and celestial cistern of the Kushites, said to be the +<q>sons of the Finnic Ku, the begetter and rain-god,</q> who, having +migrated to India and united with other races, founded a mighty +confederacy, the plan of which is figured in Hewitt's work (p. 220), +by <q>the union of four triangles, representing the southeastern and +northwestern races, ... with spaces left open for the parent +rivers,</q> which flow towards the cardinal points (see figure +<ref target='Figure_73'>73</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +If we now revert to the first stages of the mental evolution, the +outcome of which we have been reviewing, we cannot but recognize +the curious, but perfectly natural chain of reasoning which led +early man to explain natural phenomena in different ways by the +results of his own immediate observation and experience. He had +discovered that the rotation of the fire-drill generated fire; consequently +the rotation of the circumpolar constellations must generate +life-giving heat. The churning or twirling of liquid in a vessel, +by means of the drill, caused an overflow; consequently the action +of the fire-drill also caused an external flow of life-giving waters, +which, after the invention of the oil or grape press, was compared +to the flow of precious oil or wine from the receptacle. +</p> + +<pb n='503'/><anchor id='Pg503'/> + +<p> +High mountains attracted lightning-clouds and when these collected +around their summits whence rivers constantly flowed, life-giving +rain descended; consequently the tops of cloud-capped +mountains must reach to the axle of the heaven where fire, heat +and rain were being generated and distributed by the rotation of +celestial bodies. As Polaris the axle, pivot or fire socket, was +immovable it could most appropriately be figured by a wooden or +stone socket, from which fire and water flowed towards the four +quarters. Such an image would also figure a year, and, by extension, +time, since it marked the four annual positions of circumpolar +star-groups. The adoption of a stone socket as an image of the +<q>revolving heaven</q> could thus have long antedated, but have +suggested the invention of the wheel, which was at first a religious +and then became a royal symbol. +</p> + +<p> +I venture to express the view that the archaic image of Shamash +(fig. <ref target='Figure_73'>73</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>a</hi>), +the homonym of Heaven and the North, which was <q>an +ancient model</q> at the time of Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.), could +only have been invented by a race of pole-star worshippers who +had long been acquainted with the uses of the fire drill and the +oil-press. At the same time I point out how remarkably the combination +of four rays and four streams in the image of Shamash +(Shame=heaven) coincides with the explanation given by Hewitt +(p. 9, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>) +of the Akkadian eight-rayed star of Anu (heaven), +which, he asserts, is formed by the superposition of the fire-cross +and rain cross. It is a most remarkable and undeniable fact that +there is a striking analogy between the Anu sign as explained +by Hewitt and the Shamash image. The eight-rayed or <q>spoked +wheel</q> of Ishtar, which figures on the same tablet, also gains significance +for the same reason, and particularly when collated with +the hymn cited in note 1, p. <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, in which she is clearly +designated as the <q>axis of the heavens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the female +Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +Having indicated how the origin of the image of Shamash can +be traced to conceptions arising from the use of the fire-drill and +some primitive mode of extracting oil or of preparing a highly valued +drink from seeds and plants, by centrifugal action, invented by a +primitive agricultural people, I advance the suggestion that the celestial +tree of the Norsemen and Semites, associated with the fountain +and the four rivers of life, appears as a closely related symbol +which, however, mainly expressed the idea of stability. In the Eddas +the tree occurs as a complement to the world axle, the first as the +<pb n='504'/><anchor id='Pg504'/> +emblem of stability and of a central power which dispensed shade +and life-giving fruits in all directions; the second as the image of +centrifugal power which caused the star-groups to assume opposite +positions and which impartially distributed heat and water. It is +curious to note how readily from the fire-drill and beam of the oil +press as a starting point, not only all forms of tree and pole worship +and the Chinese assignment of element wood to the Middle, +but also all symbols of centrifugal motion, such as the axle, the +pivot and the wheel, could have evolved on closely parallel lines. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now transport ourselves to a land where, to this day, the +Indian women grind maize on a flat stone, by means of a pestle, +where the oil-press and the mill-stone, the pole of the threshing-floor, +the potter's wheel and the cart wheel were unknown before +the date of the Spanish Conquest and rotatory motion was associated +with the fire-drill and spinning whorl only. +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +The ancient Mexican name for the fire-drill = mamalhuaztli, and +that for spinning-wheel=malacatl, are both derived from the verb +malacachoa=to whirl, turn or drill. At the time of the Spanish +invasion (A.D. 1519) the Mexican priesthood lit the sacred fire +of the altar by an extremely primitive method of employing the +fire-drill: by holding it tightly between the palms of both hands +and rapidly rubbing them alternately forward and backward. +</p> + +<p> +The Codices contain numberless pictures representing a priest, +in the act of kindling fire by inserting the drill in a simple wooden +beam, usually exhibiting several small holes or sockets. On the +other hand the Borgian Codex, which has recently been placed +within general reach by the generosity of the Duc de Loubat, shows +us two elaborate representations of the great ceremony of kindling +the holy fire in a large circular socket, on the body of a woman +which, in all cases is combined with the image of an alligator +(see p. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>). In another Codex the alligator alone supports the +socket. The smaller of these representations is reproduced in fig. +<ref target='Figure_29'>29</ref>, and on pp. +<ref target='Pg093'>93-97</ref> this image is discussed as well as the remarkable +stone fire altars in human form, of which one has been +unearthed near the city of Mexico, while no less than six were +found at Chichen-Itza. My informant on this point is Mr. Alfred +P. Maudslay, who added that they seem to have been invariably +placed at the bottom of the stairs leading up to the temple, the façade +<pb n='505'/><anchor id='Pg505'/> +of which is always supported by two great columns, each sculptured +in the form of a great serpent with open jaws, the symbol +which, in the bas-reliefs at Chichen-Itza and on the Central American +stelæ, recurs on the head-dresses of the rulers termed <q>Divine +serpents,</q> or <q>divine four in One.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Postponing comment upon the curious analogy between the stone +fire altars in human form, of the Mayas and Mexicans, with those +of the Maghadas of Northern India, who called themselves the Sons +of Magha = the socket-block whence fire was generated by the fire-drill, +or the mother Maga, the sacred alligator, let us examine +the fire-drill god of ancient Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +Reference to fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref> reveals that it is impossible to see +these Mexican representations, which I could supplement by others, +and not be struck by their agreement with the descriptions of the +Hindu pole-star god Dhruva, who stands on one foot, of the lame +Hephaistos of Greek mythology, to which I would add that Hewitt +also mentions in his preface to vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> the Norse Völunde, the +maimed, one-legged turner of the pole; the god called in the +Rig-Veda the Aja ekapad, or one-footed goat, who watched the revolutions +of the solar disk, and the one-legged bird of Russian mythology, +associated with a revolving house and fire-drill. In the +Mexican Codices the Mexican Tezcatlipoca, held by one foot to the +centre of the north, describes a circle around this. His foot evidently +constitutes the fire-drill, which, inserted in the socket, causes +smoke, also rain and a serpent to issue from it (see 5 and 6). One +figure, representing one leg only in the fire-socket, and a head, exhibiting +a small, smoking fire-socket, appears, in the light of comparative +research, as a cursive method of representing the fire-drill +god, universally associated with Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p> +It is remarkable that, in one case water and in another smoke, +indicating fire, issues from the socket of Tezcatlipoca's fire-drill, +and that, opposite to the picture in the Borgian Codex, representing +the kindling of fire on the fire-altar, we have the image of +a pool of water from which four figures spring toward the cardinal +points (see fig. <ref target='Figure_29'>29</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +It is only after recognizing that, like the people of the Old World, +the Mexicans associated with the fire-drill and socket not only the +distribution of fire and heat, but also of water, that we also fully +grasp the symbolism of the symbol of the <q>Black or Night Sun,</q> +<pb n='506'/><anchor id='Pg506'/> +from the <q>Life of the Indians,</q> which is but one of many simple +forms exhibiting main features which recur on the highly elaborated +Mexican stone of the Great Plan (fig. +<ref target='Figure_73'>73</ref><hi rend='italic'>b</hi>). When placed in juxtaposition +the undoubted resemblance between the Babylonian image +of Shamash and the Mexican image, as well as the deep-seated +identity of these two quadruplicate symbols stands out clearly: in +the Babylonian, wavy lines emanating from the centre convey the +idea of some fluid essence. In the Mexican, instead of the wavy +lines, the conventional representation of a drop of water is depicted—the +idea in both cases being obviously identical and agreeing +with the primeval universal conception of heat or fire, and water +emanating from a common source, and flowing to the cardinal points. +In both cases an axle or socket is represented, and it is instructive +to study the different ways in which the symbol recurs in the Mexican +Codices. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <anchor id='Figure_73'/> + <figure url='images/figure-73.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Figure 73.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Referring back to fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, 1, reproduced from the Codex +Borgia, we see the axle with rays issuing from a circular band of water. +A receptacle filled with water occupies the centre and contains a +tecpatl, the symbol of the north, the same associated with the fire-drill +god in the next figure. In fig. <ref target='Figure_1'>1</ref>, 4, the central fountain is +surrounded, as in many instances, by stars which connect it with +the nocturnal heaven, and it contains a rabbit=tochtli, the rebus +figure employed to express the word octli, by which the rain +was designated as <q>earth wine</q> (see pp. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> +and <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +As I write, I have before me a whole series of painted representations +from the Codices of what has heretofore been misinterpreted +as images of the diurnal sun. In some of these the open centre +is painted blue or green, in others it is filled by a heart from which +flows, in some cases, a stream of blood, the essence of life. In +several instances a tree with four main branches grows from the +<pb n='507'/><anchor id='Pg507'/> +centre.<note place='foot'>Referring the reader to pp. +<ref target='Pg186'>186-192</ref> for details concerning native tree worship, I +shall but add that to this day, among certain North American tribes, the planting of +the sacred tribal pole in the hallowed earth socket is accompanied by curious ritualistic +marriage rites, and the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire of the fire drill. +For the association of four Mexican tribes with four tribal trees and totemic birds, +see fig. <ref target='Figure_53'>53</ref>, and note +that the central figure, enclosed in a square, is represented as +though four streams of blood, flowing from the four angles, converged in his person, +constituting him the <q>Four in One.</q></note> +In one case the tree grows from a pool and holds in its +branches the image of the axle, in the centre of which, as in the Humboldt +Tablet preserved at the Berlin Museum, a figure is seated. +The centres of others exhibit the head of a divinity painted red, a +single eye, or the ollin. All examples establish the fact that the +Mexican <q>axle of the North</q> represented fire and water emanating +from a single source. In notable examples, where the axle is +carved in stone, the identical features are conventionally reproduced. +Some exhibit a depression or deep hole in the centre. +This is the case in the remarkable example at the museum in New +Haven, Conn., where the axle is carved on the top of a square +altar, the corners of which exhibit symbols of the four elements, +each accompanied by the numeral 4. The centre of the figure exhibits +a carved ollin, in the middle of which a deep hole is +situated. An analogous but shallow depression occurs in the +great circular monument, the Conquest Stone of Mexico (see p. +<ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>), around which Tezcatlipoca, the one-footed fire-drill god, +is represented sixteen times, each time in the act of receiving +the enforced homage of the chief or chieftainess of a different +locality. +</p> + +<p> +The above monuments, as well as a rudely-carved representation +of the <q>sun</q> recently discovered and unearthed by Dr. Ed. +Seler, lying on a substructure of stones in the centre of an open +space, presumably a market place, definitely proves that the design +was intended to be placed in a horizontal position. This intention +has already been noted in the case of the Great Cosmical Stone of +Mexico (fig. <ref target='Figure_56'>56</ref>), on which the rays and intermediate water +drops recur, and are represented as emanating from the central Nahui +Ollin, the Four in One, which encloses the masked face of the divine +Twain. +</p> + +<p> +A question naturally suggests itself at this juncture: How did +the ancient Mexicans, who utilized the fire-drill in its most elementary +form and as far as is known, employed no means of extracting +<pb n='508'/><anchor id='Pg508'/> +oil or juice or of grinding food-stuff by a centrifugal process,<note place='foot'>The +only mention of a movable axle or hub that I know of in Mexican chronicles is +the cylinder of wood, described on p. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> +as being shaped like a mortar. The only +native illustration I have met which suggests the native employment of some kind of +revolving press or axle is the curious and clumsy apparatus figured on pp. 11 and 12 of +the Selden MS. preserved at the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and reproduced by +Kingsborough. An examination of this strange mechanical contrivance apparently associated +with a monkey=ozomatli, and the sacrifice of two prisoners, will be found as +interesting as it is puzzling.</note> +come to employ as a sacred symbol, the axle or <q>mill-stone</q> +which, in India, had been adopted as an image of central rotation, +by people who constantly used the fire-drill and the oil-press? +</p> + +<p> +The strongest proof that the idea of a circular disk was associated +in Mexico with terra-cotta spinning whorls only, is the fact that, +in the native description of the Great Temple recorded by Sahagun, +a circular stone monument, employed in religious festivals, which +the Spaniards described as a <q>stone wheel,</q> is termed in the +Nahuatl text as a <q>te-malacatl</q> <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> a <q>stone whorl.</q> +Further evidence of the close association of such <q>stone whorls</q> with +thread or cord, the product of spinning, is furnished by the way in +the ritual, that the victim was attached by one foot to the open +centre of the <q>stone whorl</q> and circulated around the stone which +lay motionless. On the other hand, the sculptured zone on the +Great Cosmical stone, enclosing the day signs placed in their fixed +order of rotation, and the sculptured frieze on the Tribute Stone, +furnish direct evidence that circular movement was associated with +the cosmical axle, or disk. +</p> + +<p> +It is obvious that the distribution of water combined with fire +from a common central source, represented as a mill-stone, could +not have been suggested to the native mind by the use of the fire-drill +and socket and the spinning whorl only. Therefore we are +obliged to face the question whether the cosmical figure may not +have been introduced, as a religious symbol only, by a race of civilizers +who, though acquainted not only with the oil press and chariot +but also with the Akkadian star of Anu, the combination of the +rain and fire crosses, and with the Assyrian-Babylonian image of +Shamash (an elaboration of the same idea), but in the absence of +beasts of burden and sesame seeds in Mexico, had no opportunity, +or did not consider it feasible or necessary, to teach the use of the +chariot, oil-press or circular mill stone to the natives. Before forming +any conclusions or conjectures on this point, however, a number +<pb n='509'/><anchor id='Pg509'/> +of other questions must be investigated. One fact, however, +stands out quite clearly: Whereas in figure <ref target='Figure_73'>73</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, we have the +rudimentary form of the quadruplicate symbol, closely resembling +that which was already ancient and almost obsolete in Babylonia +in the ninth century B.C. and pertained to a cult of Shamash, the +North and Heaven, which had flourished in that country about +1850 B.C., the Great Cosmical Stone of Mexico represents the +highly advanced development and elaboration of the identical cult, +as actually established there until the year 1519 of our era. +</p> + +<p> +Pausing here and looking back upon the foregoing summary of +the universal spread of identical forms of social organization and +of rituals suggested by the use of the fire-drill, in association with +a primitive pole-star cult, there are a few distinct and unrelated +points which claim special attention: First of all, the identity in +the form of the fire-altar and the cult of the fire-socket, among the +Maghas and Nahushas of India and the Mayas and Nahuas of Yucatan +and Mexico. Secondly, the striking resemblance of plan and +numerical scheme which unquestionably existed between the ideal +<q>divine polities,</q> recorded by Plato, and the states which actually +existed, of ancient Peru and Mexico. It is impossible to read +Plato's scheme of an all-pervading division into 12, and his plan +for the laying out of the capital and state and not to recognize the +fact that, in Peru, as set forth on pp. <ref target='Pg133'>133-149</ref> of the +present work, these identical principles were actually carried out by the alien +Incas who, in comparatively modern times, collected the natives +together and organized them into a settled community. Thirdly, +the undeniable fact that the numerical scheme of the Maya and +Mexican Calendar and state-organization is identical with that +adopted by Constantine, in establishing New Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Postponing a closer examination of these points until further +on, let us now continue our comparative review. +</p> + +<p> +The universal spread of the identical scheme of organization, +vouched for by documentary evidence, is further demonstrated by +the results of archaeological and historical research and a comparative +study of ancient symbolism. Thus it is impossible not to +admit the striking and deep-seated analogy between the Assyrian +four-fold division of city and state, the title <q>lord of the four regions</q> +and the image of Shamash, the <q>four-spoked wheel;</q> the +Indian, Egyptian and Grecian philosophical conceptions of four +elements, culminating in Plato's Cosmos and Theos (an entity, +<pb n='510'/><anchor id='Pg510'/> +spherical in shape, incorporating four elements) and, for instance, +the quadruplicate symbol carved in the centre of the Mexican Cosmical +Tablet, which exhibits the symbols of the same four elements +embodied in a single symbol, representing the supreme power, who +is thus proven to have been conceived by the Mexicans, as well as +by the Peruvians, as <q>the Air, Earth, Fire and Water in One,</q> or +the source of the four elements.<note place='foot'><p>In a +paper read to the Section of Anthropology of the New York meeting of the +American Association for the Advancement of Science, Mr. Stansbury Hagar communicated +the interesting results of his study of the Salcamayhua tablet which has +been alluded to on p. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> +of the present publication. With his kind authorization I +take pleasure in citing here his interpretation of the name of the Peruvian Creator, +an abbreviation of which is inscribed on the plate or tablet. It will be found to +accord with that given by Sir Clements B. Markham (History of Peru, p. 20), but to be +more explicit. According to his view the name should be analyzed as follows: +illa=light, lightning=fire; ticci=foundation, brick=earth; uayra +<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> huaii=air, +wind; cocha=lake=water. +</p> +<p> +<q>Illa ticci uayra cocha would thus mean: the universal spirit defined by naming +what seemed to a people unacquainted with scientific chemistry to be the four ultimate +elements.</q> +</p> +<p> +Referring to the cognate Aymara language, Mr. Hagar interprets the name pachaya +chachic as <q>source, lit. male ancestor, grandfather of all things,</q> and states that +the opening inscription on the tablet should therefore read: <q>Spirit of Fire, Earth, +Air and Water, source of all things</q> ... that is to say <q>image of the source whence +heaven and earth have emanated.</q> Mr. Hagar states that this source seems to be +appropriately figured by the oval form which he interprets as +an egg (see fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>). +On the other hand I point out that the flat plate of fine gold, which was set up by +the Inca Manco Capac between images of the sun and moon, is figured as circular in +shape (fig. <ref target='Figure_28'>28</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>b</hi>). +</p> +<p> +I draw attention to Mr. Stansbury Hagar's interesting and suggestive paper on +<q>The Celestial Bear,</q> which appeared in vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiii</hi>, +no. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xlix</hi>, of the Journal of +American Folk-lore, in July, 1900. In this he relates the legend connected with Ursa +Major by the Micmac Indians, that <q>this group of stars served to mark the divisions +of the night and the seasons for the Micmacs.</q> A point of particular interest in +connection with the Micmac legend is the fact, so clearly distinguishable, that the story +was suggested to the minds of the Indians by the different positions assumed by the +constellation in its annual circuit around Polaris. +</p> +<p> +<q>The Micmacs say,.... In all things as it was and is in the sky, so it is on +earth.... In midspring the bear does actually seem to be climbing down out of her +[celestial] den [<hi rend='italic'>corona borealis</hi>], which appears higher up to the +northern horizon. In midsummer ... the bear runs along the northern horizon.... Soon +after the bear assumes an erect position she topples over on her back [is slain] in the +autumn. In midwinter she lies dead on her back, ... but the den [<hi rend='italic'>corona +borealis</hi>] has re-appeared, with the bear of the new year lying therein, invisible. +But this does not end the story of the bear, ... through the winter her skeleton +lies upon its back in the sky, but her life spirit has entered another bear who also +lies upon her back in the den, invisible and sleeping the winter sleep. When the +spring comes around again, this bear will again issue forth from the den to be again +pursued by the hunters, to be again slain, but again to send into the den her life-spirit, +to issue forth yet again when the sun once more awakens the sleeping earth. +And so the drama keeps on eternally.</q> Reasoning by induction, I am strongly tempted +to assign the origin of the Egyptian myth of Osiris and of the <q>child in its +cradle,</q> to the same source of inspiration—possibly also other myths of +antiquity, such as the +twelve labors of Hercules (held by O'Neil to be a pole-star god) may be assigned to +the same source. At all events, the Micmac example is extremely instructive and +suggestive. +</p> +<p> +The following extracts from Mr. Hagar's paper establish that Ursa Major was +known as the Bear to several North American tribes, and generally served to mark +time and seasons. <q>In a Blackfoot myth we read: The seven Persons slowly swung +around and pointed downward. It was the middle of the night,</q> showing that they +too marked the time at night by the position of these stars. So the Zuñis tell, when +winter comes, how the bear, lying, sleeps, no longer guarding the West land from the +cold of the Ice gods, etc., a story which demonstrates that in Zuñi mythology there +was a marked association between the terrestrial bear [the <q>great white bear of the +seven stars,</q> Cushing] and the seasons. +</p> +<p> +The Ojibways mention the constellation in connection with the four quarters in +heaven, showing that they, at some time, were accustomed to mark their seasons not +only by the position of the stars of the Bear, but also by the rising and setting of +various fixed stars. +</p> +<p> +In conclusion I would state that Miss Alice Fletcher has informed me that, among +the Omaha Indians, time is measured by Ursa Major, and that the pole-star is +named the <q>Star which never travels.</q></p></note> +</p> + +<p> +When it is likewise considered that the Mexicans employed the +divine title, <q>four times lord,</q> that the Maya title <q>Kukulcan,</q> +signifies the <q>Divine Four,</q> that the ancient map of Mayapan +proves that, like the Kushite confederacy, and the kingdoms of +Assyria, Egypt and Peru, it was a <q>Four provinces in One</q> or a +<q>four-fold state,</q> the identity of the principles underlying the +archaic civilizations of the Old and New World becomes more and +more apparent. It likewise becomes evident that in each of these +countries the significance and symbolism of the archaic cross-symbol +and swastika must have been identical, and that, like the pyramid +(the form of which, in the ancient Greek alphabet, is given +<pb n='511'/><anchor id='Pg511'/> +to the letter delta which expresses, numerically, four, a quatuor, +or 4,000) and the square stone altar or column, it figured the Four +in One, the mystic Five or the Four and all-embracing One. The +following array of facts demonstrates further the universal association +of archaic cross-symbolism with the conception of an all-embracing, +stable, central power. +</p> + +<p> +A striking demonstration of this is furnished by the diagonal +cross, employed as a Chinese character, to express the word wū=five, +just as it is used, in Egyptian hieratic script, to express the +syllables uu, un or ur (see fig. <ref target='Figure_60'>60</ref>). Sometimes, in +Chinese, a horizontal line is drawn above the cross and another beneath it, and +John Chalmers informs us that, according to the Shoh Wan, this +<q>full form means the five elements between heaven and earth, the +upper line being heaven and the lower earth.</q> The sign thus obviously +constituted an image of the Cosmos, the 5+2=heaven +<pb n='512'/><anchor id='Pg512'/> +and earth, thus furnishing the familiar seven directions in space, +the chief and synopsis of which is the sacred Centre. +</p> + +<p> +The association, in ancient America, of the cross-shape with +central stable power, has already been discussed in the case of the +Copan swastika, p. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>. At the time when I wrote about this and +carved stelæ found at Quirigua and Copan, I had not yet learned +of the remarkable discovery made there, by Mr. George Byron Gordon +of the Peabody Museum Honduras Expedition, which furnishes +me with the most striking confirmation of the conclusion I expressed +on p. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, namely, that the personages, whose portraits +are sculptured on the stelæ, were high-priest rulers, who bore the +title <q>Divine Four,</q> and were <q>rulers of the four regions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to Mr. Gordon's report, published in vol. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, no. <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, +of the Peabody Museum Memoirs, I merely note his verification +that, beneath several stelæ examined for this purpose, there +exist subterraneous vaults, in the form of the so-called Greek cross, +above the exact centre of which the stela stands, its base being +inserted in the stones forming the ceiling of the chamber. In one +case the length of the cruciform vault is over nine feet from eastern +to western extremity, the width of the branches being one foot +and their depth two feet. Over thirty vessels of pottery were found +in this, amongst them large urns with covers. It would appear +from this that, like the Egyptians, the ancient builders of Copan +performed certain ceremonial rites in connection with the construction +of these artificially cosmical centres. +</p> + +<p> +What seems quite clear is that the subterraneous vault constituted +a sacred cosmical chamber and that the stelæ were memorial +stones, which probably represented the image of a lord, and the +record of his fixed term of office which formed a period or era of +the native calendar (see p. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>). The stela which formed the +stable, visible centre of the hidden substructure may also have been +employed as a gnomon during some period of time, and in the monument +the initiated must undoubtedly have recognized the underlying +cosmical conceptions, and regarded it as a highly developed +form or variant of the archaic cross, the primitive record of a year. +It is remarkable how closely analogous are the Central American +stelæ with their hidden cruciform vaults, to the conception of the +Egyptian <q>star of Horus</q> explained by Hewitt as the meridian +pole raised in the centre of a cross denoting the four quarters. +</p> + + +<pb n='513'/><anchor id='Pg513'/> + +<p> +The most striking evidence of a close affinity between the ancient +Central American ah-men, or master-masons, who built cruciform +windows in the walls of temples and designed the cruciform +vaults under the stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, and the amanteca +or tolteca, the master-architects and builders of Mitla, Mexico, is +furnished by Mr. M. H. Saville's recent excavation of three remarkable +subterraneous, cruciform chambers, the largest of which +is situated on the summit of a high hill near Mitla. The interior +of the latter is elaborately decorated with geometrical designs, like +those on the exterior of the Mitla palace. The extreme length from +east to west is 9m. 71cm., from north to south 8m. 18cm., and its roof +was composed of large flat stones. The entrance to this and the +other cruciform vaults is situated at the extremity of the western +arm, which in the case described was longer than the other arms. +</p> + +<p> +The most remarkable example of such a cruciform crypt is, +however, that situated beneath the palace of Mitla, which has been +figured by Dupaix in Lord Kingsborough's Mexican Antiquities, +vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ix</hi>. This +vault is also built of the shape of a so-called <q>Greek</q> +cross, but in its centre stands a large circular stone column reaching +from floor to ceiling. It is impossible not to recognize the +symbolism of this pillar situated in the centre of a structure, +the form of which symbolizes the Four Quarters and the fundamental +identity of the column occupying the centre of the Mitla +chamber and the Copan stelæ standing above the centre of the +hidden cruciform vault. Details associated with the pillar which +stood in the Great Temple of Mexico (p. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>), and the +<q>pedestal</q> erected on the hill of justice at Guatemala (p. +<ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>) definitely show +that, in ancient America, the column was also associated with star-cult, +with the administration of justice and central celestial and +terrestrial government. Investigation has shown that precisely the +same ideas were associated with the circular, square or octagonal +columns of Egypt, Greece, Rome and Japan, where they either constituted +the images of the central supreme divinity, formed the +support for the statues of earthly <q>divine</q> rulers, or marked the +centres of the cosmos or state, bearing inscriptions of the sacred +laws as in Athens, or of the distances to all points of the empire, +viz. the Roman Milliarum Aureum. +</p> + +<p> +It is remarkable to find that, whereas in ancient Byzantium the +centre of the city had been marked by a column surmounted by a +colossal statue of Apollo, a pillar or pole god, Constantine erected +<pb n='514'/><anchor id='Pg514'/> +a <q>spacious edifice, from the centre of which all roads of the empire +were measured.</q> Considering that, at the time when this edifice +was built, the ancient quadruplicate plan had been revised and the +empire of New Rome had been divided into four parts by Constantine, +it seems reasonable to infer that the form of the great +edifice which marked the territorial centre of the new empire bore +the impress of the cruciform plan, and that the shape of the cross +should have been adopted throughout the empire, in edifices marking +central consecrated places. How much of the true spirit of the +Christian ideal of universal brotherhood entered into the constitution +of Constantine's New Rome it is impossible to conjecture. +Niebuhr denies that Constantine was a Christian, records that he +was only baptized shortly before his death, and states that the religion +of Constantine <q>must have been a strange compound indeed, +something like the amulet recently discovered at Rome, which is an +example of that curious mixture of Judaism, Christianity and Paganism +which we so frequently meet with from about the beginning +of the third century.</q><note place='foot'><q>The amulet +is of finely wrought silver, with magic inscription, the seven-branched +candlestick of Jerusalem and the usual Christian monogram. The inscription is in +Greek, mixed with barbarous and unintelligible forms. It contains however express +allusions to Christianity and states that whoever wore it would be sure to please gods +and men.</q> It is well known that Constantine had on the reverse of his coin the +inscription Sol Invictus and on the obverse the monogram of Christ. <q>This has been +interpreted as a proof that the sun was his own guardian deity,</q> but I venture to +explain the adoption of the sun as analogous to the ancient Egyptian mode of designating +the sovereign as the son of the sun, the sacred representation of Heaven. Dean +Stanley (Eastern Church, p. 193) refers to Constantine's <q>mode of harmonizing the +discordant religions of the empire under one institution and retention of the old Pagan +name of Dies Solis or Sunday, for the weekly Christian festival,</q> which was recommended +by Constantine to his subjects, Pagan and Christian alike, as <q>the venerable +day of the Sun.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +In an extremely interesting monograph <q>On the origin of the +cruciform plan of the mediæval Cathedral,</q> by the distinguished +architect, Mr. E. M. Wheelwright, published in the <q>Transactions +of the Boston Society of Architects, 1891,</q> I find the significant +fact that what is now the little church of S. Tiburce, Rome, in the +form of a Greek cross, was built at the time of Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +The same monograph teaches that <q>de Rossi discovered in the +catacombs of Rome two scholia of a plan called specifically triclinium, +of a date previous to Diocletian and probably of the third +century. In such were celebrated, by the presbyters, the memorial +feasts of martyrs, the congregation assembling outside. Tombs of +a positive cruciform plan are also found in the catacombs. In +<pb n='515'/><anchor id='Pg515'/> +the fifth or sixth century cruciform buildings became in the East, +and <emph>wherever Byzantine influence was potent, the recognized form +for tombs, mortuary chapels and buildings commemorative of holy +places</emph>. These types seem to have been given, by Byzantine architects, +special recognition of the purpose of their construction +and to have appeared to them <emph>as monuments requiring a symbolical +expression of plan</emph>, while they evidently <emph>did not consider such +symbolical expressions requisite in buildings planned for general +congregations</emph>, which, although of types without distinct association +with the Christian faith, were held, for several centuries, to +be sufficiently well adapted to purposes of Christian worship without +material change from their ancient form [that of the Roman +Basilica].</q> +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to Mr. Wheelwright's monograph for interesting +data concerning the Byzantine influence discernible in +the early types of Christian churches of cruciform plan erected +in northern Italy and Europe, I merely note here that in St. +Sophia, founded by Constantine, and completed by Justinian, <q>the +load of the dome is thrown on four great piers disposed at either +corner of a square. These great piers, with the corresponding +buttresses of the outer wall, suggest a possible symbolical intent +in the arrangement ... otherwise the cruciform plan +here suggested is expressed neither externally nor internally.</q> I +venture to suggest that in St. Sophia, <q>Holy Eternal Wisdom,</q> +as in the case of the Pantheon, the dominant idea may have been +the all-embracing unity, but that, as the number four was identified +with <q>wisdom and justice</q> by the widespread Pythagorean +philosophy, that number must have seemed, to the initiated, to +pervade the entire structure. In the case of the Church of the +Nativity at Bethlehem, where it was Justinian's intention to mark +a sacred locality, we find the cruciform plan clearly carried out. +<q>The church of St. Simeon Stylite at Kelat Seman Syria, built +about A.D. 500, is a most interesting example of a cruciform +church, marking a sacred spot [and associated with a sacred column].</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>The church of the seventh century built at Sichem, over the +well of the Samaritan, shows a distribution of plan similar to that +of S. Simeon Stylite, the holy object being at the crossing.... +There are existing at St. Wandrille and at Querqueville +in Normandy, two (cruciform) triapsidal churches of a date prior +<pb n='516'/><anchor id='Pg516'/> +to the Norman conquest ... a well preserved four-apsed +tomb chapel exists at Montmajour near Arles, built in 1019; the +detail and plan of which point to a Syrian prototype and resembles +two buildings of an early date now existing in Dalmatia.</q> The +use of the cruciform type of church, anterior to the great revival +of purely Christian religious architecture in the thirteenth century, +was confined to Picardy and the Rhenish provinces, fine churches +of this type being at Cologne, Bonn, Marburg, etc. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to recall that the building of sacred structures +is attributed to <q>secret organizations of free or enfranchised operative +masons which existed during the middle ages, and possessed +grades of officers and secret signs by which, on coming to +a strange place, they could be recognized as real craftsmen and +not impostors.</q> To this day, in some parts of Germany and Bohemia, +the swastika is the sign or mark of the stone-mason's guild +which has survived from the mediæval times. In the organized +bands of masons whose mark was the swastika and who introduced +Eastern cosmical symbolism into Europe and gradually developed, +upon this basis, a purely Christian form of architecture, we may +perhaps see the descendants of those ancient builders who, filled +with the conception of the sacred Central power, the Four Quarters, +the Above and Below, planned the square, seven-stoned zikkurats +of Babylonia-Assyria, the pyramids, obelisks and sphinxes +of Egypt, the columns and cruciform tombs and sanctuaries of +Greece, Asia Minor and Rome, the cruciform temples and the topes +of India and the domes of the Pantheon and St. Sophia.<note place='foot'><q>No +country in the world can compare with India for the exposition of the pyramidal +cross.... The body of the great temple of Bindh madhu (formerly the boast +of the ancient city of Benares ... demolished in the seventeenth century) was +constructed in the figure of a colossal cross, with a lofty dome at the centre, above +which rose a massive structure of a pyramidal form. At the four extremities of the +cross there were four other pyramids.... A similar building existed at Mhuttra.... +By pyramidal towers placed crosswise the Hindoo also displayed the all-pervading +sign of the cross. At the famous temple of Chillambrum, on the Coromandel +coast, there were <emph>seven</emph> lofty walls, one within the other, round a central +quadrangle, and as many pyramidal gateways in the midst of each side which forms +the limbs of a vast cross</q> (Faber, quoted by Donelly in Atlantis, p. 335).</note> +</p> + +<p> +It would appear that these ancient builders were also the designers +and founders of cities and states. It is, for instance, known +that Hippodamus, the son of Euryphon, a Milesian, and by profession +an architect, gained celebrity in his own art by constructing +the Piræus at Athens and by improving the method of distributing +<pb n='517'/><anchor id='Pg517'/> +streets and planning cities ... and also wrote a treatise concerning +the best form of government. +</p> + +<p> +A kinship of thought undoubtedly exists between the trained +builders of cosmical structures in the Old World and the ah-men, +the amantecas and toltecas of Central America and Mexico, who +also reared pyramids, cruciform vaults, circular temples, with openings +to the four quarters (see fig. <ref target='Figure_30'>30</ref>, p. 97), altars and +pillars, and in their temples wrought, in stone, endless variations of the +great human theme: the sacred central, stable power, the four quarters +and elements, and the heaven and earth with the dualities of +Nature, and likewise instituted an artificial scheme of social organization, +a calendar and religious rites based on these same fundamental +principles, which can be traced back to primitive pole-star +worship. It has been of utmost interest to me, as I was approaching +the end of the present investigation, to become acquainted +with Hewitt's work and his view that it was the seafaring Turanians, +originally a northern race, the worshippers of Tur=the pole, +who claimed descent from the seven stars of Nāgash, the serpent=Ursa +Major, and, from India, extended their trade and carried +their form of social organization and religious cult first to the +Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where +they were known by the Greeks as the Phœnicians. +</p> + +<p> +The subjoined detached passages, which open out new fields of +inquiry, not only appear to me to establish conclusively this view, +but certainly afford most interesting information concerning the +ancient race of pole-star worshippers, seafarers, builders and handicraftsmen +who, according to Hewitt (p. 25), extended their emigrations +not only to Europe but also to America.<note place='foot'><p><q>The +Tur-vasu, or people whose creating god (vasu) was the pole (tur), when +united with the traders of the south, became the mercantile mariners of the Indian +Ocean, who had imposed their rule and traditions both on the lands of Northern India +and on those of the twin rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris.... From India, the only +land on the Indian Ocean where they could build sea-going ships, they extended their +trade, forms of government and national myths, first to the Euphratean kingdoms and +afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where they were known to the Greeks as the Phœnicians</q> +(p. 356). +</p> +<p> +<q>These people had seven parent stars whose names are preserved. Professor Sayce +has identified the first of these, Sugi, with <q>the star of the Wain</q> and states that +it means the <q>creating-spirit-reed</q> or the northern khu=bird, the <q>reed of the +bird, the mother of life.</q> Sugi is therefore an additional name for the Bear to that +of Bel, distributor of waters.... In both names the metaphor is the same, for it is from +the reeds at the source of the rivers, their point of distribution, that the rivers are +born.... Both names denoted the star that led the year and it was the Great Bear, +as Sugi, that led the earliest year, opening with the week of creation</q> ... (p. 357). +... <q>The sons of the Tur or pole were the Indian Tur-vashu, the Zend Turanians, +the mariners of Asia Minor called by the Egyptians Tour-sha (Maspero), the sea +traders of the Mediterranean called the Tur-sene of Lydia, the Tur-sena or Tyrrhenians +of Lemnos and Etruria, who spoke a language closely allied to that of the Akkadians. +That their god was worshiped in Cyprus and Asia Minor is proved by the +<hi rend='italic'>terra-cotta whorl</hi> found in one of the settlements on the site of +Troy, dedicated in +Cypriote characters to Patori-Turi, the father Tur, who gave his name to the Phrygian +city of Turiaion. The great antiquity of the settlement is proved by the fact +that though some bronze knives and instruments were found in it, by far the greater +number of implements were of stone and the pottery, though similar to that of Mycenæ, +is of a more archaic type</q> (Schuchhardt's Schliemann's Excavations, App. I, 331-332 +and 334). +</p> +<p> +<q>They were also the first spinners, weavers, makers of pottery and built canoes +and worked in mines.... They grew wheat, barley, peas, flax and fruit trees.... +These men covered the whole of Europe and Southern Asia ... and the Indian Dekhan +with cromlechs and stone circles, which were certainly in some cases roofed over, +dolmens, meaning stone tables, shrines, altars, tumuli and memorial stones or pillars +and all of these, whether found in Western Europe or Southern Asia, are completely +identical in character. These people had, in their migrations, established an active +and widespread foreign trade...</q> (p. 178). +</p> +<p> +<q>These maritime Tursena were intermingled with the matriarchal Amazonian tribes +who preceded them, and who seemed to have founded the ancient ports of Asia +Minor and Palestine, especially the Ionian cities of Smyrna and Ephesus and that +of <hi rend='italic'>Askelon</hi>. It was in the land of Phrygia, the mountain countries +of the Caucasus range and the snowy heights whence the Euphrates rose, that the earliest +shepherds met the matriarchal races, the immigrants from the southeast, the Hindu +village communities, who are called by the Greeks Amazons, and are described as the +earliest ruling races of Asia Minor and Greece (p. 175).</q> +</p> +<p> +<q>... The Great Naga is the Akkadian god Ner-gal, and the Phœnician god Sarrahu, +or the Great Sar. His name among the Shuites, or the worshippers of Susi-nag +on the west of the Euphrates, is Emu, a name which is letter for letter the same as +that of the national god of the Ammonites, Amun</q> (Sayce: Hibbert Lectures, 1887, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>, p. 196, note 1. +<q>Amun means the builder, or architect, and is, like that of the Egyptian +god, formed of aman, to sustain</q> (Gesenius, Thesaurus, p. 115). <q>He was the god +of the house pole, who became in Egyptian Thebes, Amen-Ra, the hidden, and it was +the people who made the house-pole the symbol of their ancestors, ... who brought +to Egypt as well as to Assyria and India, the custom of having cities for the dead +apart from those for the living.... It was from the rains of the summer-solstice ... +generated from the Naga snake that the Phœnician sons of Kush were born, whose +kings, like those of Egypt, wore the Uræus snake as a sign of royal authority. Their +original settlement, according to a tradition recorded by Theophrastus, was at +<hi rend='italic'>Tulos</hi> +or Turos, in the Persian Gulf, the modern Bahrein. This was the holy island of +Diloun, called Dilmun by the Akkadians.... It was the settlement of Hindu navigators +in the holy island of Dilmun in the Persian gulf, and at Eridu, which first +brought them in contact with the Arabian star-gazers and merchants, and it was the +union, in the ancient city of Ur, of these races with the Hebrew tribe of Gad (who +built, not only the cities of Bashan, but also those of Assyria and were the great +builders of the ancient world), which first formed the Semite race. It was the meridian +pole, the heavenly, revolving pole, the Tur of the Akkadians, which the Dravidian +traders of India brought with them to Eridu</q> (p. 292). <q>It was these Tursena who, +by developing the ancient organization of the village and province in India, divided +all the countries they occupied into confederacies of cities, such as we find among +the Euphratean nations, the Egyptians, Canaanites and the people of Asia Minor, +Greece and Italy. It was they who were the fathers of Greek and Latin civilization.</q> +(p. 296). <q>It was these people who brought from India their village institutions, +their holy groves and seasonal dances.... Among them the Finnic mining +races descended.... It was in Phrygia that they were mixed with the Daktuloi, +or race of handicraftsmen and artificers, the sons of Dak, the showing or teaching +god, the god Daksha, the father of the Kush race.... They were the carpenters +and builders of the Stone age.</q> +</p> +<p> +Prof. Sayce's <q>Ancient Empires of the East</q> furnishes further interesting details +concerning the Phœnicians. According to this eminent authority, at an early date, in +order to relieve the pressure of population, they sent out organized colonies to the +recently discovered lands of the West. Accordingly commercial marts were established +at Thera and Melos,.... Colonies were established at Attica, on the coast +of Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and beyond the columns of Herakles, in +Gadeira. The three cities of Rhodes were planned by Phœnician architects.... +The Assyrian character of early Greek art is due to its Phœnician inspiration.... +It was about <q>B.C. 600 that these people penetrated to the northwest coast of India and +probably to the island of Britain as well.... They were the intermediaries of ancient +civilization ... and the chief elements of Greek art and civilization came from +Assyria through the hands of Phœnicians.... Phœnician art was essentially catholic +... it assimilated the art of Babylonia, Egypt and Assyria superadding something +of its own.... Their chief deity was Yeud or Ekhad=the Only One ... +they worshipped the Kabeiri ... originally seven stars ... who were the makers +of the world, the founders of civilization, the inventors of ships.... The cities of +Phœnicia were the first trading communities the world has seen.... Their colonies +were originally mere marts and their voyages of discovery were taken in the interests +of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of Spain, the birds of the Canaries, the +frankincense of Arabia, the pearls and ivory of India, all flowed into their harbours.... +Many of their colonies were wholly independent, and governed by their own kings +and benefiting Phœnicia only in the way of trade.... In Phœnicia ... the king +seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling ... princes and ... chiefs. In +time the monarchy disappeared altogether, its place being supplied by suffetes or +<q>judges,</q> whose term of office lasted sometimes for a year, sometimes for more, +sometimes even for life.... At Carthage there were two suffetes, who were merely +presidents of the senate of thirty ... whose power was subsequently checked by a +board of one hundred and four.... By providing that no member of the board should +hold office for two years running, Hannibal changed the government into a +democracy.</q></p></note> Hewitt bases +<pb n='518'/><anchor id='Pg518'/> +the latter assertion upon the identity be perceived <q>between Akkadian +and American mythological traditions.</q> +</p> + +<p> +As the limit of the present inquiry excludes mythology, I cannot +discuss here the evidences of similarity produced by Hewitt. I +must express regret, however, that he designates a tribe of Pueblo +Indians (the Sias, related to the Zuñis), as +<q>Mexican</q> (see vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, +p. 243, etc.), a term which, in this case, is decidedly misleading. +His identification of the truly Mexican, <q>teo-cipactli</q> as a <q>fish-god</q> +is unfortunate, as numberless conventionalized drawings in +the Codices prove that cipactli signifies alligator. If the somewhat +limited and vague evidence, produced by Mr. Hewitt, appeared +to justify his conclusion, how much more must an identity +of social organization and cult such as I have traced, not only +authorize but also render it imperative, that the possibility of pre-Columbian +contact should be thoroughly looked into. Disclaiming +any desire to formulate hasty conclusions, and merely for the sake +<pb n='519'/><anchor id='Pg519'/> +of gaining information by looking squarely at facts, I shall now +rapidly enumerate some of these which undoubtedly appear to corroborate +Hewitt's further assertion that <q>the Mayas and Nahuas +of Yucatan and Mexico were emigrants of the Magha and Nahusha +tribes, who pertained to the race of navigators known by the +Greeks as the Phœnicians ... and who continued in their new +land, America, the worship of the rain god, to whom, as their +fathers in central Asia, they dedicated the sign of the cross</q> +(Hewitt, p. 492). +</p> + +<p> +<q>The Maghas were the Finnic long-haired race of star- and fire-worshippers +who, starting from Phrygia, as the Takkas conquered +northern India ... who called themselves the sons of the +Northern pine tree, called in Phrygia, as by the Northern Finns, +Ma=the mother; also the sons of the mother-goddess Magha, +the socket block whence fire was generated by the fire-drill; who +is also worshipped as the mother Maga under the form of the alligator. +Consequently the alligator was their totem.</q> In Essay <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii</hi> +<pb n='520'/><anchor id='Pg520'/> +Hewitt states that these <q>sons of the great witch-mother Maga</q> +lived in Magnesia, whence they emigrated to Thessaly and that +theirs was the <q>city of the Magnetes</q> referred to by Plato as <q>the +mother of laws.</q> The word mag, however, meant great in Akkadian, +hence according to Hewitt the name Makkhu, the high priests +or Magi (vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 54). +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +The Maya and Mexican fire altars and sockets and their association with +the earth-mother and alligator in the native Codices has been discussed. +The Mexican day-sign cipactli figures an alligator and is associated with a +female deity. The alligator altar at Copan, is described on p. +<ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>. Were +it not for limit of space additional testimony could be cited here, proving +that in Mexico the alligator was associated with the mother of the race, +the fire-socket, and was a tribal totem. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>As the mother Maga she is the maker or kneader, the mother of +the building and constructing races ... they were the first +builders of towns.... They adored the god of the twirling or +churning fire-drill.... They employed the name Ku, Ukko, +Pukka and Pukan to designate the rain and thunder god and star-god +who guides the stars in their courses and rules the beginning of +the year</q> (Hewitt, p 438). The Finnic and Esthonian <q>Ukko is +also called Taivahan Napanen, meaning the navel of the heaven +and this is called the place of the pole star, the star at the top of +the heavenly mountain</q> (vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi>, p. 155). +</p> + +<pb n='521'/><anchor id='Pg521'/> + +<quote rend='display'> +Compare Ku in Maya list, appendix +<ref target='Appendix_III'><hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi></ref>, +also Tezcatli-poca or puca=Mexican +fire-drill god, Ursa Major. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>They worshipped Nag or Nagash,=the serpent and fire-drill +constellation of Ursa Major, and consequently called themselves +also the sons of Naga=the Nahushas. They worshipped the +Pleiades=the mother stars....</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +The Nahuas traced ancestry to seven stars of Ursa Major and began +their religious year at the culmination of the Pleiades at midnight. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>The Nagas united with the navigating Shus or Phœnicians ... +the red men, who worshipped the ruler of heaven.... +These Shus ... called in the North, Hus ... were the Sumerian +trading races of the Euphratean delta and Western India, +who traced their descent to Khu, the mother bird of the Akkadians, +Egyptians and Kushites.... They reverenced the sacred +<q>shu</q> stone, the begetter of fire and of life fostered by heat,... +designated as the precious stone, the strong stone, the +snake stone, the mountain stone.... The pregnant mountain of +the Shu stone was to the Akkadians the central point of the earth. +The people who are said in the Rig-Veda to have first found fire +by the help of Matarishoan, the fire-socket, and to have brought it +to men, and are said to have placed it in the navel of the world +... as the sacred Shu stone.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It should be added here that the Hittite sign for Ishtar was a +triangle enclosing a stone: <q>the mountain enclosing the stone of +life.</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +About 270 A.D. the Tutul-xius=(<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Kukul) under a great chief or +lord Kukulcan reigned at Chichen-Itza ... (p. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>). In Mexico +the name for turquoise is xiuitl and the god of fire is named Xiuh-tecuhtli. Jadeite +is designated as chal-chiuitl and is associated with Chalchiuitlycue, the +mother-goddess. The spark-producing, flint knife=tecpatl is also employed +as a symbol of generation. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>Their kings, like those of Egypt, wore the uræus serpent as a +sign of royal authority and made this the emblem of kingly rank +in countries so widely distant from one another as India and +Egypt....</q> +</p> + +<p> +We learn from Prof. A. H. Sayce (Ancient Empires of the +East, p. 200), that customs that had originated in a primitive +period of Semitic belief survived in Phœnician religion and that +clear traces of totemism are found amongst the Semites. <q>Tribes +were named each after its peculiar totem, an animal, plant or +<pb n='522'/><anchor id='Pg522'/> +heavenly body.... David, for instance, belonged to the serpent-family, +as is shown by the name of his ancestor Nahshon, and +Professor Smith suggests that the brazen serpent found by Hezekiah in +the Solomonic Temple was the symbol of it. We find David +and the family of Nahash, <q>or the serpent,</q> the king of Ammon, +on friendly terms even after the deadly war between Israel and +Ammon, that had resulted in the conquest and decimation of the +latter.</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +The name of the culture hero Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl incorporates +the word serpent in Maya and Nahuatl. The conventionalized open serpent's +jaw forms the usual head-dress of the lords sculptured on the Central +American stelæ and bas-reliefs. The existence of totemism in America +is too well known to require comment, and the arbitrary method by +which it was established by the Incas of Peru, when they founded the +new colony, has been described. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>... I have already shown that the snake-father of the snake +races in Greece and Asia Minor and of the matriarchal races in +India was the snake Echis, or Achis, the holding snake, the Vritra, +or enclosing snake of the Rig-Veda, the cultivated land which girdled +the Temenos. This was the Sanscrit and Egyptian snake +Ahi.... But the Naga snake was not the encircling snake, but +the offspring of the house-pole and in this form it was called by +the Jews the offspring or Baal of the land. But as the heavenly +snake it was the old village snake transferred to heaven, called +the Nag-ksetra, or field of the Nags, and there it was the girdling +air-god who encircled the cloud mothers, the Apsaras, the daughters +of the Abyss, the Assyrian Apsa, and marked their boundaries as +the village snake did those of the holy grove on earth. But on +earth the water-snake was the magical rain-pole, called the god +Darka, set up by the Dravidian Males in front of every house ...</q> +(p. 194). <q>They are the Canaanites, or dwellers in the low country, +and the Hivites or the villagers of the Bible and the race of +Achæans of Greece. These are the sons of the Achis=the serpent, +the having or holding snake, the girdling snake of cultivated +land which surrounded the Temenos or inner shrine, the holy grove +of the gods</q> (Hewitt, p. 175). +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<p> +Attention is drawn here to the twin serpents which enclose the Mexican +Cosmical Tablet (fig. <ref target='Figure_56'>56</ref>), whose bodies may be seen to +consist of a repetition +of the conventional sign for tlalli=land, consisting of a fringed +square. Each square in this case encloses a sign resembling that of fire=tletl +and the numeral ten. These girdling serpents, whose heads unite, +<pb n='523'/><anchor id='Pg523'/> +being directly associated with land, appear as the counterpart of the Old +World Achis, a curious fact when it is considered that they are represented +as springing from the sign Acatl (see p. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, the heavenly <q>feathered serpent</q> of Mexico and +Yucatan is distinctly associated with the air and the circle; its conception +curiously coinciding with that of the <q>girdling air-god</q> mentioned +by Hewitt. It is well known that the walls enclosing the court of the +Great Temple of Mexico, were covered with sculptured serpents, and at +Xochicalco, Mexico, and in Central American ruins (Uxmal, for instance), +great sculptured serpents surround the buildings. It is remarkable that +the sign Acatl not only figures conspicuously on the Great American Tablet, +but also on the allegorical figure of the <q>Divine Serpent,</q> which may +well represent the totemic divinity and ancestor of a snake tribe, associated +with the word Acatl, possibly conveying their name. The undeniable +association, in Mexico, of the serpent with Acatl, curiously agrees with +the name of the <q>sons of Achis, the serpent</q>=the Achaians: and deserves +consideration. +</p> +</quote> + +<p> +In the Genesis genealogy of the kings of Edom, the land of the +red man, the priest king of the Hus or Shus is mentioned <q>... +his people had replaced the Tur, the stone pillar, the Egyptian +obelisk by the temple, the home and symbol of the creating god, +who had been the pillar of the house.... But in their eyes the +father-god was not the central pillar but the two door-posts and +thence they called the temple gates Babel or the gates of god.... +This gate was guarded by the holy twins.... The doorposts, +and night and morning are invoked in the Rig-Veda.... The +Magas were the discoverers of magic, mining, metallurgy, handicrafts—the +pioneers of scientific research and the first organizers of +a ritual of religious festivals.</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +Twin pillars, sculptured in the form of great serpents, whose names +signify twinship, support the entrances to the ancient temples of Yucatan, +Central America, and have been found on the site of the Great Temple +of Mexico. The Mexican and Maya accounts of the culture hero +Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan state that he and his followers were <q>great necromancers</q> +and magicians and that they taught handicrafts, metallurgy, and +instituted calendar, social organization and ritual. A personal, close examination +of a large number of old Peruvian and Mexican as well as +Coptic textile fabrics, has convinced me moreover of their identity of +technique. +</quote> + +<p> +<q>The Magas sacrificed dogs,.... They wore long hair,.... They +made human sacrifices in order to obtain rain</q> (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +<q>The Phœnician priests scourged themselves or gashed their +arms and breasts to win divine favor.... Human sacrifices +<pb n='524'/><anchor id='Pg524'/> +were made, to Moloch or Milkom ... the parent was required +to offer his eldest or only son as a sacrifice and the victim's cries +were drowned by the noise of drums and flutes</q> (Sayce). +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +The human sacrifices of Mexico are familiar to all. The native dog +and various kinds of birds were sacrificed. The Mexican priests, named +papas, wore long hair, practised asceticism, gashed their breasts, arms +and legs and pierced their ears and tongues. On the Palenque bas-reliefs, +priests with long hair are sculptured. The human sacrifices of Mexico +and those of Egypt, Phœnicia and Assyria, described by Sayce and +Hewitt (pp. 275 and 348), are closely alike. See also Hewitt's account +of the blood brotherhood made between the sacrificer and the land on +which the blood is poured (p. 196), and the Chichimec blood sacrifice described +in the present work, p. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>. +</quote> + +<p> +The foregoing are a few noteworthy analogies which have +impressed themselves upon me during the present course of investigation, +in addition to the many undeniable and unsuspected evidences +I have found, of an identity of star-cult, ritual and social +organization in Old and New World civilizations. +</p> + +<p> +It will be seen that the outcome of my researches corroborates +the opinions differently expressed by a long line of eminent investigators, +who have been constantly discovering and pointing out +undeniable similarities and identities between the civilizations of +both hemispheres. +</p> + +<p> +It seems to me that an accumulation of evidence now forces us +to face and thoroughly investigate the possibility that, from remote +antiquity, our continent and its inhabitants were known to the seafarers +of the Old World, to whose agency the spread of similar +forms of cult and civilization in the New World is to be assigned. +</p> + +<p> +While those who uphold the autochthony of the native civilization +may regard such identities as accidental, those who are willing to +admit the possibility that the Phœnicians, the red men of antiquity, +whose land was Syria, navigating by the pole-star, may have +reached America, will doubtlessly dwell upon the unquestionable +fact that the most ancient traces of organized and settled communities +actually exist along the coast swept by the equatorial currents. +A glance at an ordinary chart exhibiting the ocean currents +and trade winds shows that vessels sailing southward from the +Canary Islands and caught in the north African current, might, at +a certain point, enter the north equatorial current flowing towards +the coast of America. Further southward still, off the coast of +Guinea, the current bearing this name meets the main equatorial +<pb n='525'/><anchor id='Pg525'/> +current which sweeps along the coast of Honduras and Yucatan +into the Gulf of Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +What is more, ancient well-known tradition asserts that the +culture-hero Kukulcan-Quetzalcoatl, with his followers, came to +Mexico from the East (<hi rend='italic'>via</hi> Yucatan) and told the natives of their +distant home, named Tlapallan and Huehue tlapallan which, translated, +mean <q>the red land</q> and <q>the great ancient red land.</q> Native +American tradition unquestionably and unanimously ascribes +to single individuals of aged and venerable aspect, or leaders of +small bands of men and women of an alien race, the peaceable introduction +of a definite plan of civilization, identical in its elements +with that known to have existed in India, Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria +from time immemorial, and said to have been spread to +these countries by the Phœnicians. +</p> + +<p> +Native tradition, therefore, is seen unanimously to controvert the +independent development of the cosmical schemes of government +and most advanced forms of civilization which prevailed in America +at the Columbian period. This, of course, in no wise excludes +the existence of purely native people, with a certain degree of civilization, +more rudimentary in form, founded on impressive natural +phenomena, which the natives had always been in a position to observe +for themselves. +</p> + +<p> +In order to obtain an insight into conditions which might have +determined and affected maritime intercourse with distant America, +let us now make a rapid survey of the history of the ancient +civilizations of the Old World. This reveals, in the first case, the +undeniable fact (one of deepest significance in the light of the +present investigation) that the period of a general stirring of men's +minds, in countries where pole-star worship had prevailed from +time immemorial, exactly coincides with the period to which I alluded +on p. 43, during which there ceased to be a brilliantly conspicuous +and perfectly immovable pole-star in the northern heavens. +</p> + +<p> +From Mr. Hinckley Allen's work (p. <ref target='Pg454'>454</ref>), I have since learned +that astronomers have closely determined this period, and that Miss +Clerke writes of this: <q>The entire millennium before the Christian +era may count for an interregnum as regards pole-stars. Alpha +Draconis had ceased to exercise that office; and Alruccabah had +not yet assumed it.</q> Prof. A. H. Sayce tells us that the Phœnician +pilots steered by the pole-star in remotest antiquity, and it is +a matter of history that <q>Pytheas of Massilia, the bold navigator +<pb n='526'/><anchor id='Pg526'/> +(died about 285 B.C.), showed the Greeks that the pole-star was +not at the pole itself.</q> Previous to that date, however, the astronomer-priests +must have noted the change in the heavens. On +descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers, whose entire religion +and civilization were based on the idea of fixity and rotation, the +unaccountable change in the order of the universe must indeed have +produced a deep impression. Under such conditions it seems but +natural that a great awakening of doubt and speculation should +take place, that worship should be transferred from stars known to +be subject to change, to the unseen, incomprehensible but ever-present +eternal power which ruled the universe. +</p> + +<p> +Let us examine some of the records of the great intellectual movement +that swept at one time, like a wave, over the ancient centres +of civilization. The eighth, seventh and sixth centuries before our +era are marked by the growth of the Ionian philosophy which, as +Huxley tells us, <q>was but one of many results of the stirring of the +moral and intellectual life of the Aryan-Semitic population of Western +Asia. The conditions of the general awakening were doubtless +manifold, but there is one which modern research has brought into +great prominence. This is the existence of extremely ancient and +highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and the +Nile.... The Ionian intellectual movement is only one of the +several sporadic indications of some powerful mental ferment over +the whole of the area comprised between the Ægean and Northern +Hindustan....</q><note place='foot'>Evolution and Ethics. Appleton ed. New York, +1896, p. 104.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Professor Schroeder's statement that, <q>in the seventh century +B.C., the idea of four, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +five elements, spread in India,</q> is particularly +interesting in connection with the date assigned to the +birth of the Ionian intellectual movement. Of Pythagoras it is +related that, like Solon, <q>he had visited Egypt, also Phœnicia and +Babylon, then Chaldean and independent, and founded a brotherhood +originally brought together by a religious influence, with observances +approaching to monastic peculiarity, and working in a +direction at once religious, political and scientific.</q> According to +the learned translator of Cicero's first Tusculan disputation<note place='foot'><q>Death +no Bane,</q> translation by Robert Black, M. A., Sampson Low, Marston & +Co., London, 1889, p. 121, note.</note> <q>it +is generally accepted that Pherecydes of Syros (one of the Cyclades +islands in the Ægean sea) was the teacher of Pythagoras. Pherecydes, +<pb n='527'/><anchor id='Pg527'/> +who flourished about B.C. 544 is said to have derived his +knowledge from the secret books of the Phœnicians and from +travels of inquiry in Egypt.</q> Through Philolaus (see Grote IV, p. +395, note 2), Pythagorean science was made known to Plato, +whose views are quoted on p. <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>. Grote states that, about +300 B.C., the Pythagorean philosophy nearly died out. It is a +curious fact that this date coincides, approximately, with the destruction +of Tyre (Tsar, in Phœnician,=the rock), the last +stronghold of the Phœnicians, <q>which had defied Assyrian, Babylonian +and Persian but at last fell,</q> according to Prof. A. H. Sayce, +<q>in July, B.C. 332, before the Greek conqueror Alexander. Thirty +thousand of its citizens were sold in slavery, thousands of others +massacred and crucified and the wealth of the richest and most luxurious +city of the world became the prey of an exasperated army. +Its trade was inherited by its neighbor Sidon</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +194). It is obvious that, at this period, bands of fugitives may well have taken +refuge in traders' ships and sought safety in flight to distant regions, +where they might establish themselves and found colonies on the +pattern of Tyre or of Carthage which, in ancient times had also +been founded by fugitives and been named <q>the new city,</q> Karthakhadasha +(Sayce). While the great historical events which +marked the fourth century B.C. seem to have arrested the spread +of Pythagorean philosophy, we find that, according to Grote, <q>in +the time of Cicero, two centuries later, the orientalizing tendency, +beginning to spread over the Grecian and Roman world, caused it +to be again revived, with little or none of its scientific tendencies, +but with more than its primitive religious and imaginative fanaticism.... +It was taken up anew by the pagan world, along with +the disfigured doctrines of Plato. Neo-Pythagorism, passing gradually +into Neo-Platonism, outlasted other more positive and masculine +systems of pagan philosophy, as the contemporary and revival +of Christianity</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, +398). Neo-Platonism reached its +height under its chief Plotinus (A.D. 205-270) who sought to reconcile +the Platonic and Aristotelian systems with Oriental theosophy. +His pantheistic and eclectic school was the last product of +the Greek philosophy.<note place='foot'>Merely as affording +a glimpse of the troublous period during which Plotinus lived, +I recall the fact that Caracalla, visiting Egypt, caused a large number of young men +to be massacred at Alexandria (A.D. 211). Between A.D. 248 and 268, Alexandria +was the seat of civil war for twelve years, and through war, famine and pestilence, +in a few years, about half of the population, not only of Alexandria, but of Rome, +perished. A general persecution of Christians was also carried on at this period, +and in A.D. 268 Zenobia invaded Egypt.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='528'/><anchor id='Pg528'/> + +<p> +It is, at all events, remarkable, that the date tradition assigns to +the presence of Kukulcan in Yucatan and the foundation of the +quadruplicate state of Mayapan coincides with the dying out, in +Europe, of pagan philosophy, one of the features of which had been +the elaboration of ideal forms of government based on a numerical +and cosmical scheme, the elements of which had apparently been +spread by the Phœnicians. In Copan and Quirigua we find remnants +of long-established, peaceable communities revealing no trace of +war-like weapons, and the memorial stelæ of whose rulers stand +above hidden cruciform vaults, while carved personages are represented +as seated in the centre of ornate crosses. In Yucatan, +through which land the foreign civilization seems to have reached the +plateau of Mexico, there are significant traces of an ancient city, +named Zilan, situated on the Atlantic coast; proofs that buildings +of cosmical forms were erected; that the state of Mayapan +was laid out on the familiar cosmical plan; that repeated migrations +took place, and that, from time immemorial, a calendar, on the +same numerical basis as that of Mexico, had been in use. The +great state of Mayapan, where a remarkable stone cross was +found at Cozumel by the Spaniards, is shown to have been figured +as a circle within a circle, the whole divided into four parts by cross-lines. +Here, as in Chiapas and Mexico, all divisions of government, +population and time are organized on a numerical scheme +representing the combination of 4×5=20 <hi rend='italic'>i. e</hi>. an entire finger +and toe count, <q>a whole man,</q> with the 13 directions in space. +The multiplication of 13 and 20 results in a unit of 260 which, as +a cycle of time, represents the complete set of all harmonious +combinations of man the miniature image of the living state, with +the thirteen directions of space in the all-embracing Cosmos, composed +of four primary elements. In consonance with this we find +the existence of 20 (or 4×5) lords, whose names correspond to +those of the 4 chief and 16 minor day-signs of the calendar, and of +a lord by election, whose name signifies the thirteen divisions or +parts, and who constituted a microcosmos, a Four in One. In regular +rotation the 20 lords, consisting of 4 chief and 4×4=16=minor +rulers fulfilled duties towards the supreme representative +who resided in the capital, while they respectively lived in four +provinces, the population of which was subdivided into four tribes +each of the 20 divisions of the state being again divided into 13 +parts. +</p> + +<pb n='529'/><anchor id='Pg529'/> + +<p> +In a cosmical state like this in which each individual not only felt +himself to be a unit and a microcosmos, but also an indispensable +part of a living organism, under the form of which the state was +symbolized, its inhabitants, leading lives regulated by a calendar +based on the phenomenon of circumpolar rotation, under a chief +ruler entitled the <q>Four in One,</q> assisted by four sub-rulers, must +indeed have felt that they <q>lived, moved and had their being</q> in +the Teotl or Theos, imagined as the embodiment of the four elements. +In this connection it is interesting to learn that <q>the animal</q> +itself, of Plato, is considered by eminent authorities to have been +the tetrad. +</p> + +<p> +In Zuñi, where, at the present day, each individual feels himself +identified with some part of the body of a quadruped, his clan +totem, the conception of the state as <q>a living animal,</q> is an actual +reality. Their pueblo moreover represents a 6+1=7, or a +<q>seven in one,</q> the miniature counterpart of the far distant Ooraon +village of Chota Nagpore and of the ancient archaic kingdoms of +India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc. Anciently +the Zuñis called themselves the Ashiwi, a name remarkably like +that of the Ashvins, derived from the Akkadian ash=six. +</p> + +<p> +I revert again here to the following landmarks, which may perhaps +furnish a useful <q>working hypothesis</q> for future investigation. +In Mexico the pyramids of Cholula and of Teotihuacan seem +to render testimony of the, possibly consecutive, establishment of +ideal states amongst tribes <q>capable of subjection</q> by Toltecas, or +<q>Master-Builders,</q> who, according to their method, used the building +of a great structure, requiring time and united labor, as a means +of organizing a new community or colony. It may be that the period +of their completion coincided with the establishment of the +Calendar system, beginning with the number one. +</p> + +<p> +In my Preliminary Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System +(Stockholm 1894), I demonstrated how, by reconstructing the +Calendar cycles, it was possible to determine exactly when the native +system was adopted. According to my demonstration, which +has now stood unchallenged for six years, a fresh year cycle began +in 1507 A.D., with the year sign II Acatl and the day 2 cipactli. +For a cycle to be associated with the number two it is obvious that +it must have been preceded by a cycle ruled by number one, therefore +it may be safely inferred that the cycle II Acatl that commenced +in 1507 followed a cyclical period of 4×13=52×20=1840 +<pb n='530'/><anchor id='Pg530'/> +years (p. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>). Accordingly the date when the Mexican +system was instituted in the form which existed at the time of the +Conquest, may be fixed as corresponding to the year 467 of our era. +</p> + +<p> +Considering that the Calendar system was, however, but one +part of the machinery of government, was inseparable from the organization +of tribes, classes and individuals, and that its institution +signified the foundation of a state, it is remarkable to ascertain +that, but 137 years previously, Constantine, in A.D. 330, had +instituted the empire of New Rome, on precisely the same numerical +basis as that of the Mexican Calendar, and divided it into 4 parts +or prefectures, each subdivided into 13, yielding a total of 52 prefectures. +Moreover, as far back as the institution of the Kleisthenean +democracy, the Greeks had been familiar with an extremely +intricate and close union of calendar and government system, such +as existed in Babylonia-Assyria and, as I have shown, in ancient +Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +It is certainly suggestive that the period of 137 years, which +elapsed between the establishment of New Rome on a partly revived +and partly amended or remodelled plan, and the foundation +of the great democracy of ancient Mexico at the date inferred, +is unparalleled in the history of mankind for religious persecutions, +carried on in Egypt, Greece and Rome, following upon three +centuries marked by the growth and spread of Christianity and the +persecution of its followers, the destruction of Jerusalem and the +persecution of the Jews. It was in A.D. 379 that Theodosius, +the Greek, proclaimed Christianity the religion of his empire and +instituted a relentless persecution of the Arians and followers of +the ancient Egyptian religion. +</p> + +<p> +Under Arcadius, Emperor of the East (A.D. 395), the Anthromorphites, +who affirmed that God was of human form, destroyed +the greater number of their opponents. Under Marcianus (A.D. +451), Silco invaded Egypt with his Nubian followers and the +Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches. +Later, under Justinian (A.D. 527), the Monophysites +separated from the Melchites and chose their own patriarch, being +afterwards called Copts. +</p> + +<p> +It is impossible to close one's eyes to the fact that, during +this period of persecution and massacre, imminent peril of death +must have forced many a band of the priests and followers of the +ancient Egyptian and other religions to seek safety in flight. The +<pb n='531'/><anchor id='Pg531'/> +events which took place in Egypt between A.D. 379 and 451, culminating +in Silco's invasion, must unquestionably have been deeply +felt by the descendants of the ancient Phœnician, Carthaginian +and Grecian exiles, fugitives and mercenaries who, during countless +centuries, had founded colonies along the Libyan coast, and +pushed migration further westward along the coast line. Migrations +from these regions would doubtless have resulted in the +remarkable combination of archaic star, fire-drill and socket worship +found in Yucatan and Mexico, existing alongside of a highly +developed and perfected philosophical scheme of social organization +identical, in principle, with that which, in the Old World, constituted +an ideal which was the result of centuries of experience +and active intellectual life. +</p> + +<p> +The present investigation, in which I have collected more material +than it has been possible to present in this publication, brings +out facts tending to show that, originally, both hemispheres were +peopled from the North, and that, in antiquity, at intervals, an extremely +limited intercourse was kept up between the Old and New +Worlds. The obvious fact that navigation must have been seriously +impeded by the interregnum of Polaris, lasting for many +centuries, would explain a prolonged isolation of America anterior +to the Christian era. Whereas the equatorial currents facilitated +the voyage to America, the same favorable conditions did not accompany +navigation in the same latitudes in a reverse direction, +and this suggests the probability that few who set out for <q>the +hidden land,</q> ever returned to the port whence they sailed. Investigation +seems to reveal that influences, emanating from the +most ancient centres of Old World civilization, reached sundered +regions of America at different times, and that they could have +been carried there by a seafaring and building race such as the +Minyans, the Magas, the Phœnicians or their descendants. +</p> + +<p> +If such were the case it would be reasonable to expect that, in +America, traces of words associated with the archaic set of ideas +would be found, and the same method of writing. Let us now +refer with prudent reservations as to the possibility of their being +accidental, to the striking resemblances which undoubtedly exist +between certain names for God, Heaven, North, Middle, etc., in +the languages of the most ancient civilizations of the Old World +and the Maya and Nahuatl. For convenient reference and without +detailed comment, these words are presented as Appendix +<ref target='Appendix_III'>III</ref>. +</p> + +<pb n='532'/><anchor id='Pg532'/> + +<p> +Too much importance must not, of course, be given to these linguistic +analogies; at the same time we cannot shut our eyes to the +fact that these broken fragments of language, traceable to India, +Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt and Greece, are found, in America, +clinging tenaciously to a set of cosmical ideas and a scheme of +organization identical in both hemispheres. +</p> + +<p> +It has been surprising to me, for instance, to learn, by carefully +collecting facts, that whereas Professor Sayce tells us that the +supreme god of the Phœnicians was named Yeud or Ekhad, the +supreme god of the Mexican Chichimecs (literally, Red race) was +named Youalli-Ehecatl, which signifies, literally, night-air or wind. +I likewise ascertained that, whereas the word yau or yu signifies +the source or origin in Chinese, is linked to a character forming a +cross and is homogeneous with Yaou Sing, a star in Ursa Major, +described as <q>revolving,</q> the Mexican name for the pole-star god +was Yaual or Yohual Tecuhtli, the lord of the circle or of the +night. +</p> + +<p> +Again there is a remarkable similarity between the Mexican +yaualli=circle and the verb yoli or yuli=to resuscitate or vivify; +the Chinese ui=to turn around, and the Scandinavian yul, yeul +or yol = wheel, also the festival of the winter solstice, when nature +seemed to resuscitate. Whereas the significance of the above +Mexican, Chinese and Scandinavian names, is clear, no meaning +has, to my knowledge, been attached to the Semitic name for the +supreme god, which, as Professor Sayce informs us, was pronounced +Yahu or Yaho or Yahve (see Appendix, list +<ref target='Appendix_I'><hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi></ref>). +</p> + +<p> +Other striking resemblances are found between the names for +handicraftsman and master-builder in widely distant countries. +Thus, in Phrygia, we have the Daktuloi, the builders who erected +monuments decorated with cross-symbols arranged so as to form a +geometrical design, such as represented in fig. <ref target='Figure_72'>72</ref>, 2. In +Oaxaca the Toltecatl=builders and handicraftsmen, erected the walled temple +and cruciform structures at Mitla, and decorated them with +geometrical designs. +</p> + +<p> +Reliable authorities teach us that <q>the Hittites were the northern +minyan or menyan=measurers, a building race</q> (Hewitt); that +Aha-Mena, the first historical ruler of Egypt, was a builder; that +the name of Amun, the god of the Ammonites, signified <q>the +builder.</q> Dictionaries reveal that, in America, Maya-speaking people +designated a master builder or handicraftsman as ah-men, or +<pb n='533'/><anchor id='Pg533'/> +menyah which, in Nahuatl, became amanteca. In Yucatan the name +for North was Aman or Xaman; the building race of civilizers +seems to have been associated with that region, which the Arabians +named Shamaliyy. In the Babylonian-Assyrian Shamash, the +Sanscrit Brahman and the Egyptian Amen-ra, we seem to have +but different forms of the same word, which recurs in the Akkadian-Sumerian +Sama, or an=the revolving heaven (see Appendix, list). +</p> + +<p> +It is to philologists that I refer the question whether the resemblances, +in sound and meaning, of certain words I have found associated, +in widely sundered countries, with the universal cosmical +set of ideas, are merely accidental or whether they furnish indication +of a remote common origin or of contact at a later period. +It will interest me particularly to learn their opinion as to the oldest +forms of the words; and whether there is really no clue to the +meaning of the Hebrew Yahu and the Phœnician Yeud-Ekhad. +One is tempted to inquire whether the Chichimecan Youalli-Ehecatl +was not the same and whether this and other analogies do not constitute +evidence tending to establish that Mexico was a Phœnician +colony in which during centuries of isolation the archaic forms and +meanings of Phœnician words were preserved. +</p> + +<p> +It is my hope that these lists will be carefully examined and +explained by competent authorities, to whose judgment they are +respectfully submitted. Whether they will be accounted for in one +way or another, these lists will be found to establish the existence +of striking resemblances which, by themselves, might not carry +weight, but which unquestionably gain in significance when found +in conjunction with cosmical conceptions, social organization, +forms of architecture and cross-symbolism, which appear universal. +</p> + +<p> +A few words here concerning the undoubted general resemblances +that exist between the Chinese and Japanese, and Central +American methods of organization—resemblances which even extend +to certain words directly traceable to Western Asiatic influence +in the case of the Eastern Asiatic civilizations. The existence +of marked differences between the Chinese and Maya-Mexican numerical +systems and determination of elements, appears to exclude +the possibility that dominating Asiatic influences could have reached +America <hi rend='italic'>via</hi> China and Japan after the still existing, crystallized +forms of government and calendar had been established in the latter +countries. As far as I can judge, the great antiquity attributed, +by Chinese historians, to the establishment of the governmental +<pb n='534'/><anchor id='Pg534'/> +and cyclical schemes, still in use, appears extremely doubtful. +Referring the question to Sinologists, I venture to ask whether it +does not seem probable that the present Chinese scheme dates +from the lifetime of Lao-tze, in the sixth century B.C., a period +marked, as I have pointed out, by the growth of Ionian philosophy, +one feature of which was the invention of numerical schemes applied +to <q>divine polities</q> and ideal forms of government. Future +investigation may, perhaps, prove that <q>the powerful mental ferment</q> +alluded to by Huxley, as spreading between the eighth and +ninth centuries B.C., over the whole of the area comprised between +the Ægean and North Hindustan, was caused by the growth +and diffusion of plans of ideal states, which would naturally suggest +and lead to the formation of bands of enthusiasts, who would +set out in search of districts where they could carry out their principles +and ideals. +</p> + +<p> +Personally, I am strongly inclined to assign the origin of the +Chinese and the Mexican schemes, which are identical in principle, +to the same source, and to believe that they were carried in opposite +directions, at different periods, by seafarers and colonists, +animated by the same purpose. Favorably established in distant +regions, both grew and flourished during centuries, constituting +analogous examples of an immense, submissive, native population +living under a highly perfected, artificial, numerical, scheme of religious +government, preserved intact and enforced by a ruling caste, +who possessed superior knowledge and claimed divine descent. +</p> + +<p> +It is, of course, to Chinese and Japanese scholars and to archaeologists, +some of whom constitute the able staff of the Jesup Expedition, +who are investigating the question of Asiatic contact, that +I look for further information and enlightenment as to prehistoric +contact between China and America.<note place='foot'><p>To those +of my fellow-workers who have made a special study of the most ancient +forms of cursive and ikonomatic writings of the Old World, I should like to submit +some facts concerning the ancient Mexican method, which may carry a fresh suggestion +and be an aid to future research. +</p> +<p> +When the first Spanish missionaries who reached Mexico found themselves confronted +by the barrier of language and wished to teach the native converts the Lord's +Prayer in Latin, they adopted the method of picture writing employed by the aborigines. +By painting a banner=pantli, a stone=tetl, a cactus=nochtli and another +stone=tetl, they conveyed the words Pa-te-noch-te, which, approximately, represented +paternoster. The consequence was that the Indians were able to memorize +prayers in a language unknown to them, by referring to pictures of objects and naming +these in their own tongue. A number of curious documents exist, which exhibit +a great difference and variety in execution and are more or less cursive, according +to the artistic sense and ability of the missionary or converted Indian who drew +them. The fact that Spaniards, possessing our mode of writing, should have found +picture-writing the most effective means of teaching primitive people speaking an +alien tongue has always appeared to me as most instructive and suggestive. +</p> +<p> +As the natives suggested this method to their instructors, it is obvious that it was +their habitual mode of memorizing a foreign language. The possibility that words +recorded in native pictography may belong to an alien tongue, opens out a new field +for future research. A curious result is obtained when Tenoch-Titlan, one of the +ancient names of the capital of Mexico is studied from this point of view. In the +well-known rebus now employed as the arms of Mexico, the syllables Te and Noch only +are actually expressed in picture-writing by the stone=tetl, from which a cactus=nochtli +is growing. This group is, however, surmounted by an eagle holding a serpent +in its talons and the meaning of this animal group appears symbolical merely. +It may be a curious coincidence that the eagle holding a serpent in its talons was +employed by Mediterranean people as an emblem of victory and occurs on ancient +Greek coins with this significance, and that the recorded name, Tenochtitlan or <q>the +land of Tenoch,</q> curiously resembles Tenos, the name of a Greek heptarchy, founded +by seven tribes just as the adjacent town of Chalco, in Mexico, resembles Chalcis, +the town in Eubœa, where Aristoteles died. +</p> +<p> +On p. <ref target='Pg418'>418</ref> and +in my discussion of Egyptian hieratic script, I have pointed out that +some signs employed express the sounds of words in another tongue, that the syllables +am and an, for instance, seem indissolubly and universally linked to pole-star +worship and symbolism. It does not seem unreasonable to endeavor to explain this by +imagining that individuals, wishing, in each case, to teach the word +<foreign rend='italic'>Sama</foreign>=the revolving heaven <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> +the North, to people speaking different languages, should make a +picture of a tree or boat named am in one tongue, and in another country, draw a +spider, named am, by its inhabitants. In the first country the tree, or boat, and in +the second, the spider, would, in time, become the symbols of the north, and though +different, signify the same thing. In time, each sign might be employed to express the +syllable am in general and in this way isolated systems of ikonomatic writing would +evolve and, in course of time, native artists would more or less skilfully produce +conventionalized and distinctly characteristic forms and methods. +</p> +<p> +At the same time the colonizing race might be employing and perfecting a totally +different form of cursive writing for their own purposes of registration, etc. For +instance: in Athens, where Euclid held an archonship in 403 B.C. and, during centuries, +Pythagorean philosophers identified <q>earth with a cube, fire with a pyramid, +air with an octahedron, water with an icosahedron, and <hi rend='italic'>the Sphere of +the Universe</hi> with +a dodecahedron,</q> and also taught that a point corresponds with the monad, both being +indivisible; a line with the duad, etc., it is obvious that points, lines and geometrical +figures must have been employed for the cursive registration of ideas. In +a state, firmly established on fixed principles of numbers, the cursive registration of +its subdivisions, by means of numbers only, was rendered possible and in such a community +the necessity for cursive writing would be limited and perhaps be confined to +the registration and identification of individuals, the reports of quantities of produce, +etc. +</p> +<p> +The facts that the letters of the Greek alphabet possess fixed numerical values, and +that the initial letters only of their tribal names were inscribed on the shields of +Lacedæmonian, Sicyonian and Messenian warriors, for instance, appear to indicate that, +at one time, each Greek tribal division possessed its cursive mark, a letter, which may +have indicated, at the same time, a numerical division of the confederacy. To understand +such cursive records it is evident that a knowledge of the numerical basis +of the state would be indispensable and imperative and that this would be confined +to the rulers only. My opinion that the Maya calculiform hieroglyphs constitute cursive +notation relating entirely to the calendrical and governmental cyclical system +and absolutely unintelligible without a knowledge of this, has already been partially +referred to on pp. 242 and 244. From Mexican manuscripts, where individuals, by +means of a number and a calendar sign, are linked to a division of the state, I hope +yet to be able to clearly demonstrate the practical harmonious working of a machinery +of state, established on a perfected numerical scheme, the cursive notation of +which was extremely simple. +</p> +<p> +Meanwhile I offer the foregoing remarks as suggestions for future research and as +an expression of my opinion that people, using geometrical and numerical cursive +methods of notation in their own country, may have systematically employed the +pictographic method in teaching their language to strangers and in establishing their +civilization in foreign lands.</p></note> +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing investigation seems to have shown that in all +<pb n='535'/><anchor id='Pg535'/> +countries alike, at one period or other, the cross-symbol or swastika +expressed absolutely the same meaning. Primarily the record +of a year, which suggested the division of the heaven into four +parts, it had come to signify the establishment of communal life on +a basis of fixed law, order and harmony. Like the number four itself +which, in Pythagorean philosophy, is identified with wisdom +and justice <q>because it is the first square number, the product of +equals,</q> the cruciform symbols have been the emblems of justice, +equality and brotherhood. +</p> + +<p> +From the dawn of human history, the cross, therefore, appears +to have expressed a plan as simple as it was noble and great, which +consisted in peaceably uniting men, on principles of good-will, peace, +equity, equality and mutual help, of instituting and organizing communal +life, and of regulating its activity in accord with the immutable +laws which govern the movements of celestial bodies, causing +the circumpolar constellations to assume opposite positions, forming +the sign of the cross, and marking seasons, days and years, all testifying +to the existence of a single, all-ruling, all-pervading, stable +<pb n='536'/><anchor id='Pg536'/> +and eternal central power, who thus controlled not only the heavens +but, by a human representative, the earthly kingdom, laid out on +the celestial plan. +</p> + +<p> +Considering that no less an authority than St. Augustine has +asserted <q>that which is now called the Christian religion existed +among the ancients, and in fact was with the human race from the +beginning,</q> it is permissible to ask whether the above scheme does +not strikingly substantiate his dictum, afford a deep view under the +surface of accumulated dogma and a perception of the mighty principle +that has been at work from the beginning of all things and +was understood by many at that time when <q>the people that sat in +darkness saw great light, and to them which sat in the region and +shadow of death light sprang up.</q>... <q>From that time Jesus began +to preach and say, <q>Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at +hand</q></q> (Matthew <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv</hi>, 16, 17). +Adopting the cross as the emblem +<pb n='537'/><anchor id='Pg537'/> +of his earthly mission he said: <q>If any man will come after me, +let him take up his cross and follow me.</q> By the words: <q>I +bear in my body the mark of the Lord Jesus,</q> St. Paul designates +the recognized <q>mark</q> to have been the quadruplicate cross of +the Saviour, who charged his apostles to preach, saying: <q>the kingdom +of heaven is at hand</q> and promised them that <q>ye which +have followed me in the regeneration, when the Son of Man shall +sit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, +judging the twelve tribes of Israel</q> (Matthew <hi rend='smallcaps'>xix</hi>, 28). The +mother of Zebedee's children came unto him asking that her sons +might sit <q>the one on thy right hand and the other on thy left, in +thy kingdom</q> (Matthew <hi rend='smallcaps'>xx</hi>, 20). Repeatedly, the Teacher, +referring to children, said <q>of such is the kingdom of heaven,</q> or <q>Except +ye be converted and become as little children ye shall not enter +into the kingdom of heaven.</q> St. Paul and his followers were +designated as <q>those that have turned the world upside down ... doing +contrary to the decrees of Cæsar, saying that there is +another king, one Jesus</q> (Acts <hi rend='smallcaps'>xvii</hi>, 6 and 7). +</p> + +<p> +It is well known that the early Christian church was persecuted +because, from the first, it preached a total regeneration of human +society and its reëstablishment of a basis of peace and good-will, +social equality, absolute justice, mutual aid, respect and sympathy, +unselfish, disinterested subservience of the individual to the interest +of the community. +</p> + +<p> +It was for the sublime principle of a religious democracy and +the regeneration of human society that, in an age of tyranny, oppression +and bloodshed, the early Christian martyrs laid down their +lives. The foundations of religious orders were as many attempts +to realize the Christian ideal, and to this day the Roman Catholic +Church, whose clergy and religious orders unquestionably afford a +splendid living example of devotion to a common cause, self-abnegation, +obedience and humility, clings to the ideal of a state in +which temporal power is wielded by a hierarchy raised to rulership +from all ranks, merely by virtue of personal, moral and intellectual +qualities. Throughout the Christian church the ideal of religious +democracy prevails. Each day it is prayed for in the words <q>Thy +kingdom come,</q> by those taught to look forward to the promise of +the time when <q>former things are passed away and a holy Jerusalem +shall descend out of heaven from God, lying four-square, with +twelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels and names written +<pb n='538'/><anchor id='Pg538'/> +thereon which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children +of Israel ... and the wall of the city had twelve foundations +and in them the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb,.... +And I saw no temple therein, for the Lord God Almighty +and the Lamb are the temple in it ... but the throne of God +and of the Lamb shall be in it.... And he showed me a +pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the +throne of God and of the Lamb. In the midst of the street of it +and on either side of the river was there a tree of life, which bore +twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month ...</q> +(Revelation, chaps. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxi</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxii</hi>). +</p> + +<p> +It appears significant, in the light of the present investigation, +that the birth of Christianity, as well as the revival of pagan systems +of philosophy, embodying principles for the organization of +religious brotherhoods and ideal democracies, should coincide with +the spread of the great tidings that a star had been seen by the +Magi, or <q>wise men of the East, who came <emph>from the east</emph> to Jerusalem.</q> +Occurring, as it did, after <q>the interregnum as regards +pole-stars,</q> during which nomadic tribes and seafarers had vainly +sought the fixed star which had guided their forefathers, the appearance +of a brilliant pole-star must have seemed doubly significant +and revived, among pagan philosophers, the ideal of an earthly +kingdom ruled by Heaven. The advent, at this time, of the Messiah +who, with his twelve disciples, announced that the kingdom of +heaven was nigh and taught that God was to be worshipped in the +Spirit only, must indeed have appeared particularly impressive and +well-timed. +</p> + +<p> +Faithfully clinging to the ideal of a regenerated religious democracy, +the early Christian church maintained itself through centuries +of persecution and is slowly advancing, amidst almost overwhelming +and innumerable difficulties, towards its realization. +</p> + +<p> +Returning to Mexico we find that its civilization at the time of +the Conquest was precisely what might be expected if a small body +of men of superior wisdom and experience, such as was possessed +by a remnant of Græco-Egyptian philosophers, had embarked in +ships manned by the descendants of Phœnician seafarers, and found +refuge in the <q>land of the West,</q> amongst simple, docile people, +existing in large numbers, who, treated <q>as little children and +instructed with love and gentleness, willingly submitted themselves +to the guidance of their teachers.</q> A single, short-lived generation +<pb n='539'/><anchor id='Pg539'/> +of these would have amply sufficed for the establishment of the +governmental system and calendar, the firm institution of a <q>celestial +kingdom,</q> and the spread of knowledge of the technique of +various arts and industries deemed most useful to the natives. On +the other hand, the foreign element, whose aims were chiefly ideal, +could have left little or no impression upon the evolution of the +native race, its art and industry, which doubtlessly followed its +original independent line of development. +</p> + +<p> +It is remarkable how the echo of great events in Old World +history seem to have reached the Western hemisphere. In the Old +World the eleventh and twelfth centuries were marked by a revival +of religious enthusiasm, by the Crusades, the persecution of infidels +by the Christian world and by a general stirring amongst oriental +people, the descendants of the ancient pole-star worshippers. +</p> + +<p> +Historical records and traditions accord in stating that in about +the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era, the civilizations of +Mexico, Yucatan and Central America underwent a great period of +warfare, pestilence and famine, leading to the disintegration of the +great ancient centres, to numberless migrations, and to an assumption +of dominion in Mexico by a fierce warrior-race who increased +the number of human sacrifices. It seems significant that it is to +this troublous period in the history of ancient America that the advent +of the Incas in Peru is assigned by native tradition, which +also records the existence of more ancient centres of civilization +situated around the Titicaca lake. The foundation of the Inca empire +is assigned to as late as about 1200 A.D. (see p. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, note 1), +and all who compare Plato's scheme for the reëstablishment of the +holy polity of the Magnetes, and the description of the Peruvian +<q>Four in One</q> state, must admit that the latter constitutes the +most perfect example known, of a community based on those numerical +principles which were considered most perfect by Plato. +At a first glance one might be tempted to conclude that the foreign +civilizers of Peru, the Incas, were acquainted with Plato's twelve-fold +scheme and deliberately established or reëstablished a <q>divine +polity</q> accordingly, naming it the <q>Four in One</q> and instituting +the worship of a supreme divinity designated as <q>Earth, Air, +Fire and Water in One,</q> in consonance with the cosmical theory +said to have been first formulated by Empedocles about B.C. 444, +and adopted by Plato. Reflection shows, however, that no such +conclusion is justifiable until competent authorities have thoroughly +<pb n='540'/><anchor id='Pg540'/> +investigated and satisfactorily established how far the ideas of +Empedocles and Plato were original and how far they incorporated +older philosophical ideas, such as were preserved by the Egyptian +priesthood or had been disseminated by the Phœnicians.<note place='foot'><p>It +is particularly interesting to learn from Professor Sayce (<hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 188), not +only that Phœnician culture had been introduced among the rude tribes of Israel, +but that the temple of Jerusalem was built by Phœnician artists after the model of a +Phœnician one, the main features of which were the two columns or cones at the entrance +and the brazen sea or basin, which rested on <emph>twelve</emph> bulls, this number +agreeing with the number of Israelitic tribes and with tribal or caste divisions in other +ancient centres of civilization. It is thus certainly suggestive to find the number +twelve associated with the Phœnicians, to whom the spread of civilization in the Old +World is attributed and whose predecessors, at the period of Babylonian culture, +were, according to Professor Sayce, <q>solitary traders, who trafficked in slaves, in +purple-fish ... and whose voyages were intermittent and private.</q> +</p> +<p> +... <q>Diodorus Siculus assigns to the Carthaginians the knowledge of an island in +the ocean, the secret of which they reserved for themselves as a refuge to which they +could withdraw should fate ever compel them to desert their African home. It is far +from improbable that we may identify this obscure island with one of the Azores, +which lies 800 miles from the coast of Portugal. Neither Greek nor Roman writers +make any reference to them, but the discovery of numerous Carthaginian coins at +Carvo, the northwesterly island of the group, leaves little room to doubt that they +were visited by Punic voyagers.</q>—Sir Daniel Wilson. The lost Atlantis and other +ethnographic studies. New York, 1892.</p></note> Nevertheless +it is an undeniable fact that the Inca colony constitutes a +most valuable object-lesson of a <q>cosmical state</q> founded on +precisely the numerical scheme and principles of organization advocated +by Plato. Reflection shows, moreover, that such a polity +could only have been established and maintained itself during centuries, +in a land free from enemies and amongst docile people <q>apt +for subjection.</q> +</p> + +<p> +A significant result of a critical comparison of the celestial +kingdoms of Peru and Mexico is the perception that, in the former, +as in Egypt, a hereditary sovereignty was exercised by male and +female sacerdotal rulers of a <q>divine line of descent.</q> On the +other hand we find, in Mexico, a state of affairs in exact accordance +with Montezuma's account of the behavior of his predecessors towards +the lord who had led them and presided over the foundation +of the Mexican empire. During his absence they, his vassals, established +democratical principles and when he returned, having intermarried +with women of the country and founded new cities, they +refused to recognize his authority and let him depart. From Montezuma +himself we learn that, although they thus emancipated +themselves from their former lord, they continued to regard themselves +as dependent and owing allegiance to the mother-city whence +they had come. Until the time of the Conquest, however, they +<pb n='541'/><anchor id='Pg541'/> +were governed by rulers whom they elected, and who had risen in +rank merely by virtue of their moral and intellectual distinction. +</p> + +<p> +It is indeed deeply suggestive and impressive to realize that, in +antiquity as in modern times, the American Continent seems to +have been sought, as a place of refuge, by men whose ideals have +been state institutions founded on democratic principles. The +ancient polities of Mexico and Peru and, what is more, the archaic +Pueblos of to-day, alike furnish examples of conditions, such as +undoubtedly existed in Mediterranean countries in ancient times +and inspired Greek statesmen and philosophers to plan ideal polities, +and must have preceded the creation of the Jewish and early +Christian spiritualized ideal of a New Jerusalem, pervaded throughout +by the Divine Spirit. In conclusion, there are a few points +which I recommend to the consideration of students. Different +writers have, as Prescott summarizes, with certainty discerned in +the highest American civilizations, a Semitic or an Egyptian or an +Asiatic origin. +</p> + +<p> +This remarkable combination of features, distinctively characteristic +of the said civilizations, actually existed amongst the Phœnicians +who, as Professor Sayce relates, were allied to the Semitic +race, were affected by contact with their cousins the Arameans or +Syrians, penetrated to the coast of India, derived their art from +Babylonia, Egypt, and later from Assyria, and <q>knew how to +combine together the elements it had received and to return them, +modified and improved, to the countries from which they had been +borrowed.</q> In the case of India and China it is an established +and accepted truth that an active communication existed between +these countries and Asia Minor, which was carried on by a race of +seafarers and colonists. When it is realized that, through them, +distant regions became known and accessible, and that at one time +in the history of Greek philosophy, for instance, statesmen, philosophers +and mathematicians alike rivalled each other in planning +ideal states, based on the identical principle: the harmonizing +of human life with Nature's laws; it seems but rational to infer +that, at different times, bands of enthusiasts, adopting one numerical +scheme in preference to another, and led perhaps by its inventor +or disciples, set out in search of distant countries where +they could undisturbedly establish <q>celestial kingdoms</q> according +to their ideal plan. To such an enterprise as this I venture to +assign the establishment of the celestial kingdom of China, drawing +<pb n='542'/><anchor id='Pg542'/> +attention to Biot's statement, cited on p. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, that year cycles +(<hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> the sociological and chronological system since in use) were +introduced there from India, after the Christian era. This being +the case, contrary to the claims of a much greater antiquity by +Chinese scholars, the present form of the <q>celestial kingdom</q> +appears to date from the arrival in China, from Persia, of Semitic +emigrants, during the first century of our era (see p. <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>), +and to have undergone a certain re-modelling in the first half of the sixth +century, after the arrival of a band of Syrian Christians (p. +<ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +Pointing out that these dates would make it appear as though +the cyclical systems of India and Eastern Asia had been formulated +under the direct or indirect influence of Greek philosophy, I observe +that the date of their introduction and establishment assigns +them to approximately the same period which produced the numerical +scheme adopted by Constantine, Maya and Mexican calendrical +and chronological scheme. At the period when Constantine +established New Rome and instituted four divisions of the empire, +each divided into thirteen yielding a total of fifty-two prefectures, +there lived in Byzantium a philosopher and rhetorician (315-390 +A.D.) whose name was Themistius and who filled the office +of prefect of Constantinople. It is well known that the attempt +thus to organize the empire proved fruitless and that the proclamation +of Christianity as the religion of his empire by Theodosius I +(379 A.D.) inaugurated a prolonged persecution of pagan religion +and philosophy (see p. <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +Is it inadmissible to consider at least the possibility that, disappointed +and driven from their land, some of those who clung to the +ancient ideal, and were acquainted with the perfected scheme of +state organization instituted by Constantine during the lifetime +of Themistius, carried it at a later period, to the <q>hidden land</q> of +the West and established it there, where it was preserved intact +until the time of the Spanish Conquest? Is it by accident only +that one of the names of the capital of ancient Mexico, as preserved +in the writings of Cortés and Bernal Diaz is Temistitan, +literally <q>land of Temis,</q> the Nahuatl language not furnishing +any meaning to the latter word? Can it be that, just as the word +Teotl, resembling Theos, is found on Mexican soil, employed with +the same meaning as in Greek, the name Temistitan means <q>the +land of established law, order and justice</q> dedicated to the Greek +Themis, just as New Rome was dedicated to Sofia=Wisdom? Or +<pb n='543'/><anchor id='Pg543'/> +did some sort of connection exist between the name of the Mexican +capital, the system on which it was established and the philosopher +Themistius? +</p> + +<p> +Is it by chance merely that the state calendar of Temistitan was +based on 4×13=52 divisions, and that Themistius of Byzantium, +a member of that school of philosophy which had evolved +numberless plans and numerical schemes for ideal states, should +have held one of the 4×13=52 prefectures during Constantine's +reign? In order to make the most rapid advance towards a solution +of the great problem of the origin of American civilizations, I +venture to suggest that Orientalists and Americanists should combine +and freshly study it from opposite points of view. One side +might be taken by those who incline to admit the possibility that +a few Phœnician traders discovered the American continent in +ancient times and that, subsequently, those to whom they imparted +their discovery and their successors, the daring Greek navigators, +conveyed thither, at intervals, bands of refugees or enthusiasts who +braved danger and death, in the hope of reaching the blessed land +where, free from persecution, they could found ideal democracies +or divine polities. +</p> + +<p> +Besides studying and adding to the numberless similarities which +have been cited by so many different authorities and to which I +have added a modest contribution, let them produce evidence showing +the improbability that the identical forms of cult, religion, +social organization, calendar cycles and numerical schemes should +have been independently evolved two or more times by distinct +races. On the other hand, let those who hold the view that American +civilization was purely autochthonous, advance grounds for the +supposition that it developed a school of philosophical speculation +and that America produced its Empedocles and its Plato. Let +them also formulate the psychical law which caused the American +race to formulate the four elements, recognized as such by the philosophers +of India and Greece, and not the five of Chinese philosophy; +and to evolve numerical schemes applied to social organization, +identical with those current in India, Western Asia and +the Mediterranean countries, but different from that employed in +China and Japan. It will also be incumbent upon them not only +to disprove American traditions, which record the introduction of +a higher civilization and plans of social organization by strangers, +but also to demonstrate that, although in ancient times, Phœnician +<pb n='544'/><anchor id='Pg544'/> +traders carried on an active traffic with Britain, daring the perils +of the Bay of Biscay, they could not possibly have ventured across +the southern Atlantic, even in the most favorable seasons. It has +remained a source of sincere regret to me that circumstances prevented +my attending the Orientalist Congress which met at Rome, +in October, 1899, under the presidency of the illustrious Count +Angelo de Gubernatis, to whom credit is due for having first suggested +and planned that a section of the Congress should devote +itself to the discussion of prehistoric contact or connection between +the Old and New Worlds. +</p> + +<p> +With an apology for my non-attendance and consequent failure +to aid in organizing the section and carrying out a plan which met +with my enthusiastic approval, I venture to submit the present +investigation to the President and officers of the Orientalist Congress +with the earnest hope that it may contain material and +suggestions for fruitful discussions during the next Congress held, +and that these may be carried on in a section devoted to the consideration +of facts relating to prehistoric America and its relation +to the Old World. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Summary and Conclusion.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +In the preceding pages the view is advanced that the ancient +cross-symbol or swastika was first used by man, presumably in +circumpolar regions, as a record of the opposite positions assumed, +by circumpolar constellations, in performing their nocturnal and +annual circuit around Polaris. Employed as a year sign in the +first case, the cross or swastika later became the symbol of the +Four Quarters, of quadruplicate division and of a stable central +power whose rule extended in four directions and controlled the +entire Heaven. +</p> + +<p> +At some remote period of antiquity man developed the idea of +social organization and, in India, ancient Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria, +actual proofs exist that the earliest cities and states were +divided into four quarters, a division involving the distribution of +the population into four tribes under a central chief. Wherever this +division was carried out, it represented an attempt to harmonize +human society and the establishment of the ideal of a religious +democracy, founded on principles of law, order, justice, peace and +good will. The pyramid, a primitive form of which consisted of +four stories, and cruciform sacred structures, may be regarded as +<pb n='545'/><anchor id='Pg545'/> +monuments commemorating a cosmical and territorial organization +into four parts. The more extended conception of seven directions +in space, consisting of the Above and Below, or Heaven and Earth, +the Four Quarters and the sacred Middle, the synopsis of all, was +also evolved. In the confederations of India and Iran, and Arabia, +in the seven-storied towers of Babylonia, and in the division of +the Egyptians into seven classes, we find the earliest traces of a +practical application of this numerical division. +</p> + +<p> +The ancient historical records of Egypt and Greece reveal that, +in the earliest polities, the population was divided into groups consisting +of a fixed number of individuals, officially represented by +chieftains, or officers of the state, and that, in consequence, a state +formed a unit, constituted according to a mathematical scheme, +which was also applied to the regulation of time. Each officer of +the state held office for a fixed term, in a prescribed order of rotation. +The year was divided into a fixed number of seasons, marked +by the positions of a circumpolar constellation, and this therefore +appeared to regulate not only the cycle of time but the governmental +rotation of office and the entire activity of the community. +Starting from a common basis of quadruplicate division in different +countries, a great variety of constitutions of state was independently +invented by statesmen and philosophers, who devised cycles +produced by different combinations of numbers and signs, the object +being to regulate time and communal life in imitation of the law, +order and harmony existing in the motion of the stars and under the +guidance of a supreme ruler, the earthly representative of Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +The origin of these ideas and governmental scheme, in the Old +World, is assigned by competent authorities to a northern race +which had discovered the art of fire-making and evolved a religious +cult and ritual suggested by it, in association with pole-star worship. +Their civilization is supposed to have been developed by contact +with a southern race, in Phrygia, and to have been carried at a +remote period by their seafaring descendants to India, Asia Minor, +Egypt and beyond the pillars of Hercules, to European countries, +situated on the Atlantic. +</p> + +<p> +The present investigation brings into prominence the fact that, +just as the older Andean art closely resembles that of the early +Mediterranean, an observation first made by Prof. F. W. Putnam,<note place='foot'>Address +of the retiring President of the A. A. A. S., Columbus meeting, 1899. Proceedings +of the A. A. A. S., vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xlviii</hi>, to +which the reader is referred for valuable data.</note> +<pb n='546'/><anchor id='Pg546'/> +so the fundamental principles, numerical scheme and plan of the +state founded by the foreign Incas in Peru, resembled those formulated +by Plato in his description of an ideal state. +</p> + +<p> +It is a remarkable fact, on which the writer lays utmost stress, +that, whereas there is a marked difference between the Chinese and +the Mexican and Peruvian divisions of the elements and numerical +cycles, the American systems exactly agree with those propounded +by Greek philosophers and said to have reached them from more +ancient centres of culture, presumably through the Phœnicians. +On the other hand, there undoubtedly exist remarkable analogies +between the Chinese and Hindu and Mexican sociological, chronological, +cyclical systems, their principles being precisely the +same. These close analogies as well as the marked divergences +which have been noted can only be satisfactorily accounted for +by the assumption that each of these countries derived their civilization +from the same source. Over and over again different writers +have pointed out undeniable analogies and resemblances between +the highest forms of American civilization and that of China, India, +Asia Minor, the Mediterranean and Western European countries. +At the same time modern research has shown that the seafarers, +whom we shall conveniently designate as the Phœnicians, acted as +the intermediaries of ancient Old World civilization and formulated +a culture which incorporated and formed a curious compound of +elements drawn from different countries and people. +</p> + +<p> +While investigation, moreover, reveals that the conquest of +Phœnicia and intermittent periods of warfare and persecution +directed against the religion and democratic principles of its people, +must have furnished the most powerful incentive for them to +extend their voyages of discovery and seek distant lands where +colonies might be established. It is obvious that, if safe places +of refuge were found, their existence would remain a secret and +that, in course of time, a complete isolation of distant colonies +would result. +</p> + +<p> +Considering that it would be premature to formulate a final conclusion +on a subject which demands so much more investigation, +I merely observe here that, as far as I can see, the conditions +which existed and survive amongst the aborigines of America +would be fully accounted for by the assumption that they received +certain elements of culture and civilization from Mediterranean +seafarers who, at widely separated, critical periods of Old World +<pb n='547'/><anchor id='Pg547'/> +history, may have transported refugees and would-be colonists or +founders of ideal republics and <q>divine polities</q> to different +parts of the hidden or divine land of <q>the West,</q> the existence of +which was known by tradition to the Egyptian priesthood. +</p> + +<p> +Under such circumstances it is apparent how the American Continent +could have become an isolated area of preservation where +archaic and primitive forms of civilization, religious cult, symbolism +and industries, drawn at different epochs, from various, more +or less important centres or from the outposts of Old World culture, +would be handed down, transformed through the active and +increasing influence of the native elements. The latter must +always have been markedly predominant since it must be assumed, +if at all, that the number of individuals who reached +America, and the subsequent duration of their lives, must have +been extremely limited. What is more, as Montezuma related +that the colonists, from whom he descended, married native women, +it is obvious that, from the outset, foreign and native influences +were combined. +</p> + +<p> +There was one main element, however, underlying both foreign +and native civilizations, which formed the basis of both, united and +made them as one, namely, the recognition of fixed immutable laws +governing the universe, attained, by both races, by long-continued +observation of Polaris and the <q>Northern</q> constellations. +</p> + +<p> +To me the most precious result of the preceding investigation is +the gradual recognition that the entire intellectual, moral and religious +evolution of mankind has been the result of the fixed laws +which govern the universe. From the time when our world began +to revolve in space, at intervals, a luminous point of fixity in +space has existed and an unknown force, irresistible as that which +controls the magnetic needle and gyrostat,<note place='foot'><q>Professor +Perry, F. R. S., in his admirable monograph on Spinning Tops, +(Romance of Science: Spinning Tops, by Professor John Perry, M. E., +D.Sc., F. R. S., 1890, pp. 107-110, +12-13, cited by O'Neil, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, p. 540.) shows +how a spinning gyrostat whose spinning axis is compelled by the experimenter into +a horizontal plane is then constrained by the earth's motion alone to direct its spinning +axis due north and south and so to indicate mathematically the lie of the true +meridian of its spot. If the spinning gyrostat be next shut off from all other motion +except a vertical one in the plane of this meridian, its spinning axis will point its +north end up to, and continue to point truly up to, the celestial pole.</q> Then, adds +Professor Perry, in terms strangely suitable to my purposes: <q>It is with a curious +mixture of feelings that one first recognizes the fact that all rotating bodies, +fly-wheels of steam-engines +and the like, are always tending to turn themselves towards the Polestar; +gently and vainly tugging at their foundations, all the time they are in motion, to get +round towards the object of their adoration.</q></note> appears to have raised +<pb n='548'/><anchor id='Pg548'/> +the mind of man from ignorance and darkness and guided his footsteps +towards a higher scale of existence and a more elevated conception +of a supreme central power. +</p> + +<p> +From this, amongst favored races, the higher conception of an +invisible supreme deity seems to have been gradually developed by +the human mind, as it rose in the scale of spiritual evolution. To +many, the idea that it was the observation of the stars and the recognition +of the fixity of Polaris which first led man to realize the +existence of immutable laws, and of a supreme celestial power +ruling the universe and to form the sacred sign of the cross, will +appear as the fulfilment of the text in Genesis, which expressly +mentions as the first, and therefore chief, purpose for which the +lights in the firmament were created, that <q>they should be for +<emph>signs</emph> and portents, for seasons, for days and years ... and +for lights.</q> +</p> + +<p> +When we realize that all revolving spheres in space, and the +beings that may live upon them, have been, are, or shall be subject +to the same conditions as govern our tiny world, forcing their intellectual +evolution to proceed in parallel lines to ours, we are +compelled to recognize the existence of One Great Plan, and to render +reverent homage to the Master-Architect of the Universe. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='549'/><anchor id='Pg549'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<anchor id='Appendix_I'/> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix I. +Comparative Table of some Quechua, Nahuatl and +Maya Words.</head> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{2.3cm} p{2.3cm} p{2.3cm}'; + tblcolumns: 'lw(15) lw(15) lw(15)'"> +<row><cell><hi rend='smallcaps'>Quechua.</hi></cell> + <cell><hi rend='smallcaps'>Nahuatl.</hi></cell> + <cell><hi rend='smallcaps'>Maya.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>hatun=great. pacha=time, name of annual harvest festival.</cell> + <cell>huey=great. pachtli=name of annual harvest festival.</cell> + <cell>pax=name of festival in which prayers were offered to obtain + abundant harvest.</cell></row> +<row><cell>yacu and unu=water.</cell><cell>atl=water.</cell> + <cell>haa=water. aak=moist. aakal=lagoon. yachhaa=canal, + stream of water.</cell></row> +<row><cell>pihi-huy=first born.</cell> + <cell>pil-conetl=infant son. pilli=nobleman, or son. pilhua=he who has sons. + pilli=the fingers.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>all=good.</cell><cell>qualli=good.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>ycacha= frequentative. ahua=to spin or weave. + ahua-ycacha=to spin continuously. ticpac=to lie mouth upwards. + ticnu=the zenith.</cell> + <cell>mala-cachoa, verb, to spin or twist or turn something around continuously. + malacatl=spindle. icpac=to be on the top of something high. + ticatla=midnight.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<pb n='550'/><anchor id='Pg550'/> +<row><cell>cosca=things that are alike, necklace.</cell> + <cell>cozcatl=beads, strung precious stones, metaphorically used to designate one's + children.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>maqui or maki=hand. makip-pampa=palm of hand. pampa=name for plain.</cell> + <cell>maitl=hand. macpalli=palm of hand. pan=affix, meaning upon, above.</cell> + <cell>kab=hand. tankab=palm of hand.</cell></row> +<row><cell>humihua=small vessel.</cell><cell>comitl=earthen vessel.</cell> + <cell>cum=earthen vessel. hooch=vessel in general.</cell></row> +<row><cell>hunu and huni=a number, a division of men, ten thousand (Markham). + hunu=all.</cell> + <cell></cell><cell>hun=one. hunkinchil=one. count=10×100,000.</cell></row> +<row><cell>palla=woman of noble birth.</cell> + <cell>tlapalli-eztli=nobility of blood or lineage (metaphor).</cell> + <cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>pallca=the fingers, or branches of a tree (Chinchaysuyo dialect.)</cell> + <cell>tlapalli=color or dye. tlapaloloni=worthy of being reverenced + and saluted. tlapaliui=able-bodied, marriageable young man. + atlapalli=wing of a bird, leaf of tree. cuitlapilli, atlapalli=metaphor + signifying the people and servants of the state, literally the tail and + wing of a bird.</cell> + <cell>pal, pa'al, palal, palil=child, boy, servant.</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='551'/><anchor id='Pg551'/> + +<p> +It is quite obvious how this metaphor came to be employed. The words +for tail and wing respectively terminate with pilli the word designating +nobleman, the upper class, and palli, signifying the lower class, women, +boys, servants. The head of the bird signified the chief and the two +eyes and two halves of the beak conveyed the idea of duality, or two in +one. +There are indications that the right foot, with its four claws, symbolized +the four chief rulers of the Above and the left foot the four rulers +of the Below. +</p> + +<p> +The control of the feet and entire body was, of course, assigned to the +head. It is only when the full metaphorical significance of the eagle, as +an emblem of the state, is understood, that the meaning of the eagle in +the arms of Mexico and the native bird symbolism begin to become apparent. +I have shown that in Peru and Yucatan the word for head was +synonymous for chief. It remains to be ascertained how far the same +symbolism prevailed throughout the American Continent and whether in +other cases the words for bird, wings, tail and claws are homonymous or +synonymous for the state and its divisions. Amongst the Zuñis the State +and entire scheme of organization is associated with the imaginary form +of a quadruped and in Mexico there are indications that at one time the +human form was regarded as an emblem of the State and its subdivisions. +This subject is referred to more fully in the text. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{2.3cm} p{2.3cm} p{2.3cm}'; + tblcolumns: 'lw(15) lw(15) lw(15)'"> +<row><cell><hi rend='smallcaps'>Quechua.</hi></cell> + <cell><hi rend='smallcaps'>Nahuatl.</hi></cell> + <cell><hi rend='smallcaps'>Maya.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>Uira-cocha=name of mythical personage and title of Creator.</cell> + <cell>In the native harangues the Supreme Being is referred to as being + like an unfathomable abyss. ixachicatlan=abyss. ixachi=great, much.</cell> + <cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>cochca=coch-allpa=fallow land, <q>tierra de descanso</q>: literally, land + that is resting.</cell> + <cell>cochi=to sleep. tlacochcalli= literally house of rest, burial towers.</cell> + <cell>cuchil=place or town. ah-cuch-cab=the chief or ruler of a town or + place.</cell></row> +<row><cell>collana= excellent, principal, sovereign, first and best of each + species.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row> +<pb n='552'/><anchor id='Pg552'/> +<row><cell>collanan ayllu=royal line, name used by the Incas. + coya=princess of royal blood, virgin, queen.</cell> + <cell>coyauac=something broad, like a spring of water or a + window<note place='foot'>The Incas claimed to have descended + from three windows. See Rites and Laws of the Incas, p. 77.</note></cell> + <cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>hapichi=title, meaning the collector of produce, he who collects + or gathers in.</cell> + <cell>tlapixqui=title of some priests, literally, he who gathers in the harvest. + <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> pixquitl=harvest, etc.</cell> + <cell>piz=measure, quantity. pizil=to measure.</cell></row> +<row><cell>tiani=to sit down. tiyana=seat of honor such as were employed as mark of + chieftainship. huahua-tiana=matrix. tiya-chicu=to be selling something in + the public square. tiyachi=to offer or place something in the public square + to be sold or exchanged. micuy=food.</cell> + <cell>tiacauan=brave men, strong warriors. tiyacapan=first-born. + tiyacapanyotl=the right of primogeniture and property. + tianquiztli=market, also place or square where market was held. + tiamiquiztli=act of buying or selling. + tiamictli=merchandise.<note place='foot'>It is noteworthy that the Zuñi + name for village in general is ti´-na-kwin-ne. + Tina=many sitting around and kwin-ne=place of.</note></cell> + <cell>tialtic= appurtenance, right of possession.</cell></row> +<row><cell>in-ti or in-tin=the sun.</cell> + <cell>tona-ti-uh=the sun, literally, that which shines.</cell> + <cell>kin=the sun.</cell></row> +<pb n='553'/><anchor id='Pg553'/> +<row><cell>mitimaes=name for colonists.</cell> + <cell>ce-mitime=sons of one mother.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>tayta=father. mama=mother. huarmi=woman. + Mama-ciuaco=name of a female ruler of royal blood, mother + of Inca Rocca.</cell> + <cell>tatli=father. ta-tzin=father, reverential form. nantli=mother. + nantzin=reverential form. cihuatl=woman. mama=verb, to rule.</cell> + <cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>uma=literally, the head, title of priest. Ingua or Inca=title + of Peruvian ruler.</cell> + <cell>ome, literally two, title of head priest, for instance: ome acatl, + ome tochtli. quaitl=head. in-quaitl=the head. qua=abbreviation for quaitl + (see Sahagun, book <hi rend='smallcaps'>ix</hi>, + chap. <hi rend='smallcaps'>xxix</hi>, par. 6).</cell> + <cell>hool, ppool or pul, head, chieftain, beginning.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Tonapa=name of culture hero who established Inca civilization at Tiahuanaco, + erected large cross, etc., made his way to the ocean and departed.</cell> + <cell>tonal pouhque=diviner or soothsayer, from verb tonalpoa=to divine by signs + or count festivals by ancient calendar (Molina dictionary). + <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> tonal-mitl=ray of sun; literally, sun's + arrow, from tona-tiuh=sun. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> + tona-catzon=the ancient men, or the ruins.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<pb n='554'/><anchor id='Pg554'/> +<row><cell>ticsi=foundation. ticsik=founder. tecci-muyu-pacha=the entire world or + universe.</cell> + <cell>icxitl=foot. icxinecuiltic=a lame person. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> name + of Ursa Major. qua= tecciztle= literally: <q>heads decorated with + shell.</q>=disciples of Quetzalcoatl <q>who called themselves sons of the + sun and toltecas.</q> <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Ticitl=medicine man or + woman, astrologer or divines, who employed the pearl-oyster shell + tici-caxitl, for divinatory purposes. yoal-ticitl=title of earth-mother, or + ancestress of human race, whose symbol was a sea-snail=tecciztli.</cell> + <cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>Pacha-Yachachic=title of Supreme Being or Creator translated as pacha=world, + time. paccha=spider. yachachic=the teacher from yacha=to learn with affix + chi, means to teach, like ru-rachi=to cause others to make something). + Pachacamac=title of Creator.</cell> + <cell>pachoa=verb, to rule or govern others. yacana=to guide others, to govern a + town, to lead the blind. paccamachtia=to teach cheerfully and with patience. + amanteca=skilled artisans.</cell> + <cell>am=spider. aman=North. ah-men=he who builds. ah-pakcah=he who founds a town + and peoples it.</cell></row> +<pb n='555'/><anchor id='Pg555'/> +<row><cell>pa-chac-an or pa-cha-ca=title of officer of the Inca. ccapac=title of + supreme ruler; ccapac apu, male ruler; ccapac ccoya=female ruler.</cell> + <cell>yaca-tecuhtli, title of the god of the travellers or merchants, literally + meaning the lord who guides, governs or leads. The names of his five + brothers were Chiconquiauitl, Xomocuitl, Nacxitl, Cochimetl, Yacapitzauac. + The sister who completed the group of seven, was named Chalmeca-ciuatl + (Sahagun, op. cit. Book <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi>, chap. + <hi rend='smallcaps'>xix</hi>). This god and his six brethren, to whom + the merchants offered sacrifices when they had safely returned + from their perilous and long expeditions, doubtlessly were Polaris and the + Ursa Minor or Major.</cell> + <cell>bacab=title of the rulers of the four provinces or quarters. chac=title of + four assistants of high priest.</cell></row> +</table> + +</div> + +<pb n='556'/><anchor id='Pg556'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<anchor id='Appendix_II'/> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix II. +A Prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers.</head> + +<p> +Sook-es-Shookh, on the river Euphrates, in the Mesopotamian +villayet, though an interesting spot, is not an imposing or attractive +place. Like most of the townlets in this part of Asia Minor, +it is just a straggling, overgrown village, a few one-storied plastered +houses, with flat roofs and narrow doorways, dotted here +and there, a number of wattled and mud-daubed huts huddled irregularly +about, a <foreign rend='italic'>mesjid</foreign>, of course, a khan or caravanserai, and +one or two open spaces with the inevitable refuse and rubbish heaps, +where a bazar or market is held on Fridays. It looks, however, +picturesque and peaceful enough, as we ride into it, in the deepening +twilight of a late September evening. The stars are beginning +already to twinkle overhead, but there is still sufficient light +left to note the strange, white-robed figures moving stealthily about +in the semi-gloom down by the riverside. Clad in long snowy garments, +reaching nearly to the ground, they pass to and fro near +the edge of the water, some wading into mid-stream, while the +sound of a strange salutation exchanged in a strange tongue, <foreign rend='italic'>Sood +Havilakh</foreign>, strikes oddly upon the ear long accustomed to the ordinary +salutation, <foreign rend='italic'>Selam Alekum</foreign>, of the Arab-speaking Moslemin. +<foreign rend='italic'>Paderha Sutekh</foreign>, <q>their fathers were burned,</q> cries +our Persian <foreign rend='italic'>Charvadar</foreign> +and guide in disgust, as he catches a glimpse of the +white-robed figures, thus delicately hinting that they are not followers +of Islam; and a Jew from Hamadan who accompanies our +party, on his way to the tomb of Ezekiel, deliberately spits upon +the ground and exclaims, in pure Hebrew, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Obde +kokhabim umazaloth</foreign>, +<q>servants of the stars and planets.</q> And the Hebrew is not +wrong. The forms gathering by the riverside in the twilight are +those of <q>Star-worshippers,</q> the last remnants of the famous +magi of ancient Chaldea, and their followers, the Babylonian adorers +of the host of heaven. To the number of about four thousand in +all, they still survive in their Mesopotamian native land, principally +<pb n='557'/><anchor id='Pg557'/> +along the banks of the Euphrates river, where they form small +village communities. They invariably keep their settlements somewhere +near a stream, for their religious rites and ceremonies are +preceded by frequent bathings and ablutions, and a rill of flowing +water passing near or through their tabernacle or meeting-place is +indispensable. Hence this edifice is always raised quite close to +the river. They call themselves <hi rend='italic'>Mandaya</hi>, Mandaïtes, possessors +of the <q>word,</q> the <q>living word,</q> keep strictly to their own customs +and observances and language, and never intermarry with +Moslems, who call them <hi rend='italic'>Sabba</hi>, Sabeans. Their dialect is a remnant +of the later Babylonian, and resembles closely the idiom of +the Palestinian Talmud, and their liturgy is a compound of fragments +of the ancient Chaldean cosmogony with gnostic mysticism +influenced by later superstitions. They are a quiet and inoffensive +people noted, oddly enough, for the quality of their dairy produce +in the villages, and for their skill as metal workers and goldsmiths +in the towns where they reside. Their principal settlement is, or +was, at Mardin, in the Bagdad district; but there has always been +a small community of them at Sook-es-Shookh, on the banks of +their favorite stream, the Euphrates. +</p> + +<p> +It happens to be the festival of the Star-worshippers celebrated +on the last day of the year and known as the <hi rend='italic'>Kanshio Zahlo</hi>, or +day of renunciation. This is the eve of the new year, the great +watch-night of the sect, when the annual prayer-meeting is held +and a solemn sacrifice made to Avather Ramo, the Judge of the +under world, and Ptahiel, his colleague; and the white-robed figures +we observe down by the riverside are those of members of +the sect making the needful preparations for the prayer-meeting +and its attendant ceremonies. First, they have to erect their +<hi rend='italic'>Mishkna</hi>, their tabernacle or outdoor temple; for the sect has, +strange to say, no permanent house of worship or meeting-place, +but raise one previous to their festival and only just in time for +the celebration. And this is now what they are busy doing within +a few yards of the water, as we ride into the place. The elders, +in charge of a <hi rend='italic'>shkando</hi>, or deacon, who directs them, are gathering +bundles of long reeds and wattles, which they weave quickly and +deftly into a sort of basket work. An oblong space is marked out +about sixteen feet long and twelve broad by stouter reeds, which +are driven firmly into the ground close together, and then tied with +strong cord. To these the squares of woven reeds and wattles are +<pb n='558'/><anchor id='Pg558'/> +securely attached, forming the outer containing walls of the tabernacle. +The side walls run from north to south, and are not more +than seven feet high. Two windows, or rather openings for windows, +are left east and west, and space for a door is made on the +southern side, so that the priest when entering the edifice has the +North Star, the great object of their adoration, immediately facing +him. An altar of beaten earth is raised in the centre of the +reed-encircled enclosure, and the interstices of the walls well +daubed with clay and soft earth, which speedily hardens. On one +side of the altar is placed a little furnace of dark earthenware, and +on the other a little handmill, such as is generally used in the East +for grinding meal, together with a small quantity of charcoal. +Close to the southern wall, a circular basin is now excavated in +the ground, about eight feet across, and from the river a short +canal or channel is dug leading to it. Into this the water flows +from the stream, and soon fills the little reservoir to the brim. +Two tiny cabins or huts, made also of reeds and wickerwork, each +just large enough to hold a single person, are then roughly put +together, one by the side of the basin of water, the other at the further +extremity of the southern wall, beyond the entrance. The second +of these cabins or huts is sacred to the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi> or high priest +of the Star-worshippers, and no layman is ever allowed to even so +much as touch the walls with his hands after it is built and placed +in position. The doorway and window openings of the edifice are +now hung with white curtains; and long before midnight, the hour +at which the prayer meeting commences, the little <hi rend='italic'>Mishkna</hi>, or +tabernacle open to the sky, is finished and ready for the solemnity. +</p> + +<p> +Towards midnight the Star-worshippers, men and women, come +slowly down to the <hi rend='italic'>Mishkna</hi> by the riverside. Each, as he or she +arrives, enters the tiny wattled hut by the southern wall, disrobes +and bathes in the little circular reservoir, the <hi rend='italic'>tarmido</hi>, or +priest, standing by and pronouncing over each the formula, <q><foreign rend='italic'>Eshmo +d'haï, Eshmo d'manda haï madhkar elakh</foreign></q> (<q>The name of the +living one, the name of the living word, be remembered upon thee</q>). +On emerging from the water, each one robes himself or herself in +the <hi rend='italic'>rasta</hi>, that is, the ceremonial white garments peculiar to the +Star-worshippers, consisting of a <hi rend='italic'>sadro</hi>, a long white shirt +reaching to the ground; a <hi rend='italic'>nassifo</hi>, or stole, round the neck +falling to the knees; a <hi rend='italic'>hiniamo</hi>, or girdle of woollen material; +a <hi rend='italic'>gabooa</hi>, square head-piece +reaching to the eyebrows; a <hi rend='italic'>shalooal</hi>, or white overmantle +<pb n='559'/><anchor id='Pg559'/> +and a <hi rend='italic'>kanzolo</hi>, or turban, wound round the +<hi rend='italic'>gabooa</hi> head-piece, +of which one end is left hanging down over the shoulder. +Peculiar sanctity attaches to the <hi rend='italic'>rasta</hi>, for the garments composing +it are those in which every Star-worshipper is buried, and in which +he believes he will appear for judgment before Avather in the +nether world <hi rend='italic'>Materotho</hi>. Each one, as soon as he is thus attired, +crosses to the open space in front of the door of the tabernacle, +and seats himself upon the ground there, saluting those present +with the customary <hi rend='italic'>Sood Havilakh</hi>, <q>Blessing be with thee,</q> +and receiving in return the usual reply, <hi rend='italic'>Assootah d'haï havilakh</hi>, +<q>Blessing of the living one be with thee.</q> The numbers increase +as the hour of the ceremonial comes nearer, and by midnight +there are some twenty rows of these white-robed figures, men +and women, ranked in orderly array facing the <hi rend='italic'>Mishkna</hi>, and +waiting in silent expectation the coming of the priests. A couple +of <hi rend='italic'>tarmidos</hi>, lamp in hand, guard the entry to the tabernacle, and +keep their eyes fixed upon the pointers of the Great Bear in the +sky above. As soon as these attain the position indicating midnight, +the priests give a signal by waving the lamps they hold, and +in a few moments the clergy of the sect march down in procession. +In front are four of the <hi rend='italic'>shkandos</hi>, young deacons, attired in the +<hi rend='italic'>rasta</hi>, with the addition of a silk +cap, or <hi rend='italic'>tagha</hi>, under the turban, +to indicate their rank. Following these come four <hi rend='italic'>tarmidos</hi>, +ordained priests who have undergone the baptism of the dead. Each wears +a gold ring on the little finger of the right hand, and carries a tau-shaped +cross of olive wood to show his standing. Behind the <hi rend='italic'>tarmidos</hi> +comes the spiritual head of the sect, the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi>, a priest +elected by his colleagues, who has made complete renunciation +of the world and is regarded as one dead and in the realms of +the blessed. He is escorted by four other deacons. One holds +aloft the large wooden tau-cross, known as <hi rend='italic'>derashvod zivo</hi>, that +symbolizes his religious office; a second bears the sacred scriptures +of the Star-worshippers, the <hi rend='italic'>Sidra Rabba</hi>, <q>the great Order,</q> +two-thirds of which form the liturgy of the living and one-third the +ritual of the dead. The third of the deacons carries two live +pigeons in a cage, and the last a measure of barley and of sesame +seeds. The procession marches through the ranks of the seated +worshippers, who bend and kiss the garments of the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi> as +he passes near them. The <hi rend='italic'>tarmidos</hi>, guarding the entrance to the +tabernacle, draw back the hanging over the doorway and the priests +<pb n='560'/><anchor id='Pg560'/> +file in, the deacons and <hi rend='italic'>tarmidos</hi> to the right and left, leaving +the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi> standing alone in the centre, in front of the earthen +altar facing the North Star, Polaris. The sacred book, <hi rend='italic'>Sidra Rabba</hi>, +is laid upon the altar folded back where the liturgy of the living +is divided from the ritual of the dead. The high priest takes one +of the live pigeons handed to him by a <hi rend='italic'>shkando</hi>, extends his hand +towards the Polar Star upon which he fixes his eyes, and lets the +bird fly, calling aloud, <hi rend='italic'>Bshmo d'haï rabba mshabbah zivo kadmaya +Elaha Edmen Nafshi Eprah</hi>, <q>In the name of the living one, +blessed be the primitive light, the ancient light, the Divinity self-created.</q> +The words, clearly enunciated within, are distinctly +heard by the worshippers without, and with one accord the white-robed +figures rise from their places and prostrate themselves upon +the ground towards the North Star, on which they have silently +been gazing. +</p> + +<p> +Noiselessly the worshippers resume their seated position on the +ground outside. Within the <hi rend='italic'>Mishkna</hi>, or tabernacle, +the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi> +steps on one side, and his place is immediately taken by the senior +priest, a tarmido, who opens the <hi rend='italic'>Sidra Rabba</hi> before him on the +altar and begins to read the <hi rend='italic'>Shomhotto</hi>, <q>confession</q> of the +sect, in a modulated chant, his voice rising and falling as he reads, and +ever and anon terminating in a loud and swelling <hi rend='italic'>Mshobbo havi +eshmakhyo Manda d'haï</hi>, <q>Blessed be thy name, O source of life,</q> +which the congregants without take up and repeat with bowed +heads, their hands covering their eyes. While the reading is in +progress two other priests turn, and prepare the <hi rend='italic'>Peto elayat</hi>, or +high mystery, as they term their Communion. One kindles a charcoal +fire in the earthenware stove by the side of the altar, and the other +grinds small some of the barley brought by the deacon. He then +expresses some oil from the sesame seed, and, mixing the barley +meal and oil, prepares a mass of dough which he kneads and separates +into small cakes, the size of a two-shilling piece. These are +quickly thrust into or on the oven and baked, the chanting of the +liturgy of the <hi rend='italic'>Shomhotto</hi> still proceeding with its steady sing-song +and response, <hi rend='italic'>Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo</hi>, from outside. The fourth +of the tarmidos now takes the pigeon left in the cage from the +<hi rend='italic'>shkando</hi>, or deacon, standing near him, and cuts its throat quickly +with a very sharp knife, taking care that no blood is lost. The +little cakes are then brought to him by his colleague, and, still +holding the dying pigeon, he strains its neck over them in such a +<pb n='561'/><anchor id='Pg561'/> +way that four drops fall on each one so as to form the sacred <hi rend='italic'>tau</hi>, +or cross. Amid the continued reading of the liturgy, the cakes are +carried round to the worshippers outside by the two principal priests +who prepared them, who themselves pop them direct into the +mouths of the members, with the words <hi rend='italic'>Rshimot bereshm d'haï</hi>, +<q>Marked be thou with the mark of the living one.</q> The four +deacons inside the <hi rend='italic'>Mishkna</hi> walk round to the rear of the altar and +dig a little hole, in which the body of the dead pigeon is then +buried. The chanting of the confession is now closed by the officiating +<hi rend='italic'>tarmido</hi>, and the high priest, the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi>, +resuming his former place in front of the Sacred Book, begins the recitation of +the <hi rend='italic'>Massakhto</hi>, or <q>renunciation</q> of the dead, ever directing +his prayers towards the North Star, on which the gaze of the worshippers +outside continues fixed throughout the whole of the ceremonial +observances and prayers. This star is the <hi rend='italic'>Olma d'nhoora</hi>, literally +<q>the world of light,</q> the primitive sun of the Star-worshippers +theogony, the paradise of the elect, and the abode of the pious +hereafter. For three hours the reading of the <q>renunciation </q> by +the high priest continues, interrupted only, ever and anon, by the +<hi rend='italic'>Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo</hi>, <q>Blessed be thy name,</q> of the +participants seated outside, until, towards dawn, a loud and ringing <hi rend='italic'>Ano +asborlakh ano asborli ya Avather</hi>, <q>I mind me of thee, mind thou +of me O Avather,</q> comes from the mouth of the priest, and signalizes +the termination of the prayers. +</p> + +<p> +Before the North Star fades in the pale ashen grey of approaching +dawn, a sheep, penned over night near the river, is led into the +tabernacle by one of the four <hi rend='italic'>shkandos</hi> for sacrifice to Avather +and his companion deity, Ptahiel. It is a wether, for the Star-worshippers +never kill ewes, or eat their flesh when killed. The +animal is laid upon some reeds, its head west and its tail east, the +<hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro</hi> behind it facing the Star. He first pours water over his +hands, then over his feet, the water being brought to him by a +deacon. One of the <hi rend='italic'>tarmidos</hi> takes up a position at his elbow and +places his hand on the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro's</hi> shoulder, +saying, <hi rend='italic'>Ana shaddakh</hi>, +<q>I bear witness.</q> The high priest bends towards the North Star, +draws a sharp knife from his left side, and reciting the formula, +<q>In the name of Alaha, Ptahiel created thee, Hibel Sivo permitted +thee, and it is I who slay thee,</q> cuts the sheep's throat from ear to +ear, and allows the blood to escape on to the matted reeds upon +which the animal is stretched out. The four deacons go outside, +<pb n='562'/><anchor id='Pg562'/> +wash their hands and feet, then flay the sheep, and cut it into as +many portions as there are communicants outside. The pieces are +now distributed among the worshippers, the priests leave the tabernacle +in the same order as they came, and with a parting benediction +from the <hi rend='italic'>Ganzivro, Assootad d'haï havilakh</hi>, <q>The benison +of the living one attend thee,</q> the prayer-meeting terminates, and +the Star-worshippers quietly return to their homes before the crimson +sun has time to peep above the horizon.<note place='foot'>The accuracy +and value of the above article are vouched for, in an interesting way +by the Rev. Samuel M. Zwemer, F. R. G. S. (a missionary who spent ten years in Arabia), +who refers to it as follows, and quotes it in his recent publication: <q>Arabia, the +cradle of Islam. New York, 1900,</q> p. 289. <q>An anonymous article in the London +Standard, Oct. 19, 1894, entitled, <q>A prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers,</q> +curiously gave me the key to open the lock of their silence. Whoever wrote it must have +been perfectly acquainted with their religious ceremonies, for when I translated it to +a company of Sabeans at Amara, they were dumfounded. Knowing that I knew +<emph>something</emph>, made it easy for them to tell me more.</q></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='563'/><anchor id='Pg563'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<anchor id='Appendix_III'/> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix III. Comparative Lists of Words.</head> + +<p> +I. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +YAU or YU=the source or origin, the Chinese character for which +figures a square or circle divided into four by crossed horizontal and perpendicular +lines, the latter projecting above the square or circle.<note place='foot'>I point +out the remarkable fact that the Chinese name for jade=yu, is homonymous +with the word for source or origin, hence, perhaps, its sacredness and employment +as a secret symbol of the hidden source of all things. See p. +<ref target='Pg277'>277</ref> for Chinese +choice of symbols influenced by sound of name.</note> +</p> + +<p> +YAOU and YU=mythical emperors who instituted the celestial kingdom, +see p. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +YAOU SING=<q>Revolving Star</q> in Ursa Major. China. +</p> + +<p> +UI or HWEI=verb to turn around. Chinese. +</p> + +<p> +YUL, YEUL, YEOL=wheel (Icelandic hjol, O. Swedish hiugl, Swedish +hjul). +</p> + +<p> +HVEL=disk, orb. Iceland. +</p> + +<p> +WUOTAN=ODIN=supreme divinity. Scandinavia. +</p> + +<p> +JOVLA=sacred hearth fire of Northern Finns, under guardianship of +mother of family. +</p> + +<p> +JOVIS=Roman supreme divinity, associated with wheel. +</p> + +<p> +YAHWE=Hebrew name for God, translated as <q>heaven,</q> was pronounced +Yahu. According to the Masoretes must be read Yeho (Yăhu). +The early Gnostics wrote Iao, that is Yaho (Sayce). The four consonants +yhvh, pronounced Yahveh, constituted the sacred Tetragrammaton, +or four lettered name of the Most High. +</p> + +<p> +Archbishop Tenison says (Idolat. p. 404): <q>This name was no mystery +among the Greeks, as is evident from the mention of the god Ieuo in +Sanchoniathon; Jaho in St. Hiersm, and the Sibylline Oracles; Jaoth or +Jaho in Irenaeus; of the Hebrew God called Jaoia by the Gnostics; of +Jaou in Clemens Alexandrinus, of Jao the first principle of the Gnostic +Heaven in Epiphanius; the God of Moses in Diodorus Siculus; the god +Bacchus in the oracle of Apollo Clarius; lastly, as was said, of the +Samaritan Jabe, in Theodoret.</q> +</p> + +<p> +YEUD EKHAD=name of supreme god of Phœnicians the Red people +(Sayce). +</p> + +<pb n='564'/><anchor id='Pg564'/> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +YOUALLI-EHECATL, literally, night or circling-air or wind=supreme +god of the Chichimecs (see p. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>), a Mexican ruling tribe whose +name signifies the red lineage or people. +</p> + +<p> +YAHUAL-TECUHTLI or YOUAL-TECUHTLI=the Lord of the +circle or of the Night, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> North-star god, supreme divinity. +Mexico, see p. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +YALAHUA=Tzendal deity, p. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +YANAULUHA=Zuñi deity, p. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>{IO, IOVANA, IELLA, IOCAHUNA=names for god.</l> +<l>{HUIOU=sun.</l> +<l>{HUIOO or HUIHO=mountain. Haïti.</l> +<l>{YOLI, YULI=verb, to live, resuscitate, vivify.</l> +<l>{OLLIN=<q>motion.</q> Nahuatl.</l> +<l>YAUALLI=to walk in a circle many times. Nahuatl.</l> +<l>YOUALLI=night. Nahuatl.</l> +<l>HUE=egg. Maya.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +II. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +SHAME=heaven. Babylonian-Assyrian. +</p> + +<p> +SAMA=heaven. Græco-Persian. +</p> + +<p> +SAMA or SHAMA=north. Arabic (Al Kaukabal Shamaliyy=star of +the North; Al Kulbal Shamaliyy=the northern axle or spindle). +</p> + +<p> +AMAN=verb to sustain. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +AMAXA=name for Ursa Major=a chariot. Greek. +</p> + +<p> +SAMAS or SHAMASH=Babylonian-Assyrian god, <q>the universal +judge,</q> whose image was wheel with four rays (see pp. <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref> +and <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>), <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Ramman. +</p> + +<p> +BAAL-SHAMAYUN=supreme god. Phœnicia. +</p> + +<p> +AMASIS=Egyptian god. +</p> + +<p> +KAMOSH=god of Moabites, p. <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +HAM or KHAM=name for northern Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +AMANTINI=an Illyrian tribe. Greece. +</p> + +<p> +BR-AHMA=supreme god. India (<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Yama).<note place='foot'>The +Hindu Yama and Yami were twin brother and sister, and have been respectively +identified by Prof. Max Müller as night and day. Yama, the inseparable duality, +is entitled law and justice, etc. and was represented with four arms, riding a +buffalo, with a crown on his head, accompanied by <q>two four-eyed watch dogs, which +are probably the eight or twice-four regions of the compass</q>... (Chambers' +Encyclopædia). +Of the originally cosmical character of Yama there can be no doubt. It +is curious to find, at the epic and Puranic period, the account of <q>Yama</q> marrying +the thirteen daughters of Daksha (north-people, white), becoming the regent of the +south and residing in Yamapura, a town in the lower regions; details which appear +to indicate the actual establishment of a kingdom on the familiar plan by an earthly +representative of the cosmical deity.</note> +</p> + +<p> +BR-AHMANAS=priestly caste. India. +</p> + +<pb n='565'/><anchor id='Pg565'/> + +<p> +ARYAMAN=star-god associated with Mitra-Yaruna, Ursa Major and +number seven. In Zendavesta is associated with Ashvino-ritual. India. +</p> + +<p> +AMA or AME=heaven. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +KAMI=deity, top, above. +</p> + +<p> +O-KAMI=the honorable government. +</p> + +<p> +YAMA=mountain. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +YAMATO=main island of Japan. +</p> + +<p> +AMA-NO-MA-HITOTSU=<q>Eye of Heaven,</q> name for Pole-star. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +AME-NO-MI-NAKA-NUSHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven, +first Japanese <q>hidden</q> god.<note place='foot'>This was the +first god of the divine triad of whom it is recorded that <q>they hid +their persons;</q> see Translation of the Ko-ji-ki or Records of Ancient Matters, Basil +Hall Chamberlain, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, supplement, Transactions of the +Asiatic Society of Japan, Sections <hi rend='smallcaps'>i</hi> and +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii</hi> from which this and the following names of gods are +taken.</note> +</p> + +<p> +AME-NO-TOKO-TACHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-standing-eternally-in-heaven, +hidden god; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Kuni-no-toko-tachi-no-kami=Deity-standing-eternally-on-earth. +Japan. +</p> + +<p> +AMEN-RA=hidden god. Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +AHA-MENA or MENES=historical founder of kingdom=<q>the Constant +One.</q> Egypt; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> menu=monuments; smen=to establish. +Egyptian. +</p> + +<p> +MINYŒ, MINYANS or MINŒANS=race who traced descent from +Minos=the measurer (Men=measurer); great agricultural and building +race in India, Arabia and Egypt. Measured time by circumpolar constellations; +became confederates of Sabæans; conquered Phrygia, built +Mycenæ (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +AMUN=national god of Ammonites. Amun means the builder or architect +and is, like the name of Egyptian god, formed of amān, to sustain. +He was the god of the meridian and of the central house-pole, sustaining +roof who, in Egypt, became Amen-ra (Sayce and Gesenius, quoted by +Hewitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>). The supreme god of the Ammonites was Nāgash, the +constellation of Ursa Major (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +AMAN or XAMAN (pron. Haman)=north. Maya, Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +AH-MEN=master builder, handicraftsman; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Menah or +Menyah=artificer, +artisan, builder, handicraftsman; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> verb men=to build, +found, establish, erect, also menta'al=to govern. Maya, p. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +AMAN-TECA=name used in ancient Mexico to designate master-handicraftsmen, +synonym of Tolteca. +</p> + +<p> +AMAUTAS=name given in Peru to the <q>wise men</q> who introduced +civilization. +</p> + +<p> +III. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +AN=heaven, god. Babylonian Assyrian (p. <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>). +</p> + +<pb n='566'/><anchor id='Pg566'/> + +<p> +ANA=heaven. Sumerian, Akkadian,<note place='foot'>The Akkadian +Sumerian Cosmos is thus described: <q>Above the earth extended +the sky, ana, spangled with its fixed stars (mul) revolving around the mountain of +the east (Kharsak Kurra) the column which joins the heaven and the earth and +serves as an axis to the celestial vault. The culminating point in the heaven, the +zenith (Paku), was not this axis or pole; on the contrary, it was situated immediately +above the country of Akkadia [Kalama] which was regarded as the centre of the inhabited +lands, while the mountain which acted as a pivot to the starry heavens was to +the northeast of this country. Beyond the mountain, also to the northeast, extended +the land of Aralli, which was very rich in gold and was inhabited by the gods and +blessed spirits</q> (Lenormant, quoted by Warren <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +166).</note> <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Akanna=Ursa Major, Akkadian, +see p. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +AN and ANNU=names of celestial and terrestrial sacred central cities. +Egypt, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> an=pillar or that which turns around. According to +Flinders Petrie, the an was an octagonal fluted column with a square tenon or top. +</p> + +<p> +MANU=sacred mountain situated in N. W. Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +KW-AN-IRAS=sacred central cosmical division situated under pole-star, +around which the six kingdoms of Iran were situated. Persia. +</p> + +<p> +CANAAN=holy land, whose capital was Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +AN-SHAN=name of ancient Persian empire. +</p> + +<p> +AN-SHAR=supreme god. Assyria, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Nannar, pp. +<ref target='Pg336'>336</ref> and <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +AN-SAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Anubis also Anu and +Anath, Janus and Jana. +</p> + +<p> +Z-AN=old Doric form of Zeus, hence Janus. +</p> + +<p> +SHANG=heaven, the Above. China. +</p> + +<p> +KAN=mountain, also Yo. China. +</p> + +<p> +ALKAID=star in Ursa Major, also used for moon; origin of Spanish +title Alcalde. +</p> + +<p> +ALKABIR=the Great. Early Arabic. +</p> + +<p> +KA=surnamed the Great. Kushite father of life, the hidden god who +guards and distributes, at the appointed seasons, the life-giving rains +(Hewitt).<note place='foot'>This is the Ka of +Egyptian theology ... he is the Sek-Nag, the god of the +Rāj, or royal race of Gonds, born (ja) of Rā, that is, the sons of Ra-Hu, the begetting +(Hu) creating fire-god (Ra). His festival is held every seven years and is attended +only by males who are bound to secrecy as to its rites.... This god, the great Nag, +is the soul of life in the rain cloud, the heavenly snake ... the other being the Ahi +or Echis, the snake of earth. <q>To the present day the Jains, who are the great +trading race of India, call themselves Ka-ya=the sons of Ka. This name they must +have brought with them to the holy island (Dilmun), from thence it must have travelled +to Egypt with the race who established the Kushite rule there</q> (Hewitt).</note> +</p> + +<p> +KA=title of Egyptian king, usually rendered by <q>bull.</q> +</p> + +<p> +KHAN=a prince. Tartary. +</p> + +<p> +KHAKAN=an emperor or sovereign. Persia. +</p> + +<p> +HAN=name for empire. Japan, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ken, imperial domain. +</p> + +<p> +HANA=flower or blossom. Japanese, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ankh=flower, Egyptian +and anthos=flower, Greek. +</p> + +<p> +ANGLI or ANGRIWARII=widely diffused, great northern race, mentioned +by Tacitus and Ptolemy. +</p> + +<pb n='567'/><anchor id='Pg567'/> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +CA-AN=heaven. Maya, Yucatan, see pp. <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref> and +<ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +CANAL=Above. Maya, Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +CAN=title of culture-hero: KUKUL-CAN=the divine can, homonym +of can=serpent. Maya, Yucatan. +</p> + +<p> +ZIUVA-CAAN=Colony founded in Yucatan, by Holon-chan-te=Peuh. +</p> + +<p> +ANAHUAC: name of Mexican empire, usually loosely translated as a=water, +nahuac=by the water. +</p> + +<p> +To this list should be added the following affixes or prefixes, denoting, +in each case, <q>place, land or region of.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Egyptian: ta, for instance meh-ta or mah-ta=north; amen-ta=hidden +region, N. W. +</p> + +<p> +Chinese: kwan=earth, land. +</p> + +<p> +Persian: Kwan-iras or Hvan-iras=the name for Iran=<q>land of +Iran</q>? +</p> + +<p> +Japanese: han=empire, ken=domain. +</p> + +<p> +Maya: tan, for instance Aman-tan or Xaman-tan=North. +</p> + +<p> +Nahuatl: an, tlan or can, <q>land of, also mountain.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Zuñi: wan=place of, for instance Halona-wan. +</p> + +<p> +IV. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +AK=Middle. Egypt, p. <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +AKANNA=literally <q>the Lord of Heaven,</q> title Ursa Major. Akkadian, +p. <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +N-AKKASCH=title of Polaris <q>the serpent.</q> Phœnicia (p. +<ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +NAGASCH, NAHUSHA, or the Great Nag=the great invisible god, +hidden in his ark of clouds, who reveals himself to men as the ruler of time +and the orderer of the regular sequence of the phenomena of nature, and +who churns, in the mortar of the heavens, the life-giving rains in which his +divine spirit is infused.... (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +NAGA, NAGUR=the rain snake, at whose summer festival called +Akkhadi or Akhtuj, the Gonds worship the cart axle or akkha in a ceremony +which is a reminiscence of the days when the axle was the upright +revolving pole pressing out the heavenly rain. The Naga snake was +the offspring of the house pole; the soul of life in the rain cloud; the +heavenly snake, the great time-measurer and year god of the Hindus +(Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +P-AKU=zenith. Akkadian, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Papakhu, central sacred cosmical +chamber. +</p> + +<p> +AKKAD=the North, name of country (B.C. 3800). Babylonia-Assyria, +p. <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +K-AKKABU=<hi rend='italic'>the</hi> star, Polaris. +Babylonia-Assyria, p. <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +AKRIS or AKROS=summit, point, supreme, most high; <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ok=eye. +Greek. +</p> + +<pb n='568'/><anchor id='Pg568'/> + +<p> +AKRIOS=god of summit, title of supreme god. Greece. +</p> + +<p> +AKA-TOS, AKA=a ship. Greek. +</p> + +<p> +ACHAIIS=the Achaian land. +</p> + +<p> +ACHAIANS=in Homer, the name for Greeks generally. +</p> + +<p> +AKRA=Hindu village dancing and marriage ground, where sacred +tree is planted and sacrifices made to it in great Naga festival (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +AKSA=name of mosque at Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +AKSHAFARU=point, summit. Persian. +</p> + +<p> +AKAL, AKARAN=god, eternal, timeless. Zoroastrian, name of god. +</p> + +<p> +H-AK-HAMANISIJA=ancient royal title. Persia. +</p> + +<p> +HAK=king or regent, royal title. Akkadian, Egyptian. +</p> + +<p> +AKACA=Sanscrit name for fifth element æther: (Schroeder). +</p> + +<p> +AGATHON=name given by Pythagoreans to all-embracing soul of +the universe. +</p> + +<p> +AK or AG=verb aj, to drive, urge, impel. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +AGNI=god of central fire. India. +</p> + +<p> +AGASTYA=star father of Dravidians. India. +</p> + +<p> +CHAKRA=wheel. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +CHAKRAYARTIN=title, supreme ruler. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +AKSHA=axis or axle. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +AKSHIVAN=<q>the driver of the axle,</q> supreme ruler. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +DAKSHA=the North people, also white, blessed, and the left. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +TAKKAS=one of the most powerful and wealthy tribes of the Punjab, +whose progeners founded the great city of Taxila, the Hindu Takkasila +or rock of the Takkas, taken by Alexander the Great. Their name +Takkas or Takshas means <q>the makers or artificers,</q> which is connected +with the Akkadian tuk=stone.... They call themselves the sons of the +two Nagas or horned snake, Takht-nag and Basak-nag or <q>the sons of +the race of artificers</q> ... as the sons of the all-mother Maga [the +maker or kneader], they called themselves the sons of the mother-mountain.... +(Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +AKHAL, AKHAL-ZIKH, AKHAL-KALAKI=names of towns. Asia +Minor (O'Neil, p. 681). +</p> + +<p> +ACASA or ACASE=axis or axle. Old Norse. +</p> + +<p> +AKKA and UKKO=names given by Finns to mother-earth and father-heavens +(O'Neil, p. 38). +</p> + +<p> +NAKA=Middle. Japan (O'Neil, p. 536).<note place='foot'>The titles +<q>Middle king,</q> <q>Great Middle princess,</q> are cited by Chamberlain, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 265 and 267.</note> +</p> + +<p> +HAK-KAKU=eight holy corners or points; also that which is revealed, +disclosed, known, come to light. Japanese dictionary. +</p> + +<p> +AKA=above, mountain, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> SAKA=ascent. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +AGATA=ancient name for domain or department (Chamberlain). +Japan. +</p> + +<p> +HAKKI=the eight diagrams, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +Ya-he-koto-shiro-nu-shi-no-kami=Deity-eight-fold-thing-sign-master. +Chamberlain <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 83 and +101. +</p> + +<pb n='569'/><anchor id='Pg569'/> + +<p> +WAKE, WAKI, WAKU=lord, title. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +KAGU=Mount Kagu in Heaven. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +HAKU=white, shining. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +HOKU, NE-NO-HO, KITA, KITA-NO-HO=North. Japan. <hi rend='italic'>Cf.</hi> Khita=race +mentioned in Egyptian and Biblical history, and Kitai=name for +China. +</p> + +<p> +HOKU-SEI, HOKU-SHIN, HOKKIYOKU, North Star. Japan. +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Nahuatl.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +ACACHTO=the first, at first. +</p> + +<p> +YAQUE=that which has a point; a point, by extension a nose. +</p> + +<p> +YACANA=to govern a town or to guide. +</p> + +<p> +YACA-TECUHTLI (literally, the governing or guiding lord)=title of +Polaris, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Pacha-Yachachic=Peruvian +Creator, p. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +TON-ACA-TECUHTLI=title of Creator. +</p> + +<p> +MAL-ACATL=wheel, spindle, verb malacachoa, to walk around in a +circle. +</p> + +<p> +ACATL=cane, staff. +</p> + +<p> +CE-ACATL, OME-ACATL=titles of deities meaning One Acatl, Two +Acatl. +</p> + +<p> +13 ACATL=inscription on Stone of Great Plan and on image of Divine +Twain (see p. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +ACALLI=boat, from atl=water, calli=house. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Maya.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +AKAB=night. +</p> + +<p> +B-AK-CAB=in a circle, around, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> hab=year. +</p> + +<p> +BACAB=title of four <q>rulers of the year,</q> tetrarch. +</p> + +<p> +AK-BAL=a vessel or pot. +</p> + +<p> +C-ACAB=town, village. +</p> + +<p> +B-AK-LIC=around in a circle, in the surroundings. +</p> + +<p> +B-AK-TE=together. +</p> + +<p> +B-AK-ACH=all, the whole. +</p> + +<p> +B-AK=rock, fortification, enclosure, also bone, phallus, foundation, +heron. +</p> + +<p> +N-AK=throne, belly. +</p> + +<p> +N-AK-LIC=at the root, on top of all. +</p> + +<p> +L-AK-AN=standard, banner. +</p> + +<p> +L-AK-IN=east. +</p> + +<p> +K-AK=fire. +</p> + +<p> +P-AC-AT=sight. +</p> + +<p> +Z-AK=white <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Iztac=white. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +V. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +MAD-HYIAS=Middle. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<pb n='570'/><anchor id='Pg570'/> + +<p> +MAGHAVAN=Vedic name of Indra. +</p> + +<p> +MATH=the fire-drill, from math or manth=to twirl or churn. +Sanscrit.<note place='foot'>Madhu=the inspiring +intoxicating honey mead used in the sacred ritual, substituted +by a Northern people for the barley liquor offered in the manthin or creating, +churning cup. The names given to the drinkers of madhu=<q>madhuya,</q> madhu-pā +and Madhvi; also madhu-varna, the men of Madhu's caste, are curiously homonymous +with the word for Middle Madhyias and appear to designate them as the <q>Middle +caste,</q> naturally associated with the North.</note> +</p> + +<p> +MATHURA=name of central sacred locality. India (see Hewitt, p. +214). +</p> + +<p> +MAGANA=Akkadian name for the Sinaitic Peninsula. +</p> + +<p> +MAGHADAS=Finnic race ruling Northern India before the Kushites. +</p> + +<p> +MERU=the Middle. Sanscrit, p. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +MAHTA or MEHTA=north. Egyptian, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> mit=death. +</p> + +<p> +MED-DOS, MEDOS or MESOS=Middle. Greek. +</p> + +<p> +MED-IUS=Middle. Latin. +</p> + +<p> +MED-ON=Middle. Old Irish, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Medi=Tullium, centre of state. +</p> + +<p> +MID-JIS, Middle. Goth. +</p> + +<p> +MIODHACH=a Central Power (Joyce). Celtic. +</p> + +<p> +MITRA=the god said, in Rig-Veda, <q>to fix times of festivals.</q> Was associated +with Varuna=night and rain god (Greek, Ouranos), with the +constellation of Ursa Major and the number seven. The North was sacred +to Mitra-Varuna who <q>maintain the invariable succession of the order of +natural phenomena</q> (see Hewitt, pp. 144, 416 and 420). +</p> + +<p> +MILKOM=god of Ammonites whose supreme god was Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p> +MEDIA or MADGA=ancient kingdom whose inhabitants were allied +to Persians and shook off yoke of Assyrian rule in 708 B.C. +</p> + +<p> +MEDUM=site of most ancient pyramid known. Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +MECCA=sacred capital. Arabia. +</p> + +<p> +MY-CENAE=very ancient city in N. E. of Argolis, built upon craggy +height, principal city of Greece and capital of kingdom in Agamemnon's +time. +</p> + +<p> +METHONE=most ancient Greek colony on Thermaic gulf. +</p> + +<p> +MI-YAU-KEN: <q>name under which the Pole-star is worshipped in +Japan in the form of a Buddha with a wheel, the emblem of the revolving +world, resting on his folded hands.</q><note place='foot'><p>Quoted by +O'Neil from Satow and Hawes' Hdbk. of Japan, 2nd ed. p. 39. +</p> +<p> +It is interesting to compare the following Japanese words with Miyauken: +</p> +<p> +MIYO=wonderful, admirable, secret, mysterious, holy. +</p> +<p> +MIYA=Shinto temple where the kami are worshipped. Japan. +</p> +<p> +MIYUKI=travelling, going, only applied to circuit of provinces performed by +Mikado. +</p> +<p> +KEN=imperial domain, or that territory which is under the direct government +of the Mikado, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Chinese k'an=land.</p></note> +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Chinese. +</p> + +<p> +MUKDEN=capital of Manchuria, p. <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Mughs or Maghadas, +Finnic race ruling Northern India before Kushites, and +</p> + +<p> +MANJHUS=<q>royal land</q> set apart in Ooraon villages. +</p> + +<p> +MIOKEN=name of town and mountain. Japan. +</p> + +<pb n='571'/><anchor id='Pg571'/> + +<p> +MIWA=sacred mountain shrine regarded with extraordinary reverence. +Japan (Chamberlain). +</p> + +<p> +MIAKO=ancient sacred capital of Japan, residence of +</p> + +<p> +MIKO, or MIKADO=heavenly sovereign who, like the Chinese Wong +or Wang=king, ruled the three powers, heaven, earth and man. The +Chinese character, consisting of three horizontal lines crossed by a perpendicular +line expresses also the Japanese Miko which includes males and +females and is used combined with Naka=middle <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, Middle +sovereign (Chamberlain). +</p> + +<p> +MIHE=threefold. Japanese. +</p> + +<p> +MID-KENA=cosmical central power and mountain. Old Irish. +</p> + +<p> +MID-GARD=cosmical centre. Scandinavia. +</p> + +<p> +MIODH-CHUARTA (pron. micorta)=Meath, centre of Irish kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +MERCIA=middle kingdom of Britain. +</p> + +<p> +HAR-MOED=central mountain. Isaiah <hi rend='smallcaps'>XIV</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +MISHKNA=name of tabernacle of pole-star worshipping Mandaites +(see Appendix II). +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +MEXICO=name of capital and by extension of state. +</p> + +<p> +MEK-TAN=Maya name for empire, literally: <q>land of Mek.</q> +</p> + +<p> +MITNAL or METNAL=underworld. Maya. +</p> + +<p> +MICTLAN=name of region surrounding pyramids of Teotihuacan. +</p> + +<p> +MITLA=name of ruins in Oaxaca, Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +MICTLAMPA=north. Nahuatl. <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> miquiztli=death. +</p> + +<p> +MICTLAN-TECUHTLI=lord of the North, or underworld. Mexican +pole-star god. +</p> + +<p> +VI. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +I-KU or I KUU=the leader or prince, Polaris. Assyria. +</p> + +<p> +DIL-GAN-I-KU=the messenger of light, Polaris. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +KU=holy, divine (tul-ku, the holy altar). Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +KU=word of Finnic origin brought to India by Northern settlers—used +by them to denote Father-god=Ukku. Uk=the great Ku=placer +or begetter (Hewitt, p. 148). +</p> + +<p> +KU-SHIKAS=ruling race of India, of Northern origin, known as +Ashura-kushikas (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +CHU=the brilliance or light, Egyptian. +</p> + +<p> +CHU-ATEN=the central capital founded by Amenhotep. +</p> + +<p> +AL-KUTB=the axle, Polaris. Arabia. +</p> + +<p> +TUL-KU=the holy altar. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +GU=the urn. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +KUL-KUN=central cosmical mountain. China, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Sar-tuli-elli, king +of the holy mound. +</p> + +<p> +KURUMA=wheel, Japanese, also mawaru, from marawi=to turn, +revolve. +</p> + +<pb n='572'/><anchor id='Pg572'/> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Maya.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +KU=god. +</p> + +<p> +KUKUL=holy, divine (p. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +KUKULCAN=name of culture-hero. +</p> + +<p> +KU-LEL=noble. +</p> + +<p> +KU-NA=temple. +</p> + +<p> +KUKUM=feather. +</p> + +<p> +KUL=chalice. +</p> + +<p> +CHUT=bowl, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Nahuatl cumitl=bowl or jar. +</p> + +<p> +CHU-MUC=that which is in the middle or centre. +</p> + +<p> +CHU-MUCCIL=Middle, centre. +</p> + +<p> +CHU-MUC-AKAB=midnight. +</p> + +<p> +CHU-NIL=adj. the principal. +</p> + +<p> +VII. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +CITRA=bright, shining. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +TARA=star. Sanscrit, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Ra=god. Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +SITARA=star. Hindu. +</p> + +<p> +TJARA=star. Old Norse, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> tar=tree. +</p> + +<p> +TARA=name of central city. Old Irish. +</p> + +<p> +UTTARA=North. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p> +ISH-TAR=goddess, a hymn to whom, in Akkadian and Assyrian, begins +thus: <q>Thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of +the earth her name revolves</q> (Prof. Sayce, quoted by O'Neil, p. 715). +</p> + +<p> +Compare with Egyptian ra=god and note that the Sanscrit uttara +could have been expressed in Egyptian hieratic script by the form of +eye=uta and the sign for ra <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> an +eye within a circle (see p. <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref> and +fig. <ref target='Figure_62'>62</ref>). Also compare the Sanscrit and Hindu citra and +sitara with Egyptian seb-seta <q>the hidden star,</q> pictured by the turtle, sit or cit, +etc. (see p. <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +CITLALLIN=star. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +IX-TOLOLOTLI=eye, employed in picture writing for star. Nahuatl, +see in centre of Nahui-Ollin, fig. <ref target='Figure_2'>2</ref>, Nos. 1 and 3. +</p> + +<p> +IXUA=the birth of a plant, the germination of seed, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> +cihuatl=woman. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +IXTLI=the face. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +ICH=the eye. Maya. +</p> + +<p> +IK=life, breath, air, wind <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> ecatl=breath, etc., Nahuatl, and +ek=star. Maya. +</p> + +<p> +KIKCOLOM=blood. Maya. +</p> + +<p> +XICO=navel. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<pb n='573'/><anchor id='Pg573'/> + +<p> +VIII. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +TEH-TEH=designation of the first star of the Great Bear, given in +star-list in Papyrus of Ani, and the same as Te-te, the Akkadian star-god +of the two foundations (Hewitt, p. 267). +</p> + +<p> +TET=highly abraded form of timmen=foundation. +</p> + +<p> +TEM=foundation, Egyptian (O'Neil); foundation stone (Brown). Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +TET=eternity, symbolized by stone pillar. Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +A-TEN=circle or disk. Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +UA-TET=Egyptian name for emerald. +</p> + +<p> +THEOS=Greek name for god <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> Cosmos. +</p> + +<p> +THEO=descriptive of running wheel, of anything circular which +seems to run around into itself. +</p> + +<p> +THEORS=sacred envoys, who came for sacred festivals to Olympia +or Delphi from different points. +</p> + +<p> +THEMIS=law, right, agreed upon by common consent or prescription. +Greece. +</p> + +<p> +THEMIS=personified law, order and justice, <hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Artemis, the goddess +to whom the seven stars of the Great Bear were sacred (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +TEMENOS=piece of land sacred to a god, sacred precincts, precincts +of temple. +</p> + +<p> +A-THENA=name of Grecian capital, state and goddess, signified +<q>Seven.</q> +</p> + +<p> +TENOS and TEOS=names of Greek states, p. <ref target='Pg456'>456</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +DEOTHAN=village earth-god worshipped by Brahmin priests (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +TEEN or TIEN=heaven, god, the character for god being an upright +pole or support, a <q>ti.</q> Chinese, see p. <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, +<hi rend='italic'>cf.</hi> Chinese character, tien, +field, representing a square divided by cross lines into four parts. +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +TEM, TETEM=stone altar, foundation. Maya. p. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +TETL=stone. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +TEO-CALLI=<q>house of god</q> = temple. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +TEOTL=name for god. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p> +TEOTIHUACAN=site of extensive ruins. Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +TENOCH-TI-TLAN=name of capital of Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +TEMISTITAN=another ancient name for Mexican capital. +</p> + +<p> +IX. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +ASH=number six. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p> +ASHURA=trading non-Aryan races, the Hittites, worshippers of six +<pb n='574'/><anchor id='Pg574'/> +gods, six seasons, of Pleiades and of Ashura Mazda, the Zend god. Established +system of grouping six provinces around central royal province +where king resided. +</p> + +<p> +ASHVINS=stars which drove round the pole the constellations of +Ursa Major and Draco, another name for Ashura? Sons of horse (ashva), +brought barley to India, drank mead (madhu); instituted the Ashva +Mēdha, or horse-sacrifice of the Hindus, also used by North Germans +Ugro-Finns, Scythians and Romans. +</p> + +<p> +ASH, NAK-KASCH=Draco, Euphratean name for Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +MASSEBA=stone pillar. Hebrew symbol, see p. <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +ASHERAH=pole or tree, worshipped by Phœnicians and Hebrews +equivalent of Indian rain-pole. +</p> + +<p> +AL-FASS=axis, Arabian name for pole-star. +</p> + +<p> +PHAR-ASH-AH, PARR-ASIS=Hebrew and Phœnician <q>guiding star,</q> +Polaris. +</p> + +<p> +ASSUR=kingdom and god of Assyria. +</p> + +<p> +ASAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt (O'Neil, p. 59). +</p> + +<p> +ASIA=name given by Greeks to Asia. +</p> + +<p> +ASKANIOS=ancient name of Phrygia. +</p> + +<p> +ASTARTE=goddess of heaven, see p. <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +ASS or ÆSIR=Scandinavian gods. +</p> + +<p> +ASSGARD=central, divine dwelling. Scandinavia. +</p> + +<p> +UM-ASHI=reed shoot that sprouted when the earth, young and like +unto floating oil, drifted about medusa-like. Japan. (Records of Ancient +Matters, section I.) +</p> + +<p> +UMASHI-ASHI-KABI-HIKO-JI-NO-KAMI=<q>Pleasant-reed-shoot-elder-deity,</q> +born from primæval reed-shoot. +</p> + +<p> +ASHI-HARA-NO-NAKA-TSU-KUNI=Land in the Middle of the +Reed plains, common periphrastic designation of Japan. +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +AZTLAN=the original home of Aztec race, according to tradition. +</p> + +<p> +AZTEC=name of dominant race. Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +ASH-IWI=other name for Zuñi tribe (Cushing, see p. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +X. +</p> + +<p> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +O, ON or NO=name of celestial and terrestrial capitals. Hebrew and +Egyptian. +</p> + +<p> +OLYMPOS=the breaker or organizer of time (Hewitt, p. 514). +</p> + +<p> +KOLONH=a hill, mound, Greek; Lat. tumulus. +</p> + +<p> +COLONOS=a demos of Attica lying on and around hill sacred to +Poseidon. +</p> + +<p> +COLONIA=a colony, the Lat. colonia. +</p> + +<p> +KOLOSSOS=statue in general, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> column? +</p> + +<pb n='575'/><anchor id='Pg575'/> + +<p> +OM-EL-KORA=mother of cities. Arabian, see p. <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +OMPHALE=in Greek mythology, the fire socket, wife of Herakles, the +fire drill (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p> +HO=designation for directions in space. China, see pp. <ref target='Pg285'>285-288</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +HO=acme, taken to mean the best, highest, most showy part of +anything. Japanese (Chamberlain).<note place='foot'>Transactions of Asiatic +Society of Japan, vol. <hi rend='smallcaps'>x</hi>, p. 245, note 2.</note> +</p> + +<p> +HO=the land's acme, or a plain surrounded by mountains. Japan +(Motowori). +</p> + +<p> +HOM=date-palm-sacred tree. Babylonia-Assyria (Sir Geo. Birdwood). +</p> + +<p> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p> +HO, or TI-HOO=ancient capital of Yucatan, see p. <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +HOM=mound. Maya. +</p> + +<p> +HOMTAMIL=belly, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi> omphalos. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='577'/><anchor id='Pg577'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<lg> +<l>Abadiano, Dionysio, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Above (see <ref target='index-heaven'><q>Heaven or Above</q></ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Academia Manuscript, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acamapichtli, Mexican ruler, having title of <q>Woman-serpent,</q> <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acatl, one of the four Mexican year-symbols, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acolma, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acosta, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agave or maguey, juice of, <q>drink of life,</q> <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ahau, Maya glyph, chief, lord, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured on gold plaque from Cuzco, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ahau-ka-tun, 24-year period, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>literally lord, 20 stone, compared with Copan stelæ, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ah-cuch-cab, Maya name of ruler or chief of a town or place, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of chief, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>terrestrial lord, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ah-cuch-haab, Maya name for four year-signs, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Air, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, lord of, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Air and water design, on sacred edifices in ancient America, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>union of, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of Above, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on drinking vessels, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on dome of ancient Greek monument, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with the male region, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akbal, Maya glyph, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akkad=the North, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akkadians, Semitic race of Assyria-Babylonia, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander of Macedonia, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Allen, Richard Hinckley, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alligator, altar at Copan, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of Copan tribe, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol in codices, <ref target='Pg504'>504</ref>, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of Mayas and Mexicans, <ref target='Pg520'>520</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Altars at Copan, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amaterasu, Japanese sun-goddess, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amaytun, painted representation of the 20 and 24-year epoch, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amen-Ra, the supreme dual god of the Egyptians, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref>, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>American Association for the Advancement of Science, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>, <ref target='Pg545'>545</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>American Folk-Lore Society, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>American Museum of Natural History, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>American peoples, <ref target='Pg479'>479-548</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ammon, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ammonites, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anacreon, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andastes, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andean art, compared with Mediterranean, <ref target='Pg545'>545</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andree, Richard, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angrand, Leonce, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animal form, as totem, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with Four Quarters by Zuñi, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>combined with bird, symbol of union of Above and Below, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary of use in symbolism <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese calendar, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>, in Buddhist mythology, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>combined with human in Babylonian symbolism, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> (see <ref target='index-human-figure'>Human form</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anthromorphites, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of, very ancient, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollo, worshipped in form of a column, <ref target='Pg447'>447</ref>, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabia, star worship, axial rotation, seven-day period, etc., <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref>, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <ref target='Pg482'>482</ref>, <ref target='Pg495'>495</ref>, <ref target='Pg556'>556</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aratos, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arcadius, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Architecture, ancient, influenced by religious cults of Heaven and Earth, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Byzantine, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cruciform, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolism of (see <ref target='index-windows'>Windows</ref>, <ref target='index-cone'>Cone</ref>, <ref target='index-tau'>Tau</ref>, <ref target='index-pyramid'>Pyramid</ref>, <ref target='index-color'>Color</ref>, <ref target='index-greek-fret'>Greek fret</ref>, etc.).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arctos, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristotle, <ref target='Pg485'>485</ref>, <ref target='Pg486'>486</ref>, <ref target='Pg487'>487</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arizona, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arriaga, Padre, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arrowpoint, barbed, used instead of flint knife as symbol of life-producing force, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashurbanipal, Assyrian king, offspring of Heaven and Earth, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asia Minor, compared with North America in relation to tertiary plants and fungi, <ref target='Pg479'>479</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asiatic contact, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref> (see <ref target='index-pre-columbian'>Pre-Columbian contact</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asiatic Society of Japan, <ref target='Pg565'>565</ref>, <ref target='Pg575'>575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assyria, star-cult, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, etc., <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>analogies with China and Central America, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civilization more recent than that of Babylonia, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founded by Semitic Babylonians, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rise of pure monotheism, <ref target='Pg355'>355</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stelæ with seven symbols, seven circles, etc., <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Pole-star worship, seven-fold division, Four Quarters, etc., <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg483'>483</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Astarte, Assyrian goddess figured as cow and as moon, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Astronomy, cast of astronomy-leaders, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>study of, among native races, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>basis of religion, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>knowledge of, among Eskimo, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and other native peoples, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican astronomers, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomer-priests of Mexico <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese, Babylonian, Hindoo, Chaldean, +<pb n='578'/><anchor id='Pg578'/> +Egyptian, Thibetan and Indian, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chaldea, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref>, <ref target='Pg383'>383</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian zodiac signs, illustrated, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the time when there ceased to be a conspicuous pole star, <ref target='Pg525'>525-526</ref> (see <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>, <ref target='index-calendar'>Calendar</ref>, etc.).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atlantis, Island of, <ref target='Pg446'>446</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atlatl or spear thrower, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on temple of the Tigers, and on Stone of Tizoc, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Attiwendaronks, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Avila, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Axayacatl, living representative of Huitzilopochtli, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-axial-rotation'/> +<l>Axial rotation (or wheel) in ancient religion, symbolism and government;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Maya name for Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg008'>8-10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of Mexican supreme divinity, <q>Wheel of the Winds,</q> <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of idea was rotation of Ursa Major around Polaris;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by swastika symbol, <ref target='Pg018'>18-23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>imitated by Mexican game, <q>Those who fly,</q> <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with Mexican Calendar system, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indicated by name Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by Mexican sacred dance, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indicated in Vienna Codex by circle of footstep, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi religious ceremony, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in religious ceremony and irrigating canals of Peru, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by Nahuiollin on Mexican Calendar Stone, <ref target='Pg251'>251-52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by one-footed man on Mexican <q>Sacrificial Stone,</q> <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient plan of Mexican government, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pictured divinity surrounded by circle of footsteps, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in plan of ancient Chinese government, <ref target='Pg280'>280-291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in calendar systems of China and Mexico, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by spider's web, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese calendar, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the wheel in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Wheel of the law</q> and <q>lord of the wheel</q> of India, in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>centrifugal power and rule indicated by names of capital cities in Egypt and Greece, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revolving pillar on Acropolis at Athens, <ref target='Pg447'>447</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Arabia, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Plato's cosmical conception, <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Homer's works, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Sophocles' work, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Greece, <hi rend='italic'>polos</hi>=a star revolving on itself, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sanscrit god, <q>the driver of the axle,</q> <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek <q>Ixion's wheel,</q> <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indicated by cross symbol and later by swastika, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wheel associated with Jove on Roman tombstone, <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, the wain wheeled around the throne of Thor, <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Turanian god of heaven=the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks, <ref target='Pg499'>499</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg494'>494-544</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ayllu, Peruvian word for tribe or lineage, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aztlan, land of light, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baal, Assyrian god, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped under image of bull, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylonia, Chinese immigrants from, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Middle kingdom, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomy, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>star cult, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, etc., <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>either a mountain or a star signified a god, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomical observations of great antiquity, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oriented to the Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>decline of the empire, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>female ruler, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>described in Revelations;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sevenfold organization, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-staged tower, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sevenfold state, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>altar of gold, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylonia-Assyria, the Babylonia triad, Anu, Ea, and Bel, signify the Above, Middle and Below, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with gods of China, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>combined Heaven and Earth cult, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-fold organization, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-staged tower (Zikkurat) and the great basin (Apsu) symbolized cosmological conceptions;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tree or pole as sacred symbol;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire-stick, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of Polaris;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>male and female principles in nature, <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>New Year's festival, <ref target='Pg364'>364</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bacab, title of Maya chief, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of rulers of Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bailly, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balam, Maya word for ocelot;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of four lords of Below or Earth;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same as chac, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balboa, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ball, C. J., <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bandelier, Ad. F., <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baptism, Maya, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barber, Commander, U. S. N., <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bartholomew de las Casas, Friar, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bat, symbol of happiness, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bat-kin-ya-mûh, the Water people, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bastian, A., <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bead, jade bead, as symbol in Mexico, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>gold bead,</q> used as title;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolical among the Mayas, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beard, on stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on calendar sign;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on images of air-god, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by representatives of Above, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not worn by representatives of Below, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in pictorial art, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on portrait-statue of Stela E, at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bearded personages on stelæ were high-priests, etc., <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beardless effigies indicated different caste, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bearded Spaniards regarded, by Mexicans, descendants of founders of their civilization, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of sovereignty in Egypt, <ref target='Pg426'>426</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bee, Maya word for=cab;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cab glyph, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beetle (see <ref target='index-scarab'>Scarab</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beltram de Santa Rosa, Fray, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Benares, temple of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred cow, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bentham, <ref target='Pg476'>476</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bentley, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, <ref target='Pg478'>478</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berlin Museum, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>, <ref target='Pg417'>417</ref>, <ref target='Pg423'>423</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>, <ref target='Pg426'>426</ref>, <ref target='Pg427'>427</ref>, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berra, Orozco y, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>B. N. MS. (Biblioteca Nationale MS.), same as <q>Lyfe of the Indians.</q></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Biblioteca Nazionale Manuscript (in press), <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Biot, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-bird'/> +<l>Bird, title of Mexican war chief, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>humming-bird in symbolism, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with spider, serpent and cross on shell gorget, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Bird-god, borne on litter, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Yucatan in shape of bird, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>illustrated social organization in Mexico, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of Incas, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on arms of Mexico, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculptures at Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<pb n='579'/><anchor id='Pg579'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>man-bird represented ruler of upper division of State in Mexico, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>typical of lords of four provinces in Mexico, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blue-bird, Mexican symbol, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of Nahuatl tribe, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>three most powerful tribes of Yucatan have bird names, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on altar at Copan, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in sculptures at Palenque, and in Mexican Fejervary chart, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mask in Mexican festival, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of the Air people in Mexico, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recapitulation of meaning of symbol, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of as symbol, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vulture, symbol of Upper Egypt, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birdwood, Geo., <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>, <ref target='Pg575'>575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blackfoot Indians, myth about Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black, Robert, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black Sun, in B. N. MS., <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blood offerings, meaning of, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg442'>442</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boas, Franz, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-boat'/> +<l>Boat, in sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonian symbolism, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian, Grecian, Phœnician in early times, <ref target='Pg491'>491</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bochica or Ida-can-zas, culture hero of the Muyscas;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personification of the Sun or Above, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodleian MS., <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodleian Library at Oxford, <ref target='Pg508'>508</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boeckh, <ref target='Pg488'>488</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bogota, dual government, calendar, etc., <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bohn, <ref target='Pg486'>486</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Book of the Dead, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref>, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg406'>406</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Book of Manu, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Book of Yu, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bopp and Pott, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boturini, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bourbourg, B. de, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bournouf, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bovallius, Dr., <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bowl or vase (see <ref target='index-vase'>Vase</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahmanism, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brandenburg, spearhead from, illustrating triskelion and swastika associated, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brandsford, J. F., <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brazil, wooden clubs with Greek fret, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American civilizations, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-breath'/> +<l>Breath, puffs of, conventionalized on Copan slab, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on bas-relief at Palenque, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Zuñi symbolism, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Copan, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brinton, D. G., <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Britain, ancient, numerical divisions, middle, central ruler, quadruple organization, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>British Guiana, wooden clubs with <q>Greek fret,</q> <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>British Museum, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>, <ref target='Pg355'>355</ref>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brown, Robert, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg364'>364</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brugsch, <ref target='Pg370'>370</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref>, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref>, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref>, <ref target='Pg393'>393</ref>, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg406'>406</ref>, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref>, <ref target='Pg418'>418</ref>, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref>, <ref target='Pg423'>423</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg429'>429</ref>, <ref target='Pg431'>431</ref>, <ref target='Pg432'>432</ref>, <ref target='Pg433'>433</ref>, <ref target='Pg436'>436</ref>, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>, <ref target='Pg438'>438</ref>, <ref target='Pg439'>439</ref>, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>, <ref target='Pg441'>441</ref>, <ref target='Pg442'>442</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buddhism, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Budge, Wallis, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref>, <ref target='Pg370'>370</ref>, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref>, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>, <ref target='Pg388'>388</ref>, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref>, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>, <ref target='Pg443'>443</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-bull'/> +<l>Bull, winged bulls of Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolism of, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Yahwe, national god of the Hebrews, represented as man or as bull, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomical sign in Egypt for Ursa Major, and possibly of Polaris, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>linguistic reasons why king of Egypt was entitled <q>the bull,</q> <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of Egyptian supreme deity, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cow, bull or ox, in Egyptian zodiac signs, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Apis, sacred bull of Egypt, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in inscription in temple of Denderah, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Baal worshipped under image of, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian <hi rend='italic'>ka</hi>, rebus, signifying Polaris and Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of Amen-Ra, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with the goose in symbolism, <ref target='Pg418'>418</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Minotaurus, ruler of Crete, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burger, George, <ref target='Pg486'>486</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burial urn, emblem of earth mother, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buschmann, Dr., <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Butterfly used as symbol of immortal soul by Mexicans, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Byzantine architecture, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cab, Maya day sign, word for bee, also earth, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>honey, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with female principle, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cabal, day-sign, on Copan altar, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caban, Maya day-sign, identical with symbol of earth, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured with leaves of maize, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Below, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cæsar, called the Son of the Sun, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>, <ref target='Pg537'>537</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>court of, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>obsidian mirror used as oracle, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Annals of, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legend suggesting form of government, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tribal division associated with calendar, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition in relation to 7-day period, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-calendar'/> +<l>Calendar systems, Mexican, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested by Polaris and circumpolar constellations, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya, origin of, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican, monograph on, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Peruvian, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Muyscas, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>connection between calendar signs and divisions of the people, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a governmental institution, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invention of native system by ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept profound secret by priesthood, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fixed term of office for ancient American rulers, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican, originated from the fixed market-days, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>signs identified with different parts of human form, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>instituted by the Chinese emperor, Yaou, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>comparison of American and Chinese, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chaldean and Hindoo, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Japanese compared with Mexican, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hindu with Mexican, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Assyrian and Babylonian, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref>, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Egyptian, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref>, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lunar and solar, <ref target='Pg439'>439</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Esne calendar, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Canopus calendar, <ref target='Pg441'>441</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Central American and Mexican, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>time when first adopted, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-calendar-stone'/> +<l>Calendar-stone of Mexico, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>night sun pictured on, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of five dots compared with same on recumbent stone figure, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>market-stone of the City of Mexico, regulated social organization, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>special work on, by Zelia Nuttall, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of <q>Great Plan</q> or Scheme of Organization, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured and described, <ref target='Pg248'>248-258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regulated machinery of state, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Gama's, Valentine's and Chavero's descriptions, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>;</l> +<pb n='580'/><anchor id='Pg580'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>based on observation of Polaris, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>embodied the idea of a central, dual and quadruple power, etc., <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>contains symbol of union of dual principles of nature, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calendar-swastika, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-swastika'>Swastika</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>California Indians, use today two symbols in use by ancient Mexicans and Mayas, <hi rend='italic'>i. e.</hi>, flint-knife and <q>stone yoke,</q> <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calli, Nahuatl for western horizon=the house, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>one of the four-year symbols, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning, the house, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Campiña de Puebla, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Can, Maya word for serpent, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>serpent and numeral four, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>affix in names of towns, Iroquois, Maya and Mexican, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with pyramid as Teotihua-Can, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese and Maya associated with fourfold division, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canaan, account of Hebrew religion, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canada, Iroquois town, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya meaning of, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capital, Maya word for, homonymous with five=ho, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caracol, or Round Temple, of Chichen-Itza, built by Quetzalcoatl, representing Middle and Four Quarters, and centre of dominion, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cardinal points, assignment of colors and parts of human body, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with form of quadruped among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-four-quarters'>Four Quarters</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carillo, Crescencio, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carthaginians, having knowledge of an island in the ocean, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cartier, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cary's translation of Herodotus, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caryatids, at Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassiopeia, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caste, in Peru, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castelnau, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cat, sacred symbol in Egypt, <ref target='Pg408'>408</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catari, chronicler of the Incas, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celi-Ced, the dual power, from which the universe was born (Druidic), <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Centipede, Mexican symbol, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Central America, fundamental basis of government and civilization, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolical form in architecture, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carved stone seats or altars, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-copan'>Copan</ref>, <ref target='index-guatemala'>Guatemala</ref>, etc.).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Centre (stable centre or middle), in ancient government, religion, and symbolism: Polaris, the centre of axial energy, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>centre of the Cosmos, among Zuñis, Mayas, Mexicans and Peruvians, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shell gorgets, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divergence from idea, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by recumbent stone figure, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Incas, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Four Quarters represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient American game, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Féjérvary Codex, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in social organization, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculpture of Lord of Above, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colors associated with, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Copan Swastika, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Tablet of the Cross at Palenque, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>union with Four Quarters in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Mexican monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by pyramid, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>words and symbols connected with, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with swastika, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed by pyramid, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>typified by cross-legged human figure, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed in flower symbol, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese <q>Middle kingdom,</q> <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in America, symbolized by human heart and navel, in China by stomach, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese religion, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Japan called <q>Centre of the Earth,</q> <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by statue of Buddha, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Nirvana, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in religion of Arabia, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref>, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Babylonia, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Jerusalem, sacred spot marking the centre of the world, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia-Assyria <ref target='Pg364'>364</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref>, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref>, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed by mummy-shaped object, also by cone, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by a crown, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by a flower, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian feast, Tekhu, <ref target='Pg439'>439</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient government of Crete, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Rome, <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Ireland, Britain and Wales, <ref target='Pg468'>468-471</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in cross-symbolism, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in religious ideas of Old and New World, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>, <ref target='Pg535'>535</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Century Dictionary, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>, <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cezalcouatl, name for Kukulcan, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chaac Mool or Lord Tiger, name given by Le Plongeon to the recumbent figure bearing circular vessel, found in Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <q>Recumbent stone figure</q>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chac (Maya) red color;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>also rain, storms, thunder and Lightning;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of Lord of Below, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chac-noui-tan, name for Yucatan, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chalchihuitl=jade, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>jade beads, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chalmers, John, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chambers' Encyclopædia, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>, <ref target='Pg462'>462</ref>, <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>, <ref target='Pg465'>465</ref>, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <ref target='Pg564'>564</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chamberlain, Basil Hall, <ref target='Pg565'>565</ref>, <ref target='Pg568'>568</ref>, <ref target='Pg571'>571</ref>, <ref target='Pg574'>574</ref>, <ref target='Pg575'>575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chariot, symbolism of, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>, <ref target='Pg501'>501</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chavero, A., <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ché, Maya word for tree;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in names of tribes, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Checker-board (or tartan) design, formed by taus, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ch'en, Maya day sign, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheles, one of the Yucatan tribes, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cherokees, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chess board, in Egypt, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiapas, the present home of the Tzendals;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>native calendar system, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>migrations from, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chichen-Itza, culture-hero ruled in, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recumbent stone figure bearing circular vessel, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>connection established with Mexico by Kukulcan (Quetzalcoatl), <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Caracol or Round Temple, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bas-relief illustrating navigation by boats, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition about settlement of, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>evidence of Aztec influence, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>classification of ruins, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tablet in house of <q>Tennis-court</q> <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chichimecs, sacrifices by, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chicome-coatl, literally, seven-serpents, title of earth mother, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-china'/> +<l>China, cosmical symbol compared with those of Copan and Mexico, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of Above and Below, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sound of words, in symbolism, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pole-star worship, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the emperor at Pekin termed the Son of Heaven and the +<pb n='581'/><anchor id='Pg581'/> +Empress inhabits the palace of Earth's repose;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Yang and Yin;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Above and Below, etc., <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reason of deformation of feet, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chow Dynasty, fourfold plan of cities, linguistic affinities with Mexicans and Mayas, <q>Quadriform constitution,</q> <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar system, social and religious organization compared with that of ancient America, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tables showing the agreement and divergence in ancient systems of China and America, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assignment of colors and of parts of human body to cardinal points, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>comparative study of symbolism, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>social organization, etc., <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar and numerical system, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of civilization, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomical system, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Buddhism, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>primitive calendar, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Taouism, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese language said to be the same as Akkadian, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civilization not indigenous, emigration into, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Dowager Empress Ling, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Israelites, <ref target='Pg303'>303-306</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Christians, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fundamental principles of religion identical with that of ancient America, but later, divergent, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref>, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref>, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Heaven and Earth cult practised at the present time, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary of numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg483'>483</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of wheel from earliest times, <ref target='Pg501'>501-502</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of Cross symbol with idea of central power, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resemblances and differences, Chinese and Maya, Mexican, <ref target='Pg533'>533</ref>, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>doubt about extreme age of governmental scheme, <ref target='Pg533'>533</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>celestial kingdom dates from first century, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref>, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cholula, contains largest pyramid in America, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>built as place of refuge from inundations, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>place of sanctity, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>also called Cholola or Colola, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marks site of great and ancient Tollan, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cholollan, pyramid, a venerated sanctuary, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition concerning, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>native name is <q>tollan,</q> <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-tullan-cholollan'>Tullan Cholollan</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christianity, in China, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>period of growth, persecution of pagans, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. Augustine states that it has existed from the beginning, <ref target='Pg536'>536</ref>, <ref target='Pg537'>537</ref>, <ref target='Pg538'>538</ref>, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chuen, Maya day-sign, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cib, Maya day-sign, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cibola, seven cities of, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cicero, <ref target='Pg488'>488</ref>, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cieza de Leon, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-cihuacoatl'/> +<l>Cihuacoatl, the earth mother, flint knife in wrappings, symbol of, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Woman serpent (or twin), <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of Quilaztli, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>female ruler, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican ruler, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personification of Earth, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Montezuma's substitute, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>duties of, agents of, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered sacrifice to god of Underworld, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with serpent in Maya Codex, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>female title of lord of the night, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cipactli, Mexican sign for a <q>marine monster,</q> <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circle, symbol of heaven, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>influence on ancient architecture and symbolism, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with dot, Egyptian sign for time, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-circle-ring'/> +<l>Circle or ring, symbol of Egyptian <q>lord of the ring,</q> Hindu <q>lord of the wheel,</q> Persian <q>god of the ring,</q> and Mexican <q>lord of the circle,</q> <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circle or disk, Egyptian symbol, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref>, <ref target='Pg444'>444</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>also in Peru, <ref target='Pg444'>444</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumpolar constellations, studied by primitive man, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to origin of swastika symbol, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>form triskelion on night of winter-solstice, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>relation to sacred numbers, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with idea of death and resurrection, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to underworld, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four movements of, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with cult of Below, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of in Old World, <ref target='Pg383'>383-387</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-pleiades'>Pleiades</ref>, <ref target='index-ursa-major'>Ursa Major</ref>, <ref target='index-ursa-minor'>Ursa Minor</ref>, <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg475'>475</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>place where human race probably spent its infancy, <ref target='Pg475'>475</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fauna and flora, <ref target='Pg476'>476</ref>, <ref target='Pg478'>478</ref>, <ref target='Pg479'>479</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumpolar rotation, represented by swastika and star-symbols on pottery, <ref target='Pg050'>50-52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared to rotation of fire-drill by early peoples, <ref target='Pg502'>502</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-wheel'>Rotation or Wheel</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clavigero, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Claws (or nails) of the state, title of warriors, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cliff dwellers, tau as symbol, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clubs (wooden) from South America and Peru, with symbolical designs, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coatl (serpent or twin) in connection with tree symbolism, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Zuñi Koa=twin, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cocomes, Maya tribe, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Codices: Borgian, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg504'>504</ref>, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chimalpopoca, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chumazel, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cortesian, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Dresden, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Féjérvary, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Fuenleal, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mendoza, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Telleriano-Remensis, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Troano, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Vatican, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Vienna, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cogolludo, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colebrook and Bentley, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colhuacan, Mexican local name, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-color'/> +<l>Color, red in Mexico, associated with north, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of Earth, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blue, associated with rulership and divinities, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>black, associated with Tezcatlipoca and with Quilaztli, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>yellow, color of the west, female region, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Moki masks, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in tau design, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on ancient Mexican temples and sculptures, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peruvian symbolism, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi symbolism, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in architecture at Uxmal, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to denote social status by Peruvians, Mayas, Mexicans and Zuñis, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with four Quarters and Above and Below, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used for face and body painting, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Huaxtecan mantle of five hundred colors, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>painting of caryatids in Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolic at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblematic, in China, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assigned to elements by Mexicans, Zuñis and Chinese, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assigned to cardinal points, in China and America, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Buddhist temple; in Quetzalcoatl's temples in Mexico, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Hindu caste, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, red associated with the north and male sex, and white with south and female sex, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref>, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colorado, cliff dwellers, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-column'/> +<l>Column, sacred, in great temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on hill of justice in Guatemala, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<pb n='582'/><anchor id='Pg582'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>laws inscribed on, centre of island Atlantis;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>laws of Solon inscribed on, in centre of Athenian state;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Apollo at Delphi, <ref target='Pg447'>447</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the cosmical round tower of Ireland, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Mitla, Mexico, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolism of, in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Confucianism, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-cone'/> +<l>Cone, in Mexican ollin-sign, signified the Above, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in native architecture;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>culminated in pyramid, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by shape of windows in ancient ruins, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on summit of House of the Doves at Uxmal, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conical stone, on which human victims were sacrificed, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Congress of Americanists, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Congress of Orientalists, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conquest Stone of Mexico, <q>Sacrificial Stone,</q> <q>Tribute Stone,</q> <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his numerical scheme compared with same in India, Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>, <ref target='Pg543'>543</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-copan'/> +<l>Copan, lentil-shaped stone altar, from, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carved stelæ, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purpose of erection, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>study of the ruins, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of Polaris illustrated by carved slab in temple, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical organization illustrated, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, symbolism, etc., identical with those of Peru, Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc., <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions on altar conform with Zuñi clan-organization, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bearded effigies, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual rulers, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totemic animals and symbolic colors, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>excavation at Mound, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same cult as that of Palenque and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carved stone seats or altars, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>alligator altar, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stelæ as memorial columns, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>remnants of old civilization, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Copan swastika, compared with design on club from South America, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with tablet in <q>Temple of the Sun,</q> <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-swastika'>Swastika</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Copts, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cord (Maya kaan), associated with Maya word for Heaven=caan, and with glyph, <hi rend='italic'>can</hi>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of carved gorget worn on a cord, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sky represented as a circle composed of a cord to which stars were attached, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on lentil-shaped stone altar at Copan, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shield of Mexican god, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan stela, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corinth, coin with swastika, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cortes, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cosmos, four-fold and seven-fold divisions of, in Peru, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, India, Persia, etc., <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in pagan philosophy, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see separate headings; also, Quadruple Organization and Numerical Divisions).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cow, venerated in India, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Canaan goddess, Astarte, in form of, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian god Isis (Hathor) worshipped under form of, <ref target='Pg406'>406</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or bull, cult of Apis in Egypt, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-bull'>Bull</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cox, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coya, wife or sister of Inca, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cozumel cross, called symbol of <q>rain-god,</q> <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creation myths, ancient Mexican, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Zuñi, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Peruvian, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hindu, <ref target='Pg313'>313-318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Babylonian, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>, <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Babylonian and Hebrew evidently from same source, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creator, or <q>Supreme Being,</q> in Mexico, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title <q>wheel of the winds,</q> <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Polaris, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by ancient Americans, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>earliest form of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>feathered serpent, image of, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the four elements regarded as attributes of, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief in, represented by mushroom-shaped stone figure, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Inca knowledge of, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Quechua title for;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican title for, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, identified with Mexican <q>Lord who guides,</q> or Polaris;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and associated with star and cross, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of at Cuzco, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of in Texcoco, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>native title, <q>Heart of Heaven</q>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico represented by rebus of the feathered serpent, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Nahuatl title, expressed by an eye and pyramid in picture-writing, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Divine Twain, Father and Mother of all, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Akkadian name for symbol, an eight-pointed star, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Hindu, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Brahmanistic conception of, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Hebrews=Yahwe lord of Heaven, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref>, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref>, <ref target='Pg444'>444</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Plato's Timæus, <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Norse, Thor, <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the source of the four elements, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>comparison of names in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg532'>532</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg548'>548</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cremation, significance of, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crete, Greek plan of organization came from, description of symbols on coin <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient philosophy of, <ref target='Pg486'>486-488</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross-bones, origin of symbol, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross-legged seated figures, on Central American stone seats or altars, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of stable centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross-symbol, Maya and Mexican, figured and described, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shell gorget from Tennessee, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on pottery from Mississippi Valley, 51;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from Arizona, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Iroquois belt, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in symbolical carving from Brazil or Guiana, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four-spoked wheel as cross symbol in Assyria, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of sovereignty in Babylonia-Assyria, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as symbol at earlier period than swastika, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with idea of Central power, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of Christian religion, <ref target='Pg535'>535</ref>, <ref target='Pg536'>536</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-swastika'>Swastika</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross-tablets at Palenque, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross-worshippers, Chinese name for Christians, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cruciform structures, vaults under stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Mitla, Mexico, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Rome, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>buildings and churches of later period, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Byzantium, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Syria, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg516'>516</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cruz, Alonzo de la, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cubas, Garcia, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Culin, Stewart, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cum-ahau, name of divinity of Yucatan, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cup-shaped depression, on stone altar at Copan, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cushing, Frank H., <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>, <ref target='Pg574'>574</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cuzco, <q>navel of the earth,</q> <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>plan of city, Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>;</l> +<pb n='583'/><anchor id='Pg583'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founded by Manco Capac, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple, facing north and containing gold image of <q>Creator,</q> <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gold plaque from, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolism analogous to Mexican and Maya, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dahlgren, E. W., <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>D'Alviella, Goblet, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dances, sacred, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>description of Mexican dance, representing wheel or axial rotation, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Moki Indian, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Cuzco, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sun pole dance of American Indians, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Davis, J. F., <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Day-sign, Maya and Mexican, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107-112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>influence of, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of clan, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cabal, on Copan altar, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and year signs of native calendar, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of, used as personal and tribal names, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Death, symbol of, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deer, mask of, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deities, Aztec, number of, same god under several names, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demosthenes, lantern of, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Denderah, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dennis, J. S., <ref target='Pg483'>483</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>DeRossi, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Desjardins, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Destruction of the earth, Mexican traditions concerning, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dhruva, <ref target='Pg495'>495</ref>, <ref target='Pg496'>496</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diaz, Bernal, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Din-gira, Akkadian name for God, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diocletian, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divination, in connection with use of mirrors, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, Thibet and India, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divine Twin</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-duality'>Duality</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Documentos ineditos del Archivio de Indias, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dog, head of, on sculptures from Santa Lucia, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>; Maya word for=men, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Donelly, Ignatius, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref>, <ref target='Pg516'>516</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>D'Orbigny, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Douglas, R. K., <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Draconis, observation in Egypt, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dragon, at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dragon-fly, employed as cross-symbol, on Algonquin garment, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druids, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drums, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-duality'/> +<l>Duality or <q>Divine Twin,</q> symbol of, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conventional representation of, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>idea of, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual stellar divinity, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in sacred dance, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by male and female ruler, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>development of idea, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>twin brothers as rulers in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Montezuma, impersonation of, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peruvian symbolism, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the <q>Beloved Twain</q> of the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual ruler at Copan, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Quirigua, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Palenque tablet, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Mexican Calendar Stone, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican sculpture, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260-262</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual government at time of Conquest, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia-Assyria, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>, <ref target='Pg423'>423</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Rome, <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Ireland, <ref target='Pg468'>468</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Druidic traditions of Wales, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duemichen, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duran, Friar, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eagle (quauhtli), associated with Cassiopeia;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of Mexican war chief, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Eagle-woman, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Incas, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, Guatemala, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of one or more of the Incas, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on bas-relief in City of Mexico, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in arms of Mexico, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Above among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of state in Mexico and Central America, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary of use as symbol, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Earth, or <q>The Below,</q> in ancient religion and symbolism;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Mexican and Maya cosmos;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in secret beliefs of Zuñi priests, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>female region, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lord of, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with woman, <ref target='Pg060'>60-65</ref>5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cihuacoatl, personification of, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to god of, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with human sacrifices, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred rites, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi ceremonies, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with cremation, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of, in use by California Indians, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priestesses of, buried in caves, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with image of serpent, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with angular form, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>composed of fire and water, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on altar at Copan, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with square form and bowl, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flat-topped mitre worn by lord of, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese symbol, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tau upright, emblem of, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of, in Peru, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>idea prevailed in Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Muyscas, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in calendar, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in social organization, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with animal form, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>color associated with, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with female principle, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>votaries of, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi social system, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests of, represented without beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>moon symbol of cult, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cultivation of maize, by daughter of, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by quadruped, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vase, emblem of, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with square form, and darkness;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>influence on primitive architecture and symbolism, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flower used as symbol of, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref>, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Hindu religion, cult of Siva, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persian religion, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Assyrian and Babylonia cult, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult combined with that of Above practised in China at present time, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Baal, Phœnician god of Earth, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized in Scandinavia by Thor's hammer, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>table of countries where traces of cult have been found, <ref target='Pg480'>480</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Earth-mother, represented by Cihuacoatl, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pictured in Borgian Codex, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Zuñi symbol of, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see Earth or the Below, also <ref target='index-cihuacoatl'>Cihuacoatl</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-earth-work'/> +<l>Earth-work builders of the Ohio valley, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eddas, written by agricultural people, having knowledge of the fire-drill, axial rotation, etc., <ref target='Pg502'>502</ref>, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egypt, crux ansata, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>checker-board design;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>basis of chess-board, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civilization mainly Euphratean, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, <ref target='Pg367'>367-461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>color symbolism;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>high development of pole-star worship;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>territorial divisions, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Four Quarters;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hieroglyph for capital or city, cross symbol with four divisions, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref>, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>;</l> +<pb n='584'/><anchor id='Pg584'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pyramid, and square form associated with earth, and round with sky, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-fold organization, centre, Polaris, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref>, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sky-goddess Nut, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lotus flower symbol, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Polaris, sphinx, pyramid, Middle, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mummy, Polaris, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>, <ref target='Pg383'>383</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ursa Major, used as a measurer of time, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bull, used as astronomical sign of Ursa Major, king entitled <q>The Bull,</q> <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Amen-Ra, the supreme, dual god;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king associated with sun, and queen with moon, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hawk-headed god, An, compared with Assyrian, Greek and Mexican gods of the circle or wheel, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian queen analogous in position to Mexican Quilaztli, <ref target='Pg428'>428</ref>, <ref target='Pg429'>429</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Tekhu, <ref target='Pg439'>439</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>becomes a Roman province, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of dual principles of nature, <ref target='Pg441'>441</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg483'>483</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sacred and tribal tree, <ref target='Pg499'>499</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the symbolical use of the column, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Aha-Mena, first historical ruler, was a builder, <ref target='Pg532'>532</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Faber, <ref target='Pg516'>516</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fauna and flora of the tertiary period, in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg476'>476-479</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feather, symbol of divinity (Mexican and Maya), <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names signify something divine, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian symbol, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref>, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feathered serpent, origin of use as symbol, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigies of in Mexico, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as rebus to express Supreme Being and his earthly representative, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-serpent'>Serpent</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feet of Chinese women, deformation of, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Féjérvary Codex, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ferlini, <ref target='Pg427'>427</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fewkes, J. Walter, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Figueredo, Padre Juan de, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finger and toe count=20: <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire, sacred, Pleiades in connection with kindling, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new, kindling of, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of god of, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>earliest form under which deity was worshipped, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lighting of, by means of mirror, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>god of, associated with sceptre having gold disk, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled on body of human victim, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lord of, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>feast of in Mexico, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolical meaning of, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>means of producing in Mexico and India, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of in India, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref>, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Parsee religion, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia-Assyria, <ref target='Pg362'>362</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonial rite, in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg442'>442</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at New Year festival in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(in Old World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altars, lord of fire, <ref target='Pg494'>494-504</ref>, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>, <ref target='Pg520'>520</ref>, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(in New World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altar, fire-drill god, <ref target='Pg504'>504-509</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Five elements in China, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India and in Greece, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Five-day periods, year divided into in Mexico, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Five-dot groups, idea of, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on coin found in island of Crete, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the cenotaph of king Midas, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fletcher, Alice C., <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flint, Earl, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flint knife, Tecpatl, in wrappings, symbol of earth-mother, used as sacrificial knife, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on head dress in B. N. MS., <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with emblematic vase, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred among the Hupa Indians of California, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sacrificial stone of Mexico, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of generation, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-tecpatl'>Tecpatl</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flood and destruction myths and traditions, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270-275</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-myths'>Myths and Traditions</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flower, as symbol, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four petals, two leaves and stalk, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Tablet of the Cross, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recapitulation of meaning of, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lotus in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or rosette, in Assyrian symbolism, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven petalled flower on Phœnician tablets, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian word for=<hi rend='italic'>ankh</hi> means also <q>life,</q> <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of Middle, axial rotation and life, <ref target='Pg413'>413-420</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Footsteps, in circle, indicating rotation, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forrer, R., <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Förstemann, E., <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Four Elements, in ancient religion and symbolism: union of, in sacred rites, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as attributes of Supreme Divinity, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican and Zuñi beliefs and ceremonies, <ref target='Pg099'>99-102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by calendar signs, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, on Mexican Calendar Stone, <ref target='Pg249'>249-251</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>classification of among the Mexicans, Zuñi, and Chinese, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Creator, in Peru and Mexico, named Earth, air, fire and water in One, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-four-quarters'/> +<l>Four Quarters, in ancient religion and symbolism: <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shell gorgets, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colors of, represented on feathered serpent, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in Mexico by four executive officers, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Yucatan divided into, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Vienna Codex, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Borgian Codex, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>all things divided into, for an indefinite period, finally subdivided, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured as single sign, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in plan of capital and form of government among Incas, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by four limbs of human figure, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized in ancient American games <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Féjérvary Codex, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by 20-day period, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lords of, among the Quiches, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colors of, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>idea of, carried out by Quetzalcoatl in the Mexican temples, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruler of, on Copan stelæ, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of symbol as used among the Maya, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan swastika, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Palenque tablets, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>designated by colors on monuments in Mexico, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of, in Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cortes regarded as Lord of, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with pyramid, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>list of symbols connected with, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed by pyramid, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in flower symbol, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese calendar system, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with color and the elements, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with parts of the body by Chinese, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with form of quadruped by Zuñi, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<pb n='585'/><anchor id='Pg585'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Assyria and Babylonia, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref>, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref>, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Ireland, the five kings assigned one to the middle and the others to the cardinal points, <ref target='Pg468'>468</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Britain, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, <ref target='Pg480'>480-494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in religious ideas of Old and New World, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gage, Thomas, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gallatin, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gama, Leon y, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Game of ball, represented idea of perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of patolli, description of, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tlachtli and patolli in Mexico, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garcia, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garcilaso de la Vega, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaul, divided into seven provinces, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gesenius, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gensler, Dr., <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghizeh Museum, <ref target='Pg427'>427</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gibbon, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gilgamesh epic, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gillies, John, <ref target='Pg487'>487</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Globus, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>God C, Maya divinity, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not identical with Polaris, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>God L, Maya divinity, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>God M, Maya divinity, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Godman, F. Ducane, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Godman and Salvin, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gomara, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goodyear, William H., <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref>, <ref target='Pg414'>414</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>, <ref target='Pg418'>418</ref>, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goose, in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian, Sanscrit and Hindu religious art, <ref target='Pg418'>418</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the prehistoric art of Greece, Italy, Hallstatt, Gaul, Sweden;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name for in different languages, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gordon, G. B., <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gottfriedt, J. L., <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Government (see <ref target='index-quadruple'>Quadruple organization</ref>, and <ref target='index-social'>Social organization</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great Plan, stone of, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recumbent stone figure on summit of, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>contains forty high towers to hold effigies of lords of the Above, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great Turtle at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greece, use of checker-board design, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>primitive government of, <ref target='Pg445'>445</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Athenian culture, <ref target='Pg454'>454-459</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek colonies in Egypt, <ref target='Pg491'>491</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the symbolic use of the column, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-greek-fret'/> +<l>Greek fret, evolution of, on the American continent, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>formed by upright and reversed tau, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Griffis, W. E., <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grote, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <ref target='Pg485'>485</ref>, <ref target='Pg486'>486</ref>, <ref target='Pg491'>491</ref>, <ref target='Pg492'>492</ref>, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-guatemala'/> +<l>Guatemala, cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cakchiquel Indians, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>obsidian mirror as oracle, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient capital of, divided into two and four parts, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient civilization in, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mushroom-shaped stone figures from, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sculptured slabs resembling image in Inca fable, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Nahuatl language spoken in, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caste division associated with left hand, evidence that Nahuatl was spoken in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Nahuatl names of four provinces, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stela with symbol of open hand, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, in table of countries, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gubernatis, Angelo de, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gudea, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guiana, symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American civilizations, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guillemin, Amedée, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Habel, Dr., <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hagar, Stansbury, <ref target='Pg480'>480</ref>, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hakluyt, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hale, Horatio, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haliburton, R. G., <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>, <ref target='Pg469'>469</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hammurabi, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hamy, Ernest, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanan-ayllu, upper lineage in Peru, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanan Cuzco=the Above, ruled by the Inca, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>division of Inca capital including those of upper class, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hathor-Isis, Egyptian goddess of whom the queen was the living image, <ref target='Pg429'>429-437</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawk god, in Egyptian zodiac, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on inscriptions in temple of Denderah, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian god Horus represented with head of hawk, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as image of Amen-Ra, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-heaven'/> +<l>Heaven, or <q>the Above,</q> in ancient religion and symbolism:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in conception of cosmos in ancient Mexico, in secret beliefs of Zuñi priests, associated with rising of celestial bodies, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>male region, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Montezuma living representative of, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi ceremonies, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized as air, light and water, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lords of, buried in wooden effigies placed in high towers, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with rounded form;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temples were circular, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on lentil-shaped altar at Copan, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in mushroom-shaped stone figures from San Salvador and Guatemala, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>peaked mitre worn by lord of, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in Mexican ollin-sign by cone, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by conical stone on which human victims were sacrificed, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese emblem of, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Moki Indian dance, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient architecture, <ref target='Pg119'>119-121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, <ref target='Pg130'>130-146</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Bogota, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by human head, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with human figure, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican tree symbolism, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>color associated with, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests represented with beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>list of symbols connected with, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg284'>284-290</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hebrew Jehovah called <q>God of Heaven,</q> <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref>, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Assyria and Babylonia, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg429'>429</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, <ref target='Pg480'>480</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-heaven-earth'/> +<l>Heaven and Earth, union of:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by human face, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed by cross-symbols, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>illustrated by double tau-shaped figure, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with Toxcatl festival, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient architecture, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient symbolism <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>typified by shape of irrigating canals of Peru, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan stelæ, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<pb n='586'/><anchor id='Pg586'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on summits of high mountains, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by figure of ocelot and eagle combined, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>, <ref target='Pg334'>334-346</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg429'>429-438</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hebrews, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>, <ref target='Pg364'>364</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliopolis, seat of learning and monotheism in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg444'>444</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heraclitus of Ephesus, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hercules, twelve labors of, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herodotus, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref>, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>, <ref target='Pg442'>442-492</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herrera, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hesiod, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hewitt, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>, <ref target='Pg480'>480-482</ref>, <ref target='Pg494'>494-509</ref>, <ref target='Pg517'>517-524</ref>, <ref target='Pg565'>565-575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hiawatha, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hieroglyphs, and symbols, on stone monuments of Central America, <ref target='Pg218'>218-233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Yucatan, <ref target='Pg234'>234-244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexico, <ref target='Pg245'>245-275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hilavi, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hipparchus, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hippodamus, <ref target='Pg486'>486</ref>, <ref target='Pg516'>516</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Historical Exposition at Madrid, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ho, ancient name for Merida, on ancient map from Codex Chumazel, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hochelaga, kingdom of, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Iroquois central capital, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holcan, title given to war chiefs in Mexico, signifies literally the head of four, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>relates to rulership of Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holmes, W. H., <ref target='Pg039'>39-48</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homer, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honduras, ancient civilization in, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Peabody Museum Expedition, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-copan'>Copan</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hopi, ceremonial having affinities with the Nahuatl and Maya, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horizon, western, Nahuatl symbol for=calli, the house, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horse, sacred animal in Egypt, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horse-shoe symbol, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horus, Egyptian God identified with Polaris, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>House of the Doves at Uxmal, symbolism of, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huaca, tribal or household <q>idol</q> among the Peruvians, origin of, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huaxtecans, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya colony on Mexican coast, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huitzilopochtli, tradition concerning, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented as humming-bird, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>connected with Above, the male region, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the traditional leader of the Aztecs, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition concerning sister of, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with blue color, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by Montezuma, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of, <q>Heart of the Heaven,</q> <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>companion idol to that of Tezcatlipoca in great temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>monolith in Mexico, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>statue of, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human arm, symbol of one of the divisions of state in Mexico, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human bones, used as rebus, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reason of decoration, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human breath, symbolism of, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-breath'>Breath</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human face, used symbolically, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in centre of ollin sign, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculpture at Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Central American sculptures, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Copan sculpture, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human faces, of silver and mosaic, on necklace of statue, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-human-figure'/> +<l>Human figure, in sacrifice regarded as symbolic of Middle and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in mushroom-shaped stone figure, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Vienna Codex, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>statue of man and woman, symbolized duality in Peru, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Inca gold image of Creator and of the sun, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of the State in Mexico, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with Four Quarters of the Above, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>combined with animal figure, symbol of dual State, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan stelæ, <ref target='Pg219'>219-227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in sculpture at Palenque, and in Mexican Féjérvary chart, <ref target='Pg235'>235-240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recapitulation of meaning of symbol;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of constitution and calendar system;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar signs identified with, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seated cross-legged, emblem of stable Centre, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>parts of, assigned to cardinal points in China, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>significance of, in sculpture, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on stela, represented the chief and his term of office, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary of its use as symbol, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>statue of Buddha conveys idea of swastika, also of Centre, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>combined with animal in Babylonian symbolism, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>winged, bird-headed human figure on Assyrian bas-relief, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>, <ref target='Pg438'>438</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the island of Crete, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>, <ref target='Pg458'>458</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human fingers, symbol of four officers, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human foot, symbol of lower division of State, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human hand, symbol of supplication, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wooden sceptre in form of, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of capital of State, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on garment of chieftain at Uxmal;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on stela used as name-sign of ruler in Mexico;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of ancient capital in Yucatan;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sceptre in shape of, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of four lords of the Above, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the idea of many hands guided by one head or central power, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of lord or chief, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed numeral five, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human head, on Tablet of the Cross, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as corn cobs on maize plant, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in serpents' jaws on calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>portraits or effigies of the dead, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as symbol of Centre, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on winged bull, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human heart, symbol employed by Mexicans, Mayas, Quiches, and Tzendals, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extracted from human victim of sacrifice, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of supplication, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in sacrifice, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>between 4 squares, symbol for chieftain, etc., <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of gold on necklace of idol, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human eye used as star symbol, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see Eye symbol).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human mouth and teeth, symbolized earth or Below, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human nose, mystic union of two streams of breath, consecrated by wearing symbolical nose ornament, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human sacrifice</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-sacrifice'>Sacrifice</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human skull, artificial deformation of, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='587'/><anchor id='Pg587'/> + +<lg> +<l>Human stomach, in China symbol of Centre;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death by disemboweling practised, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human thumb, symbol of central ruler, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Humboldt, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Humboldt Tablet, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Humis-katshina, Zuñi dance, tau symbol used in, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunter, Annie, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hupa Indians, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hurin-ayllo, lower lineage in Peru, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hurin Cuzco=the Below, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>division of the Inca capital including the lower class, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huron Indians, <ref target='Pg196'>196-199</ref>, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huxley, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hwang-te, Chinese emperor who introduced calendar system, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Idols, represented attributes of divine power, etc., <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tribal and household, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ik, Maya glyph, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Illinois, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Imix, Maya glyph, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incas of Peru, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Great Temple of, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gold images of Creator and of the sun, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>form of government, based on Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancestor worship, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of tree symbolism, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>record of male and female ancestry, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gold associated with male element, silver with female, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with golden effigy of sun, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>advent into Peru, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also Peru).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>India, divisions of year, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomical system, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika abounds in, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mithra, Hindu god of the wheel, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Brahmans, Buddhists, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage custom, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>native maps of, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonial mode of producing fire, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Middle, centrifugal power;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quadruple organization, etc., <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tree worship, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of Polaris, <q>the pivot of the planets,</q> <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg480'>480</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Pythagoras derived his philosophy from, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred fire, fire drill, fire altar, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Maghas and Nahushas compared with the Mayas of Yucatan and the Xahuas of Mexico, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the idea of five elements, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>active intercourse with seafarers, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cyclical system of, assigned to same period as Constantine's numerical scheme and the calendrical schemes of the Mayas and Mexicans, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indra, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Initial scroll, in Central American inscriptions, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ireland, numerical divisions;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quadruple organization;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual ruler;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Middle;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Four Quarters;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cosmical round tower;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Seven Churches;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great hall of Tara (midcourt), <ref target='Pg468'>468-470</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, in table of countries, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iroquois, social organization, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wampum belts, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>linguistic affinities with Mayas, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irrigation, in ancient Peru, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ishtar, cult of, <ref target='Pg342'>342-350</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ring or circle, symbol of, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>axis of the heavens,</q> female Polaris, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isis, Egyptian goddess worshipped under form of cow, <ref target='Pg406'>406</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in sculpture and symbolism, <ref target='Pg421'>421-434</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called daughter of the sun, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>, <ref target='Pg441'>441</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isokrates, <ref target='Pg492'>492</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Israelites, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>idea of central power;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>star-cult developing into monotheism, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>, <ref target='Pg355'>355</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Itza, tribe who occupied Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ixion's wheel, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ixkun, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bas-relief at, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ixtlilxochitl, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Izamal, ruins of, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iz-calli, Mexican 20-day period, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of <q>renovation,</q> <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iztaccihuatl, giant volcano, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jade, Nahuatl word for, chalchiuitl, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of water goddess, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>placed with dead of upper class in Mexico, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>jade celts from Nicaragua, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient name for pyramid of Cholula, <q>the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, etc.,</q> <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese word for, significance of, <ref target='Pg563'>563</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-jaguar'/> +<l>Jaguar, figure of, represented four lords of the Below, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>skeleton of, in Mound 4 at Copan, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with ocelot, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Cross tablets at Palenque, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see Ocelot, Puma, Quadruped and Animal form).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Janus, double-faced, probably symbol of double state in Rome, <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Japan, junks, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>organization founded on plan derived from Corea;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>great Centre of the Earth;</q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition about North Pole;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with China, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Buddhism, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four divisions of population, with Emperor at head;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>governed by two rulers, celestial and terrestrial, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Shinto religion, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quadruple organization, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg483'>483</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jastrow, Morris, <ref target='Pg327'>327-344</ref>, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref>, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>, <ref target='Pg361'>361-367</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jensen, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerusalem, temples to Baal and altar to Astarte, <ref target='Pg350'>350-352</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>destruction of, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jesup expedition to the North Pacific, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jones, Sir William, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Joyce, <ref target='Pg570'>570</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justinian, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaan, Maya word for cord, associated with caan, Heaven, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaka or Akaka-kwe, mythic dance drama people, among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kan=numeral four, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya word for serpent, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Nahuatl word for serpent, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese word for mountain, also for province or ruler, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kan-asta (Iroquois) frame poles of the council house, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kanasta-tsi-koma (Iroquois) <q>the great framework;</q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of Iroquois league, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Katun, period of twenty years marked by sculptured stone, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kingsborough, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kin (Maya)=sun, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kin-ich-ahua, one title of Maya supreme divinity, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kircher, <ref target='Pg485'>485</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='588'/><anchor id='Pg588'/> + +<lg> +<l>Knight, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kukulcan, Maya title for Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of name=divine serpent, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by feathered serpent in Yucatan and Mexico, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition concerning, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruler of Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assumed offices of four rulers, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>established connection between Chichen Itza and Mexico, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with culture hero of Bogota, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya chief or lord, journeyed to Mexico and was there called, Quetzalcoatl, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>actual person, Maya high priest, Mexican culture hero, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name signified <q>divine four,</q> <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title expressed by serpent on Copan stelæ, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kulkun, mountain in China, called king of mountains, summit of the earth, etc., <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kushites, myth regarding origin of life, etc., <ref target='Pg495'>495</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kwakiutl Indians, social organization and secret societies, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Maya, Mexican and Peruvian, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lacedæmon, ancient philosophy of, <ref target='Pg487'>487</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lacouperie, T. de, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Land, conventional symbol of, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Landa, Fra Diego de, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206-220</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Language, differed in male and female communities, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>influence on ancient American symbolism, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-linguistics'>Linguistics</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laoutsze, founder of Taouism, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laplace, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Las Casas, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Layard, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lea, Chinese word for Below, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Left-hand;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>left-handed was attribute of Mexican god, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>consecration of, in Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>honorific title, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan altar, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legge, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lenormant, <ref target='Pg566'>566</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leon, Cieza de, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Le Plongeon A., <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lepsius, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Levier, Emile, <ref target='Pg477'>477</ref>, <ref target='Pg478'>478</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Life of the Indians (same as Hispano-Mexican MS., Biblioteca Nazionale MS., or B. N. MS.).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-linguistics'/> +<l>Linguistics, traces of words associated with archaic set of ideas in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>comparative tables of words, Appendix I, <ref target='Pg549'>549</ref>; and Appendix III, <ref target='Pg563'>563</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lion, sacred symbol in Egypt, <ref target='Pg408'>408</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lizard, skin of, in connection with human sacrifice, and with goddess of earth and underworld, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lizana, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lloque Yupanqui, third Inca, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lockyer, Norman, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref>, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref>, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref>, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lorenzana, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lorillard City (see Menché), <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sculpture and art of, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lotus, as symbol in Egypt and India, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref>, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loubat, Duc de, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg504'>504</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luna, Don Jose, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lunar year, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lunar periods, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lunar calendar in Mexico, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luschan, Felix von, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lysicrates, choragic monument of, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycurgus, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>, <ref target='Pg487'>487</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maghadas of India, <ref target='Pg497'>497</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maghas of India compared with Mayas, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Finnic race, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maghi of Persia, <ref target='Pg497'>497</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magnus, P., <ref target='Pg477'>477</ref>, <ref target='Pg478'>478</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahaffy, J. P., <ref target='Pg417'>417</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maize, ceremonial, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of goddess of Earth, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in ceremonial offerings by Californian Indians, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on earth symbol in codices, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculptures at Palenque and Copan, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican New Year festivals, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cultivation of, in very early times, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legacy of Corn Maidens and Daughters of Earth, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as year symbol, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maler, Teobert, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maltaya bas-relief, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manco, Capac, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founder of Cuzco, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manché, a tribe of Menché and Palenque, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mandaite pole-star worship, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref>, <ref target='Pg556'>556</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>March, H. Colley, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcianus, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Market stone of the City of Mexico, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-mexican-calendar'>Mexican Calendar Stone</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marinus, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-maritime'/> +<l>Maritime intercourse between Old and New World, interrupted for many centuries by interregnum of Polaris, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>equatorial currents favoring migrations to New World, <ref target='Pg524'>524</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>evidence of Græco-Egyptian contact with Mexico, <ref target='Pg538'>538</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-pre-columbian'>Pre-Columbian contact</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Markham, Clements B., <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marriage, in Mexico, sacred rites in connection with, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>laws governing, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Hindu, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on New Year's day in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg441'>441</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festivals, in India and in Mexico connected with worship of Pleiades, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-heaven-earth'>Heaven and Earth, union of</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marroquin, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maspero, <ref target='Pg437'>437</ref>, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Master builders, ah-men, Maya name for;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>aman-teca, Mexican name for, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kinship between those of Central America and Mexico, and the trained builders of cosmical structures in the Old World, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>, <ref target='Pg532'>532</ref>, <ref target='Pg533'>533</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maudslay, Alfred P., <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg504'>504</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mayapan, capital of confederacy of Mayas, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient capital of Yucatan, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ho, another name for, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ichpa, another name for, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient chronicles, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cocomes, people of, <ref target='Pg211'>211-216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mayer's Manual, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mazahuas or deer people, of Guatemala, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>McGee, W. J., <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mecca, <q>the mother of cities;</q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the grave of Mother Eve, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medhurst, W. H., <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melchites, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memorial stones, in Copan, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='589'/><anchor id='Pg589'/> + +<lg> +<l>Men, name of dog in Maya calendar;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>means master-builder, artisan, etc., <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menché, ancient ruins of, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Lorillard City,</q> <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient civilization of, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mendieta, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Merida, modern capital of Yucatan, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient name, <q>Ho,</q> <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured in ancient map, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>, <ref target='Pg557'>557</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quadruple organization, stable Centre, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seat of various empires, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-mexican-calendar'/> +<l>Mexican Calendar Stone</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-calendar-stone'>Calendar Stone of Mexico</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexican Calendar system</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-calendar'>Calendar Systems</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexican MSS. unpublished, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexican Sacrificial Stone</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-sacrificial-stone'>Sacrificial stone</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexico, number of deities;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same god under several names, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>idols, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of supreme Creator, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar-swastika, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245-258</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>system of government, origin of, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>game, symbolizing axial rotation, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar system, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Great Temple of, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>City of, divided into four quarters, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>built on dual island in dual lake, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient map of, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient capital of, divided into two halves, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessel, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tribal and household <q>idols,</q> origin of, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>native arms of, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caste division associated with left hand, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of human sacrifice, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical with Peru, Copan, Guatemala, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc., <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>map of, to be published, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with other ancient cultures of America, <ref target='Pg235'>235-244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sun cult and moon cult existing at same time, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual government at time of Conquest, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cradle of American civilizations, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of symbols translated from Maya, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika symbol found associated with calendar signs, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spider's web as symbol of numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, in table of countries, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sacred and tribal tree, <ref target='Pg499'>499</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lighting the sacred fire, <ref target='Pg504'>504</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols and plan of government compared to those of Old World, <ref target='Pg506'>506-524</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions on which the cosmical scheme was based, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date when calendar was instituted, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruder forms of culture, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civilization at time of Conquest indicative of contact with Old World, <ref target='Pg538'>538</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>period of warfare, pestilence, etc., <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resemblance between name of capital (Temistitan), and of Greek philosopher, Themistius, <ref target='Pg543'>543</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meyer's Lexikon, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Micmac Indians, myths about Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mictlampa, Nahuatl name for the North, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mictlan, land of the dead, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mictlantecuhtli, identical with Tezcatlipoca, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lord of the North, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Midas, king of Phrygia, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Migration, from the north, to South America, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caused by desire to find stable centre of the earth, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico and Central America in twelfth century, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-migration-myths'>Migration myths</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-migration-myths'/> +<l>Migration myths and traditions: in connection with cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Peruvian, Mayan, Mexican, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>motive of, explained by Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Kukulcan driven out of Chichen Itza and journeyed to Mexico, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>three brothers came from the West and settled in Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>into Yucatan from the South, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Mayas came from Tollan in Zu-iva, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Mexican culture hero came from the East, <q>the ancient red land,</q> <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>, <ref target='Pg528'>528-530</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-myths'>Myths and Traditions</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mikado, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mill-stone, as symbol, <ref target='Pg494'>494-509</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milne, J. G., <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minotaurus, ruler of island of Crete, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-mirror'/> +<l>Mirror, of obsidian, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as oracle among the Cakchiquel Indian of Guatemala, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in sacred edifices;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in great temple of Mexico;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>eyes of image of Tezcatlipoca, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Tezcatlipoca;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oracle of judgment in Mexico and Guatemala;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>aid to astronomical observations, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of obsidian, symbol of star-cult;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of polished pyrites, symbol of sun-cult, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with symbolical tree and serpent, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bowl of water, preceded use of, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Shinto symbolism, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mississippi valley, cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>earth-work builders, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>early peoples of, in contact with Mayas, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of cities and tribes showing Maya influence, art resembling that of Mayas, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Missouri, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mit (Egyptian)=death, or the dead, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mithra, Aryan god of the wheel, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mitimaes, Peruvian colonists, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mitla, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recent excavations at, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moabites, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohammedans, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mol, glyph on Copan altar, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Molina's dictionary, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg553'>553</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monarquia Indiana, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mongolia, Buddhists of, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monkey=Ozomatli, Mexican day-sign, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montagua river, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montesinos, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montezuma, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67-75</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>, <ref target='Pg547'>547</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moon, associated with cult of night, Earth Mother, the Below, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peruvian cult of the Below, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Bogota, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomical attainments of priests of, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar stone, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image in silver on pyramid at Teotihuacan, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lunar calendar, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in religion of Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>, <ref target='Pg438'>438</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moqui Indians, tau symbol used by, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morien, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morse, Edward T., <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>, <ref target='Pg478'>478</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mortillet, Gabriel de, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='590'/><anchor id='Pg590'/> + +<lg> +<l>Mortuary customs in Mexico, placing jade with dead of upper class, and texaxoctli with dead of lower class, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried northward from the south, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>body of Mexican ruler covered with raiment of four principal gods, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moslems, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Motowori, <ref target='Pg575'>575</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Motul, dictionary of, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mound, symbol of Earth, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mound-builders (see <q><ref target='index-earth-work'>Earth-work Builders</ref></q>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mountain, sacred (see <q><ref target='index-pyramid'>Pyramid or Mountain</ref></q>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mueller, Iwan, <ref target='Pg454'>454</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Müller, Max, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <ref target='Pg564'>564</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Muluc, Maya division of 4 years assigned to the north, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mummy, in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Museums: American, of New York, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Berlin, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>, <ref target='Pg417'>417</ref>, <ref target='Pg423'>423</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>, <ref target='Pg426'>426</ref>, <ref target='Pg427'>427</ref>, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Bonn, <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>; British, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>, <ref target='Pg355'>355-357</ref>, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Dresden, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ghizer, <ref target='Pg427'>427</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>National, Mexico, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>National, Washington, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, 51;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>New Haven, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Peabody, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>South Kensington, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Stockholm, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>; Trocadero, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mushroom-shaped stone figures, from San Salvador and Guatemala, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represent native idea of Above and Below with central ruler of both, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indicate belief in one supreme ruler, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mussulman, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Muyscas of Bogota, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-myths'/> +<l>Myths and traditions: <hi rend='italic'>Creation</hi> myths</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>(see separate heading), <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg313'>313-318</ref>, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>, <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref>, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>, <ref target='Pg495'>495</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>flood and destruction</hi> myths</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>(see separate heading), <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270-275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>migration</hi> myths</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>(see separate heading), <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211-217</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525-530</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>star cult</hi> myths,—Mexican, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>American Indian, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Turanian, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Mexican</hi>, life after death and relative position of man and woman, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Tezcatlipoca cast down from Heaven and arose as an ocelot, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Quilaztli, <q>woman serpent,</q> <ref target='Pg060'>60-62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Maya</hi>, culture hero, Kukulcan, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>suggesting worship of Polaris, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>relating to 7-day period among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Peruvian</hi>, concerning the Inca Yupanqui who introduced the worship of the Creator, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>relating to ancestors of Manco Capac and the <q>royal eagle,</q> <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>concerning contest between serpent and eagle, compared with similar Mexican tradition, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Japanese</hi>, concerning birthplace of Japanese race, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Arabian</hi>, Moslem tradition about Heavenly and earthly Kaaba, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>astronomical, <ref target='Pg465'>465</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Assyrian</hi>, relating to planet Venus and god Ishtar, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Greek</hi>, about fire-drill, <ref target='Pg496'>496</ref>, and Ixion, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Rig Veda</hi>, origin of fire, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nahr-el-Kelb, bas-reliefs at, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Esarhaddon stela, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nahuas of Mexico compared with Nahushas of India, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-nahuiollin'/> +<l>Nahui-ollin, Mexican symbol, <q>four movements,</q> <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represents four movements of constellations, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary of the four-fold divisions of which it was a symbol, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>commemorated the four epochs of the world's history, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>common to the various ancient peoples of America, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-ollin'>Ollin</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nakhunte, king of Susiana, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naming of children in Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navel, name of cosmical centre where human victims were annually sacrificed by Mexican priests=<q>Navel of the Earth,</q> <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cuzco called <q>Navel of the Earth,</q> <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol in ancient American art, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Arabia, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <q>Navel of the heaven,</q> <ref target='Pg520'>520</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Navel of the world,</q> <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navigation, primitive crafts and charts, Ceylon and Karashee, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Peruvian fishing boats of seal skin;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Quetzalcoatl's twin raft of serpent or seal skin;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>illustrations in native codices and sculptures, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-boat'>Boat</ref> and <ref target='index-maritime'>Maritime intercourse</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nebuchadnezzar, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Necklace of hearts and hands, on Mexican idol, indicative of supplication, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neo-platonism, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nepantla, the zenith, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nest, in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nestorian Tablet, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New Year's Day, in ancient Mexico and Central America, <ref target='Pg240'>240-244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mesopotamia, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>, <ref target='Pg557'>557</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425-437</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nezahual coyotl, ruler of Texcoco who erected temple to <q>Unknown God,</q> <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title, Ome Tochtli=2 rabbit, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicaragua, star-symbol on pottery from, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient occupation by Nahuatl-speaking race, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>jade celts from, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niebuhr, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Night, priest of, lord of, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sons of, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian symbol of, a star suspended by thread, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nimroud bas-reliefs, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nirvana, in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nordenskjöld, Baron Gustav, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norsemen, Eddas, symbolism, celestial tree, <ref target='Pg502'>502</ref>, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>North, symbols of, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign of, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>underworld, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Cosmos, associated with Tecpatl=flint, red, fire, warmth, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>color of, red, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lord of, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>female region, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of, in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>region of the dead, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya name and symbol of, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Buddha associated with, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>veneration of, in India, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian pyramid symbolism, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Babylonian word=akkad, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nose, grotesque, on sculptures at Copan, Quirigua and Palenque, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nose ornament, religious idea associated with, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nott and Gliddon, races of men recognized by ancient Egyptians, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Numbers, sacred, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-numerical'>Numerical divisions</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-numerical'/> +<l>Numerical divisions, in sociological and +calendrical systems:</l> +<pb n='591'/><anchor id='Pg591'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico and Central America, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Guatemala, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by human figure, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican government, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried northward from the south, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Huron Confederacy, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Copan, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in symbolic carving from South America, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Quirigua, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican Calendar stone, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican compared with Chinese, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Assyria, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref>, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref>, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg368'>368-376</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in cyclical systems of Egyptians, Hindus, Chinese, Mexicans, Mayas and Greeks, <ref target='Pg450'>450</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Rome, <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Greece, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Ireland, <ref target='Pg468'>468-470</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Britain, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Wales, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>table of countries in which used, <ref target='Pg480'>480-494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Plato's <q>divine polities</q> compared with scheme of organization in Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, as shown in Yucatan and Mexico, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>chief ruler called <q>Four in One,</q> <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>apparent survival in early Christian religion, <ref target='Pg536'>536-538</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Plato's and Inca's scheme of state, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Constantine's plan, and in Maya and Mexican calendars, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>, <ref target='Pg543'>543</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>analogies and divergences, American divisions agree with Greek but differ from Chinese, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nutt, David, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nuttall, Zelia, work on the Atlatl, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Mexican Calendar system, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg244'>244-247</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obsidian mirror</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-mirror'><q>Mirror</q></ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-ocelot'/> +<l>Ocelot, Tezcatlipoca took shape of, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican mythical drama, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of nocturnal sky, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican codices, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of one division of Mexican warriors, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>man with beast (ocelot or jaguar,) symbol of dual State in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of minor rulers in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>man-ocelot and man-bird, represented rulers of two divisions of state in Mexico, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or tiger, warrior-caste of Mexico, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>skin of, worn by high-priest in Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of the Fire people in Mexico, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized cult of Earth, as opposed to bird, symbol of cult of Heaven, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of State in ancient America, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-jaguar'>Jaguar</ref>, <ref target='index-puma'>Puma</ref> and <ref target='index-quadruped'>Quadruped</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ocna, a Maya festival, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-octli'/> +<l>Octli, name of native wine, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pulque, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>earth-wine, indicated by figure of rabbit, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Octli-gods, agents of the Cihuacoatl, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rain gods, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rain-priests, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests of the earth, emblem of=vase filled with rain or earth-wine, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>monkey intimately connected with, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Odin, Scandinavian king and deity, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Norse <q>ruler of Heaven,</q> <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ohio valley, ancient earth-work builders in contact with ancient Mexicans, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>art resembles Maya, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika symbol associated with serpent symbol, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ojibway Indians, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oldenburg, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Old World, fire-drill, fire altar, sacred fire, oil press, millstone, axial rotation, etc., <ref target='Pg494'>494-504</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civilizations compared with New World, <ref target='Pg504'>504-609</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oliva, Padre Anello, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oliver, G., <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <ref target='Pg485'>485</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-ollin'/> +<l>Ollin, in Calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-nahuiollin'>Nahuiollin</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olmos, Friar Andreas de, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olympic Games, marked cycle or period, <ref target='Pg485'>485</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omacatl, associated with water, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omaha Indians, measured time by Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ondegardo, Polo de, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>O'Neil, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>, <ref target='Pg468'>468</ref>, <ref target='Pg469'>469</ref>, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>, <ref target='Pg547'>547</ref>, <ref target='Pg568'>568</ref>, <ref target='Pg570'>570</ref>, <ref target='Pg572'>572</ref>, <ref target='Pg574'>574</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oriental Congress, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orientation, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Copan and Quirigua the same, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of temples at Palenque, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>diagonal, in Egypt and Central America, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian pyramids faced the north, and the pole-star, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temples in Lower Egypt faced to the North; in Upper Egypt to the South, <ref target='Pg383'>383</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Origin of American civilizations, <ref target='Pg543'>543</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orizaba, giant volcano, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient name, Citlal-tepetl=Star Mountain, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ozomatli, monkey;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican day-sign, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pacha-Yachachi, Inca name for Creator, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Painting, in connection with symbolism, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of body and face in Peru, Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-color'>Color</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palenque, Palace House with tau-shaped recesses, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>character of stelæ, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>study of monuments, <ref target='Pg234'>234-239</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same cult as Quirigua and Copan, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tablets, tribal registers, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tablet, in <q>Temple of the Sun,</q> likened to Mexican Sacrificial stone, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palestine, cult of Astarte and Baal, and monotheism of the Israelites, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pan, feast of, <ref target='Pg442'>442</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pantheon, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Panuco, Maya colony established at, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papa, name of Mexican Priest, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papakhu, name of inner sanctuary of Babylonian and Assyrian temple, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papalotl, butterfly, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parry, Francis, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parsee religion, worship of fire as outcome of pole-star worship, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parturition, symbolized by shell, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by snail, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Path of the Dead, ancient road leading to Pyramid of the Moon, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patolli, native Mexican game, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized social organization, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paz Solden, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peabody Museum, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peabody Museum Honduras Expedition, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pedregal de San Augustin, ancient lava-field in City of Mexico, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peking, contains temple to North Star God, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-china'>China</ref> and <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='592'/><anchor id='Pg592'/> + +<lg> +<l>Peñatiel, Antonio, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perez, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perrot and Chipiez, <ref target='Pg421'>421</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perry, John, <ref target='Pg547'>547</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persia, ancient religion of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven divisions of Cosmos, four-fold rule, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-peru'/> +<l>Peru, worship of Pleiades, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred fire, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of checker board design, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>light and dark colors used to designate the Above and Below, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>irrigating canals in symbolic form, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>outline of civilization, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stone monument typifying duality, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>knowledge of Creator, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>form of government, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tribal and household <q>idols,</q> <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four rulers, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>classification of people, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>white virgins,</q> title given to upper class maidens;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>black virgins,</q> lower class;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caste;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deformation of skulls, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony for driving out sickness, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony illustrating rotation, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>religious festivals, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civilization from the north, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prehistoric ruins, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Inca fable, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with symbolism of sculptured slabs in Guatemala, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>linguistic affinities between Quechua and Maya and Nahuatl, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Polaris;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>navigation, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of <q>Creator</q> (Polaris) superseded sun and moon cults, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caste division associated with left hand, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruins of Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg165'>165-169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols compared with those of Mexico and Central America, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>scheme of government compared with Plato's <q>divine polities</q>, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petrie, Flinders, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg439'>439</ref>, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>, <ref target='Pg483'>483</ref>, <ref target='Pg491'>491</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pheidon of Corinth, <ref target='Pg486'>486</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pherecydes, the Phœnician teacher of Pythagoras, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philolaus, <ref target='Pg485'>485</ref>, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-phoenicians'/> +<l>Phœnicians, cult of Astarte, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a northern race, called Turanians, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>navigators, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped serpent, fire-drill and the Pleiades;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called the <q>red men,</q> <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition indicates their migration to the New World, <ref target='Pg524'>524</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>, <ref target='Pg528'>528-535</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>evidence of their influence, <ref target='Pg538'>538-541</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>allied to Semitic race, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref>, <ref target='Pg543'>543</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pig, sacred animal in Egypt, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pigmy races, traditions of, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pillar, worship of (see <ref target='index-column'>Column</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pilli, Mexican title, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning <q>fingers,</q> title of minor lords, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pilquixtia, a Mexican festival, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pinches, Mr., <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plato, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref>, <ref target='Pg444'>444-451</ref>, <ref target='Pg467'>467</ref>, <ref target='Pg486'>486-490</ref>, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>, <ref target='Pg546'>546</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plato's <q>Divine Polities,</q> identical with scheme of government in ancient Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-pleiades'/> +<l>Pleiades, study of, by primitive peoples, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Society Islands, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in southern America, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Mexican Calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese calendar, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref> (see <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>, <ref target='index-ursa-major'>Ursa Major</ref> and <ref target='index-ursa-minor'>Ursa Minor</ref>);</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of, in India and Mexico;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with New Year and marriage festivals, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plotinus, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plutarch, <ref target='Pg441'>441</ref>, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>, <ref target='Pg488'>488</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polar constellations, chart of, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polar regions, both hemispheres originally peopled from, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-polaris'/> +<l>Polaris, the author's observation of, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>primitive man's study of, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Draconis, as pole-star;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>apparent immovability;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>means of determining direction;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supernatural power, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>; worship of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>centre of axial energy, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican Calendar system suggested by, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical value of, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>centre of cosmic system, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>changes in relative positions of, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceased to be brilliant and immovable about 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D., <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>migrations from south to north, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spread of cult in Mexico, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Peru;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>also, in Mississippi valley, as indicated by carvings on shell gorgets, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, analogous to cross and star symbols on shell gorgets from Tennessee, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggestions of cult among the Eskimo, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by star symbols and swastika on pottery from Arizona and Nicaragua, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with cult of Earth and Night, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by Montezuma on his throne, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not identical with God C, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as centre of rotation in Zuñi emblem, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a guide in navigation between Guatemala, Nicaragua and Peru, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>between Ceylon and Karachee, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult superseded sun and moon cults in Peru, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invisible at Cuzco;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Inca worship of the invisible Creator, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Yoal-tecuhtli, Mexican lord of the Night;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of Polaris, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>producer of life and regulator of the universe;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tecpatl (flint knife) symbol of, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with tree symbolism;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title, <q>Heart Of Heaven,</q> <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Copan, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reflected in bowl of water=Creator, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Shakespeare, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented central face in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Calendar-stone based on observation of, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with pyramid, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with swastika symbol, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya name, Ek-chuah, patron divinity of travellers and traders, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>North Star God, temple to, in Pekin;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese name=Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of Heaven, <ref target='Pg284'>284-287</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in work of Confucius, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese Taouism, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hebrew Jehovah, having same title, <q>God of Heaven,</q> <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mesopotamia, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Arabia, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>linguistic affinity between name of Polaris, and word for capital and for north, in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Phœnician name=the serpent, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <q>lord or king</q>, <q>Great Mountain,</q> <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of, in Assyria and Babylonia, <ref target='Pg332'>332-339</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Israelites, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, highest form developed into monotheism, and lowest form into cult of Ishtar and Bel, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in Babylonian temples by a fire in centre of square altar, <ref target='Pg362'>362</ref>, <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Euphratean star-worshippers, <ref target='Pg364'>364</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>high development of cult in Egypt, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376-382</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian mummy, image of, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian names for, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>, <ref target='Pg401'>401-403</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian religion and symbolism, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>, <ref target='Pg421'>421</ref>, <ref target='Pg423'>423</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in +<pb n='593'/><anchor id='Pg593'/> +India, called the <q>pivot of the planets,</q> <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Arabia, <q>the hole where the earth's axle found its bearing,</q> <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Greece, <ref target='Pg450'>450-453</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek Polos, a star revolving on itself, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>, <ref target='Pg454'>454</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indicated by cross symbol before the use of swastika, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called by early Danes and Icelanders, <q>throne of Thor</q> or <q>smaller Chariot,</q> <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called by Finns <q>Taehti=star at the top of the heavenly mountain,</q> <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the ancient Scandinavians and their descendants the Vikings, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult, <ref target='Pg475'>475</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, <ref target='Pg480'>480</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with use of fire-drill in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Hindus, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek Ixion, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Assyrian goddess Ishtar called the <q>axis of the heavens,</q> female Polaris, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured by wooden or stone socket from which fire and water flowed to the four quarters, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pole-star god of the Hindus compared with fire-drill god of Mexico, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Mexican pole-star god compared with the Hindu, Greek, Norse, Russian, etc., <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Old and New World, <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Phœnicians steered by, from earliest times, <ref target='Pg523'>523</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interval of time when the pole star ceased to be conspicuous, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>maritime intercourse interrupted, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reappearance of, <ref target='Pg538'>538</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mesopotamian prayer meeting of star-worshippers (Appendix II), <ref target='Pg557'>557</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Popocatepetl, volcano, Mexico, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Popol-Vuh, sacred book of the Quichés, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Popular Science Monthly, <ref target='Pg478'>478</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Porto Rico, stone objects from, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of aborigines, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powell, J. W., <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powers, Stephen, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-pre-columbian'/> +<l>Pre-Columbian contact indicated by same cosmical divisions and scheme of government in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg480'>480-504</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same symbolism, etc., <ref target='Pg509'>509-544</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traditions indicate, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>question of contact between China and America, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prescott, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pritchard, W. T., <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Proctor, Richard A., <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Propitiation, origin of, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pueblo Indians, use of tau, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associate step pyramid with rain, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>affinities with Mexican and Maya, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>corn maidens, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pullé, Mr., <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pulque, in connection with cult of earth-mother, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-octli'>Octli</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-puma'/> +<l>Puma, four heads terminating arms of swastika at Tiahuanaco,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-quadruped'>Quadruped</ref>, <ref target='index-ocelot'>Ocelot</ref> and <ref target='index-jaguar'>Jaguar</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Putnam, F. W., <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg545'>545</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-pyramid'/> +<l>Pyramid or sacred mountain:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>culmination of symbolism of cone, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in mountain worship, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya word for, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Lord of the Mountain a sovereign title among the Quiché, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin and significance of, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>typified numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on statue <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin attributed to the Maya speaking people;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Teotihuacan, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpretation of affix <q>can</q> in names of Mexican and Maya towns, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of central, dual and quadruple power, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Cholula, ancient name for, means <q>the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, etc.,</q> <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>erected as place of refuge from inundations, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Central power, and quadruple organization, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same as expressed by swastika, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Cholula, marks the site of great and ancient Tollan, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as symbol of Centre in Cosmos, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of symbol, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese symbolism and social organization, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>star god called <q>Great mountain,</q> <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identical with god in Babylonia and in Assyria, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hebrew god, Yahwe, worshipped on Mount Sion, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Jerusalem founded on Mount Zion, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>holy mound symbol of god Shamash of Assyria, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>central deity of Babylonia called <q>the great mountain,</q> <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt expressed a whole divided into four parts, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>miniature of cosmos, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Begerauie, <ref target='Pg427'>427</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>holy mountain of God</q> Book of Prophet Ezekiel, <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the chief idol of Ireland was called Cenn Craich (mound-chief), <ref target='Pg469'>469</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>form of letter delta in Greek Alphabet, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyrites, mirror of, used as symbol of sun-cult, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pythagorean philosophy, <ref target='Pg484'>484-488</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Neo-Pythagorism, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-quadruped'/> +<l>Quadruped, meaning of use as symbol, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented Zuñi state and subdivisions, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>illustrated by Alligator altar at Copan and by <q>Great Turtle</q> at Quirigua, also by tortoise in China, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-ocelot'>Ocelot</ref>, <ref target='index-jaguar'>Jaguar</ref> and <ref target='index-puma'>Puma</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-quadruple'/> +<l>Quadruple organization, in cosmos, and scheme of government:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of idea, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya, Mexican, and Zuñi, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed in cross symbols, <ref target='Pg047'>47-54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexico divided into four parts, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at time of Conquest, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient map of Yucatan, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient map of Mexico, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Inca empire, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Guatemala, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Bogota, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Tzendals, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Quiché, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Yucatan sculptures, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in tree symbolism, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried northward, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Huron Indian Confederacy, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Maya and Mexican traditions, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Copan, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Palenque, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Palenque, Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, Mexico and Zuñi compared, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regulated by Calendar Stone, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with pyramid building, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>, <ref target='Pg273'>273-282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by human figure, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>China and Mexico compared, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg310'>310-312</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>, <ref target='Pg481'>481</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mesopotamia, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Assyria, <ref target='Pg332'>332-337</ref>, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Greece, <ref target='Pg454'>454</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indicated first by cross symbol and later by swastika, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Rome, <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Ireland, <ref target='Pg468'>468</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Britain, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>;</l> +<pb n='594'/><anchor id='Pg594'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>table of countries where traces are found, <ref target='Pg480'>480-494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>comparative review, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in cruciform structures at Copan and Mitla, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>chief ruler called <q>Four in One,</q> <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also, <ref target='index-numerical'>Numerical Divisions</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle woman, Mexican title, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quetquetzalcoa, plural of Quetzalcoatl, title of his successors, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quetzal, feathers of, carved on feathered serpent, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>exhibiting colors of Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as Mexican symbol of beloved chief or child, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem at Palenque, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem at Copan, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see also <ref target='index-bird'>Bird</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quetzalcoatl, invocation to;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Creator and maker, twin lord and twin lady, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>wheel of the winds,</q> <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divine twin, centre of cosmos, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>other names for;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth concerning, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an actual person who came from Yucatan, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruled in Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya title=Kukulcan, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico supreme god, also god of fire, and of the four winds, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>successors to, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>was driven from Tullan by enemies, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>established connection between Chichen-Itza and Mexico, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recumbent figure of, in temple of city of Tula, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>god of the winds, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>built Caracol or Round Temple at Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Round Temples in Mexico dedicated to, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divine twin, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his craft called <q>serpent or twin raft,</q> <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>another name for Maya lord, Kukulcan, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>important historical person, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Tollan abode of, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with figure on Copan sculpture, and with priest in Zuñi creation myth, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured with beard, in Mexican codices, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of, in temple of Cholollan, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple at Tula, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, title of high priest in service of Huitzilopochtli, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>also title of Montezuma, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quiché, Supreme Divinity of, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sacred book of, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totems, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical and social system, illustrated by tradition, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Zuñi, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Lord of the Mountain</q> title, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>affix in name, <hi rend='italic'>ché</hi>, Maya word for tree, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used day and year signs as personal and tribal names, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traditions of destruction of earth, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quilaztli, sister of Huitzilopochtli, myth concerning, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the mother of all, same as Cihuacoatl, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Egyptian queen, <ref target='Pg428'>428</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quirigua, sister city to Copan, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient monuments, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>social organization same as that of Copan, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totemic animals and symbolic colors, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Great Turtle,</q> <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stelæ as memorial stones of high priest rulers, <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>remnants of old civilization, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ra, Egyptian word for God, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rabbit (tochtli), <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican calendar sign;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of earth and reproduction, used to represent sound of word, octli, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figure of, indicates sacred octli or earth-wine, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Nahuatl picture writing, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the rebus for earth-wine or rain, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rabinal, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rain, Tlaloc, god of, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured with scrolls about the eyes, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lords, four hundred in number, sacred vase, emblem of, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Zuñi rain-makers, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites practised on summits of pyramids, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient festival described in the Brahmanas, <ref target='Pg496'>496</ref>, <ref target='Pg497'>497</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by rabbit, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rattlesnakes, on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raven, or summer people among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rawnsley, <ref target='Pg491'>491</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rays, carved on Calendar stone the idea of, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Read, C. H., <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-recumbent'/> +<l>Recumbent stone statues, <ref target='Pg093'>93-96</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Recurved staff or sceptre, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red land, in name of Mexican city Tlapallan, and of Chichen (Itza), <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>the great ancient red land</q> in the East, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red man, origin of title, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of the Phœnicians, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Genesis, <ref target='Pg523'>523</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chichimecs of Mexico (literally, Red race), <ref target='Pg532'>532</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rig-Veda, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>, <ref target='Pg496'>496</ref>, <ref target='Pg497'>497</ref>, <ref target='Pg499'>499</ref>, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Riksmuseum of Stockholm, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ring or circle, in Persia, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-circle-ring'>Circle or ring</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rio Lagartos, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rios, Padre, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivero, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Tschudi, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman Catholic Church, <ref target='Pg537'>537</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman Milliarum Aureum, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, sacred fire, Roma Quadrata, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>duality, middle, quadruple government, <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-storied tower, <ref target='Pg464'>464</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-day period, <ref target='Pg465'>465</ref>, <ref target='Pg466'>466</ref>, <ref target='Pg467'>467</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, in table of countries, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Constantine's plan of state-organization in New Rome identical with the numerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican calendars, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the symbolical use of the column, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>amulet, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>church built by Constantine in form of Greek Cross, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rosa, Beltran de la, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rosny, Leon de, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rotation</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-axial-rotation'>Axial rotation</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Round form, associated with cult of Heaven or the Above in Mexico, Central America;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Zuñis, <ref target='Pg113'>113-115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient architecture, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with sky in Egypt, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Round Temples of Chichen Itza and Mexico, symbolism of, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Royal Ethnographical Museum of Dresden, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rust, Horatio N., <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabæan star-worship, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabbath, derivation of name, etc., <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-sacrifice'/> +<l>Sacrifice, human, sacred rite, in Mexico, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolism of, in Aztec religion, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human victim formed living swastika, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human blood used to moisten sacred dough, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of blood sacrifices, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to Heaven and to Earth, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico, taking out heart of captive signified destroying life of conquered tribe, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<pb n='595'/><anchor id='Pg595'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian compared with Mexican, <ref target='Pg442'>442</ref>, <ref target='Pg443'>443</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-sacrificial-stone'/> +<l>Sacrificial-stone of Mexico=Tribute-stone, or law-stone recording collection of tributes, etc., <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sahagun, Friar Bernardino de, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77-83</ref>, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>, <ref target='Pg553'>553</ref>, <ref target='Pg555'>555</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Augustine, <ref target='Pg536'>536</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sakkarah, Egyptian seven-storied pyramid, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salado, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salcamayhua, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salcamayhua tablet, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sanchez, Jesus, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Fun, ancient Chinese work, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saniah-ya-kwe: priesthood of the Hunt, among the Zuñis, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Salvador, mushroom-shaped stone figures from, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, sculptured slabs at, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sapper, Carl, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Satow and Hawes' Handbook of Japan, <ref target='Pg570'>570</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saville, M. H., <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saxo Grammaticus, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sayce, A. H., <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref>, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref>, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>, <ref target='Pg481'>481</ref>, <ref target='Pg491'>491</ref>, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>, <ref target='Pg520'>520</ref>, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>, <ref target='Pg524'>524</ref>, <ref target='Pg525'>525</ref>, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>, <ref target='Pg532'>532</ref>, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>, <ref target='Pg572'>572</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scandinavia, triskelion associated with swastika, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek fret, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>middle;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Four Quarters;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ursa Major called <q>Thor's Wagon;</q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred mountain and tree;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>axial rotation;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of Polaris;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>duality;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flora and fauna, <ref target='Pg471'>471-479</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary, in table of countries, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of wheel in early times, also mill stone, <ref target='Pg502'>502</ref>, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-scarab'/> +<l>Scarab, meaning of emblem, secret sign for <q>hidden god,</q> <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sceptre, with gold disk, in Mexico, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of sovereignty in Assyria and Babylonia, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schellhas, P., <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schlagintweit, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schlegel, G., <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schliemann, H., <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schroeder, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>, <ref target='Pg568'>568</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schuchhardt, <ref target='Pg518'>518</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scorpion, Maya Zin-an;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scotland, use of checker-board design, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sed festival, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg429'>429</ref>, <ref target='Pg431'>431</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Selden MS., <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg508'>508</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seeds, in symbolism of earth mother, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Maya codices, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seeds of life, Zuñi, Mexican, Maya, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Tablet of the Cross, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan swastika;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Zuñi, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conventionalized maize seeds, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>idols formed of seeds in Egypt and Mexico, <ref target='Pg442'>442</ref>, <ref target='Pg443'>443</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seler, E., <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semiramis, temple of, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semites, <ref target='Pg350'>350-352</ref>, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of Supreme god=Yahu or Yaho or Yahve, <ref target='Pg532'>532</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>allied to the Phœnicians, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg541'>541</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sendschirli tablet, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sepher Hathora, Hebrew book of the law, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-serpent'/> +<l>Serpent, in ancient religious symbolism:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with time, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Nahuatl name=twin, Maya name=four, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of dual or quadruple nature, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of eternal life and the Creator, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cursive sign for, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shell gorgets from Mississippi valley, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of symbol, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divine ruler of four quarters, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>feathers with (see Feathered serpent) <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pertaining to earth-mother, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>double-headed, forming vase, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with tree of life, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with burial of woman, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with symbol of Earth, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with air symbol, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Peruvian fable, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem of tribe conquered by Incas, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in arms of Mexico, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on silver pendant from Cuzco, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with seven heads, symbolical of Mexican and Maya seven tribal divisions, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dual ruler, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mythological snake among the Pueblo people, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Below among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totemic animal of Uxmal, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on <q>Cross Tablets</q> at Palenque, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on monolith <q>Divine Twin,</q> <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of gold and mosaic on statue of Huitzilopochtli, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of symbol, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped in the temple of Solomon, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref>, <ref target='Pg393'>393</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg522'>522-523</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serpent-woman, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cihuacoatl, Mexican ruler, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of, figured and described, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seven, sacred number, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see summary, <ref target='Pg480'>480-494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>also <ref target='index-numerical'>Numerical divisions</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shakespeare, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shamash, temple of, in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>antiquity of cult of, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cross and four-spoked wheel of, <ref target='Pg355'>355</ref>, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>, <ref target='Pg495'>495</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of, made by a race of pole star worshippers, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with <q>black or night sun</q> on Mexican Calendar stone, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shang, Chinese word for Above, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shang-te, Chinese supreme ruler, whose residence was <q>Tien</q>=Heaven, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>S-shape, Ursa Minor figured as, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bronze brooch from Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on native fabrics, in Vienna Codex, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in B. N. MS., <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Sahagun's Historia, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cakes in shape of, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with star signs and the North, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican and Maya codices, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign of summer solstice, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with cross and rain symbols, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>breads in shape of, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figure on Phœnician tablet, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shell gorgets, representing winged human being, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee, showing cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from Tennessee, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>evidence of identical symbolism from Yucatan to Illinois, <ref target='Pg048'>48-52</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shell, symbol of parturition, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shell pendant, symbolism of, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shinto religion, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shiwana-kwe, priesthood of the priest-people among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shoo king, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shogunate, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shun, Chinese emperor succeeding Yaou, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siculus, Diodorus, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sidon, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siena, Italy, founded by sons of Remus, affinities with ancient Rome, <ref target='Pg465'>465</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='596'/><anchor id='Pg596'/> + +<lg> +<l>Silco, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Simpson, Wm., <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sippara, tablet of, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>, <ref target='Pg495'>495</ref>, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Situa, Peruvian festival when the cults of Above and Below were celebrated, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siva, cult of, compared with cult of Earth-mother, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skull, artificially deformed in ancient Peru, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sky-father among the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith, Professor, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smyth, Piazzi, star-map, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snail, symbol of parturition, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-social'/> +<l>Social organization in Mexico, at time of Montezuma, myths relating to origin of, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62-75</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-quadruple'>Quadruple organization</ref> and <ref target='index-numerical'>Numerical divisions</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Society Islands, study of Pleiades in, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solomon, built altar to Astarte in Jerusalem, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>built altars to Kamosh, god of the Moabites, and to Milkom, god of the Ammonites, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solomon's temple, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solon, <ref target='Pg445'>445</ref>, <ref target='Pg447'>447</ref>, <ref target='Pg448'>448</ref>, <ref target='Pg455'>455</ref>, <ref target='Pg526'>526</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solar or civil year, divisions, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solstice, summer, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>winter, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lighting sacred fires at time of, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sommier, Stephen, <ref target='Pg477'>477</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sophocles, <ref target='Pg453'>453</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>South America, symbolism of, compared with that of Mexico, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-peru'>Peru</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Southern Cross, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>South, Acatl=cane, blue, Mexican emblem and color of, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>South Kensington Museum, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spamer, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg428'>428</ref>, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spear-throwers, on tablet at Chichen Itza, and on Mexican Tribute Stone, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Speed, John, <ref target='Pg470'>470</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sphinx, Egyptian, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref>, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spider, a symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition about Tezcatlipoca's descent from the sky by a spider's thread, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Nahuatl=tocatl. In Maya=am;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol originated in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shell-gorgets from Illinois, Tennessee and Missouri, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient MSS., <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Zuñi symbolism, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya symbol of the North, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>web of, use as symbol of numerical divisions, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>, <ref target='Pg535'>535</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spindle, as symbol of axial rotation, in connection with cross symbols on terra cotta spinning whorls, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spinning tops, <ref target='Pg547'>547</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spinning whorls, symbolic of rotary motion, in Troy, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico, <ref target='Pg504'>504</ref>, <ref target='Pg508'>508</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Square form, associated with Earth in native American symbolism and architecture, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stadaconé, same as Canada, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stanley, Dean, <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star symbol, a black dot, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an eye, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suspended by thread, symbol of night (Egyptian), <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>plain circle in Chinese symbolism, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expressed numeral five in Egypt, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star-cult</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star god, in Babylonia, Bel;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Asia Minor, Ah-baal, identified with pole-star, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-polaris'>Polaris</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star-map, Piazzi Smyth's, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star-names in Maya, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stelæ, purpose of erection, marked periods of time, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Copan and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg219'>219-240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>correspond with Ahua-ka-tun, the 20-year memorial stone, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Assyrian kings, having seven symbols, seven circles, etc., <ref target='Pg337'>337-360</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Esar-haddon of Sendschirli, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Bavian, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref>, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Sargon, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>funeral stela at Bûlâk, <ref target='Pg421'>421</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Quirigua and Copan memorial stones of high priest rulers, with title <q>Divine Four</q>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>built over hidden cruciform vaults, compared with the Egyptian <q>star of Horus,</q> <ref target='Pg512'>512</ref>, <ref target='Pg513'>513</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stevenson, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stolpe, Hjalmar, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stoll, Otto, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stomach, symbolized the Centre or Middle, in China, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone, rough or worked, emblem of Earth mother, buried with the dead, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone of Tizoc, compared with Altar K of Copan, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone collar, from Porto Rico, analogous to stone yokes of Mexico, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone figures, recumbent, bearing circular vessels, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured, 94</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-recumbent'>Recumbent stone figure</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone knives, flint knife in wrappings, Mexican and Maya symbol of Earth mother, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among California Indians, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone monuments, of Peru (Tiahuanaco), <ref target='Pg164'>164-169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Central America, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218-233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Yucatan, <ref target='Pg234'>234-244</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexico, <ref target='Pg245'>245-275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone <q>seats,</q> found in Ecuador, analogous to vase or earth symbols, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone tiger with human head and depression in back, found in Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone tables, at Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya name for=Mayac-tun, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as drums in sacred ceremonies, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone tablet at Sippar, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref>, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone vessels, found in Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone <q>yokes,</q> compared with symbolic vase;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pertained to cult of earth-mother;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in use among Indians of Southern California, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with burial of priestesses of Below, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strabo, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strebel, Hermann, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stübel, A., <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sturlesson, Snorri, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumerians, inhabited the South=Sumer, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Summary, of study of ancient American symbols,—cross, serpent, tree, flower, etc., <ref target='Pg279'>279-284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of human and animal figure in symbolism, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of countries in which are found the <q>Quadruple Organization,</q> pole-star worship, etc., <ref target='Pg480'>480-494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544-562</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and tables of words used in the Old and New World in connection with a certain culture based on pole star worship, Appendix I, <ref target='Pg548'>548</ref>; and Appendix III, <ref target='Pg562'>562</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun cult, Nahuatl word for sun applies equally to the stars;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>day sun and night sun;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ollin, symbol of, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superseded by star cult, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with star-cult, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Black Sun in B. N. MS.,</l> +<pb n='597'/><anchor id='Pg597'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth concerning, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of Montezuma, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Montezuma, high priest of, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mirror of polished pyrites, symbol of, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rival of star-cult, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, in Mexico, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Peru, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superseded by belief in Creator, among the Incas, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of, at Cuzco, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>upper class maidens in Peru, dedicated to, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Muyscas of Bogota, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>astronomical attainments of priests of, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Virgins of the Sun</q> and sun-priests in Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sun-father of the Zuñi, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Copan sculpture, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four movements of, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>golden effigy of, associated with Incas in Peru, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Enclosure of, name of pyramid at Teotihua-Can, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tablet of the sun, in China, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>altars, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sun-goddess of Japan, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Hindu, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in religion of Persia, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king of Egypt associated with, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref>, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian goddess Hathor-Isis was called the female sun, <ref target='Pg432'>432</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>development of cult in Egypt, <ref target='Pg438'>438</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cæsar called son of the sun, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Supreme being</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see Creator or Supreme Being).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sut-staw-ra-tse, the leader of the <q>Kingdom of Hochelaga,</q> <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-swastika'/> +<l>Swastika, in Mexican Calendar, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of symbol;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>formed by positions of Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>various forms of, illustrated, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>geographical distribution of, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date when first used as symbol, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign for a year or cycle of time, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggests axial rotation, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>formed by four serpents in Codex Borgia, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with triskelion, on spearhead from Brandenburg;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>formed by combination of star groups, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested by star-symbol on pottery from Nicaragua and Arizona, 51, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of the idea of dividing everything into four parts, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by Zuñi idol, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rounded and square forms of, at Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>terminating in four puma heads, symbol of central ruler, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>The Copan Swastika,</q> <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the pyramid, a later development of same idea, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in different parts of the world, accompanied with pole-star worship, etc., <ref target='Pg276'>276-280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico and Ohio valley, linked with serpent;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Copan, with Middle and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Christian cross compared with, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of symbol in China, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning conveyed by figure of Buddha <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Egyptian seal, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on coin from island of Crete, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on coin from Syracuse;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on coin from Corinth;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on vases from Troy, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Greece, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Cyprian and Carian pottery;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Greek vases found at Naukratis;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Coptic grave cloths;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on mummy case from Hermopolis;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on whorls from Troy, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of its use as symbol, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>later development of the cross symbol, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on image found in Troy, <ref target='Pg496'>496</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identical in significance in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg510'>510</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized <q>Four in One,</q> and stable centre, <ref target='Pg511'>511</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in some parts of Germany and Bohemia is still the sign of the stone-mason's guild, <ref target='Pg516'>516</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or cross-symbol, same meaning in all countries, <ref target='Pg534'>534</ref>, <ref target='Pg538'>538</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary and conclusions, <ref target='Pg544'>544</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sweat house, Nahuatl name of, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Symbolism, in central United States identical with that of Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Mexico influenced by migration from Yucatan, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>influenced by sound of word, among the Mayas and Mexicans, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>showing linguistic affinities between Mayas, and early peoples of the Mississippi valley, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same in Peru, Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resemblances between Pueblo people and Mayas and Mexicans, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same in Copan, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Palenque and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Calendar stone explained, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols connected with Middle, etc., <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with Four Quarters, Above and Below, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of Mexican symbols often translations of Maya name, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recapitulation of important native symbols, <ref target='Pg279'>279-284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>year symbols in Mexico and China, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resemblances and differences, Chinese and American, <ref target='Pg293'>293-296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summary of use of human and animal figure, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, <ref target='Pg367'>367-461</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian pyramid and mummy, <ref target='Pg379'>379-381</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of ancient Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols denoting axial rotation, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in architecture (see window, tau, pyramid, Greek fret, round form, square form, color, etc.);</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of human form (see separate references under Human);</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for special symbols, see separate references.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syracuse, coins from, swastika with human head in centre, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tabasco, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tablet, containing ancient map of Babylonia</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(note following Index).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talon, of beast of prey, symbol of four lords of Below, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taouism, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarahumari Indians, ceremonies typifying fecundity of earth, etc., compared with those of ancient Mexicans, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tartan design, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-tau'/> +<l>Tau, double, shape of courtyard, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>signified union of Above and Below;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inverted, emblem of Above;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>upright emblem of the Below, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in American ceremonial rite;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the cliff dwellers of Colorado;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Pueblo Indians;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, called Thor's hammer;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in architecture of Central America, and Palenque;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in dance of Moqui Indians;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>different forms of, figured and described, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in checker-board or tartan design, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested by fire-drill, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tau-shaped cross in Mesopotamia, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tau-shaped altar in Egypt, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taylor, E. B., <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taylor, W. C., <ref target='Pg463'>463</ref>, <ref target='Pg468'>468</ref>, <ref target='Pg488'>488</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tecpan, Mexican council house;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of word, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-tecpatl'/> +<l>Tecpatl, symbol of the North, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flint knife, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred producer of vital spark, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth concerning, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured as offspring of dual divinity, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Fire, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of <q>supreme pontiffs,</q> <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>one of the four year +<pb n='598'/><anchor id='Pg598'/> +symbols, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Borgian Codex, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>possible origin of name, which means <q>to govern,</q> <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Sacrificial Stone of Mexico, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teen-hwang-ta-tee, Chinese name for the pole-star, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temistitan, ancient name for capital of Mexico, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temples, of the <q>Tigers</q> at Chichen-Itza, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>11,</q> at Copan, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of <q>the Inscriptions</q> at Palenque, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of <q>the Sun,</q> <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of <q>Cross No. 2,</q> <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Ptah at Memphis, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Abydos, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tenayocan, name of Mexican town containing the affix <q>Can,</q> <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tennessee, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tenochtitlan, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hieroglyph in centre of ancient Maya and Mexican maps, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teo-Culhuacan, from <hi rend='italic'>Teotl</hi>, stars, sun, gods, something divine; and <hi rend='italic'>Culhua</hi>, something recurved, and <hi rend='italic'>can</hi>, the place of=name for Aztlan, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teotihuacan, pyramids of, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>description of ruins, registry of death by small clay heads, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Pyramids show knowledge of <q>Great Plan;</q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great antiquity;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>advanced stage of intellectual development, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same civilization as builders of Pyramid of Cholula, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>two cults, two languages (Maya and Nahuatl) and dual rulership, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teotl, represented by image of sun;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>signifies something divine, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of the upper class in Mexico, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning a divinity or divine lord and applied to all lords or rulers, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Terra cotta heads and figures in Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Terrace form, rain symbol, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tet, Egyptian symbol of eternity, described and analyzed, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Texcoco, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Texoxoctli, stone placed with dead of lower class, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tezcatl, obsidian mirror, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tezcatlipoca, meaning of name;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identical with Mictlantecuhtli, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>surrounded by circle of footsteps;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth concerning, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbols of, representations of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fastened to symbol of the North, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>star-cult connected with, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>synonymous names, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth concerning, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with the Below, the female region, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with black, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title of, means <q>Heart of the Earth,</q> <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Shining Mirror,</q> <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of, beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli, in great temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests of, called <q>Sons of the Night,</q> connected with divination, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>honored jointly with Huitzilopochtli at Toxcatl festival, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flint knife, emblem of, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Zuñi idol, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested by symbols at Tiahuanaco, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire-drill god, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tezolotlan, termed the land of war, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tezozomoc, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Themistius of Byzantium, <ref target='Pg542'>542</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodosius, <ref target='Pg530'>530</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophrastus, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thibet, astronomical science, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Buddhist of, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomas, Cyrus, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thor, Norse supreme god, <ref target='Pg473'>473</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thor's hammer, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thucydides, <ref target='Pg457'>457</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiahuanaco, place of first appearance of Incas, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>monolithic doorway, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika sacred symbol, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruins of, <ref target='Pg167'>167-169</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiberius Claudius, <ref target='Pg440'>440</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tien (Chinese), Heaven, also Supreme ruler, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiger, in stone, with human head and hollow depression in back, found in Yucatan and Mexico, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculpture from Mitla, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Tiger's arm,</q> title of prince in ancient Mexico, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>head, symbol on monolithic doorway at Tiahuanaco, Peru, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>heads, at end of swastika;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sculptured doorway, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in headdress on sculptures, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>warrior caste of Mexico;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of, at Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see <ref target='index-puma'>Puma</ref>, <ref target='index-jaguar'>Jaguar</ref> and <ref target='index-quadruped'>Quadruped</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tikal, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>classification of ruins, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timæus, <ref target='Pg445'>445</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Time, Egyptian sign, circle with dot, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tinamit, on Usumacinto river, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tionontaté or Tobacco Nation, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Titicaca lake, as place of first appearance of Incas, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tititl, name of Mexican feast, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tizoc, stone of, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlacaxipehualiztli, ritual at festival of, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlachtli, courtyard in shape of double tau, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Mexican game, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlaloc, title of god of rain, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>designated by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlatoque, literally, <q>The speaker</q> title of chief of clan, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlaxcalla, republic of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>government of, army of, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, found in, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>small republic of Mexico, name signifies bread;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hieroglyphic sign is maize-cake, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tloquenahuaque, title of <q>Creator</q> in texcoca, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tochtli, one of the four year symbols, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rabbit, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tochtli-gods, agents of Cihuacoatl, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tollan, abode of Quetzalcoatl, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>native name for Cholollan, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toltecas, representatives of high civilization of ancient Yucatan, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>master-builders, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Topiltzin, title of supreme pontiff, of Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Torquemada, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tortoise, among the Iroquois, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya word for <hi rend='italic'>ac</hi>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese symbolism, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Totemism, North American Indian, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Peruvian, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Quiché, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Zuñi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Copan and Zuñi, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Quirigua, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Fire people of Mexico,—the ocelot; Air people,—the bird, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to signs of zodiac and to the stars, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>alligator totem in India and Mexico, <ref target='Pg520'>520</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Semites, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>serpent totem among Semites, Mayas, Nahuas, and Peruvians, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>, <ref target='Pg523'>523</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toxcatl festival, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli, jointly honored, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Traditions (see <ref target='index-myths'><q>Myths and Traditions</q></ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='599'/><anchor id='Pg599'/> + +<lg> +<l>Tree symbolism, tree of life in Vienna Codex, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Dresden Codex, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient America, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Incas, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Mexicans, social organization represented by, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Above and Below, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>serpent and Polaris, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>embodied male and female elements, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shape of human figure, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to signify lord or governor, also ancestor, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred tree of the Mayas, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among Peruvians, Mexicans and Mayas, image of social organization, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of tribe in America, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of the year in Mexico, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ché, Maya word for tree, zin-ché=cross, literally tree of life or of power, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quahuitl, Nahuatl word for tree, symbol of Centre;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>homonymous with <hi rend='italic'>quaitl</hi>, meaning head, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recapitulation of meaning of symbol, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared with Chinese symbol of <q>wood,</q> <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Buddhist religion, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, on bas-relief at Nimroud, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as sacred symbol, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tree worship, by Hebrews, Phœnicians, Assyrians, <ref target='Pg362'>362-364</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>celestial tree of life in garden of Paradise, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ash-tree of the Norsemen on the summit of the Hill of Heaven, <ref target='Pg472'>472</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of star-god, Polaris, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tribal trees in India, Egypt, Mexico, Central America and Peru, <ref target='Pg499'>499</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the celestial tree of the Norsemen and Semites, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient America, <ref target='Pg506'>506</ref>, <ref target='Pg507'>507</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tribute stone, Mexican <q>Sacrificial</q> stone, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Triskelion, companion symbol to swastika;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>formed by polar constellations at winter-solstice, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not used in the South but with swastika in the North, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on pottery from Arkansas;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on spearhead from Brandenburg;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>formed by combination of star groups, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign of winter solstice, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trocadero Museum, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Troncoso, Francisco del Paso y, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Troy, vases from, having swastika or cross symbol, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Troy, spindle whorls with swastikas and allusion to pole-star god, Tur, <ref target='Pg498'>498</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tschudi, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tuch-pan, name of capital of Maya colony, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tula, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>city of, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tulapan, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tullan, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of culture hero's home, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of, in Maya language, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identity not established;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beautiful land of the Aztecs, Mayas, Kiches and Cakchiquels;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cakchiquel legend regarding;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya migration from, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-tullan-cholollan'/> +<l>Tullan Cholollan, ancient seat of civilization;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>probable place where scheme of organization was evolved, and where traditions of destruction of earth originated, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turanian, originally a northern race, (see <ref target='index-phoenicians'>Phœnicians</ref>), <ref target='Pg517'>517</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turtle, at Quirigua, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tusayan, ceremonies, symbols and myths compared with those of Central America, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tuscaroras, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tutulxius, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>immigrants into Yucatan, tradition concerning, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twin, divine</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see Dual Divinity).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twin serpents, on Mexican Calendar Stone, symbolizing dual forces of nature, and quadruplication, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on dual statues, on summit of great Temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tylor, E. B., <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyre, destruction of, by the Greeks, <ref target='Pg527'>527</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tzendals, culture hero of, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calendar signs, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>social organization and numerical system, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tzilan, ancient capital in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, name of Quilaztli, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uhle, Max, <ref target='Pg167'>167-169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Upsala, university of, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Urhye, Chinese dictionary, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-ursa-major'/> +<l>Ursa Major, myths concerning, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of name in Nahuatl, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four positions of form swastika, <ref target='Pg014'>14-22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>nearer to pole-star in remote antiquity, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rotary motion, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>positions of, scratched on rocks, beginning of astronomical records, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Tezcatlipoca and ocelot associated with, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to sacred numbers, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resembles s-shape, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to idea of Above and Below, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on calendar stone, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified as star-god, <q>Youal-tecuhtli</q> mentioned by Sahagun, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the ancient Chinese, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Hindu religion, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref>, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref>, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref>, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Akkadian title, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek name for Helice, <ref target='Pg447'>447</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as sailing guide in ancient Greece, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>became circumpolar about B.C. 4000, time of adoption of swastika symbol, <ref target='Pg461'>461</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-ursa-minor'/> +<l>Ursa Minor, S-shaped figure sign of, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>connected with Tezcatlipoca, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rotation of, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suavastika formed by, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to sacred number, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by recurved sceptre, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by Maya glyph, Hun-Imix, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with Polaris, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to idea of Above and Below, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>s-shaped breads made in honor of, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Copan swastika, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egypt, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia-Assyria=Kakkabu, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Greece as sailing guide, <ref target='Pg451'>451</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Usumacinto river, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uxmal, House of the Doves, symbolism of, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolic hand on garment of chieftain, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the serpent city of America, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruins in, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valentini, P. J. J., <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valera, Padre Blas, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Varuna, name of supreme god in India, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-vase'/> +<l>Vase, or Bowl, symbol of earth mother, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of the rain priests or Octli gods, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn in nose as emblem;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>containing rabbit or flint knife, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as conventionalized serpent jaw, resembles horseshoe-shaped stone <q>yoke,</q> <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>considered sacred among Zuñi Indians, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reason of vase decoration, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>grave +<pb n='600'/><anchor id='Pg0600'/> +made in shape of;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>buried with dead to propitiate earth-mother;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as burial urn, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stone <q>seats</q> indicate analogous cult of earth-mother south of Mexico, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya day-sign, Caban, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Maya codices, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured as day sign, ch'en, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with seeds and germination, by Mayas and Mexicans, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Vienna Codex, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred bowl among Pueblo Indians, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in hand of ruler on Copan sculpture, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bowl of water, preceded use of obsidian mirror, in divination, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya supreme priest called <q>Lord of the Vase or bowl,</q> <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Tablet of the <q>Cross 2,</q> at Palenque, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recapitulation of meaning of symbol, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used for Astronomical purposes among pigmy races, and in Phœnicia, Assyria and Egypt, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>large terra-cotta jars found at Nippur, and in temple of Solomon, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>canopic vases in Egypt, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>same idea embodied in pyramid, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in zodiac signs, <ref target='Pg395'>395</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of god Amen-Ra, <ref target='Pg408'>408</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in cult of Egyptian goddess, Isis, <ref target='Pg424'>424</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vedas, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>, <ref target='Pg496'>496</ref>, <ref target='Pg497'>497</ref>, <ref target='Pg499'>499</ref>, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>, <ref target='Pg521'>521</ref>, <ref target='Pg522'>522</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vega, Garcilaso de la, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vega, Nuñez de la, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Venice, compared to Mexico, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Venus, temple of Mexico dedicated to, planet of, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vikings, cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg474'>474</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Villavicencio, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgins of the Sun, in Mexico and Peru, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vishnu, cult of, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Volcanoes, as probable cause of traditions of destruction of earth, <ref target='Pg270'>270-275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Von Herder, <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Von Luschan, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Von Schroeder, L., <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>, <ref target='Pg458'>458</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Votan, culture hero of the Tzendals, title <q>the Master of the Sacred Drum,</q> <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71-72</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vulture, totem of Quiché chieftain, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Egyptian symbolism, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>, <ref target='Pg425'>425</ref>, <ref target='Pg426'>426</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wales, Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Egyptian Amen-Ra;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dual power;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Central ruler;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numeral seven in Welsh legend, <ref target='Pg471'>471</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wampum belts, Iroquois, <ref target='Pg197'>197-199</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wan, Chinese word for swastika, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warburg, A., <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Waring, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warren, William F., <ref target='Pg475'>475</ref>, <ref target='Pg566'>566</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water, sacred pool in temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connection with star cult, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with fire-drill and socket in Old and New World, <ref target='Pg505'>505</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water era, one of the four eras of the world, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water goddess, called Chalchiutlycue, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water and air design, encircling the mitre of the Lord of the Above;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on mantles of Montezuma's predecessors, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of cult of Above, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weaving, art of among the Huaxtekans, <ref target='Pg207'>207-208</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>West, Cihuatlampa (in Nahuatl)=place of the women, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Cosmos=Calli=house, yellow, earth, darkness, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>door of the Underworld, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>female region, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Webster's Dictionary, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wheat, stalk of, year symbol in China, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-wheel'/> +<l>Wheel, emblem of the Deity and of rotation, among ancient Mexicans, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by Mexican dance, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the four-spoked wheel of Shamash in Babylonia and Assyria, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of axial rotation and time in Old World, <ref target='Pg500'>500</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>associated with pole-star in Japan, <ref target='Pg501'>501</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of, known in Japan and China from the earliest times, <ref target='Pg501'>501-502</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Scandinavia, <ref target='Pg502'>502</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>first religions and their royal symbol—possibly evolved from the stone fire socket, <ref target='Pg503'>503</ref> (see <ref target='index-axial-rotation'>Axial Rotation</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wheelwright, E. M., <ref target='Pg514'>514</ref>, <ref target='Pg515'>515</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whitney, J. D., <ref target='Pg449'>449</ref> <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, <ref target='Pg452'>452</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wickersham, James, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wiener, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Williams, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilson, Sir Daniel, <ref target='Pg540'>540</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilson, Thomas, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>, <ref target='Pg459'>459</ref>, <ref target='Pg460'>460</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wind-god, symbol of, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-windows'/> +<l>Windows, symbolism of, in Mexico, Central America and elsewhere, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winged disk, in Assyria, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winter solstice, triskelion sign of, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woman, origin of idea of inferiority, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>position of, in Peru and Mexico, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Corn Maidens</q> and <q>Mothers</q> in America, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Babylonia-Assyria, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Greece and Rome, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref> in Egypt, <ref target='Pg426'>426-436</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Writing, cursive and ikonomatic of the Old World;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>picture writing adopted by Spanish missionaries to New World, <ref target='Pg534'>534-535</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian hieratic script, <ref target='Pg535'>535</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical value of letters in Greek alphabet;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya calculiform hieroglyphs;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>geometrical figures used by Phœnicians, <ref target='Pg536'>536</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wu, Chinese empress, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wylie, Alexander, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>, <ref target='Pg481'>481</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xicalango, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xilomaniztli, another name for the festival <q>Izcalli;</q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning the birth or sprouting of the young maize, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xiuhtecuhtli, Mexican lord of the year or of fire;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of, figured and described;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called the turquoise;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or grass-green pyramid, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xius, tribe of ancient Yucatan, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xonecuilli, native name for Ursa Minor (see Ursa Minor).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl (Nahuatl)=the verdant or blue sky, a title of Huitzilo-pochtli, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yang and Yin, in Chinese religion;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief of the modern Chinese concerning, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yaou, Chinese emperor who divided China into four provinces, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Year symbols, in Mexican calendar, acatl, tecpatl, calli and tochtli, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>glyphs on Copan stela or katun, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Maya name for=Ah-cuch-haab, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexican Calendar-stone, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Mexico, bunch of grass or maize shoots;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, stalk of wheat, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yoalticitl, mother of the gods in ancient Mexico, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yop-at, Maya name for <q>a mitre,</q> symbol of divine ruler, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yope or yopi, Mexican peaked headdress or cone <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='601'/><anchor id='Pg0601'/> + +<lg> +<l>Yopico, name given to temple and monastery in courtyard of Great Temple of Mexico, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Youal-tecuhtli, star-god mentioned by Sahagun, identified as Ursa Major, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name signifies, <q>lord of the night,</q> also <q>Lord of the circle or wheel,</q> <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yuoalahua=lord of the wheel, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yu, Chinese emperor;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divisions of China, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yucatan, cult of Polaris, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mexican culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, came from, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>social organization, older than that of Mexico, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Twin-brothers personifying the Above and Below, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>serpent symbol, more ancient than in Mexico, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient map of, <ref target='Pg085'>85-90</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>early peoples of, in contact with those of Mississippi valley, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traditions about Kukulcan's journey to Mexico, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traditions of tribes who came from the south, <ref target='Pg210'>210-214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meeting ground of Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not cradle of Maya civilization, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient monuments of, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fourfold divisions, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg494'>494</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mayas compared with Maghas of India, <ref target='Pg509'>509</ref>, <ref target='Pg519'>519</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient civilization, <ref target='Pg528'>528</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ruder forms of culture alongside of the perfected social organization, <ref target='Pg531'>531</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>period of warfare and pestilence, <ref target='Pg539'>539</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>(see Chichen Itza, Mayapan, etc.).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yupanqui, founder of Cuzco, who introduced worship of the Creator, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zamorra, Fray Geronimo Roman y, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zarate, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeller, Edward, <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zenith, nepantla, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zigzag or undulated lines, symbol of water, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zikkurats of Babylonia, seven-staged towers, <ref target='Pg327'>327-331</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oriented to the four cardinal points, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>together with <q>Great basin of Apsu,</q> formed image of Cosmos, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zilan, Maya centre of female industry <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name signified <q>embroidery,</q> <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stone monoliths, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient centre of culture in Yucatan, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zip, glyph on Copan altar, 227.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zmigrodski, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zodiac composed of twenty day-signs, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Chinese calendar, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zumarraga, Bishop, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zuñi, conception of Cosmos, Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonies typifying the fecundity of the earth, etc., <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vase used as emblem of earth-mother, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of Above and Below;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swastika symbol in use among;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cult of Polaris;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Zuñi idol compared with Mexican lord of fire and lord of the under world, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>twin brothers, war-gods, compared with counterparts in Mexico and Yucatan, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colors assigned to cardinal points, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creation myth, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>modern, ceremonies, symbols, etc., compared with those of Mexico, Central America and Peru, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sky-father and Earth-mother;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Macaw or winter people, and Raven or summer people, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>linguistic affinities with Nahuatl and Maya, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth about building the town at the stable middle of the earth, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>social organization, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of seeds of life, compared with Mexico and Maya, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical with that of Mexico, Yucatan, Copan, Guatemala, Peru, etc., <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg493'>493</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spider's web as image of numerical divisions;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colors assigned to four elements, compared with Mexico and China, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of quadruped to symbolize cardinal points and divisions of state compared with similar symbolism in Mexico and Central America, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the pueblo represents a <q>seven in one,</q> a counterpart of archaic kingdoms in India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc., <ref target='Pg529'>529</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Note.</head> + +<p> +I am indebted to the eminent Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins University, for +drawing my attention to the existence of an extremely important and interesting ancient +map of Babylonia on an unfortunately broken and mutilated clay tablet also inscribed +with cuneiform characters. This tablet is reproduced in photogravure and illustrated +by a pencil drawing on pp. 100 and 101 of the Notes on <q>the Book of Ezekiel</q> +(translated by Prof. C. H. Toy), which forms Part 12 of the monumental polychrome +edition of the Bible, which is being edited by Prof. Paul Haupt, with the assistance of +Dr. Horace Howard Furness. Although designated as a <q>Babylonian map of the world</q> +it obviously represents Babylonia as a Middle Kingdom, traversed by the Euphrates +and containing Babylon, surrounded by other cities situated in the Euphratean valley. +</p> + +<pb n='602'/><anchor id='Pg0602'/> + +<p> +Babylonia is enclosed in two large concentric circles representing the sea, designated +in a cuneiform inscription as the <q>Bitter stream</q> or <q>Salt water river.</q> +Triangles extend beyond the outer circle, recalling the four <q>rays or spokes</q> of the +image of Shamash (fig. <ref target='Figure_65'>65</ref>). Cuneiform characters, in one +of these triangular spaces, designate it as an island. Professor Toy +states that <q>there seem to have been originally seven of +these triangles, but most of them are broken away.</q> In point of fact only one of the +triangles is whole, and distinct traces of three others are preserved. As the mutilated +condition of the tablet forbids certainty as to the original number of triangles, I +venture to point out that it seems more likely that instead of seven there were originally +six triangles around the central disc and that the map of Babylonia constitutes an +image of a confederated state, like those of India and +Persia (see pp. <ref target='Pg480'>480</ref> and <ref target='Pg484'>484</ref>), +conceived as formed of <q>six dependent and allied states surrounding the seventh +ruling state in the centre.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Referring the reader to p. <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref> +of this work where <q>the seven kings</q> of Babylon are +mentioned and seven-fold organization is discussed, I merely state that the importance +of the Babylonian map can scarcely be overrated as a proof of the application in +remote antiquity of the cosmical scheme to territorial divisions. It will be for +Assyriologists to determine for us the relative ages of the Sippara tablet (p. +<ref target='Pg332'>332</ref> and fig. <ref target='Figure_65'>65</ref>, +1), and the Babylonian Map tablet and to define their respective connections with the +<q>four regions</q> and <q>seven directions,</q> or with quadruplicate and seven-fold +schemes of organization. It is my hope that their researches will lead to definite +knowledge as to the date when these cosmical schemes were employed in the Euphratean +valley. +</p> + +<p> +In conclusion I draw attention to the two interesting wheel-shaped maps of the +world also published in the <q>Notes on Ezekiel</q> (p. 105), and the remarkable diagram +(p. 197), showing the allotment of the land of Canaan according to Ezekiel. On p. 204, +in the Notes of Chapter 48 of Ezekiel, there are valuable details concerning the +geographical distribution of the tribes of Israel, and the position, in the centre, of the +sacred reservation and the symmetrical arrangement of the gates of Jerusalem, which +were associated with the cardinal points and tribal representatives. +</p> + +<p> +Z. N. +</p> +</div> +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> diff --git a/32066-tei/images/figure-01.png b/32066-tei/images/figure-01.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b9d021 --- /dev/null +++ b/32066-tei/images/figure-01.png diff --git a/32066-tei/images/figure-02.png b/32066-tei/images/figure-02.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d653d17 --- /dev/null +++ b/32066-tei/images/figure-02.png diff --git a/32066-tei/images/figure-03.png b/32066-tei/images/figure-03.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c95c3d --- /dev/null +++ b/32066-tei/images/figure-03.png diff --git a/32066-tei/images/figure-04.png b/32066-tei/images/figure-04.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 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