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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:59 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:59 -0700 |
| commit | 7dabb471e1b70546860e46f74c80df4f3bab02d8 (patch) | |
| tree | 04df8232f7a03534846a0b62499f056f81e7e84a /32066-h | |
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diff --git a/32066-h/32066-h.html b/32066-h/32066-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ecfbaed --- /dev/null +++ b/32066-h/32066-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,36054 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="Zelia Nuttall" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="April 20, 2010" /><meta name="DC.Language" content="English" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/32066" /><meta name="DC.Rights" content="This text is in the public domain." /><title>The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations by Zelia Nuttall</title><style type="text/css">/* +The Gnutenberg Press - default CSS2 stylesheet + +Any generated element will have a class "tei" and a class "tei-elem" +where elem is the element name in TEI. +The order of statements is important !!! 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You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations + +Author: Zelia Nuttall + +Release Date: April 20, 2010 [Ebook #32066] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OLD AND NEW WORLD CIVILIZATIONS*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Fundamental Principles</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Of</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Old and New World Civilizations</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">A Comparative Research Based on a Study of the Ancient Mexican Religious, Sociological, and Calendrical Systems.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Zelia Nuttall</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Honorary Special Assistant of the Peabody Museum; +Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; +Member of the Philosophical Society, Philadelphia; +Honorary Member of the Archaeological Association, Univ. of Pennsylvania; +Corresponding Member of the Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Philadelphia; +of the Anthropological Society of Washington; of the Societá Italiana +d'Antropologia; of the Société de Géographie de +Genève; of the Sociedad Cientifico <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: center">“Antonio +Alzate,”</span> Mexico; and of the Société +des Américanistes de Paris.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Archaeological and Ethnological Papers</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Of The</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Peabody Museum</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Harvard University</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Vol. II.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cambridge, Mass.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">March, 1901.</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Editorial Note.</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Author's Preface.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">The Fundamental Principles Of Old And +New World Civilizations.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">Appendix I. +Comparative Table of some Quechua, Nahuatl and +Maya Words.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">Appendix II. +A Prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">Appendix III. Comparative Lists of Words.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">Index.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">Note.</a></li><li><a href="#toc17">Footnotes</a></li></ul> + </div> + + </div> +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Editorial Note.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The author of this volume explains in her preface how she came +to be led beyond her special field of research into a comparative +study of the early civilizations of the Old World; and how she +traced the origin of the swastika, in Mexico, to an astronomical +source and, in all countries alike, found its use as a sacred symbol +accompanied by evidences of a certain phase of culture based on +pole-star worship, and the recognition of the fixed laws of nature, +which found expression in the ideal of celestial kingdoms or states +organized on a set numerical plan and regulated by the apparent +revolutions of circumpolar constellations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The results of the author's researches seem to justify her summary +of conclusions; but she distinctly states that she does not +wish to propound any theory. She invites further study and discussion +by Orientalists and Americanists before drawing final conclusions +from the facts she has gathered. The publication of this +paper will open anew the consideration of pre-Columbian visits to +the New World, shown, as many have believed, by identities +too many and too close to be considered as mere resemblances or +as the natural results of independent intellectual development. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The illustrations are nearly all from drawings by the author. +The analytical Index has been prepared by Miss Mead. It will be +seen, by the numbering at the bottom of each page, that it was at +first intended to include this paper in Volume I of the Archaeological +and Ethnological Papers of the Museum; but the addition +of the text relating to the Old World made too bulky a volume, +and it is therefore issued as Volume II of the series. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To Mrs. Nuttall for the gift of her work, the results of years of +research, and to the several generous friends who have provided +the means for publishing this volume, the editor expresses his +gratitude in behalf of the Museum. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">F. W. Putnam</span></span>,<br /> +Curator of the Peabody Museum.<br /> +Harvard University,<br /> +March 1, 1901. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> +<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Author's Preface.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In February, 1898, while engaged upon the translation and commentary +of the anonymous Hispano Mexican MS. of the Biblioteca +Nazionale Centrale Library, of Florence, my interest was suddenly +and unexpectedly diverted from my self-imposed task by the circumstances +described in the opening pages of the present publication. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Laying my work aside, as I then supposed, for a few days only, +I seized the new thread of investigation with a keen and enthusiastic +interest, little knowing that it, in turn, was not only to hold me +fast for nearly three years, but was to lead me out of my original +field of research, into distant, and to me, hitherto untrodden realms, +in close pursuit of facts relating to the oldest forms of religion, +social organization, and symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first portion of the present publication was planned as a +short monograph of forty-one pages, treating of the origin of the +native swastika or cross symbols, and was written in July, 1898, +its outcome being the unforeseen conclusion that the cosmical conceptions +of the ancient Mexicans were identical with those of the +Zuñis. I next traced the same fundamental set of ideas in Yucatan, +Central America and Peru and formed the wish to add this +investigation to the preceding. The result has been the portion of +the work extending from page 41, paragraph 2, to page 284, which +was printed in 1899. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having once launched into a course of comparative research, +the deep interest I have always taken in the question of Asiatic +contact led me to carry my investigation of the same subject into +China. It then seemed impossible not to extend researches from +Eastern to Western Asia, and from Asia Minor to Egypt, Greece, +Rome and Western Europe. It is in this unpremeditated way that +the scope of the present investigation enlarged itself of its own +accord, for the simple reason that the most interesting and precious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +facts fell into my way as I advanced and all I had to do was to +pick them up and add them to my collection of evidence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One serious disadvantage, arising from the circumstance that +the present investigation has been in press for nearly three years, is +my inability to make any alteration, amendment, or addition, in the +earlier portions, which stand as written at different times. It is a +matter of regret to me that I was not acquainted with O'Neil's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Night of the Gods”</span> and Hewitt's <span class="tei tei-q">“Ruling Races of Prehistoric +Times,”</span> at an earlier stage of my investigation, as through them +my publication would have been enriched by many valuable additions +which I could have incorporated in the body of my work +without unduly sacrificing its unity of form. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the line of Maya investigation notable advances have been +made since I wrote (on page <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>), +about the <span class="tei tei-q">“septenary set of +signs”</span> described by Mr. A. P. Maudslay in 1886, and about the +inscription on the tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque +(pp. <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237-39</a>). Since that time an important publication on the +Tablet of the Cross, to which I should have liked to refer, has been +issued by the much esteemed Nestor of Maya investigations, Herr +Geheimrath Dr. Förstemann. My attention has also been drawn +by the best versed of American students of the Maya Codices, Mr. +Charles P. Bowditch, to the fact that Mr. Maudslay now recognizes +the general recurrence of an eighth sign in combination with the +septenary group, causing this to consist of an initial glyph, followed +by seven instead of six signs. Referring the reader to pp. <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a> +and <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>, I point out +that the employment of an initial glyph, representing +the synopsis of a whole, followed by seven signs, appears +even more strongly to corroborate my view that the inhabitants of +Copan were acquainted with the septenary, cosmical division I have +traced. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +My fellow archaeologists will understand the disadvantage of +issuing an investigation partly written a few years previously, and +will realize that, had I, at the outset, been in possession of all the +facts I have since learned, the present work would have been very +differently planned and executed. On the other hand, as it partakes +somewhat of the nature of a log-book, the reader is able to +follow closely my blundering course, and will recognize and appreciate +some of its perils and difficulties. It being, unfortunately, +impossible to re-write the book. I shall have to be resigned to incur +some criticism and blame for omissions, which could have been +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +averted. I shall, however, be content if my prolonged study of ancient +Mexican archaeology and the present research open out new +lines of investigation, and conclusively prove that primitive cross-symbols +and the swastika are universally accompanied by vestiges +of a certain set of cosmical conceptions and schemes of organization, +which can be traced back to an original pole-star worship. I +can but think that the material I have collected will also lead to a +recognition that the rôle of the Phœnicians, as intermediaries of +ancient civilization, was greater than has been supposed, and that +it is imperative that future research be devoted to a fresh study +and examination of those indications which appear to show that +America must have been intermittently colonized by the intermediation +of Mediterranean seafarers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To me the most interesting result of the present investigation +is the fact that, having once started on an unpremeditated course +of study, I found an unsuspected wealth of material and finally +attained one main, totally undreamed-of conclusion, concerning +the law governing the evolution of religion and civilization. This +leads me to think that, as I groped in darkness, searching for light, +I unwittingly struck the true key-note of that great universal theme +which humanity, with a growing perception of existing, universal +harmony, has ever been striving to seize and incorporate into their +lives. The fact that many of the transcriptions of the original +harmony have been and are discordant, and that they temporarily +obscure, instead of rendering, its sublime grandeur, unity and noble +simplicity, appears as the inevitable result of the mental activity, +ingenuity and creative imagination to which mankind also owes +its intellectual and spiritual progress. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion I regret my inability to express adequately my +grateful appreciation of the unfailing loyalty of those true friends, +in particular Prof. F. W. Putnam, who, trusting in the earnestness +of my purpose and endeavor, have constantly encouraged and +cheered me as they patiently awaited the long-delayed completion +of my work. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Z. N.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Cambridge, Mass.</span></span>,<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">December 31, 1900.</span></span> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> +<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Fundamental Principles Of Old And +New World Civilizations.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One evening, in February, 1898, I left my desk and, stepping to +the window, looked out at Polaris and the circumpolar region of +the sky, with a newly awakened and eager interest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For thirteen years I had been studying and collecting material +with the hope of obtaining some understanding of the calendar, +religion and cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans, but had hitherto +purposely refrained from formulating or expressing any conclusions +on the latter subjects having felt unable to extract a clear and +satisfactory understanding of the native beliefs from the chaotic +mass of accumulated data under which they lay like the ruin of an +ancient temple. Though frequently discouraged, I had, however, +never ceased to pursue my research and to note carefully the +slightest indication or suggestion which might prove of ultimate +value. Becoming utterly absorbed in the collection of such notes, +I found no time to publish anything during the past four years, +though realizing, with regret, that those interested in my work +might be disappointed at my delay in issuing the papers announced, +in 1894, as speedily forthcoming. Slowly but steadily, however, +I was gaining ground. Various excursions along new lines of research +increased my experience and, in crossing and re-crossing the +field of ancient Mexico, I frequently had occasion to observe certain +familiar landmarks, from a new point of view, and illuminated +by rays of fresh light proceeding from recently acquired sources. +It was remarkable how often facts, which had seemed so hopelessly +complicated, finally appeared to be quite simple and comprehensible. +This was noticeably the case with the Aztec deities which, +for years, had seemed to me as numberless. After closely studying +their respective symbols, attributes and names, during several consecutive +months, and subjecting them to a final minute analysis, I +found that their number dwindled in a remarkable way and also +verified the truth of the statement made by the anonymous author +of the Biblioteca Nazionale manuscript which I was editing, that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Mexicans painted one and the same god under a different aspect +<span class="tei tei-q">“with different colours,”</span> according to the various names they +gave him in each instance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was particularly interesting to find that, in assuming that +certain names designated different native deities, the early Spanish +writers had committed a mistake as great as though someone, +reading the litany of the Virgin in a Catholic prayer-book, for +the first time, inferred that it was a series of invocations addressed +to distinct divinities, amongst whom figured the <span class="tei tei-q">“morning star,”</span> +a <span class="tei tei-q">“mirror of justice,”</span> and a <span class="tei tei-q">“mystical rose,”</span> etc. An examination +of the texts of several native prayers preserved, established +that the Mexicans addressed their prayers to a supreme Creator +and ruler, whom they termed <span class="tei tei-q">“invisible, incomprehensible and impalpable,”</span> +and revered as <span class="tei tei-q">“the father and mother of all.”</span> Some of +their so-called idols were, after all, either attempts to represent in +objective form, the attributes of the divine power, the forces of +nature, the elements, etc., or rebus figures. As these <span class="tei tei-q">“gods”</span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“idols”</span> are enumerated farther on and are exhaustively treated in +my commentary of the Biblioteca Nazionale manuscript, now in +press, it suffices for my present purpose merely to mention here +that the most mysterious figure of Mexican cosmogony, Tezcatlipoca, +whose symbolical name literally means <span class="tei tei-q">“shining mirror,”</span> +proved to be identical with Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the underworld, +whose title may also be interpreted as <span class="tei tei-q">“the ruler or regent +of the North,”</span> since Mictlampa is the name of this cardinal point. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Codex Fuenleal (Anales del Museo Nacional, Mexico, tomo +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 88) preserves an important myth relating how +Tezcatlipoca, after having been the sun, was cast down from this supreme position +by Huitzilopochtli, <span class="tei tei-q">“descended to the water,”</span> but had arisen +again in the shape of an ocelot, and transformed himself into the +constellation of Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Sahagun the native name of this star-group was +Citlal-Colotl or <span class="tei tei-q">“star scorpion.”</span> Reference to Nahuatl dictionaries +revealed that this insect had doubtlessly been named colotl +on account of its habit of recurving its tail when enraged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Nahuatl verb coloa means, to bend over or twist something, +the adjective coltic is applied to something bent over or recurved. +The noun colotli, which is almost identical with colotl, means +<span class="tei tei-q">“the cross-beams, the mounting, branch or handle of a cross”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-q">“armadura de manga de cruz.”</span> See Molina's dictionary). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above facts show that the idea underlying the name for +Ursa Major is primarily that of <span class="tei tei-q">“something bent over or recurved.”</span> +It is obvious that the form of the constellation answers to +this description. It is, moreover, extremely significant to find, in +the Maya language also, a certain resemblance between the words +for scorpion and for a cross. This, in Maya, is zin-che and that for +a scorpion is zin-au. The above data justify the induction that the +native conception of a cross was connected with the idea of its arms +being bent over or recurved, as in the Mexican calendar-swastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is important to find the scorpion figured as one of several +symbols of Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, in his sculptured +effigy preserved at the National Museum of Mexico (fig. <a href="#Figure_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is more significant that the verb coloa, besides meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“to +bend over or twist something,”</span> also expressed the action <span class="tei tei-q">“of describing +or performing a circle by walking around something.”</span> Now +this is precisely what Tezcatlipoca (the Ursa Major) is represented +as doing on page 77 of the B.N. manuscript, since he figures there, +surrounded by a circle of footsteps. I could but note that this fact +showed that the name of Colotl, applied to the constellation, was +not incompatible with its identification with Tezcatlipoca. Once +my attention had been drawn to the action of walking, performed +by this god, I naturally considered, with fresh interest, the peculiar +fact that he is usually represented with one foot only. The +circumstances under which he had been deprived of this member +are set forth in several of the Codices wherein we see that, after +he <span class="tei tei-q">“descended to the water,”</span> he had an encounter with an alligator, +who had viciously bitten off his foot and carried it away. (See +Féjérvary Codex, pp. 3 and 74. Vatican, II, p. 74.) Pictures +representing Tezcatlipoca, after this event, display the broken end +of the tibia exposed and the transverse section of the bone forming +a ring, usually painted either white or red. Special pains seem to +have been taken to accentuate the hollowness of the bone ring, +since its centre is usually painted blue, the symbolical color of +air, and conventionalized puffs of breath or air are shown as issuing +from it (fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>). In some cases, as on the sculptured +monolith called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Stone of Tizoc,”</span> these symbols of breath, issuing +from the broken tibia, are figured in such a way that modern +writers, ignoring what they were meant to represent, were led to +identify them as some animal's tail attached to the foot of the +deity. The hollow circle and puffs of air, constantly associated +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with the god, frequently figure as his ear ornament when his +broken tibia is concealed (fig. <a href="#Figure_2" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>, no. 3). Besides certain +fanciful interpretations which have been given to this symbol, it has been +explained as being a hieroglyph conveying the name Tezcatlipoca, +and consisting of an obsidian mirror=tezcatl, and smoke=poctli. +A possible objection to this assertion might be that in +Mexican pictography, the mirror is invariably represented as jet-black, +in a white or red frame. In the Codex Telleriano Remensis, +a combination of symbols (of water, fire and a serpent) are +figured as issuing from the base of the bone (fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, +nos. 5, 6). Having taken particular pains to collect all representations of the +footless god, I was specially interested in one (Féjérvary, p. 1) in +which he is figured as standing on the cross-shaped symbol ollin, +the accepted meaning of which is Four Movements. The most remarkable +and puzzling picture I found, however, is that (fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, +no. 2) in which the jaws of a tecpatl, the symbol of the North, are +represented as holding one of Tezcatlipoca's ankles in a tight grip +and practically fastening him thus to the centre of a diagonal cross. +In this and other pictures (Codex Féjérvary, 41, 43 and 96) it is +obvious that the artists had endeavored to convey the idea of a +person permanently attached to one spot by one foot. The only +form of locomotion possible to him would be to describe a circle +by hobbling on one foot around the other, which would serve as +an axis or pivot. The association of this peculiarity with the symbols +of the North impressed me deeply and involuntarily caused +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +me to think of a title bestowed in the Codex Fuenleal upon the +supreme divinity, namely, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Wheel of the Winds;”</span> as well as +of an expression employed by Tezozomoc (Cronica, p. 574). Referring +to the constellations revered by the natives, he mentions +<span class="tei tei-q">“the North and its wheel.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_1" id="Figure_1" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-01.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 1" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 1</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Realizing that some definite and important meaning must underlie +the remarkable representations of Tezcatlipoca, I resorted +to all possible means to gain an understanding of them. Referring +to Nahuatl dictionaries, I found a variety of synonymous names for +a person who limped or was lame or maimed. Amongst them was +Popoztequi from poztequi, the verb, <span class="tei tei-q">“to break a leg.”</span> Other names +were xopuztequi, xotemol and Icxipuztequi (icxitl=foot). The +latter name happened to be familiar to me, for the commentator of +the Vatican Codex, Padre Rios, gives it as the name of a god and +translates it as <span class="tei tei-q">“the lame devil.”</span> He records it immediately after +Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, and designates it as the name +of one of the four principal and primitive gods of the Mexicans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The commentator of the Telleriano-Remensis Codex, moreover, +records that these four gods were <span class="tei tei-q">“said to have been stars and had +fallen from the heavens. At the present time there are stars in +the firmament named after them”</span> (Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 132 +and 162). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other synonymous terms for lame persons were icxinecuiltic and +xonecuiltic. Tzimpuztequi, on the other hand, besides meaning +lame, also signified something crooked, bent or incurvated. The +second name furnished me with an important clue, for Sahagun distinctly +records that the native name for the constellation Ursa +Minor was Xonecuilli and that it was figured as an S (Historia, +1. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>, cap. 3). +Besides, the Academia MS. of his monumental work +contains the native drawing of this star-group reproduced as fig. +<a href="#Figure_16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>, +no. 1. He also states that S-shaped loaves of bread named xonecuilli +were made at a certain festival in honor of this constellation, +while the B.N. MS. records that a peculiar recurved weapon, figured +in the hands of deities, was named xonequitl (fig. <a href="#Figure_16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>, +nos. 2 and 3). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above data furnished me with indisputable evidence of the +existence, in ancient Mexico, of a species of star cult connected +with the circumpolar constellations and with Tezcatlipoca, the lord +of the North, the central figure of the native cosmogony. It was +puzzling to find this god connected not only with the Ursa Major +but also with Ursa Minor, but an indication suggesting a possible +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +explanation or reconciliation of these apparent inconsistencies is +furnished by the descriptions of the strange ritual performance, +which was annually repeated at the festival Tlacaxipehualiztli and +was evidently the dramatization of a sacred myth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As an illustration and a description of this rite are contained in +the B.N. MS. and the subject is fully treated in my commentary, +I shall but allude here to its salient features. It represented a +mortal combat between a prisoner, attached by a short piece of +cord to the centre of a large circular stone, and five warriors, +who fought him singly. The fifth, who was masked as an ocelot +and always obtained victory in the unequal contest, fought +with his left hand, being <span class="tei tei-q">“left-handed,”</span> a peculiarity ascribed to +Huitzilopochtli. It was he who subsequently wore the skin of the +flayed victim, an action which obviously symbolized a metamorphosis. +One point is obvious: this drama exhibits the victor as a +warrior who was able to circumscribe the stone freely and was +masked as an ocelot—Tezcatlipoca—the Ursa Major, but was +endowed, at the same time, with the left-handedness identified with +Huitzilopochtli. This mythical personage vanquishes and actually +wears the skin of the man attached to the stone; becomes his embodiment, +in point of fact, and obtains the supremacy for which he +had fought so desperately. In the light shed by the Codex Fuenleal, +before cited, it was easy to see that the entire performance dramatized +the mythical combat between Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli +for the position of the ruling power, in the heavens—the sun. At +the same time it was decidedly puzzling to find celestial supremacy +personified by a man, firmly fastened to one spot, the centre of a +stone circle. It was impossible not to perceive the identity of +thought underlying the representation of this prisoner and the pictures +of Tezcatlipoca, the one-footed or lame god—Xonecuilli the +Ursa Minor. It was moreover of extreme interest to note the existence +of traditional records, preserved in the native myths, of +changes in the relative positions of celestial bodies and of the Ursa +Major in particular. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whilst dwelling upon the striking analogy existing between the +representations of Tezcatlipoca held fast by the symbol of the +North and the prisoner attached to what is described either as <span class="tei tei-q">“a +temalacatl, stone whorl”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“an image of the sun,”</span> my gaze fell +on a small model of the calendar-stone of Mexico, hanging above +my desk, and rested on the symbol Ollin in its centre. The learned +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +director of the National Museum of Mexico, Señor Troncoso +(Anales del Museo Nacional, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>), had expressed his view +that this symbol was an actual figurative representation of the +annual apparent movements of the sun, and recorded its positions +at the solstitial and equinoctial periods. I had, moreover, submitted +a drawing of this same figure to the eminent English astronomer, +Prof. Norman Lockyer, and he had corroborated this view +and established its correctness. On the other hand, I had long +noted that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ollin</span></span> was usually figured with an eye, the symbol +for star, in its centre (fig. <a href="#Figure_2" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>, +nos. 1, 3), and had also paid particular +attention to the fact that the Mexicans had conceived the ideas of +two suns, a young day sun and an ancient night or black sun. In +the B. N. MS., on the mantas worn at their respective festivals, +the day sun is depicted in a somewhat fanciful manner, in blue and +red on a white field. The black sun is, however, represented in +classical style, so to speak, as on the sculptured calendar-stone, +with four larger and four smaller V-shaped rays issuing from it. +In this connection it is well to recall here that the Mexicans had no +specific name for the sun, beyond <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tonatiuh</span></span>, which merely means +<span class="tei tei-q">“that which sheds light”</span> and could equally apply to the stars. +In the picture-writings the image of the sun was employed to convey +the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Teotl</span></span>. But we find that this word, assumed to be +equivalent to their <span class="tei tei-q">“Dios”</span> by the Spaniards, was also a reverential +title bestowed upon chieftains and superiors and was constantly +employed in the composition of words to signify something divine, +supremely beautiful, etc. Whilst I was pondering on the possibility +that the symbol <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ollin</span></span> might have represented the movements of +the luminaries of night as well as the orb of day, my attention +became fixed upon the four numerals in each of the ends of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +symbol and I was struck by a certain resemblance between their +positions and those of the four stars which form the body of the +bear in the constellation of Ursa Major. It was then that it occurred +to me, as mentioned in the opening sentence of this introduction, +to look at the familiar constellations, with a view to verifying the +resemblance noted above. As my gaze sought <span class="tei tei-q">“the pointers”</span> in +Ursa Major, and then mechanically turned to Polaris, I thought of +some passages I had recently re-read, in Professor Lockyer's Dawn +of Astronomy, realizing that his observations, dealing with the latitude +26° (taking Thebes as representing Egypt), could equally apply +to Mexico as this country stretches from latitude 15° to 31°. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_2" id="Figure_2" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-02.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 2" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 2</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The moment primitive man began to observe anything, he must +have taken note of the stars, and as soon as he began to talk about +them he must have started by defining, in some way or other, the +particular star he meant.... Observers would first consider +the brightest stars and separate them from the dimmer ones; +they would then discuss the stars which never set (the circumpolar +constellations) and separate them from those which did rise and +set. Then they would naturally, in a northern clime, choose out +the constellation of the Great Bear or Orion, and for small groups, +the Pleiades (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 132).... A few years' observation +would have appeared to demonstrate the absolute changelessness +of the places of the rising and setting of the same stars. It is +true that this result would have been found to be erroneous when +a long period of time had elapsed and when observation became +more accurate, but for hundreds of years the stars would certainly +appear to represent fixity, while the movements of the sun, moon +and planets would seem to be bound by no law ... would appear +erratic, so long as the order of their movements was not known.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reflection that Ursa Major was probably the first constellation +which made any deep impression upon the mind of prehistoric +man in America, as elsewhere, lent an additional interest to the +star-group, as I concentrated my mind upon its form and endeavored +to imagine it in four equidistant positions, corresponding to +the numerals in the symbol <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ollin</span></span> of the calendar-stone of Mexico +(fig. <a href="#Figure_2" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>, no. 2). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I succeeded in obtaining, in succession, mental images of the +constellation in four opposite positions. This effort led to an unforeseen +result which surprised me. In a flash of mental vision I +perceived a quadrupled image of the entire constellation, standing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +out in scintillating brilliancy from the intense darkness of the +wintry sky (fig. <a href="#Figure_3" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>, no. +3). At the same moment I saw that it bore +the semblance of a symmetrical swastika of giant proportions. +This fact, so unexpectedly realized, gave rise to such an absorbing +train of new ideas and interpretations of the data I had accumulated, +that I left my window, on that memorable night, with a growing +perception of the deep and powerful influence the prolonged +observation of Polaris and the circumpolar constellations would +naturally have exerted upon the mind of primitive man. Deeply +impressed with the striking resemblance between the composite image +of Polaris, Ursa Major, and certain forms of the swastika, I +started on a fresh line of investigation, and devoted myself to the +study of primitive astronomy and its influence upon the intellectual +development of mankind in general and the American races in +particular. After having worked, during thirteen years, without +any preconceived ideas about the ancient Mexican civilization and +without formulating any general conclusion concerning it, I saw all +the knowledge I had slowly acquired fall into rank and file and +organize itself into a simple and harmonious whole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_3" id="Figure_3" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-03.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 3" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 3</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Realizing this I perceived how, with the origin of the swastika, +I had found the origin of the set of primeval ideas which had governed +the human race from its infancy and which, in Mexican and +Central American civilizations, ultimately developed into their ingenious +system of government and social organization. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_I" id="Plate_I" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-i.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate I. Chart of the Polar Constellations. I: Just After Sunset. II: Midnight. III: Just Before Sunrise." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate I. Chart of the Polar Constellations. +I: Just After Sunset. II: Midnight. III: Just Before Sunrise.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_II" id="Plate_II" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-ii.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate II. Various Forms of the Swastika." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate II. Various Forms of the Swastika.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_4" id="Figure_4" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-04.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 4" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 4</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sequel to the above episode was that, with the aid of my +movable star-chart, I made the following notes of the apparent +positions of the circumpolar constellations at the times of sunrise, +midnight and sunset, choosing the periods of the solstices and +equinoxes in order to obtain an exact division of the year +(pl. <a href="#Plate_I" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span></a>). +Whilst studying these I realized that the midnight position was +the only stable one, since the actual visibility of the constellations +before dawn and after dusk would be subject to considerable variation, +according to seasons, latitudes and atmospherical conditions. +Having noted these positions, I next combined them separately, +obtaining the remarkable results given in fig. <a href="#Figure_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>. +The combined midnight positions of the Ursa Major or Minor, at the four divisions +of the year, yielded symmetrical swastikas, the forms of +which were identical with the different types of swastika or cross-symbols +(the normal, ogee and volute, etc.), which have come +down to us from remote antiquity and are reproduced here for +comparison (pl. <a href="#Plate_II" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span></a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a-f</span></span>). Reflection showed me that such composite +pictures of the Ursa constellations constituted an exact +record of their annual rotation, and afforded a perfect sign for +the period of a year. I moreover perceived how the association +of rotatory motion with the advance of time, and its division into +fixed periods or cycles, would be the natural outcome of the recognition +of the annual rotation of the star-groups. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Calendar-Swastika, or cross of ancient Mexico +(pl. <a href="#Plate_II" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span></a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">g</span></span>) +constitutes an absolute proof of the native association of the +cross-symbol with the ideas of rotatory motion and the progress of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +time, and furnishes an indication that, in an analogous manner, +the swastika may have been primarily and generally employed by +primitive races, as a sign for a year or cycle. A close scrutiny of +the respective forms of the crosses yielded by Ursæ Major and +Minor shows that the normal swastika and suavastika may be explained +as the separate representations of the two constellations—the +angular break in the outline of Ursa Major suggesting the +direction of the bend to the right of the arms of the normal swastika, +whilst the form of Ursa Minor obviously suggests the bend +to the left which is characteristic of the suavastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_5" id="Figure_5" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-05.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 5" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 5</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +My growing conviction that the Bear constellations had furnished +the archetype of the different forms of swastika and cross-symbols, +found subsequent support when I referred to the map showing +the geographical distribution of the ancient symbol published +by Prof. Thomas Wilson in his valuable and comprehensive monograph +on the subject,<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> to which I am indebted for much information +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and several illustrations (pl. +<a href="#Plate_II" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span></a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a-f</span></span>, etc.). The map, reproduced +here (fig. <a href="#Figure_5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>), proves that, with two exceptions, which +can be attributed to a migration southward, the employment of the +swastika has been confined to the northern hemisphere, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, precisely +to that portion of our globe from which the circumpolar constellations +are visible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_6" id="Figure_6" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-06.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 6. Star-Map, Representing The Precessional Movement Of The Celestial Pole From The Year 4000 B.C. To The Year 2000 A.D. (From Piazzi Smyth.)" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 6. Star-Map, Representing The Precessional Movement Of The +Celestial Pole +From The Year 4000 B.C. To The Year 2000 A.D. +(<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From Piazzi Smyth</span></span>.)</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The interesting possibility of being able to determine, approximately, +the date in the world's history when the swastika began to +be employed as a symbol, next occurred to me. Piazzi Smyth's +star-map, discussed and reproduced in Professor Lockyer's work +already cited (fig. <a href="#Figure_6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>), +illustrates the changes of direction of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +earth's axis in space, which gives rise to what is called the precession +of the equinoxes and has a cycle of something like 25,000 or +26,000 years. Reference to this star-map (fig. <a href="#Figure_6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>) +proved that the observations, leading to the adoption of the swastika as a symbol, +could not possibly have been made until after Ursa Major had become +circumpolar, about 4,000 B.C. At that period, when Draconis +was the pole-star, the circle described about it by Ursa Major +was considerably closer than it is at present. The accompanying +illustrations (fig. <a href="#Figure_7" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>), +subject to correction, demonstrate the relative +distance of the constellation about 2,770 B.C., 1,800 B.C., +and 2,000 A.D., and show how much more strikingly impressive +the polar region of the heavens was in remote antiquity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_7" id="Figure_7" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-07.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 7." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 7.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now briefly review some of the ideas which would naturally +suggest themselves to the mind of the primitive observer, +after he had recognized the apparent immovability of the polar-star, +concentrated his attention upon this feature, and contrasted +it with the varying motions of all other celestial bodies in general +and with the rotation of the circumpolar star-groups in particular. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This recognition would lead to his gradually learning to utilize +Polaris as a means of ascertaining direction. His appreciation of +valuable guidance rendered in perilous wanderings would develop +feelings of trust, dependence and gratitude towards the one changeless +star which permanently rendered valuable services and under +whose guidance difficult and essential nocturnal expeditions could +be safely undertaken. Superiority and, eventually, extensive supernatural +power would more and more be attributed to it, as knowledge +was gained of the laws of motion from which it alone seemed +to be exempt. This exemption would cause it to be viewed as superior +to all other heavenly bodies and even to the sun, and it is easy +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to see how this idea, becoming predominant, might cause the cult +of the pole-star to disestablish an organized sun-cult amongst some +tribes. Historical evidence, to which I shall revert more fully proves, +indeed, that a native American ruler and reformer actually employed +the following reasoning in order to convert his council and people +from the worship of the sun to that of a superior divinity which +could have been no other but Polaris: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is not possible that the sun +should be the God who created all things, for if so he would sometimes +rest and light up the whole world from one spot. Thus it +cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who directs him and +this truly is the true Creator.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These words shed a whole flood of light upon primitive religious +ideas at an early stage of development. They prove that the +association of repose and immovability with the supreme power +signified a radical change of thought, based upon prolonged astronomical +observation, and indicated intellectual advancement. +Attempts to render the new idea objective, to express it and impress +it upon the multitude, would naturally end in the production +of images of the supernatural power, representing or typifying +immovability, changelessness, strength combined with absolute +repose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is thus rendered evident what a deep significance may be embodied +in the rudest images of supernatural beings in attitudes of +repose, since a prolonged course of astronomical observation and +reasoning may have preceded their production. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Simultaneously with the recognition of Polaris as an immutable +centre of axial energy, the rotatory movement of Ursa Major must +have excited interest and observation. It was inevitable that star-gazers +should gradually recognize a constant agreement between +certain positions of Ursa Major and Cassiopeia after dusk for instance, +and the annual recurrence of rain, verdure and bountiful +food-supplies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The members of a tribe who, more observant than others, had +learned to associate certain positions of these constellations with +the seasons and, as a consequence, were able to decide when expeditions +to distant localities, in quest of game or fruit, might be +successfully undertaken, would naturally assume leadership and +command obedience and respect. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sense of responsibility, superiority and, possibly, rivalry +would act upon such individuals as a powerful incentive to further +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +observation and thought and it is evident that, as their mental +faculties expanded and one generation transmitted its store of accumulated +knowledge to the next, a regular caste of astronomer-leaders +would develop, with a tendency to conceal the secrets of +their power from the ignorant majority. A broken line, carved on +a rock by one of these primitive observers, would have constituted +a valuable secret note of the position of Ursa Major on a memorable +occasion and would be looked upon as a mystic or magical +sign by the uninitiated. A series of such inscriptions might represent +the store of astronomical knowledge accumulated by several +generations of observers, and it is interesting to recognize that +such astronomical records as these were probably the first which +men were impelled to perpetuate in a lasting form; since it was +absolutely necessary that they should be permanently available for +reference at prolonged intervals of time. What is more, the mere +fact of being obliged to refer to these inscriptions would cause the +astronomers to reside permanently in one locality. The habit of +consulting the prophet or oracle before undertaking important +steps, involving the welfare of the tribe, would gradually cause +the rocks or cavern in which he resided to be invested with a certain +sacredness. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is thus evident that the first men, who rudely scratched the +outline of Ursa Major or Minor on a rock, took what was probably +one of the most momentous steps in the history of the human +race, and it is easy to see how a variety of combinations of circumstances +would have led many men, in widely-separated localities +and at different periods of the world's history, to perform precisely +the same action. In some cases, under favorable surroundings, +the rudimentary attempt would mark the starting point for a long +line of patient observation and study, which would inevitably lead +to the creation of centres of intellectual growth, to the association +of the different positions of the constellation with the seasons and +culminate in the habitual employment of a swastika as the sign +for a year, or cycle of time.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The idea of rotation, associated with calendar signs and periods, +finds its most striking and convincing exemplification in the following +description of the ancient Mexican game <span class="tei tei-q">“of those who fly,”</span> +translated from Clavigero (op. et ed. cit. p. 236). This performance, +which furnished a diversion to the Spaniards after the Conquest, +had evidently been, originally, connected with religious +ideas. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Indians selected a tall, stout and straight tree, and, +lopping off its branches, planted it firmly in the centre of the great +square”</span> (which was always situated in the centre of the city and +had four roads leading to it from the four quarters). <span class="tei tei-q">“On the +summit they placed a large cylinder of wood, the shape of which +was compared by the Spaniards to that of a mortar. Four strong +ropes hung from this and supported a square frame composed of +four wooden beams. Four other ropes were fastened by one end +to the pole itself and wound around it thirteen times. Their loose +ends were passed through holes in the middle of each beam and +hung from these. Four Indians, masked as eagles or other birds, +ascended the pole singly, by means of certain loops of cord, and +mounting on the cylinder they performed in this perilous position +a few dance-like movements. Each man then attached himself to +the loose end of one of the hanging ropes, and then, with a violent +jerk and at the same moment, the four men cast themselves into +space from their positions on the beams. This simultaneous movement +caused the frame and cylinder to revolve and uncoil the ropes +to which the men were fastened and these descended to the +ground after performing a series of widening circles in the air. +Meanwhile a fifth individual, who had mounted the wooden cylinder +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +after the others, stood on this as it revolved, beating a small +drum with one hand, whilst he held a banner aloft with the other.”</span> +Whilst it is obvious that this peculiar and dangerous performance +clearly symbolized axial rotation, typified by the revolving pivot +and the four men in aërial motion, its full meaning and intention are +only made clear by the following explanation recorded by Clavigero. +<span class="tei tei-q">“The essential point in this game was to calculate so exactly +the height of the pole and the length of the ropes, that the +men should describe precisely thirteen circles each before reaching +the ground, so as to represent the cycle (of 4×13=)52 years.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This passage constitutes absolute proof that the Mexican Calendar +system was intimately associated with axial rotation and ideas +such as could only have been derived from observation of Polaris +and of the circumpolar constellations. The game itself was a +beautiful and well-conceived illustration of the flight of time, typified +by the aërial circles performed by the men masked as birds, +and of its methodical division into fixed periods. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leaving the subject of the calendar for the present we must revert +to my tables recording the apparent annual and nocturnal +axial rotation of the circumpolar constellations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whilst studying these the reflection naturally arose, that the +people who observed Ursa Major must have paid equal attention +to Cassiopeia and noticed that these constellations ever occupied +opposite positions to each other as they circled around the pole. +Dwelling on the fact that in ancient Mexico Ursa Major was associated +with an ocelot, I remembered the many representations in +which an ocelot is represented as confronting an eagle, usually in +mortal combat. Mexican war-chiefs were classed into two equally +honorable grades, designated as the <span class="tei tei-q">“ocelots and the quauhtlis, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, eagles.”</span> The constellation of Cassiopeia presents to +me, a marked resemblance to the image of a bird with outspread wings, +whose head is turned toward Polaris. The fact that when this +star-group seems to be above, Ursa Major seems to be below, and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>, would obviously suggest the idea of an eternal combat +between two adversaries who alternately succumbed and resuscitated. +It was interesting on reasoning further, to note that once +the above idea had taken root it must have been impossible not to +associate in course of time, the quadruped and the bird with the +elements to which they seemed to pertain, and gradually to conceive +the idea of an everlasting antagonism between the powers of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the sky and of the earth, or light and darkness, and other opposites +which suggested themselves naturally, or were artificially created, +by the fertile mind of man. In this connection it should be observed +that the mythical adversary of Tezcatlipoca, the ocelot, +designated as Ursa Major, is Huitzilopochtli, whose idol, in the +Great Temple of Mexico, represented him masked as a hummingbird +(see Atlas Duran). The special reason why this bird became +associated with the god is explained +by the following passage +in Gomara (Histoire générale +des Indes. Paris, 1584, chap. +96, p. 190): <span class="tei tei-q">“This bird died, +or rather fell asleep in the +month of October and remained +attached by its feet to a twig. +It awakened again in April when +the flowers blossomed. For this +reason, in the language of the +country it is named Huitzitzilin, +the resuscitated.”</span> We therefore +see that whilst it is stated in the +myth that the ocelot arose again after having been cast down from +the sky by Huitzilopochtli, the very name of the latter betokened +that the bird-god had also only just <span class="tei tei-q">“resuscitated”</span> from a presumably +similar defeat. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_8" id="Figure_8" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-08.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 8." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 8.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As one and the same object may suggest several resemblances +at the same time or consecutively, and thus give rise to a group of +associations around a single figure, I venture to point out that the +zigzag form of Cassiopeia may well have been compared to forked +lightning and caused the idea of lightning and thunder to become +indissolubly connected with the conception of a great celestial bird. +Again there is the possibility that the same star-group may have +more strikingly suggested, to other people, the idea of the winding +body of a serpent describing a perpetual circle around a central +star. In Mexico, as elsewhere, we find the serpent closely associated +with the idea of time. It is represented as encircling the calendar +wheel published by Clavigero (fig. <a href="#Figure_8" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>). Four loops, formed +of its body, mark the four divisions of the year. Twin serpents, +whose heads and tails almost meet, are sculptured around the +famous calendar-stone of Mexico. Four serpents whose bent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +bodies form a large swastika and whose heads are directed towards +a central figure, are represented in the Codex Borgia in association +with calendar-signs (fig. <a href="#Figure_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Féjérvary, p. 24). I shall have occasion +to refer in detail to +Mexican serpent-symbolism +further on. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile I would submit +the interesting results obtained +on combining the positions +apparently assumed +by the circumpolar constellations +during a single night. +The tables exhibit four composite +groups representing +the positions at the solstitial +and equinoctial periods (fig. +<a href="#Figure_10" class="tei tei-ref">10</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_9" id="Figure_9" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-09.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 9." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 9.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_10" id="Figure_10" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-10.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 10." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 10.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The night of the winter solstice, the longest of the year, yielded +alone a symmetrical figure. It resembled the well-known triskelion, +the companion-symbol of the swastika (figs. <a href="#Figure_10" class="tei tei-ref">10</a> +and <a href="#Figure_11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>). +Just as this had proved to be the most natural of year symbols, so +the triskelion revealed itself as a natural sign of the winter solstice, +the period recognized and celebrated by most inhabitants of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +northern hemisphere as the turning-point of the year. In a climate +like that of Mexico and Central America, however, where the year +divided itself naturally into a dry and a rainy season, it is evident +that the winter solstice would be less observed +and that the ardently-desired recurrence +of the rainy season, after a long and +trying period of drought, should be regarded +as the annual event of utmost importance. +Indeed, if carefully looked into, +the entire religious cult of these people +seems to express but one great struggling +cry to the God of Nature for life-giving rain, +and a hymn of thanksgiving for the annual, +precious, but uncertain gift of water. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_11" id="Figure_11" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-11.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 11." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 11.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To these supplicants the winter solstice +betokened little or nothing and it is not surprising +to find no proofs of the employment +of the triskelion as a sacred symbol in ancient +Mexico. On the other hand, it has +been traced by Mr. Willoughby on pottery +from Arkansas, and in Scandinavia, where +the circumpolar constellations have doubtlessly +been observed from remote times, and +the winter solstice has ever been hailed +as the herald of coming spring, the triskelion +is often found associated with the +swastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_12" id="Figure_12" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-12.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 12." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 12.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am indebted to Prof. Thomas Wilson's +work already cited for the two following +illustrations of objects exhibiting this association. +The first is a spearhead found +in Brandenburg, Germany (fig. <a href="#Figure_12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>). The +second is a bronze brooch from Scandinavia, +to which I shall presently revert (fig. <a href="#Figure_13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>). +It exhibits, besides the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +triskelion, swastika and circle, the S-shaped figure which was, as +I shall show further on, the sign actually employed by the ancient +Mexicans and Mayas as the image of the constellation Ursa Minor, +whose outline it indeed effectually reproduces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before referring to the Mexican and Maya representations of +the star-group, I would next demonstrate that the sacred numbers +of Mexico, and of other countries situated +in the northern hemisphere, coincide exactly +with the number of stars in the circumpolar +constellations themselves and in simple combinations +of the same. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ursa Major and Ursa Minor each contains +seven stars, and the number seven is +the most widely-spread sacred number. +Ancient traditions record that the race inhabiting +Mexico consisted of seven tribes +who traced their separate origins to seven +caves, situated in the north. In memory of +these, at the time of the Conquest, there +were seven places of sacrifice in the city of +Mexico. I shall recur to the number seven +further on, in discussing the native social +organization, and now direct attention to +the five stars of Cassiopeia and to the fact +that the combination of the stars in this constellation +with Polaris and Ursa Major yields the number thirteen. +This result is specially interesting since the entire Calendar-system +of Mexico and Yucatan is based on the combination of the numerals +13+7=20, the latter again being 4×5. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_13" id="Figure_13" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-13.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 13." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 13.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand the same number, 13, is also obtained by the +combination of the Ursæ star-groups with Polaris. The number +5 is constantly yielded by Cassiopeia and the four-fold repetitions +of the groups supply the suggestion of the number 4. The combination +of Ursa Minor and Cassiopeia yields 12. The accompanying +figure exhibits swastikas composed of Ursa Minor accompanied +by Ursa Major and Cassiopeia separated and combined (fig. +<a href="#Figure_14" class="tei tei-ref">14</a>). +I next direct attention to the peculiar difference in the numerical +values of the Ursæ swastikas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the first, the central star, surrounded by four repetitions of +the seven-star constellation, yielded a total of twenty-nine stars—4x5+9. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Further combinations will be seen by a glance at the +Ursa Major swastika (fig. <a href="#Figure_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>). The analysis of the Ursa Minor +swastika is not so simple and occasions a certain perplexity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When I had first combined the four positions of this constellation, +I had, naturally, and without further thought, figured Polaris but +once, as the fixed centre, whereas I had repeated the other stars of +the compact group four times. It was not until I began to count +the stars in the swastika that I realized how I had, unconsciously, +made one central star stand for four, and thus deprived the composite +group of the numerical value of three stars. On the other +hand, if I repeated the entire constellation four times, I obtained a +swastika with four repetitions of Polaris in the middle. In this +way, however, Polaris became displaced, and the idea of a fixed +centre was entirely lost. A third possible method of composing +the swastika was to allow one central star for each cross-arm. +But this gave two central stars, each of which would represent two +stars. Unless enclosed in a circle and considered as a central +group by themselves, the four and the two repetitions of Polaris +could not convey the idea of a pivot or fixed centre. The three +respective numerical values obtained from these experimental combinations +were 4×6+1=25, 4×7=28, and finally 2×13 or +4×6+2=26. In each swastika the central star forcibly stood +for and represented two or four (fig. <a href="#Figure_15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_14" id="Figure_14" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-14.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 14." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 14.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the triskelions the same perplexity arose: if Polaris was repeated, +the idea of a fixed centre was lost (fig. <a href="#Figure_15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>); if figured +singly, it nevertheless necessarily and inevitably stood as an embodiment +of three stars. Reasoning from my own experience, I +could but perceive, in the foregoing facts, a fruitful and constant +source of mental suggestions, the natural outcome of which would +be the association of the central star with an enhanced numerical +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +value, and a familiarity with the idea of one star being an embodiment +of two, three or four. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_15" id="Figure_15" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-15.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 15." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 15.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the evolution of religious thought and symbolism progressed, +this idea would obviously lead to the conception of a single being +uniting several natures in his person. In this connection it is certainly +extremely interesting to find the serpent associated with the +Calendar in Mexico and Yucatan, its Nahuatl name being homonymous +for twin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> two, and the Maya +for serpent, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">cam</span></span>, +being homonymous for the number four. The serpent was, therefore, +in both countries the most suggestive and appropriate symbol +which could possibly have been employed in pictography, to convey +the idea of dual or quadruple natures embodied in a single +figure.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> Added to this the circumstance that, to the native mind, +the serpent, upon merely shedding its skin, lived again, we can +understand why the ancient Mexicans not only employed it as a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +symbol of an eternal renewal or continuation of time and of life, +but also combined it with the idea of fecundity and reproductiveness. +In Yucatan where the Maya for serpent, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, +is almost homonymous with <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">caan</span></span>=sky +or heaven and the adjective <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">caanlil</span></span>=celestial, +divine, the idea of a divine or celestial serpent would naturally +suggest itself. It is therefore not surprising to find, in both countries, +the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">serpent</span></em> bestowed as a title upon a supreme, celestial +embodiment of the forces of nature and its image employed +to express this association in objective form. In Yucatan one +of the surnames of Itzamná, the supreme divinity, was Canil, a +name clearly related to <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">caanlil</span></span>=divine +and <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>=serpent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Mexico the duality and generative force implied by the word +<span class="tei tei-q">“coatl”</span> are clearly recognizable in the native invocations addressed +to <span class="tei tei-q">“Our lord Quetzalcoatl the Creator and Maker or Former, who +dwells in heaven and is the lord of the earth [Tlaltecuhtli]; who is +our celestial father and mother, great lord and great lady, whose +title is Ome-Tecuhtli [literally, two-lord=twin lord] and Ome-Cihuatl +[literally, two-lady=twin lady”</span>] (Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chaps. +25, 32 and 34). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following data will suffice to render it quite clear that the +Mexicans and Mayas employed the serpent as an expressive symbol +merely, signifying the generative force of the Creator to whom +alone they rendered homage. It is no less an authority than Friar +Bartholomew de las Casas who maintained that <span class="tei tei-q">“in many parts of +the [American] Continent, the natives had a particular knowledge +of the true God; they believed that He created the Universe and +was its Lord and governed it. And it was to Him they addressed +their sacrifices, their cult and homage, in their necessities...”</span> +(Historia Apologetica, chap. 121). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Friar Bartholomew specially adds that this was the case in Mexico +according to the authority of Spanish missionaries and no one +can doubt that this was the case when they read that in the native +invocations, preserved by Sahagun, the supreme divinity is described +as <span class="tei tei-q">“invisible and intangible, like the air, like the darkness +of night,”</span> or as the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord who is always present in all places, who +is [as impenetrable as] an abyss, who is named the wind [air or +breath] and the night.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“All things obey him, the order of the universe +depends upon his will—he is the creator, sustainer, the omnipotent +and omniscient.”</span> He is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the father and mother of +all,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the great god and the great goddess,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“our lord and protector +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +who is most powerful and most humane,”</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“our lord in whose +power it is to bestow all contentment, sweetness, happiness, wealth +and prosperity, because thou alone art the lord of all things.”</span> +One prayer concludes thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Live and reign forever in all +peace and repose thou who art our lord, our shelter, our comfort, +who art most kind, most bountiful, invisible and impalpable!”</span> +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, on the rhetoric, moral philosophy and +theology of the Mexicans, chaps. 1-40). It is related that, in gratitude +for the birth of a son, the ruler of Texcoco, Nezahual-coyotl +erected a temple to the Unknown God.... It consisted of +nine stories, to symbolize the nine heavens. The exterior of the +tenth, which formed the top of the nine other stories, was painted +black with stars. Its interior was encrusted with gold, precious +stones and feathers and held <span class="tei tei-q">“the said god, who was unknown, +unseen, shapeless and formless”</span> (Ixtlilxochitl, Historia Chichimeca +ed. Chavero, p. 227; see also p. 244). A passage in Sahagun +(book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>) states that +<span class="tei tei-q">“the invisible and imageless +god of the Chichimecs was named Yoalli-ehecatl [literally, night-air +or wind], which means the invisible and impalpable god ... +by whose virtue all live, who directs by merely exerting his wisdom +and will.”</span> In the Codex Fuenleal (chap. +1) the remarkable title of <span class="tei tei-q">“wheel of the winds=Yahualliehecatl,”</span> +is recorded as <span class="tei tei-q">“another +name for Quetzalcoatl.”</span> This undeniably +proves that the Mexicans not only figured the +Deity by the image of a serpent but also +thought of him as a wheel which obviously +symbolized centrical force, rotation, lordship +over the four quarters, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, universal rulership. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_16" id="Figure_16" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-16.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 16." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 16.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning from these ideas of later development to the primitive +source of their suggestion, let us now examine the native picture +of Xonecuilli, Ursa Minor, preserved in the unpublished Academia +MS. of Sahagun's Historia, in Madrid (fig. <a href="#Figure_16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>, no. 1). It +is an exact representation of the star-group. The fact that the seven +stars are figured of the same size in accurate relation to each other, +either proves that the eyesight of the native astronomers was extremely +keen and their atmosphere remarkably clear, or that possibly, +the minor stars of the group were more brilliant in ancient +times, than they are now. Astronomers tell us, for instance, that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as late as the seventeenth century the star in the body of Ursa +Major nearest to the tail, was as bright as the others, while it is +now of the fourth magnitude only. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must be admitted that the shape of the constellation resembles +an S. An SS sign is mentioned by Sahagun (Historia, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>, +chap. 8) as occurring frequently, as a symbolical design on native +textile fabrics. It figures as such, in the black garments of the +female consort of Mictlantecuhtli in the Vienna Codex, pp. 23 and +33. He denounces it as suspect and hints that it was intimately +connected with the ancient religion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +S-shaped sacred cakes, called Xonecuilli, were made during the +feast of Macuilxochitl=five flowers, and are figured (fig. +<a href="#Figure_16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>, no. 2) +in the B. N. MS. (p. 69) with a four-cornered cross-shaped cake of +a peculiar form (fig. <a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>), which is found associated with five +dots or circles in the Codices and also with the Tecpatl-symbol of +the North (fig. <a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A recurved staff, which is held in the hand of a deity in the +B. N. MS. is designated in the text as a +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">xonoquitl</span></span> (fig. <a href="#Figure_16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>, +no. 3). Amongst the insignia of the <span class="tei tei-q">“gods,”</span> sent as presents by Montezuma +to Cortés upon his landing at Vera Cruz, were three such +recurved <span class="tei tei-q">“sceptres,”</span> the descriptions of which I have collated +and translated in my paper on the Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the +Ancient Mexicans (Peabody Museum Papers, vol. 1, no. 3, Cambridge, +1891, p. 22). In this work I presented my reasons for +concluding that these recurved sceptres were ceremonial forms of +the atlatl. I now perceive that they were endowed with deeper +significance and meaning. The Nahuatl text of Sahagun's Laurentian +MS. of the Historia de la Conquista (lib. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xii</span></span>, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>) records +the name of one of these staffs as <span class="tei tei-q">“hecaxonecuilli,”</span> literally +<span class="tei tei-q">“the curved or bent over, air or wind,”</span> and describes it as made +of <span class="tei tei-q">“bent or curved wood, inlaid with stars formed of white jade=chalchihuite.”</span> +This passage authorizes the conclusion that four +representations in the B. N. MS. of black recurved sceptres, exhibiting +a series of white dots, are also heca-xonoquitl, inlaid with +stars, and that all of these are none other but conventional representations +of the constellation Xonecuilli, the Ursa Minor. In +each case the deity, carrying the star-image, also displays the ecacozcatl +the <span class="tei tei-q">“jewel of the wind,”</span> the well-known symbol of the +wind-god. In one of these pictures (p. 50) he not only bears in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his hand the star-image, but also exhibits a star-group on his head-dress, +consisting of a central-star, on a dark ground, surrounded +by a blue ring. Attached to this against a dark ground, six other +stars are depicted, making seven in all. In connection with this +star-group it is interesting to note that the hieroglyph, designated +by Fra Diego de Landa as <span class="tei tei-q">“the character with +which the Mayas began their count of days or +calendar and named Hun-Imix,”</span> furnishes a case +of an identical though inverted group (Relacion +de las Cosas de Yucatan, ed. B. de Bourbourg, +p. 237). Enclosed in a black ring, the glyph displays, +above, a large black dot with six smaller +ones grouped in a semicircle about it, and below, +four perpendicular bars. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Subject to correction, I am inclined to interpret +this glyph as a hieratic sign for the constellation +Ursa Minor and its four movements, and to consider +it as furnishing a valuable proof of the origin +of the Maya Calendar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The seemingly inappropriate procedure of figuring +shining stars by black dots actually furnishes +the strongest proof that a star group is +thus represented; for, in the Maya language, +<span class="tei tei-q">“ek”</span> is a homonym for star and black, and a +black spot was, in consequence, the most expressive +sign for a star. This fact affords a valuable +explanation of the reason why the ocelot, whose +skin is spotted with black, was employed as the +figure of the nocturnal sky, and clearly proves +that the Mexicans adopted this symbol and its +meaning from the Mayas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_17" id="Figure_17" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-17.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 17." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 17.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We will now revert to the S-shaped sign. Its +association with images of star is further exemplified +in Mexican Codices. It occurs on the wall +of a temple, in combination with symbols for stars +and the North-Mictlan, which consist in this case, of skulls and +cross-bones (fig. <a href="#Figure_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Dresden Codex, of Maya origin, there is an extremely +important page on which the S-sign occurs in connection with twin +deities, besides rain and cross symbols (fig. +<a href="#Figure_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>). A careful examination +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the group shows that one of the seated figures is +accompanied by a downpour of water (painted blue in the original), +besides the S-symbol which is also repeated above the head +of his companion. Higher up, on the same page, the S occurs again +in a group of glyphs alongside of twin-seated figures. These, as +well as the single-seated form beneath them, have an eye or a large +black spot surmounted by dots instead of a head (Vocabulaire +de l'écriture hiératique de Yucatan, p. 38). Monsieur Léon de +Rosny has identified this figure, which also occurs in the Codex +Troano, as the image of the supreme divinity of the Mayas, of +whom more anon, one of whose titles was Kin-ich-ahau, literally +Sun-eye lord. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A similar sign consisting of the lower half of a human body +seated, with a large eye on its knees is repeated several times in +the Borgian Codex. This form is also figured as seated in a temple, +without the eye-star, but three stars are on the roof and the +S-sign is on the lower wall of the building (Borgian Codex, p. 16). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above facts demonstrate that, in both MSS. derived from +different sources, the same association of ideas is expressed.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> The +S sign appears in connection with twin- or single-seated forms, surmounted +by a symbol for star. It is unnecessary for me to lay +further stress upon the obvious facts: that the only celestial body +which could possibly have been associated with a seated form, suggesting +repose, was Polaris. It is, moreover, only by assuming that +the sign of the seated star represents the stationary pole-star that +its combination in the Codices with the S-sign—Xonecuilli—Ursa +Minor, can be understood. I likewise draw attention to the possibility +that the S, or single representation of the constellation, +may well have been employed as a sign for the summer solstice, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +since, in some localities, during the shortest night of the year, +Ursa Minor may have been visible in one position only. Assuming +that the triskelion was the sign for the winter solstice we should +thus have natural signs for the two nights marking the turning-points +of light and darkness in the year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reverting to fig. <a href="#Figure_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, from the Codex Dresdenis, I draw attention +that it furnishes definite proof that the Mayas associated the +idea of the immovable seated star with twin deities and that they +connected the S-symbol with cross and rain symbols. A striking +combination of the latter symbols is represented under the principal +seated figures. It consists +of a diagonal cross traversed +perpendicularly by a +band of blue water. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_18" id="Figure_18" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-18.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 18." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 18.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Further Maya cross-symbols +should be cursorily examined +here, viz: fig. <a href="#Figure_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>. They +will be found to consist of +variations of two fundamental +types, often figured +alongside of each other and +enclosed in a square, or circle. +One type consists of two +diagonally crossed bars, +plain or representing cross +bones (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>). A rectilinear cross +with interlaced circle (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>) is +also found. The other type exhibits a small cross, square, circle +or dot in the centre of the square with a circle in each corner. +In some cases these are united by a series of dots to the central +circle and thus form a diagonal cross (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>) which is +sometimes figured as contained in a flower with four petals, such +as is also found in Mexican symbolism. The diagonal, dotted +cross is frequently combined with four pairs of black bars, placed +in the middle of each side of the square, pointing towards the +centre. Similar pairs of black bars are figured in the B. N. MS. +(p. 3) on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli, with stars, around one of +his symbols, a spider. They likewise recur on two of several sacrificial +papers on p. 69, amongst which one exhibits a diagonal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +cross, another the S-sign, while others display realistic drawings +of stars with six or eight points. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The pairs of bars figure in the hieroglyph designated by Maya +scholars as the sign for <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Kin</span></span>, +the sun, which may be seen in the +centre of large diagonal cross-symbols in fig. <a href="#Figure_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>, from +the Dresden Codex: The cross, of fig. <a href="#Figure_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>, is composed of +two bones and two arrowpoints, a particularly interesting combination +considering that in the Maya a bone is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">bak</span></span>, an arrow is +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kab-cheil</span></span> +and the name given to the gods of the four quarters <span class="tei tei-q">“the +sustainers of the world,”</span> is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Bakab</span></span>. +It cannot be denied that the +phonetic elements of this name occur in the words for bones and +arrows which form the cross, symbolic of the four quarters. In +fig. <a href="#Figure_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>, +the cross may be composed of four bones, but of +this I am not certain. In both cases, however, the crosses rest on +a curious double and parti-colored symbol and are associated with +serpent signs, in which the open jaws and teeth are prominent +features. It is noteworthy that while <span class="tei tei-q">“can”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“cam”</span> is the +Maya for serpent, the word <span class="tei tei-q">“camach”</span> means jaw. The figure +consisting of the upper jaw only of a serpent, in the left hand +corner of the band above, fig. <a href="#Figure_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>, proves, therefore, to be a +cursive phonetic sign for serpent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The parti-colored symbol combined with the cross obviously +signifies a duality, such as light and darkness, the Above and +the Below and a series of dualities—possibly the two divisions of +the year, the dry and rainy seasons. In Mexico we are authorized +by documentary evidence, to give a wider and deeper interpretation +to the symbol of duality, for it can be absolutely proven that +the Mexican philosophers divided the heavens into two imaginary +portions, and respectively identified these with the male and female +principles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Nahuatl the West was designated as Cihuatlampa, <span class="tei tei-q">“the place +or part of the women.”</span> The souls of the women who had earned +immortality were supposed to dwell there, whilst the souls of the +men resided in the East. In the appendix to book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span> of +Sahagun's Historia, it is described how, according to the native belief, +the souls of the male warriors hailed the daily appearance of the +sun above the eastern horizon, and escorted it to Nepantla, the +zenith. Here the souls of the women awaited it and assumed +the duty of escorting the sun to the western horizon, the symbol +for which was calli=the house. The above passage indicates that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the native philosophers imagined across the middle of the sky a +line of demarcation, separating the portions of the heaven respectively +allotted to the male and female souls. For four years after +death these souls retained their human form, and then, after passing +through nine successive heavens, entered into the celestial paradise +where they assumed the forms of different kinds of butterflies and +humming-birds. The names of these are enumerated in the Nahuatl +text of Sahagun's Laurentian MS. (book +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>).<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> The symbolism +of the humming-bird has already been explained by a +passage cited from Gomara's Historia. In this connection it is +extremely interesting to find the humming-bird represented in the +B. N. MS., as sucking honey from a flower, which is attached by +a cord, covered with bird's down, to a bone, the symbol of death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This peculiar but expressive group of symbols figures only on +the head-dresses of deities wearing certain other symbols, amongst +which we find the Eca-cozcatl and Eca-xonequilli the image of +Ursa Minor, already described. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The merest indication of the association of a circumpolar constellation +with the idea of death (disappearance) and resurrection +(re-appearance) is of special interest, since the ancient Mexicans +located the Underworld, the <span class="tei tei-q">“place of the dead,”</span> in the North. +Reflection showed, however, that such an association could only +have suggested itself to the minds of star-observers living in +southern latitudes, approximate to the equator, or in localities +where the northern horizon was more or less shut off from view by +intervening mountains. In such places Polaris would appear comparatively +close to the boundary-line of the northern sky so that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Ursa constellations and Cassiopeia would be invisible to the +local astronomers at midnight during that period of the year when +one or the other of the star-groups seemingly stretched between +Polaris and the northern horizon. A glance at plate <a href="#Plate_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a> +shows that, at the present time, it is about the period of the autumnal equinox +that Ursa Minor would be invisible at midnight, in such localities, +while Ursa Major would gradually disappear from view towards +midnight, during a certain number of nights, according to latitude +and locality, between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice +whilst Cassiopeia would seem to hover above the horizon. +The total or partial alternate periodical disappearance of the two +most familiar star-groups in the extreme North and their re-appearance +after sometimes regular intervals of time could but have +made a profound impression upon primitive astronomers and +thinkers. Whilst the mere periodical reversal of the positions of +Cassiopeia and Ursa Major suggested alternate victory and defeat, +the actual though brief and partial disappearance of either star-group +must have appeared to be a descent into an under-ground +space, associated with darkness and death, followed by a resurrection. +In his Cronica, Tezozomoc records, besides Mictlan (the land +of the dead), another name for the underworld, Opochcal-ocan, +literally, the place of the house to the left. This appellation +can only be understood when it is realized that, in a sufficiently +southern latitude, an observer, watching the setting of a circumpolar +constellation below the horizon, would always see it disappear +to his left and subsequently rise to his right. It is evident +that in time this fact would give rise to the association of the +left with the underworld, the lower region, and the right with the +region above. The native idea of a dwelling in the underworld is +further demonstrated by the bestowal of the symbol <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">calli</span></span>=house, +upon the western horizon below which all heavenly bodies were +seen to disappear. A definite connection between the West and +one half of the North being thus established, it would naturally +result that a corresponding union of the South and East would be +thought of in time, and that these quarters would become associated +with the rising of celestial bodies, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, with light, the +Above, while the opposite quarters became identified with their +setting, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, with darkness, the Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing to review the foregoing conclusions, which I have shown +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to be the natural and inevitable result of simple but prolonged +astronomical studies, observation and plain reasoning, we see that +they led to a conception of the Cosmos as divided into seven parts, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the fixed Centre, the pivot, primarily suggested by Polaris +who was regarded as the creative, generative and ruling power of +the universe; the Four Quarters, seemingly ruled by the central +force and associated with the elements; the Above and the Below, +suggested by the rising and setting of celestial bodies and associated +with light and darkness, sky and earth, etc., etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Many of my readers will doubtless recognize at once that the +above organization of the Cosmos into the Centre or Middle, the +Above and the Below, and the Four Quarters, is precisely that +which the Zuñi priests taught Mr. Frank Cushing, when they initiated +him into their secret beliefs. Other explorers have recorded +the same conception amongst different native American tribes and +with these proofs that this set of ideas is still held on our Continent +at the present time, I point out the fact that the Maya figures +(fig. <a href="#Figure_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>, from the Dresden Codex) become perfectly intelligible +only when interpreted as representing the Centre, the Four +Quarters, the Above and the Below, the latter figured by the dark +and light halves of the dual sign. Furthermore, I can demonstrate +that this fundamental set of elementary, abstract ideas, furnishing +the first principles of organization, is plainly visible under the surface +of the ancient Mexican civilization and can be traced not +only in Yucatan and Central America, but also in Peru. In these +countries, as I shall show, it assumed an absolute dominion over +the minds of the native sages, directly suggesting the forms of +government and social organization existing at the time of the +Conquest and faintly surviving to the present day. It entirely +controlled the development of aboriginal religious cult and philosophical +speculations and pervaded not only the native architecture +and decorative art, but also all superstitious rites and ceremonies, +and entered into the very games and pastimes of the people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following table presents the bare outline of the scheme of +organization exposed in the preceding text. In making it I have, +after due consideration, definitely adopted the assignment of the +Mexican symbols and colors to the cardinal points given by Friar +Duran in the Calendar-swastika contained in his atlas and reproduced +(pl. II, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">g</span></span>). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Each of these is North; West; South; then East.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Symbols: Tecpatl, Flint; Calli, House; Acatl, Cane; Tochtli, Rabbit.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Colors: Red; Yellow; Blue; Green.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Elements: Fire; Earth; Air; Water.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Warmth; Darkness; Breath; Rain. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Together, North and West are The Below, the </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">female</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> region. +TEZCATLIPOCA=MICTLANTECUHTLI. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +South and East are The Above, the </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">male</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> region, +HUITZILOPOCHTLI. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Combined, they are The Centre.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +The dual, generative, ruling and directive Force.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +QUETZALCOATL.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 90%"> +The Divine Twin. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before proceeding to examine more closely the great edifice of +human thought which was reared, in the course of centuries, on +the ground plan designated above, we must retrace our steps and +consider what a deep impression the gradual realization of the +changes in the relative positions of Polaris and certain familiar +star-groups must have produced upon those who were the first to +realize them. Transporting ourselves back to the gray dawn of +civilization, let us endeavor to understand the position of the native +priest astronomers who, having received and transmitted a set +of religious and cosmical ideas, based on the assumption of the +absolute and eternal immutability of the centre of the heaven, +Polaris, gradually became aware that it also was subject to change, +evidently obeyed an unseen higher power and that the ancient order +of things, recorded by their predecessors, had actually passed away. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is obvious that, in all centres of astronomical observation +and intellectual culture, a complete revolution of fundamental doctrine +or thought must have taken place. A period of painful misgivings +and doubt must have been passed through, during which +an earnest and anxious observation of all celestial bodies must +have seemed imperative and obligatory. Under such circumstances +astronomy must have made great strides and astronomical observation +become the foremost and highest duty of the intellectual leaders +of the native races. Pyramids and temples would be built for the +purpose of verifying and recording the positions of sun, moon, +planets and stars, and the orientation of these buildings would be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +carefully planned accordingly. Before obtaining glimpses of the +great evolution of religious thought which progressed on our Continent +in olden times, it is well to realize, by means of Piazzi +Smyth's map (fig. <a href="#Figure_6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>) that the world ceased to possess a +brilliantly conspicuous, absolutely immovable pole-star for a prolonged period +of time, stretching somewhere between 500 B.C. and 1200 A.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ancient native chronicles record that under <span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> leadership +great migrations of tribes took place within this period, the +purpose of which was to find a locality which fulfilled certain ardently-desired +conditions connected with religious cult. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From various centres of civilization in Mexico and Central +America we also hear different accounts of how, at different times, +small bands of earnest men, under a leader of superior intelligence, +bent on a peaceable but unexplained errand, arrived from +distant regions and departed for an unknown goal, after delaying +just long enough to teach social organization and impart a higher +civilization to the tribes encountered on their passage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These preserved the memory of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">title</span></em> of the leader, in their +different languages and he became the culture-hero of their tribe. +The fact that, in each case, these sages taught the ignorant tribes +the division of time and instituted the calendar, proves that they +were skilled in astronomy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From a sentence uttered by Montezuma to the native astronomers +whom he termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sons of the Night,”</span> we learn that it +was their custom <span class="tei tei-q">“to climb mountains”</span> so as <span class="tei tei-q">“to study the stars.”</span> +When one considers the full import of the problems which had to +be faced by these ancient sages, who earnestly endeavored to account +for the great changes which had taken place in the heavens, +within the memory of man, it seems natural to suppose that many +an expedition was undertaken for the purpose of acquiring further +astronomical knowledge, of finding, perhaps, the immovable star +which had been revered in past ages by the ancestors of the native +race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The cult of Polaris may well have made such expeditions assume +the aspect of an imperative religious duty and sacred pilgrimage. +As all expeditions across Mexico and Central America would necessarily +be limited by the oceans and be fruitless as far as Polaris +was concerned, it is obvious that the line of exploration which +would be ultimately adopted, would run from south to north and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>. A small band of enthusiasts, setting forth under the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +leadership of some of the most advanced thinkers of the time, +would undoubtedly have been prepared to devote their entire lives +to the object in view. As long as a single member of such an expedition +existed, he would be a powerful and active agent in +spreading the fundamental set of ideas derived from the observation +of Polaris. In lapse of time, by transmission, its influence +might travel to a region too remote perhaps for direct contact to +have taken place. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If I have indulged in the foregoing line of conjecture and surmise, +it is because it is my purpose also to demonstrate, by absolute +proof, that the dominion of the above set of ideas extended +over Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala and even reached Peru, where +its influence is distinctly visible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It also extended far to the north in prehistoric times, for certain +carved shell-gorgets which have been found in prehistoric graves +in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee exhibit emblems which have +definite meanings in the Maya language, spoken in Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order to maintain this assertion I must make a slight digression +from the main subject and revert to the myth already +cited, recording the casting down from heaven of Tezcatlipoca who +arose and ascended again in the form of an ocelot. There are +interesting native pictures of this combat and the fall of the ocelot +in the Vatican Codex <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 34, the Féjérvary Codex, p. 56, and +others equally important, representing the fall or descent of an +eagle from the sky, to which I shall revert. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is moreover recorded by Mendieta (p. 82) that Tezcatlipoca +likewise descended or let himself down from the sky by a spider's +thread, and in the Bodleian MS. (p. 12) there are two curious pictures +one of an ocelot and a cobweb, the other of an ocelot, descending +head foremost from stars. The same incident is also +pictured in the Vienna Codex (p. 9) where the ocelot, attached by +the tail, is connected by a cord with star-emblems. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are two facts of special interest in regard to the above +descent of Tezcatlipoca by a spider's thread. The first is that the +title Tzontemoc=<span class="tei tei-q">“he who descends head foremost”</span> is recorded +in the Codex Fuenleal immediately after the name Mictlantecuhtli. +The second is that the spider is figured on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli +in the B. N. MS. and is sculptured in the centre, above his +forehead, in his sculptured image, identified as such by Señor Sanchez +(Anales del Museo Nacional <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, p. 299) and reproduced here +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(fig. <a href="#Figure_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>). It +represents <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the North or Underworld”</span> +descending, head foremost, with a tecpatl or flint knife issuing from +his mouth and with outspread limbs, the outlines of which are almost +lost under the multitude of symbols which are grouped around +him. These symbols are carefully analyzed in my commentary +on the B. N. MS. in which I also describe other known carved +representations of the same conception and point out analogous +pictures in the Maya Codices. The position of the limbs of the +descending figure is best understood by a glance at fig. +<a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, from +the Dresden Codex. It represents a bar with cross symbols from +which a human body is descending. The feet rest on dual symbols, +about which more could be written than the scope of the +present paper allows. A tecpatl or flint knife, attached to the body +by a double bow with ends, may be seen between the dual symbols, +and its presence is of utmost importance since it proves that the +Mayas also associated the flint with the same figure. Instead of a +head the body exhibits a sort of equidistant cross with four circles. +Strange to say, the only analogous cross-figures I have been able +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to find in all the Codices are those reproduced in fig. +<a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>. The latter exhibits a curious, conventionalized flower +growing on the top of a pyramid. Its stem and leaves are painted +brown and are spotted, resembling the skin of an ocelot. As there +is a Mexican flower, the Tigridia, of which the native name was +ocelo-xochitl, it may be that it is this which is thus represented. +Fig. <a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, +from the B. N. MS., figures as a sacred cake, alongside +of the S-shaped xonecuilli breads which were made in honor +of Ursa Minor at a certain feast. Finally, fig. <a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, represents +a certain kind of ceremonial staff which is inserted between the +two peaks of a mountain—a favorite method employed by the +native scribes, to convey the idea that the object figured was in +the exact centre. This kind of staff occurs frequently in certain +Codices, sometimes being carried by a high priest. It invariably +exhibits a flower-like figure with five circles and is surmounted +by a tecpatl or flint knife. Without pausing to discuss the subject +fully I merely point out here that, collectively, these symbols +explain each other and convey the idea of the Centre and the Four +Quarters evidently associated with the tecpatl, the symbol of the +north, and the ocelot and xonecuilli=Ursa Minor. It is particularly +interesting to note that the outspread human body is made to +serve as a sort of cross-symbol. A careful study of the conventional +representation of the face of <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the North,”</span> in fig. +<a href="#Figure_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>, gives +the impression that it was also used to convey the idea of +duality, or the union of two in one. The upper half of the face +exhibits a numeral on either cheek under the eyes, seeming to convey +the idea of dualities. The two circular ear ornaments, united +by a band above the head, and the two nostrils united in one nose, +seem to convey the idea of the union of the dualities, whilst the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lower half of the face, which is rendered strikingly different to the +upper, by being in higher relief and marked with perpendicular +lines, exhibits a mouth from which a flint knife, with symbolical +eye and fangs carved on it, is hanging like a tongue. I have already +shown that the flint knife was regarded as the sacred producer +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“vital spark.”</span> I may add here that I have also +found, in the Codices, tecpatl-symbols on which the curved symbol +of air or breath was figured. To my idea the sculptured face +is meant to symbolize the dual creator, the dispenser of the spark +and breath of life, whilst the human skull on his back betokens +that he is also the giver of death. Though unable to enter fully +into the subject here, I would nevertheless state that I can produce +further data to prove that the human face was frequently employed +for a symbolical purpose by the native American races who were +evidently entirely under the dominion of the idea of duality, of +the Above and Below and the life-producing union of both. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_19" id="Figure_19" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-19.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 19." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 19.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_20" id="Figure_20" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-20.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 20." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 20.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The question why the spider, named <span class="tei tei-q">“tocatl”</span> in Nahuatl, should +have been adopted as the chief symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, occupied +me much until I found the clue to its significance in the Maya +language. In this the word for North is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Aman</span></span> and the name +for <span class="tei tei-q">“the spider whose bite is mortal,”</span> is +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Am</span></span>. This striking fact +may be interpreted as a positive proof that the spider-symbol, employed +by the Mexicans, must have originated in Yucatan, from +the mere homonymy of two Maya words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand shell-gorgets exhibiting the effigy of a spider, +and obviously intended to be worn with its head turned downwards, +have not only been found in Illinois but also in Tennessee +and Missouri. On the gorgets from the latter States a cross is +carved on the body of the spider (fig. <a href="#Figure_22" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>). As certain spiders +exhibit cross-markings, it is, of course, possible that it was +chosen as a cross-symbol for this reason only, in some localities, +just as the butterfly was evidently adopted in Mexico, as an +apt image of the Centre and the Four Quarters on account of its +shape and its possession of four wings. The conventionalized +figure of a butterfly, with a star on its body and four balls, painted +with the colors of the quarters, was a sacred symbol which is minutely +described by Sahagun and is figured on a manta in the B. N. +MS. A glance at its reproduction (fig. <a href="#Figure_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, no. 13) shows +how the form of the insect has been conventionalized so as to resemble the +ollin (no. 12) and other Mexican cross-symbols (nos. 2, 4, 11, 14 +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +etc.). The eye or star in its centre, like that in the ollin, and circle +(no. 4), signify Polaris; the conventionalized head and antennæ are +obviously made to convey the idea of <span class="tei tei-q">“two in one,”</span> of the Above +and Below united in the Centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_21" id="Figure_21" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-21.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 21." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 21.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I venture to suggest that the dragon-fly was employed as a cross-symbol +in an analogous manner, on the Algonquin garment preserved +at the Riksmuseum, Stockholm, and described by Dr. +Hjalmar Stolpe in his admirable study on American art (Amerikansk +Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1896, p. 30). As I shall revert to +it later on, I now draw special attention to the circumstance that +instead of the cross, on a spider-gorget from Tennessee, there is +a round hole which, when the shell-disc is held aloft, lets a ray of +light shine through and furnishes an apt presentation of a star. +This and the cross furnish analogies to the Mexican and Maya +symbols of Polaris which are too obvious to need to be emphasized. +Nor do these gorgets alone furnish an undeniable indication that +an identical symbolism extended from Yucatan to Illinois. Other +gorgets, also figured in Mr. Wm. H. Holmes' monograph <span class="tei tei-q">“Art in +Shell,”</span> several of which are in the Peabody Museum, from the stone +graves in Tennessee, exhibit variously carved representations of a +serpent. In all specimens the identical idea is carried out: the +eye of the serpent forms the centre of the design on the disc and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +four circles on the body of the reptile, or four solid bars, interrupting +a hollow line encircling the central motif, emphasized a division +of the disc into four equal parts. The idea of the Serpent in repose, +the Centre and the Four Quarters is thoroughly carried out and the +true meaning of the design is only appreciated by the light of the +Maya and Mexican symbolism which has already been so fully +discussed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_22" id="Figure_22" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-22.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 22." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 22.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third Tennessee gorget reproduced here (fig. +<a href="#Figure_22" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>), from +Mr. Holmes' work, exhibits a combination of numerals which is +particularly interesting if confronted with the sacred numbers of +the Mexicans and Mayas. From a central circle three curved lines +issue in a fashion resembling those on fig. <a href="#Figure_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, +no. 2, but the fact that the circular band exhibits seven double circles and the outer +edge is divided into thirteen parts, is of special moment. Still +another design, on a shell-gorget from Tennessee, not only exhibits +the peculiarity, pointed out by Mr. Holmes, of a square with loops, +resembling certain figures in Mexican Codices, but also other significant +details which I shall point out (fig. <a href="#Figure_22" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>). The cross in +the centre occupies the centre of a star with eight rays and the +four birds' heads at the sides of the square illustrate rotation from +right to left. I am inclined to view in this gorget an emblem of +Polaris with Cassiopeia in rotation around it, figured as a bird, but +whether this is the case or not it must be conceded that it is indeed +remarkable to find a set of symbols, consisting of the spider, the +cross, the serpent and the bird, carved on prehistoric gorgets found +in the United States whilst the deep meaning of these identical +symbols is furnished by Maya and Mexican records. I venture to +remark here that no more expressive and appropriate ornament +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +than these shell-gorgets could have been designed, or worn by the +ancient Maya or Mexican priests, prophets and leaders who, in a +remote past, had guided themselves by the light of Polaris and +instituted its cult as the basis of their native religion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On realizing the above-mentioned identity of symbolism, it is +impossible not to conclude that the prehistoric race which inhabited +certain parts of the United States was under the dominion of +the same ideas as were the Mexicans and Mayas. The indications +point, in fact, to the probability that the origin of the employment +of the spider-symbol originated in Yucatan, and if this be admitted +then there is no reason to deny the possibility that the serpent-symbol +came from there also, since the Maya language suggests an +affinity between the serpent, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, +and the sky=<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">caan</span></span>, and the +numeral 4=<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>. I refrain, for the present, from +expressing any final conclusion on this subject, which will doubtless afford ample +food for reflection and argument to all interested in the important +problem as to where the cradle of ancient American civilization +was situated. But these symbolic gorgets go far towards +substantiating Professor Putnam's oft-expressed +conclusions that the ancient peoples of the central and +southern portions of the United States were, to a certain +extent, offshoots of the ancient Mexicans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_23" id="Figure_23" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-23.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 23." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 23.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before abandoning the subject of native symbolism +and star-emblems I should like to present, as a curiosity, +with an appeal to specialists to enlighten me as to the +astronomical knowledge of the Eskimos, an Eskimo drawing from +Professor Wilson's instructive and useful monograph. It is said to +represent a <span class="tei tei-q">“flock of birds,”</span> but so closely resembles Cassiopeia +and Polaris that I am tempted to view it as an indication that the +Eskimos may also have associated the idea of a celestial bird, or +birds, wheeling around a central point, with the constellation and +the pole-star (fig. <a href="#Figure_23" class="tei tei-ref">23</a>). +Having once ventured so far afield, I cannot +refrain from presenting here an interesting set of aboriginal star-symbols, +reproduced from Professor Wilson's comprehensive work +(fig. <a href="#Figure_24" class="tei tei-ref">24</a>), +each composed of a cross combined, with a single exception, +with a circle. I draw attention to the striking resemblance of +some of these signs to those painted on the finely decorated pottery +found on the hacienda of Don José Luna, in Nicaragua, and described +by J. F. Brandsford, M.D. (Archaeological Researches in +Nicaragua, Smithsonian Inst., 1881, p. 30, B), and suggest that, in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +both localities, the symbol may be a rudimentary swastika, and +represent Polaris and circumpolar rotation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-iii.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate III. 1. Shell gorget, Missouri. 2, 5-14. Pottery vessels, Arkansas. 3, 4, 15-17, 19-28. Pottery vessels, Missouri. 18. Pottery vessel, Kentucky. 6. National Museum. 3, 16, 17, 21, 24, 25. St. Louis Academy. All others Peabody Museum. Willoughby, “Pottery from the Mississippi Valley.” Journal of American Folk-lore, January-March, 1897." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate III. 1. Shell gorget, Missouri. 2, 5-14. Pottery vessels, Arkansas. +3, 4, 15-17, 19-28. Pottery vessels, Missouri. 18. Pottery vessel, Kentucky. +6. National Museum. 3, 16, 17, 21, 24, +25. St. Louis Academy. All others Peabody Museum. +Willoughby, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: center">“Pottery from the Mississippi Valley.”</span> +Journal of American Folk-lore, January-March, 1897.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion I refer the reader to Mr. C. C. Willoughby's valuable +and most interesting <span class="tei tei-q">“Analysis of the decorations upon +pottery from the Mississippi Valley”</span> (Journal Amer. Folk-lore, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, 1897), in which he figures the remarkable specimens +preserved in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, the designs on which, +as he states, <span class="tei tei-q">“are mostly of symbolic origin and have been in use +among various tribes within the historic period from the Great +Lakes to Mexico.”</span> With the kind permission of the editor of the +Journal, I reproduce some of Mr. Willoughby's illustrations on +Plate <a href="#Plate_III" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span></a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_24" id="Figure_24" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-24.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 24. Crosses And Circles Representing Star Symbols, Arizona." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 24. Crosses And Circles Representing Star Symbols, Arizona.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to consider the probable result of the gradual diffusion +of star-cult owing to natural causes and of the consequent +divergence from the idea of the Centre, which had so deeply influenced +the minds of primitive men during many centuries, with +earnest, and extended astronomical observation, keeping pace with +the development of the idea of the Above and Below, it is obvious +that the utmost attention would be next given to the conspicuous +star groups and planets which are visible at certain times and then +seem to have departed or descended into the under world. Any +one who has read the interesting communications by Herr Richard +Andree (Globus. bd. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxiv</span></span>, nr. 22), On the relation of the +Pleiades to the beginning of the year amongst primitive people, followed +by a note by Herr Karl von den Steinen on the same subject, will +realize that widely-separated tribes of men, by dint of simple observation, +knew the exact length of the periodical appearance and +disappearance of this star group and regulated their year accordingly. +Herr Andree cites, for instance, that <span class="tei tei-q">“in the Society islands, +the year was divided into two portions, the first of which was +named Matari-i-inia=the Pleiades above. It began and lasted +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +during the time when these constellations were visible close to the +horizon after sunset. The second period, named Matarii-i-raro=the +Pleiades below, began and lasted for the time during which the +star-group was invisible after sunset”</span> (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 419, London 1829). That the ancient Mexicans +had likewise observed the Pleiades and been deeply impressed +by them is proven by the well-known fact that the ceremony of the +kindling of the sacred fire, which betokened the commencement +of a new cycle, was performed <span class="tei tei-q">“when the Pleiades attained the +zenith at midnight precisely.”</span> In my complete monograph in the +ancient Mexican calendar-system it will be my endeavor to present +all the data I have collected concerning the degree of elementary +astronomical knowledge attained by the native astronomers. I +shall, therefore, content myself with pointing out here that besides +the foregoing testimony about the Pleiades, the native name for +which was the miec=the many, or the tianquiztli=the marketplace, +there are records proving that the cult of the planet Venus +was a firmly established feature of the native religion at the time +of the Conquest. Sahagun records that the Nahuatl names for this +planet were citlalpul or hueycitlallin both signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“the great +star.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“In the great temple of Mexico an edifice named ilhuicatitlan +[literally, the land of the sky] consisted of a great, high +column, on which the morning star was painted.... Captives +were sacrificed in front of this column annually, at the period when +the star re-appeared”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +appendix to book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With regard to the connection of the Pleiades with the beginning +of the Mexican cycle, it is interesting to note Herr Andree's +statements that the most intimate connection of the star-group with +the thoughts of primitive people, would naturally take place in +such localities where its periodical movements coincided with the +changes of season, wind and weather which affected agriculture. +A survey of the data presented by Herr Andree shows that the +cult of the Pleiades attained its greatest development amongst +tribes inhabiting a southerly latitude. It was in South America, +indeed, that the Peruvians, alongside of their highly developed sun-cult, +rendered homage and offered sacrifices to the Pleiades. In +Mexico, the cult of the Pleiades appears as intimately associated +with that of the sun and to have assumed importance only in historical +and comparatively recent times, probably when the periodicity +of the sun's movements had been taught or recognized and the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sign <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ollin</span></span>, which +is an exact presentation of the annual course of +the sun, had been invented and adopted as a symbol. I have already +pointed out that this sign occurs on the calendar-stone, for +instance, which has a human face in its centre, bearing two numerals +on the forehead and obviously symbolizing the union of two +in one. In other instances the centre displays the eye, or star symbol +and conveys the suggestion that the <span class="tei tei-q">“four movements”</span> of the +circumpolar constellations were thereby symbolized. It may be that, +in ancient Mexico, the two symbols, respectively referring to the +movements of the sun and of the circumpolar star-groups, were emblematic +of the two different cults or religions which existed alongside +of each other. The first, the cult of the Above, of the Blue Sky, +was directed towards the sun and the planets and stars intimately +associated with sunrise and sunset, amongst them the Pleiades. The +cult of the Below, of the Nocturnal Heaven, was directed towards +the moon, Polaris and the circumpolar constellations—also to the +stars and planets during the period of their disappearance and +possibly in the same way to the enigmatical <span class="tei tei-q">“Black Sun,”</span> figured in +the B. N. MS. which may have been the sun during its nightly stay +in the House of the Underworld, whose door was in the west. In +order to obtain an idea of the immense proportions ultimately +assumed by these two diverging cults and the enormous influence +they exerted upon the entire native civilization, it will be necessary +to examine the form of the social organization in Montezuma's +time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order to comprehend this, however, it is first necessary to +study carefully the myths relating to its origin. Torquemada (lib. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. 41) cites the authority of Friar Andreas de Olmos for +the following native account of the creation of man, which was +differently recounted to him in each province. He states that the +majority of the natives, however, agreed that <span class="tei tei-q">“there was in heaven +a god named <span class="tei tei-q">‘Shining Star’</span> (Citlal-Tonac) and a goddess named +<span class="tei tei-q">‘She of the starry skirt’</span> (Citlal-Cue), who gave birth to a flint +knife (Tecpatl). Their other children, startled at this, cast the +flint down from the sky. It fell to earth at the place named <span class="tei tei-q">‘Seven +caves’</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">‘produced 1,600 gods and goddesses,’</span> ”</span> a figure of speech +which evidently expressed the idea that, in coming in forcible contact +with the soil the flint gave forth sparks innumerable which +conveyed vitality to numberless beings. It is evidently the same +idea of <span class="tei tei-q">“life sparks”</span> being called into existence by the union of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +heaven and earth which underlies the Texcocan version of the creation +of man recorded as follows by Torquemada (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. et loc. cit.</span></span>). +<span class="tei tei-q">“The sun ... shot an arrow towards the land of Acolma near +the boundary of Texcoco. This made a hole in the ground whence +issued the first man....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_25" id="Figure_25" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-25.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 25." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 25.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The illustrated version of the above myths, given in the Vatican +Codex <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, designates the celestial progenitor of human life as +Quetzalcoatl, also named Tonaca-Tecuhtli=the lord of our subsistence, +Chicome-xochitl=<span class="tei tei-q">“Seven roses or +flowers”</span> and Citlalla-Tonalla=<span class="tei tei-q">“The +Milky +Way,”</span> literally, The +shining stars. The +dual divinity is figured +(fig. <a href="#Figure_25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>, no. 4) as two +persons with the shaft +of an arrow over each +of their heads and with +the symbol Tecpatl=flint, +between them as the issue of their union. In the Borgian +Codex (fig. <a href="#Figure_25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>, no. 1), a barbed arrowpoint, instead of +the Tecpatl, figures between the celestial parents. Their union is symbolized +by a covering, the shape of which, in further representations +(fig. <a href="#Figure_25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>, nos. 3 and 5) in the same MS., offers resemblance +to the tau-shaped windows which are such a common feature in Maya and +also in Pueblo architecture (fig. <a href="#Figure_25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>, +no. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>). The preceding data, +which could be amplified, seem to show that the natives associated +the tau-shape not merely with the idea of the Male and Female +principles, but also with the Above and the Below, or Heaven (air +and water) and Earth (earth and fire). I shall have occasion, further +on, to refer again to the symbolism of the native tau. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above illustrations, however, definitely prove that the flint +knife and the arrow (with a flint point, presumably), were indiscriminately +designated as the medium by means of which the spark +of life was created and imparted to earth-born beings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be proved further that, at the period of the Conquest, the +arrow was revered as an image of life-producing force in Yucatan +and Mexico. The flint knife cased in wrappings was called <span class="tei tei-q">“the +son”</span> of Cihuacoatl, the earth-mother, and was regarded as her +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +special symbol. It is significant, therefore, to find that it was +the emblem of office of one of the two high priests, who alone +employed it, as a sacrificial knife, in performing his awful duty of +immolating human victims. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the cane-shaft of an arrow figures above the head +of the celestial couple in the Vatican Codex is particularly interesting +because the name Ome-Acatl=Two-Cane, is given as the +name of a divinity by Sahagun (book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, chap. 15) and that the +ceremony of kindling the New Fire, at the commencement of a +cycle of years was also associated with the calendar sign Ome-Acatl +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>, chap. 10). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At a certain festival images of Omacatl were manufactured and +carried by the devout to their houses in order to receive from them +<span class="tei tei-q">“blessings and multiplication of possessions”</span> +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +chap. 19). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I draw attention to the fact that life is supposed to have proceeded +from the union of stellar divinities, that the Tecpatl and +flint are the well-known symbols for the North and Fire and that the +Vatican commentator identifies the celestial parent as <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven-Flowers.”</span> +What is more, Duran (vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, pp. 8 and 9) relates that +the native race was organized into seven separate tribes and that +these <span class="tei tei-q">“claimed to have come out of <span class="tei tei-q">‘seven caves’</span> (Chicom-oztoc) +which were situated in Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan <span class="tei tei-q">‘a land of which +all men know that it is in the North.’</span> ”</span> Now Teo-Culhuacan is +composed of the word Teotl, which designated the stars, the sun, +the gods and, by extension, something divine or celestial. Culhua +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Coloa) means something bent over or recurved, or the action +of describing a circle by moving around something, and +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> means +<span class="tei tei-q">“the place of”</span> in Nahuatl. This locality is represented in the +picture-writings by a strange and impossible mountain with a recurved +summit (fig. <a href="#Figure_26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>, no. 1). Aztlan literally means <span class="tei tei-q">“the land +of whiteness, brightness, light.”</span> In Duran's Atlas the seven caves +are represented as containing men and women—the progenitors of +the seven tribes. The order in which these are described, in the +Mexican myth, as having issued from the caves, is instructive and +sheds light upon the provenance and purpose of the tradition. It +represents the Mexicans as the superior predestined race who remained +in their cave the <span class="tei tei-q">“longest, by divine command,”</span> their +<span class="tei tei-q">“god having promised them this land.”</span> The tradition relates that +six tribes reached and settled down in the central plateau of Mexico, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +302 years before the Aztecs arrived, under the leadership of +Huitzilopochtli an oracular divinity, whose commandments were +transmitted to the people by four priests (Duran, chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In my opinion it is impossible to study the above and supplementary +data without realizing that the native race assigned its +origin to a dual star-divinity, associated with the Tecpatl, the symbol +for the North and for Fire. The peculiarity that the divinity +is designated as Seven-flowers, and that there were seven tribes, +indicates that the native idea was that each tribe came from one of +the seven stars in Ursa Major or Minor. The Aztecs seem to have +claimed for themselves the descent from the superior star, the central +one, and to have thus justified or supported their ultimate establishment +of a central government which ruled over the other six +tribes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_26" id="Figure_26" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-26.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 26." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 26.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The assumption that the native race claimed descent from the +Ursa Major or Minor constellation is further supported by the fact +that the shape of the mythical recurved mountain and the name +Aztlan=land of light or brightness are simultaneously explained, +as well as the number of caves and tribes. It does not seem to be +a mere coincidence that in two totally different Codices (the Selden +MS. p. 7, Kingsborough, vol. 1, and the B. N. MS., p. 70) a +sacred dance is represented as executed by seven individuals who +move around a central seated personage. In the latter MS. the +seated figure wears a head-dress surmounted by flint knives and +his face is painted <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">red</span></em> the color assigned to the North. Moreover +the dance is taking place before an image of Mictlan-Tecuhtli, the +lord of the North, whose raiment is strewn with cross-symbols. +Referring to other native dances we find that the most sacred of +all dances was performed at the festival of the god of fire by +priests only, who, smeared with black paint to typify darkness and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +night, carried two torches in each hand and first sat, then slowly +moved, in a circle, around the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine brazier,”</span> and finally cast +their torches into it (Duran <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +p. 174). This, probably the most +ancient of sacred dances, must have been extremely impressive +and significative to those who witnessed it, at night-time, from the +base of the pyramid and heard the distant solemn chant of the +dancers. To watchers from afar, the fire and the lighted torches +revolving around must have seemed like a great central star with +other stars wheeling about it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Further on, it will be shown that the earliest form under which +the Deity was revered was that of fire and the foregoing description +fully explains why it was first chosen as the most fitting image +of the central immovable star. It has already been shown +that, in the popular game of <span class="tei tei-q">“the flyers,”</span> a high pole surmounted +by one man served as the pivot for the circumvolation of the four +performers, who <span class="tei tei-q">“acted”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“flight of time.”</span> The idea of an +extended rule, proceeding from a central dual force, was, however, +carried out on a grand scale in the most solemn of all public dances +named the Mitotiliztli. Duran (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +p. 85) states that as many as +<span class="tei tei-q">“8,600 persons danced in a wheel in the courtyard of the Great +Temple, which had four doorways, facing the cardinal points and +opening out on to the four principal high roads leading to the capital. +The doorways were respectively named after the four principal +gods and were spoken of as <span class="tei tei-q">‘the doorway of such and such +a god.’</span> ”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Clavigero, to whose work (Historia, ed. Mora, Mexico, 1844, p. +234) I refer the reader for further details, describes the dances at +the time of the Conquest as having been most beautiful, and relates +that the natives were exercised in these, from their childhood, by +the priests. This authority also relates that the Mitotiliztli was +performed by hundreds of dancers at certain solemn festivals, in +the great central square of the city or in the courtyard of the temple, +and gives the following description: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The centre of the space was occupied by two individuals (designated +elsewhere as high priests) who beat measure on sacred +drums of two kinds. One, the large huehuetl, emitted an extremely +loud, deep tone, which could be heard for miles and was +usually employed in the temples as a means of summoning to worship, +etc. The second, the teponaztle, was a small portable wooden +drum which was usually worn suspended from the neck by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +leader in warfare and emitted the shrill piercing note he employed +as a signal. The chieftains (each of which personified a god) +surrounded the two musicians, forming several concentric circles, +close to each other. At a certain distance from the outer one of +these, the persons of an inferior class were placed in circles and +these were separated by another interval of space, from the outermost +circles, composed of young men and boys. The illustration +given by Clavigero records the order and disposition of this sacred +dance, which represented a kind of wheel, the centre of which was +occupied by the instruments and their players. The spokes of the +wheel were as many as there were chieftains in the innermost circle. +All moved in a circle while dancing and strictly adhered to their +respective positions. Those who were nearest the centre, the chieftains +and elders, moved slowly, with gravity, having a smaller circle +to perform. The dancers forming the outer circles were, +however, forced to move with extreme rapidity, so as to preserve +the straight line radiating from the centre and headed by the chieftains. +The measure of the dance and of the chorus chanted by +the participants was beaten by the drums and the musicians asserted +their absolute control of the great moving wheel of human beings, +by alternately quickening or slackening the measure. The perfect +harmony of the dance, which successive sets of dancers kept going +for eight or more hours, was only disturbed occasionally by certain +individuals who pushed their way through the lines of dancers +and amused these by indulging in all sorts of buffoonery. No +one, on reading the above description of the most ancient and +sacred of native dances can fail to recognize that it was an actual +representation of axial rotation and that no more effective method +of rendering the apparent differences in the degrees of velocity in +the movements of the circumpolar and equatorial stars, could possibly +have been devised. The fact that this dance was a most +solemn and sacred rite, whose performance was obligatory to the +entire population, indicates that it constituted an act of general +obedience and homage and a public acknowledgment of the absolute +dominion of a central dual, ruling power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is particularly interesting that, in this dance, the latter is represented +by two individuals who respectively employ the sacred drum +of the priesthood, and that used by war chieftains only (the one +instrument emitting a low and the other a high tone); for the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +culture hero of the Tzendals, Votan, who, with the aid of his followers, +taught this tribe the civil laws of government and the religious +ceremonials, was entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the Master of the sacred Drum.”</span> +(See Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 214.) +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reverting to the organization of the native race into seven tribes +and the wandering of the seventh and principal division, under the +leadership of Huitzilopochtli: according to Tezozomoc (Cronica, +p. 23), Huitzilopochtli was accompanied by <span class="tei tei-q">“a woman who was +called his sister and was carried by four men. She was a powerful +sorceress, possessed the power of assuming the shape of an eagle, +had made herself greatly feared and caused herself to be adored +as a goddess.”</span> Indignant at her arrogance the priests counselled +a course which was adopted by the Mexicans. The woman and +her family were left behind at Malinalco where they settled and +populated a town, whilst the other portion of the tribe, under +strictly masculine rule, advanced towards Tula where they established +themselves. <span class="tei tei-q">“This was the second division which had taken +place, amongst the Mexicans or Aztecs ... and when +they reached Tula they found their number greatly diminished.”</span> +This same incident is related with greater detail by Torquemada +(vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, chap. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>) from which we learn what a great animosity was +felt against the woman. On one occasion, which I shall not pause +to describe, two war chiefs menaced her. The <span class="tei tei-q">“talk”</span> she gave +them in return is so remarkable that it deserves to be quoted in +full; for it affords a deep insight into the native mode of expression, +teaches us the titles of the woman and shows that her position +was undoubtedly one of powerful authority. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“I am Quilaztli, your sister and of your tribe ... you +know this and yet you think that the dispute or difference you +have with me is like an ordinary one, such as you might wage with +any ordinary base woman, who possessed little spirit or courage. +If you indulge in this thought you are deceiving yourselves, for I +am valiant and manly and my titles will oblige you to acknowledge +this. For besides the ordinary name of Quilaztli, by which you +know me, I also possess four titles, by which I know myself: +the first of these is Cihuacoatl=the Woman-serpent (or twin); +the second is Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle-woman; the third is +Yao-Cihuatl=the Woman-warrior and the fourth is Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, +the Woman of the Underworld. From the properties +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or qualities conveyed by these titles you can appreciate who I am; +what power I yield and what harm I can do you and if you want +to test the truth of this, here is my challenge!”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The two brave captains, undaunted by the arrogant words by +which she attempted to terrify them, responded: 'If you are as +valiant as you describe yourself to be, we are not less so; but +you are a woman and it is not meet that it should be said of us +that we took up arms against women;' and without speaking further +they left her, much affronted that a woman should challenge +and defy them. And they kept silence about this occurrence so +that their people should not know of it.”</span> Señor Alfredo Chavero +(appendix, p. 125, to Duran's Historia, Mexico, 1880), commenting +upon this passage, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is impossible to doubt that this tradition +refers to an important event in the history of the Aztec +tribe.... I think it contains the record of a religious +struggle.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The full significance of the narrative will become clear, I think, +when the following points are dwelt upon. One thing is certain: +here is a historical personage, a woman, who was termed <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the sister</span></em> +of Huitzilopochtli, who evidently exerted a high authority and whose +titles were actually the names of the highest female divinity. Sahagun +(book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. 37) states that Quilaztli, a goddess, the same +as Cihuacoatl, was the mother of all and was also named Tonant-zin=<span class="tei tei-q">“our +mother.”</span> What is more significant still is that, in all +historical records antedating the Conquest, a man bearing the feminine +title of Cihuacoatl=serpent woman, is distinctly and repeatedly +mentioned as the coadjutor of the Mexican ruler. Mr. +Ad. Bandelier, in his careful study <span class="tei tei-q">“On the social organization and +mode of government of the Ancient Mexicans”</span> (Twelfth Annual +Report of the Peabody Museum of Am. Arch, and Ethn., Cambridge, +1879) to which I refer the reader, discusses the relative +positions of Montezuma and the Cihuacoatl and states: <span class="tei tei-q">“there is +no doubt about their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">equality</span></span> of rank though their duties were +somewhat different”</span> (p. 665). This equality is illustrated by the +records that both rulers shared the same privileges regarding dress. +Thus they alone wore sandals and the Cihuacoatl is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the +second or double of the king, his coadjutor”</span> +(Duran, chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxxii</span></span>, +p. 255 and Tezozomoc, chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xl</span></span>, p. 66). The latter author, +however, gives the full <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred title”</span> as Tlil-Potonqui Cihuacoatl, +literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“the black-powdered woman-serpent”</span> and we thus +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +learn that, whilst Montezuma's garments were habitually blue like +Huitzilopochtli, his coadjutor, like Tezcatlipoca, was associated +with black. It is well known that some of the Mexican priests +always smeared their bodies with black, which was therefore their +special mark. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To my idea the foregoing data, with circumstantial evidence too +diffuse to be conveniently produced, clearly indicate that at one +time, in the early history of the Aztec race, it had been governed +jointly by a male and a female ruler on a footing of perfect equality, +the one being the living representative of the Above or masculine +elements and the other personifying the Below or feminine elements. +The fact that Cihuacoatl is named <span class="tei tei-q">“the sister”</span> of Huitzilopochtli +shows that the female ruler was not necessarily his wife, although +she was his coadjutor in her own right. Both rulers were respectively +served by four persons presumably of their respective sex. +Besides these Duran (chap. 3) records that <span class="tei tei-q">“there were also other +seven teotls=lords, who were much reverenced on account of the +seven caves out of which the seven tribes had come.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We thus perceive that at one time the chief authority was vested +in a man and a woman, his sister, who enjoyed a perfect equality. +Four persons administered the government of each ruler and each +of the seven tribes had <span class="tei tei-q">“its honoured representative.”</span> For how long +this organization had existed it is impossible to tell. Dissension +arose and division supervened, but to the time of the Conquest the +identical form of government was in force with the remarkable +difference that the title and office of the Cihuacoatl, originally held +by a woman, were held by a man, whom I do not hesitate to identify +as one of the two <span class="tei tei-q">“supreme pontiffs,”</span> whose emblem of office was +the flint knife, the offspring of Cihuacoatl, the earth-mother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Historical evidence shows that this alteration had not been made +without bloodshed and renewed difficulties. Thus it is related +that, long after the Mexicans had separated from the sister of +Huitzilopochtli and her adherents, they were induced to <span class="tei tei-q">“ask the +daughter of the ruler of Culhuacan to become the Queen of the +Mexicans and mother of their god. She conformed with their +request but was subsequently killed by her subjects, who flayed +her body and dressed a youth in her skin [a figure of native +speech which symbolized his assumption of her office]. Under +this form she was revered as a goddess, was named our grandmother +and <span class="tei tei-q">‘the mother of the god,’</span> etc.”</span> These and the following details, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +taken from well-known authentic native sources, are attractively +rendered in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Newe Welt und Amerikanische Historien”</span> +(Johann Ludwig Gottfriedt. Frankfurt-a.-M., 1613, pp. 54 and 55). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, after the Mexicans had been settled at Tenochtitlan for +some time, they desired to make an alliance with the King of Culhuacan +and therefore <span class="tei tei-q">“chose to nominate, as their ruler, Acamapichtli, +who was the son of a Mexican chieftain by a daughter of +the Culhuacan ruler”</span> and evidently lived with the latter. For it +is related that, on giving his consent, the king of Culhuacan stated +that if only a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">woman</span></em> (of his family) had been nominated he would +have refused (to trust her to the Mexicans). The farewell words +he addressed to Acamapichtli are worthy of quotation: <span class="tei tei-q">“Go my +son, serve thy god, be his representative. Rule the creatures of +the god by whom we live; the god of day, of the night and of the +winds. Go and be the lord of the water and land owned by the +Mexicans.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As it is subsequently stated that Acamapichtli <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">and his queen</span></em> were +received at Tenochtitlan with great honors, it would seem as though +the Mexicans who, from some deeply-rooted religious idea, considered +it essential to have a female ruler of the line of the king +of Culhuacan, obtained their desire only by accepting a male member +of her family as a protection and safeguard for her sacred +person. It may be that for the reasons of safety and preservation +the female ruler, who was the living representative of the Cihuacoatl, +gradually retired into absolute seclusion whilst a man of her +kin assumed, in public, her title and prerogatives. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Unless it is assumed that this was the case, it seems impossible +to explain why Acamapichtli is designated in the Codex Mendoza +(Kingsborough, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>) as having begun to rule in the year +I Tecpatl or flint (approximately corresponding to A.D. 1364) with +the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Woman-serpent”</span>=Cihuacoatl. From this date the title +seems always to have been borne by a man. When human sacrifices +had become a prominent feature of the native cult and it became +a duty of the Cihuacoatl to perform the bloody rite, it is +obvious that it became impossible for a woman to fill the position. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We obtain, however, glimpses of the shadowy form of an invisible +and venerable female ruler who is at the head of the <span class="tei tei-q">“House +of Women,”</span> watches over the welfare of the women of the tribe +and officiates as a priestess, with her assistants, at births, baptisms +and marriages. In order to account for the obscurity which surrounds +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +her, it should be noticed that the mere fact that the ideas +of darkness and seclusion became indelibly associated with the +female sex, would naturally and inevitably cause women to be +housed up, veiled and condemned to comparative inaction and immobility. +A primitive stage in the growth of the above idea is +shown in the case of the Huaxtecas, the women of which tribe wore +abundant covering whilst the men, on religious principle, wore +none. A careful study of the conditions surrounding the Cihuacoatl +or high priest shows that he also conformed to the exigencies +of his position when he acted as the representative of the hidden +forces of Nature, of the female principle. He and the entire +priesthood smeared their bodies with black, cultivated long hair, +and wore, during the performance of certain religious ceremonies, +a wide and long garment reaching to the ground. It is noticeable +that the designs on the garments of the priests, in the B. N. MS., +are invariably executed in red and yellow, the symbolical colors +of the north and west, combined with black the symbol of the +union of both, the Below. In this connection it is noteworthy that +in Mexican pictography the faces of women are usually painted +yellow—the color of the West=the female region. The association +of darkness, concealment and secrecy, with the female +principle, is exemplified by the fact that a building in the enclosure +of the Great Temple of Mexico, named the <span class="tei tei-q">“house of darkness,”</span> +was dedicated to the earth-mother=Cihuacoatl (Sahagun, +appendix to book II). Other temples of hers are described as +being cave-like, underground, dark, with a single low entrance, the +door of which was sometimes sculptured in the form of the great +open jaws of a serpent. Only priests were allowed to penetrate +into these mysterious chambers where sacred and secret rites were +performed and a sacred fire was also kept burning in an adjoining +chamber. Evidence, which I shall produce further on, establishes +that the high-priest Cihuacoatl dwelt, at times, in a house named +<span class="tei tei-q">“place of darkness”</span> and annually sacrificed a human victim in +honor of the lord of the underworld, in an edifice called <span class="tei tei-q">“the navel +of the earth.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The religious cult of one-half of the Mexican hierarchy was +distinctly nocturnal. The chief duties of certain priests were astronomical +observation and the supervision of the sacred fire, which +was kept perpetually burning on the summit of each temple-crowned +pyramid, in what was termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the sacred or divine brazier”</span> of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sculptured stone. Two priests jointly watched by night and +day and received and transmitted to the flames the incense offerings +of the devout. The temple fires were extinguished only at +the expiration of a cycle of fifty-two years and were then rekindled +by the high priest at midnight precisely, with impressive +solemnity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In ancient Mexico, it should however be observed, although the +logical association of women with the hidden forces of nature, the +underworld and the Below, had exerted a certain influence over +her practical existence, it had not yet given rise to the idea of her +inferiority as compared to man, the associate of the Heaven, the +Above, the visible and active forces of nature. The native sages +did not identify her so intimately with the earth as to deny her the +possession of a soul—the celestial spark. On the other hand it +is curious to note that the Nahuatl word for wife is Cihua-tlan-tli +and for husband is Te-o-quichtli. Is it possible that the particle +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">tlan</span></span> in the first and +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Teo</span></span> in the second may have contributed to +strengthen the association of the woman with earth=tlalli (tlan=land +of) and the man with Teotl, the sun, something divine and +celestial? In course of time it doubtlessly would have transpired, +in Mexico as elsewhere, that the set of primitive ideas which, during +untold centuries, imposed upon women seclusion, obscurity +and inactivity and thus hindered her development of strength of +body and mind, would have directly induced an inferiority. This +has been subsequently proclaimed, as we know, in many countries, +as a direct proof of her lower nature and of her affinity with the +element earth. The assumed and actual inferiority of woman may +therefore be regarded as the logical, inevitable but artificial result +of primordial classification and association. Suggested by the +same natural phenomena which were visible to all inhabitants of +the same latitudes, these ideas occurred to all people at a certain +stage of their development and exerted a dominating influence +over the subsequent growth of their intelligence. It is but now, +that, unconsciously, mankind is beginning to emerge from the leading +strings of its infancy, which became an iron bondage to its +prolonged childhood. In Mexico, at the period of the Conquest, +the absolute equality of the male and female principles was theoretically +maintained. At the same time it is possible to discern +certain agencies at work which were tending to connect the Below, +the female principle, with harm and evil. From time immemorial +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it had been the custom of the Chichimecs, who, according to Sahagun +(book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xii</span></span>, chap. 12, par. 5), inhabited an extremely poor +and barren region of Mexico, to sacrifice the first animal killed in +a hunting expedition and to offer it to <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sun whom they called +father and to the earth their mother.”</span> They severed its head and +raised this as though offering it to the sun. They <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">then tilled the +earth where the blood had been spilt</span></em> and left the animal which had +been sacrificed, on the spot (Ixtlilxochitl, Historia Chichimeca +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span> and Relaciones p. 335). This passage, establishing the +cultivation of the soil where the blood had been spilt, sheds a +flood of light on the origin of the offerings of human blood and +the sacrifices of human life, which were such a prominent and hideous +feature of the Aztec religion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the beginning of the sixteenth century, instead of the blood +being spilt directly upon the earth, to insure and increase the fruitfulness +of the soil, a human being was stretched across a conical +stone which became thus the image of the earth-mother, his heart +was extracted and offered to the sun, the Above, and his blood was +then smeared on the mouth of certain idols representing the Below. +In the B. N. MS. an interesting illustration and account are +given of an idol of the earth-mother who is figured as standing on +a pedestal adorned with skulls and cross-bones with outstretched +tongue which signified, <span class="tei tei-q">“that she always had great thirst for human +blood”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“never refused sacrifices offered to her.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two priests are likewise pictured in the act of offering bowls +containing human blood to the idol and a third, mounted on a ladder, +is pouring the contents of another bowl over its head. It is +obvious how the constant associations of the earth-mother with +sanguinary sacrifices and bloodthirstiness would, in time, give rise +to the idea of a hostile, maleficent power, linked with darkness +and devouring fire, who, under the aspect of the serpent-woman, +waged an eternal warfare on the human race and clamored for +victims and bloody sacrifices. The natural sequence to the above +associations is that in ancient Mexico the powers exerting fatal +influence upon the human race are all represented as female, viz.: +the Cihuacoatl or woman-serpent, the Ciuapipiltin and the Tzit-zime, +etc. These and various other personifications of the female +principle are described in detail in my notes and commentary to +the B. N. MS. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After considering the foregoing data it seems impossible not to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +conclude that it must have taken centuries of time for the idea of +duality, or of the Above and Below to have taken such a deep hold +upon the native mind and to have produced such a growth of symbolism +and association in so many ramifications of thought. Let +us endeavor to obtain a further insight into the native mode of +thought by carefully studying some significant details concerning +the social organization of the Mexicans from the time of Acamapichtli +to that of Montezuma and the influences it had been subjected +to gradually. This, the first ruler, unquestionably ruled as +the Cihuacoatl, a name which means either Woman-serpent or +Female-twin. This fact in itself testifies to an epoch-making change +in the organization of the Mexican government, in the making +of which a concession was made to a previously existing order of +things, by the retention of the female title by a male ruler. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having carefully studied the question for many years, I have +long considered it proven that when the Mexicans settled in the +valley of Mexico they came under a series of influences emanating +from an ancient and highly cultured centre of civilization situated +in the south, which had followed, during untold centuries, +the same lines of primitive thought which have been stated. This +question of contact and influence from an older civilization is so +important and the material I have collected on the subject is so +extensive and complex, that it cannot be adequately treated here. +Further on I shall discuss at length certain historical data throwing +light on ancient contact and influences. Meanwhile I may as +well state here that, having carefully weighed all testimony, I accept +as amply proven and well supported, the testimony of Las +Casas, Torquemada, Mendieta and others, who record that the +Mexican culture-hero Quetzalcoatl was an actual person who had +come to Mexico from Yucatan twice and had finally returned thither, +leaving a small colony of his vassals behind him whose influence +upon the religious and social organization and symbolism of the +tribes, inhabiting the central plateau, can be plainly discerned. +Montezuma himself, in his famous speech to Cortés, which the latter +carefully reported to the Emperor Charles V, states that: <span class="tei tei-q">“we [the +Mexican rulers] were brought here by a lord, whose vassals all of +our predecessors were, and who returned from here to his native +land. He afterwards came here again, after a long time, during +which many of his followers who had remained, had married native +women of this land, raised large families and founded towns in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which they dwelt. He wished to take them away from here with +him, but they did not want to go, nor would they receive or adopt +him as their ruler, and so he departed. Hut we have always thought +that his descendants would surely come to subjugate this country +and claim us as their vassals....”</span> (Historia de Nueva +España. Hernan Cortés, ed. Lorenzana, p. 81; see also p. 96). +I do not see how it is possible to construe such plain, unadorned +statements of simple, common-place facts into the assumption that +Montezuma was recounting a mythical account of the disappearance +of the Light-god from the sky, as upheld by some modern +writers, who interpret the whole episode as a sun-myth or legend. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already shown that the meaning of the ocelot-skin and +the spider, employed as symbols by the Mexicans, is apparent only +when studied by means of the Maya language of Yucatan, the +land whence the culture-hero is said to have come by the foregoing +authorities. I will add here that in the Maya chronicles, it is +stated that the culture-hero had ruled in Chichen-Itza, the first +part of which name, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Chichen</span></span>, +means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">red</span></em>. In Mexican records it +is described that he departed by water from the Mexican coast and +travelled directly east, bound for Tlapallan—a name which means +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">red</span></em>-land. I draw attention to the fact that any one sailing from +the mouth of the Panuco river, for instance, in a straight line towards +the east, would inevitably land on the coast of Yucatan, not +far from the modern Merida and the ancient ruins of Chichen-Itza. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I shall also produce evidence, further on, to show that the meaning +of the much-discussed name of the culture-hero's home, Tullan, +is also furnished by the Maya language. From more than one +source, we learn, moreover, that there were several Tullans on the +American continent. The conception of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Twin-brothers</span></em> as the personification +of the Above and Below had been adopted in Yucatan +and it is to the influence emanating from that source that I attribute +the movement made in Mexico, to substitute male twin-rulers +in the place of the man and woman, who had previously and jointly +ruled the ancient Mexicans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now analyze the Maya title Kukulcan, of which Quetzalcoatl +is the Mexican equivalent. As already stated, the word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> means serpent and the numeral 4 and is almost +homonymous with the word for sky or heaven=<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">caan</span></span>. The +image of a serpent, +therefore, directly suggested and expressed the idea of something +quadruple incorporated in one celestial being and appropriately +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +symbolized the divine ruler of the four quarters. In the word +Kukulcan the noun <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> +is qualified by the prefix <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kukul</span></span>. In the compiled +Maya dictionary published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (appendix +to de Landa's Relacion) the adjective <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ku</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kul</span></span> is given as +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine or holy.”</span> Kukulcan may therefore be analyzed as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +divine serpent”</span> or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine Four.”</span> When Maya sculptors or +scribes began to represent this symbol of the divinity they must +have searched for some object, easy to depict, the sound of whose +name resembled that of ku or kul. The Maya adjective <span class="tei tei-q">“feathered”</span> +being <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kukum</span></span>, +the artists evidently devised the plan of representing, +as an effigy of the divinity, a serpent decorated with feathers and +to this simple attempt at representing the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine serpent”</span> in +sculpture or pictography is due, in my opinion, the origin of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“feathered serpent”</span> effigies found in Yucatan and Mexico, which +have so puzzled archaeologists. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of Kukulcan, the culture-hero of the Mayas, it is recounted +that he had been one of four brothers who originally ruled at +Chichen-Itza, over four tribes. <span class="tei tei-q">“These brothers chose no wives but +lived chastely and ruled righteously, until, at a certain time, one died +or departed and two began to act unjustly and were put to death. +The one remaining was Kukulcan. He appeased the strife which +his brothers' acts had aroused, directed the minds of the people to +the arts of peace and caused to be built various edifices. After +he had completed his work at Chichen-Itza he founded the great +city of Mayapan, destined to be the capital of the confederacy of +the Mayas.”</span> (See Brinton, Hero-myths, p. 162.) Friar Diego de +Landa relates that the current opinion amongst the Indians of +Yucatan was that this ruler had gone to Mexico where, after his +return (departure?) he was named Cezalcouatl and revered as one +of their gods (Relacion, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 36). +Before analyzing the Nahuatl rendering of Kukulcan's name I +would point out the noteworthy coincidence that, during his reign +at Chichen-Itza and Mayapan, he practically united in his person +and assumed the offices formerly fulfilled by four rulers, of which +he had been only one. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I would, moreover, draw attention to the remarkable, sculptured +columns which support the main portal of the main pyramid-temple +called El Castillo at Chichen-Itza. These represent gigantic +feathered serpents and are figured on pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xiv</span></span> of Mr. Wm. +Holmes' most instructive and useful <span class="tei tei-q">“Archaeological Studies,”</span> Part +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Monuments +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Yucatan.”</span> The feathers carved on the massive columns +are evidently the precious tail feathers of the quetzal, which have +the peculiarity of exhibiting, according to the way the light falls +upon them, blue, red, yellow and green colors—precisely those +assigned to the four quarters by the Mexicans and for all we know +to the contrary, by the Mayas. Whether this feather was chosen +for this peculiarity or for its beauty only, as that with which to +deck the effigy of the divinity, can, of course, only be conjectured. +In Mexico numberless effigies of feathered serpents exist. The +resemblance of the sound of the Nahuatl words: feather=ihuitl, +and heaven or sky=ilhui-çatl, should be recorded here as a possible +reason for the association of feathers with the serpent and +as a means of conveying the idea of its divinity. It should also +be noted that quetzal, the name of the most precious feathers the +natives possessed, resembles in sound, the second part of the +Nahuatl words for flame=tle-cueçal-lotl, or for +<span class="tei tei-q">“tongue of fire”</span>=tle-cueçal-nenepilli. +That the feathered serpent was an image +of the divinity is finally proven, I think, by the following passage +from Sahagun which establishes that the earliest form, under which +the divinity was revered by the Mexicans, was that of fire: <span class="tei tei-q">“Of +all the gods the [most] ancient one is the God of Fire, who dwells +in the midst of flowers, in an abode surrounded by four walls and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is covered with shining feathers like wings</span></em>”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>). It is thus +shown that whilst the word ihuitl=feather suggested +something divine, the word quetzal, besides being the name +of a particular kind of feather, conveyed the idea of something +resplendent or shining [like fire]. The name for serpent, coatl, +signified twin; thus there is a profound analogy between the +Maya and Mexican symbol, pointing, however, to the Yucatan form +as the most ancient. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us see how the name Quetzal-coatl occurs in Mexico. It +is given as the name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“supreme god whose substance was as +invisible and intangible as air,”</span> but who was also revered as the +god of fire. The constant reference to air in connection with the +supreme divinity caused him to be also adored as the god of air +and of the four winds. On the other hand, the divine title of +Quetzal-coatl was carried by the culture-hero whose personality +has been discussed and who was a Yucatec ruler and high priest. +Sahagun (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ix</span></span>) informs us that <span class="tei tei-q">“Quequet-zalcoa,”</span> +the plural form of the word Quetzalcoatl, was employed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to designate <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the high priests</span></em> (elsewhere designated as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘supreme +pontiffs’</span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">who were the successors of Quetzalcoatl</span></em>.”</span> He also +states that <span class="tei tei-q">“the high priest of the temple was [the representative +of] the god Quetzalcoatl”</span> (book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +chap. 5). <span class="tei tei-q">“The priest who was +most perfect in his conduct and in wisdom was elected to be high +priest and assumed the name of Quetzalcoatl.... There +were two such high priests equal in rank and honours.... +One of these, the Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, was in the service +of Huitzilopochtli.”</span> Without pausing here to analyze this title +since it will be discussed in detail in another publication I will only +repeat that, after years of careful research, I have obtained the +certainty that the foregoing title and office were those held by Montezuma +at the time of the Conquest. What is more, I can produce +ample evidence to prove that he was the living personification of +Huitzilopochtli one of the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine twins”</span> and of the Above. He +was not the first Mexican ruler who had filled this exalted rôle, for +it is recorded that Axayacatl, one of Acamapichtli's successors, +had represented, in life, <span class="tei tei-q">“our god Huitzilopochtli.”</span> After his death +his effigy <span class="tei tei-q">“was first covered with a fine robe representing Huitzilopochtli; +over this was hung the dress of Tlaloc ... the next +garment was that of Youalahua [=the lord of the wheel] and the +fourth was that of Quetzalcoatl”</span> (Duran, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +chap. 39, pp. 304 and 306). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now see how Montezuma's personification of Huitzilopochtli +was carried out by his life and his surroundings. According +to Bernal Diaz, an eye-witness, when the great Montezuma +came forth in state to meet Cortés, he was conveyed on a sumptuous +litter, being thus raised above the earth.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> When he descended +from this and walked, the golden soles of his sandals prevented +his feet from coming into direct contact with the ground; +he was supported, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> partially held up, by his four principal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lords, and a baldachin adorned with light greenish-blue feathers, +gold, pearls and jade representing the xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl=<span class="tei tei-q">“the +verdant or blue sky”</span> (which was, by the way, a title of Huitzilopochtli), +was carried over his head. Other lords preceded him, +<span class="tei tei-q">“sweeping the ground and spreading blankets upon it so that he +should not tread upon the earth. All of these lords did not dare +to think of raising their eyes to look at his face—only the four +lords, his cousins, who supported him, possessed this privilege”</span> +(Bernal Diaz, Historia Verdadera de la Conquista. Madrid, 1632, +p. 65). A feature, the origin of which can be directly traced back +to the association of the star-god, Polaris, with repose and immovability, +was that Montezuma, like his predecessors, was the only +person privileged to sit on state occasions, on a throne or raised +seat with a high back and rest whilst all other individuals stood +or moved about him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From several sources we know that Montezuma habitually wore +blue or white attire, which sometimes was of open network. He +employed gold, precious blue and green feathers, turquoise, pearls +and emeralds for his personal ornaments. His diadem with a high +point in front, was incrusted with turquoise or was made of burnished +gold. He sometimes wore a crown made of featherwork, +with a bird's head of gold above his forehead. His emblem was +the sun, the orb of day, and he presided over its cult which had +developed itself simultaneously with the cult of the Above, a feature +of which was the offering of <span class="tei tei-q">“birds, butterflies and flowers.”</span> +Sometimes he wore, <span class="tei tei-q">“attached to his sandals, small wings, named +tzi-coyolli, resembling the wing of a bird. These produced a sound +like that of tiny gold bells when he walked”</span> (Tezozomoc, Cronica, +p. 594). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must be admitted, on reading the foregoing descriptions gleaned +from Sahagun's Historia, that it would be impossible to carry out, +more perfectly and completely, the idea that Montezuma was +the earthly representative of the Upper regions, the blue heaven. +By pushing symbolism so far that he actually wore wings on his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +feet and avoided contact with the ground, it is not surprising that +Montezuma's adversaries, amongst neighboring tribes, should accuse +him of exacting divine honors for his own person. At the +same time there is no doubt that his own subjects revered him +merely as a temporary representative and mouth-piece of the impersonal +dual divinity. This idea is clearly conveyed by some +native harangues, to which I refer the reader, and from which I +extract the following passages: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After his election, the ruler is solemnly addressed by one of the +chief lords who says to him: <span class="tei tei-q">“Oh! our humane, pious and beloved +lord, who deserves to be more highly esteemed than all precious +stones and feathers, you are here present because our sovereign +god has placed thee [above us] as our lord.... You possess +the seat and throne which was given [to your predecessors] by our +lord god”</span> ... <span class="tei tei-q">“you are the image of our lord god and represent +his person. He reposes in you and he employs you like a +flute through which he speaks and he hears with your ears.... +Oh, lord king! God sees what the persons do who rule over his +domains and when they err in their office he laughs at them, but +in silence, for he is god, and is omnipotent and can mock at whom +he will. For he holds all of us in the palm of his hand and rocks +us about, and we are like balls or round globes in his hands and +we go rolling from one side to the other and make him laugh, and +he serves himself of us as we go moving about on the palm of his +hand!”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Although thou art our neighbour and friend and son and brother, +we are no more thy equals, nor do we consider you as a man, for +now you have the person, the image, the conversation and the +communion of our lord god. He speaks inside of you and instructs +you and lets himself be heard through your mouth—his tongue +is your tongue, and your face is his face ... he has adorned +you with his authority and has given you fangs and claws so that +you should be feared and reverenced ...”</span> (Sahagun, book +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. 10). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing figure of speech in which fangs and claws are +alluded to as symbols of fear-inspiring power affords as valuable +an insight into the native modes of thought and expression as do the +similes employed in the following address to the newly-elected ruler +by the spokesman of his vassals. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Oh lord! may you live many years to fill your office prosperously; +submit your shoulders to the very heavy and troublesome +load; extend your wings and breast as a shelter to your subjects +whom you have to carry as a load. Oh, lord! let your town and +vassals enter under your shadow, for you are [unto them] like the +tree named puchotl or aueuetl, which casts a great circle or wheel +of shade, under which many are gathered in shelter”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The admonition also addressed to the ruler, <span class="tei tei-q">“Never to laugh +and joke again as he had done previously to his election, and to +assume the heart of an old, grave and severe man,”</span> explains the +true significance of the name of Montezuma or Mo-tecuh-zoma; +which was an honorific title literally meaning, <span class="tei tei-q">“our angry or +wrathy [looking] lord.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whilst the above data establish beyond a doubt that the Mexican +Quetzalcoatl was regarded as the visible representative of the +celestial ruler of the universe and that divine honors were voluntarily +accorded to him, it is interesting to read Montezuma's explanation +to Cortés concerning this question. The latter writes: +<span class="tei tei-q">“seated on a raised seat Montezuma discoursed as follows: ... +<span class="tei tei-q">‘I know that you have been told by my enemies that I am, or +have made myself a god.’</span>... Raising his robes he showed +me his body saying: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Here you see that I am made of flesh and +bone, like yourself or like any one, and that I am mortal and tangible.’</span> +Grasping his arms and his body with his hands he continued: +<span class="tei tei-q">‘see how they have like to you.’</span> ”</span>... (Historia, +Hernan Cortés, ed. Lorenzana, p. 82). Better than all dissertations, +the above words convey an idea of the naïf simplicity of +the man who uttered them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to Mr. Ad. Bandelier's study, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the +social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans,”</span> +for further details concerning the duties respectively filled +by Montezuma and his coadjutor, I shall only explain here the +conclusion I have reached that the former was the high priest of +the cult of the sun and heaven, the visible ruler, the war lord, and +the administrator of justice. As stated in a native harangue: +<span class="tei tei-q">“the supreme lord is like unto the heart of the population ... +he is aided by two senators in all concerning the administration of +the government: one of these was a <span class="tei tei-q">‘pilli’</span> and was named +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tlaca-tecuhtli; the other was a warrior and was entitled tlacoch-tecuhtli. +Two other chieftains aided the supreme lord in the militia: +one, entitled tlaca-teccatl, was a <span class="tei tei-q">‘pilli’</span> and warrior; the +other, named tlacoch-calcatl, was not a <span class="tei tei-q">‘pilli.’</span> Such is the government +or administration of the republic ... and these four +officers did not occupy these positions by inheritance but by election”</span> +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. 20). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following account of the republic of Tlaxcalla throws further +light upon the form of government which prevailed throughout +Mexico and Central America at the period of the Conquest. +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Captains of Tlaxcalla, each of whom had his just portion +or number of soldiers ... divided their soldiers into four +Battails, the one to Tepeticpac, another to Oco-telulco, the third to +Tizatlan and the fourth to Quiahuiztlan, that is to say, the men of +the Mountains, the men of the Limepits, the men of the Pinetrees, +and the Watermen; all these four sorts of men did make the +body of the Commonwealth of Tlaxcallan, and commanded both in +Peace and War ... The General of all the whole army was +called Xico-tencatl, who was of the Limepits ... the Lieutenant +General was Maxix-catzin....”</span> (A new survey of +the West-Indies ... Thomas Gage, London, 1655, p. 31). +In Mexico we find that the four executive officers were the chiefs +or representatives of the four quarters of the City of Mexico. In +each of these quarters there was a place where periodical offerings +were made in reverence of one of the signs: acatl, tecpatl, callii +and tochtli, which were the symbols of the cardinal-points, the +elements, and served as day and year signs in the calendar +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, chap. 26). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An interesting indication that the entire dominion of Mexico +was also divided into four equal quarters, the rule administration +of which was attended to by four lords, inhabiting towns situated +within a comparatively short distance from the capital, is furnished +by Bernal Diaz (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 65). He relates that the four lords +who supported Montezuma when he walked in state to meet Cortés +were the lords of Texcoco, Iztapalapa, Tacuba and Coyoacan. +These towns, which were minor centres of government, were respectively +situated at unequal distances to the northeast, southeast, +northwest and southwest of the capital. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These facts and the knowledge that <span class="tei tei-q">“all lords, in life, represented +a god”</span> justify the inference that, just as Montezuma represented +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the central power of the Above or Heaven, the four lords +who accompanied him were the personified rulers of the four quarters, +associated with the elements. In ancient Mexico and Maya +records the gods of the four quarters, also named <span class="tei tei-q">“the four principal +and most ancient Gods”</span> are designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the sustainers of +the Heaven”</span> and it cannot be denied that, on the solemn occasion +described, the four lords actually fulfilled the symbolical office of +supporting Montezuma, the personification of the Heaven. This +striking illustration is but one of a number I could cite in proof +of the deeply ingrained mental habit of the native sages to introduce, +into every detail of their life, the symbolism of the Centre, +the Above and Below and the Four Quarters. I shall but mention +here that it can be proven how, in their respective cities the lords +of the cardinal points were central rulers who, in turn, directed the +administration of the government by means of four dignitaries. +Each of these was also the embodiment of a divine attribute or +principle, <span class="tei tei-q">“All noblemen did represent idols and carried the name +of one”</span> (Acosta, Naturall and Morall Historie, lib. 5, p. 349). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Each wore a special kind of symbolical costume and was the +ruler or <span class="tei tei-q">“advocate,”</span> as he is termed, of a distinct class of people. +<span class="tei tei-q">“For to each kind or class of persons they gave a Teotl [=God +or Lord] as an advocate. When a person died and was about to +be buried, they clothed him with the diverse Insignia of the god +to whom he belonged”</span> (Mendieta lib. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, chap. 40). It being +established that each of the four year-symbols, acatl, tecpatl, calli +and tochtli, ruled four minor symbols, it seems evident that, just +as the four lords of the cardinal-points would correspond to the +above symbols, each of the minor lords and the category of people +they represented would also be associated with the minor symbols. +The obvious result of this classification would be the division of +the entire population of the commonwealth into 4×5=20 categories +of people, grouped under twenty local and four central governments, +whose representatives in turn were under the rule of the +supreme central dual powers. Having thus sketched, in a brief +and preliminary way, the expansion of the idea of dividing all +things into four parts, the bud of which was the swastika, let us +examine the Mexican application of the idea of duality, pausing +first to review the data relating to the Cihuacoatl, the personification +of the Earth, the Below and the coadjutor of Montezuma. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nothing has been definitely recorded about his personality, for +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +he seems to have lived in absolute seclusion during the first occupation +of Mexico by the Spaniards. He is frequently alluded to, +however, and Cortés, Herrera, Torquemada and others, inform us +that he had acted as Montezuma's substitute and led the native +troops against the Spaniards. It is interesting to find that after +the Conquest Cortés appointed him as governor of the City of +Mexico. <span class="tei tei-q">“I gave him the charge of re-peopling the capital and +in order to invest him with greater authority, I reinstated him in +the same position, that of Cihuacoatl, which he had held in the +time of Montezuma”</span> (Carta Cuarta, Veytia <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 110). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Quite indirectly, it is possible to learn what sort of military +equipment had been adopted by the Cihuacoatl when he acted as +war-chief. Amongst certain presents, which were sent by Cortés +to Charles V and are minutely described in vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xii</span></span> +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Documentas +ineditas del Archivio de Indias,”</span> p. 347, there are several +suits of armor, which could only have been appropriately worn by +the <span class="tei tei-q">“woman serpent.”</span> One suit consisted of a <span class="tei tei-q">“corselet with +plates of gold and with woman's breasts”</span> and a skirt with blue +bands. Another suit, instead of the breasts, exhibited a great +wound in the chest, like that of a person who had been sacrificed. +In another list (by Diego de Soto, p. 349) a shield is described +<span class="tei tei-q">“which displayed a sacrificed man, in gold, with a gaping wound +in his breast, from which blood was streaming....”</span> It is +obvious that the first of these suits of armor conveyed figuratively +the name and the second the office of the Cihuacoatl of +whom Duran speaks as follows: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“He whose office it was to perform the rite of killing [the victim] +was revered as the supreme pontiff and his name or title and pontifical +robes varied according to the different periods [of the year] +and the ceremonies which he had to perform. On the present +occasion his title was Topiltzin, one of the names of the great +lord ... (Quetzalcoatl) and he appeared carrying a large +flint knife in his hand ...”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxxxi</span></span>). The +following passage shows definitely that Montezuma's coadjutor, +his Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, had an equal share of divine +honors accorded to him. <span class="tei tei-q">“The head priest of the temple, named +Quetzalcoatl, never came out of the temple or entered into any +house whatever, because he was very venerable and very grave and +was esteemed as a god. He only went into the royal palace”</span> +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. 39). The same authority designates +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the second <span class="tei tei-q">“divine twin”</span> as the Tlalocan-tlamacazqui or, Tlalocan-tlenamacac +and states that he served the Tlalocan-tecuhtli. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before proceeding further, let us pause and inquire into the reason +why the name Tlaloc, which is formed of tlalli=earth and is +defined by Duran, for instance, as meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“an underground +passage or a great cave”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, +chap. 84), should be the well-known +title of the <span class="tei tei-q">“god of rain.”</span> The explanation is to be found +in the text of the Vatican Codex, A. Kingsborough, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, p. 190. +This teaches us that the last syllable of the name Tlaloc does not +represent oc=inside of, but stands for octli, the name of the +native wine now known as pulque, which is obtained from the +agave plant. Tlaloc thus meant <span class="tei tei-q">“earth-wine”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“by this metaphor +they wanted to express that just as the fumes of wine make +mankind gay and happy, so the earth when saturated with water, +is gay and fresh and produces its fruits and cereals.”</span> By the light +of this explanation we see that the titles conferred upon Montezuma's +coadjutor were literally <span class="tei tei-q">“the priest or lord, or dealer-of-fire +in the place of the earth-wine.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The clouds, rain, thunder +and lightning were attributed to the lord Tlaloc who had many +tlalocs and priests under him, who cultivated all foods necessary +for the body, such as maize, beans, etc., and sent the rains so that +the earth should give birth to all of its products. During their +festival in springtime the priests went through the streets dancing +and singing and carrying a shoot of green maize in one hand and +a pot with a handle in the other. In this way they went asking +for the [ceremonial] boiled maize and all fanners gave them +some”</span> ... (Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. 5). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above and many scattered allusions throw light upon the +group of ideas associated with the Cihuacoatl and clearly indicate +what were his duties. To him devolved the care of the earth and +his one thought was to secure abundance of rain and of crops. +In order to ensure the proper cultivation of the ground, he had, +under him, innumerable agents, who strictly superintended the cultivation +of all food-plants, the irrigation of barren lauds, etc. +These agents, who also resorted to ceremonial usages in order to +bring rain or avert hail-storms and other disasters, were collectively +named <span class="tei tei-q">“the 400 pulque or octli-gods”</span>—an appellation +which developed into tochtli-gods, when the rabbit (=tochtli) had +become the pictograph habitually employed to convey the sound of +the word octli, and had been adopted as the symbol of the earth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and of prolific reproduction in connection with this. The latter +idea is born out of the female title, that of the earth-mother, who +<span class="tei tei-q">“always brought forth twins.”</span> The Cihuacoatl thus stands out as +the representative of the bountiful mother-earth and as the lord of +agriculture, one of whose duties was the careful collection, storage +and distribution of all food products. He presided over the cult +of the fertility of the earth, of the nocturnal heaven, of the stars +and moon, which were associated with the female principle and with +growth in general. The following record proves that amongst his +other duties he offered sacrifices to the invisible hidden powers of +darkness and earth. <span class="tei tei-q">“During the night, in the feast Tititl, the +high priest named Tlillan tlenamacac [=the dealer with fire in +the land of darkness=tlilli=black, evidently a title analogous to +that of Tlill-potonqui-cihuacoatl, given by Tezozomoc, in Cronica, +chap. 33], sacrificed a victim in honour of the god of the Underworld”</span> +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, appendix). In this, as on similar +occasions, he was assisted by four priests who succeeded him in +rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. Bandelier has already recognized that judicial sentences +were ultimately referred to the <span class="tei tei-q">“woman-serpent,”</span> who pronounced +the <span class="tei tei-q">“final sentence, which admitted of no appeal.”</span> There are more +reasons than can conveniently be presented here, proving that in +Mexico, as in Guatemala, the priest of the Below, the personification +of Tezcatli-poca=Shining Mirror, employed an actual mirror +made of polished obsidian, as an aid in pronouncing final judgment +on criminals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Cakchiquel procedure is described by Fuentes of Guzman, +who is quoted by Dr. Otto Stoll in his most instructive and valuable +work on the Ethnology of the Indian Tribes of Guatemala +(Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, band +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, supplement <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +1888): <span class="tei tei-q">“A road leads [from the ancient city of Guatemala] to a +hill [figured with a large tree growing from it]; on its top there is +a flat circular cement floor, enclosed by a low wall. In the centre +is a pedestal, polished and shining like glass. No one knows of +what substance it is made. This was the tribunal or court of the +Cakchiquel Indians, where public trials were held and where the +sentences were executed. The judges sat in a circle on the low +wall. After the sentence had been pronounced, it had to be confirmed +or vetoed by another authority. Three messengers, acting +as deputies of the council, went to a deep ravine situated to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +north of the palace, where, in a sort of hermitage or prayer-house, +there was the oracle of the devil, which was a black, transparent +stone, like glass, but more costly than [ordinary] obsidian. In +this stone the devil revealed to the messengers, the sentence to be +executed. If it agreed with the judgment pronounced, this was +immediately executed upon the central pedestal [of the hill of justice] +on which the criminal was also tortured, at times.”</span> If nothing +was seen in the mirror, and it gave no sign, the prisoner was +pronounced free. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This oracle was also consulted before wars were undertaken ... +<span class="tei tei-q">“During the first years of the Spanish occupation, when the bishop +Marroquin heard about this stone, he had it cut out and consecrated +it as an altar, which is still in use in the convent of San +Francisco in the capital. It is a precious stone of great beauty +and is half a vara long.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A picture in the Vatican Codex B (p. 48) represents a temple, +on the summit of which a large obsidian mirror is standing on its +edge. Inside the doorway there are many small black spots, which +obviously represent small mirrors and convey the idea that the interior +walls were incrusted with such. These illustrations would +prove that sacred edifices were associated with obsidian mirrors +even if Sahagun did not mention, as he does (book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, appendix), +no less than three sacred edifices in the great temple of Mexico, +which were associated with obsidian mirrors. It is, moreover, +stated by Duran that <span class="tei tei-q">“in Mexico the image of the god Tezcatlipoca +was a stone, which was very shining and black, like jet. It +was of the same stone of which the natives make razors and +knives,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, obsidian +(Duran <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 98). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What is more, Bernal Diaz relates that the image of Tezcatlipoca, +which he saw beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli in the hall of +the great temple of Mexico, had shining eyes which were made +of the native mirrors=tezcatl. <span class="tei tei-q">“In connection with the shining +eyes”</span> of the god it is interesting to note that when, as Duran +states, he was represented under another form, his idol <span class="tei tei-q">“carried +in its hand a sort of fan made of precious feathers. These surmounted +a circular gold disc which was very brilliant and polished +like a mirror. This meant that, in this mirror, he saw all that +went on in the world. In the native language they named it <span class="tei tei-q">‘itlachiayan,’</span> +which means, that in which he looks or sees”</span> (Duran, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 99). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sahagun mentions an analogous sceptre which consisted of <span class="tei tei-q">“a +gold disc pierced in the centre, and surmounted by two balls, the +upper and smaller of which supported a pointed object. This +sceptre was called tlachieloni, which means <span class="tei tei-q">‘that through which +one looks or observes;’</span> because with it one covered or hid one's +face and looked through the hole in the middle of the gold plate.”</span> +This kind of sceptre is not exclusively associated with Tezcatlipoca +in the native picture writings, for it figures in the hand of Chalchiuhtlycue +<span class="tei tei-q">“the sister”</span> of Tlaloc and of Omacatl whose attributes, +the reeds and chalchiuite or jade beads, prove him to be also +associated with the water. On the other hand the same sceptre is +also assigned by Sahagun to the god of fire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A clue to the truth and significance of this emblematic sceptre +is furnished by the fact that, in order to express the divine title +Tlachiuale, meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“the Maker or Lord of all creatures or of +young life,”</span> the native scribes were naturally obliged to employ +the verb tlachia=to look or see, in order to convey its sound. It +is obvious that they cleverly agreed to express this verb by picturing +some object which could be or was looked through. They +therefore adopted a sceptre with a hollow disc, as an emblem, +which was carried by the living representative of certain divinities, +whose entire costume was in reality a sort of rebus, and in the +case of Tlaloc, the lord of earthwine and fertility and the Tlachiuale +or <span class="tei tei-q">“Creator of young life,”</span> par excellence, they once and for +all designated his title by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, +accentuating thereby the action of seeing or looking. But this +probably conveyed even more than the above title, for there is a +Nahuatl noun tlachiuhtli, which means, <span class="tei tei-q">“something made or formed +or engendered,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“earth which is ploughed and sown.”</span> Then +there is the verb tlachipaua which means, <span class="tei tei-q">“the smile of dawn, the +break of day, the clearing up of the weather,”</span> also the purification +and cleansing, all of which were supposed to be under the dominion +of the rain-god and of his living representatives on earth, the rain-priests. +The seemingly conflicting fact that the tlachieloni sceptre +was also assigned to the god of fire is explained by the existence +of the verb tiachinoa=to burn up the fields or forests, and of the +noun tlachi-noliztli=the act of burning up or scorching the fields +or forests, and finally, metaphorically, tlachinoli-teuotl=war or +battle=destruction. It is only when we thus realize all the natives +could express by the image of an eye, looking through a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +circle, that we begin to grasp its full meaning when employed as a +symbol in their picture writings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As to the obsidian mirror, which undoubtedly was the symbol +of Tezcatlipoca and, consequently, must have pertained to his +representative, the priest of the Night, we find that it played a +most prominent rôle in the cult he presided over. In the first +case it appears as though it was resorted to in Mexico as in the +conquered province of Guatemala, as the oracle which rendered +final judgment. A series of illustrations, etc., to be published in +my final work on the Calendar System, will prove satisfactorily +that the Mexican astronomers extensively employed black obsidian +mirrors as an aid to astronomical observations, by means of reflection. +Besides mirrors on the summits of temples and mountains, +certain square columns, placed on an elevation and faced +with a broad band of polished obsidian, are pictured in some Codices. +It is obvious that the latter in particular, if carefully oriented, +would have served as an admirable means of registering the periodical +return of planets, stars or constellations to certain positions; +they would then be reflected on the polished surface, as in a frame. +In certain Codices the double, tau-shaped courtyard or enclosure +surrounded by a high wall with battlements, which was employed +in the daytime for the national game of ball, figures in combination +with obsidian mirrors. I draw attention to the fact that the +name of these courtyards was tlach-tli, which literally means the +looking place=the observatory and that, amongst the edifices +of the great temple, a tezca-tlachtli=obsidian-mirror-observatory, +is described. I shall demonstrate more fully, on another +occasion, that the chief purpose of these enclosures was to serve +as astronomical observatories. Dr. Brinton, Señor Troncoso and +other authorities have already observed that the game of ball itself +was intended to represent the idea of the perpetual motion of the +heavenly bodies. (See American Hero-myths, p. 119.) +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to reëxamine the divine title Tezcatlipoca we see that, +when interpreted as <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the shining obsidian mirror,”</span> +it was the most appropriate title of the lord of the Nocturnal +Heaven, which myriads of mirrors reflected each night, throughout +the land. It is easy to see how the habit of referring to the +Temple Minor, in order to ascertain the positions of the stars, +would naturally lead to its being consulted more extensively as an +oracle later on. We thus clearly perceive how the lord of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Night, whose priests called themselves <span class="tei tei-q">“the sons of the Night,”</span> +became intimately associated with divination and how the idea of a +definite connection between the movements of the stars or human +destinies would, in the lapse of centuries, make a deep and indelible +impression upon the minds of men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the obsidian mirror was the symbol, par excellence, of Mexican +star cult, there are evidences that the small mirror of polished +pyrites was that of the sun-cult. The latter seems to have been +employed, in some way or other, for the concentration of the rays +of the sun required for the lighting of the sacred fire, at noon, on +the days of the vernal equinox and summer solstice. As in Peru, +this duty devolved upon the high priest of the Above or the Son +of the Sun, a title which undoubtedly pertained also to the Mexican +ruler, though not employed so ostentatiously as in Peru. A +keen emulation, which may almost be termed an intense rivalry, +seems to have existed between the two cults, which Sahagun even +goes so far as to designate as two religions. From a chapter of +his Historia we even learn that the entire population of Mexico +was divided into two halves who respectively belonged to one or +the other religion, a fact which naturally affected the position of +the two classes of people and had created the native ideas, of an +upper and a lower class or caste which will be further discussed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sahagun's informants explained to him that, when a child was +born, its parents, according to their class, registered it at one of +the two educational establishments for the young and took vows +to have it educated there as soon as it attained a suitable age. +The lower class took their offspring to the Telpuchcalli, where they +were dedicated to the service of the community and to warfare, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the ruling class. +<span class="tei tei-q">“The <span class="tei tei-q">‘Lords, chieftains or elders,’</span> offered +their sons to the Calmecac to be educated for the priesthood.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It being impossible to present here in full the data showing how +certain primitive conceptions had developed further and how some +human occupations had become associated with the Above and +others with the Below, I will but point out the important fact that +the city of Mexico, divided into four quarters, each of which had +five subdivisions (calpullis), actually consisted of two distinct +parts. One of these was Mexico proper, where the Great Temple +stood and where Montezuma and the lords resided; the other was +Tlatelolco, where the lower classes dwelt and the merchant class +prevailed. After a certain revolt the inhabitants of this portion +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the city were, we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“degraded to the rank of women”</span> +(see Bandelier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. et loc. cit.</span></span>). From this it would seem evident +that their affairs or lawsuits were settled in the official house named +the Cihua-tecpaneca, whilst the affairs of the nobility, residing in +Mexico proper, were disposed of in the Tlaca-tecpaneca (see Duran, +chap. 3). Knowledge of the prevalence of the division of the +population into two parts is gained through a passage of Ixtl-ilxo-chitl's +Historia (chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxxv</span></span>, p. 241): <span class="tei tei-q">“To Quetzalmemalitzin +was given the lordship of Teotihuacan ... with the title of Captain-general +of the dominion of the noblemen. All affairs or lawsuits +of the lords and the nobility belonging to the towns of the +provinces situated in the plain, were to be attended to and settled +in his town. The same title was bestowed upon Quechaltecpantzin +of Otompan, with the difference that he was the captain-general +of the commoners and attended to the affairs and claims of +the commoners and populace of the provinces in the plains.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A further detail concerning the position of the ancient capital of +Mexico should not be omitted, for it is described as follows by the +English friar Thomas Gage, who visited it in 1625: <span class="tei tei-q">“The situation +of this city is much like that of Venice, but only differs in +this, that Venice is built upon the sea-water, and Mexico upon a +lake, which seeming one is indeed two; one part whereof is standing +water, the other ebbeth and floweth according to the wind that +bloweth. That part which standeth is wholesome, good and sweet, +and yieldeth store of small fish. That part which ebbeth and +floweth is a saltish bitter and pestiferous water, yielding no kind +of fish, small or great”</span> (p. 43). Added to other data, this detail +seems to indicate that the geographical position of the capital +had been chosen with utmost care and profound thought, so that, +built on a dual island on a dual lake, it should be in itself an image +or illustration of the ideas of organization which I have shown +to have dominated the entire native civilization. If it be admitted, +as I think is evident, that the site of the capital was chosen and +mapped out in accordance with these ideas, then we undoubtedly +have, in ancient Mexico, not only one of the most remarkable +<span class="tei tei-q">“Holy Cities”</span> ever built by mankind, but also the most convincing +proof of the great antiquity and high development of the civilization +under whose influence one of the greatest capitals of ancient +America was founded. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible to read the following descriptions without recognizing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that the identical fundamental ideas had undoubtedly determined +the native topography of capitals situated in other parts +of the continent. Beginning with Guatemala, which formed a part +of ancient Mexico, I refer to the plan of the ancient capital and +its description by Fuentes of Guzman, published by Dr. Otto Stoll +in his work already cited: <span class="tei tei-q">“A deep ditch, running from north to +south, divided the town into two portions. One of these, situated +to the east, was inhabited by the nobility; whilst the commoners +(Macehuales) lived in the western division.”</span> I pause here to call +attention to the intentional coincidence that the association of +the east with the Above, and the west with the Below, is exemplified +here, topographically. The plan shows that the eastern half +contained, in its centre, a great, oblong enclosure, surrounded by +a high wall. A wall, running from east to west, divided this enclosure +into two distinct courtyards with wide separate entrances +from the west. The northern courtyard, designated as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Place +of the Palace,”</span> contains several buildings. The southern one, +named the <span class="tei tei-q">“Place of the Temple,”</span> contains an edifice on a terraced +mound and several others. It is noticeable that, in the exact +middle of the central wall, there is a seemingly double, unfortunately +indistinguishable object, or building, which marks the exact +middle of the entire dual enclosure. It is particularly interesting +that the East City is divided into two portions by a wall running +from the southeast angle of the wall of the Temple courtyard to the +outer wall of the city. The southern half, in which the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tribunal +or hill of justice is to be seen, is designated as containing the +houses of the Ahauas or heads of the Calpuls.”</span> The northern +half, containing many houses, lacks designation. The West city +is likewise divided into two distinct portions by a broad street, +enclosed by a hill wall and conducting from the western and only +entrance to the city directly to the Place of the Temple. A deep +trench or ditch encloses the entire city, whilst nine watch-towers, +on small hills, are placed at equal distances around it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If this precious document clearly reveals the ground plan on +which the native capitals were built, in accordance with the dominant +idea, the following native map shows that the ancient dominion +of Yucatan, for instance, was figured as an integral whole with +form of a flat disc divided into four quarters, Ho, the modern +Merida, in its centre. This map, copied from the native Codex +Chumazel, has been published by Señor Crescencio Carillo of Ancona +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in the Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 43, +as showing the territorial division of Yucatan before the Conquest +(fig. <a href="#Figure_27" class="tei tei-ref">27</a>). According to Herrera and Diego de Landa, the +unity of the dominion was destroyed about two centuries before the Conquest +by the destruction of the capital, Mayapan. The land then +remained divided amongst many independent chiefs or Bacabs. +Señor Carillo renders the Maya descriptive +text written under the map, +as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“Here is Mani. The beginning +of the land, or its entrance, +is Campeche. The extremity of the +wing of the land is Calkini; the +(chun) place where the wing grows +or begins, is Izamal. The half of +the wing is Zaci; the tip of the wing +is Cumkal. The head of the land +is the city, the capital Ho.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_27" id="Figure_27" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-27.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 27." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 27.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing text shows that, +notwithstanding the circular shape in which it is figured, the +dominion was evidently thought of as in the form of a bird, the +head of which was the capital. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_28" id="Figure_28" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-28.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 28." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 28.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This figure of speech seems to have been prevalent in Mexico +also and to be conveyed by the representation, in the Vienna Codex, +of a double tau-shape to which the head, wings and claw, and +tail of a quetzal are attached (fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, no. 8). As I +shall have occasion to demonstrate further on, the double tau signifies the Above +and the Below and their union forming an integral whole. The +following Nahuatl terms explain by themselves the symbolism of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the bird-figure: cuitlapilli=the tail of an animal or bird, atlapalli=the +wings of a bird, or the leaves of a tree, cuitlapalli atlapalli=vassals, +the populace or lower classes, the laborers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These words furnish irrefutable evidence that the lower class +was familiarly known in Mexico as <span class="tei tei-q">“the wings and the tail”</span> of the +commonwealth or state, or the leaves <span class="tei tei-q">“on the trees”</span> of the tribe. +Sahagun states, on the other hand, that the Mexicans employed the +metaphor of <span class="tei tei-q">“a bird with wings and a tail”</span> to designate a lord, +governor or ruler. He also records that the terms hair, nails, a +thorn, a spine, beard and eyelashes, were used to signify <span class="tei tei-q">“someone +who was noble, generous or of the lineage of the lords.”</span> Such +metaphors as these may well cause us to despair at arriving at a +complete understanding of the native imagery and symbolism. +The symbolism of the bird's claw yet remains to be looked into. +The Nahuatl for the same is xo-maxaltic, xo-tzayanqui or cho-cholli. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In one of the ancient Mexican harangues, previously quoted, it +is said of the supreme ruler that he had been given <span class="tei tei-q">“fangs and +nails”</span> in order to inspire fear and reverence. Scattered evidence +and the fact that in the Codex Mendoza the decorated claws of an +eagle, for instance, appear as a military device on the shields of +certain war chiefs, seem to indicate that the warriors were spoken +of, metaphorically, as <span class="tei tei-q">“the claws or nails”</span> of the state. The following +passage finally proves that the tlachtli or courtyard the shape +of which was a double tau, as in fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, no. 8, was +regarded by the Mexicans as an image of the state itself. In another native harangue +it was said of the newly-elected ruler: <span class="tei tei-q">“He is now placed +or put into the Tlachtli, he has been invested with the leathern +gloves, so that he can govern and throw back the ball to the one +who throws it to him in the game. For the business of governing +very much resembles this game and the game of dice”</span> (Sahagun, +book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. xiii). The latter game alluded to, the patolli, +was played on a mat in the shape of a cross, marked off with +divisions, with stone markers, the moves of which were decided +by the numbers obtained on casting the dice, which consisted of +beans with marks on them. It is interesting to find that the word +pat-olli seems to be connected with the verb pat-cayotia=to be +substituted in the place of another, or to succeed another in office +or dignity. The above comparison of the game to the business of +governing indicates that a feature of the government was a methodical +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +succession or rotation in office or dignity, a point to which +I draw special attention, as I shall refer to it later. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The evidence that the Mexicans regarded the form of the courtyard, +named tlachtli, as that of the state itself is noteworthy. On the +other hand, the native map contained in the Codex Mendoza, p. 1, +shows us that they figured their territory as a square, surrounded by +water and divided into four equal parts by diagonal cross-streams +or canals. As in the Maya map the centre of this is occupied by the +well-known hieroglyph or rebus of Te-noch-ti-tlan, the ancient capital, +which consisted of Mexico and Tlatelolco. In three of the +four triangular divisions, two chieftains are figured, whilst in one +there are four, the complete number of chieftains thus being ten. +The incontrovertible evidence that the dominion of the Mexicans, +as well as that of the Mayas, was figured and regarded as an integral +whole has seemed to me to be of extreme importance, because +it points to a fresh interpretation of the much-discussed +meaning of the name Tullan, <span class="tei tei-q">“the glorious centre of culture where +the high priest Quetzalcoatl, had dwelt and whence he had been +driven by the wiles of his enemies. It is a place that we hear of +in the oldest myths and legends of many and different races. Not +only the Aztecs, but the Mayas of Yucatan and the Kiches and +Cakchiquels of Guatemala, bewailed in woful songs, the loss of +that beautiful land and counted its destruction as the common starting-point +in their annals.... According to the ancient Cakchiquel +legends, however, ... <span class="tei tei-q">‘there were four Tullans, as the +ancient men have told us.’</span> The most venerable traditions of the +Maya race claimed for them a migration from Tullan in Zuyva.”</span>... +<span class="tei tei-q">“When it happened to me,”</span> says Friar Duran, <span class="tei tei-q">“to ask a +[Mexican] Indian who cut this pass through the mountains or who +opened that spring of water or who built that old ruin? the answer +was: The Tultecs, the disciples of Papa,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, Quetzalcoatl. +(See Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.) Considering that the identity +of Tullan has not yet been satisfactorily established, that several +Tullans are said to have existed and that a small town, about a +dozen leagues to the northeast of Mexico, is named Tullan-tzinco=little +Tullan, I should like to direct the attention of Americanists +to the following Maya words: Tul-um=fortification, edifice, +wall and enclosure. Tula-cal, Tuliz, adjectives=whole, entire, +undivided, integral. Tul-ul, adjective=general, universal. Tul-tic, +verb=to belong, to correspond to something. Tul=all +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +around or full. Tul=in composition, to have abundance. Tulnah=to +be too full, to overflow, to proceed, to issue, abound, +high-tide. Tulaan=past participle of tul. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am of opinion that, after carefully examining the foregoing +words and their meanings, we must admit that an intelligible and +satisfactory derivation and signification of the much-discussed +Tula of the Mexicans, which has been vainly sought in the Nahuatl +language, are obtained if we connect it with the Maya words +for fortress, or stronghold, an enclosed place, an integral whole, +an overflowing source of abundance and plenty. If we do this, +then the problematic term Tolteca, given by Mexicans to the superior +people from whom they had derived their culture and knowledge, +means nothing more than such persons who had belonged +(Maya verb tultic) or were members of a highly cultured commonwealth +or ancient centre of civilization, such as had flourished +during countless centuries, in Yucatan and the present Chiapas, +Honduras and Guatemala. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reserving this subject for future, more detailed, discussion, I +point out that the name Ho, given to the capital, which is designated +in the map as the <span class="tei tei-q">“head of the land,”</span> is obviously derived from +the Maya hol, hool, or hoot, which means not only head but also +chieftain. The circumstance that a single word, Ho, conveyed the +triple meaning of a capital, a chieftain and a head, is particularly +noteworthy, as it affords not only important clues to native symbolism, +which I shall trace later on, but also shows that the presence +of the syllable Ho or O, in certain native names of localities, +may possibly indicate that it was a capital, the residence of a +chieftain. Further light is shed upon the following native association +of ideas when the following words are studied. The ancient +Maya name for a pyramid or artificial mound was ho-m and the +pyramidal elevations on which temples or palaces were built were +designated as ho-mul or o-mul (see Vocabulary, Brasseur de Bourbourg). +The title Holpop was moreover that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“chieftain +of the mat,”</span> whose prerogative it was to sit on a mat and to beat +the sacred drum during the public dances or ritual performances +(Cogolludo). The ancient word for vase, vessel or cup in general +was ho-och, whilst o-och meant food or maintenance (Arte +de la lengua Maya, Fray Beltram de Santa Rosa, ed. Espinosa, +Merida, 1859). If the foregoing data be summarized we find that +the word ho, the ancient name of the head of the land, which is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +figured in its centre, is not only homonymous with capital and +chieftain, but also with pyramid, vase or receptacle and maintenance, +and finally with the numeral 5, also <span class="tei tei-q">“ho.”</span> We shall see +that the identical ideas were similarly associated in ancient Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring once more to the ancient map of Yucatan and to the +peculiarity that the head of the figurative bird, the capital, Ho, is +supposed to occupy the centre of the state, I point out nos. 1 and +5 (fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>) from the +Bodleian and Selden MSS. as somewhat analogous +representations of a central capital or chief, and nos. 3 and +6 as possibly being images of a territorial subdivision of the state, +resembling a spider's web. In an unpublished Mexican MS., +which has been recently brought to light, the middle of the concentric +circles is painted blue and suggests the idea of a system of +distribution or irrigation, proceeding from a central supply of +water and radiating in all directions. An accentuation of centrality +is brought into relief in fig. +<a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, no. 6, where the spider's web +is placed in the middle, between the two peaks of a mountain. In +no. 2 a small quadruple sign, which frequently occurs in the Vienna +Codex, always painted in the colors of the four quarters and +united by a cross-band across the centre (no. 4). also figures between +two peaks, above two feet, the significance of which I do +not venture to determine. A remarkable circular disc resembling +the Maya map, and also divided into four parts by cross lines, but +exhibiting footsteps denoting rotation, is represented in the entrance +of a temple, in the Vienna Codex (fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, no. 7). These +figures will be referred to again further on. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now bestow attention upon the names of the Mexican +capital and first note that the edifice of the Great Temple, in which +the Cihuacoatl performed an annual ceremony already mentioned, +was called tlal-xic-co, literally <span class="tei tei-q">“in the navel of the earth or land”</span> +(from tlalli=earth, land or country, xictli=navel and co=in) +(Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, appendix). Besides this edifice there was, in +the middle of the lagoon of Chalco, an island, which, to this day, +bears the name of Xico=in the navel or centre. This indicates +the curious circumstance that the edifice and island had apparently +been regarded as forming <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal centres,”</span> and shows that the name +of Mexico itself may have been associated with the same conception +being, as it was, the central seat of government. Gomara +states that <span class="tei tei-q">“the city was divided into two halves or parts, one +named Tlal-telolco=small island (literally, <span class="tei tei-q">‘in the earth-mound’</span>) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and the other named Mexico, which means <span class="tei tei-q">‘something which flows,’</span> ”</span> +(Histoire Généralle des Indes, Paris, 1634, chap. 38). The Nahuatl +word alluded to can be no other than the verb memeya which, +according to Molina, signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“water, or something liquid which +issues or flows in many directions.”</span> I have already pointed out +that the Maya words to express water which rises and overflows, +high tide and, by extension, abundance and plenty, are tul, tulnah +and, finally, tulaan, past participle of tul. If the particle <span class="tei tei-q">“me”</span> +conveyed the above idea, its combination with xico would cause +the name Mexico to be replete with significance and to mean <span class="tei tei-q">“the +figurative centre whence all maintenance proceeded and flowed in +all directions, throughout the land.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Borgian Codex furnishes representations of identical meaning. +On page 4 a human body, the centre of which forms a large +red disc, is stretched across the double tau-shaped tlachtli which +obviously represents the four quarters, being painted with their +four symbolic colors. It is particularly noteworthy that the limbs +of the central figure are represented as wearing the green skin of +a lizard, while its face is enclosed in the open jaws of the reptile. +It should also be noted here that whilst the Nahuatl names are +cuetz-palin and topitzin, the Maya term for lizard is mech or ix-mech. +On the same page a similar, but smaller, figure is depicted +on a background representing the nocturnal heaven. On the following +page the figure of a dead woman is stretched on a red disc +whilst a priest is drilling the fire-stick into a circular symbol, with +four balls, which is the well-known symbol for chalchiuitl=jade. +As the name of the female water goddess is Chalchiutlycue, this +detail is significant and will be referred to later on. It is noteworthy +that on both pages 5 and 6 the performance of the above +rite is accompanied by the image of the goddess of the earth and +underworld, represented with a death's head, and with her hair +strewn with stars. Her body is that of a green lizard, and she +carries ears and blossoms of maize and holds a blue garment on +which the chalchihuitl symbol figures. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with representatives of the human form outstretched +in sacrifice, on whose body the rite of kindling the sacred +fire or of extracting the heart is being performed, it seems evident +that, under the dominion of the fundamental ideas I have been +discussing, the native sages regarded and utilized the human form +as an image of the Middle and Four Quarters. It is well known +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that the number 20 was termed <span class="tei tei-q">“one count”</span> and connected with +the number of fingers and toes, distributed equally on his four +extremities. The human victim thus formed a living swastika or +cross and became not only the consecrated image of the supreme, +creative, central divinity who controlled the Four Quarters, but also +an image of the central government with its supreme ruler; whilst +the four chiefs of the Quarters were symbolized by the four limbs. +Each of these terminated in a symbolized group consisting of a +hand, maitl, with a thumb (=touey mapilli or vei mapilli, literally, +the great finger, or our great finger) and four fingers (mapilli); or +of a great toe, touei xopil or topec-xopil (literally, our great toe, +or our lord toe) and of four toes=xopilli. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_29" id="Figure_29" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-29.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 29." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 29.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above association of ideas was doubtlessly accentuated by +the fact that the word pilli means a nobleman, a chieftain; thence +he terms pilconetl=the son of a nobleman and pilhua=he who +has sons (pil in this case meaning son and hua=possessor of). +This latter fact could have been very aptly conveyed in the picture-writings +by employing fingers to express the sound <span class="tei tei-q">“pilli.”</span> The +number of sons a chieftain had could thus be easily expressed by +his exhibiting a corresponding number of fingers. I shall revert to +this possibility presently, and now referring to fig. +<a href="#Figure_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>, no. 2, direct +attention to the obvious intention to express the idea that the fire +produced was distributed to the four quarters by means of the +figures, painted in symbolical colors, three of which are visible. +Another picture in the same Codex represents four similar figures +springing towards the cardinal points from a source or fountain of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +water, whilst a priest above a triangular cloak<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> holds a pair of +weapons (?) in his hands (fig. <a href="#Figure_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>, +no. 1). If carefully studied, +these groups seem to corroborate the derivation of the name Mexico, +given above. What is more, the first group affords an explanation +of the meaning and purpose of three strange recumbent stone +figures bearing circular vessels, which have been respectively found +in Mexico, Tlaxcala and Chichen-Itza and are now preserved at the +National Museum in Mexico. They furnish the most convincing +proof that an identical cult and symbolism had existed in these +widely-separated localities. The conclusion I have previously expressed, +that an actual connection had been established between +Chichen-Itza and Mexico by the Maya high priest Kukulcan, or +Quetzalcoatl, is thus corroborated by undeniable evidence, which +will be supplemented later on. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The three monoliths have been described and illustrated in the +Anales del Museo Nacional, Mexico, vol. 1, p. 270, by the late +Señor Jesus Sanchez, and are here reproduced. The statue exhumed +at Chichen-Itza by Dr. Le Plongeon (pl. +<a href="#Plate_IV" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span></a>, fig. 1) +closely resembles that found at Tlaxcalla in Mexico (pl. +<a href="#Plate_III" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span></a>, +fig. 2). Dr. Brinton, who erroneously describes the Chichen-Itza +statue as representing <span class="tei tei-q">“a sleeping god,”</span> points out the extremely +important fact that there was a divinity worshipped in Yucatan +called Cum-ahau, <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the vase,”</span> who is designated in +a MS. dictionary as <span class="tei tei-q">“Lucifer (the lord of the underworld) the +principal native divinity.”</span> He adds there is good ground to suppose +that this lord of the vase ... was the god of fertility +common to the Maya and Mexican cult (Hero-Myths, p. 165). +Considering that the great market-place in the capital was actually +the centre to which the entire product of the land was periodically +carried from its remotest confines, was there classified, exchanged +or distributed far and wide, the comparison to a central flowing +source of maintenance was most appropriate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That some particular spot in or near the city should have gradually +assumed importance and sanctity as marking the exact centre +of the metropolis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, of the integral whole of the Mexican +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“empire”</span> is but natural and it is not surprising to find that solemn +rites were performed on this spot. In one of the chronicles to +which I shall revert, it is stated that the New Fire was at times +kindled on the prostrate body of a slave, and this curious statement +is corroborated by a picture in the Borgian Codex, showing +a priest producing fire from a circular vessel placed on the body +of a victim beneath whom a face enclosed in the open jaws of a +reptile, is visible (fig. <a href="#Figure_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_IV" id="Plate_IV" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-iv.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate IV." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate IV.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Le Plongeon, to whom much credit is due for its discovery, +identified the Chichen-Itza statue, for reasons not fully explained, +as a portrait of Chac-Mool, or Lord Tiger, and relates that it was +found at a depth of eight metres, not far from the base of the +Great Pyramid Temple. A statue of a standing tiger, with a human +head and a shallow depression in its back, was also found +near the same spot. I have seen other sculptured figures of human +beings holding a vase, as at the hacienda near Xochicalco, Mexico, +and of tigers, with circular depressions on their backs, and hope +to be able to reproduce their photographs on another occasion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most elaborately sculptured recumbent statue is undoubtedly +that which was found in or near the city of Mexico (pl. +<a href="#Plate_IV" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span></a>, +fig. 3). The under surface of its base (pl. +<a href="#Plate_IV" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span></a>, fig. 5) is entirely +covered with zigzag water lines and representations of roots +of plants, figured as in the Codices; shells, one kind of which is +the well-known symbol of parturition, and frogs which are intimately +associated with water symbolism. On the hair of the statue +a flower-like ornament is carved (pl. +<a href="#Plate_IV" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span></a>, fig. 4) in connection with +which it should be noted that the Nahuatl for flower is xochitl, +pronounced hoochitl, resembling the Maya hooch=vase. The small +groups of five dots forming a border around the circular vessel +are noteworthy, as they are likewise sculptured on the calendar-stone. +The characteristic scrolls about the eyes of the figure show +that it personates tlaloc, or earth-wine. The fertility of the earth, +caused by rain, is symbolized by the wreath of ears of corn and +reeds (Nahuatl, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">tollin</span></span>) +which is sculptured around the base of this, +one of the most remarkable of ancient American monuments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Señor Sanchez cites Torquemada (Monarquia Indiana, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +p. 52) as the only authority who mentions a recumbent image or +idol and relates that, <span class="tei tei-q">“in the city of Tula, there was preserved in +the great temple, an image of Quetzalcoatl ... he was figured +as lying down, as though going to sleep.... Out of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reverence the image was covered with mantles or cloths.... +They said that when sterile women made offerings or sacrifices to +the god Quetzalcoatl, he immediately caused them to become pregnant....”</span> +He was the god of the Winds which he sent to +sweep or clear the way for the tlaloques=<span class="tei tei-q">“the earth-wine”</span> +gods. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Señor Sanchez also quotes Gama, who, basing himself upon +Torquemada's authority, maintains that Tezcatzon-catl, the principal +rain or octli-god, was figured as lying in an intoxicated condition, +holding a vase of pulque in his hands. To the above data +I add the description by Bernal Diaz, of a <span class="tei tei-q">“figure in sculpture”</span> +he saw on the summit of the great temple of Mexico: <span class="tei tei-q">“It was +half man and half lizard (lagarto), was encrusted with precious +stones and one-half of it was covered with cloths. They said that +half of it was full of all the kinds of seeds that were produced in +the entire land, and told [me] that it was the god of sown land, +of seeds and fruits. I do not remember his name....”</span> (Historia +Verdadera, p. 71). It may be as well to note, that the Nahuatl +names for lizard, cuetz-palin and topitzin, approximately +convey the sound of the first syllables of the name of the culture-hero +Quetzalcoatl, and of the title <span class="tei tei-q">“topiltzin”</span> bestowed upon +him. It must, of course, remain a matter of conjecture whether +the lizard was possibly employed in the above case as a pictograph, +to express the sound of its name. One thing seems certain, +that the Tula image of Quetzalcoatl, to which divinity barren +women directed their invocations, and the statue described by +Bernal Diaz as that <span class="tei tei-q">“of the god of seeds, fruits and cultivated +land,”</span> were undoubtedly analogous to the sculptured recumbent +figure found in Mexico, and exhibiting the symbols of Tlaloc, or +earth-wine, of maize, and of parturition. Bernal Diaz further +relates that the said image was kept on the uppermost terrace of +the Great Temple, in one of five <span class="tei tei-q">“concavities surrounded by barbacans +or low walls the wood-work of which was very richly +carved”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. et loc. cit.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inference to be drawn from the foregoing data is that the +Mexicans and the Mayas habitually kept, on the summit of their +principal temple, in their centres of government, a statue holding +a circular vessel and figuratively representing the <span class="tei tei-q">“navel or centre +of the land.”</span> The group of ideas already traced in the Maya +ho=capital, hom=pyramid, ho-och=vessel, o-och=maintenance, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ho=5, thus proves to be completely carried out, for, on this +consecrated spot, which emblematized the source whence all life +proceeded, sacred emblematic rites were performed, the purpose of +which was to typify the union, in the centre, of the four elements +requisite for the productiveness of the earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_30" id="Figure_30" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-30.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 30." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 30.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ground plan of the Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen-Itza, +which was built, according to tradition, by the high priest +Quetzalcoatl, carries out the idea of the middle and of the four +quarters in so obvious a manner that it may safely be assumed +that it represented the supposed centre of a dominion +(fig. <a href="#Figure_30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>). +Referring the reader to the interesting description +of this remarkable edifice in Mr. +William Holmes' valuable work already +cited, I note that round temples, dedicated +to Quetzalcoatl, are recorded to have also +existed in Mexico. It seems probable that, +at certain festivals, the living representatives +of the Above and Below performed +certain sacred rites on the summit of one +of these circular edifices. It is obvious +that such rites could only have been fitly performed by the coöperation +of both twin rulers or Quequetzalcoas, each of whom personified +two elements. The appropriate season for such rites would be +that when the necessity of insuring a successful harvest would +seem most urgent. It is a recorded fact that the most solemn festivals +of the year were held between the vernal equinox, on which +date the ritual year began, and the fall of the first rain which usually +occurs about the middle of May. It is extremely significant +that at this precise period the festival toxcatl took +place (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Maya +thoaxol or thoxol=distribution, giving each one a little, and o-och=food +or maintenance) during which Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli +were jointly honored. During this festival the <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred +dough,”</span> named tzoalli, was a prominent feature of the ritual and it +was undoubtedly associated with the idea of the life-giving union +of the four elements, the Above and Below, or the male and female +principles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It can, moreover, be directly connected with the recumbent statues +representing the centre; for, whilst Bernal Diaz recorded that +the statue on the summit of the Great Temple held a collection of +all the seeds of the land, Cortés, in his descriptive letter, gives us +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +an important detail which evidently applied to the identical statue. +He relates that <span class="tei tei-q">“the bodies of the idols are made of a dough consisting +of all the kinds of seeds and vegetables that these people +ate. These are ground, mixed with each other and then moistened +with the blood of the hearts of human victims ...”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +p. 105). Sahagun relates that an image of the earth goddess, +under the title of Seven-serpents or twins, was made of this sacred +dough and that offerings of all kinds of maize, beans, etc., were +made before it <span class="tei tei-q">“because she is the author and giver of all these +things which sustain the life of the people”</span> +(book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, 4). It is +well known that the dough images were broken into small pieces +and these were distributed to the priests and people, who partook +of the substance after having prepared themselves by fasting, for +the sacred rite. I draw attention to the fact that the above sacred +substance is but the natural outcome of the primitive notion already +mentioned, which led the hunters to spill blood upon the earth, to +obtain its increased fruitfulness. An insight having been thus obtained +of the origin of blood sacrifices in ancient America, it is +possible to understand the meaning of certain representations showing +the performance of ritual blood-offerings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the well-known bas-relief preserved in the National Museum +of Mexico, and illustrated in the Anales (vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 63), the +two historical rulers of ancient Mexico, who figure as Quequetzalcoas, +or divine twins, in exactly the same costume, are sculptured +with blood flowing from their shins and in the act of piercing +their ears with a sharp bone instrument. Two streams of blood +descend from these and meet before falling into the open jaws +figured beneath an altar, on which two conventionalized flowers +appear. The two rows of teeth=tlantli, convey the sound of +the affix tlan=land of, or tlalli=earth. But the most remarkable +and striking instance of the group of ideas we have been +studying is found on p. 62 of the Borgian Codex. On a background +formed by a pool of water, there is a group which represents +the <span class="tei tei-q">“earth-mother”</span> lying on a band of lizard-skin, with +two maize plants issuing from her body and growing into a large +two-branched tree, in the centre of which is a flint-knife or tecpatl. +A bird stands on its summit and its branches terminate in +maize plants. Its growth is being furthered by the two streams +of blood which proceed from two human figures, standing at each +side of the tree. One is painted black and evidently represents +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Lord of the Below; the other is painted blue-green and represents +the Lord of the Above. The blood-sacrifice they are jointly +offering is that mentioned in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians,”</span> as performed +in order to obtain generation. Unquestionably this symbolical +group would have been equally intelligible to Mayas or +Mexicans, since the ideas it expressed were held in common by +both people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before proceeding further it is necessary to state that after the +native philosophers had, for an indefinite period of time, been satisfied +with the artificial division of all things into four quarters, +corresponding to the cardinal points and elements, the idea of the +Above and Below gradually grew in importance, whilst prolonged +thought and observation disclosed that the above classification demanded +revision. On carefully investigating the attributes of the +principal ancient Mexican deities or personifications of the elements +we see that the native thinkers had found themselves obliged +to make a distinction between the different forms of each element, +having realized, for instance, that water not only fell to earth from +the heaven, but also issued from the depths of the earth in the +form of springs or fountains, and formed rivers and lakes. The +final conclusions they reached in this instance are best explained +by the fact that the name of the god Tlaloc means earth-wine or +rain only, and that his sister <span class="tei tei-q">“Chalchiuhtlycue”</span> appears as the +personification of wells, springs, rivers and lakes. It is evident +that the classification of the ocean or sea must have given rise to +much serious thought. We know how the problem was solved by +the fact that the Nahuatl name for the ocean is <span class="tei tei-q">“ilhuica-atl”</span>=heaven-water. +Accordingly, the rain and the ocean pertained to +the heaven, the Above and male principle, whilst the wells, springs, +rivers, etc., belonged to the earth, the Below, the female principle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As in this case, so it was with the other elements, each of which +was finally personified by a male deity and his female counterpart, +which, in some cases, tended to represent its distinctive and beneficent +properties. As these deities are separately treated in my +commentary of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians”</span> and lack of space forbids +my discussing them here, I shall but mention that the ultimate +native systematization of the elements, each of which was +thought of as an attribute only of supreme and central divinity, +corresponds exactly to that held by the Zuñis of to-day and set +forth in the following account given by Mr. Frank H. Cushing and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +quoted in Dr. Brinton's <span class="tei tei-q">“Native Calendar of Central America +and Mexico”</span> (p. 8). In quoting it I draw special attention to the +numerical divisions given, as this is absolutely essential for the +understanding of the statements I shall make, further on, concerning +the origin of the native Calendar-systems. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_31" id="Figure_31" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-31.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 31." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 31.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the ceremonies of the Zuñis the complete terrestrial sphere +is symbolized by pointing or blowing the smoke to the four cardinal +points, to the zenith and nadir, the individual himself making +the seventh number. When the celestial is also symbolized, only +the six directions are added to this seven, because the individual +remains the same, so that the number typifying the universe, +terrestrial and celestial, becomes 13. When, on the other hand, +in their ceremonies, the rite requires the officiant to typify the +supra- and intra-terrestrial spheres, that is, the upper and lower +worlds [the Above and the Below], the same number 13 results, +as it is held that in each the sun stands for the individual, being +in turn the day sun and night sun, the light and dark sun, but +ever the same and therefore counts but once.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After having gained this knowledge of native speculative philosophy, +let us penetrate still further into their modes of thinking +by studying, first of all, a series of symbols of the earth-mother +taken from one of the most valuable of Mexican MSS., the Vienna +Codex (fig. <a href="#Figure_31" class="tei tei-ref">31</a>). +In these the idea of the vase, bowl or receptacle +and of the serpent predominates. It is instructive of native thought +to find the vase represented as containing a child (no. 1), an agave +plant (no. 7), a fire, denoting warmth (no. 3), a flower (no. 12), +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and a bunch of hair, the numerical symbol for multiplicity=the +number 400 (no. 5). In no. 2, the hollow between two recurved +peaks conveys the idea of a central vase; a band with eyes rests +upon the peaks and denotes the heaven. No. 4 shows a double +vase, enclosed in a similar representation of the nocturnal heaven—the +idea to be conveyed being evidently that of a receptacle +hidden in darkness. No. 9 displays an open jaw, two claws, a +human heart and a stream of blood issuing from it. Nos. 10 and +11 present different shapes of the serpent's jaw, the symbol of +the earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The double-headed serpent forming a vase containing a flower +(no. 12) is particularly interesting because the flower=xoch-itl +in Nahuatl, seems to suggest an intentional likeness to the Maya +word for <span class="tei tei-q">“vase, vessel or cup in general,”</span> ho-och (Arte de la +lengua Maya, Fray Pedro Beltran de Santa Rosa, ed. Espinosa, +Mérida, 1859) as well as hoch or o-och=<span class="tei tei-q">“food and maintenance.”</span> +The symbolical vase-like opening in the core of the agave plant, +(no. 8) is such as is made to this day, in order to collect the juice, +which, when fermented, constitutes the sacred wine of the ancient +Mexicans, octli, now better known as pulque.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> As will be shown +the Mexicans considered this as <span class="tei tei-q">“the drink of life.”</span> Its use was +rigidly regulated and supervised by the <span class="tei tei-q">“octli-lords”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“rain-priests”</span> +who distributed it at certain dances, in order to induce a +state of mild intoxication amongst the participants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As in the case of the Zuñis and Tarahumari Indians of the present +day, referred to by W J McGee, in his valuable and instructive +article on <span class="tei tei-q">“The beginning of Marriage”</span> (the American Anthropologist, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ix</span></span>, no. 11, p. 371), <span class="tei tei-q">“certain ceremonials typifying +the fecundity of the earth and of the leading people thereof”</span> were +performed by the ancient Mexicans. These public ceremonials had +also been <span class="tei tei-q">“apparently developed to the end that the tribes and +peoples might be encouraged to increase and multiply and possess +the fecund earth.”</span> They took place at the period of the year +when the heaven and earth were also supposed to +unite, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, at the +beginning of the rainy season. During this the ordinary out-door +occupations of the agriculturist and hunter were forcibly interrupted +and the regular and periodical transportations of produce and tribute +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the capital became impossible, owing to torrential rain, +swollen rivers and impassable roads. This period of enforced +shelter and confinement indoors seems to have become the definite +mating season of the aborigines. At the same time the union +of the sexes had obviously assumed a sort of consecration since +it was intimately associated with the cosmical, philosophical and +religious ideas and coincided with what was regarded as the annual +union of the elements or of the Above and Below, the heaven and +earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At that period of its history, when the Aztec race was jointly +governed by a priest, personifying the heaven and a priestess, +<span class="tei tei-q">“his wife and sister,”</span> who personified the earth, some form of +sacred marriage rite must have been annually performed. The +consecrated character of their union must have naturally caused +their offspring to be regarded as of a holy and almost divine origin. +It is easy to realize, therefore, how, in ancient Mexico, the +artificial idea of <span class="tei tei-q">“superior birth”</span> came into existence, how a family +or caste of rulers gradually developed, the members of which +were entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“teotl”</span>=divine, whilst the men were regarded as +<span class="tei tei-q">“the sons of Heaven”</span> and the women <span class="tei tei-q">“the daughters of Earth.”</span> +It is obvious from this that the periodical union of the sexes, accompanied +as it was, by sacred dances and the distribution of +sacred wine, must have gradually assumed a semi-religious character, +whilst the ritual nuptials of the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> rulers, typifying, +as it obviously did, the grand and impressive phenomenon of the +rainy season, must have caused this marriage to assume the character +of a hallowed rite and surrounded it with the most elevated +and intense religious sentiments of which the native mind was +capable. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After this recognition of the diverging influences which guided +the development of primitive marriage institutions, we will return +to the rain-priests or <span class="tei tei-q">“octli-lords,”</span> of whom it is repeatedly stated +that there were four hundred, a number corresponding to an assignment +of 100 or 5×20 to each of the four provinces or divisions +of the commonwealth. Their emblem was the sacred vase or receptacle +and in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians”</span> this will be seen figured +on their mantas and shields (no. 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>). A small gold plate, of +the same shape, is represented as worn by these <span class="tei tei-q">“lords,”</span> attached +to the nose (no. 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>); and, in the same MS., the symbolical ornament +is also carried by the <span class="tei tei-q">“sister of Tlaloc.”</span> It was evidently +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +worn, like similar ornaments in other countries, hanging from the +septum of the nose, and seems to have indicated a consecration of +the breath as the substance of life. As an inference, merely based +on an insight gained into the native modes of thought, I suggest +that the explanation for the adoption of this ornament may have +been the religious idea that the breath of life, dividing itself as it +issues through the nostrils and uniting when inhaled, appeared to +the native thinkers as a marvellous illustration of unity and duality, +both ideas having constantly been present in their minds. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_32" id="Figure_32" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-32.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 32." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 32.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Vienna Codex there is a remarkable picture of the earth-vase +resting on a slab with five divisions. A profusion of puffs or +breaths of air or vapor issue from it and, branching off in two directions, +form what is like the conventional tree of life, also met +with in Maya bas-reliefs and documents. At the extremities of +the branches which turn downwards, a serpent's eye is visible and +a forked-tongue issues above the middle +(fig. <a href="#Figure_32" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>, no. 1). The intention +to express an exuberant vitality and growth issuing from +the symbolical vase in the centre of the earth, seems obvious. +This idea is still more clearly conveyed, however, in two symbolic +pictures on pp. 21 and 29 of the Codex Borgia, which are reproduced +as nos. 1 and 4 in fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a> of this publication. The first +represents the vase overflowing with water and containing a flint-knife, +the generator of the vital spark. The central group is surrounded +by water and by sun-rays and obviously symbolizes the union of +air, light and water, constituting the Above, with the flint the emblem +of the earth-mother and of Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the +Under-world. Fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, no. 4, represents the vase overflowing +with a liquid, which is designated as being the sacred octli or earth-wine +by the presence of the rabbit, which expresses the sound of its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +name=tochtli. This rebus is surrounded by the nocturnal heaven +strewn with stars and the reference to the union of rain or earth-wine +with earth and darkness is evident. It has been generally +assumed that these images of the vase, containing the rabbit or +flint-knife, represented the moon. As the latter was intimately +associated with the cult of night, of the earth-mother and ideas of +growth, it is not impossible that by an extension of symbolism, +this was the case, but only in the same way as the sun was the +emblem of the cult of the Above. On the other hand the native +drawings of the moon in Sahagun's Academia MS. represent it as +a crescent with a human profile on the inner side, and in a specimen +preserved at the Trocadéro Museum, Paris, it is similarly +carved in rock crystal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before proceeding to investigate the symbol further, I would +point out the general resemblance of the vase, especially as a conventionalized +serpent's jaw, to the <span class="tei tei-q">“horse-shoe”</span> shape of the +problematical stone <span class="tei tei-q">“yokes”</span> which have been so thoroughly studied +by Dr. Hermann Strebel of Hamburg (Studien ueber Steinjoche +aus Mexico and Mittel-Amerika. Internationales Archiv, +bd. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">III</span></span>, 1890). Mr. Francis Parry has advanced a view concerning +the meaning of these curious <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred stones.”</span><a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> This is +somewhat corroborated, as will be shown, by my recent studies, which +seem to indicate pretty clearly that these symbolical objects pertained +to the cult of the earth-mother. A fact of unquestionable +importance, cited by Mr. Parry, is the certified existence and use, +amongst southern Californian Indians of the present day, of a +rudely worked stone of the same shape, in a native religious rite. +The owner of one of these stones, Mr. Horatio Rust, a pioneer +resident of Pasadena, southern California, exhibited it in the Anthropological +Section of the World's Columbian Exposition, at +Chicago, 1893, and informed me how he had observed that, occasionally, +a native assembly took place at a certain spot on a mountain +side, during which invocations and offerings were made. He +ascertained that the ceremony on one occasion was the equivalent +of the puberty-dances of similar California tribes. Having visited +and examined the spot after one of these celebrations, in which +six young girls, decorated with garlands of flowers, were the chief +participants, he found the <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred stone,”</span> concealed and surrounded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by offerings of corn, meal and pieces of money. The +version published by Mr. Parry is slightly different to this account, +which was given me by Mr. Rust himself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order fully to appreciate the close analogy between the Californian +ceremonial offering of maize and meal to the emblematic +stone and the ancient Mexican ritual offerings of seeds to an idol, +holding a bowl or vase, it is necessary to read the following data. +At the same time I would like to mention here that amongst the +Hupa Indians of California, who have been termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the Romans +of Northern California by reason of their valour and far reaching +dominions,”</span> we find that <span class="tei tei-q">“flakes or knives of obsidian or jasper, +sometimes measuring 15 inches or more in length, are employed +for sacred purposes and are carried aloft in the hand in certain +ceremonial dances, wrapped with skin or cloth. Such knives are +esteemed so sacred that the Indians would on no account part with +them, and Mr. Stephen Powers found that they could not be purchased +at any price.”</span><a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is scarcely necessary to recall here that the flint-knife was a +well-known ancient Mexican emblem, nor to point out the importance +of the conclusion that two well-defined symbols which played +an important rôle in the Mexican and Mayan cult of the Below and +of the Earth-mother, are actually found in use amongst Californian +Indians at the present day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A whole flood of light is thrown upon native symbolism, however, +by the information obtained from the Zuñi Indians by Mr. +F. H. Cushing. The following passage, from their Creation myth, +affords the most positive confirmation of the foregoing conclusion, +that the bowl or vase was the native emblem of the earth-mother. +The Zuñi speaker said: <span class="tei tei-q">“Is not the bowl the emblem of the +Earth, our Mother? For from her we draw both food and drink, +just as the babe draws nourishment from the breast of its mother. +And round, as is the rim of the bowl, so is the horizon....”</span><a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> +Interesting as this explanation of the native symbolism undoubtedly +is, it becomes most important when its full significance is +realized and we recognize that originally earthenware bowls themselves +were looked upon as sacred emblems formed indeed out +of the material of the earth itself. This fact places the invention +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and manufacture of earthen vessels in an entirely new light and +enables us to conjecture and understand why, quite apart from their +utility, so much care and decoration were lavished upon them and +why, indeed, they were constantly buried with the dead. They +obviously served as sacred emblems of the earth-mother, to whose +care the dead body was confided, and originally the intention probably +was to propitiate her by the beauty of the sacred vessels, +which, to be symbolical of her bounty, necessarily contained food +and drink. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without pausing to discuss how easily this custom would have +gradually given birth to the belief that the food and drink thus +offered were intended for the use of the dead body itself, or its soul, +I would point out that, in the absence of clay vessels, a stone, +rough or worked, would have also served as an appropriate emblem +of the earth-mother, being as it were, of her own substance. +It is well known that in ancient Mexico this custom prevailed. +There we also find that the bowl- or vase-shaped grave was employed, +with a deeply religious and symbolical meaning. This is +clearly revealed by a native drawing in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians,”</span> +representing a native burial. The deceased, represented by his skull +only, has been placed in a deep hole, figured as a large inverted +horse-shoe, painted brown and covered with small <span class="tei tei-q">“horse-shoe”</span> +marks. The same religious symbolism which led to the adoption of +a definite form of sepulchre, typifying the element earth, would evidently +account for the adoption for burial purposes, of large clay +vessels into which the remains of the dead were placed. In some +localities these clay burial urns were, as we know, made large +enough to contain the dead body itself. The difficulty of manufacturing +these would naturally have led to the general adoption of +cremation, simply as a means of reducing the remains so that they +could repose in the sacred image of the earth. Cremation would, +moreover, be a rite full of meaning since, to the native mind, +earth was inseparable from its twin element fire, and both together +constituted the <span class="tei tei-q">“Below.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is significant to find, however, that the ashes of Montezuma's +predecessors had not been finally consigned to the earth. In strict +accordance with their association with the Heaven and Above, +their remains were never allowed to come in contact with the earth, +but were usually preserved inside of a hollow wooden effigy of the +deceased, which was dressed in his insignia and placed in a high +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tower, built for the express purpose. Cortés states that there were +<span class="tei tei-q">“forty very high towers”</span> in the enclosure of the Great Temple of +Mexico and that <span class="tei tei-q">“all of these were sepulchres of the lords”</span> (Historia +de Nueva-España, ed. Lorenzana, pp. 105 and 106). Whilst it is +evident that the remains of all lords and priests of heaven should +thus be assigned a place of rest high above the earth, it is equally +intelligible that the bodies of the lords and priests of the Below +and all women should be consigned to the interior of the earth and +by preference in caves. The Codex Féjérvary contains an interesting +picture of the tied-up body of a woman, recognizable as +such from the head-dress and her instrument of labor, the metlatl, +on which the maize is ground. The mummy rests inside of a flat +effigy of a serpent's head, which seems to be carved in wood or +stone and closely resembles fig. <a href="#Figure_31" class="tei tei-ref">31</a>, no. 11. It is worth +considering whether the carved stone-yokes may not have served in connection +with the funeral rites of the consorts of rulers or high +priestesses or priests of the Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If investigations of the vase or earth symbols are extended to +countries lying south of Mexico, traces of the existence of an +analogous cult are observable. There undoubtedly exists a striking +resemblance between the form of the characteristic and peculiar +stone <span class="tei tei-q">“seats”</span> which have been found in such numbers in +Ecuador, to the vase, fig. <a href="#Figure_31" class="tei tei-ref">31</a>, no. 3, for instance. The +employment of these symbolical stones as a consecrated central altar or, +possibly, as the throne of the living representative of the earth-mother, +would have harmonized with the native ideas which have +been traced on the preceding pages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was also extremely interesting to me to find the identical symbol +in the Maya day-sign Caban, which has been identified by Dr. +Schellhas and Geheimrath Förstemann as a symbol of the earth +and is figured on p. 99 of Dr. Brinton's Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics. +In the sign Caban, the horse-shoe mark is accompanied +by a series of dots which seem to indicate liquid trickling from the +receptacle and permeating the soil, an idea which is strictly analogous +to the much more elaborate Mexican images of the vase full +of rain or <span class="tei tei-q">“earth-wine,”</span> fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, +nos. 1 and 4, which, in cursive +form, was employed as the emblem of the pulque, or octli lords, +the priests of the earth. It is strikingly significant to find that in +the Maya Codices the drops issuing from the horse-shoe are sometimes +figured as trickling into the mouths of <span class="tei tei-q">“divinities”</span> whose +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +faces also exhibit images of the sacred vase, analogous to that of +the Mexican <span class="tei tei-q">“octli-lords.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These Maya divinities have been designated by Dr. Schellhas +as god L, whose face is painted black and under whose eye a vase +is painted, a peculiarity termed by Maya authorities <span class="tei tei-q">“an ornamented +eye”</span> and which may be seen in fig. <a href="#Figure_33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, iv; (2) as god M, +<span class="tei tei-q">“a second black god,”</span> whose eye is likewise enclosed in a vase and +whose hieroglyph is a vase on a black ground; and (3) as god C, +of whom I shall subsequently speak in detail. (See Brinton's +Primer, pp. 122 and 124.) In the case of god L, the two horse-shoe +marks from which drops are falling into the mouth of the +god, are surmounted by the glyph imix, to which I shall revert. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_33" id="Figure_33" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-33.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 33." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 33.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The horse-shoe mark with drops likewise occurs in the design +resembling the akbal glyph, which has been interpreted as connected +with akab=night. It also occurs, in Maya Codices, on +bands exhibiting cross-symbols, sometimes in an inverted position +and hanging from above and sometimes standing on two of the +three mounds which are a feature of these interesting glyphs. +Postponing a detailed discussion of these, I will but emphasize +here that, in the Maya Codices the vase, cursively drawn as a +<span class="tei tei-q">“horse-shoe”</span> mark, is proved to be intimately connected with the +ideas of liquid falling from above, and constituting the drink of +divinities and symbols associated with the sacred vase, night and +darkness, all attributes of the Below. We shall next demonstrate +that it was alternately placed, on the Maya Caban glyph, with +a curious sign consisting of a pea-shaped black dot, to which a +curved and wavy line is attached. This is always figured as issuing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from above the dot, then extending downwards and half around +it and terminating in a descending, undulating line. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I submit the following to the consideration of Maya specialists: +It seems to me that this sign presents an extremely realistic drawing +of the seed of a monocotyledonous plant, such as the maize or +Indian corn, in its first stage of germination, when the radicle, +having issued from the apex, turns downwards in characteristic +fashion and penetrates into the earth. Besides the realism of the +native drawing there can be no doubt that the image of a sprouting +maize-seed is the most expressive and appropriate accompaniment +to the symbol of fertilizing rain, on an earth-symbol, and I am +unable to understand how Drs. Cyrus Thomas, Seler, Schellhas +and Brinton could have overlooked the realism in this image of a +sprouting seed, and concluded that it was a portrayal of <span class="tei tei-q">“fermented +liquor trickling downward,”</span> a <span class="tei tei-q">“nose-ornament,”</span> or a +<span class="tei tei-q">“twisted lock of hair,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“a cork-screw curl.”</span> The latter interpretation +was made by Dr. Schellhas because he found the sign in +connection with female figures in the Codices, which undoubtedly +is a fact of extreme interest, as it furnishes a valuable proof that +the Mayas associated the earth with the female principle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Schellhas, however, records his observation that the sign +caban occurs as a symbol of fruit-bearing earth, in the Codex +Troano, as it is figured with leaves of maize (p. 33) or with climbing +plants issuing from it and winding themselves around a pole +(p. 32). Geheimrath Förstemann connects the day-name caban +with <span class="tei tei-q">“cab”</span> to which Perez, in his dictionary, attaches the meaning +of <span class="tei tei-q">“earth, world and soil”</span> (Die Tages götter der Mayas. Globus, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxxiii</span></span>, no. 9) and adds that the hieroglyph decidedly +designates the earth. At the same time he interprets what I regard as +the maize-grain and its radicle, as possibly representing a bird in +its flight upwards, and he merely describes the accompanying inverted +horse-shoe with dots, without attaching any positive meaning +to it. It must be added that Dr. Förstemann himself states +that he is not satisfied with his own interpretation of these two +symbols, the first of which, the seed and radicle, likewise occurs +in the day-sign cib, to which I shall recur. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If any doubt remains as to the signification of the day-sign cab, +I think it will be dispelled when it is shown that the name cab, or +caban is obviously related to the adjective, adverb and preposition +cabal or cablil, which signifies low, below, on the earth, in, beneath +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and under. The frequent association of the cab glyph with the +image of a bee, as in the Codex Troano, is partially explained by +the fact that the Maya word for honey is cab, for honey-bee is +yikil-cab. It affords at all events, an instance, in Maya hieroglyphic +writing, of a method of duplicating the sound of a word +analogous to that which I detected in Mexican pictography, and +named complementary signs in my communication on the subject, +published as an appendix to my essay on Ancient Mexican +Shields (Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, Leyden, 1892). +On the other hand the day name and sign cib, on which the sprouting +grain is also figured, seems to be related to the verb cibah=to +will, to occur, to happen, to take place. The allusion contained +in both glyphs is obviously the same and signifies, in the first +place, the hidden process of germination which takes place under +the surface of the soil, and is associated with the idea of the female +principle in Nature. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The seed and radicle, horse-shoe and rain-drops, are also distinguishable +on a vessel on page 35 of the Dresden Codex and on a +small three-legged vase, which is figured by Doctor Brinton (Primer, +118) as the day sign ch'en. This vase is surmounted by two in-curving +projections and offers a close analogy to a sacred vase with +superstructure (fig. <a href="#Figure_33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>) +from which projects a peculiar open +and double receptacle, into which a priest is sowing small seeds. +The interior of this bowl is represented as hollow, and containing +what I shall show further on to be a native symbol for Earth: +three little mounds. On another bowl, in front of this one, a bird +is sitting and presumably hatching. In another portion of the +same MS. a similar bowl is figured containing three seed fruits and +capsules, resembling pomegranates or poppy-heads (fig. +<a href="#Figure_33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tree next to which the first two symbolical bowls are placed +deserves to be carefully studied, for the trunk is crowned by +four stems bearing single leaves and is encircled by a serpent, +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, +the homonym for the numeral four=kan. A fringed mantle and +a scroll hang from the coils of the serpent's body, two footsteps +are painted on the scroll and, pointing downwards, express <span class="tei tei-q">“descent,”</span> +as do also the falling drops of liquid on the stems of the +tree which grows from a peculiar glyph with subdivisions, which +has points of resemblance with the glyph under the footless divinity +(fig. <a href="#Figure_33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>). +An obsidian mirror, with cross bars, is painted +in front of the latter, which displays the same descending footsteps +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on its mantle. The head and eyes of a snail, the symbol of +parturition, are above its face and a wreath of flowers crowns its +head. Tedious as such a minute analysis may seem, it is nevertheless +necessary, in order to gain a perception of the extent to +which symbolism was practised in the picture writings found in the +Maya MSS., accompanied by the cursive calculiform glyphs. It +seems that, in no. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +we have a presentation of the Maya <span class="tei tei-q">“tree +of life,”</span> and that scrolls, on which descending footsteps are depicted, +are intended to convey the meaning that life is descending +from Above into the egg and seeds by virtue or decree of the celestial +power. It should be noted here that the phenomenon of a +living bird issuing from the hard and inanimate egg-shell had made +as deep an impression upon the ancient philosophers in Mexico as +elsewhere, and that the power <span class="tei tei-q">“to form the chicken in the shell”</span> +was deemed one of the most marvellous attributes of <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine +Moulder or Former,”</span> as is further set forth in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the +Indians.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing illustrations establish, at all events, that the +Mayas, like the Mexicans, associated the sacred vase with seeds +and germination. The vase, illustrated by Doctor Brinton, exhibits +the seed and radicle; and this is also found on the symbol for +earth, which, in the Cortesian Codex, is associated with the image +of a serpent, possibly the equivalent of the Mexican Cihuacoatl, +or female serpent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, after mustering this close array of analogies, we next examine +the glyph cib, we find that it exhibits the seed and radicle in +the centre of a square, three sides of which are decorated with what +Doctor Brinton has termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“pottery decoration(?).”</span> This consists +of short lines, such as are employed in Mexican pictography, +in the well-known sign for tlalli, or land, which is usually surrounded +on three sides by a fringe, presumably symbolizing plants +and grass, a <span class="tei tei-q">“fringe”</span> of vegetation and verdure. In the glyph cib, +already referred to, I am inclined to see but a cursive rendering of +the same idea, with the seed and radicle in the centre and the +fringed border barely indicated by a few short lines. The same +border is found repeated on three sides of the head of a frequently +recurring personage whom Doctor Schellhas designates as <span class="tei tei-q">“God +C, of the Ornamented face.”</span> In his extremely valuable work, Die +Göttergestalten der Mayahandschriften, this careful investigator +records the various combinations in which this God C occurs in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Codices and impartially weighs the possibilities of its meaning. +Geheimrath Förstemann has made the important observation that +the figure of God C occurs in combination with the day-sign, +chuen, of the Maya calendar, which coincides with the Mexican +day-sign azomatli=monkey. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am unable to agree with my venerable friend in identifying +God C, with Polaris. As Doctor Schellhas rightly observes, the +fact that God C is found in combination with the signs of all the +four quarters disproves an identification with Polaris. What is +more, God C is frequently represented as receiving in his mouth +drops of liquid falling from a cursive vase placed above his head—a +detail which clearly connects him with earth and the <span class="tei tei-q">“earth-wine.”</span> +In the Mexican MSS. we find the monkey intimately +connected with the octli or earth-wine gods as, for instance, in the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians.”</span> I therefore reserve a more detailed discussion +of this subject for my notes on this MS. and return to the +glyphs caban and kan or can. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Just as it has been shown that the first may signify cabal=the +Below, so it is evident that the second is connected with the preposition +and adverb canal, signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“above, on top of, on high.”</span> +Dr. Brinton sees in the kan symbol a presentation of a polished +stone, or shell pendant, or bead, and cites the Maya dictionary of +Motul which gives kan as the name for <span class="tei tei-q">“beads or stones which +served the Indians as money and neck ornaments.”</span> In connection +with this important statement I revert to the carved shell-gorgets +which have been found in the mounds and ancient graves in the +Mississippi valley and exhibit Maya influence. The greater number +of these exhibit a carved serpent (which in Maya is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kan</span></span>) +in their centres and this fact affords a clue to the possible origin of +the Maya name for a neck ornament given in the Motul dictionary. +It is undeniable that all evidence unites in proving that the ancient +peoples of the Mississippi valley were in traffic, if not more intimately +connected, with a Maya-speaking people and came under +the influence of the ideas and symbolism current in Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to the employment of the glyph kan in Maya Codices, +for more reasons than I am able to enumerate here, I conclude it +served as an indicative of the Above or Heaven. It is a curious fact +that the Maya word for cord is kaan, whilst the name for sky is caan. +I cannot but think, therefore, that a carved pendant with a serpent +effigy=a kan, worn on a cord=kaan, must have been associated +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the Mayas with the Heaven or sky=caan, and that this linguistic +coincidence must have been a strong factor in the development +of the symbolism attached to the glyph can or kan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An interesting fact, which I shall demonstrate by a large series +of illustration from native Codices in a chapter of my forthcoming +work on the ancient Calendar System, will show that in their +hieratic writings, the ancient Mexican scribes represented the nocturnal +heaven or sky as a circle composed of a cord, to which stars +were attached, whilst the centre of the circle exhibited one or four +stars. In my opinion the origin and explanation of the association +of the cord with stars are clearly traceable to the above mentioned +fact that in the Maya tongue the word for cord, kaan, closely +resembles the sound of the word caan=sky. The presence of +the cord in the Mexican symbols is, therefore, another indication +of their Maya origin. A proof that the Mayas also employed the +cord as a symbol of the sky, or heaven, is furnished by the much-discussed +lentil-shaped stone altar found at Copan, a small outline +of which is represented in fig. <a href="#Figure_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, no. 1. In order fully to +understand the meaning expressed by this stone, it is necessary to +bear in mind how indissolubly the idea of something circular was +associated by the Mayas and Mexicans with their conception of +the vault of heaven resting on the horizon, and of the Above, +consisting of the two fluid elements, air and water. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is scarcely necessary to refer again here to more than one +authority for the statement that the temples of the air (of the +Above) were circular, and the reason given by the natives for this +was that <span class="tei tei-q">“just as the air circulates around the vault of the heaven, +so its temple had to be of a round shape.”</span><a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> As a contrast to this +conception, the influence of which is also obvious in the form of +the round temples and towers of the ruined cities of Central +America, I would cite the allusions to the solid earth contained in +the sacred books of the Mayas, the Popol Vuh, as being <span class="tei tei-q">“the +quadrated earth, four-cornered, four-sided, four-bordered.”</span> These +data establish the important fact, to which I shall recur, that the +native philosophers associated the Above, composed of air and +water, with the rounded, and the Below, composed of fire and +water, with the angular form. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Copan stone altar exhibits the circular form and is surrounded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by a sculptured cord which conveys the sound of its name +kaan or caan=heaven. On it a cup-shaped depression=ho-och, +marks the sacred centre of the heaven, the counterpart to the terrestrial +bowl whence all life-giving force proceeded. Two curved +lines diverge from this and divide the vaulted circle into two parts. +The curve in the lines may be interpreted as conveying motion or +rotation whilst the division of the sky may have been intended to +signify the eastern or male and the western or female portion of +the heaven, the whole being an abstract image of central rulership +and of a dual principle incorporating the four elements. It is +obvious that the meaning intended to be conveyed might also include +the duality of the Heaven or Above, composed of the union +of the elements air and water. By painting the stone in two or +four colors either of these meanings could have been expressed. +In either case it will be recognized, however, that much as Dr. +Ernest Hamy's deductions concerning this altar have been criticised, +the learned director of the Trocadéro Museum, Paris, was +undoubtedly right in recognizing that the stone is a cosmical symbol, +intended to convey the idea of a two-fold division and analogous +to the Chinese tae-keih which it resembles, with the difference +that the Copan sign is more complex exhibiting, as it does, a +central bowl-shaped depression. A glimpse at the other symbols +in fig. <a href="#Figure_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a> will +show that the identical idea is expressed in the Mexican +signs exhibiting a central circle, usually accompanied by a +four-fold division. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An analogous attempt to express the same native idea is recognizable +in the peculiar mushroom-shaped stone figures, represented +by a number of examples at the Central American exposition recently +held at Guatemala,<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> +and recently described by the distinguished +geologist and ethnologist, Dr. Carl Sapper. The specimens +had been collected in San Salvador and Guatemala and <span class="tei tei-q">“resemble +great stone mushrooms”</span> inasmuch as each consists of three well-defined +parts, a square pedestal from the midst of which rises an +almost cylindrical <span class="tei tei-q">“stem”</span> supporting a large circular solid top, +flat underneath and rounded above. The cylindrical support is +carved in the rough semblance of a human form, which, in some +instances, has rays issuing from its head. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An acquaintance with the fundamental ideas of native cosmogony +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +enables us to recognize that the square stone base typifies the +solid part of the universe, the Below, whilst the vaulted circle +above typifies the heaven, the Above. The figure standing between +both is evidently an image of a central lord and ruler, and the +entire image is in accord with the native mode of thought as set +forth in Mr. Frank H. Cushing's report already cited and in the +symbols which have been figured. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After reading Mr. Cushing's account of the native American +philosophy, preserved to the present day by the Zuñis, it is impossible +not to realize how clearly the mushroom-images materialize +the identical ideas which constitute, indeed, the keynote of native +thought and can be traced in each centre of ancient American civilization. +I am inclined to think that these stone images were, +originally, painted with the colors assigned to the four quarters, +which would render the symbolism more apparent. The existence +of these images in a restricted area of territory, seems, moreover, +to indicate that they had been invented there, possibly under the +influence of a religious and political creed with particular reference +to the union, in a single individual, of the power and attributes of +the Above and Below—an idea which strongly contrasts with +Mexico and Yucatan, where the idea of duality prevailed to such +an extent that, by creating two distinct religions and governments, +it ultimately led to the disintegration of the greatest of native empires +and its fall, from which it was only rallying at the time of +the Conquest. It is also possible that the Guatemala images are +the expression of the reversion to a more ancient form of philosophy +or government when it had been realized that dual government +led to dissensions and disintegration. At all events the rude +mushroom figures testify that the conception of a single celestial +or terrestrial ruler of the Above and the Below filled the minds of +their makers at a time, the exact date of which it would be of utmost +importance to determine, if this were only possible. It is +also interesting to note the curious analogy presented by these figures +to the well-known statement by Confucius that, <span class="tei tei-q">“the sage is +united to Heaven and Earth so as to form a triad, consisting of +Heaven, Earth and Man.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The association of the round form and of the peak with the +Above and of the square and bowl with the Below can be also detected +in the form of native American architecture, as exemplified, +for instance, by the contrasting shapes of two temples figured on +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +page 75, of the Borgian Codex (fig. <a href="#Figure_34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>) +which were obviously dedicated +to the two prevailing cults. One of these is surmounted by +a tau-shaped thatched roof with a flat top and turned-down ends. +The dedication of this temple to Night or star-cult is conveyed in +this case, by the sign for star on a black ground inserted in the +roof.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_34" id="Figure_34" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-34.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 34." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 34.</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_35" id="Figure_35" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-35.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 35." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 35.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The opposite temple exhibits a roof which rests on a black architrave +and offers a general resemblance to an inverted tau. It rises +in a tapering form and ends in a cone-shaped ornament. The existence +and significance of these two forms of temple-roofs might +escape notice did the same not recur in two high caps or mitres +figured in the Vienna Codex and obviously intended for the respective +use of the Lords of the Above and of the Below at a religious +ceremonial (fig. <a href="#Figure_35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>). The first of these ends in a high +peak, the extremity of which is represented as capped with snow, in the +same conventional manner employed in figuring snow-mountains. +An extremely significant feature of this cap is its exhibition of a +curved and rounded pattern only on its border. The second mitre +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ends in a horizontal line; it exhibits an angular pattern and two +flaps hang down from it, which, as they naturally concealed the +ears of the wearer, seem to have been symbolical of something +hidden, and, perhaps, of silence and secrecy. A third mitre is +figured on the same page, which seems to unite the characteristics +of both forms and is surmounted by a young maize-shoot, proceeding +from a vase. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_36" id="Figure_36" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-36.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 36." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 36.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The association of the Above with a peak or point is further +illustrated by a well-known peaked diadem always painted blue +which was the symbol of the visible ruler (fig. <a href="#Figure_36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>, no. 5). +A peak also occurs on military shields accompanied by four bars +(fig. <a href="#Figure_36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>, no. 3) and presents an analogy to no. 4 from +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians.”</span> The latter is given as the symbol of a sacred +festival which I have demonstrated in a previous publication to +have coincided with the vernal equinox.<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> For further reasons which +I shall present in my calendar monograph, I infer that we have in +this drawing a most valuable image of the gnomon and dial employed +by the Sun priests for the observation of the equinoxes +and solstices. The human victim who was attached to the centre +of the circular stone during the same festival is usually represented +with the same cone or point and eight appendages on his +head (fig. <a href="#Figure_36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>, no. 2). Owing to the circumstance that this +peaked head-dress, or cone, was sometimes employed by the scribes for its +phonetic value, as in fig. <a href="#Figure_36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>, no. 1, from the Codex +Mendoza, in which instance it is figured on a mountain and is usually painted +blue, we know positively that its name was Yope or Yopi—a valuable +point since a temple and a sort of monastery in the courtyard +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the Great Temple of Mexico were both named Yopico +(Sahagun). At the same time it should be noted that the Maya +name for <span class="tei tei-q">“a mitre,”</span> the symbol of a divine ruler, is Yop-at. In +the Mexican ollin-signs a cone or ascending point is usually placed +above and opposite to a symbol consisting of a ring or loop. These +evidently signify the Above and Below, and in this connection it +is worth noticing that archaeologists have long puzzled over the +curious forms of the two kinds of prehistoric stone objects which +have most frequently been found in the island of Porto Rico. The +first of these consists of an elongated stone, the centre of which +rises in the shape of a cone, whilst the ends are respectively carved +in the rough semblance of a head and of feet. The second form, +which has frequently been found in caves, consists of a large stone +ring, and is popularly termed <span class="tei tei-q">“a stone collar.”</span> +I am inclined to regard the latter as being analogous +to the <span class="tei tei-q">“stone yokes”</span> of ancient Mexico +and to infer that the aborigines of Porto Rico +practised a form of the same cult. It should +be borne in mind that the high conical stone, +on which the human victims were sacrificed, +was a salient feature in an ancient Mexican temple and that its +form must have had some symbolical meaning. The foregoing +data indicate that it probably was emblematic of the Above and +Centre and was therefore regarded as the fitting place of sacrifice +to the Sun and Heaven, whilst offerings to the Earth were most +appropriately made in circular openings recalling the rim of the +bowl and the round line of the horizon. It will be seen further +on that the cone recurs in native architecture and that its use as a +symbol, in the course of time, culminated in the pyramid. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_37" id="Figure_37" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-37.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 37." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 37.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us return to it in its rudimentary stage, as a perpendicular +line arising from a medium level, forming an inverted tau. The +widespread employment amongst American peoples of the inverted +and upright tau-shape as emblems of the Above and Below is +abundantly proven and doubtlessly arose as naturally as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +Chinese characters Shang=Above, employed as a symbol for +Heaven, and Lea=Below or Beneath, employed as a symbol for +Earth. These are formed, in the one case, by placing a man (represented +by a vertical line) above the medium level (represented +by a horizontal line) and in the other below it”</span> (Encyclopedia +Britannica, art. China) fig. <a href="#Figure_37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>. Another equally graphic +presentation +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the analogous thought is furnished by the familiar Egyptian +sign which exhibits a loop or something rounded and hollow above +and a perpendicular line beneath the medium level. It is well +known that the tau occurs in Scandinavia and is popularly named +Thor's hammer (fig. <a href="#Figure_38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>). Merely as a curious analogy I point out +that in fig. <a href="#Figure_25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>, no. 2, from the Vienna Codex, we have an American +instance of a tau-shaped object held in the hand in a ceremonial +rite. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_38" id="Figure_38" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-38.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 38." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 38.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The late and lamented Baron Gustav Nordenskjöld observed +that the entrances to the ruined estufas of the ancient cliff-dwellers +of Colorado were in the shape of an upright tau and it is well +known that this is also the case amongst the Pueblo Indians of the +present day. By means of a photograph taken by Dr. A. Warburg +of Berlin, whilst witnessing the Humis-katshina dance of the +Moqui Indians at Oraibi, in May, 1896, I am able to affirm that +the native dancers wear masks and high head-ornaments, partly of +wood, on which reversed and upright tau-symbols are painted, the +first in a light and the second in a dark color. As the name of +the ceremonial dance was explained to Dr. Warburg as signifying +<span class="tei tei-q">“helping the sprouting or growing maize,”</span> and celebrated the advent +of the rainy season, it is obvious that the two forms of tau +which were displayed in alternate order on the heads of the dancers +in the procession symbolized the juxtaposition of the Above and +Below, of Heaven and Earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the ruined temples of Central America, windows in the shape +of upright and reversed taus also occur. The following series of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +architectural openings (fig. <a href="#Figure_39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>) are copied from Mr. +Alfred P. Maudslay's invaluable and splendid work, which has not, as yet, +met with the recognition it so richly deserves.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> +They display besides the tau-shape (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">g</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></span>) other forms, the symbolism of which +has been discussed. There are cross-shaped (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>), square, round and +oval windows (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">j</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></span>), the square obviously symbolical of +the Earth and the round of the Heaven. Besides these there are +openings in the form of a truncated cone (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) and others +ending in a narrow point (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">k</span></span>). A striking form which recalls the +Moorish arch and is shown in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>, may, perhaps, be looked upon as +an attempt to express the idea of a union of the Above and Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_39" id="Figure_39" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-39.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 39." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 39.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with these architectural features it is interesting +to study their names in the native languages. The Nahuatl names +for windows are singularly expressive of their uses: tlachialoyan=the +watching place or look-out; puchquiauatl=the smoke opening; +tlanexillotl=a word which literally means light and splendor, +and to which the following words are related: tlanextia, +verb=to shine, shed light and radiance; tlanextilla=something +revealed, made manifest, found or discovered, newly invented or +formed (brought to light); tlanexcayotiliztli=figure, signification +or example; tlanexcayotilli=something figured or significative. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The meaning of the Maya name for window, ciznebna, is not +clear, whilst that for door, chi, is the same as for mouth, opening or +entrance. At the same time it is evident that, as in Mexico and +elsewhere, the window openings in the Maya temples must have +been associated with the idea of light, and the symbolical forms +given to these besides their positions lead to the inference that +they were actually regarded as mystic framed images, so to speak, +of the supreme, invisible deity, through which, the light of day +and the darkness of night alternately revealed themselves to those +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +inside the sacred buildings. A careful study of the positions and +orientations of these openings may yet prove that they also served +for astronomical observation. The walls being usually pierced +above reach, nothing but the sky could have been watched through +them. But besides these, the interiors of Maya ruins contain interesting +examples of mural openings and recesses which seem to +have been carefully planned so that they should appear dark even +in daytime and, in more than one case, these display the form of +the upright tau, the symbol of darkness and the Below.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_40" id="Figure_40" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-40.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 40." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 40.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It does not seem to have been generally recognized that the +alternate contraposition of upright and reversed taus produces the +best known and most widely spread primitive border-design, usually +known as the Greek fret (fig. <a href="#Figure_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, no. 6). A plain +demonstration of this is, oddly enough, visible on the two side-projections of the +Scandinavian brooch (fig. <a href="#Figure_13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>) all symbols on which, I +venture to assert, would have been perfectly intelligible and full of meaning +to an ancient Mexican. The evolution of the fret, on the American +continent, can be studied on the beautiful wooden clubs from +Brazil and British Guiana, figured in Dr. Hjalmar Stolpes' valuable +work already referred to. As striking instances his fig. 8, pl. 1, +figs. 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>, +pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xiii</span></span>, and figs. 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> +and 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, should be examined. +The latter instance is extremely instructive as it not only +exhibits single taus of two forms, but the same in different positions, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as well as two double-headed figures joined in one, which illustrate +the native association already discussed, of duality and of the +curved lines as the opposite of the rectangular and both respectively +figuring the Above and Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible to study the decorations on these South American +clubs without becoming convinced that their makers shared the +same ideas as the ancient Mexicans. They offer, indeed, a whole +set of variations on the native theme and idea of Heaven and +Earth. Two instances (fig. 5<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, pl. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ix</span></span>, and 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, +pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xi</span></span>) in which the +union of two figures produces a third, or a single one produces +two, elucidate the meaning sometimes expressed by the designs. +In the round or spiral forms, which are most frequently accompanied +by a zigzag border, I am inclined to see a presentation of +air and water, corresponding to the Mexican symbols of the +Above. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As lack of space forbids my making here a more extended comparison +of the native symbols, I shall but point out how the tau, +in juxtaposition and contraposition painted in two colors, produces +fig. <a href="#Figure_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, no. 3. The picture from the Codex Mendoza of a +native tlachtli, the form of which is represented by two taus in contraposition, +is partly painted black. The same division of a single +tau into two parts, colored differently, transforms no. 3 into no. 4 +and shows that a single tau could have been employed cursively +to symbolize union. 2 and 7 are but variants of 3 and 4. If, +instead of angles, curved lines be given to the taus, the first half +of fig. 5 is the result. When spaces between the incurving hooks +and the border are filled out with color, the familiar design on the +second half of 5 results. With exception of the latter, the South +American clubs exhibit each of the above forms, as well as no. 8. +It will be shown later that these also occur in ancient Peru. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing examples of the employment of taus in upright +and reversed positions is, however, by no means exhaustive. Fig. +<a href="#Figure_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a> teaches that +the familiar checker-board or tartan design, symbolically +employed in ancient Mexico, was the simple result of taus +in contraposition, the square spaces thus found being alternately +filled with black and brown or gray. The symbolism of this design +only becomes evident when all the combinations in which it +occurs have been carefully studied. It is represented in the Codices +in the doorways and arches of certain sacred edifices which are +shown to be estufas or temaz-calli by further illustrations which I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +could not reproduce here, but which exhibit even the steam escaping +from the building and other unmistakable features. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_41" id="Figure_41" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-41.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 41." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 41.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sahagun has recorded how these semi-sacred edifices were specially +consecrated to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Mother of the gods and of us all, whose +curative and life-giving power was exerted in the temazcalli, also +named xochicalli, the place where she sees secret things, rectifies +what has been deranged in human bodies, fructifies young and +tender things, ... and where she aids and cures....”</span> +It was customary for pregnant women to resort to these baths +under the care of the medicine-woman who exhorted her patient on +entering, with the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Enter into it, my daughter, enter into +the bosom of our Mother whose name is Yoalticitl ... warm +thyself in the bath, which is the house of flowers of our god ...”</span> +(Historia, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxvii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Vienna Codex contains, besides pictures of +temples (fig. <a href="#Figure_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>), two instances which elucidate +the meaning of the design; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span> of the same figure displays the conventional symbol for land, +fringed on three sides. Enclosed in this and seen, in profile, is a +stratum of checker-board design, above which is a sheet of water; +d displays a conventionally drawn mountain, inside of which is the +symbolical vase filled with the design. From this steam or smoke +ascends through the soil of the mountain, and forces its way through +the surface, above which we see two recurved puffs of smoke and +a young blossoming maize shoot, conventionally drawn, such as +may be seen worn by priestesses, as a symbolical head decoration, +on page 11 of the Vienna Codex. The seated figure of a +priest is represented as sheltering its growth with his outspread +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mantle. On his back he displays a symbol, composed of two +rolls united by a crossband, which is met with in Maya and Mexican +Codices. In the latter the four projecting ends are usually +painted with the colors of the four quarters. As these are figured +as united into a single sign, it seems evident that this symbolized +a union of the four elements deemed necessary for the production +of life by the ancient native philosophers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing illustrations, to which more could be added, clearly +establish that the checkered design was associated with the symbols +of earth, heat and water. It obviously expressed the idea +embodied in the Nahuatl word xotlac=the heated earth; literally, +glowing embers, also budding and opening flowers. It was emblematic +of the fall of the rain or earth-wine upon the heated soil. +In the temazcalli the same life-producing union of the elements +took place and aided human growth and health. It would seem +as though the appellation xoch-i-calli, bestowed upon the sweat-house +by the native medicine-woman, expressed the same train of +thought. Moreover, it is noteworthy, that the sound of the first +part of this name and of xo-tlac recurs in the Maya word for vase +in general, ho-och. The checker-board design would naturally +have been employed in connection with the festivals, associated +with esoteric rites, which were held in celebration of the union of +the Heaven and Earth at the commencement of the rainy season. +It would, naturally, therefore, have been used as a decoration on +the drinking vessels employed in the distribution of fermented +drinks for vivifying and curative purposes. It is met with on +Peruvian drinking bowls, as proven by several examples in the +Royal Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, for instance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious to note as an interesting analogy that the same +checkered design frequently adorns the ancient Egyptian drinking +bowls represented in the hieroglyphic writings. I have also observed +it in some ancient Greek drinking vessels, preserved at the +Imperial Hermitage Museum at St. Petersburg, where it decorated +the bowl itself or the garments of Bacchantes figured thereupon. +It is also met with in ancient Peruvian textile fabrics, in black and +white, as on one figure vase in the Berlin Museum, and, needless to +remark, it is a Scotch clan tartan. Its adoption as the basis for +chess-boards of ancient Egypt seems to indicate that there it also +signified the Above and Below and that the game was thought of +as an exemplification of the eternal contest between the powers +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Heaven and Earth, light and darkness, etc. We look to specialists +for information as to the origin, meaning and employment +in Egypt and Greece of this primitive and almost universal design. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_42" id="Figure_42" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-42.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 42." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 42.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In ancient Mexico and possibly Peru, it obviously pertained to +a set of ideas which, in some communities, might easily have degenerated +and led to the institution of rites and ideas such as were +prevalent in the Maya colony which had established itself at the +mouth of the Panuco river, on the coast of Mexico, north of Vera +Cruz, and from which the Huaxtecans of the present day descend. +It is interesting to note that the name of the capital founded by +the colonists, who seem to have emigrated owing to well-founded +religious persecution, was Tuch-pan, a word which signifies in the +Maya tongue <span class="tei tei-q">“the umbilicus,”</span> qualified by pan, meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“that +which is above or excels,”</span> etc., but which was expressed in Nahuatl +picture-writings by a rabbit=tochtli and a banner=pantli. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The opposite of the checkered or xotlac design, was the native +water and air pattern which has been pointed out as encircling the +mitre of the Lord of the Above or Heaven. It likewise figures in +native pictures on the mantles of some of Montezuma's predecessors. +The history of its origin and development is best learned +from the following native illustrations. Fig. +<a href="#Figure_42" class="tei tei-ref">42</a>, nos. 1 and 2, represents +sea-waves, the Maya name for which, by the way, is kukul-yaam, +which admits of the interpretation <span class="tei tei-q">“divine-water”</span> or, if +we connect kukul with the Mexican coliuhqui, <span class="tei tei-q">“twisted or bent +water.”</span> A representation of water, as figured on a mantle in the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians,”</span> conveys the idea of water moved by the +action of the wind, the blank curve reminding one also of the curves +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +so often associated by native artists with serpents' heads, and with +the wind and rain-gods. The well-known symbol of the air-god is +accompanied, as already shown (fig. +<a href="#Figure_26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>), by an ornament which +forms a solid frame for a hollow curve constituting an air-image. +In the following image an analogous ear ornament is figured and it +is surrounded by puffs of air or wind, conventionally +drawn (fig. <a href="#Figure_43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_43" id="Figure_43" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-43.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 43." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 43.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whilst the foregoing illustrations amply prove that the natives +associated the curved and rounded form with water as moved by +air, it must be noticed that in Mexico and Yucatan, as well as in +Brazil and Guiana, plain water was figured by a series of parallel +zigzag or undulated lines. For these reasons I infer that the +symbolical design, representing actual waves, always expressed the +union of air and water, and was therefore emblematic of the cult +of the upper elements, or the Above. It is unfortunate that, in +Mexico, no vestiges remain of the circular temples which were +particularly dedicated to Quetzalcoatl=the divine twin or lord of +the twin upper elements=air and water. Doubtlessly they were +appropriately decorated with horizontal bands exhibiting the sacred +design. The ruined condition of Central American round temples +scarcely justifies the hope that such a verification can be made. At +the same time the round temple on a square base, with its peculiar +ground plan, was, of itself, an image of the Above and of central +rule extending to the four quarters (fig. +<a href="#Figure_30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>, p. 97). That the air +and water design was actually employed in America as a frieze on +sacred edifices is proven, however, by more than one illustration +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in the Vienna Codex and other native MSS. (fig. 35, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>). We also +see the design decorating the painted drinking bowls named xicalli +which were employed in the distribution of the sacred pulque or +octli at certain religious festivals. As the Mexican name given to +the design itself is xical-coliuhqui, it seems as though it was most +popularly known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“twisted or winding pattern”</span> of the sacred +drinking vessels. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having originated, as I have shown, from the simplest observation +of the action of air upon a surface of water, it is but natural +that the same design should have independently originated in several +localities. It is, nevertheless, worth mentioning here that the +dome of one of the most beautiful of ancient Greek remains, the +choragic monument of Lysicrates, or lantern of Demosthenes at +Athens, is surrounded by a band or fascia, cut into the water design. +It is evident that, seen against the sky, this graphically +represented the curling waves of water <span class="tei tei-q">“on summer seas,”</span> and +this was evidently the most primitive method of employing this +form of symbolical decoration which is more familiar when executed +in solid masonry stucco, as a frieze. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The identical process of development may be observed in Mexican +architecture. In the Vienna and other native Codices, countless +temples are depicted as surmounted with fasciæ cut into rectangular +designs in such a manner that the blank space left between +each solid projection figures its inverted image in the air (fig. +<a href="#Figure_35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>). In these +open fasciæ an intention to symbolize the solid +or Earth, and the fluid or Heaven, is discernible, whilst the step-like +projections seem to express or convey the idea of ascent and descent, +perhaps the ascent of human supplication and the descent +of the much-prayed-for rain. From the other examples of temple +decorations (fig. <a href="#Figure_35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></span>) it is evident that, in solid friezes, a +light and a dark color were employed in the same designs, to convey +the same idea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Evidence proving that the emblems on the roofs of the temples +were replete with meaning is furnished by several representations +of roofs, on which rows of upstretched hands or of human hearts +are depicted. My horror at these seemingly ghastly emblems vanished +as soon as I ascertained their actual meaning from a passage +in Sahagun's Historia. Describing a certain sacred dance he records +that <span class="tei tei-q">“on the white garments of the girls who took part in +it, hands and hearts were painted, signifying that they lifted their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hearts and hands to heaven, praying for rain.”</span> Not only does +this explain the symbolism of the hands on the temples but also +the native custom observed, by modern pilgrims in Mexico and +Yucatan, of painting uplifted hands on the outer walls of sanctuaries +as an act of piety and devotion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_44" id="Figure_44" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-44.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 44." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 44.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The hideous necklaces of alternate hands and hearts which encircle +the neck of a great monolithic idol in the city of Mexico and +of an image in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians”</span> are thus also proven to +be the touching though uncouth and child-like expression of a devout +prayer. Having gained this insight into the deep significance of +native emblems it is interesting +to study the peculiar breast-ornament +which is the emblem of Xiuhtecuhtli, +literally <span class="tei tei-q">“the azure lord,”</span> +or the lord of the year or of fire +and of the Cihuacoatl or woman-serpent. +It consists of an oblong +plaque, the narrow ends of which +are cut out so as to simulate two +air pyramids with steps. The +name of this symbolical ornament +is recorded by Sahagun as xiuh-tetelli, +literally the turquoise or +grass-green pyramid. It is invariably +painted blue and displays +a round plate of burnished +gold in its centre. For more reasons than I can pause to relate +here, it can be shown that the plaque probably symbolized the +Above, the blue sky, water and air, whilst the gold plate was an +image of the central divinity. The sides of the square stool on +which the god is seated are also cut out so as to convey the idea +that he is resting above terraced air-pyramids +(fig. <a href="#Figure_44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>). His shield +is surrounded by a cord and contains a cross-symbol with lines conveying +the idea of rotation and four circles. The banner above the +shield named pantli conveys the sound of the word pan=above, +whilst his conical ear-ornament symbolizes the Centre and Above. +These details are noteworthy because I am about to point out the +striking analogy between a Zuñi idol or fetish and the ancient Mexican +pictures of the lord of fire and the lord of the north or the +underworld=Tezcatlipoca. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This Zuñi idol was sent to the Royal Ethnographical Museum at +Berlin as part of a representative collection by Mr. Frank H. +Cushing and has been figured and described in the publications of +the Museum, with notes by Dr. E. Seler.<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> It represents the Zuñi +god Ätchialätopa whose attributes are stone knives, who is the +patron of the secret society, <span class="tei tei-q">“Small fire”</span> and who is identified +with a great star. His fetish represents him as standing on the +centre of a cross, formed of four beams placed vertically and perforated +with step-like perforations. The ends are cut out like those +of Xiuhtecuhtli's blue emblem. Two parallel bars, the upper one +of which is painted blue, the color of heaven, and the lower painted +green, the color of the earth, convey the ever-present native idea +of the Above and Below. The arms of the cross are painted red +with yellow ends which, according to Mr. Cushing, represent the +light emanating, in four directions, from the star. The arms are +distinctly associated with the cardinal points and each supports +the effigies of a mountain lion and a bird—typifying, evidently, +as in Mexico, the Above and Below. This cross, with the figure +standing on its centre, is suspended from above and, during a certain +ceremony, it is set into rapid gyratory motion, from left to +right by the officiating high priest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible not to see, in this fetish, a swastika in substantial +form and in actual rotation; whilst the figure of the god, decorated +with stone knives, moves as on a pivot in the centre, presenting +exactly the same idea as in the Mexican image of the god held +in the centre of a cross-symbol by the jaws of a tecpatl or flint +knife. It is unnecessary to mention again here that the only star +in the heaven, which could possibly have been regarded as a centre +of rotation, is Polaris; but I should like to draw attention to the +fact that bunches of feathers are attached to the extremities of +the cross-beams and to the summit of the terraced head-dress of +the fetish and recall the circumstance that, amongst the Mexicans +and Mayas, the names for feather were almost identical with those +for heaven or something celestial and divine. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the Zuñi god is said to be standing on his red star (an mo-yätchun +thlana) and figures as a centre of rotation, I look upon +this fetish as affording most striking confirmation of my conclusions +concerning the origin of the swastika and cross symbols. If +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it is certain that, at the present day, the Zuñis associate this star-god +with Sirius and their cross symbol with the morning star, then +it is quite obvious that they have lost the original meaning of the +rotating-star fetish, which could never have been suggested by +either of these or, indeed, by any other heavenly body but Polaris. +I regret that space does not permit me to consider here, more fully, +other close analogies between ancient Mexican and modern Zuñi +religious ceremonies, etc., besides those which have been so well +described by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I cannot omit to note here for further reference that the national +war gods of the Zuñis are the twin-brothers Ahaiiuta, the elder, +whose altars were situated <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to the right</span></em> or south and west of Zuñi, +and Matsailéma, the younger, whose altars stood <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to the left</span></em> or north +and east of the village. The secret society of the warriors and +priests of the bow dedicated their cult to these brothers, whose +counterparts we have already studied in Mexico and Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to the primitive designs which expressed the union of +the Above and Below, I point out an interesting example from the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians,”</span> which likewise symbolizes the four quarters, +and their subdivision and their relation to the whole +(fig. <a href="#Figure_32" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>, no. 3). +A somewhat analogous design, from Peru, presents an outline resembling +a swastika (fig. <a href="#Figure_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, no. 9) which, when filled in with +alternate colors, yields fig. <a href="#Figure_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, no. 1, in which the idea +of the Above and Below preponderates. Another example of an analogous employment +of a light and dark color is furnished by a shield in the +Codex Mendoza, shown in fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, no. 1, alongside of an +interesting image which gives us an insight into the depths of meaning +contained in the dualistic native designs. It consists of a disk, one-half +of which represents the starry heaven and the other the sun, +resting on a parti-colored support (no. 8). It is evident that day and +night are thus symbolized, and it is reasonable to infer that in some +centres of thought especially the ideas of light and darkness should +have become associated with the two different forms of cult the +followers of which would be respectively designated as the children +of light and the children of darkness. By means of a light and +a dark color numberless variations of the one theme were indeed +obtained. In the native Codices, in textile fabrics and on pottery, +there are also numerous examples of an extremely simple design +consisting of a single zigzag line running between two parallel +lines and dividing the intervening space into two fields, the lower +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of which is filled out with black and the other with some light color. +The dark upright and light inverted peaks were evidently employed +as familiar and favorite emblems of earth and heaven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_45" id="Figure_45" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-45.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 45." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 45.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am inclined to see in the serrated summit of the remarkable +edifice, known as the House of Doves at Uxmal, a rendering of +the same symbolism on a gigantic scale +(fig. <a href="#Figure_45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>). It cannot but +be recognized, moreover, that a high edifice presenting a regular +series of cones, and extending from east to west, would have +afforded an excellent means of registering the varying positions +of heavenly bodies. To observers looking towards it from the +north or south, at judiciously chosen distances, the entire span of +the sky would have seemed divided into eight equal parts, seen as +inverted air pyramids between nine sections which rise in steps and +terminate in points, each gable being perforated with thirty window-like +openings, arranged in seven horizontal rows. The purpose +of these gable-like piles has been a riddle to the archaeologists, +who have visited Uxmal. Dr. Wm. H. Holmes, from whose valuable +works I cite the above descriptions, expresses his wonder at +<span class="tei tei-q">“the great building, bearing upon its roof a colossal masonry +comb, built at an enormous expenditure of time and labor ... +which seemed to have been built exclusively for the purpose of +embellishing the building and holding aloft its sculptured ornaments”</span> +(Ancient cities of Mexico, pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 95). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I venture to maintain that this remarkable edifice not only afforded +facilities for astronomical observation but constituted in itself a +great prayer for rain wrought in stone and addressed to the Lord +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Heaven by a devout people. In corroboration of this inference, +besides the foregoing data, I point out that to this day the Pueblo +Indians associate the step pyramid form with beneficent rain and +even give this shape to the edges of the sacred bowls which are +carried in the ceremonial dances by the <span class="tei tei-q">“rain-makers.”</span> According +to Mr. Cushing the Zuñis compare the rim of such bowls to +the line of the <span class="tei tei-q">“horizon, terraced with mountains, whence rise the +clouds.”</span> He was likewise informed that the terrace form represents +<span class="tei tei-q">“the ancient sacred place of the spaces,”</span> an expression which, +though somewhat vague, seems to corroborate my view of the +Uxmal building. The Zuñi statement that the terrace form figured +mountains leads to the subject of so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain worship.”</span> +In ancient Mexico, at the approach of the rainy season, religious +ceremonies are performed in honor of the mountains which were +looked upon as active agents in the production of rain, because +they attracted and gathered the clouds around their summits. The +tops of mountains were thus regarded as the sacred place where +the sky and heaven met and produced the showers which vivified +the earth. Pilgrimages and offerings to mountain summits formed +a part of the duties of the Mexican priesthood, but in the cities the +pyramid temple served as a convenient substitute for the mountain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The close association of the terrace form with rain and water +symbolism is certainly exemplified in the Mexican design on a +temple roof (fig. <a href="#Figure_35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>). The most remarkable application of the +dualistic designs is, however, met with in Peru where, according to +Wiener, the irrigation canals which carried water to the maize fields +were laid out so as to form pattern bands like fig. +<a href="#Figure_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, nos. 4 and 7, +for instance. It is evident that this system of irrigation must +have been an extremely effective and practical one, but that it had +been probably adopted from superstitious motives as an illustration +of the vivifying union of the celestial shower with the seed-laden +soil. The assumption that the ancient Peruvians shared the +same ideas as the Mexicans and Mayas will be found justified by +the following data. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is now my intention to give a brief and bare outline sketch +of the Peruvian civilization, by means of a series of quotations +from the best authorities.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> +Incomplete though this must necessarily +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be, it will, nevertheless, establish, beyond a doubt, that the +founders of the great Inca empire were under the dominion of the +same set of ideas which I have been tracing throughout the American +continent. The lucid records of the Peruvian chronicles and +the purity with which the system had been maintained by the Incas, +enable us to recognize and appreciate its manifold perfections +as a mode of primitive government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The best authorities agree that the inhabitants of the country, +now known as Peru, lived in barbarism until civilization was introduced +amongst them by the Incas. One tradition designates an +island in the Titicaca lake, another Tiahuanaco, as the place where, +<span class="tei tei-q">“after the deluge,”</span> a man or deity appeared, divided the land into +four parts and distributed these to four brothers, amongst whom +was Manco Capac, to whom was assigned the province to the north. +Each brother had a sister who was also his wife. Manco Capac +and his sister and wife Mama-Ocllo or, according to other authorities, +the third Inca Lloque Yupanqui and his consort, founded +Cuzco, also given as Kosko or Kuska, a name which, according +to Garcilaso de la Vega signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“navel of the earth”</span> and was +bestowed <span class="tei tei-q">“because the newly-founded capital was to be the centre +and point of all.”</span> The city was divided into two parts: Hanan +Cuzco=the Above, which was ruled over by the Inca, and Hurin +Cuzco=the Below, which was governed by his wife and sister, +who bore the honorific title of Coya=queen and Mamanchic=our +mother. The inhabitants consequently became separated into +two categories: the upper lineage and the lower lineage, Hanan-ayllu +and Hurin-ayllo. At the same time this division was not +made so <span class="tei tei-q">“that those of one-half should have an advantage over the +other ... the command was that only one difference and +acknowledgment of superiority was to be conceded to the inhabitants +of the upper town. They were to be respected and looked +upon as the first born and elder brothers, whilst the dwellers in the +lower town were to be regarded as younger or second brothers. +They were to rank as the right arm and the left arm in all offices +or places where precedence was necessary. The same division was +subsequently carried out in all the towns, great or small, throughout +the country, their inhabitants being constantly classed into +upper and lower lineages or classes.”</span> The empire itself was named +Tauantin-suyu, signifying the four in one, or the empire, which +was divided into four provinces: Anti-suyu=East; Cunti-suyu=West, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on the road to which were two famous brooks of water +named the silver serpents, Collquemachachuay; Chincha-suyu=North; +Colla-suyu=South. It is recorded that the Coya or queen +went to the Colla-suyu or South and taught the women the art of +weaving, of planting maize and of preparing it for food. In connection +with the name of female rule=Coya, and the South=Colla-suyu +it is interesting to note that the name for granary was +Coll-cana. Padre Arriaga (quoted by Rivero and Tschudi, p. 163) +describes a remarkable monument which shows that the West was +also associated with the female ruler. <span class="tei tei-q">“The monolithic statue +[magnificently sculptured and placed on a sepulchral eminence near +Hilavi] represented two monstrous figures standing back to back. +One, representing a man, faced to the East; the other, with a +woman's face, looked towards the West.<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> +Serpents were represented +as crawling up the figures and these stood on other reptiles +resembling frogs. In front of each of these idols there was a +square slab of stone which seemed to have served as an altar.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the dual division of the population the seeds of dissension +were sown in Peru as elsewhere. At a certain festival the youths +of the upper lineage encountered those of the lower lineage in +trials of strength and prowess, which sometimes resulted in violence. +A certain feeling of rivalry and opposition must have been +thus fostered. Two forms of cult prevailed: the Inca lords and +warriors were associated with the cult of the Above of which the +emblems were golden images of the Creator and of the Sun, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +lord of day,”</span> to whose power rain and thunder were attributed. +The silver huaca or image of the moon, called Quilla in Quechua +and Pacsa in the Colla dialect, was in the figure of a woman and +was kept under the charge of women, the reason for this being +<span class="tei tei-q">“that the moon was a woman.”</span> During the festival Situa, one day +was dedicated to the Creator, the Sun and Thunder and another to +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Moon and Earth, when the accustomed sacrifices and prayers +were offered up.”</span> We thus clearly distinguish a cult of the Heaven +and Day presided over by the Inca and a cult of Earth and Night, +whose high priestess was the Coya. She, moreover, had charge of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the embalmed bodies of her predecessors, which were regarded as +sacred and were solemnly carried forth in certain festivals, whilst +the bodies of the defunct Incas were guarded by their successor. +The emblems of both cults were, however, preserved in a single +Great Temple, whose principal doorway looked to the north, a fact +of special importance in connection with what follows. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All authorities, indeed, designate the north as the quarter whence +the foreign culture-heroes came to Peru. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Incas had a knowledge +of the Creator from the first,”</span> but it was not until the time +of the Inca Yupanqui that the ignorant sun-worship of the primitive +inhabitants of the country was superseded by a firmly established +new and superior religion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Inca Yupanqui appears to have been the first to order and settle +ceremonies and religions. He it was who established the twelve +months of the year, giving a name to each and ordaining the ceremonies +that were to be observed in each. For although his ancestors +used months and years counted by the quippus, yet they +were never previously regulated until the time of this Lord. He +was of such clear understanding that he reflected upon the respect +and reverence shown by his ancestors to the Sun who worshipped +it as a God. He observed that it never had any rest and that it +daily journeyed round the earth; and he said to those of his council +that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">it was not possible that the Sun could be the God who created +all things, for if he was he would not permit a small cloud to obscure +his splendour; and that if he was creator of all things he would +sometimes rest and light up the whole world from one spot. Thus it +cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who directs him and +this is the Pacha-Yachachi, the Creator</span></em>, literally, the Teacher of +the World.”</span> His predecessors had ordered an oval plate of fine +gold which was to serve as an image of the Creator of heaven and +earth, and, in order to convey this meaning it was placed between +images of the sun and moon; a proof that the latter were employed +as symbols of heaven and earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Inca Yupanqui, however, also caused a statue of the Creator to +be made of fine gold and of the size of a boy of ten years of age +in order to convey the idea of his eternal youth. <span class="tei tei-q">“It was in the +shape of a man standing up, the right arm raised and the hand +almost closed, the fingers and thumb raised as one who was giving +an order.”</span> The second gold statue he had made, a personification +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the sun <span class="tei tei-q">“which was dressed like the Inca and wore all his +insignia,”</span> shows he claimed to be and constituted himself as the +visible representative and Lord of the Above. The silver female +statue of the Moon doubtlessly exhibited, in the same manner, the +insignia of the Coya. Inca Yupanqui also ordered the houses and +temple of Quisuar-cancha to be built and, at this spot, Sir Clements +Markham observed an ancient wall, with serpents carved upon it. +The name signifies, literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“the place of the Quisuar tree,”</span> and +will be again referred to further on. Without pausing to discuss +the subject at length let us examine further the scheme of government, +etc., introduced by the Incas, the most striking feature of +which was the systematical classification of the people, their assignment +to specified dwelling places and the distribution of labor +according to prescription. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The key to the entire gigantic system was the conception of a +central immutable supreme power which directed all visible and +invisible manifestations and which sent forth and re-absorbed all +energy. In Cuzco and in the Inca Empire we have a minutely +described instance of the application, to terrestrial government, of +the laws of fixed order, harmony, periodicity and rotation learned +by earnest and patient observers of the northern heaven, during +countless centuries of time. The centre of Cuzco consisted of a +great square whence four roads radiated to the cardinal points. In +the centre of this stood a gold vase from which a fountain flowed. +The Spaniards also found in Cuzco a large, beautifully-polished +stone-cross which evidently symbolized, as in Mexico, the four +quarters and must have been appropriately placed in the square. +Garcilaso de la Vega states that the capital formed an actual image +of the whole empire, <span class="tei tei-q">“for it was divided into four quarters and an +extremely ancient law rendered it obligatory that representatives +of each province and of each class of population should reside +there in homes, the location of which precisely corresponded to +the geographical position of their respective provinces. Each lineage +was thus represented and occupied separate dwellings, assigned +to them by the governors of the quarters. All persons were obliged +to adhere to the customs of their forefathers and also wear +the costumes of their ayllus or tribes (Cieza de Leon, Cronica +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xciii</span></span>). For +the Incas had decreed that the dresses worn by +the members of each tribe should be different, so that the people +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +might be distinguished from each other as, down to that time, +there had been no means of knowing to what locality or tribe an +Indian belonged.”</span>... In order to avoid confusion the modes +of wearing the hair were rigidly prescribed and the bands worn on +the head by the vassals had to be black or of a single color only. +The higher in rank a person was the more his costume resembled +that of the Inca, without, however, approaching it in length and +richness. <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus, even in an assemblage of 100,000 persons it +was easy to recognize individuals of each tribe and of each rank +by the signs they wore on their heads.”</span>... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“It was obligatory that each should permanently live in the province +he belonged to. Each province, each tribe and, in many parts +each village, had its own language which was different from that +of its neighbors. Those who understood each other by speaking +the same language considered themselves as related to each other +and were friends and confederates.... The Incas employed +a private language of their own which none but members of the +royal lineage presumed or dared to learn.”</span> Garcilaso de la Vega, +who claimed royal descent, stated that unfortunately no records +remained to enable one to form an idea of what the Inca language +was like. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The autocratic, though peaceable way in which the novel scheme +of government was imposed upon the inhabitants of Peru by the +foreign chieftains is best proven by the following passages from +the Rites and Laws of the Incas (p. 77) and Garcilaso de la Vega +(pp. 9 and 10). <span class="tei tei-q">“With a view that each tribe should be clearly +distinguishable and after assigning a different costume to each +they were ordered to choose their respective pacariscas, a word +meaning, literally, their birth and origin. They were told to choose +for themselves whence they were descended and whence they came, +and as the Indians were generally very dull and stupid, some chose +to assign their origin to a lake, others to a spring, others a rock, +others a hill or ravine. But every lineage chose some object for +its pacarisca. Some tribes [subsequently] adored eagles because +they boasted to have descended from them ... others adored +fountains, rivers, the earth, which they call Mother, or air, fire, +... snow-mountains, maize, the sea, named mother-sea.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Garcilaso de la Vega <span class="tei tei-q">“the Peruvian tribes subsequently +invented an infinity of fables concerning the origin of their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +different ancestors.... An Indian does not consider himself +honorable unless he can trace his descent from a river, fountain, +lake or the sea, or from some wild beast like the bear, puma, ocelot, +eagle, etc.”</span> An example of a certain amount of vain-glory +was indeed set by the diplomatic Inca himself who claimed, for +himself and lineage, descent from the Sun and reserved burnished +gold ornaments for his particular use. His successors subsequently +built a temple of the Sun at Cuzco and set up its image made of +gold and precious stones. Around this, the royal <span class="tei tei-q">“pacarisca,”</span> +they placed the mummies of all the dead Incas. In another room +there was an image of <span class="tei tei-q">“the moon, with a woman's face,”</span> and about +it were the mummies of the royal women. From this we learn +that the latter assigned their origin to the moon and that it was +their pacarisca or huaca. As an illustration of the way in which +creation-myths are sometimes evolved from actual occurrences, it +is interesting to study another account of the mode in which tribal +regulations were introduced into Peru. Owing, most probably, to +the fact that one of the titles given to the Creator was <span class="tei tei-q">“the +Teacher,”</span> we find Molina attributing to the Creator himself the +establishment of the tribal system and the assignment of totems +and different costumes to each group or family. If we read his +account and, with Garcilaso de la Vega and others, attribute to the +Incas the introduction of civilization into Peru, we recognize the +practical good sense with which they accomplished the rather difficult +task of obliging each tribe to wear a different costume. <span class="tei tei-q">“In +Tiahuanaco ... he made one of each nation of clay and +painted [these] with the dresses that each one was to wear. Those +who were to wear their hair, with hair; and those who were to be +shorn, with hair cut ... when he had finished making the +nations and painting the said figures of clay, he gave life and soul +to each one, as well man as woman ... each nation then +went to the place to which he ordered it to go.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I confess that, until I studied the above record in full, I had very +vague ideas about the huacas or <span class="tei tei-q">“idols”</span> of the Peruvians. But +when I found it stated, further on, that <span class="tei tei-q">“each tribe wore the dress +with which their huaca is invested,”</span> I began to realize what huacas +might originally have been. It would seem that on assigning a +different costume and distinctive name to each tribe, the founder of +the new colony gave each chief as a model, a different clay doll, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +painted with the distinctive marks he and his people were to adopt. +This figure would naturally have been kept for reference and treated +as something sacred. On certain official occasions it would be produced +as a means of identification or proof that the prescribed +costumes had been strictly adhered to. To this practical and +sensible plan the origin of the so-called tribal and household idols +of the Peruvians and of the Mexicans can doubtlessly be assigned. +Invented as an aid in the establishment of tribal-names and dress-regulations +and intimately connected with the entire system of +government, these huacas gradually became the representative of +the ancestor of the clan, its <span class="tei tei-q">“canting”</span> arms and its sacred palladium. +We are told that after the tribes had chosen their various +ancestors or origins, such as caves, hills, fountains, etc., they settled +in the land and multiplied. Then, on account of having +<span class="tei tei-q">“issued or descended from stated localities, the people made huacas +and places of worship of these, in memory of the origin of +their lineage.... The huacas they use are in different shapes.... +Some say the first of their lineages were turned into falcons, +condors and other animals or birds”</span> (Molina ed. Hakluyt, +p. 5). A certain form of ancestor-cult was thus evolved in a +natural manner. <span class="tei tei-q">“Idolatrous rites increased and people devoted +themselves to the worship of huacas ... each village had +its huaca. The cult assumed such proportions under Ccapac Yupanqui +that he exclaimed: <span class="tei tei-q">‘How many false gods are there in the +land, to my sorrow and the misfortune of my vassals! When +shall we see these evils remedied?’</span> ”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time we find that clay or wooden figures continued +to be employed evidently as a method of keeping an accurate register +of the population. In the capital, one building held duplicates +of all the huacas throughout the land. When a new province +was conquered the Inca carried its principal huaca to Cuzco. One +or more living representatives of the conquered tribe, wearing its +characteristic dress, were obliged to reside in the capital. In ancient +Mexico these <span class="tei tei-q">“living images of the gods”</span> are one of the +most striking features of the native civilization and have been +persistently misunderstood, especially by modern authorities. As +these <span class="tei tei-q">“living gods”</span> are specially treated in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the +Indians,”</span> I shall merely point out here that small clay portraits or +effigies of persons were made in Mexico at certain stages of an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +individual's life and also after his death. These seem to have been +employed for statistical purposes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Mexico and Peru large numbers of small images were preserved +in each household and were under the charge of its chief or +<span class="tei tei-q">“older brother,”</span> who was obliged to guard and render account of +them. Of course the Spanish conquerors took it for granted that +all of these were idols and, in their ignorance, destroyed them +unmercifully. Once the native system of tribal organization is +understood, it becomes evident that an accurate register of all +members of a tribe was of utmost importance. By means of a +group of more or less skillfully-modelled figures or heads the size +of a family could be ascertained at a glance by the government +recorder. In the light of this recognition it seems more than +probable that the immense numbers of small clay heads of various +kinds, found in the <span class="tei tei-q">“street of the dead”</span> at the base of the great +pyramids of Teotihuacan, and elsewhere, indicate that, in these +localities, a periodical and official registration of deaths was carefully +carried on. This assumption is fully corroborated by the +conclusions I reached, in 1886, after making a minute study of a +large number of terra-cotta heads<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> and ascertaining that numbers +of them were portraits of dead persons. The above inference is, +moreover, confirmed by the name of Teotihuacan, which means, literally, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the place of the lords or masters of the teotle.”</span> The term +teotl was given to the head of a tribe, who constituted the living +image of the tribal ancestor. When he died he himself became +one of the tribal ancestors and all dead lords were termed teotle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing data enlighten us as to the practical value of a +sternly enforced system of division and differentiation for the control +of the population, and of clay images of persons for statistical +purposes. We have seen that, during many centuries, the energy +of the rulers was directed towards making groups of people as +distinct and different from each other as possible. They were +rigidly kept apart and, in all assemblages, they occupied separate +positions, in a fixed order of relation to each other. <span class="tei tei-q">“All the people +of Cuzco came out according to their tribes and lineages ... +and assembling in the great square ... sat down on their +benches, each man according to the rank he held, the Hanan-Cuzco +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on one side and the Hurin-Cuzco on the other”</span> (Molina ed. Hakluyt, +p. 26). Beside this dual division of the entire population, +under the separate rulerships of the Inca and Coya, who were +linked together, however, in a sacred and indissoluble union and +respectively represented Heaven and Earth, let us study the executive +administration of the religious and civil governments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two sets, each consisting of four rulers, next in rank to the +Inca and Coya, are described: Each quarter or Suyu was ruled +over by a <span class="tei tei-q">“viceroy,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Inca governor,”</span> entitled tucuyricoc=<span class="tei tei-q">“he +who sees all,”</span> or Capac. In the days of the Inca Huayna +Capac the names of the four <span class="tei tei-q">“viceroys”</span> are recorded as having +been Capac=Achachic, Capac=Larico, Capac=Yochi, Capac=Hualcaya. +These were obviously members of the Inca family +and next in rank to the Inca, who presided as supreme pontiff over +the religious government. The civil and tribal administration was +executed by four Curacas, each of which had charge of 10,000 +persons belonging to the ayllus=tribes or lineages. The titles +of these four Curacas are recorded as: Hunu-Camayu or Camayoc, +Huaronca-Camayu or Camayoc, Pachaca-Camayu or Camayoc, +Chunca-Camayu or Camayoc. As their titles show, they were the +chief accountants or recorders of statistics, which were recorded +by means of the quippus. Under them, in regular order there +were officers, who respectively had charge of 500, 100, 50 or 10 +individuals. In the latter instance it is expressly stated that it +was always one man out of the ten who governed and rendered +account of the remaining nine. The four chief recorders dwelt in +Cuzco but <span class="tei tei-q">“left it every year and returned in February to make +their report ... bringing with them the tribute of the whole +empire. They also reported upon the administration every year +recording the births and deaths that had occurred among men and +flocks, the yield of crops and all other details, with great minuteness”</span> +(Polo de Ondegardo). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the recorded details of organization we learn that the +governmental scheme introduced by the Incas was based on the assumption +that the standard population of the empire should number +40,000 individuals under the civil rulership of 4 recorders, 40 +first-grade officers, 400 second-grade officers, 4,000 third-grade +officers—each of the last being responsible for nine individuals +besides himself. It is noteworthy that the three grades of officers +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +correspond to the threefold division of the entire produce of the +land, between the Inca, the Huaca and the Ayllu, equivalent to +the religious government, the civil government and the people—to +the Above, Below and Middle. The minimal division of people +into groups of ten of which one was the governmental representative +corresponds, moreover, to the classification into the following +ten categories, according to their ages: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. Mosoc-aparic: baby, <span class="tei tei-q">“newly begun,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“just born.”</span><br /> +2. Saya-huarma: child, <span class="tei tei-q">“standing boy,”</span> age 2-6.<br /> +3 Macta-puric: <span class="tei tei-q">“child that can walk,”</span> age 6-8.<br /> +4. Itanta-requisic: <span class="tei tei-q">“bread-receiver,”</span> boy about 8.<br /> +5. Pucllac-huarma: <span class="tei tei-q">“playing boy,”</span> age 8-16.<br /> +6. Cuca-pallac: <span class="tei tei-q">“Coca pickers,”</span> age 16-20.<br /> +7. Yma-huayna: <span class="tei tei-q">“as a youth,”</span> light service, age 20-25.<br /> +8. Puric: <span class="tei tei-q">“able-bodied,”</span> tribute and service, age 25-50.<br /> +9. Chaupi-rucca: elderly, light service, age 50-60.<br /> +10. Puñuc-rucca: dotage, no work, 60 upwards.<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although for statistical purposes, exact registers of each of these +groups were annually made by the recorders, it is evident that +the purics or <span class="tei tei-q">“able-bodied”</span> men constituted the most important +portion of the population. They naturally fell into two groups +consisting of the nobility and commoners, but scattered evidence +amply provides that they were strictly classified according to the +special service or tribute they rendered to the government. The +best produce of each province was brought to Cuzco. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inhabitants of each region were specially trained to render +certain services or to excel in particular industries—by this means +each tribe gradually became identified with its special industry or +aptitude. The necessity that the supply of their produce should +be constant and regular, must have necessitated the permanent +maintenance of a fixed number of workers at each branch of industry, +a fact which would give rise to rigid laws controlling the +liberty of the individual, forcing children to adopt their parents' +avocations and forbidding intermarriages between persons of different +provinces. As scattered mention is made of the following +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +general classification of the male population, I venture to note +them as follows, provisionally: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nobility: Commoners.<br /> +<br /> +1. lords: shepherds (of lamas),<br /> +2. priests: hunters,<br /> +3. warriors: farmers,<br /> +4. civil governors: artificers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The female population was doubtlessly subdivided in an analogous +manner, for it is expressly recorded that all marriageable girls +were kept in four different houses. Those of the first class, qualified +as <span class="tei tei-q">“the white virgins,”</span> were dedicated to the service of the +Creator, the Sun and the Inca; the second were given in marriage +to the nobility; the third class married the Curacas or civil governors, +and the last were qualified as <span class="tei tei-q">“black,”</span> and pertained to the +lower classes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Caste division was never lost sight of—indeed one Inca went +so far as to order that all the people of the Below <span class="tei tei-q">“should flatten +the heads of their children, so that they should be long and sloping +from the front.”</span> Thus they should ever be distinguishable +from the nobility and <span class="tei tei-q">“yield them obedience.”</span> Although it is not +expressly stated, it may be inferred from actual specimens of +skulls which have been found that, in some localities, in order to +differentiate the two classes still more, members of the nobility +strove to mould the heads of their children in a high peak, so that +they too should perpetually bear the mark of their rank. Whether +such a procedure would exert a correspondingly elevating or abasing +influence upon the intellectual development of the two classes +is a problem for anthropologists. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A very simple explanation of the reason why artificial deformation +of the skull was ever adopted, is obtainable when the all-powerful +dominion of a certain set of ideas is recognized. Many +other customs, still in practice amongst American tribes, are likewise +explained by the arbitrary division of population into classes +and categories. The Peruvian custom of bestowing one name +upon a child when it was one year old and another when it attained +maturity is the direct outcome of the classification of individuals +by age. The ceremonial observances which accompanied the bestowal +of these names were accompanied by a change of costume +which constituted the official enrolment or advancement into another +class. The existence of further systematic class-distinctions +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is proven by the description of the picturesque ceremony performed +in the month of August at Cuzco and called <span class="tei tei-q">“the driving out of +sickness.”</span> In the centre of the great square around the urn of +gold which typified the <span class="tei tei-q">“central fountain”</span> (precisely the idea expressed +by the name of Mexico), four hundred warriors assembled. +One hundred, representing one of the four ayllus, faced towards +each cardinal point and subsequently ran at full speed in its direction, +crying <span class="tei tei-q">“Go forth all evils!”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have now traced the idea of the Above and Below, Centre +and Four Quarters in Ancient Peru. It remains to be noted that +the capital itself, which was to be the image of the whole empire, +was primarily divided into two halves and four quarters, and subdivided +into 4×3=12 wards the names of which doubtlessly corresponded +with that of their inhabitants. When the sacred centre +of the capital is added to these it is clear that the City of Cuzco +was subdivided into as many parts as there were directions in +space, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> 13. It exemplified, therefore, an association of +2×10=20 categories of people classified according to ages, with thirteen +directions in space, and a general subdivision of all classes into four +parts. The Inca with the four Capacs and the Coya with the four +Camayocs formed two groups of five each, which could well have +been represented by a large central figure surrounded by four +smaller ones of equal size. By coloring these with red, yellow, +black and white, their assignment to the cardinal point could have +been expressed. The central figure could be painted in four colors, +for only the Inca and his lineage could wear many-colored +garments, these being indicative that they represented the centre +or union of the four quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two important features of the system remain to be discussed: +We have studied the minute and methodical classification of the +entire population into distinct groups without touching upon the +practical reasons why this was done. We have analyzed the great +machinery of the Inca dominion as it lies broken and motionless. +But endow the giant wheel with motion, introduce systematical +rotation into its every part, regulate the occupations of the people +by a fixed series of work-days and holidays. Send them forth to +their work and collect the products of their labor at set intervals, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">institute a calendar</span></em>, and you will have set the machinery of state in +motion and realized how the classification of individuals according +to rank, ages, and occupations was absolutely necessary in order to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +obtain a successful and harmonious result. It has already been +shown that the institution of the calendar and establishment of +twelve festival periods of thirty days each, in a year, succeeded +the division of the people into groups and their assignment to fixed +places of abode. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“They commenced to count the year in the middle of May, a few +days more or less, on the first day of the Moon ... in this +month they held the festivals of the Sun”</span> (Molina ed. Hakluyt, +p. 16). I direct particular attention to the fact that it was the +new May moon which controlled the beginning of the religious +calendar, although the Incas observed the equinoxes and solstices +and the cult of the Sun was under their special care. The twelve +divisions of the year accord with the twelve wards of Cuzco surrounding +the central enclosure which was always the place where +the festivals were held and the people congregated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have as yet found no account of the lesser divisions of time +in Peru, but note that the period of thirty days consisted of six +periods of five days each, a subdivision which would obviously +accord with native habits of thought if associated with the six +terrestrial directions in space and if a reunion of people and collection +of produce from four quarters took place on every fifth day +in the capital. In my special work on the Calendar systems of +ancient America I shall be able to discuss more fully their intimate +indissoluble relation to the regulation of labor and control of the +food supply absolutely requisite for the great capital. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The idea of rotation was carried out in a ceremony described by +Molina. When the December moon was full, after having ploughed +their fields during twelve days, <span class="tei tei-q">“all persons returned to Cuzco +... the people went to a house called moro-uco, near the +houses of the Sun and took out a very long cable which was kept +there, woven in four colors, black, white, red and yellow, at the +end of which was a stout ball of red wool. Everyone took hold +of it, the men on one side, the women on the other, performing +the sacred dance called yaquayra. When they came to the square +... they went round and round until they were in the shape +of a spiral shell. Then they dropped the cable on the ground and +left it coiled up like a snake. The people returned to their places +and those who had charge of the cable took it back to its house.”</span> +An extremely important instance of the application of the spiral +is preserved in an illustration in the Account of the Antiquities of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Peru by the native chronicler Salcamayhua (ed. Hakluyt, p. 109). +He relates that the Inca Huayna-Capac, when he reached the town +of Tumipampa, <span class="tei tei-q">“ordered water to be brought from a river by boring +through a mountain, and making the channel enter the city by +curves in this way:”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_46" id="Figure_46" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-46.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 46." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 46.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The illustration, reproduced here (fig. <a href="#Figure_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>), exhibits an +extremely ingenious mode of irrigation which divided the country surrounding +the town into nine zones of land lying between currents of +water. These are cut through by an exit canal which, at the same +time, presumably supplied a direct water-way for traffic to and +from the town. The association of the spiral form with irrigation +would not, perhaps, seem as important and significant did we not +know that the ancient Peruvians, as proven by Wiener, habitually +laid out the irrigation canals in their +maize-fields so as to form regular designs, +some of which resembled those +illustrated on fig. <a href="#Figure_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, nos. 2, 4, 6, 7, +which have been shown to signify the +union of the Above and Below, or +Heaven and Earth. In the Peruvian +irrigation canals the water supplied the +light lines and the earth the dark, and +when the small canals were full and +were observed in certain lights, they +must have resembled light blue or white +patterns running through the dark earth. +That their inventors and makers actually associated them with profound +meaning and laid them from superstitious as well as practical +motives is obvious; for, in Peru, as in Mexico, we find the periodical +union of the Heaven and Earth, of rain and earth celebrated +with ceremonial drinking of chicha, specially brewed for this period +which seems to have been the regularly appointed time for juvenile +match-making, by order of the Inca. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“When the Inca gave women as wives they were received because +it was the command of the Inca ... because of this it +was considered that she was taken until death and she was received +on this understanding and never deserted”</span> (Molina). <span class="tei tei-q">“When the +Inca Rocca married his sister, six thousand people were married +on the next day”</span> (Montesinos). In the festival called Ccapac +Raymi, maidens who had attained womanhood offered bowls of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fermented chicha to the youths who had just been admitted to the +ranks of the warriors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“During this festival the Priests of the Sun and of the Creator +brought a quantity of fuel, tied together in handfuls, and dressed +as a man and a woman ... they were offered to the Creator, +the Sun and the Inca and were burnt in their clothes together with +a sheep”</span> (Molina). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Towards the end of the same month (November), feasts were +celebrated for the flocks of the huacas, that they might multiply; +for which sacrifices were made throughout the kingdom. Ultimately +<span class="tei tei-q">“public solemn sacrifices were made to the Creator, the Sun, the +Thunder and the Moon for all nations, that they might prosper and +multiply”</span> (Molina). A few weeks later, an exemption from ceremonial +bondage, for three months, commenced. Throughout January, +February and March no religious festival took place at Cuzco—the +farmers attended to their land and the people were left at +liberty to pursue their various avocations uninterruptedly (Molina +ed. Hakluyt, pp. 51 and 52). I have already shown that the same +exemption from ceremonial bondage during ninety to one hundred +days of the year was customary in Mexico; and, in my note on +the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, communicated to the Congress +of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894 (p. 16), I explained +the reasons which had led me to infer that <span class="tei tei-q">“the religious festivals +were concentrated in the ritual years of 260 days,”</span> which indeed +forms a unit, consisting of a complete set of combinations of the +numbers 13 and 20. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Dr. Franz Boas' admirable monograph on the Social Organization +and secret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (Washington, +1897, p. 418), it is shown that at the present day the clan system +is only in force during one division of the year. <span class="tei tei-q">“At the beginning +of the winter ceremonial the social system is completely +changed. The period when the class system is in force is called +bā-xus. The period of the winter ceremonial is designated as +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the secrets,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘making the heart good,’</span> also <span class="tei tei-q">‘brought down from +Above.’</span> The Indians express this alternating of seasons by saying +that in summer the bā-xus is on top, the secrets below, and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span> in winter. During this time the place of the clans is +taken by a number of secret societies: the spirits who had appeared +to mythical ancestors give new names to the men to whom +they appear, but these names are only in use during the time when +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the spirits dwell amongst the Indians, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, in the winter.”</span> +Therefore from the moment when the spirits are supposed to be present, +all the summer names are dropped and the members of the nobility +take their winter names. The winter ceremonial societies are arranged +in two principal groups; these are subdivided into 2×10=20 +groups according to age and sex. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Boas distinguishes <span class="tei tei-q">“three classes of tribal names and of +clan names, viz., such as are collective forms of the names of the +ancestors, names taken from the region inhabited by the tribe or +clan and names of honour.... Each clan derives its origin +from a mythical ancestor ... the present system of tribes +and clans is of recent growth ... their numbers have undergone +considerable changes in historical times.”</span> A careful study of +the material presented by Dr. Boas shows, however, that the ground-plans +of the entire social fabric reared by the Kwakiutl Indians +closely resembles that on which the stately Maya, Mexican and +Peruvian civilizations were reared. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to Peru, it is particularly noteworthy that the above +mentioned solemn sacrifices to the Creator, the Sun and Thunder, +and Moon and Earth, held in November, were thus offered to them +jointly in one consecrated place, whereas, at other seasons, the +cult was performed separately and on different days, before the +emblems of the Above and Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Notwithstanding the moderation and tolerance which seem to +have been characteristic of the Inca government, and the apparent +equality and accord of the two cults, the heads of which were the +Inca and Coya, we find evidences of discord in the historical records. +The Inca empire had scarcely been established for more +than a few centuries<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> when we discern signs of a serious rebellion +under the leadership of the Chuchi-capac, the chief of the Southern +province or Colla-suyu, pertaining to the Below. From the +taunts he uttered in the presence of the Inca on a festive occasion +and which have been recorded verbally by Salcamayhua, it is clear +that the chief of the Collas asserted that he (and the people of his +province) actually practised sun-cult although <span class="tei tei-q">“his throne was of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +silver;”</span> that is to say, notwithstanding the fact that moon-cult +pertained to the quarter to which he was assigned, namely, to the +Below. He justifies his departure from moon-cult by taunting the +Inca that he, in turn, did not adhere strictly to sun-cult but worshipped +the impersonal Creator. This struggle between the ancient +native sun-cult and star-cult and this religious dissension, the reason +for which is apparent, initiated the long period of internal +strife and warfare which ultimately made the Spanish Conquest +such an easy matter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the course of these wars the Peruvian Inca, on one occasion, +avenged himself for a supposed insult by having drums made +of the skins of some of the enemies' messengers and by sending +back others of these <span class="tei tei-q">“dressed as women,”</span> that is to say degraded +from their positions as warriors or noblemen to the ranks of the +commoners. A similar degradation, inflicted upon the Tlatelolcan +rebels by the Mexicans has already been mentioned and can only +be fully understood when the class-system is recognized. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From this and analogous instances it is evident that, admirable +as the scheme of government seems to have been as a means of +laying the foundations of civilization, and of teaching primitive +people agriculture, stability, law and order, yet the very features +which rendered it so efficient at first became, eventually, the cause +of its gradual disintegration, as soon as a certain degree of culture +prosperity was attained by the community. One mode of +avoiding the evils of over-population and of ridding the capital +of its restless, and enterprising or troublesome members, was the +system of Mitimaes or colonists. This merits particular attention, +because it formed an integral part of the marvellous and widespread +scheme of organization we have been studying, and therefore helps +to an understanding of the customary means by which civilization +was spread in past ages throughout the American continent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the population of Cuzco increased and greater food supplies +were found necessary, the Incas extended their dominions by a +series of conquests. <span class="tei tei-q">“As soon as they had made themselves +lords of a province they left Mitimaes or settlers there, who caused +the natives to live in communities”</span> and established a small centre +of local government on the pattern of Cuzco. Mitimaes or colonists +were also sent, from different provinces, to live on the frontiers, +bordering on hostile countries, so as to aid in defending them +against the enemies. The establishment of colonies in distant districts +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was therefore a tried and familiar custom of those who possessed +the wonderful governmental plan we have been studying. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have shown that the greater the prosperity of a civilized community +organized on this plan, the more imperative the necessity +of founding new colonies would sometimes become. The urgent +need of greater food supplies would lead to the sending out of +expeditions for the purpose of surveying the surrounding country +and ascertaining the quality of its produce. In his MS. Noticia, +Padre Oliva speaks of an exploring party which was sent out by +the ancestor of the Incas with the injunction to return in a year. +After a few years had passed and none of the party returned, a +second expedition was sent out in search of the first and this led +to the final establishment of the Inca dominion in a promising region. +Sahagun recounts how a Maya colony was established at +Panuco; Montezuma himself related to Cortés that he and his lineage +were descendants of colonists from distant parts; traditions +of culture-heroes who established civilization amongst them abound +amongst Central American tribes; finally, Peru is shown to have +been civilized by rulers who carried out, systematically, a ready-made +plan in a comparatively short time. Whence did all these culture-heroes +emanate, carrying the identical method and system into +widely separated districts and establishing centres of civilization +in the richest and most fertile parts of the American Continent? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Documentary evidence certainly justifies the inference that the +civilization of Peru itself was due to just such a deliberately executed +plan of colonization, which gradually extended southwards +and ultimately took root and flourished in the most favorably +situated locality. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leonce Angrand, who cites Acosta, Montesinos, Garcia, Boturini, +Valera, Garcilaso de la Vega, Gomara, Balboa, Paz Soldan, +d'Orbigny, Zarate, Cieza de Leon, Torquemada, Herrera, Velasco, +Rivero and Tschudi, Gibbon, Stevenson, Castelnau, Desjardins, +Villavicencio, Roman and others, unites their testimony in the following +sentence: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is therefore solely towards the North, in the +elevated mountainous region, that researches should be directed +[in order to ascertain the origin of the Peruvian civilization]. As +soon as this is done innumerable proofs appear of the residence, +in extremely ancient times, of people who can scarcely belong to +other races than those who founded Cuzco and Tiahuanaco. It is +therefore, from the North that these hardy pioneers of humanity +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +came, from distant civilizations, and it is certainly by going northwards +that one must look for traces of one or the other current of +civilization. The inexhaustible force of expansion of the Inca +Empire extended to the North as well as in other directions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Angrand also mentions a line <span class="tei tei-q">“of prehistoric ruins which extend +northwards from Peru and display the essentially characteristic +outlines of the Mexican Teocallis or temples.”</span><a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Garcilaso de la Vega, citing Padre Blas Valera, goes so far as to +state that the race, which introduced human sacrifices and ritualistic +cannibalism into Peru, <span class="tei tei-q">“had come from the region of Mexico, +peopled the regions of Panama and the Isthmus of Darien and all +those great mountains which extend between Peru and the new +kingdom of Granada”</span> (the present Nicaragua).<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Padre Anello Oliva, whose manuscript notes on +Peru are preserved in the British Museum Library, the immediate +ancestors of the Incas were colonists who came from unknown parts +either by land or by sea, and settled at Caracas (Atlantic coast), +whence they gradually spread southwards. As his authority for this +statement, he cites original manuscripts which had been placed in his +hands by a Spanish missionary of high standing. Among these was +a relation by a Quipucamayoc or <span class="tei tei-q">“accountant by means of quippus,”</span> +named Catari, who had been a chronicler of the Incas. His +forefathers had occupied the same post and had handed down the +above record as having been related to them by their predecessors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This account does not disagree with that of Salcamayhua who +states that <span class="tei tei-q">“all the nations of the empire had come from beyond +Potosi, in four or five armies, arrayed for war and settled in the +districts as they advanced.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whatever opinions may be held of the relative reliability of the +Spanish chroniclers one thing is certain: that not one ventures +the statement that the Inca civilization was gradually evolved by the +native race of Peru and that all agree in assigning its introduction +to an alien race of rulers who came from the North, and gradually +united the scattered indigenous tribes together under a central government. +Americanists will doubtless agree with me in stating +that, until the past history, antiquities and languages of all tribes +inhabiting South and Central America have been exhaustively +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +studied, no absolutely satisfactory conclusion can be formed as to +when and how civilization was carried to Peru. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand, even in the present preliminary stage of investigation, +there are certain undeniable facts which, if brought to +notice at this early date, may prove of inestimable value in directing +future research. One of these facts will doubtless appear to +many as strange and inexplicable but as noteworthy as it appears +to me. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Cristoval de Molina's account of the fables and rites of the +Incas<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> already cited, a fable is related concerning the Inca Yupanqui, +the Conqueror, who extended the domain of the Peruvian +empire and instituted the worship of a creator who, unlike the sun, +could rest and light up the world from one spot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“They say that, before he succeeded [to rulership], he went one +day to visit his father Uiracocha Inca, who was at Sacsahuana, +five leagues from Cuzco. As he came up to a fountain called +Susur-puquio, he saw a piece of crystal fall into it, within which +he beheld the figure of an Indian in the following shape:</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Out of the back of his head there issued three very brilliant +rays like those of the Sun. Serpents were twined around his arms, +and on his head there was the llautu or royal fringe worn across +the forehead of the Inca. His ears were bored and he wore the +same earpieces as the Inca, besides being dressed like him. The +head of a lion came out from between his legs and on his shoulders +was another lion whose legs appeared to join over the shoulders of +the man. A sort of serpent also twined over the shoulders.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“On seeing this figure the Inca Yupanqui fled, but the figure of +the apparition called him by his name from within the fountain +saying, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Come hither, my son, and fear not, for I am the Sun, +thy father. Thou shalt conquer many nations: therefore be careful +to pay great reverence to me and remember me in thy sacrifices.’</span> +The apparition then vanished, while the piece of crystal +remained. The Inca took care of it and they say that he afterwards +saw everything he wanted in it. As soon as he was Lord +he ordered a statue of the Sun to be made as nearly as possible +resembling the figure he had seen in the crystal. He gave orders +to the heads of the provinces in all the lands he had conquered, +that they should make grand temples, richly endowed, and he commanded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +all his subjects to adore and reverence the new Deity, as +they had heretofore worshipped the Creator.... It is related +that all his conquests were made in the name of the Sun, his Father, +and of the Creator. This Inca also commanded all the nations +they conquered to hold their huacas in great veneration....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a startling but undeniable fact that one of the beautiful +bas-reliefs found at Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa near the western +coast of Guatemala, about 1,200 miles to the north of the latitude +of Cuzco, answers in a most striking manner to the description +given of Inca Yupanqui's vision.<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Amongst the thirteen sculptured slabs discovered at Santa Lucia, +there are six entire slabs and the fragment of another which are +of almost uniform size and may be ranked among the finest examples +of aboriginal art which have as yet been found on the +American Continent. They represent seven different renderings +of the same theme. On each slab an individual wearing elaborate +insignia is represented as standing with one arm raised and +his head thrown back in the act of gazing upwards towards a +celestial figure which seems to be descending towards him. The +arms and heads of these nobly conceived figures are visible, but +in each case the faces seem to issue from a highly ornate symbol, +which is different in each one, just as the insignia of each individual +also varies in detail. At the same time it is obvious that the +seven slabs commemorate as it were an identical circumstance,—the +apparition of the same divinity to seven different individuals, +six of which are represented with the sign of speech coming forth +from their mouths in precisely the same manner. The general resemblance, +notwithstanding the distinct individuality of each +bas-relief, suggests that they commemorate the visions seen under +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +similar circumstances by seven distinct personages of the same +rank and position. Involuntarily one thinks of the period of enforced +fast and vigil which marks the attainment of manhood and +is still obligatory amongst North American tribes, amongst whom +it only ends when they have entered into communion with their +totemic ancestor. I am inclined to view these commemorative +tablets as commemorating an analogous rite and perpetuating the +visions of successive members of one ruling family, or clan. The +divinity, invariably associated with serpent +symbols, seems to be Quetzalcoatl, the +divine twin or serpent, exhibiting in some +cases the emblem of the Sun, but evidently +revealing itself to each personage under a +slightly different form. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_47" id="Figure_47" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-47.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 47." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 47.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The accompanying drawing (fig. <a href="#Figure_47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>) of +one of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs, reproduced +from Dr. Habel's work, will suffice +to establish its resemblance to Padre Oliva's +description of the apparition seen by the +youthful Inca Yupanqui. After a careful +comparison of the text to the sculptured +bas-relief, it must be admitted that a more +graphic and impressive illustration of the +episode can scarcely be imagined. Its +lower portion displays a youthful figure, +looking upwards and exhibiting a necklace, +the circular ear-pieces and royal fringe or +llautu of the Incas. From his shoulders +hangs the skin of a puma or lion with its +head downwards. Molina relates that lion-skins +with the heads were specially prepared +for the ceremonial when youths were +admitted into the ranks of knighthood, the last rite of which was +the piercing of their ears and the enlargement of the orifice +made.<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The youth wears a singular head-dress, or diadem, consisting of +what appears to be an eye with conventionally drawn upper lid, +surmounted by three pointed rays, behind which some long wavy +feathers are visible.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The celestial apparition to which the youthful figure is looking +up, likewise exhibits the same necklace, pieces, and royal fringe +of the Incas. Indistinctly though some of the details are given, +it seems as though intertwined serpents encircled its head and possibly +its neck. The head of the vision is surmounted by an enlarged +rendering of the conventionally drawn eyelid and three +pointed rays which form the diadem of the youthful knight. The +face of the vision occupies, however, the place of the eye on the +diadem. In this connection it is interesting to note that in the +Nahuatl language, which, as (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. et loc. cit.</span></span>) proven by Buschmann, +was spoken in Guatemala where the bas-relief was found, +the word ixtli designates face, whilst ixtololotli signifies eye. Situated +between the right elbow of the celestial figure and the diadem +of the youth, there is a diminutive reproduction of the eye, eyelid +and three rays, with the addition that what appear like two (or +three?) drops of water or two eyes descend from it towards a +square symbol which resembles the Mexican sign for tlalli=earth, +whilst the eye symbol is closely analogous to a well-known Mexican +sign which has been interpreted as a star, and has, but not as +yet satisfactorily, been identified with the planet Venus. Without +pausing to study this sign as it appears in ancient Mexico I point +out that the position and mode of representation of the upper +figure in the bas-relief sufficiently show that it is an image of a +celestial being or vision in the act of receiving the supplication of +a youth who is wearing divine insignia. There being a possibility +that some of these accessories may be somewhat indistinct in the +original bas-relief now preserved at the Royal Ethnographical +Museum at Berlin, I do not venture to draw special attention to +the possibility of further points of resemblance between the Peruvian +tradition and this Guatemalan sculpture. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time I shall not omit allusion to the wavy figure +winding upwards from the waist of the supplicant, which recurs in +four out of the seven slabs. It may yet prove to answer to the +description of <span class="tei tei-q">“a sort of serpent,”</span> which is recorded as twining +over the shoulders of the vision who was <span class="tei tei-q">“dressed like the Inca.”</span> +The lion's head which appears in the drawing to cover the left hand +of the supplicant and the fact that his left foot only, in some cases, +wears a sandal, are important and interesting features to which I +shall revert further on. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without attempting to offer any explanation of the truly remarkable +fact that a bas-relief exhumed in Guatemala should so +strikingly agree with a description preserved in a Peruvian tradition, +I shall merely point out a second similar though much less +remarkable case of agreement. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Padre Oliva records two instances in which a <span class="tei tei-q">“royal eagle”</span> +figures in connection with members of the Inca dynasty. One of +these relates to the ancestors of Manco Capac, the reputed founder +of Cuzco. His great-grandmother, being abandoned by her husband, +attempted to sacrifice her young son to Pachacamac. A +royal eagle descended, carried him away in his talons and set him +down in an island off the Pacific coast, named Guayan, <span class="tei tei-q">“because it +was covered with willows.”</span> Oliva explains this tradition as a fanciful +way of recording the fact that the youth's life was probably +endangered, and that he had fled and taken refuge on an island. +At the age of twenty-one he made his way back to the continent +on a raft, but was seized by hostile people. His life was, however, +saved by the daughter of a chieftain who returned with him +to the island. Her name is given as Ciguar, a word strangely like +the Nahuatl Cihuatl=woman. She bore him a son who was named +Atau (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Ahau and Ahua=Maya and Mexican words for lord +or chief), who was, in time, the father of Manco Capac, the reputed +founder of civilization in Peru. When the latter was a +child <span class="tei tei-q">“an eagle approached him and never left him.”</span> In view of +these traditions it is interesting to note that, on two of the Santa +Lucia bas-reliefs figured by Habel and reproduced by Mr. Hermann +Strebel in pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, fig. +13, of his extremely useful and comprehensive +monograph on the bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, an eagle +is represented in connection with a figure wearing divine insignia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On one of the seven analogous slabs representing a personage +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +addressing a supplication to a celestial apparition, a large eagle or +vulture is actually sculptured behind the supplicant, being, as it +were, his individual totem (Strebel, Pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, fig. 5). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A drawing of a part of another slab (Strebel, Pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, fig. 13) +displays an eagle or vulture holding in his beak the body of a +bearded personage who wears a neck ornament and circular ear +pieces, and from whose head two serpents hang. This last detail +associates him with the celestial figure which usually displays +knotted serpents on or above its head, suggesting its connection +with Quetzalcoatl, the divine title of the Supreme Being and also +of the supreme rulers of the Mexicans. It is curious to find in +Peru a tradition recording that, when <span class="tei tei-q">“the Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui +undertook the conquest of the Antisuyus with 100,000 men, their +Huaca sent forth fire and stopped the passage with a fierce serpent +which destroyed many people. The Inca raised his eyes to +heaven and prayed for help with great sorrow, and a furious eagle +descended, and seizing the head of the serpent raised it on high, +and then hurled it to the ground. In memory of this miracle the +Inca ordered a snake to be carved in stone on the wall of a +terrace in this province, which was called Aucapirca.”</span> When +divested of all fanciful details, the foregoing Peruvian traditions +seem to show that the eagle was the totem of one or more of the +Incas and that the serpent was the totem of a tribe which was conquered +by the Incas. It is likewise recorded by Padre Oliva that +the Inca named Mayta Capac Amaru ordered his shield to be painted +with weapons and a serpent=Amaru, <span class="tei tei-q">“because he had killed one +in the Andes and therefore took it for his surname.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible for any Mexicanist to read the foregoing texts +without recalling that, in the City of Mexico, there is an unexplained +bas-relief which was put up by the Spaniards after the +Conquest but evidently figures a native tradition. It represents an +eagle bearing in his talons a personage, wearing a diadem, beneath +whom is a group of native weapons.<a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> The arms of Mexico +representing an eagle holding a serpent in its talons and resting on +a cactus, is too well known to require comment and recalls the Peruvian +tradition of the eagle of the Incas conquering the serpent-totem +of a hostile people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Striking as these undeniable resemblances undoubtedly are, they +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +would not, by themselves, justify the immediate conclusion that an +actual direct connection existed between the Peruvian traditions +and the Guatemalan and Mexican bas-reliefs which almost seem +to illustrate the same or analogous incidents. At the same time +they prove that, besides their scheme of government, the Incas had +certain myths or traditions in common with the civilized tribes +inhabiting Central America. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well to bear in mind that the situations of Cuzco in Peru +and Santa Lucia in Guatemala are both adjacent to the Pacific coast +with an intervening distance of about 27-½ degrees of latitude. +But 15 degrees, however, lie between the northern boundary of modern +Peru and the southern boundary of Nicaragua where, as proven +by Buschmann, innumerable names of localities in the Nahuatl +language testify to its ancient occupation by a Nahuatl-speaking +race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is noteworthy that this eminent philologist observed how the +name employed to designate the bamboo bed of the Cacique Agateite, +in Nicaragua, <span class="tei tei-q">“barbacoa,”</span> was the same as that of the wooden +bed or litter used by the Inca in Peru (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 756). Buschmann +likewise identified the word galpon=great hall or house. +He also expressed the opinion that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Quechua word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pampa</span></span> +resembles the Mexican <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">amilpampa ehecatl</span></span>=the south wind, +but the Mexican is formed by the affixes pan and pa and the Quechua +substantive means an even, open plain. At the same time this +meaning and form could be derived from the Mexican affixes”</span> +(Buschmann, Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, 7, p. 627). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Following this precedent I have ventured to search for further +resemblances between Nahuatl and Quechua words, and one of the +remarkable results I obtained was the discovery that the well-known +Quechua name for colonists=Mitimaes, the meaning of +which, in Quechua, is not forthcoming, seems to be connected in +sound and meaning with the Nahuatl Ce-mitime=sons of one +mother (Molina's dictionary). It is superfluous to point out how +appropriate this designation would have been for the colonists who +invariably founded fresh centres of civilization on the plan of the +central metropolis. A brief comparative table, the result of an +investigation which lays no claim to be more than a rudimentary +attempt, is published as an appendix to this paper, with the hope +that it may stimulate philologists to supersede it by exhaustive +studies of the subject. A careful examination of the table tends +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to prove that certain Nahuatl, Quechua and Maya words had a +common origin and shows that a closer connection existed between +the Nahuatl and Quechua languages than between Nahuatl and +Maya or the Quechua and Maya. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I shall have occasion to refer to several of the words I have +tabulated. At present I would draw attention to an analogy which +bears directly on the subject of this paper and is of utmost interest +and importance. If carefully studied it will be seen that the +title <span class="tei tei-q">“Pacha Yachachic,”</span> applied in Peru to the Creator, proves to +be allied in sound and meaning to the Mexican title Yaca-tecuhtli, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the lord who guides or governs.”</span> According to Sahagun, this +was <span class="tei tei-q">“the god of the traders or traveller-merchants.”</span> He had +five divine brothers and one sister, each of which was separately +worshipped by some travellers, whilst others, on their safe return +from distant and dangerous expeditions, offered sacrifices to the +whole group collectively. I leave it to each reader to make his +own inference as to whether this celestial <span class="tei tei-q">“traveller's guide”</span> with +his six brethren can have been other than Polaris and Ursa Minor. +The difference in the magnitudes of this constellation would naturally +give rise to the idea of a group composed of individuals of +different ages and sizes; the <span class="tei tei-q">“little sister”</span> probably being the +smaller of the four intermediate stars of the constellation and +suggesting tales of adventures relating to the mythical sister of +six brothers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is superfluous to emphasize how natural it would have been +to offer a thanksgiving to the <span class="tei tei-q">“traveller's star”</span> on returning from +a distant voyage, but I will point out that for coast navigation between +Guatemala and Nicaragua and Peru, the adoption of Polaris +as a guide was and is a matter of course. It is well to bear in +mind that we are dealing here with navigation north and south, +along a sheltered coast, for a distance not exceeding that of the +coast-line between Gibraltar and Hamburg. An instructive example +of primitive navigation, under analogous circumstances, has +been communicated to me, from personal observation, by Commander +Barber of the United States Navy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Native traders, who navigate north and south in small crafts +along the coast between Ceylon and Karashee, still use, at the +present day, an extremely primitive method of estimating latitude, +which is entirely based upon observations of the pole-star. Their +contrivance consists of a piece of wood four inches square, through +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which a hole is bored and a piece of cord, with knots at intervals, +is passed. The square is held at arm's length and the end of the +cord is held to the point of the navigator's nose in a horizontal +line, the height being so adjusted that the pole-star is observed in +contact with the upper edge of the piece of wood. There are as +many knots in the cords as there are ports habitually visited, and +according to the length of the cord required for the observation +of Polaris in the said position, the mariner knows to which port +he is opposite. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Sir Clements B. Markham,<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> the original inhabitants +of the Peruvian coast fished in boats made of inflated sealskins. +It is well known that the coast-tribes of Mexico and Central +America employed boats of various kinds and some of great size. +The Mexican tradition relates that the culture hero Quetzalcoatl departed +in a craft he had constructed and which is designated as a +coatlapechtli=coa=coatl=serpent or twin, tlapechtli=raft. +It is open to conjecture whether this construction, <span class="tei tei-q">“in which he sat +himself as in a boat,”</span> may be regarded as a sort of double or twin +raft, or a boat made of serpent or seal (?) skin. In order to form +any opinion, the name for seal in the Nahuatl and other languages +spoken by the coast tribes should first be ascertained and compared +with the native names for serpent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Maya colonists who founded the colony on the Mexican +coast, and are known as the Huaxtecans, are described as having +transported themselves thither by boats from Yucatan. In the native +Codices and in the sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, there +are, moreover, illustrations of navigation by boats. As dependent +upon Polaris as their East Indian colleagues of to-day, it is but +natural that the ancient Mexican traders by land or sea expressed +their gratitude by offerings to Polaris and Ursa Minor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now return to Peru and examine whether there is any +proof that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Teacher or Guide of the World,”</span> the Supreme Being +of the Incas, was identical with the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lord who guides”</span> revered +by the Mexican navigators. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already demonstrated that in ancient America the native +scheme of religion and government was but the natural outcome +of certain ideas suggested by the observation of Polaris and the +circumpolar constellations. I have likewise quoted the remarkable +qualification of a supreme divinity made by Inca Yupanqui, who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +raised a temple in Cuzco to the Creator who, superior to the sun, +could rest and light the world from one spot. It is an extremely +important and significant fact that the principal doorway of this +temple opened to the north,<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> and that the <span class="tei tei-q">“true Creator”</span> is alluded +to as an invisible power, the knowledge of which was transmitted +by the Incas from father to son. Thus Salcamayhua records that +on one occasion the young Inca Ccapac Yupanqui exclaimed <span class="tei tei-q">“I +now feel that there is another Creator of all things [than that +worshipped in the Andes], as my father Mayta Ccapas Inca has +indeed told me.”</span><a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> Considering that in the latitude of Cuzco, situated +as it is 14° below the equator, Polaris is invisible, the conditions +thus recorded as existing in Peru are exactly those which +might be expected to exist if a religion founded on pole-star worship +had been carried southward to a region in which the star itself +was invisible. The orientation of the temple would designate the +north as the sacred region and the star-god would become an invisible +power whose very existence would have become traditional and +necessarily be accepted on faith by native-born Peruvians and converted +sun- and moon-worshippers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a remarkable fact that a descendant of the Incas has furnished +us with actual proof that the Supreme Creator revered at +Cuzco was not only associated with a star, but also with the figure +of a cross, each branch of which terminated in a star. We are +indebted to the native chronicler Salcamayhua for some extremely +curious drawings, which are reproduced here from his account of +the Antiquities of Peru.<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> In treating of the primitive astronomy +in America in my special paper on the native calendar, I shall refer +to these in greater detail. For my present purpose it suffices to +designate the following figures. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Salcamayhua records that the founder of the Peruvian Empire, +Manco Capac, ordered the smiths to make a flat plate of fine gold, +of oval shape, which was set up as an image of the Creator (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span> p. 76). The Inca Mayta Ccapac, <span class="tei tei-q">“who despised all created +things, including the sun and moon,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“ordered his people to +pay no honour to them,”</span> caused the plate to be renewed which his +<span class="tei tei-q">“great grandfather had put up, fixing it afresh in the place where +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it had been before. He rebuilt the <span class="tei tei-q">‘house of gold’</span> and they +say that he caused things to be placed round the plate, which I have +shown, that it may be seen what these heathens thought.”</span> The central +figure on this plate consists of the oval image of the Creator, +fig. <a href="#Figure_48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>. +Close to its right are images designated by the text as +representing the sun and morning star. To the left are the moon +and the evening star. Above the oval and touching it, is a group +of five stars forming a cross, with one star in the centre. Below +it is a cross figure formed by lines uniting four stars. In +this case, instead of being in the middle, the fifth star is attached +to the lower edge of the oval, which is designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the image of +Uiracocha Pacha-Yachachic, the teacher of the World.”</span> Outside +of the plate is what appears to be an attempt to explain more +clearly the relative positions of the group of five stars to the oval +plate (fig. <a href="#Figure_48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>). It represents the oval and one star in the centre +of a cross formed by four stars. The question naturally suggests +itself whether the group of five stars forming a cross may +not represent the Southern Cross, popularly called the pole-star of +the south and which consists of four principal stars, one of which +is of the first and two of the second magnitude. This possibility +opens out a new field of inquiry, and calls for the statement of the +following facts, which I quote from Amedée Guillemin's Handbook +of Popular Astronomy, edited by J. Norman Lockyer and revised +by Richard A. Proctor.<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_48" id="Figure_48" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-48.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 48." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 48.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In [our] enumeration of the circumpolar constellations of the +South, we have said nothing of the stars situated at the Pole itself. +The reason is simple; there are none deserving mention, and with +the exception of one star in Hydræ, none approach the third magnitude. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +There is not then, in the southern sky, any star analogous +to Polaris in the northern heavens.”</span> M. Guillemin proceeds to +explain, however, that this poverty of the polar regions is singularly +compensated for by the stars of the equatorial zone. It seems +more than probable that primitive astronomers or their descendants, +who had been reared in a knowledge of the northern Polaris +and of the periodical motion of the circumpolar constellations, +should continue their observations in whatever latitude they found +themselves. It seems possible that they may have observed the +Southern Cross and recognized its closeness to the pivot or centre +of rotation; but from personal experience and observation I can +vouch for the fact that this constellation could never have produced +upon primitive man the powerful impression caused by Ursa Major +and Cassiopeia revolving around Polaris. It is, of course, impossible +to conclude to what extent the ancient Peruvians revered the +Southern Cross. It suffices for the present to establish the incontrovertible +facts that the image of the motionless Creator, set up +by the Incas, was associated with stars and with the cross and that +the door of the Cuzco Temple, where this image was kept, faced +the north, the direction whence, according to native traditions, the +culture-heroes had come to Peru. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following data furnish further important proof that certain +peculiar ideas, symbols and metaphors were held in common +by the civilizations of Peru, Central America and Mexico. Returning +to the bas-relief (fig. <a href="#Figure_47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>), +I recur to an interesting feature, +which I have already pointed out, namely, that the left arm of +the personage terminates in a tiger's or puma's head. In connection +with this peculiarity it is interesting to note that the native +historian Ixtlilxochitl cites his illustrious ancestor and namesake, +the Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, as addressing his young son Nezalhualcoyotl +as <span class="tei tei-q">“my dearly beloved son, tiger's arm.”</span><a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> As +the young prince is referred to in the same chapter as <span class="tei tei-q">“the boy +Acolmiztli [=tiger's arm] Nezalhualcoyotl,”</span> it is obvious that the +metaphor constituted a title preceding the actual name. It was +Nezalhual-coyotl who instituted the worship of Tloquenahuaque, +the true Creator, and discountenanced human sacrifices. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the other analogous Santa Lucia slabs be also examined it +will be seen that although the positions of the bodies and arms +vary, and the form of the head is different in each instance, it is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +invariably the left arm that terminates in the individual emblem. +This sort of consecration of the left hand seems particularly significant +for the following reason: Padre Anello Oliva records that +the Inca Yupanqui, the founder of Cuzco and the same whose vision +agrees so strangely with the bas-relief, was surnamed Lloque=the +left-handed,<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> +and was noted for having visited the whole empire +three times. His reign was long and prosperous, and he left +a record as a conqueror and builder. He likewise sent his son +Mayta-Capac to visit the whole empire, accompanied by sages and +councillors. I recall here it was Yupanqui who proclaimed to the +sun-worshippers of Peru, the existence and superiority of an immutable +Creator. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already shown how, in Peru, it was a dictum that the +upper division of the empire was to bear the same ideal relation +to the lower as that of an elder brother to a younger or a right +hand to the left. It is, therefore, possible to infer that, on ceremonial +occasions when it is recorded that the Hanan Cuzco and +Hurin Cuzco people were stationed at either side of the Inca, the +Hanan or chieftains constituting the nobility were to his right and +the Hurin people or lower class, to his left. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is truly remarkable that it is a passage in the Annals of the +Cakchiquels, the people now inhabiting the region of Guatemala +where the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs were found, that contains the +clearest statement regarding the division of a tribe into two classes +and the relative positions assigned to each of these, according to +ceremonial usage. The passage relates: <span class="tei tei-q">“We, the 13 divisions +of warriors, and the seven tribes ... we came to the enclosure +of Tulan, and coming, gave our tribute. The seven tribes +were drawn up in order on the left of Tulan. On the right hand, +were arranged the warriors. Firstly, the tribute was taken from +the seven tribes, next from the warriors.”</span><a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Buschmann has recorded the interesting fact that, in Nahuatl, +the right hand is designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the good, clever or wise”</span>=yec-maitl +or mayectli, also ma-imatca or ma-nematca (from yectli=good +and imati=to be clever or wise). Molina's dictionary furnishes +us with the following Nahuatl names for the left hand, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Opoch maitl, Opuch maitl, Opuch maye: left hand.<br /> +Opochiuia=v. to do something with the left hand.<br /> +Topuchcopa, the left, at the left hand, or side. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Mexico the totemic lord of the chase was named Opochtli. +The much-discussed name Huitzil-opochtli is considered by some to +signify <span class="tei tei-q">“the left-handed humming-bird.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing proves that in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico a +caste-division was associated with left-handedness and that the +expression <span class="tei tei-q">“left-handed”</span> was employed as an honorific or distinctive +title. It is obvious that before reaching the point when +the left hand would be invested by a distinctive mark, as in the +Santa Lucia bas-reliefs, the above ideas must have been prevalent +for a very long time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already pointed out that a striking similarity of ideas +survives amongst the Zuñi Indians of to-day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As to the native tiger's head (puma or ocelot?) we find that it +is the chief symbol of the central human figure on the great monolithic +doorway of Tiahuanaco, Peru, a fact which testifies to a +further community of thought. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This central figure exhibits two tigers' heads on each shoulder +and six around its head, disposed as rays and interspersed with +what resemble drops of water. The transverse ornament carved +on the breast exhibits four divisions, each of which terminates +with a tiger's head. Four similar heads, looking upwards, are on +the central decoration beneath the figure and the broad band at the +base terminates in two large tigers' heads. What is more, on +the fragment of a finely carved hollow stone object, which is preserved +at the British Museum and was found at Tiahuanaco by +Mr. Richard Inwards, there are the finest representations of the +swastika which have as yet been found on the American Continent, +and each of its branches terminates in a tiger's head, resembling +those sculptured on the +monolithic doorway. The fragment +consists of the half of what +seems to me to have been the top +or handle of a staff or sceptre. +I am indebted to the kindness +of Mr. C. H. Read of the British +Museum, for a rubbing of the +carved fragment and for the permission +to reproduce it here (fig. +49). The central swastika is angular and its form recalls that of the +Mexican Calendar swastika (fig. <a href="#Figure_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>). +At each side of it are portions +of what originally were two rounded swastikas, which also terminate +in tigers' heads. These and the size of the fragment seem to +justify the inference that another square swastika was originally +sculptured on the opposite side, making two rounded and two +square swastikas in all. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_49" id="Figure_49" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-49.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 49." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 49.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this +fragment, for it proves to us that in Tiahuanaco, the swastika +was a sacred symbol. Its association with the puma or ocelot, +links it to the central figure on the monolithic doorway and, possibly, +connects this with the Mexican identification of the ocelot +with the Ursa Major, with <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord who walks around,”</span> or the +lord of the underworld, Tezcatlipoca. The two forms of swastika +seem to testify that, in Tiahuanaco also, the idea of the Above +and Below prevailed and that the angular form symbolized the subdivision +of the earth and the rounded one that of the heavens. +The rows of personages sculptured on the doorway at each side +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of and facing the central figure seem to indicate that this commemorates +an establishment of tribal organization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The distribution of the sculptured figures is as follows: +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">8 figures=2×4 } Central { 8 figures</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">8 figures=2×4 } 6×4 { 8 figures</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">8 figures=2×4 } figure. { 8 figures.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The figures on the upper row to the right and left, making sixteen +in all, are all alike—so are the sixteen figures on the second +and the sixteen on the third rows. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without attempting to describe all the insignia which characterize +the figures on each of the three rows, I refer the reader to the +magnificent plates contained in Drs. Stübel and Uhle's monumental +work on the Ruins of Tiahuanaco, and merely note that +each figure in the uppermost row exhibits a bird's head in front of +its head-dress. All figures in the second row are completely +masked as condors. In the third row a tiger's head decorates each +head-dress. It is curious to find that whilst the birds' and tigers' +heads designate their wearers as heads or chieftains, these emblems +strikingly coincide with the classification of the highest Mexican +warriors into two divisions, known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the ocelots and the eagles.”</span> +If attention is bestowed upon the number of emblems or figures +and their distribution it will be seen, in the first case, that the central +figure exhibits on his person twelve tigers' heads in all, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, +six on his head, two on each arm and two on his breast-plate. Sixteen +chieftains exhibit the same emblem and the carved fragment +with the swastika appears to have originally exhibited sixteen +tigers' heads, distributed into homogeneous groups of four. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It cannot be denied that the forty-eight figures on the doorway +are first divided into two groups of twenty-four by being placed to +the right and left of the central figure. Each division of twenty-four +is grouped as 3×8, which is also 6×4, and yielding a +total of 12×4 or 4×12 figures. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Curiously enough the number 12 coincides not only with the number +of heads exhibited by the central figure, but the entire bas-relief +offers a certain agreement with the numerical divisions of +Cuzco which I have summarized as having been divided into two +halves and four quarters and subdivided into 12 wards, the names +of which doubtlessly corresponded with those of their inhabitants. +Personally I am inclined to consider that the purpose of the Tiahuanaco +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +bas-relief was to establish a certain tribal organization +and impose certain distinctive insignia upon each tribe. The inference +that each sculptured figure was differentiated from the other +by being painted in various colors is justified by Molina's account, +already cited, that <span class="tei tei-q">“in Tiahuanaco the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Creator’</span> had his chief +abode, hence the superb edifices in that place, on which edifices +were painted many dresses of Indians ... thus each nation +uses the dress with which they invest their huaca and they say that +the first that was born [in Tiahuanaco] was there turned into stones, +others say that the first of their lineages were turned into falcons, +condors and other animals and birds.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is with deference, however, that I submit my conclusion and +refer the question to the supreme authority of Drs. Stübel and +Uhle and Mr. Bandelier, whose attainments and exhaustive researches +in the region of Tiahuanaco qualify them to utter a final +judgment upon this interesting subject. According to Dr. Max +Uhle the civilization established at Tiahuanaco antedates that of +the Incas. It may yet be proven that whilst Tiahuanaco was settled +in remote times by colonists from the North, the Inca civilization +was due to a later migration. It certainly appears that, in +Tiahuanaco and Cuzco, the identical fundamental scheme of government +and organization prevailed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I shall yet have occasion to point out that in Mexico and Yucatan +and Central America there are also monuments exhibiting multiples +of 12 and 4 and also 16 chieftains. Meanwhile it is worth +while to note here briefly, some analogies to Mexican and Maya +antiquities found in Peru. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am much indebted to Sir Clements D. Markham, the President +of the Royal Geographical Society, for the kind permission to reproduce +here a hasty drawing he made, in 1853, of a gold plaque +(size 5-8/10 inches) found in Cuzco (fig. +<a href="#Figure_50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>). It was then in Lima, +being the property of the President of Peru, General Echerrique. +This curious relic exhibits the image of a monstrous face surrounded +by a band with subdivisions containing various signs. The +plaque was looked upon by its owner as a Calendar, but Sir Clements +Markham, after studying its subdivisions with a view of ascertaining +their agreement with the twelve divisions of the Peruvian +year, preferred to let his notes on the subject remain unpublished, +not having come to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject. I am +permitted, however, to state that Sir Clements Markham specially +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +noted the resemblance of a sign, which is represented on the cheeks +of the central figure and recurs four times on the encircling band, +to the well-known Maya glyph ahau=chief, lord. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_50" id="Figure_50" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-50.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 50." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 50.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is, indeed, a cursive representation of a human head and +moreover resembles those figured on the garment of a gigantic red +sandstone statue found at Ak-Kapana and figured in Stübel and +Uhle's Tiahuanaco. On this garment the heads alternate with +squares and form a close design. This resemblance between the +conventional faces on this archaic statue and those on the gold +plaque has made me attach more importance to the latter and at +all events regard it as preserving ancient native symbolism. In +connection with these I wish to point out that the plaque itself +offers a certain resemblance to well-known Mexican calendars, the +centre of which usually exhibits a face which is surrounded by a +band with day or month signs. It is remarkable that above each +eye there are four dots, especially as the Quechua word for eye=naui +is homonymous with the Nahuatl numeral four=nahui, and +this is so constantly associated with an eye in the Mexican sign +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Nahui ollin=four movements (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +fig. <a href="#Figure_2" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>). As strange a coincidence +as this is furnished by the mark on the forehead of the image, +not because the latter resembles the sect mark of the Vishnu worshippers, +but because it offers a marked analogy to the Mexican +Acatl sign which is frequently carved or painted as a cane standing +in a square receptacle with recurved ends. I am strongly +tempted to interpret this symbol according to the native mode of +thought, as signifying the centre, the union of the Above and Below +and to regard the upper part of the face itself as a representation +of the Above, the heaven, with its two eyes (the Moon and +Sun), whilst the lower part and teeth, as in Mexico, signified the +Below, the earth and underworld. By means of the head on each +cheek and the number four over each eye, the dual and quadruple +rulerships of the empire could well have been expressed. Postponing +a more thorough study of the gold plaque, I merely note +here that it exhibits curious analogies not only to Maya but also +to Mexican symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another instance of the same kind is furnished by a possibly +modern but curious small silver pendant of unquestionably native +workmanship. It is preserved at the Ethnographical Museum at +Vienna and is figured in the Report of the International Congress +of Americanists which was held at Berlin in 1888 (pl. 1, fig. 4, p. +96). Reputed to be from Cuzco, it represents a figure of the sun +surrounded by eight straight and intermediate undulating rays. +Two serpents are figured beneath the sun; their bodies extend +across the pendant and their heads with open jaws almost meet in +the centre. A figure, wearing a peculiar head-dress, is kneeling +in worship beneath the symbols, which undoubtedly recall the Mexican +mode of representing two serpents meeting, as on the Calendar +Stone of Mexico, for instance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As I am tracing analogies at present, I should like to ask the +reader to compare the symbols figured and designated by Salcamayhua +as that of the earth (see his fig. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>, +pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxvi</span></span>) with the sacred +vase from the Maya MS. (his fig. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lix</span></span>) and the form of the +Peruvian symbol for the sea (his fig. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>, +pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxvi</span></span>) with the peculiar +Mexican shell ornament (fig. 1, no. 10). Insufficient though the +above analogies may seem in themselves, they are valuable in conjunction +with the other data presented and strengthen the conclusion +that the same symbolism prevailed in Peru as in Central +America, Yucatan and Mexico. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now rapidly journey northwards from Peru to these countries +and briefly record the traces of the existence of the same +ideas and quadruplicate form of government which we may encounter +en route. In the elevated plains of Bogota we find positive +proof that the Muyscas held the same ideas as their southern and +northern neighbors. Their culture hero, Bochica or Ida-can-zas, +was the personification of the Above and of its symbol, the Sun, +whilst his wife was Chia, a name suspiciously like Quilla, the Quechua +for moon. He was high-priest and ruler but counselled the +Muyscas to elect one of themselves, a chief named Hunc-Ahua, to +be their Za-que or civil ruler. Ida-can-zas instituted the Calendar +and taught the Muyscas to appoint four chiefs of tribes whose +names or titles are recorded as Gameza, Busbanca, Pesca and +Toca. The institution of a dual government is indicated by the +record that the high-priest dwelt at the sacred town Aura-ca and +the Za-que at Tunja. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is extremely curious to notice that Ida-can-zas, in Bogota, did +precisely what Cortés found it expedient to do after the Conquest +of Mexico. The latter assumed the supreme rulership over the +nobility, became the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of Heaven”</span> and instituted a native +chieftain, bearing a female title, as his coadjutor, the lord of the +earth, and the ruler of the people of the lower class. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It may be worth making the passing remark that the title of the +Muysca culture-hero contains the word <span class="tei tei-q">“can”</span> and thus recalls the +Maya Kukulcan and that the title Za-que offers a certain resemblance +to the Maya title Chac, whilst the name Hunc-ahua seems +strangely similar to Hun-ahau which in Maya would signify <span class="tei tei-q">“one +lord.”</span> It is for Muysca scholars to enlighten us as to the derivation +and meaning of the above titles and name. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Regretting the lack of time and documents which have prevented +me from obtaining further data I now return to Guatemala +and the vicinity of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. Referring to the +introduction to their Annals<a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> we learn that the Cakchiquel tribe +was but one of four allied nations, each of which had its capital, +named Tecpan, as follows: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nations: Capitals.<br /> +Cakchiquel: Tecpan Quauhtemallan,<br /> +Quiche: Utatlan,<br /> +Tzutuhil: Atitlan,<br /> +Akahal: Tezolotlan. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Mr. A. P. Maudslay's authoritative statement, +these nations were engaged in warfare against each other at the +time of the Conquest. Tezolotlan was termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“tierra de +guerra”</span> the land of war, and the precise locality of its tecpan or +former capital has not been traced, although it seems to have been +close to Rabinal or in the valley of that name. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that, under the rulership of Tizoc, the Mexicans +extended their conquests into Guatemala. Buschmann has, moreover, +proven that the foregoing names of the capitals, of what were +at one time four provinces, are pure Nahuatl, which fact establishes +the existence of Nahua supremacy in these regions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious to find that one of the Santa Lucia slabs seems to +commemorate the existence of a central rulership and that of the +four quarters. It is reproduced in Mr. Strebel's publication already +cited and represents a central personage holding a head and a tecpatl, +whilst four lesser personages, each carrying a head, are figured +as walking away in four opposed directions. As, according +to native symbolism, the head is the symbol for chieftain this slab +seems to commemorate the establishment and at all events testifies +to the existence in Guatemala of the scheme of government now +so familiar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In their Annals, the Cakchiquels record, as I have already shown, +that they carried their tribute to <span class="tei tei-q">“the enclosure of Tulan,”</span> a designation +which supports my inference, previously maintained, that +Tulan was derived from the Maya tulum,=a fortification, an +enclosed place or that which is entire, whole, etc., and applied +always to the metropolis of a state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An ancient Cakchiquel legend relates, moreover, that, according +to the <span class="tei tei-q">“ancient men,”</span> there had been four Tulans: one in the east, +one in the north, one in the west and one <span class="tei tei-q">“where the god dwells.”</span> +This would obviously have been situated towards the south in order +to accord with the general scheme. I cannot but think that this +record testifies to the existence of an extremely ancient state which +starting from one metropolis had gradually developed into four +great Tullans, to one of which the four tecpans of Guatemala +pertained. The fact that the Spaniards found the four nations +living close together, with capitals or tecpans bearing Nahuatl names +and in constant warfare with each other, seems to indicate the destruction +of their own ancient metropolis or Tullan by their Mexican +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +conquerors and the consequent disintegration of their former +government.<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mendoza Codex teaches us that when the Mexicans conquered +a land they first burnt and utterly destroyed the teocallis +situated in the heart of its central capital. They razed this to +the ground, and carried off to their own metropolis the totemic +images of the rulers of the tribe. The barbarous institution of +human sacrifice, which was only practised to a great extent by the +Mexicans when the necessity to obtain more plentiful food supplies +for their rapidly increasing population forced them to become a +nation of warriors and conquerors, seems indeed to have been +adopted as a fear-inspiring, symbolical rite commemorating the +conquest and destruction of an integral government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The victim, usually a chieftain taken prisoner in warfare and +clad with his insignia and the raiment of his people, was stretched +on the stone of sacrifice and, figuratively speaking, represented +his country and its four quarters. The tearing out of his heart by +the high-priest, armed with the tecpatl, the emblem of supreme +authority, signified the destruction of the independent life of his +tribe as much as did the burning of the teocalli, and of its capital. +It would seem as though the horrible custom of annually sacrificing +one or more representatives of each conquered tribe, had been +adopted as a means of upholding the assumed authority, inspiring +awe and terror and impressing the realization of conquest and utter +subjection. It is known that sometimes a member of a conquered +tribe voluntarily offered himself as a victim in order to release his +people from their obligation, and thus earned for himself +immortality. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An insight into the native association of ideas is afforded by +Sahagun's note that the lord or chieftain was <span class="tei tei-q">“the heart of his +Pueblo,”</span> which means town as well as population. The death +of the sacrificed chief, therefore, actually conveyed the idea of the +destruction of the tribal government to his vanquished subjects. +It remains to be seen whether the subsequent partition of portions +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of his dead body amongst the priesthood and their ritual cannibalism +did not signify the absorption of the conquered population +into the communal life of their victors. The preservation of the +victim's skull on the Tzompantli, as a register of the conquest of +a chieftain, would also be the logical outcome of the native line of +thought and symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the risk of making a somewhat lengthy digression I will +again refer here to a point I have already touched upon, namely, +the Mexican employment of the human figure as an allegorical +image of their Empire or State, the idea being that the four limbs +represented its four governmental and territorial divisions and that +these were governed by the head=the lord of the Above or heaven, +and the heart=the lord of the Below or earth. A careful study +of the native Codices has shown me that such was the native allegory +which indeed can be further traced. The territory of a state +reproduced the organization of the human body with its four limbs, +each of these terminating in minor groups of five. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the same set of ideas the cursive image of a state +could be conveyed by a main group of five dots, situated in the +centre of four minor similar groups. Cross-lines expressing the +partition into four quarters would complete such a graphic and cursive +presentation of the scheme and not only signify its territorial +but also its governmental features. It is noteworthy that, in +Nahuatl as in the Quechua, the title for minor chief is homonymous +with the word for fingers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Nahuatl pilli is a title for a chieftain or lord and also signifies +child and fingers or toes. A finger is ma-pilli, the prefix ma, +from maitl=hand, designating the fingers as the children of the +hand. The thumb is qualified by the prefix uei=great. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having gained a recognition of the above facts it is not difficult +to understand the meaning of certain sceptres in the form of an +open hand which occur as symbols of authority borne by chieftains +in the native Codices.<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> +I know of one important instance, indeed, +where an arm with an open hand is represented as standing upright +in the centre of a circle divided into sections and zones (similar to +fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, nos. 1, 3, 5, and 6). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above mentioned examples, which I shall illustrate later, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +have led me to infer that whilst the arm symbolized one of the four +divisions of the State, the hand symbolized its capital, the thumb +its central ruler and the fingers his four officers or pilli, the rulers +of the four quarters of the minor seat of government. In another +publication I shall produce illustrations showing that the foot was +also employed as an emblem of rule and that Mexico, Yucatan and +Central America furnish us with actual proofs that the hands and +the feet respectively symbolized the upper and lower divisions of +the State. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is thus curious to compare the name for thumb=uei-ma-pilli +and the name Uei-mac (literally, great hand) which Sahagun gives +as that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“temporal”</span> coadjutor of the Mexican culture-hero +Quetzalcoatl, as well as the term, our toe=totecxopilli with the +well-known title Totec=our chief or lord. In Yucatan the word +for hand=kab is, as I shall demonstrate further on, actually +incorporated in the title of the lords of the four quarters=Bakab. +I am almost inclined to find a trace of a similar association in the +Quechua word for fingers=pallca and the title palla bestowed +upon noble women. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already mentioned in the preceding pages that the natural +basis of the all-pervading native numerical division into 4×5=20 +was the finger and toe count. The following table exhibits the +general custom to designate 20 as one man or one count.<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Word for Man. Word for 20.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nahuatl. tlacatl. cem-poualli=one count.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quiché }</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">and } uinay=one man. uinay= " "</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cakchiquel }</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tzendal. hun-uinic=one man. hun-uinic= " "</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maya. uinic. hun-kal= " "</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the latter case the affix kal seems to be derived from the same +source as the verb kal=to close up or fasten something, and to +signify something complete or finished. At the same time the Maya +uinal is the Maya name for the twenty calendar-signs, and the +same association is demonstrated as existing in Mexico by the well-known +picture in the Vatican Codex <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span> (p. 75), which represents a +man surrounded by the twenty Mexican calendar-signs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As I shall treat of the same subject more fully in another publication, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +I shall but briefly touch upon the intimate connection there +existed between these calendar-signs and the twenty classes into +which the population was strictly divided. It is known that an +individual received the name of the day on which he was born and +it is possible to prove that this determined his position in the commonwealth, +his class and his future occupation. Each child was +formally registered by the priestly statisticians at birth, and at +about the age of six, when his name was sometimes changed, he +entered one of the two educational establishments where he was +brought up by the State, under the absolute control of the priesthood +and rulers. It can be gleaned that one of the chief cares +of the latter was to maintain the same average number of individuals +in the distinct classes, to which the various forms of labor +were allotted and who became in time identified with these. In +order to keep the machinery of state in perfect adjustment, individuals +had sometimes to be transferred from the class into which +they were born, to another. In some cases this seems to have been +arbitrarily ordered by the authorities, but the latter appear to have +guided themselves by the position of the parents and to have established +the custom that an individual might alternatively be transferred +into the paternal or maternal class, but not into any other. +As each class was, moreover, divided into an upper and lower one, +it was possible for each person to elevate himself from the lower +to the higher by individual merit or to incur abasement, for unworthy +conduct, and being, as we have already seen, <span class="tei tei-q">“reduced +to the official rank of women.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The direct outcome of such a form of organization was stringent +laws governing marriage, it being expedient that certain classes +only should intermarry, not only to avoid complications but also to +ensure a certain degree of coöperation conducive to the prosperity +of the State. In the tribal laws still existing amongst the native +tribes of North America, I see the logical survivals of an ancient +scheme of organization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After gaining the above recognition of some of the actual duties +of the priest-rulers of ancient Mexico, it is possible to understand +the meaning of the native sentence, noted by Sahagun, that the +native games of patolli and tlachtli constituted a practice in <span class="tei tei-q">“the +art of government.”</span> From this it is clear that the former, played +by two individuals with dice and markers upon a mat in the shape +of a cross, and symbolical of the Four Quarters, was originally +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +invented by the priest-rulers for an eminently practical purpose. +The mat being an image of the quadruple state and its subdivisions, +it was possible to make it serve as a register-board exhibiting +the distribution of the population, the number of individuals +in each class and its death and birth rates. We are informed that +when parents, according to the inflexible law, carried their newborn +child to the priest, he consulted his books full of day-signs +and foretold what its future was to be. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A proof that it was the positions of the stars which determined +the season and furnished the means of fixing a date, is furnished +by the fact that the stars were also <span class="tei tei-q">“consulted”</span> and believed to +exert an influence upon the destiny of the child. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The implicit faith in the predictions of the priests and in the +absolute influence of the position of the heavenly bodies and the +date of its birth upon the individual indicates that the parents were +kept in ignorance as to the workings of the machinery of state and +that the priesthood were reverenced for their power of prophecy. +The belief that they could personally exercise a favorable influence +over the destiny of the child seems also to have been encouraged +in the parents, since an offering of gifts at the period of registration +was customary. After the Conquest, when the native government +had been completely broken up, and the enforced registration +of birth and the prediction of the priest had utterly lost their +original significance, native parents still consulted the surviving +members of the priest-rulers; and these ancient statisticians, in +order to gain a livelihood, continued to consult their books and +uttered predictions as of yore, although their power to control their +fulfilment had vanished forever. Ancient Mexico thus furnishes +us with an interesting and instructive explanation of the origin of +divinatory practices, prognostication at birth, etc. It shows us +that, under the ancient form of established government, the sign +of the date of a child's birth actually did control his future destiny, +while it was unquestionably in the power of the priesthood, not +only to predict his future, but also to exert a favorable or unfavorable +influence upon it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above facts help us to understand the origin not only of +divination, propitiation and the belief in the influence of day-signs, +but also of the native games which became popular after the Conquest, +when their original use and meaning had become obsolete. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Deferring further discussion of this interesting matter I will but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +draw attention to Mr. Stewart Culin's important study of <span class="tei tei-q">“American +Indian Games,”</span><a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> +which clearly establishes their <span class="tei tei-q">“interrelation”</span> +and at the same time proves that they were based, as first +distinctly insisted upon by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, on the central +idea and that of the four quarters of the world. Mr. Culin has +gone so far as to fix the place of origin of the <span class="tei tei-q">“platter or dice +class of games which he has found recorded as existing among +some 61 American tribes, in the arid region of the southwestern +United States and Northern or Central Mexico,”</span> and to conceive +that <span class="tei tei-q">“in ancient Mexico we find traces of its highest development.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I place the utmost value upon Mr. Culin's painstaking and conscientious +researches and regard them as strongly corroborating +my views exposed in the preceding pages. His identification of +the pictured diagram in the Féjérvary Codex, as the counting circuit +of the Four Quarters, with a presiding god in the middle, as +in Zuñi, does credit to his perspicacity. I agree with him in considering +that this chart could have been employed after the Conquest +for a game or for divination, but trust that, upon perusal of +this paper, he will admit that primarily the Féjérvary diagram expressed +the native scheme of government and the calendar, which +was no other than a means of ruling the classes by binding each of +these to a special day and totemic sign. Each of the twenty +classes or clans had its day, known by a particular sign which was +also its totemic mark. As the day-signs recurred periodically, the +chief or head of each clan became its living representative, assumed +a totemistic costume and became the <span class="tei tei-q">“living image of the +ancestral teotl,”</span> or god of his people, of whose activity he rendered +account to the central government. It is significant that the common +native title for lords or chieftains was <span class="tei tei-q">“tlatoque,”</span> literally, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the speakers,”</span> and that they were closely designated as the spokesmen +of his people, who habitually kept silence in his presence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the names and signs of the days are identical with +the totemic tribal distinctions imposed for governmental reasons, +is one which I shall proceed to demonstrate more fully. Meanwhile +attention is now drawn to the chapter on the 7-day period +in Dr. Daniel G. Brinton's <span class="tei tei-q">“Native Calendar of Central America +and Mexico,”</span> in which he surmises that the tribal divisions of the +Cakchiquels <span class="tei tei-q">“were drawn from the numbers of the Calendar.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the native records the institution of the Calendar was +simultaneous with that of tribal organization and a minute study +of both features reveals that it could not have been otherwise. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the dawn of their history the Cakchiquels, as I have already +shown, were divided into thirteen divisions of warriors +(Khob, constituting the upper class) and seven tribes (Amag, +constituting the lower class). A totem and a day being assigned +to each division and tribe, they were, once and for all time, placed +in a definite position towards each other and towards the state, and +the order in which their chieftains were to sit in general council, and +to assume or perform certain duties, was thus instituted. The +20-day period thus constituted a <span class="tei tei-q">“complete count”</span> and synopsis +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“thirteen divisions of warriors and seven tribes,”</span> but it +also fulfilled other not less important purposes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The day-signs were so ordered that the first, eleventh and sixteenth +were major signs employed to designate the years, and +identified with the four quarters, elements and their respective +colors. The 20-day period, consisting as it also did of 4 major +signs and of 4×4=16 minor signs, was as closely linked to the +idea of the Four Quarters as it was to the Above and Below, represented +by the 13+7 division. It is therefore evident that a +simultaneous reckoning of periods consisting of 5, 7, 13, and 20 +days was ingeniously combined. I shall show in my special treatise +how <span class="tei tei-q">“the lords of the Night”</span> employed in their astronomical +calendar, 9-night and 9-moon periods for purposes of their own +and how these also served to carry out certain ideas of organization, +controlling persons. Although it embodied the results of +long-standing primitive astronomical observation and accorded +with the seasons and movements of the celestial bodies, the native +Calendar was primarily a governmental institution, designed to +control the actions of human beings and bring their communal life +in accord with the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In my Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, communicated +to the International Congress of Americanists at Stockholm, +in 1894, I stated certain historical and astronomical facts +which showed that the New Cycle, which began in 1507 with the +year Acatl, had commenced on March 14th three days after the +vernal equinox and that this delay had obviously been intentional, +in order to wait for the new moon, which fell on March 13th at +11.40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. m.</span></span>, and the planet +Venus, <span class="tei tei-q">“which was possibly visible both +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as morning and evening star between March 14th and 18th.”</span> The +above facts, which have remained unchallenged since their publication, +afford an insight into the astronomical attainments of the +sun-priests and moon and star-priests and show an evident desire +to begin a new era at a favorable time, when there was a conjunction +of the heavenly bodies. Thus the terms of office of the lords +of the Above and Below were entered upon and the machinery of +state set into motion, in unison with striking celestial phenomena. +It is impossible not to realize how great must be the antiquity of +a system which, evolving from the rudimentary, ceremonial division +of a tribe into seven parts, as a consequence of its primitive +observation of the Septentriones, developed into a great and complex +government dominated and pervaded by the abstract conceptions +of the seven-fold divisions of the Above, Below, Middle and +Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Deferring further comment I will proceed to demonstrate the +practical value, for governmental purposes, of the classification of +a community into twenty divisions with as many representative +heads, their localizations at given points of the compass, and association +with a calendar-sign and day, and will only refer to what I +have already published in my Note on the Calendar, namely, how, +by means of the combination of 13 numerals with the 20 signs, a +unit of 260 days was obtained, and how each sign was combined +but once with the same number, and a perfect system of rotation +of periods, regulating office, labor, etc., was instituted. It is not +possible for me to enlarge here upon the features and merits of the +system which I do not hesitate to term one of the most admirable +and perfect achievements of the human intellect. My present +purpose is to lay stress upon the fact that, in Mexico, the major +calendar-signs were borne as titles by the rulers of the four quarters +who presided in rotation over a year—the name of this and +of their title being always in correspondence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nezahualcoyotl, the lord of Tezcoco, is recorded as possessing +the title Ome Tochtli=2 Rabbit, and would obviously have presided +over the calendar periods of that name. This inference is +undoubtedly corroborated by Nuñez de la Vega's following statement, +quoted by Boturini:<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Instead of the Mexican signs Acatl, Tecpatl, Calli and Tochtli, +the Tzendals, inhabiting Chiapas, employed in their Calendar +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the names of four of their chieftains: Votan, Lambat, Been and +Chinax.... They also figured a man named Coslahuntax, as +seated in a chair....”</span> Boturini remarks that this person should +more correctly be named Imos or Max and was <span class="tei tei-q">“the head of +the 20 lords who were the symbols of the 20 days of the Calendar. +Being the principal and initial sign, Coslahuntax represented in +himself the period of thirteen days.”</span> As Dr. Brinton rightly +notes<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> +the name of the personage should be Oxlaghun tax, literally signifying +<span class="tei tei-q">“the thirteen divisions or parts.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We thus see that, whilst the names of the chiefs of the four +quarters constituted the four major calendar-signs, one supreme +lord embodied the attributes or <span class="tei tei-q">“powers”</span> of the 13 divisions of +warriors and principal division. Thus the 13 divisions seem to +have been regarded as 12 plus an all-embracing 1. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nuñez de la Vega continues: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the representations of their +calendar they painted seven black persons, corresponding to the +seven days of their reckoning.”</span> Boturini adds: these seven black +men were no other than the principal priest-rulers of this nation.... +<span class="tei tei-q">“They held in great veneration the <span class="tei tei-q">‘lord of the black +men,’</span> who was entitled Yal-ahua.”</span> Boturini comments on this +utterance and explains that the latter was no other than the high-priest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I point out the evident identity of Yal-ahua to the Mexican +Yoal-tecuhtli=the lord of the Night, one of the titles given to +Polaris and to his earthly representative, the high priest of the +Earth and nocturnal cult. As already explained this personage +bore in Mexico the female title, Cihuacoatl=Woman-serpent; +but we also find this name for the earth-mother alternating with +Chicome-coatl=literally, seven serpents. In Beltran de la Rosa's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Arte Maya”</span> we find the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Ahaucchapat,”</span> translated as +<span class="tei tei-q">“Serpent with seven heads”</span> and are thus led to infer that the +Mexicans and Mayas had conceived the image of a <span class="tei tei-q">“serpent with +seven heads”</span> as an allegory of the seven tribal divisions united in +one body and bestowed this title to the representative of the Earth-cult, +the high priest of the Below. It follows that, just as the +number 13 resolves itself into 12+1, so the mystic number 7 +proves to have been considered as 6+1, precisely what might +be expected as the natural sequence of the derivation of the number +from a circumpolar constellation, consisting of seven stars, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +one of which was Polaris. Nuñez de la Vega and Boturini's testimony +teaches us that the Tzendals were organized into twenty +divisions and that thirteen of these were embodied in one chief, +while the seven others, associated with black, were personified by +the high priest. The information that one individual was thus +believed to unite in his person the attributes of several classes +and that the lords of the four quarters and each of the twenty +divisions bore names which were also calendar-signs, gain in value +when it is realized that, in the opinion of Drs. Schellhas and Brinton, +the invention of the native Calendar system may probably be +assigned to the ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, where the Tzendals +now dwell.<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> +In treating of the ruins of Palenque situated in this +region, I shall again refer to the Tzendals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile, let us examine the Cakchiquel tradition about Cucumatz, +the sorcerer chief of the Quichés, since it also treats of +the 7-day period. We are told that he <span class="tei tei-q">“ascended to heaven for +seven days and descended into the under world for seven days and +then assumed, in rotation, four different animal forms during as +many periods of seven days.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible not to recognize from this that, like the Zuñis of +to-day, the Quichés <span class="tei tei-q">“symbolized the terrestrial sphere by referring +to the four cardinal points, to the zenith and nadir, the individual +himself making the seventh number,”</span> and that Cucumatz, who +was evidently the high priest and head of the seven tribes, assumed +the totemistic attributes of each of these, in rotation, for periods +of seven days each. In this case we have an interesting and suggestive +variant of the scheme and it suggests the possibility that, +possibly actuated by ambition, Cucumatz had grasped and united +in his person the prerogatives of the chiefs or heads of each tribe. +On the other hand, it may be that it was the original custom for +the high priest to be a sort of animated calendar sign in unison +with the separate chiefs of each tribe, who represented, in rotation, +the totemistic ancestors of their people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having shown how the lords of the Four Quarters were indissolubly +linked to the four major calendar-signs which also symbolized +the elements, let us examine the data establishing that the +capital of each of the four provinces was named a tecpan. From +Duran I have already quoted that in the Mexican metropolis there +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were two tecpans or official houses in which the affairs of the government +were attended to and councils held. It is significant that +one of these was named <span class="tei tei-q">“the tecpan of men”</span> and the other <span class="tei tei-q">“the +tecpan of women.”</span> Whilst the metropolis, the seat of the dual +government, thus had its two tecpans which were presided over +by the two supreme rulers, we have learned from other sources of +the four tecpans in Guatemala and that Texcoco, near the city of +Mexico, was also termed a tecpan and that its ruler bore as a title +one of the four major calendar-signs. These facts explain his +position and the reason why the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of Texcoco”</span> was one of four +lords who supported Montezuma when he met Cortés in full state. +A careful investigation of the derivation and true significance of +the word tecpan yields interesting results. Cen-tecpan-tli means, +a count of twenty persons; the verb tecpana signifies, <span class="tei tei-q">“to establish +something in concerted order; to establish order amongst +people.”</span> The verb tecpancapoa means, to count something in +regular order. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Maya verb tepal=to govern or reign, or to be <span class="tei tei-q">“one who +mediates,”</span> appears to be allied to the above Nahuatl words and it +is not unlikely that the employment of the flint-knife or tecpatl +as an emblem of office had been suggested by the fact that its +Nahuatl name resembles, in sound, the above words formed with +tecpan, and also the Maya verb tepal. It thus constituted a bilingual +rebus, expressing the sense=to govern, to rule, to regulate, +etc., and, employed as the symbol of the North and Polaris, +it conveyed the idea that the latter was not only the producer of +life but the regulator of the Universe. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the fact that a tecpan constituted a minor integral whole +and comprised the rule over twenty classes of people, we see that +whilst the four provincial tecpans were in themselves miniature +reproductions of the metropolis, they but filled the same position +in relation to this as the four limbs to the body of a man or quadruped. +A final proof of how completely this analogy was recognized +by the native rulers is furnished by the Maya titles which +embody the word kab=arm and hand. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has already been mentioned in the preceding pages that the +rulers of the four quarters were entitled Ba-cab and that in the +Dresden Codex an image of the four quarters was figured by four +bones. The word for bone being bac and for arm being kab, it is +obvious that the arm-bone or humerus would furnish a rebus, expressing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the title of the four Bacabs—a conclusion which throws +light upon the signification of the cross-bones of native pictography +and also of the incised and decorated human arm and leg bones +which have been found in Mexico and Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time the word kab also recurs in the title Ah-Cuch-Cab +which signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“the ruler or chief of a town or place,”</span> Cuchil +being the name of the latter. Both of these words so closely resemble +cuxabal and cuxtal, the word for <span class="tei tei-q">“life,”</span> that it is not impossible +that the native mind often associated the town as a centre +of life, and thought of their chief as one whose symbol was a +<span class="tei tei-q">“life-dispensing hand.”</span> In order to grasp the full significance of +the symbol of the hand in Maya sculptured and written records it +is necessary to bear these facts in mind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 1895 Mr. Teobert Maler unearthed in the centre of the public +square at <span class="tei tei-q">“El Seibal,”</span> Guatemala, a sculptured stela exhibiting +the figures of a chieftain over whose head an open hand was +carved. It is impossible not to interpret this as a mark that the +chieftain had once been the ruler of a town and that this, in turn, +was one of four minor capitals belonging to a central metropolis. +A hand, enclosed in quadrangular lines and represented on the +garment of a chieftain, was found by Dr. Le Plongeon at Uxmal, +and I believe that this should be interpreted in the same manner. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In my essay on Ancient Mexican Shields (Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie, band <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, +1892) I reproduced two interesting instances +of the employment, as the name-sign of a ruler in native +pictography, of a hand on the palm of which an eye is depicted. +The effigy of a hand, the sacred Kab-ul, which was kept in a place +in Yucatan to which people from all quarters resorted regularly +in great numbers, resolves itself into the symbol of an ancient +capital to which great high-roads led from the cardinal points. But +important as this capital may have been, its connection with the +hand-symbol proves that it was originally one of four minor centres +and formed but a part of a greater whole. It would correspond +to the image, in one of the native Codices, of a subdivided circle +with an arm and hand standing in its middle, and its Bacab would +undoubtedly have carried a sceptre in the shape of an open hand, +such as depicted in the Codices as a staff of office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While we thus find the human figure distinctly associated with +the lords of the four quarters of the Above we find the four lords +of the Below, entitled Chac, symbolized by the quadruped figure +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the native jaguar=chacoh, associated with the color red=chac +and with rain, storms, thunder and lightning, all of which +phenomena were, singly and collectively, termed Chác. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If ever there has been an instance where language or the resemblance +in sound of certain words has caused certain symbols +to amalgamate with a name or title, it is surely this, and light is +thereby thrown upon the development of symbolism and associations +of thought amongst primitive people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Chacs of Yucatan were identical with the Tlalocs, the octli +or rain lords of Mexico, whose function, as votaries of earth-cult, +was the regulation of agriculture, irrigation and the collection and +distribution of all products of the soil. It is interesting to trace +that, in other regions of Yucatan, presumably where no chacohs +or jaguars existed, the minor rulers of provinces seem to have been +termed ocelots=Balam, a title found associated with Maya rulership. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the foregoing data in mind it is easy to grasp the meaning +of the talon of a beast of prey, employed as an emblem of rank +or office in the native Codices or bas-reliefs and to perceive that +this was the symbol of a Chac or Balam, one of the four lords of +the earth or Below, just as the hand was that of the lords of the +Above. The complete image of the dual State is thus shown to have +consisted at one time of an ideal group consisting of a man with a +beast of prey, a jaguar or ocelot. In Mexico we have the man-bird +and the man-ocelot respectively representing the rulers of the +two great divisions of the State. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At Chichen-Itza and elsewhere in Yucatan sculptured figures of +ocelots supporting circular vessels have been found and there are +interesting instances of the combination of the human figure with +ocelot=Balam attributes. One monolithic figure, discovered at +Chichen-Itza by Mr. A. P. Maudslay, and belonging to the category +of the recumbent statues bearing circular vase-like receptacles, +already described, exhibits a human head and form, whilst the +body is covered with a spotted skin. In the sculptured image of +Mictlan-tecuhtli (fig. <a href="#Figure_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>) +a human head is accompanied by limbs +of equal length-terminating in wild beasts' talons. The positions +of the limbs are better understood when compared with the following +illustration, to which I shall revert (fig. +<a href="#Figure_51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>). Meanwhile, I +shall merely remark that in both of these curious bas-reliefs we +seem to have images of the quadruple terrestrial and celestial +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +governments. Fig. <a href="#Figure_51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>, which is a corrected drawing of one of +those contained in Leon y Gama's <span class="tei tei-q">“Descripcion de las dos Piedras,”</span> +furnishes an interesting example, in accord with the image of +Mictlantecuhtli, of the employment of the group of five as a symbol +of the centre and four quarters, and exhibits four limbs associated +with four heads (the quarters and their chiefs), while the +hands hold two other heads, symbolical of the dual rulers of the +State. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two facts which throw an interesting light upon the growth of +native symbolism are worth mentioning here. As a symbol on the +head of Mictlan-tecuhtli, the lord of the North, two representations +of a centipede are distinguishable. In Nahuatl the name +of this is <span class="tei tei-q">“centzonmaye,”</span> literally, +four hundred hands. It can thus be +seen that the idea of one body with +a multitude of hands had occurred to +the native philosophers as a suitable +allegory for their conception of a central +celestial and terrestrial rule which +guided the activity of innumerable appointed +hands and dispensed, through +these, not only life and favors but also +death or chastisement. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_51" id="Figure_51" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-51.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 51." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 51.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before proceeding farther we must +consider tree-symbolism in ancient America. According to Molina +the Inca Yupanqui (surnamed the left-handed) ordered the temple +of Quisuar-cancha to be made: quisuar=a tree, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buddleia +Incana</span></span>, cancha=place of. Salcamayhua (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, p. 77), who +attributes the building of this temple to Manco Capac, states +that these two trees, which were in the temple, <span class="tei tei-q">“typified his father +and mother ... and he ordered that they should be adorned +with roots of gold and silver and with golden fruit. Hence they +were called Ccurichachac Collquechachac Tampu Yracan, which +means that the two trees typified his parents, that the Incas proceeded +from them like fruit from the trees, and that the two trees +were as the roots and stems of the Incas. All these things were +executed to record their greatness.”</span> This passage is of utmost +value, for it conveys to us not only that the Incas kept a record of +their male and female ancestry and respectively associated the male +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and female elements with gold and silver, but also establishes the +important point that the tree was employed as an emblem of the +life and growth of a lineage or race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This fact is particularly interesting if collated with the Mexican +tree-symbols. In the Féjérvary diagram (fig. <a href="#Figure_52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>), we find a +different kind of tree and two totemic figures assigned to each +quarter, which indicates that the inhabitants of each of the four +provinces were regarded as of a distinct race. The top of each +tree spreads itself into two branches and, with one exception, each +of these bears three blossoms or leaves denoting, it would seem, +the division of a tribe into 2×3=6 parts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_52" id="Figure_52" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-52.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 52. Copy of p. 44, Féjérvary Codex." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 52. Copy of p. 44, Féjérvary Codex.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The majority of tree-symbols, however, exhibit a quadruplicate +division as in fig. <a href="#Figure_53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>, +nos. 1, 4 and 7. At the same time it is impossible +not to recognize that each example renders in a graphic +manner the organization of a tribe. In nos. 2 and 8, for instance, +we find that each of the four branches was again subdivided, +yielding eight subdivisions instead of four. In no. 3, we have +quadruple branches, a pair of recurved spikes with buds and a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +central bud, the idea of duality repeating itself in the trunk of the +tree, one-half of which above ground is white, whilst the other +below ground is dark. The obvious allusion is to the Above and +Below and this idea is further symbolized by the head of the +coatl=serpent or twin. In this figure there is a hint of the existence +of an idea I have found expressed in other cases, namely, +that a mystic line of demarcation existed at the base of a tree, +which separated its upward from its downward growth. This was +the seat of the life of the tree, which sent its trunk and crown +heavenwards and its roots and rootlets earthwards. The fact that +the juice of the agave or maguey was collected from the core of +the plant seems to be at the bottom of its adoption as the sacred +and ceremonial <span class="tei tei-q">“drink of life,”</span> which was, subsequently, carefully +prepared and fermented. The idea that a tree enclosed male +and female elements seems to have been also a strong one and +would, in course of time, doubtlessly have led to the conception +of superhuman beings in human form, dwelling in trees. What is +more, the adoption by each tribe of a particular sort of tree, a +custom amply proven, would naturally lead to a species of tree-cult +or veneration which, amongst the uninitiated, might lead to a +form of worship of the tree itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_53" id="Figure_53" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-53.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 53." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 53.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ceremonial presentation of single leaves of the same kinds +as those represented on the trees, as in fig. +<a href="#Figure_53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>, no. 6, proves that +underlying these picture-writings there is far more meaning than +has heretofore been suspected or recognized. It is not possible +for me to present here all the material I have collected on this subject +which will be set forth in a future monograph. I will, however, +direct attention to the peculiar treatment in +fig. <a href="#Figure_53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>, no. 1, of +the tree trunk which is enlarged and forms a quadriform figure. +In no. 4, the trunk enlarges to the shape of a head; in no. 2 the +tree grows from a human head and two young shoots issue from +each side of the trunk, seemingly indicating a fresh growth in +tribal life. In no. 5, we have an example of a human figure lying +at the base of a tree and a fifth leaf growing in the centre of the +treetop. Directing attention to the evident care taken in representing +an equal number of branches pointing upwards and downwards +I would cite here an extremely interesting representation of +a tree in the Borgian Codex. In this case the trunk issues from +a conventionally drawn heart, figured in the centre of the symbol +for sky or heaven. As the Nahuatl for heart is yul-lotl, from the +verb yuli=to live, to resuscitate, the idea is distinctly conveyed +that the tree was that of life=yuli and proceeded from the celestial +centre of life, Polaris or the Heart of Heaven, a native title +for the Supreme Being.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Telleriano-Remensis MS., a <span class="tei tei-q">“tree of Paradise,”</span> so +termed in the text, is figured, and there are, in other Codices, +various examples of trees encircled with serpents, where it is obvious +that this combination was made in order to express, phonetically, +that a celestial tree was intended, the word kan=serpent, +being made to express kaan=heaven. A celestial tree, situated +at the pole and bearing in some cases seven and in others five +blossoms, was frequently depicted and its symbolism is obvious. In +my commentary on the Hispano-Mexican MS. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lyfe of the +Indians,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Gods,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Five Flowers,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven Flowers,”</span> will +be treated in detail. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From Sahagun and Olmos we learn that the Mexicans employed +the image of a tree, metaphorically, to signify a lord, governor, +progenitor, first ancestor. Relations are designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“issuing +from one trunk.”</span> A branch is literally termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the arm of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tree,”</span> kab-ché. Two kinds of trees, the Puchutl and Aueuetl, signified, +metaphorically, <span class="tei tei-q">“a father, mother, lord, captain or governor +who were, or are, like shade-giving, sheltering trees”</span> (Olmos). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above metaphors explain the frequent association of a head, +the symbol of a chief or lord, with the tree symbols. It is noteworthy +that in Nahuatl, the name for head=quaitl, is singularly +like quauitl=tree, and also recalls the word for serpent=coatl, +facts which may have somewhat guided the choice and association +of these symbols. The native metaphors recorded by Olmos, +moquauhtia=an honored person or lord who has vassals or dependents, +and atlapalli=literally, leaf=a person of the lower +class, a worker, initiate us still further into the meaning of the +native symbolism and prove the antiquity of this, since the designation +of a chief as a tree and a vassal as a leaf was in current +use. The presentation of the tree issuing from a heart=yul-lotl +is moreover, in perfect keeping with native thought, since the +chieftain or lord was entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the heart, or life of the town or +population.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The meaning of the bird, which is represented as perched on +each of the four trees in the Féjérvary diagram, is likewise explained +by the metaphors recorded by Olmos who states that, <span class="tei tei-q">“a +son or child or a much beloved lord or chieftain was compared to +a beautiful and precious bird, such as the Quetzal, the Roseate +Spoonbill, the Blue-bird, etc., etc.”</span> Surmounting the tribal trees +in the diagram, the birds therefore typify the lords of the four +provinces and this is corroborated by the fact that each different +bird is figured again in the corner-loops in combination with the +symbols of the cardinal points. The association of the symbols +for lord or chief=the head, and the precious bird with the tribal +tree also explains the frequent representation, in the native Codices, +of one or two serpents entwined around the tree, since the +serpent was the symbol in Mexico of the dual rulers or high-priests +of the Above and Below. There is ample proof, which shall be +presented in full in my monograph on this subject, that the above +metaphorical images were as intelligible to the Mayas and other +tribes, as to the Mexicans themselves, for the identical metaphors +and imagery were in widespread general use. The following data +will corroborate this statement. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A Maya native drawing, copied by Cogolludo in 1640 from the +MS. of the Chilan Balam or Sacred Book of Man, which relates the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +history of the Mayas, has been recently reproduced in Dr. Daniel +G. Brinton's Primer of Maya Hieroglyphics, p. 47. It displays a +rectangular stone slab like a table, on the centre of which rests +a circular bowl, the symbol, as I have shown, of the earth and +centre. Growing from this is a spreading tree. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a curious and undeniable fact that the Maya name for table +is mayac, and that the dictionaries contain the words mayac-tun, +stone-table, and mayac-ché, wooden, literally, tree-table. +Familiarity with the native modes of rebus-writing leads to the +inference that this picture of a tree and table, expressing the +sounds mayac-ché, actually signified the tree of the Mayas and +therefore figured in the book relating their history. Bishop Landa +records that the Mayas believed in a beautiful celestial tree, resembling +the ceiba and named yax-ché, literally, green tree, under +whose shade they would repose in after-life. Abbé Brasseur de +Bourbourg surmises that this tree was the same as the beautiful +shade tree which grows in Yucatan and Mexico and is named, in +the latter country, tonacaz-quahuital=tree of our subsistence, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A Maya name for the <span class="tei tei-q">“tree of life,”</span> ua-hom-ché, next claims +our attention.<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> +A valuable old manuscript dictionary of the Maya +language, quoted by Dr. Brinton, records that the word uah means +<span class="tei tei-q">“a certain kind of life.”</span> The word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">hom</span></span> is an +ancient term for an artificial elevation, mound or pyramid, hence +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">homul</span></span>, the pyramid +on which a temple was built. Combined with ché, tree, the +word seems to signify <span class="tei tei-q">“the elevated or high tree of life,”</span> the +idea of the celestial tree <span class="tei tei-q">“on high,”</span> being possibly intended. In +connection with this it is interesting to reëxamine fig. +<a href="#Figure_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>, IV, which +represents a flat pyramid from which grows a four-petalled flower +on a stalk with two leaves, the symbolism of which is apparent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am inclined to connect another native name translated in the +dictionaries by <span class="tei tei-q">“cross”</span>=zin-ché with zihil=to be born, to commence, +zihnal=original, primitive, and zian=origin, generation, +ancestry, and to interpret it <span class="tei tei-q">“the tree of ancestral or tribal life.”</span> +On the other hand, there is the adjective zinil=mighty, great, +and the meaning of zin-ché may merely mean <span class="tei tei-q">“the mighty tree.”</span> +In treating of the <span class="tei tei-q">“cross tablet”</span> of Palenque in the following +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pages, reference will be made to Dr. Brinton's identification of +the <span class="tei tei-q">“cross”</span> as a tree and tree symbolism referred to again. +Although unable to produce here all the data I have collected on +the subject, I think that the foregoing prove that the Peruvians, +Mexicans and Mayas, employed the four-branched tree as an image +of the organization and growth of their communal life, and utilized +it in pictography as a means of recording changes of organization +and statistics of increase or decrease of population. The Maya +word for <span class="tei tei-q">“one generation of men,”</span> uinay, literally meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“one +growth,”</span> seems to reveal that each generation was popularly +thought of as one growth of leaves on the tree of state—a simile +which is worthy of note. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One more point remains to be considered in reference to the organization +of the population into four parts, each of which consisted +of four minor parts and so on; namely, the employment of +color as a means of differentiation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Peru each person wore on the head a twisted cord, of the color +of its quarter, whilst the Inca alone wore these colors combined, +in the band which encircled his brow, as a sign that, in his person +he united the rulership over the four provinces. Molina records +the colors of these as red, yellow, white and black. In the titles +of the Maya Bacabs, or lords of the provinces, as given by Landa, +the words for yellow, red, white and black, are found to be incorporated +and prove to be identical with the arrangement in Peru. +In Mexico, on the other hand, we find red, yellow, green and blue +as the colors of the Four Quarters, white and black being assigned to +the Above and Below. All colors combined are to be found united +in symbols of the Centre and it is known that the use of centzon-tilmatli +and quachtli=mantles of four hundred colors=multicolored +were supplied as tributes to the capital, for the use of a +privileged caste. A somewhat similar arrangement to the Mexican +is that of the Zuñis at the present time. According to Mr. Cushing, +they assign yellow, blue, red and white to the cardinal points, +speckled and black to the Above=zenith and Below=nadir, +and <span class="tei tei-q">“all colours to the Middle or Centre.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Peru, Mexico and Yucatan I have found scattered notices +proving that individuals habitually painted their bodies with their +respective colors. The Mexican <span class="tei tei-q">“lords of the night”</span> smeared +themselves with black. A passage in Sahagun (book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>) +speaks of the whitening of the <span class="tei tei-q">“face, arms, hands and legs with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">‘tiçatl’</span> ”</span>=chalk, as though this were a habit of the <span class="tei tei-q">“noblewomen.”</span> +In the Codices some women are, in fact, represented with white +faces, whilst those of the majority are painted yellow and it is +known that yellow ochre was employed in reality. I have, in +preparation, a brief, illustrated monograph showing the various +modes of painting the face represented in the native pictorial records. +In these, men painted red are of frequent occurrence, and +it is known that the <span class="tei tei-q">“red man”</span> owed his appellation to the custom +of using red pigment on his body. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now briefly consider some of the results which inevitably +followed the establishment of two diverging cults which were the +outcome of the primitive recognition of duality and the artificial +association of sex with Heaven and Earth, Day and Night, etc. +On pp. <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref">60-62</a> I have cited evidence showing that at one time in +the past history of the Aztecs, serious differences arose between the +male and female rulers, and led to a separation of the tribe and the +establishment of two distinct centres of government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The native languages furnish strong indications that, in ordinary +tribal life, the separation of the sexes must have been generally +enforced from remote antiquity and that male and female communities +existed in various portions of the continent. It is well known +that, to this day, the Nahuatl tongue spoken by the men is different +from that spoken by the women, and that the same duality of +language prevails among other American tribes. When the male +and female portions of the native states separated and founded +separate capitals it is obvious that each would have still further +cultivated a separate language and that the institution of two distinct +cults would have accentuated their differences and given a +fresh impetus to their development. As will be shown, the Maya +chronicles reveal that, in Yucatan, the nocturnal cult of the female +principle degenerated into such abominations that the incensed +population actually rose in revolt, murdered the high-priests and +scattered their votaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was obviously owing to a recognition of the degradation attendant +upon the abuse of intoxicating drinks, which had played +such a rôle in the cult of the earth-mother, that such stern laws +were enforced in Mexico, at the time of the Conquest, restricting +and regulating the use of pulque. This was distributed by the +priests at certain festivals only. These and other rigid measures +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +evidently dictated by a spirit of reform, as well as the close union +of both cults, seem to have efficiently maintained a certain equilibrium. +At the same time two different moral standards were thus +inevitably evolved by the votaries of both cults and naturally profoundly +affected the position of woman. The dangers and evils +attendant upon the earth-cult became irretrievably associated with +the female sex and the votaries of Heaven naturally came to regard +woman as a source of temptation and degradation. In ancient +Mexico and Peru the celibacy of the sun-priests and of a certain +number of noblewomen, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Virgins of the Sun,”</span> was enforced; +thus, whilst the position of woman was being lowered in one caste +by an artificial set of ideas, it was raised in the other by an equally +fictitious association with the Above, which led, however, to her +real elevation of mind and character and finally enforced a recognition +of her individuality. The consecration of her person, which +caused her to assume a position commanding universal homage, +relieved her from heavy labor but caused her to be guarded and +protected. She was thus condemned to a still greater seclusion, the +primary object of which was to remove her from possible contact +with members of the lower earthly caste. For, whilst ceremonial +usage even required that the male members of the upper caste should +associate in certain symbolical rites with the chief women of the +lower order, it was a crime and a desecration for a man of the +latter caste to approach a woman of the nobility. These could +only marry in their own caste or remain celibate and were kept +aloof from all debasing influences, inside of protecting walls. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reflection shows that such conditions would inevitably lead to +the formation of a nobility whose ideal was celibacy and whose +<span class="tei tei-q">“Virgins of the Sun,”</span> by virtue of their consecration, ranked +highest amongst the women of the <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial caste.”</span> Those who +married did so in their own caste, led a life of seclusion and +always maintained a position of superiority over all women of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“earthly caste.”</span> The latter, on the other hand, had the prerogative +of being the representatives of their caste, since the cult of +the earth-mother necessitated a female representative, high-priestesses +and also female chiefs in their own rights. We know that, +in ancient Mexico, an independent gynocracy had been founded at +one time. From certain native manuscripts and monuments we +have positive evidence that a number of independent female chieftains +ruled over minor communities and represented them officially, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their rank and insignia being equal to that of the chiefs of male +communities. At the same time, from the standpoint of the <span class="tei tei-q">“upper +caste,”</span> the position and moral code of these <span class="tei tei-q">“votaries of the +earth,”</span> were always viewed as inferior. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another factor also exerted a marked and growing influence +upon the relative positions of the two classes of women. The enforced +seclusion of the noblewomen rendering out-door occupations +or work impossible, it became necessary to relegate such to +members of the lower caste who gradually constituted a class of +domestic slaves, dedicated to the service of the nobility. In ancient +Mexico, as a punishment for various crimes, such as murder, +theft, etc., an individual, even of the upper class, was reduced to +slavery as a punishment for his crime. The ranks of slaves were +also recruited from prisoners of war. On the other hand, the laws +regulating slavery were just and mild, the children of slaves were +born free and various modes of regaining freedom were afforded +to those held in bondage as an expiation for crime. The introduction +of slaves necessitating, as it did, their classification with +the lower class, now associated servitude with the female division +of the community, and the idea arose that women and the lower +class existed for the benefit of the male element of the state and a +favored minority of consecrated women. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If slavery and bondage came to be regarded on the one hand +as a just punishment for crime, the idea of liberty shone as an incentive +to good conduct. An eloquent proof of the high estimate +in which personal freedom was regarded by the ancient Mexicans, +is furnished by the Nahuatl word, recorded by Olmos, for <span class="tei tei-q">“free +man”</span>=xoxouhqui-yollotl, literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“fresh or green heart.”</span> This +expression is of particular interest because it explains a strange +mortuary custom which consisted in placing a piece of jade, chal-chihuitl, +or precious green stone, in the mouth of a noble person, +after death, saying that it was <span class="tei tei-q">“his heart.”</span> In the case of the +lower class a stone of little value, named texaxoctli, was employed. +In ancient Mexico, therefore, the presence of jade or any green +stone, in a grave, proved that the body was that of a free member +of the upper caste. It is evident that the employment of this +significant emblem was suggested by the Nahuatl word for <span class="tei tei-q">“freeman,”</span> +and constituted a sort of rebus expressing this title or rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Peabody Museum there are several specimens of jade celts, +collected by Dr. Earl Flint in Nicaragua, which had been cut into two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or more pieces. Professor Putnam had the satisfaction of discovering +that these pieces from different graves fitted together. His +inference that the stone must have been rare and highly prized, +probably from some motive connected with native ritual, is fully +supported by the explanation afforded by the existence of the +Nahuatl word. It is evident that, in order to provide a dead kinsman +with the mark of his rank, a living chief would gladly have +divided his own celt of jade, if, for some reason or other, no other +green stone was forthcoming at the time of burial. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now rapidly enumerate a few facts which prove that not +only burial customs but also social organization and numerical +divisions were carried northward from the southern cradle of ancient +American civilization. I shall make two statements only, +hoping that competent authorities on North American tribal organization, +and amongst them, my esteemed friend and colleague, Miss +Alice C. Fletcher, will supply a number of authoritative reports on +these matters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring to the writings of Horatio Hale, whose comparatively +recent loss will long be deeply felt by all students of aboriginal +history and languages, I quote the following sentences from his +interesting pamphlet on <span class="tei tei-q">“Four Huron Wampum records,”</span> published, +with notes and addenda by Prof. E. B. Tylor of Oxford, +in 1897. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The surviving members of the Huron nation, even in its present +broken, dispersed and half extinct condition, still retain the memory +of their ancient claim to the headship of all the aboriginal +tribes of America north of Mexico.... The Hurons +or Wendat, as they should be properly styled, belonged to the important +group or linguistic stock, commonly known, from its principal +branch, as the Iroquoian family and which includes, besides +the Huron and Iroquois nations, the Attiwendaronks, the Eries, +Andastes, Tuscaroras and Cherokees, all once independent and +powerful nations.”</span> (I draw attention to the detail that these +nations were seven in number.) Gallatin, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Synopsis of +the Indian tribes,”</span> notices the remarkable fact that while the <span class="tei tei-q">“Five +Nations”</span> or Iroquois proper were found by Champlain, on his arrival +in Canada, to be engaged in deadly warfare with all the Algonquian +tribes within their reach, the Hurons, another Iroquoian +nation, were the head and principal support of the Algonquian confederacy. +In the <span class="tei tei-q">“Fall of Hochelaga,”</span> Horatio Hale sets forth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the reasons which led to the division of the Hurons and Iroquois, +who had formerly dwelt together in friendly unison. The latter, +retreating to the south and augmented by other refugees, became +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Five Confederate Nations.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“kingdom of Hochelaga,”</span> as Cartier styles it, comprised, besides +the fortified city of that name, the important town of Stadaconé +(commonly known to its people as Canada or <span class="tei tei-q">“the town”</span>) +and eight or nine other towns along the great river. According to +their tradition the name of their leader, Sut-staw-ra-tse, had been +kept up by descent for seven or eight hundred years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Towards the conclusion of a long and deadly warfare between +the Iroquois confederates and Canada as well as the Hurons a +remarkable change had taken place in their character; a change +which recalls that which is believed to have been developed in the +character of the Spartans under the institutions of Lycurgus, +and the similar change which is known to have appeared in the +character of the Arabians under the influence of Mohammedan +precepts. A great reformer had arisen in the person of the Onondaga +chief, Hiawatha, who, imbued with an overmastering idea, +had inspired his people with a spirit of self-sacrifice, which stopped +at no obstacle in the determination of carrying into effect their +teacher's sublime purpose. This purpose was the establishment of +universal peace.... The Tionontaté or Tobacco Nation +seem to have made an alliance with the Huron nation....</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Eight clans or gentes composed the Huron people and were +found in different proportions in all the tribes. These clans, called +by the Algonquians <span class="tei tei-q">‘totems,’</span> all bore the names of certain animals, +with which the Indians held themselves to be mythologically +connected—the bear, wolf, deer, porcupine, snake, hawk, large +tortoise and small tortoise. Each clan was more numerous in some +towns than in others, as it was natural that near kindreds should +cluster together.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The five Iroquois nations also had eight clans.... The +Iroquois league is spoken of in their Book of Rites as kanasta-tsi-koma, +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the great framework’</span> and the large, bent frame-poles +of their council-house, the exact original shape of which is not +known, were named kan-asta.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An examination of the signs woven in the famous wampum +belts of the Hurons and Iroquois reveals some curious facts. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of these treaty belts, described by Horatio Hale, commemorates +an alliance formed between four nations. It exhibits four +squares (fig. <a href="#Figure_54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) <span class="tei tei-q">“which indicate, in the Indian hieroglyphic +system, either towns or tribes with their territory.”</span><a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> This mode of +representing a nation is of utmost interest, not only because it coincides +with the Maya conception of <span class="tei tei-q">“the quadrated”</span> earth but +because it also reveals that, in North America, the Indians associated +a tribal organization with a quadriform. What is more, an +older belt, which is unfortunately incomplete, exhibits a central +oval (fig. <a href="#Figure_54" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) between a bird and a quadruped and three crosses +with a circle uniting their branches. The cross and circle, being +a native symbol for <span class="tei tei-q">“an integral state,”</span> as definitely proven by +the Maya map, justifies the suggestion that this symbol on the wampum +belt may have had the significance of <span class="tei tei-q">“nation”</span> and central +government. It is remarkable +that the Iroquois +central capital, +Ho-che-laga, can be analyzed +in the Maya +tongue, as meaning five=<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ho</span></span>, +tree=<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ché</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">hoch</span></span>=vase +(symbol of centre) whilst the terminal <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">laga</span></span> might +possibly be a form of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">lacan</span></span>=banner, +an object so frequently associated +with names of towns in Mexico, where it yields the sound pan and +means on or above something. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_54" id="Figure_54" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-54.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 54." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 54.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be interesting and important to learn what <span class="tei tei-q">“Hochelaga”</span> +means in the Iroquois language. The resemblance between the +Maya and Iroquois symbols for nation and tribal territory and of +the names for capital might even be overlooked and treated as a +coincidence merely, if the Iroquois name for the confederacy, +kan-asta-tsik-o-ma did not also begin with the word kan, the Maya +for four and for serpent. The same particle recurs in the Iroquois +name for the town=can-ada, a word which, in Maya, would +describe a metropolis divided into four quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The question naturally suggests itself whether the affix can, +frequently met with in Mexico combined with names of localities, +was not of Maya origin and expressed also a centre of quadruple +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +government. It occurs in the Nahuatl name for metropolis to-tec-ua +can and in Teoti-hua can, for instance. The Nahuatl +scholars have rendered its meaning as <span class="tei tei-q">“place of.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. Hale tells us that, amongst the <span class="tei tei-q">“Five Nations,”</span> the tradition +exists that the confederacy was originally divided into <span class="tei tei-q">“seven +tribes,”</span> each of which was composed of 2×4=8 gentes or +clans. Another wampum belt he figures exhibits a heart between +2×2=4 squares, a symbol which would be interpreted by a Mexican +or Maya as well as by a Huron or Iroquois, as meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“four +nations, one heart,”</span> the latter being as common a symbol for +union of rule or government or for chieftain, as a <span class="tei tei-q">“head.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Combined with other testimony it seems impossible to evade the +question whether in remote times the Iroquois and Hurons had not +shared in some way or other the civilization of the Mayas. If so +the ancient earthwork-builders of the Ohio valley, who are authoritatively +regarded as of southern origin by Professor Putnam, and +whose art exhibits a strong resemblance to that of the Mayas, +seem to constitute the missing link between the northeastern and +the southeastern tribes. It is curious to find that the terminal ché, +which occurs in the name Quiché and which signifies in Maya, tree, +and, by extension, tribe, is preserved in the names of the Nat-ché-z +tribe still inhabiting the Mississippi valley. It is also present in +Coman-ché, Apa-che, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is to be hoped that, before long, authorities who have made +special studies of the above tribes will make searching comparisons +of their languages, social organization and symbolism with +that of the Mayas, in particular, it seeming evident that the coast +communication along the gulf of Mexico, from Yucatan to the +mouth of the Mississippi river, was not only easy but was favored +by sea-currents. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to note that if we now proceed to the southwest +of the United States and study the Pueblo people, we seem to find +not only more distinctly marked affinities between their customs, +etc., and those of the Mexicans, but also traces of similarity with +certain Maya symbols. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In several important publications Dr. J. Walter Fewkes has +made the valuable observation that there are marked <span class="tei tei-q">“resemblances +between a ceremony practised [at the time of the Conquest] +in the heart of Mexico and one still kept up in Arizona,”</span> and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +states that these <span class="tei tei-q">“lead one to look for likenesses in symbolism, +especially that pertaining to the mythological Snake among the two +peoples.”</span> He continues as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“From the speculative side +it seems probable that there is an intimate resemblance between +some of the ceremonials, the symbolism and mythological systems +of the Indians of Tusayan and those of the more cultured stocks of +Central America.... The facts here recorded look as if the +Hopi practise a ceremonial form of worship with strong affinities +to the Nahuatl and Maya.... I have not yet seen enough +evidence to convince me that the Hopi derived their cult and ceremonials +from the Zuñians or from any other single people. It is +probably composite. I am not sure that portions of it were not +brought up from the far south, perhaps from the Salado and Gila +by the Bat-kin-ya-mûh=<span class="tei tei-q">‘Water people,’</span> whose legendary history +is quite strong that they came from the south.”</span><a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Fewkes frankly states that he <span class="tei tei-q">“knows next to nothing of +the symbolic characters of the Mexican deities ...”</span> and quotes +Mr. Bandelier's opinion that <span class="tei tei-q">“there are traces or tracks of the +same mythological system and symbolism amongst the Indians of +the southwestern United States and the aborigines of Central +America.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under the leadership of Mr. Frank H. Cushing let us now enter +into the life and thoughts of the modern Zuñis. After having +traced certain ideas in Mexico and Peru, it is possible to recognize +them again when we find them in Mr. Cushing's valuable +work, from which I shall quote somewhat at length, referring the +reader, however, to the original, for a fuller realization of existing +resemblances.<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Zuñi creation-myth relates how the light of the Sun-father +and a foam-cap on the sea, caused the Earth-mother to give birth +to twin-brothers, Uanam Achi Piah-<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">koa</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Beloved Twain who +descended.”</span> The first was Uanam Ehkona=the beloved Preceder, +the second Uanam Yaluna, the beloved Follower; they were twin-brothers +of light, yet elder and younger, the right and left, like +to question and answer in deciding and doing.... The +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sun-father gave them the thunderbolts of the four quarters, two +apiece.... On their cloud-shield, even as a spider in her +web descendeth, they descended into the underworld ... (p. +381). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing here for a moment, we note the curious fact that in the +Zuñi name for the twins we find <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">koa</span></span>, +resembling the Nahuatl coatl=twin +or serpent; that the name of one brother Ehk-ona recalls +the Mexican ec-atl=air, wind or breath, and the Maya ik=air, +wind, breath, courage, spirit. The allotment of two quarters to +each and the image of a spider employed to express their descent +from heaven have counterparts in Nahuatl lore. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“Twain”</span> ... guided men upwards to become the +fathers of six kinds of men (yellow or tawny, grey, red, white, +mingled and black).... The nation divided itself into the +winter or Macaw and the summer or Raven people.... +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Twain beloved gathered in council for the naming and selection +of man groups and creature kinds, spaces and things. They +determined that the creatures and things of summer and the southern +space pertained to the southern people or children of the producing +Earth-mother; and those of the winter and northern space +to the winter people or children of the Forcing or Quickening +Sky-father.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible to do more than refer the reader to Mr. Cushing's +account of the origin of totem clans and creature-kinds which +bears such an affinity to the Peruvian, and obviously arose for the +same practical reason, to serve as distinction marks for identification +and classification. <span class="tei tei-q">“At first ... there were four bands of +priest-keepers of the mysteries: the Shiwana-kwe=priesthood of +the priest-people; Sa'niah'-ya-kwe=priesthood of the Hunt; Ach-iahya-kwe=great +Knife people; Newe-kwe=keepers of the magic +medicines.”</span> Out of these four divisions <span class="tei tei-q">“all societies were formed, +both that of the Middle and the twain for each of all six regions, +constituting the tabooed and sacred 13.”</span> In another passage account +is given of the marriage of a brother and sister, which produced +twelve children, the first of which, Hlamon, was man and +woman combined—the 12 thus constituting in reality 13. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of the most interesting portions of the Zuñi narrative is one +which elucidates the motive which led to the migration of peoples +in ancient America. We are told how generations of the forefathers +of the Zuñis wandered about in search of the stable middle +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the earth, on which they wished to found their sacred city. The +tribe divided; the winter-clan journeyed to the northeast and the +summer-clan to the southwest, a reunion of the people took place, +and a council was held for the determination of the true Middle.... +According to a myth the Sun-father requested the water-skate +to determine the Middle. This mythical monster lifted himself +up, stretched out and then settled downward, calling out: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Where my heart and navel rest beneath them mark ye the spot +and then build ye a town of the midmost, for there shall be the +midmost of the Earth-mother, even the navel.... And when +he descended squatting, his belly rested over the plain and valley +of Zuñi and when he drew in his finger-legs, lo! there were the +trail roads leading out and in like the stays of a spider's net, into +and forth from the place he had covered.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing to point out that fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, +reproduced from Mexican Codices, +shows curious topographical drawings resembling a spider's net, +I will not recount the many disappointments of the wanderers, who +were evidently driven away from several places of settlement by +earthquakes, but will refer to the Zuñi custom of <span class="tei tei-q">“annually testing +the stability of the Middle in middle time ... when the sun +reached the middle between winter and summer ... a shell +was laid by the sacred fire of the north.... When during +solemn chanting no trembling of the earth ensued, the priests cast +new fire and ... dwelt happily feeling sure that their sacred +things were resting in the stable middle of the world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the beginning of this paper I referred to the powerful hold +that the realization of the fixity of the pole star would naturally +have exerted upon the mind of primitive man, and I can produce +no more striking illustration of this and of my view that the idea +of central government and organization had been suggested by +Polaris, than this account of the earnest and prolonged search of +these ancient people for the stable centre of the earth, on which to +found a permanent centre of terrestrial rule or the plan of the +celestial government. At the same time it seems to me that the +longing for a stable and fixed residence would naturally have +been most intense amongst people who had experienced terrible +earthquakes and been driven out of their original abodes by their +repeated destruction. It is unnecessary to mention the well-known +fact that whilst earthquakes prevail throughout North and Central +America, the most impressive trace of catastrophes of the kind +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +are connected with the gigantic volcanoes of Central Mexico and +Guatemala. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With a sympathetic insight into the disasters which seem to have +driven the wandering tribes from one region to another and filled +them with a passionate yearning for a centre of rest, let us now +learn from Mr. Cushing how they planned their metropolis and +organized themselves, when they had found the long-looked-for +goal, in the Zuñi valley and <span class="tei tei-q">“settling there, built seven great cities +therein.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“All their subtribes and lesser tribes were distinctively related to +and ruled from a central tribe and town through priest chiefs representatives +of each of these, sitting under supreme council or septuarchy +of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Master priests of the house’</span> in the central town +itself, much as were the divisions and cities of the great Inca dominion +in South America represented at and ruled from Cuzco, the +central city and power of them all.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Zuñi is divided, not always clearly to the eye, but very clearly +in the estimation of the people themselves, into seven parts, corresponding +not perhaps in arrangement topographically, but in +scheme to their subdivisions of the worlds or world-quarters of +this world. Thus one division of the town is supposed to be related +to the north and to be centred in its kiva or estufa which +may or may not be at its centre; another division represents the +west, another the south, another the east; yet another the upper +world and another the lower world; while a final division represents +the middle or mother and synthetic combination of the all in the +world.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“By reference to the early Spanish history of the pueblos, it may +be seen that when discovered the Ashiwis or Zuñis were living in +seven quite widely separated towns the celebrated seven cities of +Cibola and that this theoretic subdivision of the only one of these +towns now remaining is in some manner a survival of the original +subdivision of the tribes into seven into as many towns. It is +evident that in both cases, however, the arrangement was and is, +if we may call it such, a mythic organization; hence my use of +the term of mytho-sociologic organization of the tribe. At all +events this is the key to their sociology as well as to their mythic +conception of space and universe.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“... There were nineteen clans, grouped in threes, to correspond +to the mythic subdivision. Three to north, west, south, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +east, Upper, Lower. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">single</span></em> clan of Macaw is midmost or of +middle and also as the all containing and mother clan of the entire +tribe, for in it is <span class="tei tei-q">‘the seed of the priesthood of houses’</span> supposed +to be preserved.</span><a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Finally, as produced from all the clans and as representative +alike of all the clans and through a tribal septuarchy of all the +regions and divisions of the midmost and, finally, as representative +of all the cult societies above mentioned, is the Kaka or +A'kâkâ-kwe or Mythic Dance drama people or organization.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“It may be seen of these mytho-sociologic organizations that they +are a system within a system and that it contains systems within +systems all founded on the classification according to the six-fold +division of things and in turn the six-fold division of each of these +divisions of things ... The tribal division made up of the +clans of the north take precedence ceremonially, occupying the position +of elder brother or the oldest ancestor. The west is the +younger brother to this and the south of the west, the east of +south, etc.... while the middle is supposed to be a representative +being, the heart and name of all of the brothers of the regions, +the first and last, as well as elder and younger.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“To such an extent indeed, is this tendency to classify according +to the number of the six regions with its seventh synthesis of them +all (the latter sometimes apparent, sometimes non-appearing) that +not only are the subdivisions of the societies also again subdivided +according to this arrangement, but each clan is subdivided, both +according to the six-fold arrangement and according to the subsidiary +relations of the six parts of its totem....</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In each clan is to be found a set of names, called the names of +childhood. These names are more of titles than of cognomens. +They are determined upon by sociological divinistic modes and +are bestowed in childhood as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘verity names’</span> or titles of the +children to whom given. But the body of names relating to any +one totem, for instance, to one of the beast totems, will not be the +name of the totem-beast itself but will be the names of both of the +totems and its various conditions and of the various parts of +the totem or of its functions, or of its attributes, actual or +mythical.</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Now these parts or functions, or attributes of the parts or functions, +are subdivided also in a six-fold manner, so that the name +relating to one member of the totem, for example, like the right leg +or arm of the animal thereof, would correspond to the north and +would be the first in honor in a clan (not itself of the northern +group); then the name relating to another member, say the left +leg and its powers, etc., would pertain to the west and would be +second in honor, ... the right foot, pertaining to the south, +would be third in honor, ... the tail to the lower regions and +be sixth in honor; while the heart and navel and centre of the being +would be first as well as last in honor.... In addressing +each other the word symbol for elder or younger is always used.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“With such a system of arrangement as all this maybe seen +to be, with such a facile device for symbolizing the arrangement +(not only according to the number of regions, and their subdivisions +in their relative succession and the succession of their elements +and seasons, but also in the colors attributed to them) and, +finally, with such an arrangement of names, correspondingly classified +and of terms of relation significant of rank rather than of +consanguineal connection, mistake in the order of a ceremonial, a +procession or a council is simply impossible and the people employing +these devices may be said to have written and to be writing +their statutes and laws in all their daily relationship and +utterances.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If this precious exposition of the Zuñi social organization teaches +us more about native method and system than all of the writings +of the Spanish chroniclers put together, there is one important +point which, strangely enough, is not touched upon, namely, the +regulation of time. All information concerning native astronomy, +and the subdivision of the years, the festival periods and the names +of days, seems to have been withheld from Mr. Cushing by the +Zuñi priesthood, if we are to assume that they possess a calendar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Mexico, as I have already set forth, the calendar system is +bound up in the scheme of social organization and it is impossible +to separate them. I cannot but think that it must be the same +with the Zuñis but that, as in ancient Mexico, only the priesthood +were acquainted with the existence of a systematic calendar, and +kept it a profound secret from the multitude, although the entire +communal life and activities of the people were guided accordingly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by their rulers, who had arranged a suitable time for all things, at +proper seasons. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having obtained through Mr. Cushing invaluable material for the +making of a composite image of the ancient American civilization +let us now proceed to Yucatan, bearing in mind the native mode +of thought and master-passion for systematization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A careful perusal of Cogolludo and Landa's work affords such +interesting glimpses into the past history of the inhabitants of the +Yucatan peninsula, that they merit presentation in a separate publication. +Suffice it for the present to refer more fully to a few leading +facts which will be found to illustrate the development of the +ancient civilization in the preceding pages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The native opinion already cited was that a great chief or lord, +named Kukulcan, reigned at Chichen-Itza, Yucatan, whilst this +was occupied by the Itza tribe, which was driven from it in about +270 A.D. by the Tutul-xius who were entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“holy men.”</span> Their +name justifies Brasseur de Bourbourg's inference that the conquerors +may have been a Nahuatl tribe whose name was that of the +much-prized blue-bird, Xiuh-tototl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time the fact that the Maya word for supreme lord +and Master (also applied to the divinity) is +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Ciu-mil</span></span> seems to indicate +that there may be a deeper origin and that the Xiuh-tototl +may have only been a rebus employed by the Mexicans to convey +the sound of a Maya title, possibly <span class="tei tei-q">“Kukul-Ciu,”</span> if the above +title <span class="tei tei-q">“holy men”</span> is to be regarded as a translation of Tutul-xiu. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Kukulcan had no wife or children and was venerated in Yucatan +as a god because he was a great republican, as was shown by +the order he instituted in Yucatan after the death of the native +rulers. He went to Mexico whence he returned. He was there +named Quetzalcoatl and was venerated by the Mexicans as one of +their gods.”</span> When he had entered into treaty with the native chiefs +inhabiting the country, they agreed to join him in founding and +peopling a city which was named Mayapan, but was also known +by the natives as Ichpa, meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“inside of the circles.”</span><a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“They +proceeded, indeed, to build a circular walled enclosure with two entrances +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +only. In its centre, the principal temple was erected and +it was circular, with four doors opening to the cardinal points, like +one which had been built by Kukulcan at Chichen-Itza. The walled +circle also contained other sacred edifices and houses intended to +be inhabited by the lords only, who divided up the entire land +amongst themselves. Towns were assigned to each according to +the antiquity of his lineage and personal distinction. Kukulcan +lived in this town for some years with these lords and leaving them +in amity and peace returned to Mexico by the same way as on his +visit, lingering on the way in order to build a quadriform temple +on an island off the coast.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I know of no more instructive account of aboriginal history than +this simple native record preserved by Landa, which so clearly reveals +amongst other details that the Mexican culture-hero was an +actual personage, a Maya high-priest who had been a ruler at Chichen-Itza. +In this connection it is interesting to collate another +chapter of Landa's work in which he reports what the oldest Indians +narrated to him about Chichen-Itza, of which I give the following +somewhat abbreviated translation: Three brothers came +there in olden times from the west and having assembled together +a large number of people, ruled them for some years with much +justice and peace.<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> +They paid great honor to their god and built +many beautiful edifices.... They lived without wives in purity +and virtue and as long as they did this they were esteemed and +obeyed by all. In course of time one of them possibly died, but is +said by the Indians to have gone out of the country. Whatever +may have been the cause of his absence the remaining rulers immediately +began to show partiality and to institute such licentious +and abominable customs that they were finally execrated by the +people who rebelled and killed them, and then disbanded and abandoned +the capital, <span class="tei tei-q">“although this was most beautiful and was surrounded +by fertile provinces.”</span><a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principal edifice at Chichen-Itza was a pyramid temple which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had four stairways facing the cardinal points. It contained a circular +temple which was named after the builder Kukulcan and had +four doorways opening to the four quarters of heaven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If I have dwelt again upon Kukulcan=Quetzalcoatl, it is because, +between the writers who interpret the records concerning +him as a sun or star-myth and those who identify him as the abstract +deity whose name he bore as a title only, or as St. Thomas or a +mythical Norseman, ancient America is being deprived of its most +remarkable historical personage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Collated with the Maya traditional records, the Mexican accounts +agree and supply missing evidence. Whilst the Mayas state that +their ruler and legislator went to Mexico and even record his Mexican +name, Montezuma informs Cortés that <span class="tei tei-q">“his ancestors had been +conducted to Mexico by a ruler, Quetzalcoatl, whose vassals they +were and who having established them in a colony returned to his +native land. Later on he returned and wished them to leave with +him but they chose to remain, having married women of the country, +raised families and built towns. Nor would they institute him +again as their lord, so he went away again toward the east, whence +he had come.”</span> It seems nearly proven that Kukulcan was one of +the three rulers who came to Yucatan from the east. The Mexican +tradition that he was driven into exile by his enemies, the followers +of Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the Below, appears to be +corroborated by the Maya record that, after his restraining presence +had been removed, they committed such excesses that the indignant +population arose and murdered their two rulers at Chichen-Itza. +Quetzalcoatl's continued efforts to assemble scattered tribes, +to organize them peacefully under central governments, to found +capitals and erect in the centre of these quadriform pyramids and +circular temples, prove how completely he was possessed by the +idea of spreading the well-known scheme of civilization. His very +name in Maya signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine Four”</span> and this more profound +signification was hidden under the image of the <span class="tei tei-q">“feathered serpent”</span> +employed as a rebus to express the title of the supreme Being +and the high-priest, his earthly representative. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mexican records state that the culture-hero's white robes +were covered with red crosses, and that he set up cross-emblems. +Evidence showing how completely this builder and founder of cities +carried out the idea of the Four Quarters, in the temples he erected +in Mexico, is preserved by the record that for prayer, penitence +and fasting, he prepared four rooms which he occupied in rotation. +These were respectively decorated in blue, green, red and yellow, +by means of precious stones, feather-work and gold. As these +were the colors assigned to the Four Quarters their symbolism and +meaning are obvious, and it may be inferred that the same method +of decorating the sides of buildings or doorways, with these four +colors, may have been carried out in square sacred edifices oriented +to the cardinal points. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious to detect the quadruplicate idea in the title Holcan +given to certain war-chiefs. This name signifies, literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +head of four,”</span> but could be expressed by the rebus of a <span class="tei tei-q">“serpent's +head,”</span> which would obviously have been employed in pictography +to express the title and rank. The existence of the title +<span class="tei tei-q">“Four-head,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the head of four,”</span> obviously relates to the rulership +of the Four Quarters, united in one person; and in this connection +the Tiahuanaco swastika (fig. <a href="#Figure_48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>), terminating in four +pumas' heads, seems to gain in significance as the expressive symbol of a +central ruler. The recorded custom to cover the body of the Mexican +ruler with the raiment of the <span class="tei tei-q">“four principal gods,”</span> proves +the prevalence of analogous symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the following data we gain an interesting view of the +events which transpired in former times in the Yucatan peninsula. +Resuming Landa's account we see that, after Kuculcan had departed +for Mexico, the lords of Mayapan decided to confer supreme +rulership upon the Cocomes, this being the most ancient and the +wealthiest lineage and its chief being distinguished for bravery. +They then decided that the inner circle should hold only the temples +and houses for the lords and high-priest. In connection with this +it is well to insert here how Landa states, in another passage, that +there were <span class="tei tei-q">“twelve priests or lords at Mayapan,”</span> which with the +high-priest constituted the sacred 13. <span class="tei tei-q">“Outside the wall they built +houses where each lord kept some servitors and where his people +or vassals could resort when they came on business to the town. +Each of these houses had its steward, entitled Caluac, who bore a +staff of office and he kept an account with the towns and with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their local rulers. The Caluac always went to his lord's house, +saw what he required and obtained from the vassals all he needed +in the way of provisions, clothing, etc.”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, pp. 34-44). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The chronicle goes on to relate how the lords of the inner circle +devoted their time to the affairs of government, the regulation of +the calendar and the study of writing, medicine, and the sciences.<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It seems significant that, throughout Central America, two ruined +cities of about equal size are usually found in comparatively close +proximity to each other, and seemingly pertaining to the same culture. +Thus we have Quirigua, in the valley of the Motagua river, +and Copan its sister-city, situated at a distance of about twenty-five +miles, but nearly 1,800 feet above it, in the wooded hills. Between +Palenque and Menché (Lorillard City) there are about fifty +miles, whilst Tikal and Ixkun are forty miles apart. In Yucatan, +as we have learned from Bishop Landa's <span class="tei tei-q">“Relacion,”</span> there were +Mayapan and Zilan, and as the latter name also signified <span class="tei tei-q">“embroidery”</span> +it looks as though it had been a noted centre of female +industry. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then, after a lapse of years, <span class="tei tei-q">“a large number of tribes, with +their lords, came to Yucatan from the south.”</span> Bishop Landa conjectures +that, although his informants did not know this for certain, +<span class="tei tei-q">“these tribes must have come from Chiapas, many words and the +conjugation of some verbs being the same in Yucatan as in Chiapas +where there existed great signs showing that ancient capitals +had been devastated and abandoned,”</span> possibly by earthquakes, +famine, disease or warfare. It has been surmised that the venerable +Bishop alluded, in this sentence, to the ruins of Palenque in +Chiapas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although not mentioned by Cogolludo or Lizana it is accepted +that the new-comers were the Tutul-xius. According to an ancient +Maya chronicle, <span class="tei tei-q">“at a date corresponding to 401 A.D., the four +Tutul-xius had fled from the house of Nonoual, to the west of +Zuiva and came from the land of Tulapan. Four eras passed before +they reached the peninsula of Yucatan named Chac-noui-tan +under their chieftain, Holon-Chan-Tepeuh,”</span> a name which is equally +intelligible in Maya, Tzendal and Nahuatl and means Head-Serpent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the mountain,”</span> according to Brasseur de Bourbourg, +who states that the latter was a sovereign title amongst the +Quichés. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Landa relates that, after wandering about Yucatan for forty +years (possibly in search of the stable centre) these tribes settled +near Mayapan, subjected themselves to its laws and lived in peaceful +friendship with the Cocomes. The new-comers brought with +them the atlatl or spear-thrower which is minutely described but +is evidently regarded as a weapon of the chase.<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> The chronicle +goes on to narrate that the Cocom governor, having become ambitious +for riches, entered into a treaty with Mexican warriors who +were garrisoned at Tabasco and Xicalango by the Mexican ruler +and induced them to come to Mayapan and to aid him in oppressing +the native lords. The latter and the Tutul-xius rebelled against +this action and, having observed the Mexicans and become experts +in the art of using their bow and arrow, lance, hatchet, shield and +other defensive armor, they <span class="tei tei-q">“ceased to admire and fear the Mexicans +and began to make little of them, and in this condition they +remained for some years.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A lapse of years passed and another Cocom chief formed a fresh +league with the Tabasco people. More Mexican warriors came to +Mayapan and supported him in tyrannizing and making slaves of +the lower class. Then the Tutulxiu lords assembled and decided +to murder the Cocom ruler. Having done so they also killed all +his sons with the exception of one who was absent; burnt their +houses and seized their plantations of cocoa and other fruits, saying +that these compensated for what had been stolen from them. +The differences which subsequently arose between the Cocome and +the Xius people resulted in the final destruction and abandonment +of Mayapan after an occupation of more than five hundred years, +both tribes returning to their countries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The lords who destroyed Mayapan (about 120 years before the +Conquest) carried away with them their books of science.... +The son of the Cocom lord, who being absent had escaped death, +returned and gathered his relations and vassals together and founded +a capital.... Many towns were built by them in the hills +and many families descended from these Cocomes. These lords +of Mayapan did not revenge themselves upon the Mexican warriors +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but generously exonerated them from blame because they +were strangers and had been persuaded to come into the land +by its former ruler. They allowed them to remain unmolested in +the country and to found a city on condition that they kept to +themselves and married in their own tribe only. These Mexicans +decided to settle in Yucatan and peopled the province of Can-ul +which was assigned to them and they continued to live there until +the second invasion of the Spaniards.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At Chichen-Itza, situated at about twenty-three leagues from +the ancient site of Mayapan, there exists substantial evidence of +the existence of these Aztec warriors, with indications that they +pertained to the Mexican warrior-caste of the ocelots or tigers. +It is a recognized fact that the remarkable bas-reliefs, which still +cover the walls of the <span class="tei tei-q">“temple of the tigers”</span> at Chichen-Itza, are +strikingly Aztec in every detail. The exact counterparts of the +Atlatls, they hold, are visible on the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Stone of Tizoc”</span> in +the city of Mexico. Sculptured on the wall opposite the entrance +of the temple there are about thirty-six war-chiefs grouped in three +parallel rows of twelve each, the majority of whom are apparently +rendering some form of homage to a seated personage surrounded +by rays, while others are having an encounter with a monstrous serpent. +On the side walls and slanting roofs more warriors are figured, +many accompanied by a rebus or hieroglyph which evidently +records, in Mexican style, individual names. The total number of +sculptured warriors seems to have been about one hundred. If +each of these represented, as may be supposed, a <span class="tei tei-q">“count of men,”</span> +it is evident that a large force of Aztec soldiers must have lived +in Yucatan at one time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other interesting monuments at Chichen-Itza deserve a passing +mention. Mr. Teobert Maler (Yukatekische Forschungen, Globus, +1895, p. 284) relates that there are two pyramid-temples in the +terraces of which the remains of great stone tables have been +found. He states that one of these tables was originally supported +by two rows of seven sculptured caryatids and by a central +row of plain columns with flat, square tops. Traces of paint showed +that the figures had been painted, that a yellow-brown color had +predominated, but that all ornaments or accessories were either +blue or green. The caryatids exhibited a variety of costume and +of size and each showed a marked individuality. The second table +standing in a larger temple, was originally painted red and supported +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by twenty-four caryatid figures which resemble each other +closely, show no individuality and which seem to have been disposed +in two rows of twelve each. Mr. Maler infers from this +that, being more highly conventionalized, they were of a later date +than the previous examples. If it were not for the circumstance +that both tables had the same number of supports their numeral +24 might pass unobserved. As it is, I shall recur to it on mentioning +other monuments with figures yielding the same number and +disposed, in one case, as 6×4. In connection with these stone +tables I recall the fact that, in the Maya language, they were called +Mayac-tun. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. W. H. Holmes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, p. 134) tells us that in one case the +continuous table had been formed by a series of limestone tablets +averaging three feet square and five or six inches thick, each slab +having been supported by two of the dwarfish figures which stand +with both hands aloft, giving a broad surface of support. He +ascertained that <span class="tei tei-q">“these slabs were wonderfully resonant and when +struck lightly with a hammer or stone, give out tones closely resembling +those of a deeply resonant bell, and the echoes awakened +in the silent forest are exceedingly impressive.”</span> Mr. Holmes' account +of these resonant stone tables is of particular value to me +because it throws an interesting light upon the following Maya +words: I have already stated that the native name for table is +Mayac, and that a stone table is Mayac-tun. The word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">tun</span></span>, however, +not only signifies stone, but also sound and noise. From +this it would seem that stone tables such as Mr. Holmes describes +were made expressly for the purpose of emitting sound and employed +like the huehuetl or wooden drums of the ancient Mexicans +to summon the people to the temple and to guide the sacred +dances. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The existence of the word tun-kul, which is either <span class="tei tei-q">“stone-bowl”</span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“sound-bowl,”</span> seems likewise to indicate that hollow +stone vessels were used at one time as gongs. At the present +day the Mayas name the small wooden drum of the Mexicans a +<span class="tei tei-q">“tunkul,”</span> whereas its Nahuatl name is <span class="tei tei-q">“te-ponaxtli,”</span> the prefix of +which, curiously enough, seems also to be connected with tetl=stone. +A curious light is shed upon the possible use of some of the many +stone vessels found in Mexico and Yucatan by the above linguistic +evidence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion I quote Mr. Maler's authority for two points concerning +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Chichen-Itza which are not generally known. First, that +its name should be pronounced <span class="tei tei-q">“Tsitsen-itsa,”</span> and, second, that +he saw there no less than five recumbent statues, holding circular +vessels. Each of these figures exhibits the same form of breast-plate +as the Le Plongeon example now at the National Museum +of Mexico (pl. <a href="#Plate_IV" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span></a>, +fig. 1). Mr. Maler states that it seems to have +been the tribal mark of the Cocomes, the whilom rulers at Chichen-Itza; +but it is interesting to note the general resemblance of +this ornament to the blue plaque worn by the Mexican <span class="tei tei-q">“Blue +Lord,”</span> the Lord of the Year and of Fire, <span class="tei tei-q">“Xiuhtecuhtli,”</span> who is +also usually represented with a Xiuh-tototl or <span class="tei tei-q">“blue-bird”</span> on the +front of his head-dress. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These facts seem to indicate that the characteristic breast-plate, +instead of being a mark of the Cocomes, may have been that of +the Tutul-Xius, and that this title has some connection with that +of Xiuh-tecuhtli, the Mexican <span class="tei tei-q">“Lord of Fire.”</span> It has been already +set forth in the preceding pages that the sacred fire was +kindled in the stone vase held by the recumbent figures, a fact indicating +that the identical form of cult was practised in Mexico +and at Chichen-Itza. This identity is satisfactorily accounted for +and explained if we accept the simple native records of the invitation +extended to Mexican warriors by a Maya chieftain and their +subsequent permanent residence in Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The limitations of my subject do not allow me to do more than +mention two other important ruined cities of Yucatan, Izamal and +Uxmal. I will however note that, judging from the illustrations +I have seen, Uxmal seems to be the <span class="tei tei-q">“Serpent-city”</span> of America, +par excellence, its buildings exhibiting the most elaborate and profuse +employment of the serpent for symbolical decoration. One +inference from this might be that the serpent was the totemic animal +of the ancient builders of this city. The foregoing rapid +review of the native chronicles of Yucatan shows that even the +foundation of Mayapan was comparatively recent; that the peninsula +had, in turn, harbored powerful tribes who had drifted thence +from the southwest and Mexican warriors whose aid had been sought +by consecutive rulers of Chichen-Itza. We see that Yucatan was +the meeting ground for Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people and +that the tendency was to leave the peninsula in search of a more +favorable soil and climate as soon as opportunity was afforded. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Since the cradle of the Maya civilization is evidently not to be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +looked for in Yucatan, let us follow the clue afforded by the native +traditions, transport ourselves to some of the most important +ruined cities of Central America and endeavor to wrest from their +monuments some knowledge of the social organization of their +ancient inhabitants. In order to institute this search under the +most favorable circumstances, I ventured to apply for guidance to +Mr. A. P. Maudslay who has made a more thorough, prolonged +and extensive study and exploration of these ruined cities than any +other person. Upon my request to formulate his opinion as to the +respective antiquity and chief characteristics of the most noted +sites, this distinguished explorer has most kindly authorized me to +publish the following note. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“But for a brief note in Nature (28th April, 1892), I have +never classified the ruins or attempted to give proofs of differences +in age of the monuments, but roughly you may safely class them +as follows: I am inclined to look on the Motagua river group as +the oldest. The Yucatan group is certainly the youngest. Of course +there are many other smaller differences between the groups and +much overlapping. Whichever group may be the oldest the art +is there already advanced and the decoration has taken forms which +must have occupied many kinds of workers to conventionalize from +natural objects.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. On Motagua River, Quirigua, Copan. +Large monolithic stelæ and altars +with figures and inscriptions +carved on all four sides in +rather high relief, some groups +pictographic. No weapons of +war portrayed in the sculpture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. On Usumacinto River, Menché, Tinamit, Palenque, Ixkun. +Stelæ are usually flat slabs +carved with figures and inscriptions +in low relief on one side +only. External ornament of +the buildings usually moulded in +stucco. War-like weapons but +very scarce. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. Tikal. Intermediate between Nos. 2 +and 4, but somewhat different +and distinct from either. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. Yucatan. Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, etc. Stelæ very few in number and +poorly carved. Inscriptions +carved in stone are very scarce. +Inscriptions were probably +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">painted</span></em> on the walls of the temples. +External ornament of +buildings formed by a mosaic +of cut stones somewhat resembling +Zapotec or Aztec style. +Every man portrayed as a warrior +[on the bas-reliefs]. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By means of the magnificent set of casts which Mr. A. P. +Maudslay has generously presented to the South Kensington Museum, +London, and with the aid of his monumental and splendidly +illustrated work on the Archaeology of Central America, which has +been appearing as a part of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, edited +by Messrs. Godman and Salvin, I have been able to verify the +following facts which will be found to throw light on the purpose +and meaning of some of the ancient monuments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before examining the great, elaborately carved stelæ which are +characteristic of Quirigua and Copan, let us search the native +chronicles for some clue explanatory of the purpose for which they +were erected. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Bishop Landa has transmitted to us some details about the destroyed +metropolis of Mayapan given to him by Yucatec informants +who stated that <span class="tei tei-q">“in the central square of that city there still were +7 or 8 stones, about ten feet high, rounded on one side and well +sculptured, which exhibit several rows of the native characters, +but were so worn that they had become illegible. It is supposed, +however, that they are the record of the foundation and destruction +of that capital. Similar, but higher monuments, are at Zilan, +a town on the coast. Interrogated as to the meaning of these +monoliths the natives answered: It had been or was customary +to erect similar stones at intervals of 20 years which was the number +by which they counted their eras.”</span> Bishop Landa subsequently +remarks that <span class="tei tei-q">“this statement is not consistent,”</span> for, according to +this <span class="tei tei-q">“there should be many more such stones in existence, and +none exist in any other pueblo but Mayapan and Zilan.”</span><a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Disagreeing with the venerable Bishop, I find in the above statements +the most valuable indications of the former existence of two +centres of culture in Yucatan. There is a curious affinity between +the name Zilan (pronounced Dzilan) and Chilan given as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +title of a priestly office which consisted of a juridistic astrology +and divination,”</span> by Landa. There may even be a connection +between zilan and zian=origin, commencement; zihnal=original +and primitive, which may be worthy of consideration in association +with the well-known statement, quoted by Dr. Brinton, that +<span class="tei tei-q">“the most venerable traditions of the Maya race claimed for them +a migration from Tollan in Zu-iva—thence we all came forth together, +there was the common parent of our race; thence came we +from amongst the Yagui men, whose god is Yolcuatl Quetzalcoatl.”</span> +Dr. Brinton adds that <span class="tei tei-q">“this Tollan is certainly none other than the +abode of Quetzalcoatl named in an Aztec manuscript as <span class="tei tei-q">‘Zivena +Uitzcatl.’</span> ”</span> Vague as any conjecture must necessarily be, I cannot +but deem it of utmost importance that systematic excavations be +made, some day, at Zilan, for the purpose of bringing to light the +stelæ referred to by the native informants of Bishop Landa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Brasseur de Bourbourg <span class="tei tei-q">“Zilan, situated at about +20-½ leagues from Merida belonged to the Cheles people.<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> It is the +seaport of Izamal and contains the ruins of one of the greatest +pyramids or artificial mounds (omul) in Yucatan,”</span> a fact which +corroborates the view that it was an ancient important capital. +The northern coast of Yucatan is extremely remarkable for it is +divided from the Gulf of Mexico by a continuous strip of land +between which and the mainland there is a narrow channel of +water. There are two openings only in this zone of land which +afford a passage into the navigable channel. One of these openings +is situated almost opposite to Zilan and is known as the Boca +de Zilan. At a short distance to the east there is a second such +<span class="tei tei-q">“boca”</span> opposite to the mouth of the Rio Lagartos, which is a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +large estuary and the only river on the northern coast of +Yucatan.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now transport ourselves, mentally, south of the peninsula +to Honduras and, leaving the coast, ascend the Motagua valley +to the ruins of Quirigua and Copan,<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> which have impressed Mr. +Maudslay as being of great antiquity. Before examining such of +these monuments as seem to yield the testimony we are seeking, +let us again recall Landa's record that the Mayas erected stelæ as +memorials of each 20-year period. To this statement should be +added, at full length, Cogolludo's record that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mayas employed +eras of 20 years and lesser periods of 4 years.<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> The first +of these four years was assigned to the east and was named Cuch-haab; +the second, Hiix, to the west; the third, Cavac, to the south +and the fourth Muluc, to the north, and this served as a <span class="tei tei-q">‘Dominical +letter.’</span> When five of these four-year periods had passed, which +form twenty years, they called it a Katun and placed one sculptured +stone over another sculptured stone and fixed them with lime and +sand [mortar] to the walls of their temples and houses of the +priests.”</span><a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The term katun is closely linked to the said employment of +memorial stones, for tun is the Maya for stone and ka seems to +stand for kal or kaal=20. The word hun-kaal=20, means literally, +<span class="tei tei-q">“one complete count,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“a count which is closed,”</span> since +the verb kaal means to close, shut, or fasten something. According +to the above a katun literally means <span class="tei tei-q">“the 20 (year) stone;”</span> +but we know that, by extension, it designated the era itself as well +as war and battle. Thus we find the verb katun-tal=to fight. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cogolludo continues: <span class="tei tei-q">“In a town named Tixuala-tun, which +signifies <span class="tei tei-q">‘the place where they place one stone above another,’</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +they say that they kept their archive, containing records of all +events.... In current speech katun signified era and when +a person wished to say he was sixty years of age, he used the +expression to have three eras of years or three stones. For seventy +they said three and a half stones or four less one-half stone. +From this it may be seen that they were not too barbarous, for it +is said that [by this system] they were able to keep such exact +records that they not only certified an event but also the month +and day on which it took place.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By referring to Maya and Spanish dictionaries we gain supplementary +valuable information about native memorial stones. We +find the name amaytun given as that of <span class="tei tei-q">“a square stone on which +the ancient Indians used to carve the 20 years of the period ahau-katun, +because the four remaining years which completed the +epoch, were placed underneath, so as to form a sort of pedestal +which was called, for this reason, lath oc katun or chek oc katun. +By extension, painted representations [of the epoch] were also +named amaytun.”</span> The dictionary further informs us that amayté +was the name for the first twenty years of the ahau katun, which +were carved on the square stone and we see that amayté also +means <span class="tei tei-q">“something square or with corners”</span> and is formed of +amay=corner. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Equipped with the foregoing knowledge of the sort of memorial +it was customary for the Mayas to erect, let us now see whether +the ruins of Copan furnish any monuments which would answer to +the description and purpose of <span class="tei tei-q">“amay-tés”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“ka-tuns.”</span> Referring +the reader to parts <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span> +of Mr. A. P. Maudslay's work +already cited, I draw special attention to the following stelæ and +altars which are so admirably figured therein. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Stela F, which stands at the east side of the Great Plaza at Copan +and faces west, is in a particularly bad state of preservation. +It exhibits a standing figure on one side whose head is surmounted +by an indescribable combination of a mask, a seated figure and +much elaborate feather-work. A noteworthy feature, which recurs +on other stelæ in Copan and Quirigua, is an appendage which appears +like an artificial beard attached to the chin of the personage. +At the sides of the stela serpents' heads alternate with diminutive +grotesque figures. On the back, or east side of the stela, two +cords are represented which appear to have been brought over from +the front and which are tied together so as to form five open loops, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in each of which, as in a frame, there is a group consisting of four +calculiform glyphs. The cord, which is knotted together at the +base of the stela, appears to pass around it. It is impossible +not to recognize that this representation of twenty glyphs, as divided +into five groups of four, exactly agrees with Cogolludo's +records that the Mayas employed 20-year and 4-year eras and that +when five of the 4-year periods had passed they called it a ka-tun, +and made a carved memorial of it. As Landa tells us that they +erected stelæ to commemorate the 20-year period, the inference to +which the Copan Stela F leads us is that it is a katun and that +the twenty glyphs carved on it are year-signs. Examination, however, +shows that, whereas the Maya Calendar had but four year-signs +which would naturally be bound to repeat themselves in each group +of four years, no two glyphs on the Stela F are alike. It is obvious, +therefore, that the glyphs are not the four calendar year-signs +and reflection shows, indeed, that it would have been quite +superfluous to carve these repeatedly on a stela. As each year-sign +was identified with a cardinal point and an element and was +permanently associated with a particular color, the mere employment +of the latter would suffice to convey this association of ideas. +What is more, the relative positions of the four glyphs composing +each group would also indicate the four year-signs and thus the +sculptor of the stela would have been at liberty to record by the +shape of his glyphs any fact he chose to connect with each year +of the era. A curious linguistic fact must also be taken into consideration: +The Maya name for the four year-signs was Ah-cuch-haab +and the title for a chief or ruler of a town was Ah-cuch-cab. +The mere presence on the stela, of the figure of the ruler, would +suffice to convey the certainty that the count of the four year-signs +was understood to be present. On Stelæ F and M, each of +which displays twenty glyphs and one sculptured personage, the +latter is particularly characterized by being associated with head-dresses +and emblems consisting of elaborate conventionalized +plumed serpents' heads. The inference naturally is that the serpent +symbolism, which recurs in some form or other on every stela +effigy, expresses or conveys that the rank and title of the personage +were that of a Kukul-can, the high-priest ruler who impersonated +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine Four,”</span> or of some lord=Ahau, who was also +<span class="tei tei-q">“ruler of the four regions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must be recognized that a stone stela, on which is sculptured +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the image of a lord and a count of 20, answers exactly to the +memorial stone named Ahau-ka-tun, literally, lord, 20 stone, and +it is easy to see how the period or era of twenty-four years should +come to be called by the name of the stone which commemorated +it, and each era to be differentiated by being designated by the +personal name of the ruler who held office during its course. The +result would be practically the same as the allusion to a particular +reign in a nation's history, with the seeming difference that all +ancient American rulers and their subordinates held fixed terms of +office, coinciding with the various periods of the calendar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inscriptions on the foregoing stelæ are made of glyphs of +a uniform character. Other stelæ at Copan display the interesting +set of 6+1=7 signs which recur on so many Central American +monuments and strikingly coincide in number with the all-pervading +division into six parts plus the middle and synopsis of all. +Of this <span class="tei tei-q">“septenary set of signs,”</span> six are uniform in size and character +whilst the first is more elaborate and important in every respect +and, as I shall set forth by a series of illustrations in another +publication, actually does symbolize the union of the Above and +Below. It is to Mr. Maudslay that we owe the recognition of the +existence of this septenary set of glyphs, which he announced as +follows to the Royal Geographical Society in 1886: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“A number of Central American inscriptions are headed by what +I shall call an initial scroll (the style of which is permanent throughout +many variations) and begin with the same formula, usually +extending through six squares of hieroglyphic writing, the sixth +square, or sometimes the latter half of the sixth square, being a +human face, usually in profile, enclosed in a frame or cartouche”</span> +(Proceedings, p. 583). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The septenary group occurs on Stelæ A, B, C, E, I, P. It is +curious to find that the initial sign is sometimes, as on two sides +of Stela P, followed not by 6 glyphs only, but by 4×6=24 +glyphs. On the east side of Stela P, it is succeeded by 22 glyphs +and a carved design which seems to indicate the beginning or end +of the count. On Stela I the initial is also followed by 4×6=24 +glyphs, and on Stela A by 12 double (=24) glyphs on side +1, whilst side 2 displays 13 and side 3, 2×13=26. On Stela B +two sides exhibit 13 glyphs each and the back 2+ the initial. On +two sides of Stela C the initial is followed by 2×7=14 glyphs. +It cannot be denied that the foregoing stelæ collectively yield counts +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of 4×5, 7, 13, 20 and 24, which undoubtedly coincide with the +well-known numerical organization and prove that this dominated +the people who erected them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The certainty that the ancient inhabitants of Copan associated +the idea of a central ruler with quadruple power is afforded by a +remarkable bas-relief which Mr. Maudslay has kindly allowed me +to reproduce here (fig. <a href="#Figure_55" class="tei tei-ref">55</a>), +from a drawing made by Miss Annie +Hunter.<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This carved slab, the size of which is 5' by 4' 6", was found in +four pieces in the western court of the main structure of Copan +and according to Mr. Maudslay's opinion, <span class="tei tei-q">“formed part of the +exterior ornament of temple 11 or the slope on which it stood.”</span> +It undoubtedly claims a +minute examination, as it +strikingly illustrates how +the native ideas, I have +been setting forth in the +preceding pages, were originally +suggested by the +observation of Polaris. +Seated cross-legged, and +resting on the centre of +the foliated swastika, is +the figure of a personage +whose titles are clearly +discernible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_55" id="Figure_55" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-55.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 55." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 55.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He is designated as a +ruler, not only by his attitude +of repose, but by +the fact that he wears a breast ornament in the form of a face +or head (of the sun) and holds in his hand (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> governs) a vase +or bowl (see p. 72). Those show him to be the chief or head of +all and the Cum-ahau, or lord of the sacred vase or bowl (see +p. 93). As the latter contains what appears to be a variant of +the glyph ik and the word ik signifies breath, air and wind, by +extension life, we realize that he is designated as the lord of +breath and life. The glyph which covers his face bears a native +cross-symbol and this, as well as the cruciform figure, the centre of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which he occupies, conveys the idea of quadruplicate power. The +double and bent arms of the cross-symbol strikingly resemble the +conventionalized puffs of breath or air which are so frequently depicted +in Mexican Codices, as issuing from the mouths of speakers. +Almost identical representations of curved puffs are figured as +issuing from open serpents' jaws in a bas-relief at Palenque, of +which more anon. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. Maudslay has pointed out that on stelæ from Copan and +Quirigua a profusion of analogous curved signs occurs also in +connection with serpents' heads. A special feature of the curved +puffs of breath on the Copan <span class="tei tei-q">“swastika,”</span> as it has been named, +are small seed-like balls which are distributed in detached groups +of threes along their inner and outer edges, and are usually accompanied +by what resembles the small calyx of a flower, making +four small objects in all. These balls, which also recur in the Palenque +symbol, forcibly recall a passage of the Zuñi creation myth recounted +by Mr. Cushing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It relates that, at a certain stage of the creation, <span class="tei tei-q">“the most perfect +of all priests and fathers named Yanáuluha ... brought +up from the underworld, the water of the inner ocean and the +seeds of life production”</span> ... Subsequently, on a feathered +staff he carried, <span class="tei tei-q">“appeared 4 round things, seeds of moving beings, +mere eggs they were; two blue like the sky and two red like +the flesh of the earth-mother.”</span>... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I cannot but think that these words from a purely native source +explain the Copan sculpture more correctly than any inference +that could be made, and authorize the explanation that the central +figure represents the <span class="tei tei-q">“four times lord,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the four +winds,”</span> titles which were applied in Mexico to Quetzalcoatl and +Xiuhtecuhtli. At the same time the bas-relief teaches us that +<span class="tei tei-q">“the four winds”</span> had a deeper meaning than has been realized, +for it represents life-giving breath carrying with it the seeds of +the four vital elements, emanating from the central lord of life, +spreading to the four quarters and dividing itself so as to disseminate +vitality throughout the universe. The title Kukulcan=the +Divine Four, also serpent, proves to be even more expressive +of this conception of a central divinity than the Mexican Divine +Twin, or serpent. I am therefore inclined to consider that it +originated with a Maya-speaking people, to whom, more graphically +than to any one else, this bas-relief would have served, as a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +joint image of the star-god, the heart of heaven, named Hura-kan; +of the terrestrial lord Ah-cuch-cab, the heart or life of the +State; of the State, with its hun-kaal or one count of twenty subdivisions +of people and its quadruple head and body and, finally, +of the native cosmology. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Copan swastika enables us to come to another interesting +conclusion. It is a refined representation of the set of thoughts +suggested by Polaris, the idea of a stable centre being graphically +rendered. Movement in four directions is also symbolized. As, +in the latitude of Copan, Ursa Minor is the only circumpolar constellation +which could have been observed in four opposite positions, +it is obvious that Ursa Minor with Polaris must have constituted +the Maya Celestial Heart or Life=cuxabal. The following +points remain to be discussed in connection with the Copan swastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. To be complete and in keeping with native modes of representation +it must have originally been painted with the symbolical +colors of the Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. It is on a wooden club from Brazil or Guiana that, strange +to say, I find a cross symbol with bifurcated branches, which most +closely resembles the Copan type. Directing the readers to the +illustration of this club as fig. 8, pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xv</span></span>, +in Dr. Stolpe's work +already cited, I would ask them to examine also his fig. 7, with a design +expressing dual and quadruple divisions; fig. 9<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, with circles +containing cross lines; 9<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, with what resembles somewhat a Maltese +cross but also conveys duality; fig. 11<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span> with a cross in a +scalloped circle and a curious disc between four signs, with a band of alternate +black and white squares and its reverse 11<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, with triangles, to +which I shall revert; and figs. 10<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>, +each with a mound from +which a tree is growing. Though tempted to refer to many other +symbols I shall limit myself to pointing out that his +fig. 1, pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xiv</span></span>, +exhibits a group of five circles in a circle which strikingly recall +the Mexican examples and the Maya ho=5. As each of the +foregoing symbols is intelligible and belongs to a group of ideas +which I have shown to have been general throughout America, but +to have necessarily originated in the northern hemisphere, it seems +pretty clear that they must have gradually found their way to +Brazil and Guiana from the north by means of coast navigation +and traffic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. Concerning the bowl in the hand of the figure occupying the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +middle of the swastika a few remarks should be added to those +already given on pp. <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref">72</a> and <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Formed of clay the bowl was an expressive symbol of the earth. +Placed in elevated positions on the terraces of the temples, and +filled by the first annual showers which fell upon the parched +earth, the bowl of celestial water naturally became invested with +peculiar sanctity, and was gradually regarded as containing particular +life-giving qualities. One use to which bowls full of water +were put, in ancient Mexico, seems to explain further the ideas +associated with them. It is well known that bowls of water were +used at night for divination purposes, just as were black obsidian +mirrors. This seems to prove that the latter were a subsequent +invention which was adopted because it permanently afforded a +surface for purposes of reflection. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the native Maya chronicles the reflection of a star upon the +trembling and moving surface of the water, is given as the image of +the Creator and Former, the Heart of Heaven, and it was believed +that the divine essence of life was thus conveyed to earth by light +shining on and into the waters. It is well known that it was customary +for the priests of the Great Temple of Mexico to bathe at +midnight after fasting, in a sacred pool so deep that the water +appeared to be black. This artificially-produced peculiarity would +have rendered its surface particularly useful for the observation +and registration of the movements of stars by their reflections. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thomas Gage quaintly tells us, moreover, that at the consecration +of a certain idol <span class="tei tei-q">“made of all kinds of seeds that grow in the +country ... a certain vessell of water was blessed with many +words and ceremonies, and that water was preserved very religiously +at the foot of the Altar for to consecrate the King when he +was crowned and also to blesse any Captain Generall, when he +should be elected for the Warres, with only giving him a draught of +that water”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, p. 53). It is well known that infants +also underwent a form of baptism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preceding and other evidence, which is scarcely required, +enables us to realize the full significance which the symbol of a +bowl surmounted by the glyph ik=life, breath, soul, was intended +to express and convey. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The collection of rain-water in vessels, exposed so as to receive +the reflection of the one immovable star-god, was doubtlessly employed +as a test of the stability of the Middle of the Earth by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +many generations of priest-astronomers. The sanctity attached +to this water, as having absorbed the divine essence of light and +the attribution of life-giving properties to it, was but the natural +sequence of such star-observation. As the title <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the +vase or bowl”</span>=Cum-ahau, indicates, the supreme priest of Heaven +alone seems to have attended to all rites concerning the sacred +bowl and the distribution of its celestial life-giving contents. The +symbolical decoration of many native bowls will be found to corroborate +this view of their employment and of the virtue attributed +to their contents. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By this time I trust that my readers will realize with me that, +at Copan, the native set of ideas had long taken deep root and +flourished. We have seen that the identical numerical divisions of +time and tribes and the same symbolism prevailed as have been +traced in Peru, Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc. The +following monuments will still further establish this kinship of +thought. Copan contains two stone slabs which answer to the description +of an amay-tun, inasmuch as they are square and appear +to be memorial stones. Let us see whether some clue to their purpose +can be obtained from the carvings upon them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On each of the four sides of altar K four personages are carved, +all seeming to be of equal rank. Of these 4×4=16 chieftains, +eight wear a breast ornament in the form of a double serpent, +whilst the remaining eight wear a somewhat plainer kind. On +the west side the two central figures face each other and two diminutive +glyphs are carved in the space between them. The most +striking feature about the representation of these personages is, +that each of them is seated, cross-legged, on a different composite +glyph; some of these exhibit animal forms. This is a fact of utmost +importance, for it definitely connects distinct personalities, +obviously chieftains with composite glyphs, some composite parts +of which are obviously totemic. On the upper surface of this +monolith there are 6×6=36 single glyphs, which yield 9 groups +of 4. If these 9×4 be added to the 4×4 glyphs on which the +chieftains are respectively seated, we obtain 13 groups of 4, equivalent +to 52. It is superfluous to repeat that there are fifty-two +years in the Mexican cycle and that just as this square altar +has 16 figures carved around it, the great monolithic Stone of +Tizoc in the City of Mexico has 16 groups. In the latter case +each group is accompanied by the name of a tribe and its capital. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +It looks very much as though the glyphs on which the chieftains +on Altar K are seated also express tribal names. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A careful study of the other square monolith at Copan, known +as the Alligator altar, will enable us to form a better estimate of +the probable meaning of glyphs, employed as seats by chieftains. +The Alligator altar takes its name from the sculptured animal +which is stretched over its upper surface. Human figures are represented +as connected with the different parts of the animal's body, +in a way which forcibly recalls Mr. Cushing's explanation of how +the various members of a tribe were associated with a part only +of their totemic animal and bore the name of this part as their +title of honor, according to a strict order of precedence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Mr. Maudslay's description: <span class="tei tei-q">“Upon the upper +surface of the monument are two apparently human figures seated +upon the arms of the alligator. Both figures are much weather worn; +each has what appears to be a glyph in its hand, which is outstretched +toward the alligator's head. Between the alligator's arms +and legs four human figures are seated in similar positions, two on +each side of the body. These figures have large mask head-dresses +and carry offerings in their hands. There are two figures +on the north side of the monument, one on either side of the tail +of the alligator; each is seated on a glyph. The figures are human, +but in place of a human head each figure is surmounted by a +glyph. Each figure holds a glyph with the numeral ten attached +to it in its outstretched hand.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Since the above partial description of the altar was written, Mr. +Maudslay has found that one of the above glyphs is <span class="tei tei-q">“Mol”</span> and +the other <span class="tei tei-q">“Zip,”</span> and has identified the glyph used as a head for +each figure as the day-sign Cabal. This fact is of particular interest +as the meaning of this sign seems to be connected with +Caban=the Below, and the two figures with Cabal heads are +sculptured at each side of the alligator's tail which is the part of +least honor, not only according to Zuñi etiquette, but also according +to Mexican ideas, the word for tail being employed, metaphorically, +for vassals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To this description I would add that a careful study of the cast +of this monument in the South Kensington Museum, and of the +illustrations in Mr. Maudslay's work reveals that, of the four figures +on the west side, one only has a human head, whilst two have +human bodies with animal heads and one a semi-human face and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the body of a bird. Of the four figures on the east side, the first +represents a man seated on a glyph, the second a human body with +an animal head and the third and fourth semi-animal, bird and +human figures. Amongst the recognizable animal forms represented, +we distinguish an ocelot, an unmistakable alligator's head +and the head of a monster with huge jaw and serrated teeth which +strongly resembles the Mexican sign Cipactli, a nondescript <span class="tei tei-q">“marine +monster.”</span> One detail is worthy of special notice: the left +hand of one of the figures on the east side terminates in a serpent's +head, in a fashion recalling that of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following résumé will make the distribution of the figures +and glyphs on the altar quite clear. Top: outstretched alligator +body, whose legs and claws are sculptured over the corners of the +altar. On each shoulder 1 figure with glyph=2. On each knee +2 figures=4, making a total of 6 figures on the top. On east +and west sides respectively, 4 figures; on north side 2 figures, +on the south side 4 figures on composite glyphs=14. The total +number of figures on top and sides is 20, each of which is intimately +associated with a glyph. Under the snout of the alligator, +on the south side, there are 2×4=8 glyphs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When carefully analyzed we ultimately find that the surface of the +altar exhibits in the first case two chieftains of equal rank, but respectively +seated on the right and left forelegs of the tribal totem. +To my idea this demonstrates that the dual rulership, such as existed +elsewhere, prevailed at Copan, and that two lords of the alligator +tribe were entitled the right and left forelegs or <span class="tei tei-q">“arms”</span> of +the animal totem. It should be noted here that the Maya name +for alligator is chiuan or ain. The dictionaries contain also the +following names for the same or allied species: Sea-lizard, alligator +(?), ixbaan; lizard in general=ix-mech, or mech, ix-be-bech, +ixzeluoh and ix-tulub. Obviously occupying positions of less +honor there are 2×2=4 chiefs of equal rank but seated, respectively, +on the right and left hind legs of the totem. These again +are evidently equivalent to the four sub-rulers of Mexico and +Yucatan, the Maya Bacabs or Chacs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Lastly, the twenty different figures, connected with particular +glyphs, are equivalent to the division of the tribe into as many +portions, minus the head. The eight glyphs associated with this +added to the twelve glyph-figures, complete the numeric organization +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into twenty. From this monument, the sides of which were +probably painted, originally, in four colors, it would seem that the +alligator clan, ruled by two chiefs and four lesser rulers, was organized +into twelve divisions of people and eight classes of another +kind. A circular tablet at Quirigua, which I shall describe further +on, exhibits a subdivision into 2×6=12+5+3=20. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is not necessary to emphasize how remarkably the Copan altar +conforms to the Zuñi method of clan-organization. It suffices for +my present purpose merely to establish the community of thought +which existed throughout, but which found its highest artistic expression +and development in Central America. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are several other smaller carved monoliths, one of which +usually lies in front of a stela. For this reason they have been popularly +named <span class="tei tei-q">“altars,”</span> just as the stelæ have been called <span class="tei tei-q">“idols.”</span> +The majority of these <span class="tei tei-q">“altars”</span> contradict this appellation by +their utterly unsuitable shapes and profuse carvings on their upper, +often irregular, rounded surfaces. Some of these monoliths +consist of a monstrous head, the shape of which is almost lost under +an indescribable mass of ornamentation. In some cases, however, +they recall the semblance of the large glyphs on which chieftains +are represented as seated on the carved sides of the square monoliths +just described. So strongly do some of these resemble certain +forms, that I venture to express my belief that, on ceremonial occasions, +these carved heads may have served as the seats or stools +of honor for chieftains of the rank of those portrayed on the bas-reliefs. +The Maya word tem, the plural form for which is tetem, +seems to be applicable to such totemistic carved stones. It is +translated as stone altar, seat or bench (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +Nahuatl word te-tl=stone). +Other minor monoliths are carved with glyphs. <span class="tei tei-q">“Altar +G,”</span> illustrated in Mr. Maudslay's work, exhibits four glyphs only—an +interesting number, replete with significance to the native mind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The number 24 occurs on Altar R on which the glyphs are disposed +as 2×4=8+2×8=24. The number 24 recurs on the +top of Altar U, where the glyphs are disposed in 3 rows of 8 each. +At the same time the back of this altar exhibits 5×10=50 and +its sides 2×2=4 glyphs, which may possibly constitute separate +records. In the majority of foregoing cases the glyphs are single +and comparatively simple. On Altar S, however, we have double +and quadruple glyphs, the latter obviously being a highly developed +cursive method of recording facts, rendered possible by the minute +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +classification of all things in the State into definite divisions with +fixed relationships to each other. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having lingered so long in Copan we can but glance at Quirigua +and note its most remarkable features. This ruined city lies on +Motagua river, 1,800 feet below and at about a distance of twenty-five +to thirty miles from Copan. It is now subjected to almost +annual inundations from the river and its situation in marshy surroundings +renders it extremely unhealthy. It may have been partly +on this account that the neighboring capital of Copan was founded +in an elevated and salubrious position. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An interesting fact has been pointed out to me by Mr. Maudslay, +namely, that the ground plan of both groups of ruins is almost +exactly the same, Copan being only somewhat the larger of +the two. This identity proves that the same distinct scheme of +orientation was carried out in both places and that importance was +undoubtedly attached to the relative positions of the pyramid-temples, +courts and buildings.<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> +A proof that two distinct castes of +rulers existed and were respectively associated with the northern +and southern regions of the capital is furnished by a circumstance +communicated to me by Mr. Maudslay. In Copan, as well as at +Quirigua, some of the individuals sculptured on the stelæ are +beardless, whilst others have beards which seem to be sometimes +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +artificial. These stelæ usually stood at the sides of the great courts, +and at the bases of the pyramid-temples. Mr. Maudslay has observed +that in both places, all of the bearded effigies are situated +to the north of the beardless ones. The first, for instance, occupy +the northern and the second the southern side of a court; their +respective positions being clearly intentional since it recurs in both +cases. This circumstance furnishes additional proof that, in these +capitals as elsewhere, the same great primary division into the +Above and Below prevailed and shows that the representative +rulers of these two castes respectively wore beards or none. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The beard, as an insignia of rank, occurs in several Mexican +MSS. and careful observation shows that it is most frequently +represented as worn by a high-priest, usually painted black and +sometimes wearing the skin of an ocelot. It is found associated +with advanced age and with red, the color of the north, a fact +which coincides with the position assigned to bearded effigies at +Copan and Quirigua. In Mexican Codices the culture hero, Quetzalcoatl, +is figured with a beard, and tradition records that this was +his distinctive feature. Images of Quetzalcoatl=the air-god, represent +him with a beard, and the calendar-sign Ehecatl=wind, is +composed of an elongated mouth and chin to which a beard is +attached. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Several of the monuments at Quirigua are the largest of the +kind which have been found on the American continent. Stelæ +E and F are twenty-two and twenty-five feet high respectively, +and both exhibit two human effigies standing back to back. In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +point of fact, with a few exceptions, amongst which are female +effigies, the majority of stelæ at Quirigua are double, namely, A, C, +D, E, F, K, in Mr. Maudslay's work, part <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xi</span></span>. I cannot but regard +this as a proof that in a peaceful, flourishing and long-established +state, the dual form of government maintained itself successfully +for an extended period of time. On Stela E is one of the most +remarkable ancient American portrait-statues that has yet been +discovered. It portrays a man with noble and strongly marked +features, an aquiline nose and a narrow chin beard, like a goatee. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Maya dictionaries supply us with the clue to the meaning +attached to the beard in pictorial art. The word for beard is meex +and for <span class="tei tei-q">“bearded man,”</span> ah-meex, or ah-meexnal, if the beard +was long. On the other hand, ah-mek-tancal is the Maya name for +<span class="tei tei-q">“governor and ruler of people or of a town,”</span> and ah-mektanpixan +means high priest. The first two syllables of these titles, being +identical with the word for a <span class="tei tei-q">“bearded man,”</span> seem to explain the +reason for the association of rank with a beard, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>. +Added to preceding data it aids in forming the conclusion that +the bearded personages on the stelæ were <span class="tei tei-q">“high-priests or rulers of +people and of towns,”</span> that the beard or goatee was the mark of +supreme rank and that artificial ones were sometimes worn. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The beardless effigies, on the other hand, obviously represent +individuals belonging to a different caste; and the fact that stelæ +exist at Copan and Quirigua on which two figures are carved, back +to back, proves that the assignment of the effigies of the two types +to separate sides of the courts was preceded by a time when a +closer unity prevailed between the dual rulers. The existence of +stelæ with female figures proves that here, as well as in Mexico +and Peru, there had been a period when <span class="tei tei-q">“the Below and the cult of +the Earth-mother were presided over by a woman.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On each side of the great Stela F is carved the initial followed +by 6×6=36 glyphs, which fact seems to indicate that six glyphs +pertained to each of the six regions and recorded facts relating +thereunto. On the sides of Stela F, each initial is followed by +34 glyphs only, the count being shorter than that of Stela E +by 2×2=4. One side of Stela C exhibits the initial followed by +2×13 glyphs grouped in parallel lines, then a horizontal band +with 4 glyphs; the other side the initial followed by 4×6=24 +and a group of 4 glyphs. Stela D is particularly remarkable on +account of the six squares of pictorial glyphs which follow the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Initial”</span> which, in this case, exhibits the head and body of a +jaguar in its centre. I refer to Mr. Maudslay's interesting conclusion +that these pictorial glyphs preceded, in date, the more cursive +method of representing the initial series. In consequence of +this jaguar initial, Stela A becomes particularly noticeable, because +one of the personages upon it has a beard, whilst the other +is masked as an ocelot or jaguar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A vivid sense of the actuality of the bond that existed between +the ancient dwellers at Copan and Quirigua, their totemic animals +and symbolic coloring, is obtained on reading Mr. Maudslay's following +description of the excavation of mound 4 at Copan (Report +Proceedings Geographical Society, 1886, p. 578).... <span class="tei tei-q">“The +excavation was then continued ... when more traces of +[human] bones were found mixed with red powder and sand.... +Continuing the excavation ... a skeleton of a jaguar was +found lying under a layer of charcoal ... the teeth and part +of the skeleton had been painted red. At about 100 yards to the +south of this mound I shortly afterwards opened another ... +mound ... and found a few small fragments of human +bones, two small stone axes and portions of another jaguar's +skeleton and some dog's teeth, showing that the interment of animals +was not a matter of chance.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we add this to the accumulation of evidence I have presented, +showing that in Mexico and Yucatan the ocelot was associated +with the north, the color red, the underworld, the nocturnal cult +and with bearded priests, we must admit that there is hope that, +some day, we may be as familiar with the life and customs of the +ancient Americans as we are now with those of the ancient Egyptians, +Greeks and Romans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Strange animal effigies in stone have been found at Quirigua: +one (B) somewhat resembles a dragon and exhibits complex glyphs; +another (G) has been named an armadillo and has 2×8=16 +glyphs carved on its lower and 2×20=40 on its upper sides. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A circular slab deserves special mention: in its centre is a +seated figure. Forming a band around the edge, to the right of +the figure are 6 glyphs and 6 others are to his left=12 in all. +Above him to his left are 5 and to his left are 3 glyphs. This +peculiar distribution of 20 glyphs is of peculiar interest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The crowning glory of Quirigua, however, is the gigantic block +of stone, completely covered with intricate carvings and glyphs, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which is known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Turtle,”</span> and of which splendid +casts, made from Mr. Maudslay's moulds, are now exhibited in +the South Kensington Museum, London, and in the American Museum +of Natural History, New York. Of the many features of +this remarkable monument, which can be studied in Mr. Maudslay's +forthcoming part <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xi</span></span> of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, the +seated figure, occupying a prominent place and obviously representing the +central ruler, deserves special mention. In his right hand he holds +a peculiar sceptre similar to that held by the personage on Stela E. +His left hand is concealed under a carved face, a detail which recalls +the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Palenque and its group of sister cities now claim our notice. Of +the latter Men-ché particularly arrests our attention on account of +its name, the second part of which means tree and by extension, +tribe. The word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">men</span></span> +is of particular interest, for it is not only the +name of a dog in the Maya Calendar but signifies precisely the +same as the Mexican word toltecatl, namely, master-builder, artificer +or artisan, an adept in manufacture. The habitual form of +employing the word would be ah-men, meaning he who is a master +builder, etc.; while men-ah or men-yah signifies work or production +of manual labor. The first part of the Nahuatl word aman-teca, +signifying artisan, artificer, seems to be a corrupt rendering of +the Maya ah-men. That Men-ché, which is also known as Lorillard +City, was a centre of the highest development of native-sculpture +and art seems proven by the truly admirable and exquisitely +fine workmanship of the bas-reliefs obtained there by +Mr. Maudslay, and now exhibited at the British Museum. In execution +and finish they undoubtedly surpass any specimens of ancient +American art I have ever seen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A search for the possible derivation of the word men leads to +mehen, the name for <span class="tei tei-q">“sons or nephews in the male line,”</span> mehen-ob, +the descendants, mehen-tzilaan=genealogy and parentage (a +word which sheds some light on the meaning of the ancient capital +Tzilan in Yucatan). Mehen is also employed as meaning something +little, small or minute. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the above data it may be inferred that Men-ché may have +originally signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the tree or tribe of the sons or nephews in +the male line,”</span> and that these people may have so identified themselves +with the arts of building and working in precious metals and +stone, etc., that their title was used as a designation for these industries. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +It is certainly remarkable that, situated at an easy distance +on the same river Usumacinto, there is the great ruined city +of Palenque<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> +(pronounced by the natives Pa-lem-ke) which seems +also to have originally terminated in ché=tree or tribe and to be +derived from palil, pal or palal=vassal, servant, subject, also +small child. Let us see how far the monuments of Palenque +justify and support this translation of its name. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to Mr. Maudslay's Biologia, and to Mr. +Holmes' Archæological Studies, Pt. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +and other well-known works +on the ruins of Palenque, I shall confine myself to a cursory examination +of the four principal isolated pyramid-temples, known, +respectively, as the temples of the Inscriptions, of the Sun, of +the Cross and of the Cross No. 2. Although the orientation of +these edifices is not accurate they may be roughly said to face the +cardinal points as follows:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The temple <span class="tei tei-q">“of the Inscriptions”</span> faces the north, that <span class="tei tei-q">“of +the Sun”</span> the east, whilst the temple <span class="tei tei-q">“of the Cross”</span> faces the +south and that <span class="tei tei-q">“of Cross 2,”</span> the west. Dr. Brinton has already +shown that the well-known symbol on the famous <span class="tei tei-q">“Tablet of the +Cross”</span> is not a cross, but the conventional symbol for <span class="tei tei-q">“tree”</span> of +the type I have illustrated in the preceding +fig. <a href="#Figure_53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>. As Cross +No. 2 unquestionably belongs to the same category, it results that +these two temples would be more correctly designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“of the +Tree”</span> and that they furnish us with an interesting parallel of the +Peruvian quisuar can-cha, or <span class="tei tei-q">“place of the tree,”</span> where the Inca +erected two trees which typified his father and mother and were +<span class="tei tei-q">“as the root and stems of the Incas.”</span> The Palenque <span class="tei tei-q">“trees,”</span> +moreover, closely resemble those on the Mexican Féjérvary chart +(fig. <a href="#Figure_52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>) inasmuch as, in each case, the tree is surmounted +by a bird and is flanked by two human figures. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has already been shown in the preceding pages that in ancient +America the tree was generally employed as a symbol for tribe and +that the Maya word for tree=ché occurs as an affix signifying +tribe or people not only in Qui-ché, Man-ché (the latter a tribe inhabiting +the region of Menché and Palenque) etc., but also in the +names of tribes inhabiting the southern regions of North America. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Assuming, therefore, upon convincing and substantial evidence +which will be further corroborated, that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tablet of the Cross”</span> +represents a tree, the symbol of tribal life, the next step is to interpret +the bird perched upon it and generally acknowledged to be +a quetzal (pronounced kay-tzal) as the totem of the tribe, which +also probably expresses its name. The tree is represented as +associated with serpent symbolism and as growing from a vase=ho-och +placed on a monstrous head=ho-ol, the idea conveyed +being that it flourished in the centre or middle, while the head +signifies, as has been shown, the capital and also the chief. On +the vase is carved a symbol to which I draw special attention, as +it recurs on the right hand end of the carved band below the tree, +is met with in Maya calculiform glyphs and is also frequently employed +in ancient Mexico. It represents the corolla of a four-petalled +flower which obviously symbolized the Four-in-One, which +permeated the native civilizations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The word for <span class="tei tei-q">“flower”</span> being nic in Maya and xochitl (pronounced +hoochitl) in Nahuatl, it must be admitted that the symbol +of a vase with a flower seems to afford an instance of a bilingual +rebus, as the Maya hooch is identical in sound to the Nahuatl +xoch-itl. Even without this, however, the meaning of the tree and +serpent, the bird, the vase, the quadripartite flower, and the head, +would have been generally and equally intelligible to native tribes, +being familiar symbols constantly employed in metaphorical speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. Maudslay has pointed out and illustrated in his work +(Biologia, pl. 92, pt. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>) that the side branches of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“cross”</span> simulate bearded serpents' heads, whilst their recurved upper +jaws are covered with what resemble buds of flowers, seeds or +beads. The Palenque <span class="tei tei-q">“cross”</span> is indeed characterized by being +profusely decorated with <span class="tei tei-q">“bead or seed-like ornaments and appendages”</span> +some of which resemble beads or seeds, figured in some +instances, like those on the Copan swastika, the meaning of which +seems supplied by the previously cited Zuñi text. It does not +appear to be a mere matter of chance that the following Maya +words, culled from the dictionaries, are so closely connected: +yax-ché=a sort of ceiba tree, the emblem of celestial life of +the Mayas; yax-chumil and yax-pa-ibe=adjectives primitive, +original; adverb firstly, at the beginning; yaxil, verb=to make +something new, to commence, begin; yaxil-tun=bead or pearl; +yax-mehen-tzil=eldest son. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to this incontrovertible evidence we find that the +sacred tree of life of the Mayas was designated by the word yax, +signifying first, original, new, etc.; that the same root enters into +the composition of the word for eldest son and finally for <span class="tei tei-q">“bead.”</span> +The latter curious agreement is accentuated by the well-known +fact that the Mexicans employed in metaphorical speech the word +cuzcatl=bead made of some precious stone, to designate +<span class="tei tei-q">“father, mother, lord, captain, governor; those who are like a +sheltering tree to the people”</span> (Olmos, cap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span>). +A term of particular +endearment for a son was <span class="tei tei-q">“gold-bead”</span> (teocuitla-cuzcatl). +Olmos moreover records no less than eight metaphorical designations +for a <span class="tei tei-q">“Tree, or first father, origin of generation, lord or +governor,”</span> and appellations for twenty-nine <span class="tei tei-q">“Relatives who issue +from one stem or trunk.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Collectively, the evidence set forth in the preceding pages identifies +the image on the famous <span class="tei tei-q">“Tablet of the Cross,”</span> as a symbolical +representation of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tree of Life of the Eldest Sons,”</span> chiefs +or nobility of a tribe, whose totemic bird was the quetzal.<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> +Before completing the description of this tablet, the analogous +representation of a tree on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Cross 2”</span> should be +examined. This is generally known as the foliated Cross and like +its counterpart it issues from a vase with a quadriform emblem, +and a monstrous head. Its branches are composed of conventionalized +maize plants on which human heads and faces occupy the +places of the corn-cobs whilst their hanging hair simulates the +tassels of the ripe corn. The maize-leaves are decorated with +groups of seed-like beads amongst which distinct representations of +maize seeds are discernible. These form, indeed, the leading motif +of the seed decorations and indicate that the <span class="tei tei-q">“appendages”</span> to the +groups of seed-like beads on the Copan swastika were but conventionalized +maize-seeds. The branches of the maize-tree are surmounted +by a conventionally ornamented head from which hangs +a necklace of beads with a medallion consisting of a face surrounded +by a beaded frame. Above the head the totemic quetzal +bird is repeated under almost precisely the same form but in a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reversed position. It is interesting to note that the Maya name +for maize is ixim, which added to the ché=tree, yields ixim-ché, +a word which actually occurs as the local name of the ancient capital +of Guatemala, named <span class="tei tei-q">“Iximché-tecpan.”</span> To this curious fact +should be also added that <span class="tei tei-q">“ix”</span> is the prefix employed to designate +the feminine gender and that Ix-chel is <span class="tei tei-q">“the name of the Maya +goddess of medicine and of child-birth.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An extremely interesting composite symbol is carved under the +feet of the personage standing next to the <span class="tei tei-q">“maize-tree,”</span> to the +right of the spectator. It consists of the realistically carved large +convolute sea-shell such as constituted the Mexican symbol of +parturition. An almost grotesque human figure is represented as +issuing from it and holding in its hand a maize plant which bends +upwards and curves over the shell. Its leaves are drawn with +maize-seeds on and amongst them, in the same conventional way +that has been noticed on the central tree, and human heads again +simulate the corn-cob. An acquaintance with Mexican and Zuñi +symbolism enables us to grasp the significance of this composite +symbol which figuratively expresses the common birth and growth +of the substance of plant and human life. The personage who +stands over this symbol, facing the tree and the tail of the bird +which surmounts it, holds a curiously decorated emblem in his +hand, of which more anon. A small twig bearing three terminal +leaves issues from his head. Behind him are 4 perpendicular columns +with 17 glyphs in each; whilst a detached series, consisting of 13 +smaller glyphs, is carved in front and above him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the opposite side of the tree, facing the almost unrecognizable +head of the bird, a personage stands on an elaborately carved +monstrous head, covered with a maize-plant. He is wearing a necklace +and medallion like that on the tree itself. His head is surmounted +by a high cap bearing a conventionalized flower-bud. A +belt in the form of a serpent with open jaws, encircles his waist +and he is holding aloft in his hands, a miniature, human, seated +figure with folded arms, a bead necklace and an indescribable +head-dress and masked face. His attitude indicates that, by +offering this figure, he is performing some rite. On the other +hand, a conventionalized sign for water seems to be issuing from +the bird's head and descending upon the figure whilst puffs of +breath and seeds issuing from its beak seem to be directed towards +the tiny effigy of a human being. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reverting now to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tablet of the Cross I,”</span> we find precisely +analogous figures at its sides, only in reversed positions. To the +right of the spectator stands the priest with a tall hat surmounted +by the flower-bud, somewhat resembling a fleur-de-lis. The small +human figure he is offering is recumbent and is being held out so +as to come in contact with the pendant issuing from the bird's +head. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The figure on the opposite side, with the head-dress and twig +with three leaves, is facing the central tree and holding a staff +which, in this case although combined with other emblems, clearly +appears to represent a young maize plant, with its roots below, +and growing shoot with leaves above. As on the other tablets +there are columns of glyphs behind each figure, whilst the personage +holding the maize-plant is associated with a detached group, +in two portions, consisting of 10+4 glyphs, and is standing on +a large glyph associated with a numeral. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having thus cursorily brought out some special points observable +on both <span class="tei tei-q">“Cross Tablets,”</span> let us now glance at the tablet in +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Sun.”</span> On this we again find columns of +glyphs and a personage at each side of a central figure. The +same peculiarities and differences of costume are observable here +as on the preceding tablets; but each personage holds a small, +grotesque human figure with a long nose, and each stands on the +back of a human being, that to the left of the spectator especially +appearing to be a conquered enemy.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two over-burdened-looking seated figures, one of which is clothed +in a spotted ocelot's skin, occupy the centre and support, on their +bowed shoulders, a curious emblem terminating in open serpents' +jaws. The large head (of a jaguar?) is in the centre and above this +issue two puffs of breath with seeds, forming a double recurved figure +so identical in shape and detail to a single branch of the Copan +swastika that one might imagine it was carved by the same hand. +On this tablet, instead of a tree, the centre is occupied by a shield, +exhibiting a face and having tufts of feathers at its four rounded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +corners. This rests on two crossed lances with decorated handles +surmounted by large points. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this connection it is interesting and important to note that, +in ancient Mexico, lands conquered and acquired in warfare were +termed <span class="tei tei-q">“mil chimalli,”</span> literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“field of the shield,”</span> a metaphor +which was also probably known to the Mayas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Glancing next at the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of Inscriptions,”</span> the fourth of the +large detached temples of Palenque, we find that its interior is +characterized by the most extensive mural inscriptions found in +America, consisting entirely of hieroglyphics. Four exterior free +pillars, however, <span class="tei tei-q">“contain on their outer faces, modelled in bold +relief, life-sized figures of women holding children in their arms”</span> +(Holmes). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having brought out the particular point that, in each of the four +temples described, adults are represented in the act of carrying +or offering children or diminutive and strangely grotesque conventionalized +effigies of human beings, I would note that the only analogous +grotesque figures with long noses, I know of, are those on +the sceptres held in the hand by the seated personage on the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Great Turtle”</span> and by the individual carved on Stela E at Quirigua. +It is noteworthy that the left hand of the latter personage +holds a shield displaying a face and recalling that carved on the +tablet of the Palenque <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Sun.”</span> Analogous grotesque +figures also surround the personage carved on Stela F at Copan. +These facts indicate that the Quirigua <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Turtle,”</span> the stelæ +at Quirigua and Copan and the Palenque tablets, were erected by +people sharing the same cult and ritual observance, one feature of +which was the carrying of diminutive human effigies, with exaggerated +and almost grotesque noses. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A clue to the significance of this rite is supplied by the text of +the Codex Telleriano-Remensis (Kingsborough, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, p. 134) +relating to the Mexican 20-day period Iz-calli, the last of the year. +<span class="tei tei-q">“It was the feast of Fire, because at this season the trees became +warmed and began to bud. In it was celebrated the festival Pil-quixtia, +meaning <span class="tei tei-q">‘human life or nature which had always escaped +destruction although the world itself had been destroyed several +times.’</span> ”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Izcalli signifies as much as liveliness, and in this 20-day period +all mothers lifted their children by their heads and holding them +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +aloft called out, Izcalli, Izcalli, as though they said 'aviva'=live, +live.... This was the period of production ... thanks +were rendered to the nature which is the cause of the production.... +Every four years they feasted for 8 days in memory of the +three times that the world was destroyed. They name this <span class="tei tei-q">‘four +times Lord,’</span> because this escaped destruction, although all was +destroyed. They designated the festival as that of <span class="tei tei-q">‘renovation’</span> +and said that when it and the fast came to an end the bodies of +men became like those of children. Therefore, in order to figure +[or symbolize] this festival, adults led certain children by the hand, +in the sacred dance.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Slightly incoherent though this text may be, it furnishes a most +valuable supplement to the descriptions of the same festival by +other authorities. As this is exhaustively treated in my forthcoming +text to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of the Indians ”</span> in which all available +authorities are quoted and collated, I shall confine myself here to +some facts which bear a special relation to the subject of this +paper. In Mexico another name for the festival period Izcalli, +was Xilomaniztli=the birth or sprouting of the young maize. +According to Duran, izcalli signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the creating or bringing up”</span> +and in order to make the growth of children coincide with that of +the young maize, parents, during this period, stretched the limbs +and every part of the bodies of all infants of tender age. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another observance which was held at this time was in anticipation +of the New Year and consisted in the raising and planting +of high poles or wands with branches, in the courtyards of the +temples and in the streets. These typified the new life; <span class="tei tei-q">“the +budding and rejoicing of the trees.”</span> Another New Year custom +was that of carrying budding branches or young shoots of maize +in the hand, on a particular day named Xiuh-Tzitzquilo, literally, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the taking of the year in one's hands.”</span> The explanation of this +metaphor is given by Duran who states that <span class="tei tei-q">“the natives consider +that the year, with its months and days, is like a branch with its +twigs and leaves.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A passing mention must be moreover made of the two movable +festivals celebrated by the Mexicans, in which they scattered +broken egg-shells on the roads and streets as a rite of thanksgiving +for <span class="tei tei-q">“the life bestowed upon the chicken in the shell”</span> by the +divine power. In the image of this festival contained in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Life +of the Indians,”</span> the egg-shells are represented at the foot of a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tree bearing seven blossoms; the seated divinity in front of this +wears a bird-mask and carries a staff with a heart in his hand. +These festivals were named respectively, seven flowers and one +flower. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Briefly summarizing the foregoing data, we find it proven that, +deeply impressed with the wonderful renewal of life in nature, the +ancient Mexicans rendered periodical thanksgiving for this in its +various forms. The budding tree, the young shoots of the maize, +all seedlings, the broken egg-shells from which the young chickens +had emerged, were adopted as emblems of the renewal of life. +The child was likewise looked upon as the renewal of the human +race and every four years a thanksgiving festival <span class="tei tei-q">“of renovation”</span> +was solemnized in which children took a special part. In my +work on the Calendar system I shall show how far this festival <span class="tei tei-q">“of +new birth”</span> coincided with astronomical phenomena. From Landa +we learn that in the Maya months <span class="tei tei-q">“Chen or Yax,”</span> on a day designated +by the priest, a festival was celebrated named Ocna: <span class="tei tei-q">“the +renovation of the temple in honour of the Chacs, the gods of the +maize-fields.”</span> This was held each year ... all idols and +incense-burners were renewed and if necessary the building was +rebuilt or renovated and, <span class="tei tei-q">“in commemoration of this, an inscription +in the native characters was fixed to the walls.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring to other chapters of Landa's work we find that, as in +Mexico, the Yucatec children received a <span class="tei tei-q">“child's name”</span> at birth +which was changed when, having accomplished the third year, they +were <span class="tei tei-q">“reborn”</span> and received a new name, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the combined name +of their father and mother. On attaining puberty they obtained +an individual name which they preserved during life-time. A +knowledge of the social organization of these people enables one +to grasp the full importance and significance of these changes of +name, which were accompanied by ritual observances and betokened +the enrolment of the children into their respective classes +and sub-classes and a consequent reorganization of certain departments +of the State. It appears that in ancient times the ceremonial +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“new birth,”</span> or re-naming of the children, took +place every four years, simultaneously with the thanksgiving feast +for the <span class="tei tei-q">“continuation of the human race.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A careful analysis of native words and metaphors tends to show, +moreover, that the children born within each four-year-period were +collectively regarded as <span class="tei tei-q">“a fresh growth upon the tribal tree.”</span> In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mexico the word for leaf=atlapalli, was employed as a metaphor +for the lower class, whilst in Peru the male and female descendants +of the Incas were represented by gold and silver fruits upon the +trees of their male and female ancestry. The collection of such +scattered scraps of testimony enables us to reconstruct the drift of +native thought and realize that the registration of individuals was +associated with the conception of a tribal tree bearing four branches +and covered with blossoms, fruits and leaves which faded and fell +but were replaced by fresh growths. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We learn from Duran that so careful a record was kept of the +population, by the Mexican priesthood, <span class="tei tei-q">“that not even a newborn +babe could escape detection.”</span> The reason for this strict +vigilance is clear, for the welfare of the community and the harmonious +working of the complex machinery of state depended +upon the constant renewal of vacancies caused by deaths in each +department of industry and government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After this excursion into the realm of native thought let us now +return to the Palenque tablets, placed in detached temples which +approximately face the four cardinal points. On the tablet of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Cross”</span> we have a tribal tree with symbols of the +Middle and of the Four Quarters and of duality. A priest with a +flower on his head presents a diminutive human figure to the totemic +bird perched on the tree. Another, with a leafy branch on +his head-dress, holds a conventional sceptre simulating a young +growing shoot of maize. Behind each figure are rows of glyphs +and in the upper corner to the left of the spectator is the septenary +series headed by the initial-sign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of Cross II”</span> we have a variant of the identical +representation in which the maize plant and the sea shell are +prominent. If I may hazard a suggestion of the meaning of +these two tablets, I should say that they appear to be tribal registers +most probably relating to the increase and decrease of the +male and female population in all divisions and classes, during a +fixed period of time. Both seem to commemorate the <span class="tei tei-q">“renovation”</span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“new growth”</span> of the tribal tree in a mode which would +have been as intelligible to a Mexican, for instance, as to a Maya. +The fact that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Sun”</span> and that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Inscriptions”</span> +obviously held analogous registers, points to the alternative +possibilities (1) that each temple was destined to preserve +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the register of the population and social organization, etc., of one +of the four quarters of the capital and state, according to years; +(2) that the trees in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Cross temples”</span> figured the male and +female lineages of the ruling caste, whilst the tablet in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple +of the Sun”</span> recorded the numbers of conquered people reduced +to slavery and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of Inscriptions”</span> preserved the register +of female children or of vassals; (3) that each of the four temples +preserved a complete register of the entire state and had been +erected consecutively at the conclusion or beginning of eras, the +difference observable in the central motif conveying the salient +feature or event marking each special epoch and recording, according +to years, the organization of the state during its course. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the face of this possibility as well as the probability that each +glyph was painted and implied a year, it is interesting to note +that, including the initial glyph, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tablet of the Cross”</span> exhibits +108 glyphs on the side to the left and 124 on the side to the right +of the spectator=a total of 232; the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tablet of the Cross II”</span> +exhibits 76 to the left and 83 to the right=159; and that in the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Sun,”</span> 70 to the left, 159 to the right and 12 in the +middle=241. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of Inscriptions”</span> exhibits the initial +series (see Maudslay, Biologia, pt. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, pl. 82) and entire walls +covered with glyphs, some of which, as on the tablets enumerated +above, are accompanied by numerals whilst others are not. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a future publication I shall submit illustrations of these monuments +with the ripened results of my investigations concerning +them. For my present purpose it suffices to have produced substantial +proofs that the ancient dwellers in Palenque employed the +same metaphors, the same cursive method of registration and held +the same fundamental principles of organization that have been +shown to underlie the civilizations of Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, +and Mexico and still survive amongst the Zuñis and more northern +tribes. It is obvious that, at Palenque and the neighboring Menché +and Ixkun, an integral civilization, based on these principles, had +existed for an incalculable length of time. Strangely enough it +seems to form so close a link between Maya and Mexican culture +that it almost seems justifiable to surmise that both Maya and +Nahuatl languages were spoken in these ancient ruined cities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Proceeding mentally northwards we will not linger at the ruins +of Mitla, the name of which seems to indicate that it had lain to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the north of a great ancient centre of government, since Mictlan +in Nahuatl and Mitnal in Maya both designate the region of the +underworld and the north. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reaching the ultimate stage of our mental exploration of the +American Continent we now transport ourselves to the Valley of +Mexico and, on the site of the ancient capital of Montezuma and +his coadjutor, face the three great monolithic monuments which +are popularly known as the Calendar Stone, the Stone of Tizoc and +Huitzilopochtli. In 1886, at the Buffalo Meeting of the American +Association for the Advancement of Science, I presented a <span class="tei tei-q">“Preliminary +Note of an Analysis of the Mexican Codices and Graven +Inscriptions,”</span> in which the opinion was advanced that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Calendar +Stone”</span> was identical with the <span class="tei tei-q">“circular elaborately carved tablets +which, according to Padre Duran, were erected in each market-place +in ancient Mexico, and were held in great veneration. They were +frequently consulted and by them the market-days were regulated.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“All writers concur in stating that the market was held on each +fifth day, when all adults were obliged by law to resort to the appointed +market-place. The entire produce and manufacture of the +state were brought there, even from great distances, severe penalties +being incurred by those who bartered the products of agriculture +or manual labor on the highway or elsewhere. On the broad, straight, +cemented roads which led from the four quarters to the heart of the +capital, <span class="tei tei-q">‘resting places’</span> for the wayfarers and carriers were provided +at fixed intervals. The enormous concourse of people, the +variety of produce exhibited in the market-places of Montezuma's +capital filled the conquerors with wonder and admiration. From +Cortés, Bernal Diaz, Sahagun and others we learn that the market +was a special charge of the supreme chief of Mexico; that appointed +officers presided in state over it whilst others moved among +the throng superintending the traffic. Standard measures were kept +and rigorous punishment awaited those who sold by false measure +or bartered stolen property.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After making the preceding statements I advanced the opinion +<span class="tei tei-q">“that the periodical market-day was the most important regulator +of the Mexican social organization and that the monolith generally +known as the Calendar-stone was the Market-stone of the City of +Mexico. It bears the record of fixed market days; and I venture +to suggest that from these the formation of the Mexican Calendar +system originated. The stone shows the existence of communal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +property and of an equal division of general contributions into certain +portions....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I concluded the above communication with the statement: <span class="tei tei-q">“Before +publishing my final results I shall submit them to a searching +and prolonged investigation. An examination of the originals of +many of the Codices reproduced in Lord Kingsborough's <span class="tei tei-q">‘Mexican +Antiquities’</span> will be necessary to determine important points and +during the forthcoming year my line of researches will be in this +direction.”</span> In my youthful enthusiasm and inexperience I little +foresaw, when I wrote the above sentences, that I should spend thirteen +years in diligent research before I felt ready to express my +ripened conclusions concerning the Calendar-stone. Although the +results I am about to submit are final they are necessarily incomplete, +their full presentation with adequate illustrations being included +in my forthcoming special work on the Social and Calendaric +system of ancient America. For the present I have limited myself +to the reproduction of the outline drawing of the monolith made by +the late Dionysio Abadiano of Mexico and published in his somewhat +fanciful work on this subject.<a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> No one, however, had studied +the Calendar-stone more carefully than he; and, besides being +extremely accurate in outline, his drawing has the merit of including +the eight deep circular holes which were drilled at regular +intervals outside of the worked border of the stone as well as the +groups of smaller circular and shallow depressions which Señor +Abadiano discovered on the outer unworked portion of the monolithic +block. Without discussing here the question whether the eight +drill holes were intended to support a species of gnomon, as Leon +y Gama first maintained, or merely served for the guidance of those +who carved this marvel of accurate workmanship and symmetrical +design, I shall merely point out that, although the group of circular +depressions in the block, in the lower corner to the left of the spectator, +offers a certain resemblance to the form of the constellation +of Ursa Major, this may be merely the result of chance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Facing the problem of the meaning and purpose of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Calendar-stone,”</span> +after thirteen years of assiduous study, I find that the +interpretation I suggested in 1886, is substantially strengthened +and corroborated by freshly accumulated evidence. The difference +is that I now lay less stress upon the phonetic elements and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +values of the symbols, although, as I shall set forth in the special +publication alluded to, no study of the monument can be considered +complete unless these be carefully analyzed and understood. +The one great stride in advance that I think I have made is the +recognition that the monolith is an image of the Great Plan or +Scheme of Organization which has been expounded in the preceding +pages and which permeated every branch of native thought. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The monument represents the high-water mark reached in the +evolution of a set of ideas, which were suggested to primitive man +by long-continued observation of the phenomena of Nature and +by the momentous recognition of the +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 21.60em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">northern star,</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Of whose true-fixed, and resting quality,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">There is no fellow in the firmament.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The skies are painted with unnumber'd sparks,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">They are all fire, and every one doth shine;</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">But there's but one in all doth hold his +place.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This inscribed tablet, which constitutes one of the most important +documents in the history of the human race, is as clearly an image +of the nocturnal heaven as it is of a vast terrestrial state which +once existed in the valley of Mexico, and had been established as +a reproduction upon earth of the harmonious order and fixed laws +which apparently governed the heavens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The monument exposes these laws, the dominion of which probably +extended throughout the American Continent, and still faintly +survive in some existing aboriginal communities. It not only sets +forth the organization of state government and the subdivision of +the people into classes bearing a fixed relation to each other, but +also serves as a chart of the territory of the State, its capital and +its four provinces, and minor topographical divisions. Finally, it +reveals that the progress of time, the succession of days, years and +epochs, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the Calendar, was conceived as a reproduction of the +wheel of sinistral revolution described by the circumpolar constellations +around Polaris. The Septentriones served as an indicator, +composed of stars, the motive power of which emanated from +the central luminary. This marked not only the march of time +each night, but also the progress of the season by the four contrapositions +apparent in the course of a year, if observed at a fixed +hour of the night. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The twenty familiar day and year signs of the native calendar are +carved on a band which encircles the central figure on the stone. +I am now in a position to prove satisfactorily that these signs were +not merely calendaric and that they equally designated four principal +and 4×4=16 minor groups of stars; four chiefs and +4×4=16 minor tribal groups or divisions of men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_56" id="Figure_56" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-56.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 56." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 56.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Merely a few indications will suffice to prove how completely +and unmistakably the symmetrical design on the monolith +(fig. <a href="#Figure_56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>) +expounds the great plan which had impressed itself so deeply and +indelibly upon the minds of the native philosophers and influenced +all their thoughts and speculations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The head and face in the middle of the monument conveys the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +idea of duality, being masked, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> doubled-faced and bearing the +number 2 carved on its forehead. It conveyed the conception of +a divine power who ruled heaven and earth from a changeless and +fixed centre in the heaven; expressed the dual government of the +earth by twin-rulers who dwelt in a central capital. It typified +light and the heaven itself with its two eyes; the sun and moon +and darkness and the earth by the mouth; whilst the symbols for +breath issuing from both nostrils and the tongue protruding from +the mouth denoted the power of speech, which was so indissolubly +connected with the idea of chieftainship by the Mexicans that a +title for the chief was <span class="tei tei-q">“the Speaker.”</span> The central head likewise +denoted a <span class="tei tei-q">“complete count”</span>=one man, and was expressive of a +great era of time, embodying twenty epochs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As a synopsis of the whole, the following titles recorded in the +chronicles would be applicable to the central ruler, celestial or terrestrial: +the two lord, the divine twin; the two-lord and two +lady; the quadruple lord, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who looks in four directions;”</span> +the lord of the thirteen powers; the one lord, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> embodying a +complete count=20; the lord of five (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> of the Middle and +Four Quarters); of seven, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> of the Middle, Above, Below, and +Four Quarters; of thirteen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> of the duplication or male and +female or celestial and terrestrial divisions of the Above, Below and +Four Quarters plus the Middle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Surrounding the central head are four square divisions arranged +in two separate parts, each of which includes what appears to be +in one case the right, and in the other the left, conventionalized claw +(forepaw?) of an animal armed with hooked nails, such as Mictlantecuhtli, +the lord of the North, is represented with. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The square compartments contain symbols of the four elements +so disposed that air and water are appropriately associated with +the hand to the right (=male region) and fire and earth with the +hand to the left side (=the female region) of the central head. +But this is not all, for another carefully devised relation between +the elements likewise appears upon careful examination. In the +middle, carved above the central face and between the symbols +for air and fire, is the conventionalized <span class="tei tei-q">“ray of the Sun,”</span> or +pyramid which typifies <span class="tei tei-q">“that which ascends or is above”</span> the upper +elements and the Above. As its opposite we find below, situated +between the symbols of earth and water, a ring with a +concentric circle representing the drop of water=<span class="tei tei-q">“that which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +descends.”</span> As the Moon was inseparably associated with water +and the Below, it is doubtlessly included in the symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One more point which will receive due attention in my monograph +remains to be briefly noticed. As the symbol for air=east +is situated to the right of the symbol for north, and the earth=west +is to its left, it is clear that the central face is conceived as looking +down from above upon the spectator. It is only when the stone +is considered as placed face downward that the symbols assume +their proper positions as regards the cardinal points. This reversal, +which is the natural result of the association of the east and +south with the right hand of the middle personage, suggests that +the monolith may have been originally designed to be let into the +flat or slanting ceiling of a building. As a parallel instance I will +state that, some years ago, Señor Troncoso pointed out to me a +fact he had noticed, namely, that the relative positions of the cardinal +points on the Féjérvary chart were reversed and that it must +have been intended to be looked at from underneath. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Each of the element symbols is accompanied by four numerals +placed in the angles of the squares, with one exception, where one +numeral was obviously dislodged from its proper position by an +encroaching emblematic ornament. The positions of these numerals +and of their square enclosures are what recalled to my mind +the opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major in its annual rotation +around the axis of the heaven. Just as the central face +primarily represented Polaris, so these squares figured the four contrapositions +of the great constellation. The peculiar, almost cross-shaped +figure resulting from the union and association of the symbols +of the Centre, and of the Above, Below, Right, Left=Four +Quarters, is a well-known conventional sign, generally known as a +<span class="tei tei-q">“nahui-ollin.”</span> The accepted translation of this name is <span class="tei tei-q">“four +movements,”</span> from olinia, verb=to move, and no name could +be more appropriate for a symbol which, to my idea, like the +swastika, actually represents the movement of the most conspicuous +of septentrional constellations to four opposite places. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time, as the nahui-ollin on the stone encloses +symbols of the four elements, the union of which was believed by +the native philosophers to be essential for the production and +maintenance of life, I was led to observe also the fact that the +words for life and heart, and the verbs to be alive, to live, to resuscitate, +etc., are all derivatives from the root yuli, or yoli, which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +undoubtedly has a common origin with the verb olinia=to move. +It therefore not only appears that, to the native mind, motion and +life were indissolubly linked together, but that the name nahui-ollin +must have signified four-fold life as well as movement. It +likewise typified the four sides of the great pyramid which formed +the nucleus of the capital and was crowned by two temples, respectively +occupied by symbolical images of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine Twins.”</span> +It is impossible not to realize that, in ancient Mexico, the pyramid +constituted an image of the entire system. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Each of its sides obviously pertained to one of the four regions +and was probably painted with its symbolical color.<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> It seems +safe to assume that the pyramid was originally erected by the coöperation +of people from the four quarters of the capital and +state and was possibly added to at fixed intervals so that it represented +not only the constitution of the commonwealth, but testified +to its age and growth. The widely-prevalent primitive custom +that each individual should add one or more stones to a heap of +stones, as an individual contribution, may have been carried out +in the building of pyramids, the origin of which will be discussed +further on. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although it is almost superfluous to do so, as by this time the +set of associated ideas must be familiar to the reader, I shall +briefly summarize some of the chief four-fold division or organization +of which the nahui-ollin was the graphic symbol. It represented: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. The four elements or substances and kinds of life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. The four regions of the heaven, each composed, in turn, +of four sub-regions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. The four provinces of the state, each containing four districts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. The four quarters of the capital, each of which had four +wards. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Like the nahui-ollin the pyramid was an image or embodiment +of the fundamental all-pervading principle. Both therefore equally +expressed further meanings which I shall proceed to enumerate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. Four stars and also four star-groups or planets which seem +to have been associated with the cardinal points and are indicated +by four discs exhibiting two concentric circles and four glyphs +placed around them. Although at a disadvantage, not being able +to substantiate my statement here, I shall mention that, amongst +the above, the Pleiades and the planets Venus and Jupiter doubtlessly +figure, the latter as two evening and two morning stars. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. The human lords of the four regions who respectively governed +the four divisions of the population, who were classified as +the Fire, Air, Water and Earth people, the identical classification +being applied in turn to each class and so on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad infinitum</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. Rotation or a movement encircling the four quarters imagined +as <span class="tei tei-q">“quadruple motion.”</span> This was not confined to the Septentriones, +for the ancient Mexican astronomers had recognized +what they termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“four movements of the Sun”</span>—namely, +its apparent rising in the east and progress to the north; and setting +in the west and progress to the south. According to Leon y +Gama, the first to describe the stone in 1832, the central <span class="tei tei-q">“nahui +ollin”</span> portrayed the <span class="tei tei-q">“four movements of the sun”</span> and recorded +the solstices and equinoxes. His opinion has since been shared +by other writers, amongst whom I cite Señor Troncoso. According +to Sir Norman Lockyer, moreover, the symbol does correctly +and appropriately figure the annual course of the sun. It must +be admitted that the invention of a figurative symbol which not +only records the annual rotation of the circumpolar star-groups +but also the annual apparent course of the sun is an achievement +which has never been surpassed in primitive astronomy and merits +admiration and recognition. The record of the periodical movements +of the heavenly bodies, constitutes, at the same time naturally +a register of the four seasons. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +8. Simultaneously with the division of the year into four equal +parts, the ollin (and pyramid) typified the division of the 20-day +period into four quarters as well as the four 13 year periods which +constituted the epoch of fifty-two years. As the Calendar periods +will be discussed in my monograph on the subject, I shall only +mention here a fact showing how completely the quadruplicate idea +had influenced native speculation. The Mexicans believed that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +four great eras had passed since the creation of the world and +designated these as the earth, air, fire and water eras. They +believed that, although humanity had always escaped utter annihilation, +the world had been almost completely destroyed by three +of the elements in succession at the end of three of these eras. +At the time of the Conquest, the Mexicans supposed themselves to +be living in a fourth age which was doomed to perish by fire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +9. According to the distinguished Mexican scholar Señor Alfredo +Chavero, the symbols in the nahui-ollin commemorated the +four epochs of the world's history and I readily accept this as one +of the many significations of the quadruplicate figure. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leaving the nahui-ollin for the present, let us next consider the +band, with compartments, which encloses it and exhibits the twenty +symbols hitherto only known as calendaric signs,—four of which +were year- as well as day-signs, whilst sixteen were day-signs only. +Their relative positions show that they were intended to be read +from right to left. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A profusion of evidence, however, exists showing that individuals +bore the day-names as personal appellations, not only in Mexico +but also in Central America. Amongst the Quichés for instance, +members of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Royal house of Cavek”</span> are designated in the +Popol Vuh, as three deer, nine dog, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It thus follows that the twenty signs were not merely names of +years and days, but also designated the tribes and clans. The +element-symbols which marked every fifth day and the years and +constitute the major signs, likewise were the names of the four +great divisions of the people, and of their respective chieftains. +On the other hand the 4×4=16 minor signs, applied not only to +days but to the 4×4=16 clans. At the same time the element +names conveyed in a general way the occupation of each of the +four divisions of people as well as their places of abode in reference +to the capital. Accordingly, the earth people would specially +attend to agriculture, mining, the manufacture of pottery, +etc.; water people to irrigation, the furnishing of drinks, fishing, +etc.; the fire people to all occupations which had to do with fire: +the procuring of combustibles for fire and lighting, cooking, the +working in metals, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As on the stone, the sign calli=house is in juxtaposition to +the symbol for air, it may be inferred that the air people were the +builders, the masons, the artificers, the Nahuatl name for which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was <span class="tei tei-q">“toltecatl.”</span> As the air symbol occupies the place of highest +honor in reference to the central face, namely, above the right hand, +it is evident that the builders, or <span class="tei tei-q">“toltecas,”</span> were the caste which +enjoyed the highest consideration. Their totem was the bird, the +inhabitant of the air. The second rank in honor was held by the +fire people placed to the left, above. Their totem was the ocelot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without going further into details for the present, I merely point +out that the identical division of the members of each community +and association with the elements, etc., was carried out throughout +the state. This method clearly established the relation and +also determined the geographical position of each class of people +in reference to the whole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The carved band on the Calendar-stone, with its twenty signs, +determined once and for all time the exact position to be taken up +in all public assemblages, in councils, sacred dances, and likewise +controlled the exposition of the products of the land in the great +market-place. What is more: each division of the people, by reason +of its indissoluble union to one element and one region, also +had its own season during which it led in ceremonial observances. +So skilfully was the lunar ceremonial or religious year devised that +each sign, without any distinction, ruled a period of thirteen days. +At the same time the period fell into four divisions headed by the +four principal or element signs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the solar or civil year, each sign had its day, but as the computation +of years passed by, each sign in due rotation ruled during +one year. It was only when each sign had had an equal rule that +the cycle completed itself, and, in turn, became a part of a greater +cycle of time. To realize the marvellous ingenuity with which the +rotation of days and consequently the working of the entire machinery +of state was carried on, it is necessary to have before one's +eyes, a series of reconstructive tables, such as I have prepared for +my paper on the subject. For the present, however, I trust that +some idea of the harmonious organization of the state may have +been conveyed to the reader. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One important feature remains for consideration. As already +mentioned, one of the four annual midnight positions of the Bear +star-groups, and presumably a <span class="tei tei-q">“royal star,”</span> pertained to each cardinal-point +and consequently to each of the four divisions of people. +To this statement, which can be supported by substantial +evidence, I must add that each of the sixteen minor signs likewise +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +designated constellations, of which there were thus four in each +region of the heaven. The twenty familiar day-signs thus actually +constituted also the native zodiac. As the region to which each +constellation pertains is clearly designated by the cardinal-point +signs, their identification is merely a matter of time. Since ten of +the signs represent animals, and these were the clan totems, it is +easy to realize how animal forms, composed of stars, came to be +traced in the heavens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Deferring further discussion of the native zodiac I will but point +out what an intimate relation was thus established and maintained +between star-groups and human beings; and how the periodical +rotation and stations of the celestial bodies actually guided or, at +all events, coincided with the periods of human activity in various +branches. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am not, as yet, prepared to formulate a final opinion on the +meaning of the narrow band that surrounds the zodiacal belt, which +is at the same time the list of years and days and of tribes and +clans, but shall merely note that it exhibits four large and four +lesser rays which designate the quarters and half-quarters of the +whole. A few words concerning the symbolism of these rays +should find place here. In Nahuatl the ray was named <span class="tei tei-q">“tona-mitl,”</span> +literally <span class="tei tei-q">“the shining arrow,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“shaft of light.”</span> Ixtlilxochitl +tells us that it was an ancient custom of his people on taking +possession of new territory <span class="tei tei-q">“to shoot with utmost force four arrows, +in the directions of the four regions of the world.”</span><a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> This interesting +passage shows us that the rays, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> arrows of light, carved +on the stone, conveyed the idea of possession of the four regions +and four sub-regions by the central power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to an examination of the concentric band to which the +rays are attached: It exhibits also 4×10 groups of five dots, two +of which groups are almost concealed by star-symbols on the recurved +open jaws of the serpents' heads which meet at the bottom +of the stone. Above this band and placed exactly between +the larger and lesser rays are single compartments with five-dot +groups. It has been interesting to detect the reason why two five-dot +groups were carved, as I have already pointed out, immediately +under the central head. They evidently supply the missing groups +whose places are filled up by the recurved upper jaws of the serpents, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +heads at the bottom of the monolith. From the care taken +to preserve a visible record of these two groups, it is obvious that +a special importance was attached to the recording of eight five-dot +groups besides the forty in the band, making a total of 4×12=48 +groups, or 10+2=12 to each quarter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the Mexican name for market was macuil-tianquiztli, literally +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Five (day) market”</span> and the Maya word for capital +was homonymous with five=ho, it is evident that these five dot +groups would have conveyed the idea of <span class="tei tei-q">“market,”</span> market-day +and possibly market-town, to a Mexican. To a Maya-speaking +people they would have appeared to express practically the same +thought, since all capitals, large or small, were market-places and +absorbed and redistributed the product of quadruple provinces +within the radius of its jurisdiction. The inference that the five-dot +groups may have served as a topographical register of the +larger and minor capitals existing in each quarter of the state, is +substantiated by more evidence than can be produced here. I have +moreover found indications that this belt may have served as a sort +of moon-calendar which was also an attempt at an adjustment of +lunar to solar periods.<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> Before, however, an estimate can be made +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the full meaning of this belt formed by the two great serpents +which encircle the entire monument, more time and labor will have +to be expended. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One point about the twin serpents is clear; they are represented +as springing from a square enclosing the symbol Acatl accompanied +by 13 which has been generally interpreted as a calendar +date. It seems to me to be more deeply significant than a mere +date, especially as it appears to designate the point of departure +for the progressive movement of the two serpents whose open jaws +enclose human heads in profile which together form one face. The +upper jaws end in two recurved appendages, each exhibiting seven +star symbols. As these obviously typify night or darkness and the +open jaws seem to threaten to absorb or engulf the ray of the sun +pointing downwards, it appears as though these typified a disappearance +of light into the underworld of darkness and destruction. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The symbolical surroundings of the downward ray are in striking +contrast to its opposite, the upward ray, which reaches to the 13 +Acatl sign and points to what appears to be the place of origin or +birth of the twin serpents. It certainly seems that this all-embracing +and enfolding twin pair are designed to typify the dual forces +of nature under a form which would also express quadruplication. +By what must be termed a stroke of genius the designer of the monolith +chose to represent the forms of two serpents, relying upon the +fact that Nahuatl-speaking people would see in each serpent (=coatl) +a twin (=coatl). Did he not also realize that to a Maya +each serpent (=can) would mean 4 (=can) and that the pair +would appear to embody or express the numerals 4 and also 8? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is noteworthy that each serpent is represented with one claw +and that these two added to those contained in the central nahui-ollin +complete the four-limbed figure which was essentially the image +of a complete count=the state, the nation, the era, etc. In +this monument, as elsewhere, it is possible to follow the development +of the symbolism expressed by two heads which form but one, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +twin-bodies which mean four and of four limbs which represent the +digital count=20. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under different aspects the same theme repeats itself again and +again upon the stone, which proves that the master minds who +planned and wrought it destined it to be the image of a plan based +on the idea of a central and yet all-embracing, dual, yet quadruple +force or power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preceding rapid sketch I have given of the wide-reaching +significance of this remarkable monument will, I hope, be found to +amply support and corroborate the view I advanced in 1886, when +I pointed out that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Calendar-stone”</span> answered to the description +given by Duran, of the <span class="tei tei-q">“circular elaborately carved tablets +which were kept in each market-place and were held in great veneration.”</span> +I trust that it is now clear why it should have been frequently +consulted and why the market-days were regulated according +to the carved indications upon the surface. Engraved upon it +were the Great Plan and its laws of organization and rotation. It +clearly determined, once and for all, the sequence of the days; the +relation of all classes of the population to each other and to the +whole, and set forth not only the place each group should occupy in +the market-place, but also the product or industry with which it +was associated and the periods when its contributions to the commonwealth +should be forthcoming in regular rotation. The stone +was therefore not only the tablet but the wheel of the law of the +State and it can be conjectured that its full interpretation was more +or less beyond the capacity of all but an initiated minority, consisting +of the elders, chiefs and priests. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Postponing for the present further discussion of this, the most +precious and remarkable monument which has ever been unearthed +on the American Continent, let us briefly bestow attention upon +the two other monoliths which may be said to be its companions +and obviously belong to the same period and civilization. In 1886, +in the preliminary note cited above, I advanced the view that the +first of these, generally known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sacrificial stone,”</span> was a +<span class="tei tei-q">“law-stone of a similar nature [to the Calendar-stone] which recorded, +however, the periodical collection of certain tributes paid by +subjugated tribes and others whose obligation it was to contribute +to the commonwealth of Mexico.”</span> I pointed out that the <span class="tei tei-q">“frieze +around the stone consists of groups, placed at intervals, of the +flint-knives (tecpatl) with conventionally carved teeth (tlantli) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +giving in combination the word <span class="tei tei-q">‘tecpatlantli.’</span> This occurs in +Sahagun's Historia, as the name given to the <span class="tei tei-q">‘lands of the tecpan +or palace,’</span> and in one of the native works I find designated the +four channels into which the produce of these lands was diverted.”</span> +I likewise noted that <span class="tei tei-q">“the periods indicated on it differ from those +on the Calendar-stone,”</span> which might more appropriately be designated +as the ancient Mexican wheel of the law or of the Great +Universal Plan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thirteen years of painstaking research have only served to +strengthen me in my interpretation of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sacrificial-stone.”</span> +The frieze around it exhibits sixteen groups, each consisting of the +repeated representation of a warrior characterized by having one +foot only. In each case he is figured as seizing by the hair a different +individual, who bows his head and offers the weapon he +holds in his right hand to his victor. Amongst the sixteen subjugated +personages are two women and above each are hieroglyphs +expressing the names of well-known localities, some of which are +mentioned in native chronicles as having been conquered in historical +times by Mexican rulers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In my account of the Plan of the Ancient City of Mexico, I +shall illustrate these hieroglyphs, locate the places to which they refer +and further discuss this monument. Meanwhile I shall but state +that it undoubtedly belongs to the same category of monuments as +the tablets in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Sun”</span> at Palenque; the bas-relief +at Ixkun and that in the house of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tennis-court”</span> at Chichen-Itza +where warriors in a procession render homage to a seated personage, +by presenting their spear-throwers to him in precisely the +same manner as shown on the Mexican Tribute-Stone. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The upper surface of this exhibits the same division into eight +parts, marked by four large and four smaller rays, pointing to the +quarters and half-quarters. Observation shows that of the sixteen +localities four were assigned to each quarter and it is evident +that the monument determined the time and the order in which the +tribute for each was paid and collected at the capital. The one-footed +man again graphically symbolizes axial rotation and conveys +the idea of a central ruler who in turn seizes and exerts +control upon 4×4 tribal chiefs. The monument establishes, +moreover, the interesting fact that amongst the subjugated communities +were two gynocracies, represented by women who, instead +of spear-throwers, present their weaving shuttle to the victor. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We shall next consider a monument whose uncouth and ugly +form embodies a deep and nobly planned conception of the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine +twin,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“divine Four,”</span> that so completely dominated the +minds of the native philosophers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now carefully examine the monolith now preserved in the +National Museum of Mexico (fig. <a href="#Figure_57" class="tei tei-ref">57</a>). Leon y Gama, having +observed that what appeared +to be the foundation +of the statue was +carved and that massive +projections existed under +its so-called arms, +logically concluded that +the original design had +been to support the figure +from the sides, so +that its base was lifted +from the ground and +the figure upon it exposed +to view from underneath. +His inference +is borne out by the carving +on the base which +belongs to the same category +as the image of +Mictlan-tecuhtli, and +represents a semi-human +body, of quadriform +shape soaring +downward. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_57" id="Figure_57" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-57.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 57." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 57.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The centre (fig. <a href="#Figure_51" class="tei tei-ref">51</a>) +exhibits on a square the +five-dot figure, and the +square, in turn, is enclosed +in a circle; the whole symbolism relating to the now well-worn +theme of the centre and four quarters and the union of the +earth=the square and the heaven=the circle. It clearly exhibits +a skull attached to each limb, typifying the four quarters +or the clans and their chiefs, whilst the hands hold the larger +heads, emblematic of supreme dual rulership. It is interesting to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +find that the above carving, under the feet of the sculptured figure, +embodies the entire meaning of the statue, which is but a variation +of the native philosophical theme of <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine Twain”</span> or Quetzalcoatl. +Two serpents' heads surmount a semi-human body and +meeting form the semblance of two single faces turned to the front +and back of the statue. By this ingenious device the unity, yet +duality of the divine twin is graphically rendered and one-half of +each countenance is represented as belonging to each serpent. +These are thus shown to be indissolubly linked together, yet distinct. +Their single, yet dual head has four eyes, eight fangs and +two forked tongues. The figure and skirt composed of intertwined +rattlesnakes, constitute feminine attributes given to the symbolical +figure of the <span class="tei tei-q">“twin-lord and twin-lady,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“father and mother +of all.”</span> Instead of hands the arms terminate in serpents' heads +and the huge feet in great claws. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Between these, in the front and at the back, a rattlesnake's body +and head appear. The belt consists of a large snake whose head +and tail hang down in front, as the ends of a bow. A skull is +attached to the front and another to the back of the belt. In the +latter case it surmounts a fan-shaped, curiously plaited ornamental +appendage partly decorated with feathers. Forming a sort of +necklace in front are four hands, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> 4×5=20 and two +conventionalized hearts. At the back there are two hands and two +hearts and an intricate knot which fastens the necklace, the real +meaning of which is far from what it may appear to be. It +probably signified the same as the painted hearts and hands on +ceremonial garments of which Sahagun tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“they meant +that the people who wore them lifted their hearts and hands to the +Creator to implore for rain and food.”</span> At the same time, the arrangement +in front clearly reveals the sculptor's allusion to the +head, two hearts, four hands and twenty fingers, which symbolize +these familiar numerical divisions. An indication that this symbolical +statue was probably designed and executed by the same +master who made the circular stone of the Great Plan, is furnished +by the calendar sign 13 Acatl, which is carved under the +skull at the back of the figure. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Deferring an investigation of the significance of this date, I +shall now draw attention to what is to me the most interesting and +important feature of the whole image. The view of the top of +the two heads, as may be seen by the accompanying reproduction +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from a photograph (fig. <a href="#Figure_58" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>) exhibits, at their line of +union, a small square with diagonal cross-lines. The position of this symbol +which resembles the top view of a pyramid and forms, as it +were, the apex of the statue, every detail of which is deeply symbolical, +clearly reveals the sanctity and importance attached to this +graphic image of the Centre, the union of four in one or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice +versa</span></span>, the theme on which the native mind played numberless and +endless variations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A reflection, again forced upon one in studying the monumental +composite image of the dual and quadruple forces of nature, is +that it must have been as intelligible to a Maya as to a Mexican, +and conveyed the conception of Kukulcan to the one and Quetzalcoatl +to the other. Several facts point, however, to the greater +probability that the original conception of the monument must +have arisen amongst Maya-speaking people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_58" id="Figure_58" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-58.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 58." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 58.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The divided square, simulating a pyramid and so obviously a +symbol of four=can, carved on the head of a serpent=can, +throws an interesting light upon the probable derivation of the +affix=can, which occurs in certain names of localities in Mexico, +and in some cases distinctly stands for <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain.”</span> It is a fact +which has already been cited in Señor Antonio Penafiel's useful +work on the Geographical names of Mexico that, in the pictographic +hieroglyphs of localities the affix can signifies a town, being +synonymous with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tepec</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> tepetl, +the Nahuatl name for +mountain or town. One of many similar instances, which could +be produced, is illustrated in his fig. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxiii</span></span>, +1, where <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> obviously +stands for the mountain which is represented as twisted or bent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +over (colhua), in the hieroglyph for Colhuacan. The hieroglyphs +for the towns Acayocan and Tenayocan, furnish a similar employment +of the mountain to express the sound can. The sense of +the affix <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, +meaning a town, only becomes clear when we interpret +it as the name of the artificial mountain with four sides, the +pyramid, which was the symbol of four=the Maya <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, and +was the emblem of a central capital. This is convincingly proven by +the Codex Mendoza for instance, in which it is shown that the +Mexican mode of recording the conquest of a tribe was to paint +their hieroglyphic name and a picture of the destruction of the +pyramid temple which had stood in the centre of their capital. In +other words, the conquered town ceased to be a centre of rule—its +captive chieftain was taken to the capital, where the horrible +rite of sacrifice performed upon him and the tearing out of his +heart likewise symbolized the destruction of the independent life +of the tribe or integral whole he represented in his person. It +was thus brought home to the conquered people that they had +ceased to exist as an independent body, and the distribution of the +chieftain's flesh to the ritualistic cannibals graphically symbolized +its absorption into the great central state. It is necessary to emphasize +here that these horrible rites were of comparatively recent +origin and had been invented by the Mexicans for the purpose of +intimidating their vassals, after a prolonged period of wars and +bloodshed, which menaced the very existence of the integral state. +The presence in Mexico of numerous names of towns, ending in +can, seems to indicate the influence, in ancient times, of the Maya-speaking +civilization to which the origin of the pyramid must be +assigned. The association of the latter with the word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> is strikingly +illustrated in the name of Teotihua-Can, where stand the +ruins of two of the largest and most imposing pyramids of ancient +America. The base of the larger of the two has been estimated +at about 700 feet square, it being impossible to take an exact measurement +owing to the mass of accumulated débris which covers +the lower part of the structure. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The base of the second pyramid measures about 475 feet square. +The sides of both pyramids rose at an angle of about 45 degrees +and were in each case interrupted by four terraces. This double +application of a quadruple division merits special attention, as it +produced besides the four great 4×4 lesser sections, the sacred +centre of the terraces, which crowned each structure. Historical +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tradition relates that the larger pyramid, known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Enclosure +of the Sun (=Tonatiuh-I-Tzacual),”</span> originally bore on +its summit a colossal image of the sun, covered with plates of +gold, whilst the other, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Enclosure of the Moon”</span> exhibited a +similar image, covered with silver. The distinguished and reliable +historian Orozco y Berra quotes this tradition adding that the +soldiers of Cortés despoiled the images of their precious metals +and that the Bishop Zumarraga ordered a further destruction of +all monuments at Teotihuacan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tradition which records the existence of a silver and of a +gold image, cannot be dismissed as unfounded, because it meets +with a certain amount of corroboration by other data. In the first +case the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“battered goddess,”</span> a mutilated stone image, +which was found in the courtyard at the base of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Pyramid of +the Moon,”</span> looks as though it may have been the very monument +which was once plated with silver. Traces of concentric bands +of ornamentation seem to indicate that its round face had originally +occupied the centre of a sculptured disc, in which case this +must have had a diameter of about twelve feet. In Peru, as already +stated, a silver image of the moon, associated with the female +sovereign, was the complement to the golden effigy of the sun, +associated with the Inca. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Even if data had not already been produced which establishes +the existence of two religious cults in ancient Mexico, the respective +symbols of which were the sun and the moon, the presence of +two pyramids at Teotihuacan would suggest the existence of a +division of some sort. The origin of these great and imposing +structures is shrouded in mystery, but it is generally conceded that +they must have been built long before the comparatively modern +inhabitants of the valley of Mexico, the wandering Aztecs, had +taken up their abode in the midst of the salt lagoons. The erection +of two pyramids, however, proves that their builders had +already practised the cult of the middle of heaven and earth, or +Above and Below, and of the Four Quarters for so long a time, that +there had been a separation of religions and government into two +almost independent parts, each complete in itself. In the light of +the testimony produced it is safe to infer that for an indefinite +time the rival cults developed side by side until dissension and consequent +disintegration followed. The Mexican state was the outcome +of a later effort to reorganize and rebuild an integral whole +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on the ancient plan, the knowledge of which had been preserved +and handed down. As time went on it was inevitable that the +same causes which had caused the more ancient and greater state +to crumble away, should be actively at work on the second. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has already been shown that two religions existed in Montezuma's +time the respective embodiments of which were Huitzilopochtli +and Tezcatlipoca. It is an interesting fact, related by Bernal +Diaz, that the idols of both stood together in one tower at the +summit of the great temple and were alike, <span class="tei tei-q">“because they were +brothers.”</span> At the same time whilst Tezcatlipoca's image was decorated +with obsidian (=tezcatl) Huitzilopochtli's was encrusted +with turquoises. It is curious to note how closely the old soldier's +description of these idols answers to that of the great dualistic +statue which has been discussed in the preceding pages. His account +contains the following details: <span class="tei tei-q">“In this hall were what resembled +two altars with very richly [ornamented or carved] platforms +on the top of the roof or ceiling. On each altar was a statue, +as of a giant, very tall in body and very stout. The first, which +represented Huitzilopochtli, had a very wide, deformed or monstrous +face and forehead, and terrifying eyes ... around his neck +were faces of Indians and what were hearts. These were of gold +whilst the former were of silver inlaid with blue mosaic-work. The +entire body was covered with mosaic-work, gold and beads and +misshapen pearls, all fastened to it with a kind of cement or glue. +Encircling the body were what were like huge serpents made of +gold and mosaic.... The idol was of Tezcatlipoca, and its eyes +were made of shining black stone [obsidian] called Tezcat. The +statues were alike because they were said to be brothers. Tezcatlipoca +was the lord of the Underworld ... and around his body +were figures like small devils with tails like serpents.”</span><a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> But for the +fact that Bernal Diaz mentions a plurality of faces in Huitzilopochtli's +necklace, whereas our monument exhibits but one skull, +in front, his description strikingly coincides with the monolith now +existing. Considering that thirty years had elapsed before he wrote +this description allowance must be made for this and other slight +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lapses. On the other hand, dual statues, exactly alike, but with +differently colored ornamentation, are precisely what we should +expect to find on the summit of the great pyramid-temple of +Mexico. With our present knowledge and comprehension of native +symbolism, moreover, we see that two statues, each of which figured +twin-serpents, would best express the native idea of the dual +and quadruple principles and elements. What is more, two dual +statues, each surmounted by a square, diagonally crossed, like a +pyramid, would correspond, in symbolism, to the two great pyramids +of Teotihuacan and carry out, on a small scale, the idea of a +dual government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Valuable and reliable evidence, showing to what an extent the +Mexicans regarded their government as dual and quadruple, can be +gleaned from the records of the presents sent by Montezuma to +Cortés, under the impression that the bearded Spaniards were the +descendants of the ancient founders of their civilization. The native +ruler sent the complete ceremonial dress of the four lords of +the four regions denoting by that act of homage that he acknowledged +Cortés as his equal, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the supreme central lord who united +the four-fold power in his person. <span class="tei tei-q">“He likewise sent him a large +wheel of pure gold, covered with designs and with the image of a +monster in its centre.”</span> Its weight was estimated at 3,800 <span class="tei tei-q">“pesas”</span> +and it was considered <span class="tei tei-q">“the finest and best of all the presents.”</span> +It was accompanied by <span class="tei tei-q">“a large wheel of silver,”</span> weighing forty-eight +marcos. By the light of our present knowledge it may be that +both <span class="tei tei-q">“wheels”</span> were images of the Great Plan and that whilst the +gold one set forth the constitution and organization of the Upper +division of the State and possibly conveyed the statistics of its +members, the silver wheel was a record of the Lower division. The +gift of these tablets must have been intended as an act of subservience +and an acknowledgment of Cortés as the lord of the +Above and Below, as well as of the Four Quarters. The utter lack +of understanding for the symbolism of these gifts on the part of the +recipient, can scarcely have escaped the notice of Montezuma's +messengers and must have sorely puzzled their unfortunate master. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The existence in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, of a dual +state, suggests the possibility that, in some way, the pyramids of +Teotihuacan continued to be connected with the opposite and rival +cults of the Sun and the Nocturnal Heaven, although their origin +was shrouded in the past. It is known that their site was venerated: +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +besides, the name Teotihuacan, which Orozco y Berra translated +as <span class="tei tei-q">“the place of the masters as keepers of the gods”</span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“the place where the gods were adored,”</span> most probably really +meant <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine four-sided mountains or pyramids”</span> or, possibly, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the sacred pyramids of the lords.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Until an extensive, carefully-planned and systematical exploration +has been carried out at Teotihuacan, it is impossible to form +any definite conclusions concerning its past history. Cherishing +the hope that such an exploration may yet be made during +my lifetime, I shall merely make a few remarks concerning the +ruins, which I visited many years ago. Approaching them from +the south one enters a broad straight road, several miles in length +and about 250 feet wide, which is bordered at each side by a series +of irregular mounds, probably covering ruined structures. This +imposing road leads directly into the vast courtyard which stretches +across the base of the great pyramid of the Moon. As the City +of Mexico lies to the south of Teotihuacan it is significant to find +that this road leads from that direction to a vast pyramid situated +at the north, which was, according to the ancient Mexicans, +the region of the Underworld, darkness and death. It is not surprising, +therefore, to find that the ancient native name which still +clings to the roadway is <span class="tei tei-q">“the path of the dead.”</span> The presence, +moreover, of innumerable small clay heads which are, undoubtedly, +portraits or effigies of persons represented as dead, points to the +alternative that Teotihuacan may have been the necropolis of an +ancient civilization or that it was, even at the time of the Conquest, +the place where a register of deaths was kept by the priest-rulers, +by means of small clay effigies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering the native idea, it seems more than probable that +all matters pertaining to the dead should be relegated to the northern +region and the fact that the road from the south leads to a pyramid +which tradition associates with the moon, the symbol of the +nocturnal cult of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Below,”</span> lends color to these views. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is a temptation to imagine that possibly after the adoption +of two distinct cults of which the second pyramid seems to +furnish incontrovertible proof, a further divergence ensued resulting +in the ultimate abandonment of the capital by the votaries of +the Sun, the male principle and the Above. As the native civilizations +were based on such a plan that dissension and disorganization +inevitably led to utter downfall and ruin, it is easy to see +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that a gynocracy and the cult of the earth and underworld should +gradually become extinct. At the zenith of its power, however, +it may safely be inferred, that Teotihuacan was a great centre +where astronomical observation and agriculture flourished, these +being the natural outcome of the cult of mother-earth and the +nocturnal heaven. Whilst all conjecture must necessarily be hypothetical, +it is a comfort to reflect that, locked in the ruins themselves, +lies guarded the past history of Teotihuacan, which was +shrouded in a mist of uncertainty even at the time of the Conquest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The pyramids themselves, however, openly reveal the fact, that +their builders possessed a knowledge of the great plan, and that, +at some time, a single central pyramid not being sufficient, two, +of unequal sizes, arose to bear lasting testimony not only of past +greatness, but of long-forgotten rivalry and dissension. Finally, +there is one thing certain, namely, that the building of the pyramids +at Teotihuacan must have been preceded by an extremely +long period during which the native ideas, of which they were the +expression and image, had developed and taken definite shape. If +Teotihuacan yields evidence of an advanced stage in the history +of the intellectual development of the native race, it also marks +the beginning of the disintegration of the state of which it was +the central capital. On the other hand, at Cholula, also situated +in the high plateau of Mexico, to the east of its present capital +stands, in ruined solitary grandeur, the largest pyramid on the +American continent, whose base is twice as large as that of the +pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of the ancient capital of which it formed the nucleus +was Tullan Cholollan Tlachiuhaltepec.<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> +Boturini (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 113) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +cites an old native manuscript on which a picture of the pyramid +of Cholula was painted with the note that, in ancient times, it was +named Tultecatl Chalchihuatl On Azia Ecatepec, which he translates +as <span class="tei tei-q">“the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, which +rears itself in the region of the air.”</span> As eca-tepec literally means +air-mountain, Boturini's translation may seem somewhat exaggerated; +on the other hand, the Spaniards, who knew the Nahuatl +language best, repeatedly state that its words were so replete with +significance that it would sometimes require several Spanish sentences +to set forth the meaning of a single native word. Boturini, +who had exceptional opportunities for obtaining information, adds +to the above the following translation of a Nahuatl inscription +which had been written by the native scribe below the drawing +which unfortunately is now lost. <span class="tei tei-q">“Nobles and Lords: Here you +have your documents, the mirror of your past, the history of +your ancestors who, out of fear for a deluge, constructed this place +of refuge or asylum for the possibility of the recurrence of such a +calamity.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After citing the opinions of various authors concerning the origin +of the pyramid, Orozco y Berra concludes that <span class="tei tei-q">“there is no +certainty about its age, but instinctively it is supposed to be extremely +ancient and to pertain to pre-historic times. According to +my judgment the people who constructed it belonged to the same +civilization as the builders of Teotihuacan and possibly were their +contemporaries. Cholollan was also a venerated sanctuary, in +which the religious idea predominated”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 363). <span class="tei tei-q">“At +the time of the Conquest a temple stood on the summit of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pyramid and contained an image of Quetzalcoatl (the Divine Twain, +the Creator, the Father and Mother of all) as well as an aerolite, +shaped like a frog which had fallen from heaven, wrapped in a +ball of flame.”</span> In the Vatican MS. of Padre Rios there is another +version of the tradition that the pyramid had been erected by giants +after a deluge, which had destroyed everything, ... and that +before it was finished, fire fell upon it causing the death of its +builders and the abandonment of the work. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Allusion has already been made, in the preceding pages, to the +native traditions according to which, <span class="tei tei-q">“there had been three memorable +epochs in the history of mankind, which lasted for centuries +and were abruptly terminated, each time by a mighty convulsion +of nature. The majority of human beings perished in +each of these, but a remnant survived and thus the race was preserved.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The periodical festival of thanksgiving, which was still observed +at the time of the Conquest by the native races, abundantly testifies +to the reality of their belief in these great catastrophes and the +preservation of their ancestors from utter extermination. It was +doubtless in order to make their past history conform with the +quadruple organization of all epochs of their native Calendar that +the native sages assigned their successive destructions to the separate +agencies of fire, water and air, in the form of violent tempests +and cyclones. From descriptions contained in the Mexican +Codex Chimalpopoca and in the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the +Quichés, it will be seen that the phenomena described are such as +would naturally accompany a volcanic outbreak on a great scale. +Considering that, in Mexico alone, there are no less than nine +monster volcanoes, of which two are not yet extinct, and that in +Guatemala, in historical times, whole cities have been destroyed by +earthquakes and volcanic action, it is not at all astonishing to find +traditions of great catastrophes amongst the inhabitants of these +regions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No one can look upon the grand snow-clad peaks of the great +volcanoes, which surround the high central plateau of Mexico, +without realizing that mighty upheavals and disturbances, such as +the world has seldom seen, must have attended the formation of +the huge craters next to which Vesuvius seems but a hillock. A +volcanic outbreak amongst these elevated peaks, which range from +15,000 to 19,000 feet above the sea-level, would obviously be accompanied +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by great inundations caused by the melting of the +masses of snow which crown their heights. The valley of Mexico +in which the large lagoons lie, as in a basin without an outlet, and +the plains which surround Cholula and stretch to the base of the +volcanoes must repeatedly have been the scene of ruin and desolation, +lasting for many centuries. As the Abbé Bourbourg justly +remarks: <span class="tei tei-q">“The majority of the edifices in the City of Mexico are +built of volcanic tufa, said to have been formed by the small volcanoes +which lie at the southeast of the valley of Mexico. At various +periods of antiquity great masses of lava have descended into +this valley, in which one extensive ancient lava-field is now known +as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Pedregal de San Augustin.’</span> ”</span> Another great flow of lava has +actually been traced from its apparent source, the now extinct volcano +of Ajusco, at the south of the valley of Mexico, to Acapulco, +on the Pacific coast. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mexican chronicles describe as follows the destruction of +the earth by fire: <span class="tei tei-q">“... there came a rain of fire: all that existed +was burnt and a rain composed of sand-stone fell. It is said +that whilst the sand-stone we now see was being formed the tet-zontli +[<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> volcanic tufa], boiled with great noise. Then the red +mountains also lifted themselves up ... the sun consumed +itself [was darkened], all houses were destroyed and all the lords +or chiefs perished....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The same author relates how, after the repeated destruction +by water, obscurity reigned for twenty-five years. This cataclysm +is also described in the sacred book of the Quichés as follows: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Then ... the waters became swollen by the mere will of the +Heart of Heaven and there came a great inundation from above +and descended upon the people ... they were deluged and +then a thick resinous substance fell from the sky. The face of the +earth was obscured and a dark rain commenced and fell during +the day and during the night ... there was great sound of +fire overhead. Then the people ran pushing each other and filled +with despair: they endeavoured to mount upon the houses and +these, falling in, threw them again to earth. They wished to climb +the trees, but these swayed and cast the people from them; they +tried to enter caves, but these shut themselves before them....”</span> +It was after this universal ruin and destruction that, according to +native tradition, the pyramid of Cholula was erected, as a place of +refuge for the remnant of the native race which had escaped destruction +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and returned to the scene of desolation, lured by the richness +of the fertile soil, just as the Italian peasants return to their +vineyards on Vesuvius after each eruption. All things considered +there seems to be no ground for rejecting the native tradition +which affirms that the great pyramid of Cholula was erected as a +place of refuge from inundations, especially as no more plausible +explanation of the origin of the pyramid can be imagined. Any +primitive people, inhabiting fertile plains which abounded in game +and fish, and food-plants, but were exposed to frequent inundations, +could not fail to recognize the advantages of an elevated +piece of ground as a place of safety. It is easy to imagine the intermediate +stages in the transition from this simple recognition to +the final determination to build a compact, high and spacious elevation, +within the reach of all inhabitants of a settlement, on which +these could not only find refuge from the dangers of floods and +volcanic disturbances, but also store their harvest, and possibly +some form of raft or boat which they might employ as a last means +of escape. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Irrefutable proof that the maize had been cultivated from remote +antiquity in this region, and had even become identified with it, is +furnished by the fact that the name of the small republic of Tlaxcalla, +which lies in the neighboring foot-hills, signifies bread, and +that its hieroglyphic sign consists of two hands holding a tortilla, +or maize-cake. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that botanists have not yet succeeded in identifying, +amongst the native grasses of America, the ancestor of the +cultivated maize-plant. They assert, however, that the development +of what is now the world's largest cereal, from a wild native +species, must have required incalculable time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must be admitted that no factor could possibly have more +speedily impressed upon primitive men the benefits of concerted +action and of organization and communal life than the occasional +recurrence of a great and imminent peril which was shared by all +alike, and for which there was but one visible means of escape. +It is equally clear that, once a concerted and united undertaking +had been determined upon, some sort of plan and organization +must have naturally evolved itself. The mere building of such a +gigantic structure as the pyramid of Cholula, which may well have +absorbed the energies of several generations of men, or, at all +events that of innumerable workmen, could well have been an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +abiding and most powerful factor in establishing their social organization. +Its erection must indeed have marked an epoch in the +lives of the inhabitants of this region, because, during many years +it created a bond of common interest which, of itself, might well +have laid the foundation of a permanent communal life, in which +responsibility and labor were equally distributed. The mere necessity +to expend an equal amount of material and labor upon the +building of each side of the pyramid, would naturally lead to the +formation of pathways traced by the feet of the carriers of earth +and stone from different directions, and ultimately to a division of +the workers into four bands, each associated with a different cardinal +point. Practice would demand that each band should be under +leadership, and be divided into those who collected and carried +material, and those who placed it in position, at each side of the +pyramid. The necessity for general supervision and directorship, +extending over the four bands of workers alike, would, of itself, +create central rulership upon which would devolve the duty of enforcing +an equal division of labor, which would create, in turn, +some form of systematic routine and rotation. It can thus be understood +how, by slow degrees, each side of the pyramid would become +permanently identified with a cardinal point; and associated +with a division of workmen under its leader and a fixed period of +time. It may likewise be seen how a separate caste would slowly +develop itself, consisting of the trained architects and builders, +the descendants of the first organizers of human labor, and systematical +rulers of men.<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It may thus be seen how the realization of frequent danger, the +necessity to provide an escape and insure the safety of the race, +aided by experience, might lead to the conception of a vast pyramid, +the mere building of which would create and establish the +fundamental principles of organization and government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The simultaneous development of the ideas suggested by Polaris +would inevitably lead to a comparison and association of the terrestrial +centre of communal activity with the polar axis, and to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the conception of an earthly government in which human affairs +were adjusted so as to be in seeming harmony with the movements +of celestial bodies. The blending of the conclusions attained by +the astronomer-priests, and the practical system adopted by the +master builders, could not fail ultimately to cause the pyramid to +appear as the sacred visible sign or image of the single, central +power and quadruple government which extended its rule throughout +heaven and earth. I venture to point out that, if carefully +analyzed, the pyramid seems to be but a later development +of precisely the same ideas which are expressed by the swastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing now to review preceding data we find it demonstrated +that the geographical position of Tullan Cholollan and its pyramid +designates it as an ancient seat of civilization where the native +scheme of organization may have evolved itself, and the source +whence the native traditions concerning successive destructive cataclysms +and convulsions of nature may have spread. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What is more, the peculiar conditions existing at Tullan Cholollan, +situated in the heart of a volcanic region, would amply explain +the traditional destruction and abandonment of the most ancient +centre of native civilization and the spread throughout the continent +of the identical scheme of government, etc., it being most +natural that each band of fugitives, on finding what appeared to +be a favorably situated region, should settle there and carry out +the inherited plan of organization, etc., which would naturally +become slightly modified under altered conditions. Fresh colonies +on the pattern of the ruined metropolis and integral state +would successively be founded far and wide and as examples of +such I venture to designate Tulantzinco, literally the title Tullan, +and possibly Teotihuacan, where the native civilization seems to +have undergone its more advanced stages of evolution, and to +have risen in power, developed divergent cults with separate languages +(the Maya and the Nahuatl) and instituted the two religions +and dual rulership which eventually led to dissension and the +dissolution of the integral state at a period anterior to historical +times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The assumption that the most ancient centre of native civilization +lay in a volcanic region affords a plausible explanation of +how an inordinate value would naturally be placed on stability, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per se</span></span>, and the feelings of veneration for Polaris and a passionate +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +longing for a place of terrestrial and celestial rest would become +strongly developed. Indeed, it is only possible to understand the +reason why various American tribes wandered about in ardent +and earnest search for the stable middle of the earth, when it +is assumed that they must have been driven from their former +place of residence by volcanic disturbances which made a firm +piece of ground under foot seem to be the most desirable of all +earthly benefits. I venture to assert that this search and the ideal +of stability would not have been suggested so forcibly to people +who had never experienced a long succession of more or less +terrible earthquakes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although widely different opinions concerning the identification +of the ancient Tullan are held by American archæologists they +will all doubtlessly admit that at Cholollan we have, in the first +case, a locality to which the natives assign the name of Tollan, +and a pyramid, the largest on the American continent, which testifies +that, in prehistoric times, this place was inhabited for a prolonged +period, by a numerous and organized community. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fertility of the surrounding plains now known as the +Campiña de Puebla and the ancient name of Tlaxcalla yield evidence +that, from time immemorial, this district was associated +with maize cultivation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The vicinity of the giant volcanoes of Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl +and Orizaba<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> sufficiently demonstrate that they must repeatedly +have been the scene of violent disturbances which would fully +account for the tradition of successive cataclysms which destroyed +a vast state and almost annihilated the native race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing unassailable facts undoubtedly justify the conclusion +that the giant pyramid of Cholula marks the site of the +great and ancient Tollan whose destruction was the theme of the +plaintive native songs of lamentation even at the time of the Spanish +Conquest. That the natives have ever regarded Cholula as a place +of particular sanctity is shown by the following statement by +Fray Geronimo Roman y Zamorra (1569-1575) (Republicas de Indias, +ed. Suarez, Madrid, 1888): <span class="tei tei-q">“It was Colola or Cholola, +which was the ancient metropolis or head of all the native religion, +so much so that all the great chiefs or lords had their own +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +chapels and dwelling houses there because they used to perform +pilgrimages to its great temple this being the most revered [in the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">land</span></em>].”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is also reasonable to infer that the region of the high plateau +and valley of Mexico, possibly before the formation of the great +lagoons, was the cradle of ancient American civilization, where, +during countless centuries, the native race literally and figuratively +cultivated its own maize and simultaneously developed the set of +ideas which formed the basis of its intellectual evolution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this connection it is interesting to reflect that, as clearly +shown by ceremonial usages which existed throughout our continent +and survive to the present day amongst the Pueblo Indians, +it is to the fostering care, forethought and labor of countless generations +of women, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Corn Maidens and Mothers,”</span> that America +owes the priceless legacy of a food-plant which has already sustained +untold millions of lives. Thus, whilst the ancient <span class="tei tei-q">“Daughters +of the Earth”</span> have given their country a gift which will +last for all time, the pyramids, temples and cities, reared by the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Sons of Heaven,”</span> have fallen into ruin, and the great edifice of +human thought that they reared, their complex social organization, +government and calendar now lie superseded under the dust of +time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At this point of investigation the question naturally arises, +Whence came the founders of the native civilization, who established +themselves and peopled the central region of Mexico and +doubtlessly dwelt there for a prolonged period prior to the first of +the traditional cataclysms which nearly proved destructive to their +race? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is obvious that, before this interesting question can be satisfactorily +discussed, a minute analysis and investigation should be +made of all other ancient civilizations of the world in which the +swastika was employed as a sacred symbol. A comparative research +on such a scale could only be effectively carried out with the +active coöperation of orientalists, archæologists and philologists in +all departments of research. Taking, as an index, the presence in +old centres of civilization of the most ancient sacred symbol of the +world, the swastika, the aim of the joint investigation should be to +trace how far it was accompanied, in each country, by pole-star +worship and the set of ideas, symbols and words to which it is so +indissolubly linked in ancient America and China. By this means +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +only can a final conclusion be reached as to whether this symbol +spread over the earth from one original centre of civilization, or +whether it suggested itself to primitive observers of Septentriones +in various localities and at different times, as the natural outcome +of star-observation. If the swastika and the septentrional set of +ideas spread from one centre then we should expect to find them +accompanied by traces of a common language. I shall have contributed +my share to the joint investigation when, in addition to +the preceding data, I present the following list of Maya and Mexican +names intimately associated with the native symbols and set +of ideas. In presenting them I once more draw attention to the +resemblance of sound in words which obviously influenced the choice +of certain symbols just as, for instance, loose-skinned oranges are +now given as presents at New Year in China, because their native +name has exactly the same sound as the word meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“good +fortune.”</span> The use, especially on porcelain, of the bat=fuh, to +signify <span class="tei tei-q">“happiness,”</span> also fuh, and of the sonorous stone <span class="tei tei-q">“King”</span> +to emblematize <span class="tei tei-q">“prosperity,”</span><a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> are other instances which shed much +light upon the origin of primitive symbolism in China and elsewhere. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Symbols And Names Connected With Middle Or Centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho, or Ti-hoo=name of ancient capital of Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho-m, or ho-mul=artificial mound or pyramid. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho-mtanil=belly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho-bnel=entrails. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho=five, symbolized by hand=kab, also by five-dot group. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ci-hom=sacred tree, the leaves of which were scattered in the +temple court-yard at the baptism of children (Landa). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho-l=head (symbol). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ho-och=vase in general. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cuxabel=heart or life, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ah-cuch-cab=heart of the state, +title of lord or chieftain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nic, or nic-té=flower, usually represented as consisting of five +parts, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the centre and four petals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tem=the square altar. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Names Of Symbols Connected With Four Quarters, Above And +Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Can=four, serpent. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{Caan=sky, cord.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{Canalil=adj. grandeur, elevation.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{Canal=on top of, on; also yellow.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{Canal-cun-zaal=to exalt, elevate, aggrandize, praise.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{Cananil=necessity, need.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{Canaan=adj. necessary, needed.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ché=tree. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zin-ché=cross, literally tree of life or of power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zin-il=powerful, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> zihnal=original, primitive. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zihzabal=creation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zian=the beginning, origin, generation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zihil=to commence, or be born. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zinan=scorpion, symbol. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Name And Symbol Of North. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Am=spider. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Aman=the north. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Star-Names. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ek=star, black. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ek-chuah=name of the patron divinity of travellers and traders, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the pole-star. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Ikal, native word adopted by Spanish missionaries to denote +<span class="tei tei-q">“a spirit.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already pointed out how a minute comparison of the +equivalent Mexican symbols and their names shows that the latter +often seem to be mere translations from the Maya and that the +same identity of sound does not always exist between the Nahuatl +symbol, its name and true significance. On the other hand in the +much-used Mexican symbol for the centre and four quarters, the +flower, pronounced ho-chitl, but written xo-chitl, the archaic Maya +syllable ho, so intimately connected with the centre, recurs. It also +appears in the name of the constellation Ursa Minor, xo-necuilli, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in the word xoch-ayotl=tortoise, employed as a symbol, and in +the name xolotl=something double or dual, sometimes employed +as a synonym of coatl=twin, serpent. The hand=maitl was +employed to express the numeral five=macuilli. It is particularly +interesting to note that in order to express the word tlachi-ual-tepetl +or <span class="tei tei-q">“artificial mound”</span> (the Maya hom) in Nahuatl, the +scribes had to paint a mountain surmounted by an eye, a symbol +also employed to designate stars=the eyes of night. The Nahuatl +for tree=quahuitl is almost homonymous with quaitl=head +and both were employed as symbols of the centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following Nahuatl words claim special attention. The first +is teotl, which was adopted as the equivalent of the Greek Theos by +the Spanish missionaries, but which appears to have been originally +used in the sense of a <span class="tei tei-q">“Divinity,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“divine lord,”</span> and was also +applied to all lords or rulers. +The second is the verb yoli or +yolinia=to live and yollotl=heart. +A special interest attaches +itself, however, to the +noun yauatl=circle and the +verb yaualoa=to go around in +a circle many times, because +there is good ground for identifying, +as the Ursa Major, the +star-god mentioned as Youal-tecuhtli +by Sahagun. As youalli +means night, the title literally +signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the night,”</span> +while yaual=tecuhtli would +mean the lord of the circle or wheel, the most appropriate name +for Ursa Major. The actual representation, in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the +Indians,”</span> of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lord of Night,”</span> within a wheel or circle composed +of his own footsteps, so strikingly corroborates this view, +that further comment appears unnecessary (fig. <a href="#Figure_59" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_59" id="Figure_59" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-59.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 59." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 59.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion the exact meaning of the most important native +symbols is here recapitulated so as to facilitate comparative +research. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE SWASTIKA OR CROSS +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +the most ancient of primitive symbols was primarily a graphic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +representation of the annual rotation of the Septentriones around +Polaris. It thus constituted not only an image of the most impressive +of celestial phenomena but also a year-symbol. The +most highly-developed forms of the swastika found in Mexico are +associated with calendar-signs. In Mexico and in the Ohio Valley +it is linked with the serpent, to the symbolism of which reference +should be made. In Copan the cross symbol is associated with the +image of a figure in repose, occupying the Middle, and four puffs of +breath or air, laden with life-seeds, emanating from this. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering that the cross ultimately became the symbol of the +union of the four elements or two principles of nature in one and +that the production of life-producing rain was attributed to the +union of heaven and earth, it is evident why the Cozumel cross +was described to its Spanish discoverers, by the natives, as a symbol +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“rain-god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE SACRED FIRE +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +which was kept perpetually burning on the summit of the pyramid +was the graphic and appropriate image of the central light of +heaven that most naturally suggested itself to the native mind. +Its origin was attributed to supernatural agency and it was under +the special care of the priesthood. A deeply symbolical meaning +was obviously attached to the ceremonial kindling of the sacred +fire by means of the reed fire-drill which was held perpendicularly +and inserted into a horizontally-placed piece of dry wood. A +noteworthy resemblance to a tau-shaped figure was thus formed, +which is interesting in connection with the fact that the ceremony +of kindling the sacred fire was undoubtedly regarded by the ancient +Mexicans as emblematical of the productive and life-giving +union of the dual principles of nature. The acatl or reedstalk, +inserted into the vase-like symbol of the earth, such as is carved +on the centre of the upper edge of the calendar-stone, is but +another hieratic form of the same symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The annual re-distribution of the sacred fire to the entire population, +a fresh gift from heaven obtained by the mediation of the +high-priest, was particularly impressive and emphasized the idea +of all fire and light and life proceeding from a common centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is noticeable that the reed or acatl is also intimately associated +with the east, the masculine or life-giving region. The +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Maya name for tortoise=ac, is a curious homonym of the Nahuatl +word ac-atl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE SERPENT +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +emblematizes and expresses the sound of quadruple power in +Maya and duality in Nahuatl. It was employed as an image or +embodiment in a single form of the two principles of nature or +the four elements. It was usually accompanied by the adjective +heavenly or divine and symbolized reproduction, being the union +of the masculine or heavenly and feminine or earthly principles. +In this connection it should be noted that the numeral two in Nahuatl +is ome, and in Maya, ca. A native mode of expressing duality, +by means of two horn-like projections on the heads of allegorical +personages, is exemplified in fig. <a href="#Figure_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>, p. 92. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE TREE +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +was the emblem of life, of hidden and visible growth which extended +downward into the earth and upward into heaven and sent forth its +four branches towards the cardinal points. It typified tribal life +because its various parts were identified with the different members +of the community and, metaphorically, the lord was spoken of as +the trunk or main stem; the minor chiefs as branches and twigs; +the men or vassals as leaves; the maidens as flowers, and the +women as fruit, etc. The name <span class="tei tei-q">“atlapalli”</span> was, for instance, +the current Nahuatl appellation for vassals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the conventionalized trees in the native picture-writings are +usually figured with four equal branches they formed an appropriate +image of the living state, and of all directions in space. +The <span class="tei tei-q">“tree of life”</span> thus formed a swastika or cross and both +symbols were indissolubly linked together. The names of two trees, +considered particularly sacred by the Mayas, were the ci-hom and +the yax-ché, a sort of ceiba which was termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the tree of celestial +life”</span> (Landa). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE HUMAN FACE +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +was an image of the duality and unity of nature. The upper half +of the face symbolized heaven with its two eyes, the sun and +moon. The mouth and teeth, the Nahuatl name for which=tlan-tli +was homonymous with the affix tlan=land or earth=tlalli, +emblematized earth, darkness and the Below. The nose with its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +two nostrils emblematized inhalation and exhalation. The sanctity +attached to this mystic union of two streams of breath led to +the consecration of the nose by the wearing of a symbolical ornament +attached to it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE HUMAN FORM +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +expressed <span class="tei tei-q">“a complete count”</span> and was employed as an image of +the entire constitution, and of the calendar system; each part of +the government administration and calendar sign being identified +with one of the twenty digits, four limbs, body and head of the +human form. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE QUADRUPED +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +usually the ocelot, or puma, was the symbol of the government of +the Below and nocturnal cult of the earth as opposed to +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE BIRD OR EAGLE +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +which typified the upper state and diurnal cult of Heaven. Chiefs, +who united dual powers in their persons, wore, as an emblem, the +serpent, or a combination of ocelot-skin and feather ornaments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE HAND +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +expressed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per se</span></span>, in Maya, the numeral ho=five, which was also +the name of a state which invariably consisted of the central +capital and four provinces. As such it was carried as an emblem +of power by the central ruler, as may be seen in the native codices. +The thumb being regarded as the principal or ruling finger, the +chief lord was metaphorically spoken of as the thumb, whilst the +minor lords were entitled fingers=pilli. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE PYRAMID AND SACRED MOUNTAIN +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +was primarily an artificial elevation destined to be a place of refuge +in times of inundation; the pyramid ultimately symbolized: (1) the +sacred stable centre of the world and the Four Quarters; (2) central +power and its four manifestations or elements. The great +pyramid of the ancient City of Mexico which was crowned by two +chapels, respectively containing symbolical images of the two +principles of nature, is a striking illustration of the employment +of the pyramid to express the dual centre (the Above and Below, +etc.) and the quadruple organization of all things which was +expressed not only by the four sides of the structure but by its +four superposed terraces. The fact recorded by Friar Duran, that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the flight of steps which led to the summit of the pyramid on its +eastern side consisted of 365 steps, and that the annual ceremony +of ascending these, performed by a consecrated individual, <span class="tei tei-q">“signified +the course of the sun in a year,”</span> indicates that the pyramid +was also associated with the idea of the quadruplicate division of +time which pervaded the entire calendar system. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It should also be borne in mind that in ancient Mexico the summits +of high mountains were regarded as sacred, <span class="tei tei-q">“because it was +there that Heaven and Earth met and generated fructifying showers.”</span> +As religious cult developed, the rites performed on the summit +of the pyramid or artificial mound were for the purpose of +evoking rain and the renewal of life upon earth, and symbolized +the union of heaven and earth. To the native mind the pyramid +thus represented the consecrated meeting-place of heaven and +earth, the Above and Below, the masculine and feminine elements, +the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine twins,”</span> as well as universal, all-pervading, quadruplicate +organization. The massive pyramid likewise typified, in an impressive +manner, the main idea connected with the Middle: that of +stability, immutability, quietude and repose, combined with power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In some localities a remarkable rock or massive block of stone +was adopted as the mark of the sacred centre and became the +altar on which offerings or sacrifices were made, or the throne on +which the terrestrial central ruler seated himself on ceremonial +occasions and assumed an attitude of absolute repose. It is interesting +to collate the Nahuatl words Te-otl, divinity or divine lord, +with te-tl=stone and the Maya te-m=stone seat or altar, of +which many carved examples exist in the ruined Central American +cities, and to observe that principal personages, such as are represented +on the carved altars and in the middle of the Copan swastika, +are represented as seated cross-legged, as though this attitude +were specially indicative of repose on the stable centre of the four +quarters. As the natives usually squat or sit on their heels, the +cross-legged attitude is particularly noteworthy in connection with +the omnipresent set of ideas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE BOWL OR VASE +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +was the emblem of earth, the receptacle of fructifying showers, +and of the terrestrial centre. Filled with rain-water, on the surface +of which the radiance of a star—the pole-star—reflected itself, +the bowl was supposed to typify the union of heaven and earth by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +means of the divine essence of light and life, proceeding from the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Heart of Heaven.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE FLOWER +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +was another symbol of the earth and of the state and its divisions. +It occurs as a composite flower consisting of a yellow centre surrounded +by multicolored petals. The usual form is of a flower +with four equal petals, bearing a circle or dot in the centre and one +on each petal, the Middle and Four Quarters being thus expressed. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A closing allusion should be briefly made to the native association +of the square with the earth and the circle with the heaven +and to the influence exerted by these ideas combined with those of +light and darkness upon primitive architecture and symbolical +ornamental designs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pointing out that all of the above symbols are but variations +on the fundamental theme of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Middle, Four Quarters, Above +and Below,”</span> I also emphasize the fact that, in ancient America, +language powerfully influenced the choice of symbols, as may +be particularly seen in the case of the serpent, the Nahuatl and +Maya names for which are homonymous with duality and +quadruplicity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The origin and meaning of the ancient American symbols of the +cross, the serpent, the tree, etc., are clearly apparent. It remains +to be seen how far this is the case in other countries where the +identical symbols were or are employed, and it is to my fellow +archæologists that I look for final authoritative statements on this +important subject, in their special lines of research. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile I shall present some facts which are accessible to the +general reader and suffice for the purpose of my present investigation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHINA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pole-star worship and determination of time by Ursa Major existed +in China from remote antiquity. The Chinese name for the +pole-star is Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of +the Heaven. In China <span class="tei tei-q">“the pole-star, round which the entire +firmament appears to turn, ought to be considered as the Sovereign +of the Heavens, and as the most venerated divinity”</span> (G. Schlegel, +Uranographie Chinoise, p. 524). The sacred central forbidden +enclosure, at Peking, contains a temple of the North Star God. In +the description of the imperial worship held at the winter and summer +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +solstices, in James Edkins' Religion in China (London, 1878, +p. 24) it is stated: <span class="tei tei-q">“On the second terrace of the east side, +the tablet of the Sun is placed, and also that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the Great Bear</span></span>, +the five of the 28 constellations and one for all the other stars.”</span> The +following passage shows the origin of the Chinese year: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. <span class="tei tei-q">“The months and seasons are determined by the revolution +of Ursa Major (the Chinese name for which is Pek-tao the +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Seven Directors’</span>). The tail of the constellation pointing to the +east at nightfall announces the arrival of spring; pointing to +the south the arrival of summer; pointing to the west the arrival +of autumn and pointing to the north the arrival of winter. This +means of calculating the seasons becomes more intelligible when +it is remembered that in ancient times the Bear was much nearer +the north pole than now and revolved around it like the hand of a +clock”</span> (Prof. Rob. K. Douglass, China. London, 1887, p. 418). +The Chinese zodiac is represented with the pole-star and circumpolar +constellations in the centre (Astronomy of the Chinese, Ancient +China, W. H. Medhurst, Shanghae, 1846). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. The determination and designation of six directions in +space. In Chinese the six ho or ki designate the limits of space, +the zenith, nadir and four quarters (Mayer's Manual, pp. 306, +312 and 321). <span class="tei tei-q">“The term Liu-ho also applies to the six pairs of +cyclical signs and means <span class="tei tei-q">‘Universe,’</span> that is, Heaven and Earth +[being Above and Below] and the Four Quarters.”</span><a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The syllable ho also occurs in the following words which deserve +to be collated with the Maya list: Hô=river, hu=lake. C-hó-o=master, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Maya hol=head. Hó-o=resident, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Maya ho=capital. +Shó-o=tree, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Maya ci-hom=tree. Pih-shó-o=cypress. +Kwó=country, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> mouth, symbol for land or below. +Kòw=mouth, etc. Chow=name of ancient metropolis. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. The conception of the Above and Below=duality. The +zenith is naturally associated with heaven and the nadir with +earth. Heaven is father and earth is mother. Heaven is figured +by a circle and earth by a square. <span class="tei tei-q">“The marriage of Heaven +and Earth produces all things.”</span> The association of heaven with +the male and earth with the female principles is shown by (1) +the injunction: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou shalt honor thy father as the heaven and thy +mother as the earth.”</span> (2) In Pekin, the Emperor, termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Son of Heaven,”</span> inhabits the <span class="tei tei-q">“Palace of Heaven”</span> whilst the +Empress inhabits the <span class="tei tei-q">“Palace of Earth's repose.”</span> The sun is +male and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Sun”</span> is situated to the east. The +moon is female and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Temple of the Moon”</span> is situated to the +west in the sacred enclosure at Pekin. The emblematic color of +the heaven is naturally azure; of the sun, red; of the earth, yellow; +and of the moon, white. It is thus evident that the cult of +heaven and earth is indissolubly linked to that of the Yang and +Yin, the male and the female principle, and that in China the following +chains of association concerning duality were formed: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Zenith.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Nadir.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Above.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Below.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tien=Heaven.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Tec=Earth.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Father.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Mother.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Yang.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yin.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Color: Azure.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yellow.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Emblem: Sun.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Moon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">East=place of rising.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">West, place of setting.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Light.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Darkness.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Day.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Night.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Personification: the Shang-ti=</td><td class="tei tei-cell">The Earth-Mother.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Emperor=Above, The Lord of Heaven or Universe.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Empress=Below?</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Earthly representative: the Light Emperor.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">The Empress? or Sombre Emperor?</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An interesting addition to this dual list is the view of a modern +Chinaman, that the Yang and Yin principles refer to positive and +negative electricity! (Legge). A striking result of the association +of woman with the nadir and earth is the fact that in Thibet, +according to Rockhill, woman is designated as Smanba or Manba: +<span class="tei tei-q">“low creature.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THE MIDDLE AND FOUR QUARTERS. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that the Chinese designate their empire as the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Middle Kingdom.”</span> Another native name for China is <span class="tei tei-q">“Chung-ho-a,”</span> +which I find translated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Flower of the Middle.”</span> The +empire is likewise designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Four Seas”</span>=ssu-hai and +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Four Mountains,”</span> and it was actually divided by the emperor +Yaou or Yāo (B.C. 2357) into four provinces converging at +the capital, the central enclosure of which was considered as the +centre of heaven and earth. It is extremely significant that, in this +central enclosure there is a temple, consecrated to the god of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +north star=The Imperial Ruler of Heaven, whereas altars only are +dedicated to the sun and moon respectively. The existence in the +central enclosure, or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Carnation prohibited city,”</span> of the Temple +of Earth's Repose, reveals that the idea of stability was associated +with this terrestrial centre. The fact that the Empress and +the female portion of the Imperial family resided in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Palace of +Earth's Repose”</span> affords an explanation of the possible origin of +deforming the feet of noble women, this being a means of enforcing +comparative repose upon them, in keeping with the symbolism +of their surroundings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most striking structure in this sacred enclosure is <span class="tei tei-q">“an +artificial mound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, having +five summits, crowned with as many temples. Its height allows +the spectator to overlook the whole city, whilst, too, it is itself a +conspicuous object from every direction.”</span> This sacred mound or +pyramid actually marks the centre of the empire. From the surrounding +walls of the sacred city four roads diverge towards the +cardinal points, dividing the capital into four quarters. Each +province was ruled by an official and both province and ruler seem +to have been anciently designated by the term Mountain=Yo or +Kan. A superior official, entitled the <span class="tei tei-q">“President of the Four Mountains”</span> +is mentioned as the counsellor of Emperor Yaou in the Shu +King. One name for mountain is yo, another is kan, a word +which resembles k'an=water and kwăn=earth, which forms the +name of the earth mother=Kwan-yin. Without drawing any +hasty conclusions, I merely note the curious fact that the title +<span class="tei tei-q">“the President of the Four Mountains,”</span> must sometimes have +been rendered as Kan and as Yo, and that a variant the name of +<span class="tei tei-q">“four seas”</span> may well have been <span class="tei tei-q">“four <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ho</span></span>”</span> +or lakes or rivers. +The title kan, meaning mountain or eminence, and the idea of four +rivers flowing from a common centre or spring, may well have developed +themselves among Chinese-speaking people. It may be +an odd coincidence only that the word kan=mountain, should be +so intimately connected with the numeral four in the Chinese title; +while it is a synonym for four in the Maya, it is also found employed +in the honorific Maya title Kukul-kan=the divine Kan, and as +a synonym for mountain in certain names of localities in the valley +of Mexico. An interesting but little known fact is that the peak +of the mighty Kulkun mountain in China is designated as the +<span class="tei tei-q">“King of Mountains, the summit of the earth, the supporter of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +heaven and the axis which touches the pole”</span> (Meyer's +Conversations-Lexikon). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I should much like to know whether the name kul-kun is a +variant of kul-kan, and literally signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“divine mountain.”</span> In +this case it would strangely resemble the Maya Kukulkan and the +Nahuatl Cul-hua-can, the name of the fabulous recurved mountain +of Aztec tradition. Feeling that I am here treading upon extremely +dangerous ground I shall abandon further comparisons and conclusions +to philologists and Chinese scholars and merely conclude +by stating the certain facts, that in Chinese and Maya alike the +syllable <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ho</span></span> seems +to be associated with the Middle; while <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span> is +connected with four-fold division. I may perhaps venture to add +that, in Chinese, Maya and Nahuatl alike, the particles te and ti +seem closely connected with Heaven; while the Chinese kwan=earth, +offers a certain resemblance to the Nahuatl affix tlan, meaning +land, and kan, sometimes used for mountain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Since the Chow Dynasty, the empire was spoken of as having +five instead of four mountains, which leads to the inference that +reference was thus made to the central metropolis also, the most +sacred feature of which was its central artificial mountain or +pyramid. It is obvious that the empire was governed from the +central chief capital and from minor capitals situated in the four +provinces and built on the pattern of Peking. In an extremely +interesting and clever paper<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> +Mr. James Wickersham has recently +remarked that <span class="tei tei-q">“the arrangement of cities after the cardinal-points +plan was the rule not only in America but in China”</span> and gives the +following quotations: <span class="tei tei-q">“Mukden, the metropolis and ancient +capital of Manchuria, was a walled city like Peking. Main +streets ran across the city from gate to gate, with narrow roads, +called Hu-ting, intersecting them. The palace of the early Manchu +sovereigns occupies the centre”</span> (The Middle Kingdom, +Williams, vol. I, pp. 192-198). The Manchurian city of Kirin is +also divided into four quarters: <span class="tei tei-q">“Two great streets cross each +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +other at right angles, one of them running far out into the river +on the west supported by piles.”</span> Peune, another large city, is +similarly divided. <span class="tei tei-q">“It consists of two main streets with the chief +market [place] at their crossing. This plan is the rule in the +cities of northern China; the large cities are walled and divided by +cross streets emerging from the city gates at the cardinal points”</span> +(Coxe's Russia, pp. 316-17). The relation of the central seat of +government to its provinces is thus recorded in the Canon of +Shun.<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In five years there was one tour of inspection (performed +by the emperor) and four appearances at court of the +nobles. They set forth a report of their government in words. +This was clearly tested by their works. They received chariots +and robes according to their services.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The order of rotation in which the emperor visited in one year +the capital of each quarter, returning after each absence to the +metropolis, is given as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the second month the tour +was to the east. In the fifth month ... to the south. In +the eighth month ... to the west. In the eleventh month ... +to the north.”</span> During the next year the nobles of +the eastern province made their appearance at court, and the +south, west and north provinces followed in turn, it being noticeable +that, in each case, the circle started at the east, the place of +rising. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The institution of the calendar by the Emperor Yaou is described +at length in the Shu King.<a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> Confucius said of this remarkable +personage, <span class="tei tei-q">“Heaven alone is great, but Yaou is able to +imitate Heaven.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Yaou <span class="tei tei-q">“... harmonized the various states +of the empire and the black-haired people, oh! how they were +reformed by this cordial agreement. He commanded He and Ho +(officers superintending the calendar and astronomical instruments) +in reverent accordance with the motions of the expansive heavens, +to arrange by numbers and represent the revolutions of the sun +and moon and stars with the lunar mansions and then respectfully +communicate to the people the seasons adapted for labor. He then +separately directed He's younger brother to reside at Yu-e (the +modern Tang-chow in Shan-tung), called the Orient Valley, where +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +he might respectfully hail the rising sun, adjust and arrange the +eastern (and vernal) undertakings and notice the equalization of +days and whether the star (culminating at nightfall) was the +middle constellation of the bird, in order to hit the centre of mid-spring; +he might also observe whether the people began to disperse +abroad and whether birds and beasts were beginning to pair. +He commanded He's third brother to reside at the southern border +(the region of Cochin-China) and adjust and arrange the southern +or summer transformation and respectfully notice the extreme +limit of the shadow when the days attain their utmost length and +the star in the zenith that is denominated Fire (heart of Scorpio, +culminated on eve of summer solstice), in order to fix the exact +period of mid-summer, when the people disperse themselves more +widely and the birds and beasts begin to moult and cast their +skins. He then distinctly commanded Ho's youngest brother to +dwell in the west, at a place called the Dark Valley, where he +might respectfully attend the setting sun and equalize and adjust +the western (or autumnal) completions, notice the equalizations of +the nights and see whether the culminating star was Emptiness +(Beta in Aquarius, which culminated at autumnal equinox which +was the period at the centre of the dark principle in nature) in +order to adjust the mid-autumn, when the people would be more at +ease and the birds and beasts would be sleek and plump. He +further directed Ho's third brother to dwell at the northern region, +called the dismal city, where he might properly examine the reiterations +and alterations and see whether, when the days were +shortest, the culminating star was Pleiades (this culminates in the +evening at winter solstice, which is the extreme of dark principle +in nature and midnight seat of that principle) in order to adjust +midwinter, when the people would remain at home and the birds +and beasts get their down and hair. Thus careful was the sage in +reverently observing heaven and labouring diligently for the people, +in order that his plans might not contradict the designs of heaven +nor the government miss the proper season for human labour.”</span> It +is further said that <span class="tei tei-q">“the bright influence (of Yaou's qualities) +was felt through the four quarters (of the land) and reached to +(heaven) above and (earth) beneath”</span> (Shu King, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 32). Legge cites Pritchard's (Savilian Professor, Oxford University) +chart as a proof of the correctness of the chronology which places +Yâou in the 24th century B.C. The precession of the equinoxes +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was not known in China until more than 2,500 years after the +time assigned to Yaou. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing to renew the foregoing data, it is with particular satisfaction +that I point out how clearly they reveal the basis and +origin of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Quadriform Constitution”</span> and idea of central +government. In China the pole star is designated as the Imperial +Ruler of Heaven and a temple to the God of the North Star stands +in the sacred enclosure which marks the centre of the empire. +The opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major at nightfall divide +the year into four quarters and this quadruplicate division caused +by rotation, assuming absolute dominion over the native mind, is +applied to heaven and earth and pervades every detail of civil and +religious government, as in ancient America. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Forced to recognize that the primitive inhabitants of China and +America derived their first principles of organization from the +identical light-giving source, a fact which also indicates a community +of race and of place of origin, let us now review some data +which prove that the two civilizations must have been separated +and isolated from each other at an extremely remote period of time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Certain conceptions, common to all primitive people, were shared +by the Chinese and Mexicans, one of these being the belief that the +earth was flat and square. The name for a year in ancient Mexican +was xiuitl, literally, grass, and this was represented in the picture +writings by a bunch of young blades of some sort of grass, possibly +maize-shoots. <span class="tei tei-q">“The earliest written Chinese character for +a year represented a stalk of wheat.... In the ancient +work entitled the San Fun, part of which was probably written in +the 23d century B.C., there is evidence that among some of the +aboriginal tribes of China the year, as among the Egyptians and +some of the people of India, was divided into three periods, known +as the grass-springing, tree-reigning and tree-decaying periods. +Under the higher culture of the Chinese these divisions disappeared +and the twelve months became the recognized parts of the +year”</span> (Douglas, China, pp. 269 and 310). Amongst the Mexican +month-names there are also some which allude to such regularly +recurring and impressive natural phenomena as the sprouting of +trees and the appearance of verdure or springing of the maize, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An indication as to what was the most ancient and primitive +method of rotation employed seems afforded by the Chinese description +how, for governmental purposes, the five-year period was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +adopted, one year pertaining to the emperor or central ruler and +the following four to the quarters of the empire. An analogous +employment of a quinary period as a means of obtaining a rotation +of contribution from the four quarters of the empire to its +metropolis, identified with the first day, is discernible in the Mexican +institution of the macuil-tianquiztli, or five-day market, by +which means the entire year was divided into five-day groups. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A study of the ancient Chinese calendar furnishes, moreover, an +indication of the way in which the numeral 12 came to be recognized +and adopted by primitive people. It is obvious that the +early astronomers, having determined the length of the year by +observing Ursa Major at nightfall, recognized that, during the +period required for its annual complete revolution around the pole +star, there regularly appeared twelve new moons. In China, at a +remote period, a division of the year into <span class="tei tei-q">“months was adopted, +the early names of which have, according to the author of the +earliest Chinese dictionary, the Urhye, been lost.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The modern +Chinese year is lunar in its divisions, though regulated by the sun +in so far that New Year's day is made to fall on the first new moon +after the sun enters Aquarius and varies between 21st January and +19th of February”</span> (Douglas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 258). It would seem +as though some fresh impulse, or institution of moon-cult, had +influenced Shun, Yaou's successor, to reorganize the empire, which +had been simply divided into quarters, and subdivide it into 4×3=12 +districts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another interesting evolution of a numerical system, the origin +of which can be traced to the four positions and seven stars of +Ursa Major, is discernible in the Chinese zodiac. This, the earliest +division of the ecliptic in China, consists of <span class="tei tei-q">“28 lunar mansions, +which are grouped together in four classes of seven each, assigned +to the four quarters of heaven”</span> (Legge, vol. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, p. 24, Introduction +to Shu-King). It is to the observation of precisely the same +impressive phenomena that the universal adoption of the numbers +12, 4 and 7 may safely be attributed. The further division, by +Emperor Yu, of the Chinese Empire into five domains or zones, +finds an interesting parallelism in Mexico and Central America. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. Wickersham describes Yu's division in the following concise +manner: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Imperial domain extended five hundred le in every +direction from the capital, north, south, east and west, and was +therefore one thousand le square, with its sides facing the cardinal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +points; the domain of the Nobles was an additional territory +five hundred le broad on each of the four sides; the Peace-securing +domain was then added, beyond which came the domain of +Restraint, and at the greatest extremity the Wild domain. By this +arrangement, the sacred center, the capital where the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Son of +Heaven’</span> resided, was completely surrounded by loyal officials and +subjects; the most loyal were nearest the center while at the farthest +extremity were the wild and dangerous tribes and criminals +undergoing the greater banishment. By this square method of disposing +of the population, the quiet and orderly members of society +were required to reside near the capital, while the turbulent were +placed toward the outer limits, serving to free the center from +turmoil and to act as a barrier to the inroads of outside barbarians.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the Zuñis and Mexicans the spider's web is met with as +an image of the division of their territory into quarters, half-quarters +and concentric circles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Peru a record exists of a system of irrigation by which means +the territory surrounding the capital was divided into alternate +zones of land and water. Mexico and Central America furnish +records too scattered to be compiled here, showing that somewhat +as in China, the territory of the state was divided into the domains +of the rulers, the lords, the people, and the territory of war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After having duly considered some salient points of fundamental +agreement which are to be found underlying the widely different +later growths of the Chinese and ancient American systems, let us +now examine and analyze some of the most remarkable points of +divergence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following tables, placed in juxtaposition, afford an opportunity +of recognizing the striking and significant fact that, whereas +the Mexicans and Zuñis classified air, water, fire and earth as +<span class="tei tei-q">“elements,”</span> the Chinese ignored air and identified wood and metal +as their fourth and fifth elements. +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Mexico.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Zuni.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">China.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Red, Fire.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Yellow, Air.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Black, Water.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">West</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yellow, Earth.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Blue, Water.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">White, Metal.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">South</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Blue, Air.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Red, Fire.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Red, Fire.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">East</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Green, Water.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">White, Earth.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Blue, Wood.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Middle</span></span>.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Many colors.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Middle, All colors.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Yellow, Earth.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A deep-seated analogy may, however, be traced between the +Chinese assignment of <span class="tei tei-q">“wood”</span> to the Middle and the Maya-Mexican +employment of the tree as a symbol of life proceeding +from the centre, stretching above and below and spreading its +branches to the four quarters. It remains to be seen how far the +Chinese assignment of <span class="tei tei-q">“wood”</span> to the Middle approached the +American tree-symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The marked differentiation in the assignment of colors to the +cardinal points in the above comparative table leads to the conclusion +that their choice had been arbitrary and was possibly influenced +by local environment, the possibility of obtaining certain +pigments in given directions, or by language, the names of certain +colors or elements resembling in sound those of the cardinal +points, etc.<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After studying the above comparative lists it becomes clear that, +whilst the fundamental principle of the system was identical, the +mode of carrying it out was different in China and America, a fact +which indicates independence and isolation at the period when elements +and colors, etc., were chosen and assigned to the directions +in space. An analogous instance of divergence is shown in the +following assignment of parts of the body to the cardinal points: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHINESE. +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">North</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Kidneys.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">West</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Lungs.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">South</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Heart.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">East</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Liver.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Middle</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Stomach.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Zenith</td><td class="tei tei-cell">——</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Nadir</td><td class="tei tei-cell">——</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although it differs in detail, an analogous association of various +parts of the body with the directions in space and the twenty calendar-signs, +may be seen in a Mexican Codex. In this case, however, +it is clear that the origin of this assignment was the natural +association between the <span class="tei tei-q">“complete finger-and-toe count=a complete +man=20=with the 20 or complete count of the day signs.”</span> +I have already produced evidences showing that the human figure +was employed in primitive times to represent <span class="tei tei-q">“a complete count, +or 20 years.”</span> When chieftains were elected for a term of twenty +years and their names were given to their period of office, the full-length +portrait of the chief was sculptured on a stela and he thus +represented, primarily, <span class="tei tei-q">“a complete count,”</span> an epoch (see p. +<a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>). +Portraiture and accompanying inscriptions were obviously later +developments, but the primitive employment of the human form as +a means of expressing a fixed number, is one that claims consideration +and will undoubtedly lead to a wider comprehension of the +significance of the human form in aboriginal archaic sculpture. +The curious conventionalized representations of Mictlantecuhtli, +in which the body and limbs almost simulate a swastika, have already +been discussed, as well as the inference that they symbolized +Polaris and the four positions of Ursa Major=the Middle and +Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most striking confirmation of this inference is furnished by +Mr. Cushing's account that the Zuñis associated the directions in +space with the imaginary form of a quadruped as follows: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ZUNI. +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">North</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Right fore foot.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">West</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Left fore foot.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">South</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Right hind leg.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">East</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Left hind leg.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Middle</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Heart.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Zenith</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Head.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Nadir</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Tail.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is obvious from this that, to a Zuñi, the State and its subdivisions +appear under the allegorical form of a quadruped and I +have traced the identical mode of thought in Mexico and Central +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +America<a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> +where, owing to linguistic associations, an ocelot is in some +instances employed as a symbol for a State whilst in others the form +of an eagle was adopted for the same purpose (see Appendix +<a href="#Appendix_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To sum up: in ancient America the human form was employed +to represent quadripartite division and the complete finger-and-toe +count=20, and as such became emblematic of the quadriform +plan of universal application. Owing to a variety of circumstances +and suggestions arising from language, the figure of a quadruped=ocelot +was adopted as a symbol of the State by some tribes and the +form of an eagle by others, the inference being that the ocelot was +identified with the cult of the earth and night and the eagle with +the cult of heaven and day. While the ocelot and eagle occur in +the codices as representative of two distinct classes or divisions of +the State, there are some interesting and suggestive representations, +to which I shall revert, of figures combining the form and claws +of an ocelot with the wings and head of a bird, evidently symbolical +of a union of the Above and Below, or Heaven and Earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having furnished the explanation that ancient America affords +of the origin of the primitive employment of the human body, the +quadruped and bird in allegory and the assignment of their various +parts to points in space, it is to Chinese scholars that I appeal for +enlightenment as to the origin and development of the same idea +in China. To me one point of difference between the Chinese and +American list is very striking. In America although the navel was +also regarded as a symbol, the heart, associated with the Middle, +had obviously been recognized as the centre or seat of life, and the +tearing out of the heart had become the salient feature in human +sacrifices. In China the stomach is assigned to the Middle, and +death by disembowelling was customary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An analysis of the Chinese and Mexican numerical systems +likewise proves that their ultimate development was strikingly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +different, although it is easy to recognize how both might have +arisen from the same source. Thus whilst the Mexican and Central +American calendar (and social organization) is based on the +combination of 20 characters with 13 numerals, the Chinese <span class="tei tei-q">“took +two sets of 12 and 10 characters respectively and combined them.”</span> +The outcome of the combination of 20 with 13 affords a marked +contrast to that of 12 with 10. In the Mexican calendar, as I +have shown, there were fixed periods of 5 days (associated with +the Middle and Four Quarters) and of 20 days, the latter being +<span class="tei tei-q">“one complete count”</span> of days, based on the primitive finger-and-toe +count. In the Mexican social organization there were 4 principal +and 16 minor clans of people, known by 20 signs. Each of +these in turn was subdivided into 13 categories associated with the +directions in space. By mentioning a sign and a numeral, up to +13, the exact subdivision of a clan was clearly designated while +the direction of its residence, as regards the capital, was likewise +conveyed. A day was associated with each of these 20 clans and +their respective 13 subdivisions, and the unit of time produced by +the combination of the 20 day-signs and 13 numerals was the +period of 260 days, which held 4×65 days and was approximately +equivalent to nine lunations and to the period of human +gestation. The 260-day period, as will be more clearly shown in +my monograph on the Mexican Calendar System, constituted the +religious year of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sons or Lords of Night”</span> in their cult of the +Moon, the Nocturnal Heaven, Earth and the Female principle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Simultaneously with this lunar calendar, in which each moon had +a different name, a civil or solar calendar was employed consisting +of 365 days, divided into 17 periods of 20 and 1 period of 25 +days. These years bore the names of four different signs in rotation +combined with 13 numerals.<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> The cycles, thus produced, consisted +of 4×13=52 years, 20, or a <span class="tei tei-q">“complete count”</span> of which, +produced the great cycle of 1040 years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Totally different from this numerical system is that of the Chinese, +who <span class="tei tei-q">“divided the year into 12 months of 29 and 30 days each and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as these periods represent with sufficient exactness the lunar month, +it follows that the new moon falls on the 1st of every month and +that on the 15th the moon is at its full. The month is thus associated +with the moon and is called by the same name and written +with the same hieroglyphic.... The Chinese also divide the year +by seasons and recognize 8 main divisions and 16 subsidiary ones, +which correspond to the days on which the sun enters the 1st and +15th degrees of a zodiacal sign ...”</span> (Douglas, China, p. 269). +Whilst it is customary in China for years to be designated at times +by the Neen-haou or title of an emperor and an event to be alluded +to as having occurred in such or such a year of a certain ruler's +reign, the mode of computing years is by reckoning by sexagenary +cycles. According to native historians this system was introduced +by the emperor Hwang-te in the year 2637 B.C. which was the +first year of the first cycle, and it has continued in use until the +present day. In this system a group of ten characters, termed +the <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial stems”</span> and associated with the male principle, is +combined with a group of twelve characters, named the <span class="tei tei-q">“terrestrial +branches”</span> and associated with the female principle. An unbroken +series of sixty-year cycles have thus been formed, in the +seventy-sixth of which the Chinese are now living. According to +Biot, the calendar instituted by Hwang-te was a day-count only, +and year-cycles were not in use until after the Christian era, having +been introduced from India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are indications which will be more fully discussed further +on, showing that the primitive day-count consisted of the seven-day +period, each day being consecrated to one of the seven bright +stars of Ursa Major, called the <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven Regulators.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that Taouism was founded by Laou-tsze, who +was a contemporary of Confucius and thus <span class="tei tei-q">“lived in the sixth +century before Christ, a hundred years later than Buddha and a +hundred years earlier than Socrates. A mystery hangs over Laou-tsze's +history ... and there is the possibility that he was a foreigner, +or perhaps a member of an aboriginal frontier tribe”</span> +(Legge). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Shoo-king, the national book of history edited by Confucius, +enables us to follow the development of the state religion and government, +the basis of which was Heaven and its imperial ruler, the +pole-star. The almost mythical emperor Yaou, whose reign began +in B.C. 2357, <span class="tei tei-q">“imitated Heaven, harmonized the various states of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the empire and divided it into four quarters.”</span> His successor, Shun, +extended its organization, but it was Yü, the third ruler, in the +thirteenth year of his reign (B.C. 1121), who, acknowledging his +ignorance of them <span class="tei tei-q">“went to inquire of Kê-tsze”</span> about <span class="tei tei-q">“the great +plan of the 9 classifications and the arrangement of the invariable +principles.”</span> It is also stated in the Shoo-King, that it was +<span class="tei tei-q">“Heaven [who] gave to Yü the great plan and the 9 classifications, +so that the invariable principles were arranged, consisting of the +5 elements, the 8 regulations, and the 5 arrangers.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In China the day is divided into periods equivalent to 120 minutes=2 +hours. <span class="tei tei-q">“In speaking of these periods, however, the +practice which was originally introduced into China by the Mongols, +of substituting for the twelve stems, the names of the twelve animals +which are supposed to be symbolical of them, is commonly +adopted. Thus the 1st period, that between 11 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">p. m.</span></span> and 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. m.</span></span>, +is known as the Rat, period 2 as the Ox, 3 Tiger, 4 Hare, 5 Dragon, +6 Serpent, 7 Horse, 8 Sheep, 9 Monkey, 10 Cock, 11 Dog, 12 +Boar. The night is divided into five watches, each of two hours +duration....”</span> (Douglas, China, p. 296). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ancient Mexican priest-astronomers marked three divisions +of the night by burning incense in honor of certain stars, after +dusk, at midnight and at break of day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The mention of the introduction into China of the Mongolian +hour-computation leads to a consideration of the origin of what is +known as the Chinese civilization. It is, of course, impossible to do +more here than touch upon the various and opposite views held on +this important question by leading European and Chinese scholars. +On the one hand, <span class="tei tei-q">“the existence of the Chinese civilization in +the east of Asia, separated from early centres by the whole width +of Asia and intervening trackless deserts, has seemed a problem +to many students and led to the conclusion of its sporadic growth, +an idea which is fostered by Chinese historians.”</span> (See Douglas on +Chinese Culture and Civilization, 1890.) On the other hand, it is +maintained that the Chinese entered China from Tartary and were +emigrants from Babylonia who abandoned their country when +Nakhunte, king of Susiana, conquered Babylon in 2295 B.C. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Legge, the Chinese came through central Asia about +2200 B.C. and founded colonies on the banks of the Yellow river +and its tributaries. These colonists founded a Middle Kingdom +in China, a federation of states with a chief supreme ruler, on the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pattern of Babylonia. They introduced the art of writing and established +a calendar with a year of 360 days and an intercalary +month. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is stated that the names of the five planets of the Chinese, +besides the Sun and Moon, were called by the same names as in +Babylon. (See Edkins <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, also The old Babylonian characters +and their derivatives, Terrien de Lacouperie, Babylonian and +Oriental Record, March, 1888.) Some authorities are inclined to +consider Chinese astronomy as derived from the Chaldean; whilst +others have instituted comparisons between it and the Hindoo +system. The results of the latter line of investigation are set +forth by J. F. Davis in the following passage of his work on the +Chinese (London, 1836, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii.</span></span>, +p. 304): <span class="tei tei-q">“A comparison between +the ancient system of the Chinese and of Hindoo astronomy is +rendered somewhat perplexing by the fact that, while there are +some points of resemblance there are others in which they essentially +differ. Both of them have twenty-eight lunar mansions and +a cycle of sixty years, but a careful observation detects some important +distinctions: the Hindoo cycle is a cycle of Jupiter while +that of the Chinese is a solar cycle, and the twenty-eight constellations +of the Hindoos are nearly all of them equal divisions of +the great circle, consisting of about 13° each, while the Chinese +constellations are extremely unequal, varying from 30° to less than +1°. The author's father, in conjunction with Sir William Jones +and Messrs. Colebrook and Bentley, proved that the Hindoo astronomy +did not go farther than the calculation of eclipses and +some other changes with the rules and tables for performing the +same. Besides their lunar zodiac of twenty-eight mansions, the +Hindoos (unlike the Chinese) have the solar, including twelve signs +perfectly identical with ours, and demonstrating, in that respect, a +common origin.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As we know from Herodotus, the Egyptians had a week of seven +days and it is remarkable that the Hindoos had anciently the +same, the planetary names being given to the days in exactly +the same order as among ourselves, except that Friday was the first. +The Chinese reckon five planets to the exclusion of the sun and +moon, but they give the name of one of their twenty-eight lunar +mansions successively to each day of the year in a perpetual rotation, +without regard to the moon's changes; so that the same +four out of the twenty-eight invariably fall on our Sundays and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +constitute, as it were, perpetual <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sunday letters</span></span>. A native Chinese +first remarked this odd fact to the author, and on examination it +proved perfectly correct. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the above it may be well to add the following comparison +between the Chinese, Tibetan and Indian systems: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Tibetans +received astronomical science from India and China ... +the Chinese taught them the science of divination. Both systems +are based upon a unit of sixty years, differing, however, in +modes of denominating years. In these cycles of sixty years, +when numbered according to the Indian principle, each year has a +particular name; but in the Chinese method the names used in the +Chinese duodecimal cycle are used five times, coupled with the +five elements or their respective colors, each of the latter introduced +in the series twice in immediate succession”</span> (Schlagintweit, +Buddhism in Thibet, p. 27). According to Humboldt, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Tzihichen, +or public calculators of Lhassa take pride in the fact that +years of the same name only return about every two centuries. +They combine 15 signs: five masculine, five feminine and five +neuter, with twelve signs of the zodiac”</span> (Monuments des peuples +de l'Amérique <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 386). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With regard to the ancient connection between China and India +it is well to recall the well-known fact that Buddhism did not enter +China from India until the first century of the Christian era and +had a prolonged struggle for existence and influence in the country +during several centuries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Buddhist missionaries introduced the mode of calculating +cycles of years into China, according to Biot, who states that the +primitive calendar of the Chinese, instituted by Hwang-te, the +first king of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Flowery land,”</span> was a day-count only. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us briefly enumerate some bare facts bearing upon the age +and development of the state, religion and government of ancient +China. In 2697 B.C. Hwang-te (the Babylonian?) erected a +temple to the honor of Shang-te, the deity associated with the +earliest traditions of the Chinese race. Upon the authority of a +Chinaman of the present day it is stated that <span class="tei tei-q">“the word Shang-te +means supreme ruler; but, as it is not lawful to use this name +lightly, Chinamen usually name the supreme ruler by his residence, +which is Tien=heaven”</span> (Edkins, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 71). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An extremely instructive light is thrown upon the Taouist conception +of a supreme being or ruler, by the following episode +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +related by Mr. Edkins in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Religion in China”</span> (p. 109). <span class="tei tei-q">“I +met [in 1872] on one occasion a schoolmaster from the neighborhood +of Chapoo.... The inquiry was put to him, Who is +the Lord of heaven and earth? He replied that he knew none +but the pole-star, called in the Chinese language Teen-hwang-ta-te, +the great imperial ruler of heaven. It was stated to him that +it was a matter very much to be regretted that he should hold such +views as this of the Supreme Being.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this connection and with special reference to the title Tien=heaven, +employed by the Chinese in addressing the supreme ruler, +I must quote T. de Lacouperie's opinion that the Akkadian name=Din-gira +and symbol for God, the eight-pointed star, was the origin +of Ti, a Chinese character with the same meaning and sound. +Mr. C. J. Ball (The New Akkadian Proceedings of the Society of +Biblical Archaeology) explains the Akkadian Din-gira as composed +of di=to shine and gira=heaven and that thus the Accadian +name for God is <span class="tei tei-q">“the shining one of heaven,”</span> which explains why +the ideogram is a star. According to Mr. K. Douglas (p. 171) +<span class="tei tei-q">“Mr. Ball has practically demonstrated that the Chinese and +Akkadian are the same tongue and that everywhere in China we +are reminded of that great centre of civilization in Babylonia.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An investigation of the Taouist religion reveals that it consists +chiefly of star-worship, stars being deemed <span class="tei tei-q">“divine.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Among the +liturgical works used by the priests of Taou, one of the commonest +consists of prayers to Tow-moo, a female divinity supposed to +reside in the Great Bear. A part of the same constellation is +worshipped as a male spirit under the name of Kwei-sing”</span> (Edkins). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A name closely resembling the latter in sound, Tseih-ching, and +meaning the <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven Regulators”</span> is now applied to the Sun, Moon, +Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In ancient times, +however, according to native authorities, <span class="tei tei-q">“this term was used to +designate the seven bright stars of Ursa Major which subsequently, +by an astrological device, were associated with the seven planets; +so, that, by metonymy, the latter became the established +meaning.”</span><a id="noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The association of the term <span class="tei tei-q">“Regulators”</span> with Septentriones +is particularly interesting because the seven-day period has been +employed in China from time immemorial, the seventh day being +invariably marked by the ancient character mih, which means +<span class="tei tei-q">“quiet, secret or silent.”</span> In the modern Chinese almanacs and +astrological works <span class="tei tei-q">“the mih days are marked by the four constellations +which correspond among the seven planets to the principal +one among them, the Sun”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Wylie, On the Knowledge of a +weekly Sabbath in China, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 86). I am strongly tempted +to refer the origin of the Chinese mih or quiet day, on which rest +was generally observed, to that remote period of time when, to +primitive observers, one of the stars in Ursa Major would have +appeared more closely associated with immovability and nearer the +polar axis than its companions (see pp. 20 and 21). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we pause here to review the preceding data we are particularly +struck at the unanimity of evidence establishing that even the +most ancient form of civilization and religion was not indigenous +to China, but was carried there by colonists from distant parts, +presumably from Babylonia. The latter conclusion finds a strong +support in the undeniable fact that during subsequent centuries a +steady stream of emigration has carried colonists of different +nationalities into the heart of China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Buddhism entered China from India in the first century of the +Christian era. Alexander Wylie tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“according to the +testimony of one of the stone tablets in the synagogue at Kai-fung +foo, the Israelites first entered China during the Han dynasty”</span> +and we are further told in the letters of the Jesuits that <span class="tei tei-q">“they +came during the reign of Ming-ti (A.D. 58-75) from Si-yih, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +the western regions. It appears by all that can be gathered from +them that this western country is Persia and that they came by +Khorasan and Samarcand. They have many Persian words in +their language and they long preserved a great intercourse with +that country”</span> (The Israelites in China, Wylie's Chinese Researches, +Shanghai, 1897). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Some other interesting facts related by Wylie deserve mention +here. In translating the name of Jehovah into Chinese, the Israelites +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in China, to the present day, say Teen, <span class="tei tei-q">“just as the scholars +of China do when they explain their term Shang-te.”</span> We thus +observe a growing practice in western Asia, among the Hebrews, of +designating Jehovah as the God of Heaven and sometimes as +Heaven. In Chinese history distinct mention is made of a foreign +sect distinguished as the <span class="tei tei-q">“worshippers of Heaven,”</span> spoken of as +existing in China at the beginning of the sixth century. Wylie +has surmised that the Hebrews were thus designated and remarks +<span class="tei tei-q">“that this name, as the designation of a foreign sect, is the more +remarkable inasmuch as the state ritual of China has designated +the Supreme by the name of Heaven, from the earliest times down +to the present day.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a curious reflection that it may possibly have been due to a +gross misconception of the Hebrew religion on the part of the +Chinese and a supposed identity of worship that caused the Israelites +to be treated with such tolerance and hospitality in China that +their colony situated in the heart of the country still exists to the +present day. It is, in fact, related of the Dowager Empress Ling, +in the first half of the sixth century, that she <span class="tei tei-q">“abolished the various +corrupt systems of religious worship, excepting that of the +foreign tien-spirit.”</span> A strange insight into the Chinese view of +the Christian religion is likewise afforded by the following native +documents cited by Wylie: <span class="tei tei-q">“Now Jesus, the Lord of Heaven, is +worshipped by the Europeans. They say that this is the ancient +religion of Ta-tsin (Syria).”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following remarkable passages occur on the famous Nestorian +tablet, dated A.D. 781, which eulogizes the propagation of +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Illustrious [Christian] Religion”</span> in China. This tablet was +discovered by the Jesuit fathers in 1625 and, after its authenticity +had been violently assailed, Wylie's painstaking researches have +now vindicated its genuineness.<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> +The following extracts are from +the preface engraved upon it and composed by King-tsing, a priest +of the Syrian Church: <span class="tei tei-q">“... Our eternal, true lord God.... He +appointed the cross as the means of determining the four cardinal +points, he moved the original spirit and produced the two principles +of nature; the sombre void was changed and heaven and +earth were opened out; the sun and moon revolved and day and +night commenced; having perfected all inferior objects, he then +made the first man ... the illustrious and honorable Messiah, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +veiling his true dignity, appeared in the world as a man ... +a bright star announced the felicitous event [of his birth] ... +he fixed the extent of the eight boundaries.... As a seal +[his disciples] hold the cross, whose influence is reflected in every +direction uniting all without distinction. As they strike the wood +the fame of their benevolence is diffused abroad; worshipping towards +the east they hasten on the way to life and glory ... +they do not keep slaves, but put noble and mean all on an equality; +they do not amass wealth but cast all their property into the common +stock.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the matter to oriental scholars for further discussion +I merely note here the astonishing fact that in China, in the +seventh century of our era, the supreme God of the Hebrews and +Christians was spoken of as the God of Heaven, or Heaven, that +He is credited with having created the two principles of nature +besides heaven and earth and instituted the cross as <span class="tei tei-q">“a means of +determining the cardinal points.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is likewise strange to find the <span class="tei tei-q">“Heen or Toen foreigners”</span> +credited in a sixteenth-century native cyclopædia, with having +introduced into China a system of astronomy denominated the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Four Heavens,”</span> and obviously based on a quadruplicate division +of the Heaven similar to the division of the empire instituted by +Yaou (Wylie, Israelites in China, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 19). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The current Chinese name for Christians has been <span class="tei tei-q">“Cross-worshippers,”</span> +and it is odd to note that the ancient Chinese seem to +have regarded the symbolism of the Christian cross as closely +identical with that of their swastika, and to have concluded that +the foreign <span class="tei tei-q">“Heaven”</span> religion rested on the same basis as theirs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to Wylie's valuable researches and Edkins' +Religion in China for information concerning the establishment of +colonies of Manicheans, Mohammedans and of successive Christian +missions, etc., in China, I shall but quote the following passage +from Marco Polo's travels (pp. 167 and 168) because it shows +how the doctrine of the quadruplicate division of all things, celestial +and terrestrial, led to a broad tolerance of opinion in the famous +Tartar prince, Kubla Khan, who, in 1260, at Kanbalu=Peking, +honored the Christian festivals. <span class="tei tei-q">“And he observed the same at +the festivals of the Saracens, Jews and idolaters. Upon being +asked his motive for this conduct, he said: <span class="tei tei-q">‘There are four great +Prophets who are reverenced and worshipped by the different +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +classes of mankind. The Christians regard Jesus Christ as their +divinity; the Saracens, Mahomet; the Jews, Moses; and the idolaters +Sagomombarkan (Buddha) the most eminent amongst their +idols. I do honor and show respect to all of the four, and invoke +to my aid whichever of them is in truth supreme in heaven.’</span> ”</span> +This attitude of mind and that of the Chinese towards the Christian +Cross can only be fully understood and appreciated when it +is realized that their <span class="tei tei-q">“imperial ruler of Heaven”</span> was the pole-star +and that the Ursa Major described each year the sign of a +cross in the heaven which ever impressed upon them quadruplicate +division and differentiation and the union of four in one. It is +doubtlessly owing to the same reason that the Chinaman of today +finds it possible to believe in, at once, the three great national +religions which exist in China. Edkins has explained that, +whereas <span class="tei tei-q">“Confucianism speaks to the moral nature, Taouism is +materialistic and Buddhism is metaphysical; thus, they are supplemental +to each other and are able to co-exist without being mutually +destructive”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 60). Somewhat apart from these +three state religions and embodying the most ancient ideas and +traditions of the race, exists the elaborate and solemn <span class="tei tei-q">“Imperial +worship,”</span> the study of which Edkins designates as <span class="tei tei-q">“specially +interesting because it takes us back to the early history of +the Chinese people and introduces us to many striking points of +comparison with the patriarchal religion of the Old Testament and +with the worship of the kings of Nineveh, Babylon and Egypt.”</span> +The same authority states that <span class="tei tei-q">“the account given by Herodotus +of the religion of the ancient Persians shows that it consisted in +much the same usages as those now found in Chinese Imperial +worship”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 6, 22, 18 and 30). In the preceding pages +it has been shown that the fundamental principles of the primitive +religions of China and America were identical, but that their subsequent +stages of development or evolution were strikingly divergent. +The following study of certain details connected with the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Imperial worship”</span> brings out a marked differentiation in the +Chinese and Mexican cult of heaven and earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The altar of Heaven at Peking consists of three circular marble +terraces, the uppermost of which is paved with eighty-one stones +arranged in circles. It is on a round stone in the centre of these +circles that the Emperor kneels and is considered to occupy the +centre of the earth. In the worship of Heaven, offerings are made +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the heavenly bodies, the Sun, Moon, the Pole-star, Great Bear, +five planets and twenty-eight constellations. The worship at the +altar of Earth consists of offerings to the mountains, rivers and +seas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This arrangement is strikingly unlike that of the ancient Mexicans, +who associated the sun only with the Above, the male +principle and the blue heaven, and worshipped the nocturnal +heaven, the moon and stars, with the earth, darkness and the female +principle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to note the marked effect, produced by the two +different modes of classification, upon the subsequent development +of the state religions of China and Mexico. In the latter country +where the contrast of light and darkness and of the duality of +nature seems to have been most powerfully felt, the gradual institution, +on a footing of equality of a diurnal masculine and nocturnal +feminine cult or of a separate sun and moon worship, led to the +formation of two equally powerful castes of priest-astronomers +who devised their respective calendars and cults and ultimately +stood in open rivalry and antagonism towards each other, as children +of heaven and light: sun worshippers; and children of earth +and darkness: moon worshippers. In China, as the cult of earth +was subordinate from the first and all heavenly bodies were included +in the worship of Heaven, there was no opportunity for +any rivalry to develop in the superior caste of astronomers who +jointly ruled, instituted their calendar and altered it under influences +emanating from India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Heaven and Earth were jointly worshipped at the same altar +until A.D. 1531, when it was decreed that there should be separate +altars and that the worship of Earth should be separately conducted +(Edkins). At the same time, while the Emperor acts as the +high-priest of Heaven, we find associated with him, from remote +antiquity, the Empress, the representative of the Earth-mother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the roll of Chinese emperors records heavenly and +earthly, light and sombre, emperors, and that empresses have repeatedly +occupied the throne, seems to indicate that, in remote +antiquity, a male and a female line of rulers, personifying the dual +principles of nature, alternately assumed prominence in power. +This natural outgrowth of the cult of heaven and earth, which has +its parallel in Mexico, seems to afford an explanation of the usurpation +and retention of power exercised by the present Empress +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of China, who is probably ruling in her own right, as the representative +of the earth or dark principle. As such she is the exact +equivalent to the ancient Mexican Cihua-coatl, or <span class="tei tei-q">“Woman-serpent;”</span> +and modern China supplies us with an episode in the development +of the fundamental set of ideas it holds in common with +ancient America, closely resembling the historical dissension which +led in ancient Mexico to a separation of the two cults and the +establishment of two separate governments, under their respective +male and female rulers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although the difference in primitive Chinese and Mexican definitions +of heaven and earth worship is evidently accountable for +this fact, it is nevertheless interesting to note that it was in A.D. +1531 only that the Chinese cult of heaven and earth separated and +the process of disintegration began to be set into activity. From +an evolutionary point of view, the imperial religion of China stands +to-day at a far less advanced stage of development than the prehistoric +Mexican state religion. This circumstance might be passed +over without comment did it not strikingly coincide with the undeniable +fact that the essentially inorganic and monosyllabic Chinese +language stands far lower in the scale of linguistic development than +the incorporative and polysynthetic American languages, the most +perfected types of which are the Maya and the beautiful and refined +Nahuatl which abounds in delicate metaphors and formulas of +exquisite politeness, indicative of the high degree of culture and +antiquity of the native race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the preceding comparative study of the Chinese and ancient +Mexican civilizations be briefly summarized, the result is as +follows: Both civilizations alike rest on a foundation of pole-star +worship and the set of ideas which naturally proceed from +this <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, central impartial power extending in constant rotation +to the four quarters, figured by the swastika, and the recognition +of the all-pervading duality of nature. These primitive +concepts and their inevitable outgrowths, which might naturally +occur to human beings of the same grade of intellect in similar +conditions and circumstances and be most powerfully impressed +upon the mind of man in circumpolar latitudes beside a few resemblances +in names, which I shall proceed to point out, are nearly +all that the Chinese and ancient Mexicans may be safely said +to have had in common. At a date obviously anterior to 2356 +B.C., when they were formulated, the Chinese had made definitions +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of heaven and earth and of the five elements which radically differ +from those of the ancient Mexicans and Mayas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Chinese numerical system or calendar, though equally based +on rotation, and known to have been modified by contact with India, +is essentially different from the American. When carefully +compared it must be acknowledged that the Mexican is by far the +more complex and highly developed, and the same may be said of +the social organization, which was controlled by the calendar. A +comparison between the Chinese and American languages in general +proves, moreover, that they differ not only in sound, but in +form and in grade of development, the Chinese being the lower in +the scale. To the above divergences we must add the fact that +each people evolved distinct national customs and costumes, foods +and drinks, industries, arts and forms of architecture, so markedly +characteristic as to be clearly distinguishable. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion a few words about the swastika in China (ouan). +Its Chinese name is wan, which signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“ten thousand,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“all,”</span> +also <span class="tei tei-q">“many,”</span> a great number. At the time of the Empress Wu +(A.D. 684-704) the swastika in a circle signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the sun;”</span> half +a swastika in the circle <span class="tei tei-q">“the moon,”</span> and the plain circle <span class="tei tei-q">“the +star.”</span> Deferring comment I emphasize here the fact that the +word wan resembles kwan=equal earth or land, and that it signifies +an entity composed of ten thousand parts. A proof that the +wan was also associated with the idea of time is given by the +modern use of the Chinese swastika to signify <span class="tei tei-q">“long life,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“many +years,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, a complete life, a complete cycle of years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A prolonged study of the most ancient civilization of America, +which centred in Mexico and Central America and thence spread +northward and southward, has so deeply convinced me of its great +antiquity, isolation and prolonged period of independent evolution +that, when Asiatic origin and influence are discussed, I am tempted +to take the national food-plant of America, the maize, and, placing +it beside the rice-plant of China, invite comparisons to be made +between them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +JAPAN. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a curious fact that, although it is recognized that the +junks which have been repeatedly driven by storms upon the Pacific +coast have generally been Japanese, no searching comparison +between the culture of ancient America and that of Japan +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +has as yet been published; although it is believed by many that +it may have been to the occupants of the wrecked junks that the +American race owed its civilization. The curious idea seems to +prevail among some writers, that purely Chinese influence was +conveyed by Japanese fishermen and sailors to the dwellers on +American soil. It does not seem to be sufficiently recognized that +the differences between Japanese and Chinese civilizations are as +great as that between their different languages and writings, and +that direct influence derived from Japan, for many centuries back +would have left traces so characteristic as to be easily distinguished +from the effects of direct influence from China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the third century of the Christian era the Japanese empire +was founded on a plan derived from Corea and soon became known +to the Chinese and dwellers on the main land as Dschi-Poennkwo, +or Zipanco, the <span class="tei tei-q">“land of the east, or of the rising sun.”</span> The +Japanese themselves, however, regarded their empire as the <span class="tei tei-q">“great +centre of the world,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> a <span class="tei tei-q">“Middle Kingdom.”</span> The +mythical birthplace of the Japanese race and the cradle of its civilization +is said to have been the island of the Congealed Drop, which was +formerly at the North Pole, but subsequently removed to its present +position. How this happened is not told.<a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most superficial examination shows that the fundamental +scheme of the Japanese empire was the same as that of China +and other Asiatic countries. Its centre was the island Hon-shiu, +Hondo or Nippon, on which was situated the ancient Fu or capital, +named Yedo; the modern Tokio in the vicinity of Fusiyama, the +sacred mountain and reputed centre of the world. The entire land +or Han was originally divided into five provinces collectively named +the Go-kinai (the word go like the Maya ho, signifying five), the +territorial divisions and presumably consisting of four quarters and +the capital. Light is thrown upon the extent of this quinary organization +by the fact that, in ancient Japan, time was divided +into five-day periods, by official days of rest, which fell on the +1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st, and 26th days of each month. The +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +computation of time by cycles, which will be treated further in a +separate monograph, also prevailed in Japan, as might be expected, +since this method was a main feature of the definite scheme +on which the entire empire was founded. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In accord with this plan the population was divided into four +classes, consisting of the Haimin=the people; the warriors or +Samurai, the Kazoku, literally the flower of families, the nobility. +All members of the imperial family formed a fourth caste and +above all stood the Emperor, the central ruler, the divine descendant +of the sun-goddess Amaterasu. Evidences that an extension and +fresh territorial division of the empire took place at one time seem +preserved in the ancient Japanese name for Japan: Oya-shima=the +eight islands. It is likewise related that the Japanese creators, +Izanajo and Izanami, built, in the centre of the world, an octagonal +palace around a central pillar, the octagonal form having +reference to the eight holy corners or points, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Hak-kaku,”</span> or +the cardinal points and half cardinal points. It is impossible to +overlook the fact that by a similar method, but by means of four +larger and four smaller rays, the field of the Mexican calendar +star is divided into eight equal portions. It is a well-known fact +that, in 1854, Japan was practically governed by two rulers: +the Mikado or Tenno, of divine or <span class="tei tei-q">“heavenly”</span> descent, who led +so secluded an existence that he was becoming a shadowy and +invisible ruler, and the Shogun, the civil governor, who had become +the terrestrial ruler <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></span>, and whose power was +in the ascendant. This state of affairs affords a most interesting +object lesson, teaching how ancient empires gradually become divided +and disintegrated under dual government and under the +influence of rival cults. The ancient state religion or <span class="tei tei-q">“Imperial +worship”</span> of Japan, the Shinto, was becoming as obsolete as the +worldly power of its high-priest the Mikado, next to the growing +ascendancy of Buddhism, supported by the Shogunate. The original +meaning of the Shinto sacred symbols appears to be lost. +The mirror, placed on the altar, usually constituted the only visible +sacred emblem. Another was the sword. It is claimed that the +swastika came into Japan with Buddhism, but this is a point which +demands a serious investigation of competent specialists. The +above data, which are absurdly inadequate to the interest and importance +of Japan, the seat of the most intellectual and progressive +culture of Asia, are sufficient to show that in Japan, where the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +swastika is found, the quadruplicate state organization and fundamental +plan were also carried out. My full purpose will only be +fulfilled when the present deficient notes shall have stimulated the +enquiry and research of students and Japanese scholars and led +to the publication of all traces extant of the most ancient scheme +of organization, government and calendar, as compared with those +of ancient America. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As it is maintained that the Chinese and other eastern Asiatic +people did not originate, but received their civilization from Babylonia, +or another ancient centre, situated in western Asia, it +obviously becomes an imperative necessity to carry the present +investigation across the Asiatic continent into the heart of the +Euphratean valley. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +INDIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Being one of the ancient centres of civilization from which the +Chinese are said to have derived theirs, India, the country where +the swastika abounds, first arrests our attention. In support of +the assertion I have already advanced, that the primitive symbol is +always found accompanied by a set of ideas almost as ancient as +itself, I have pleasure in transcribing the following detached but +instructive and suggestive extracts from my note-book. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fair Arya or Aryans, after about 2,000 B.C., penetrated +India from the northwest. Arya means <span class="tei tei-q">“those who command”</span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“the venerable.”</span> The name Hindu or Sindu was given to the +Indian Aryans. Our knowledge of Hindu art begins in the third +century B.C. and none of the present popular forms of Hindu +religion are presumed to be earlier than the ninth century A.D. +<span class="tei tei-q">“It is well known that the Brahman system and faith were not +developed by the Hindus till they had conquered the Ganges, +Western and Southern India and there is no trace of this tradition +or even of Brahma as a deity in the Vedas.”</span>... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The supreme god of antiquity was Indra ... next to and +above whom was the mysterious god Varuna, the creator, who +gave eternal laws which god and men were obliged to follow. He +showed the stars their paths and gave each creature his qualities.... +He is the sun by day and the stars at night”</span>.... From +these statements the duality of the creator and his power over +both light and darkness alike, stand out clearly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another form of the supreme being was the sun god Surya, who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was also named Savitri, the generator, Pushan=the feeder and +Mithra=the light-god, who is called the watcher and ruler of +the world and was associated with the wheel, which is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the +most ancient symbol of divine power and dominion.”</span><a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In India the wheel was, moreover, connected with the title of +a chakrayartin (from chakra=a wheel), the title meaning a supreme +ruler or universal monarch, who ruled the four quarters of +the world and on his coronation he had to drive his chariot or wheel +to the four cardinal points to signify his conquest of them”</span> (Wm. +Simpson, Quarterly statement of Palestine Expl. Fund, 1895, +p. 84). It is significant that <span class="tei tei-q">“Mithra,”</span> the god of the wheel, who +was, as I shall show later on, likewise associated with the serpent, +is represented with a chariot pulled by seven horses and thus to +find the idea of centrifugal power, combined with the numeral +seven and the conception of central rulership extending to the four +quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the above passages afford an interesting insight into the +ancient significance and symbolism of the chariot, the use of which, +with that of the throne was, originally, exclusively confined to the +central supreme ruler, they also furnish a curious parallelism to the +Chinese tours of inspection performed, by the emperor, to the four +provinces in rotation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The general application of the quadruplicate system is moreover +shown by the fact that, from time immemorial, the population +of India has been divided into four great castes, and these are +associated with distinctive colors, the Sanscrit word for color, +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">varna</span></span>, signifying also caste. According to the native +myth, Brahma created the Brahmin or ruling caste from his mouth, the +warrior caste from his arms and hands, the merchant and agricultural +caste from his hips and the artisan or lowest caste from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +soles of his feet. The warrior caste was named Kschatria; the +people the yellow, or Vaicya; the original, conquered inhabitants +of India were named the black, or Sudra. The Brahman caste was +above all these. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Concerning the origin of the Brahmans, it is related that <span class="tei tei-q">“Manu +was created ... he, in turn created ten great sages, the ancestors +of the Brahmans. These created <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seven</span></em> other Manus or +spiritual princes, the preservers of moral orders in the world”</span> +(Goodyear). Pointing out that the seven Manus evidently constituted +a septarchy, let us now study the Brahmanistic conception of +a supreme divinity. From various authorities we learn that, in +later times <span class="tei tei-q">“the Brahmans invented a new god, the impersonal +Brahma, who only appears in the youngest portion of the Vedas.”</span> +He is described as <span class="tei tei-q">“the supreme One who alone exists really and +absolutely,”</span> and is represented with four heads and four arms, the +idea of four-fold power and rule being thus expressed. The proof +that, at the same time, the idea of duality existed, is furnished by +the invention of a female counterpart of Brahma, namely, his consort +Sarawati and the later development of the rival religions which +now exist side by side and divide the population of India into +halves. The cult of Vishnu, associated with the male principle, +though curiously blended with the principle of preservation, is obviously +a parallel form of the American and Chinese cult of the +Above or Heaven; while that of Siva, or the female principle, +strongly mingled with the idea of destruction, forms a parallel to +the cult of the Earth-mother and of darkness and the nocturnal +heaven. Brahma was born of an egg and is also figured as springing +from a lotus which, in turn rises from the navel of Vishnu or +Narayana, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Spirit moving on the waters.”</span>...<a id="noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In modern Buddhism the identical fundamental ideas continue +to exist in a slightly different form; the six directions in space are +known and elaborately worshipped. The embodiment of central +power is Buddha, seated cross-legged on a lotus flower. According +to Birdwood, cited by Mr. Goodyear, <span class="tei tei-q">“In the Hindu cosmogony +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the world is likened to a lotus flower, floating in the centre +of a shallow circular vessel, which has for its stalk an elephant and +for its pedestal a tortoise. The seven petals of the lotus flower +represent the seven divisions of the world as known to the ancient +Hindus and the tabular torus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nelumbium speciosum</span></span>) which rises +from their centre represents Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the statues of Buddha, thus associated with the centre of +the world, we have what may be termed the highest development +of the idea of stability, quietude and absolute repose which impressed +itself upon the human mind by the observation of Polaris. +The abstract conception of Nirvana, <span class="tei tei-q">“the state in which all individuality +and consciousness are lost, and life and death, good and evil, +and every other possible antithesis disappear in absolute unity,”</span> +appears to me to be the natural ultimate outgrowth of the primitive +appreciation of stability and repose as the most desirable of +conditions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An ancient American priest-astronomer, imbued with the native +ideas, would doubtlessly see in the modern figures of Buddha a +more perfect artistic rendition of the same conception which was +expressed in the Copan swastika. He might remark that, in the +statues of Buddha, the human form is intended to convey the idea +of quadruple organization and that in certain images the primitive +symbols of the centre, <span class="tei tei-q">“the belly and navel,”</span> are obviously emphasized. +In the fakirs, who cultivate immobility, he might see +people who are under the absolute dominion of the ideal of stability +and detect the origin of this suggestion from the fact that +the swastika position of either arms or legs is a favorite one +among Hindoo fanatics, just as, out of devotion, many persons +have swastikas painted or tattooed upon their limbs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to note the peculiar result attained by the Buddhists +in their development of the twin idea of permanence, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +immutability or immortality, as shown in the following quotation: +<span class="tei tei-q">“There is a remarkable distinction between the Buddhism of China +and of Tibet. In regard to philosophy there is little or no difference, +but in Tibet there is a hierarchy which exercises political +power. In China this could not be. The Grand Lama and many +other lamas in Mongolia and Tibet assume the title of <span class="tei tei-q">‘Living +Buddha.’</span> In him, most of all, Buddha is incarnate, as the people +are taught to think. He never dies. When the body, in which +Buddha is for the time incarnate, ceases to perform its functions, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +some infant is chosen by the priests, who are intrusted with the +duty of selecting, to become the residence of Buddha until, in +turn, it grows up to manhood and dies. No Buddhist priest in +China pretends to be a <span class="tei tei-q">‘living Buddha’</span> or to have a right to the +exercise of political power. In Tibet, on the other hand, the +Grand Lama, as chief of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘living Buddhas,’</span> not only holds +the place of the historical Buddha long since dead, acting as a sort +of high-priest, but he also exercises sovereignty over the country +of Tibet ruling the laity as well as the clergy and being only subordinate +to the lord paramount, the Emperor of China”</span> (Edkins, +Religion in China, p. 8). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The form of the Buddhist temples exemplifies in a striking manner +the relative positions of Buddha and the gods. Four kings of +the gods are represented in the vestibule. Their office is to guard +the door by which entrance is obtained to the presence of Buddha.... +The central position is that of Buddha, who is seated on +the lotus flower in the attitude of a teacher....”</span> (Edkins). +In this attitude an ancient American high-priest would see the +graphic representation of one of the titles of the star-god Polaris, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the teacher of the world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The association of Buddha with the north and with the number +seven is curiously shown in the mythical account that <span class="tei tei-q">“when Buddha +was born a lotus blossomed where he touched the ground; he +stepped seven steps northward and a lotus marked each footfall.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Distinct evidence of the ancient cult of Polaris is yielded by +the Hindu marriage custom, which I have found described thus in +Meyer's conversations Lexikon: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the evening the bride and +bridegroom seat themselves on the hide of a red ox, after making +the usual offerings.... Then the bridegroom points out the +pole-star to the bride and says: <span class="tei tei-q">‘the heaven is firm, also the +earth; the universe is stedfast, so mayest thou be stedfast in our +family’</span>....”</span> The symbolism of the act of sharing the ox-hide +as a seat becomes apparent when it is realized that the name for +cow or ox=go, also signifies possessions and riches, a conception +which is traceable to a period when cattle constituted the chief +and most valued possession of pastoral tribes. The veneration +accorded in India to the cow is well known and travellers have +frequently described the sacred statue of a cow, which is seven +feet in height and stands next to the sacred well of the temple at +Benares. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with the reference to the pole-star made by the +Hindu bridegroom, it is noteworthy that the Sanscrit for star is +stri, tara, for stara; Hindu sitara, tara and Bengal stara and that +variants of the same word constitute the name for star in Latin, +Greek, Gothic, Old and Anglo Saxon, Welsh, Icelandic, Swedish, +Danish and Basque, in which language it appears as izarra, recalling +the Hindu sitara and, if I may venture to say so, the Nahuatl +word for star, citlallin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The supreme veneration and importance accorded in India to the +North, from time immemorial, are shown by passages of the book +of Manu, which prescribe the severe penances which were to be +performed by the Brahmans who attained advanced age. He <span class="tei tei-q">“is +to inflict all sorts of tortures upon himself and when he falls ill in +consequence, he is to set out to walk to the northwest, towards the +holy mountain Meru, until his mortal frame breaks down and he +unites himself with Brahma.”</span> It is likewise stated that when a +Brahman king grew old and ill he was obliged to abdicate in favor +of his son and voluntarily seek death in battle or by starvation, +whilst wandering towards the holy mountain Meru, in the northwest. +I point out the curious parallelism of this custom, which +was carried out during countless centuries and determined a periodical +migration towards the northwest of venerable sages, presumably +accompanied by faithful followers, and the search for the +stable centre of the world which caused the wanderings of American +tribes under their chiefs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to various encyclopædias and general works of reference, +Brahma is said to have made the world in two parts, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, +heaven and earth; placed air between both and made the eight regions, +fire and the eternal waters. The mythical mountain Meru, +on the summit of which the supreme power is said to be enthroned +in eternal majesty, is the traditional paradise and is supposed +to lie somewhere in the northwest of the Himalayas. It is +situated in the centre of the seven zones in which the earth is divided, +thence its name Meru=the Middle. The association of the +central mountain with divinity and eternal stability is further shown +by the statement that the sun, moon and stars circled about it +and that it supported the heaven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the natural complement to the above, I can cite the following +evidences of an all-pervading quadruplicate division and organization, +as set forth in an ancient manuscript which was brought +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from India by Count Angelo de Gubernatis and exhibited in +Florence in 1898, by Mr. Pullé, in an extremely instructive series +of native maps of India: 1. In the oldest maps, the empire of +India was represented as a disk, divided into a number of concentric +zones, in the centre of which arose the sacred mountain. 2. +These representations were, in several cases, accompanied by representations +of the swastika obviously representing quadruplicate +territorial division. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On Mount Meru itself there were four lakes respectively filled +with milk, butter, coagulated milk and sugar. Four great rivers +flowed from the mountain towards the cardinal points, namely, the +Ganges, issuing from the mouth of a cow, the Sita from the head +of the elephant; the Bhadra from a tiger or lion and the Chaksu +from a horse. According to Buddhistic mythology, the sacred +mountain Meru, which constitutes the centre of the world, is +guarded by four hero <span class="tei tei-q">“kings of demons.”</span> Their names are as follows: +1. Kubera or Vaisrānana, the god of wealth, who lives in +the north, whose attributes are the lance and banner, the rat which +throws forth jewels from its mouth. 2. Virūdhaka, who rules the +south, and whose attributes are the helmet in the form of an elephant's +head, and a long sword. 3. Virūpāksha, the guardian of +the west: attributes, the jewel and the serpent. 4 Dhrtarāshtra, +the ruler of the east: attribute, the mandoline. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An interesting parallelism is brought out by a comparison between +the ancient Mexican mode of producing the sacred fire by +means of a reed and a piece of wood and its symbolism of the +mystic union of the two principles of nature, to the origin of fire +as told in the Veda and the ceremonial mode employed in India to +produce the sacred fire by means of the mystic arani and the pramantha. +The difference between the ancient American and Indian +apparatus should be noticed. The two arani, made of the wood of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ficus religiosa</span></span>, were placed crosswise. <span class="tei tei-q">“At their junction was a +fossette or cup-like hole and there they placed a piece of wood +upright, in the form of a lance (the pramantha), violent rotation +of which by means of whipping, produced fire, as did Prometheus, +the bearer of fire in Greece”</span> (Bournouf, Des Sciences et Religions +and Prof. Thomas Wilson, The Swastika, p. 777). A remarkable +relation unquestionably exists between the two mystic arani, which, +crossed, form a four-branched cross from the centre of which fire is +produced by rotation and the almost universal identification of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Polaris and Ursa Major, as the central source of life, power extending +to four directions, rotation and duality underlying quadruplicity. +In my opinion no more graphic presentation of the rotation +of Ursa Major around Polaris, the central ruler of heaven, +could have been devised than the cross figure from the centre of +which fire was perpetually obtained. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is all the more significant, therefore, to find it stated that the +ancient Aryan light-god, Mithra, was worshipped under the form of +fire. I point out that, in a representation published by Layard in his +Culte de Mithra and reproduced here (fig. <a href="#Figure_72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>, +1) from Mr. Goodyear's +work, a man and a woman are represented as worshipping a star, +the scene so strongly recalling the portion of the Hindu marriage +ceremony where the pole-star is pointed out, that an identity of scene +suggests itself. Returning to the swastika: its meaning in India +appears to be forgotten; but, according to Professor Thomas Wilson, +a follower of the Jain religion expressed the opinion that <span class="tei tei-q">“the +original idea was very high, but later on some persons thought the +swastika represented only the combination of the male and female +principles”</span> (Thomas Wilson, On the Swastika, p. 803). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the Hindu, holding this view and also accustomed to associate +the pole-star with the marriage rite, there must exist a curious +band of union and identity between Polaris and the swastika, both +connected with the combination of the male and female principles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To treat of the Hindu calendar and division of time would be +to transgress beyond the limits of the present investigation which +has already assumed unforeseen dimensions. As I shall discuss +it in detail in my monograph on the ancient Mexican Calendar +system, it will suffice to recall here that Humboldt pointed out the +resemblance between the latter and the Hindu system, and that +this has been further dwelt upon for instance in the article on the +subject in the Encyclopædia Britannica. In the same work of +reference it is also stated that, <span class="tei tei-q">“according to the conclusions of +Delambre, the Hindoo knowledge of astronomy was greatly inferior +to that of the Greeks, and it has been argued by Laplace, in opposition +to the previous opinions of Bailly, that the Indian astronomy +is not of the highest antiquity, but must have been imperfectly +borrowed from the Greeks.”</span> I may as well state here, however, +that, in India as in Mexico, the divisions of time were in accordance +with the general scheme, and enabled human activity and labor to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be controlled and carried out by means of rotation, and with +strict impartial law, order and harmony. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing here and with a clear realization of probable omissions +and deficiencies of material, I venture to believe that the foregoing +data suffice to establish beyond a doubt the point which is the +main object of the present essay, namely, that in India the swastika +is found accompanied by the primordial set of ideas which +also form the basis of the Chinese and ancient American civilizations. +The Middle is, moreover, associated in India with the idea +of immovability, repose and centrifugal power and rule, incorporated +in the supreme divinity whose symbol is the wheel and who +is represented as dual and quadruple in nature, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> with four +hands (as two persons), and with four heads (four persons), the six persons +thus symbolized being united in the person of the seventh, +the synopsis of them all. The seven-day period; the seven zones +of the earth; the seven divine footsteps towards the north; the +seven councillors of the Brahmin king, etc., all prove that, whereas +six directions in space were worshipped in India, they were inseparable +from the sacred seventh which united all of them. The mythical +sacred mountain Meru, the throne of the supreme eternal power, +constituted the fixed centre of the world and strikingly exemplified +quadruplicate division and organization, being associated with four +lakes and four rivers; four mythical animals and four guardians. In +consonance with this plan Brahma was endowed with four heads and +four hands; the empire was divided into four quarters and seven +zones, and the population into four castes identified with four +colors, and governed by a king and seven councillors. The wheel, +associated in the case of Mithra with the serpent, constituted the +emblem of supreme dominion and rule which was connected with +the idea of an extension to the four quarters. The swastika was +but another expression of the same idea and represented also an +image of the universal scheme. This sign and the pole-star were +both associated, in the native mind, with the life-producing union +of the male and female principles of nature and the sacred element +fire, under which form the supreme god was anciently worshipped. +The lotus flower symbolized the universe, its unity and complexity; +the number of petals represented usually agreeing with +the number of the cosmical divisions. Two points should further +be briefly referred to: The division of time into seven-day periods +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +coincides with the septenary scheme of organization resting upon +the seven directions in space. The sacred soma tree, the hom, was +an object of cult in India. The custom of planting a Bodhi tree +wherever Buddhist missionaries established their doctrine indicates +its association with the idea of an established centre. The +employment of wooden sticks for the production of the sacred fire +under which form the supreme central god was anciently worshipped, +also connected wood and the tree with the sacred Centre. Deferring +a discussion of the different and yet analogous way in which the +fundamental set of ideas was worked out in America and India, I +shall but mention here how clearly, in each case, the ultimate results +can be traced back to a common primitive and natural origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MESOPOTAMIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now carry our research into that region whence civilization +spread through western Asia, and is said to have been carried +to Egypt, Greece and Rome. It may be a surprise to many to +learn that, at the present day, on the banks of the Euphrates, in +Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, pure and simple, is openly professed +by the Mandaïtes who are reputed to be the descendants of +the famous Magi of ancient Chaldea, and are termed Sabba or +Sabans by the Moslems. It will be seen that these star-watchers +have preserved intact an extremely ancient form of the archaic +cult which contains the living germ of all primitive religions and +represents an evolutionary stage which they must all have +undergone. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is to the kindness of a friend that I owe the knowledge of an +article on a Mandaïte New Year festival which appeared in the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Standard”</span> some years ago and which I reproduce in full as +Appendix <a href="#Appendix_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. As might be expected, the Euphratean +star-gazers, like the Chinese, determined midnight by the position of the Great +Bear. It is interesting to find, moreover, that the spiritual head +of the sect is entitled Gan-zivro, and is closely escorted by four +young deacons, named sh-kan-dos, as well as by four priests=tarmidos, +and four sub-deacons. The circumstance that the +consecrated group of officiants consists of 12+1=13 individuals +is particularly suggestive. Not less so are the employment of the +tau-shaped cross and the sacrifice of a quadruped to the lord of the +underworld and his companion (the lord of the upper world?). +The ceremonial immersion in the starlit river is a curious parallel +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the midnight bathing in the sacred pool attached to the ancient +Mexican temple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The formulas employed in addressing the pole-star deserve special +consideration. In the designation of the stable centre of heaven +as <span class="tei tei-q">“the abode of the pious hereafter and the paradise of the elect,”</span> +the natural longings of the human race for stability, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> safety +and repose, find an expression and in this we can detect the germ +of thought whose extreme development, in India, produced the +comparatively philosophical doctrine of Nirvana. The title of +<span class="tei tei-q">“Primitive Sun”</span> enlightens us as to the original use of the word sun +and the supreme importance accorded by the ancient star-gazers to +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Imperial ruler of heaven,”</span> as the Chinese term the pole-star. +This application of the word sun will be found particularly interesting +to those who, having found the swastika termed a <span class="tei tei-q">“sun-symbol,”</span> +have naturally been led to associate it with the diurnal sun, +although they found it difficult to understand its connection with +the rotatory motion so clearly discernible in the form of the primitive +symbol. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having ascertained that the Mandaïte pole-star worship of the +present day embodies the cult of the sacred centre and of dual principles +(one of which is designated as the lord of the underworld) +and is associated with quadruple organization and a form of +cross, let us now make a great stride backwards and note some +details concerning ancient Sabæan star-worship. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ARABIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In remote antiquity, star-worship prevailed throughout Arabia +and one of its great centres was the flourishing land of Saba +or Sheba, whose queen visited Solomon at Jerusalem. The star-cult +of the Sabæans is acknowledged to have resembled that +of the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and +India. We are told that a certain sect amongst them <span class="tei tei-q">“believed in +a great cycle of time in which certain epochs of the world's history +recurred”</span>—an idea akin to ancient Mexican speculative philosophy. +It is also stated that one of the chief centres of Sabæism +was the town of Harran in Mesopotamia and that, although surrounded +by Christianity, this ancient form of star-worship maintained +itself here until the Middle Ages. The possibility that the +Mandaïtes of to-day may be the descendants of the ancient inhabitants +of Harran is naturally suggested by this historical fact. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +A curious detail concerning monarchical succession in Sheba has +been preserved to us. The king was kept in an enforced seclusion +in his palace and incurred the penalty of death if he left it. His +office was not hereditary but fell to the first son who was born +amongst the nobility, after a king's accession to the throne. In +this custom, a curious parallel of which is furnished by the Thibetan +mode of electing the <span class="tei tei-q">“living Buddha,”</span> some readers may be +inclined to find an explanation for the massacre of the babes ordered +by Herod when he learned that the wise men of the East, +guided by a star, had designated <span class="tei tei-q">“a young child”</span> as the future +<span class="tei tei-q">“King of the Jews.”</span> It is an interesting reflection that, to many +of his contemporaries, the establishment of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Kingdom of +Heaven,”</span> announced by the Messiah, may have appeared as a +movement to revive the most ancient form of government and to +reinstate Jerusalem as the central metropolis of an empire, the +organization of which would have resembled the Chinese and ancient +American forms of <span class="tei tei-q">“Middle Kingdoms,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Celestial Empires.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ideal of many of these descendants of ancient pole-star +worshippers may well have been the reversion to the primitive, +pure type of single central, celestial and terrestrial rule which had +been superseded in western Asia by the pernicious growth of the +utterly abasing and demoralizing separate cults of the dual principles +of nature. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A curious remnant of the worship of the Earth-mother and of +the stable centre of the world, recalling ancient American symbolism, +exists in Arabia and merits a passing notice. <span class="tei tei-q">“The great holy +place of Jiddah, the principal landing place of the pilgrims to +Mecca, on the eastern coast of the Red sea, is the singular tomb of +<span class="tei tei-q">‘our mother Eve’</span> surrounded by the principal cemetery. The tomb +is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the body +about 200 paces long and 15 feet wide. At the head is a small +erection where gifts are deposited and rather more than half way +down a whitewashed dome encloses a small, dark chapel, within +which is the black stone known as el-surrah=the navel. The +grave of Eve is mentioned by Edrisi but, except the black stone, +nothing bears any aspect of antiquity”</span> (Encycl. Brit., article +Jiddah). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the Arabian appellation for Mecca is om-el-kora=<span class="tei tei-q">“the +mother of cities”</span> deserves special attention. Exactly in the +centre of the city is the mosque enclosing the kaaba, a structure +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the only door of which opens to the north. It contains the celebrated +black sacred stone and a trough, reputed to be of pure +gold, which conducts freshly fallen rain water to the interior of +the building and pours it upon its floor of dark earth. The following +details are given in a recently published account by an +anonymous visitor: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Moslems believe that the original Kaaba was built in heaven +two thousand years before the creation of the world and that, at +the command of the Almighty, angels walked around it in adoration. +Furthermore, they said that Adam built the first Kaaba on +earth on its present site, directly under the one in heaven.... +Long before the time of Mahomet, the Kaaba was a place of worship +for the idolatrous Arabs and in it they had no less than 360 +idols, one for each day of the Arabian year. These were destroyed +by Mahomet....”</span> Beside the pilgrimages to the Kaaba pious +Mussulmans also visit the sacred granite mountains the <span class="tei tei-q">“Arafat +where Adam is supposed to have met Eve after a long separation.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Summarized, the preceding facts clearly show that, from a remote +antiquity, the Arabians have preserved the conception of (1) +a divine, celestial, stable sanctuary around which <span class="tei tei-q">“angels”</span> walked +in a circle. (2) A terrestrial sanctuary built by man directly beneath +the heavenly one and associated with the period of a year, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> 360 days. (3) In the sacred terrestrial kaaba the mystic +union of rain and earth is made to take place, while (4) Mount +Arafat is connected with the traditional reunion of Adam and Eve. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is unnecessary to point out the significant association of an +annual count of days with the stable centre and its importance as +an indication that the ancient Arabian star-gazers originally associated +the year period with circumpolar rotation. The analogy between +the Arabian ideas concerning the dual principles of nature +and those of other nations is also too marked to be easily overlooked. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nor need I emphasize how strikingly the imagery of the celestial +kaaba suits Polaris and the circumpolar constellations. But I shall +now proceed to point out that the word kaaba itself curiously resembles +star-names which are given by Mr. Robert Brown in his +recent valuable publication to which I shall revert, namely, the +Akkadian name for constellation in general=kakkab and the Babylonian +and Assyrian name for the pole-star=Kakkabu. In this connection +and upon Professor Sayce's authority I cite the significant +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fact that the word for north and for the empire and capital of northern +Babylonia was Akkad, and that we thus find in North Babylonia +a great centre of government the name of which contains the +syllables ak-ka which recur in the appellations for north and for +Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following star-names, given by Mr. Robert Brown, are of +utmost interest considering that a star in Draconis was the pole-star +of 2170 B.C. and that in general the serpent was indissolubly +connected with the pole-star. <span class="tei tei-q">“The constellation Drakon is Phœnician=Kanaanite +in origin and represented primarily the nâkkâsch +qodmun (old serpent)=the guardian of the stars (golden apples) +which hang from the pole tree. It is called the crooked serpent=nakkasch +in Job <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxvi</span></span>:13 ...”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, p. 29). I further +cite Mr. Brown's authority for the fact that in Phœnicia A.D., 1200, +the name for Ursa Major was Dubkabir and for Ursa Minor, Dub. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before returning to the Euphratean valley let us note some facts +concerning the ancient religion of +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +PERSIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The swastika is found in Persia as well as a sacred mountain, +the Elburl. The supreme divinity was the invisible Ahuramazda, +the <span class="tei tei-q">“creator of heaven and earth,”</span> who was associated with +<span class="tei tei-q">“eternal light”</span> and appears to be identical with the ancient Aryan +god of light, Mithra, the watcher and ruler of the world, who was +worshipped under the form of fire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mithra and Ahuramazda alike are associated with six spirits +named the Amesha-zpenta, who are said, in the first case, to be +personifications of the sun, moon, fire, earth, water and air, and +in the second, of certain qualities of the supreme power, namely, +law, power, goodness, piety, health and immortality, abstract conceptions +which evidently pertain to a more advanced intellectual +stage. The septarchy thus formed by Mithra and his Amesha +appears to assign the Middle to him and to associate the sun with +the day, heaven, light and the Above, the moon with the night and +darkness and the Below, and the elements with the Four Quarters. +It is suggestive of four-fold rule and power to find, on a bas-relief +found at the ancient holy city Pasargada, the Persian king Cyrus +represented with four wings and a diadem with two uræus +serpents like that of Egyptian kings. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most ancient Persian monarch is said to have been Haha-manis +or Akhamanis, who was termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the king of Anshan.”</span> +Subsequent kings bore the title of Hakhamanisija, as for instance, +Cyrus and Darius I (520-486 B.C.). At the present day, the +title Charkan is that employed to designate the Shah, whereas +goda or khoda signifies lord, master, prince or ruler. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a bas-relief published by Spamer, whose work of reference +will be referred to again later on, Darius is represented as standing +under the image of Ahuramazda, the supreme deity, who, like +the Assyrian god Assur, is figured as a king wearing the royal +cap, and issuing from the centre of a winged ring or circlet. In +Persia the god holds another ring in his hand (fig. <a href="#Figure_71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>, 1). +It seems impossible to emphasize more strongly or express more clearly the +idea that Ahuramazda was the lord of the circle and of the Above, +the wings being emblematic of air or heaven and of motion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The signification of the symbolical representation of the supreme +power and the adoption of fire by the founders of the ancient +Parsee religion as the most appropriate image of their highest god, +become clear when interpreted as the outcome of pole-star worship. +Resisting the temptation to prolong the study of ancient Persia, +let us now hasten to the reputed cradle of the civilization of Western +Asia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Babylonians were from the first a nation of star gazers.... +The cuneiform character which denotes a god is the picture +of a star”</span> (Sayce <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>). <span class="tei tei-q">“The Babylonian and Assyrian-name +for Ursa Minor was Kakkabu; the Hebrew, Kokhâbh; and +the Euphratean, Kochab, which means, <span class="tei tei-q">‘<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></em> star <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">present</span></em>,’</span> +a title which reminds us of its former supreme importance as the pole-star.... +In various Babylonian tablets we meet a star-god +called Imina-bi=the seven-fold one.”</span><a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> Although Mr. Brown +has reached no definite conclusion as to the identity of this star-god, +I venture to maintain that the original <span class="tei tei-q">“seven-fold one”</span> +could have been no other than Ursa Major and that this and +<span class="tei tei-q">“the ever-present star”</span> are identical with what the Chinese termed +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Imperial Ruler of Heaven”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven Regulators.”</span> +The following passages furnish ample evidence of the suggestive +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +influence that <span class="tei tei-q">“the seven-fold one”</span> exerted upon the minds of the +ancient Babylonian star-gazers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The institution of the sabbath went back to the Sumerian days +of Chaldea—the name itself is Babylonian”</span> (Sayce, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>). +<span class="tei tei-q">“The seventh month (=Sept.-Oct.) in Akkadian is named Tul-ku=the +holy altar.... The seventh month of Tasritutisri was +also connected with the building of the tower of Babel, said to +have been the special work of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘King of the Holy Mound,’</span> +Sar-tuli-elli, and its erection placed in the seventh month at the +autumnal equinox. It was a zikkurâtú with seven steps, a circumstance +connected with planetary [? stellar] symbolism. This +style of building is reduplicated in the oldest Egyptian pyramids, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e. g.</span></span> the pyramid of Sakkârah, which had seven steps like the +Babylonian towers. This circumstance, one amongst many such, supplies +a most interesting illustration of the fact that the Egyptian +civilization was mainly Euphratean in origin”</span> (Robert Brown, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following facts contained in Prof. Morris Jastrow's admirable +hand book on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Religion of Babylonia and Assyria,”</span> further +establish the pervading influence of the number seven. <span class="tei tei-q">“The two +most famous zikkurats of seven stages were those in Babylon and +Borsippa, opposite Babylon. The latter bears the significant name +E-ur-imin-an-ki, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the house of seven divisions of heaven +and earth.’</span> Two much older towers than those of Babylon and Borsippa +bear names in which <span class="tei tei-q">‘seven’</span> is introduced. One of these is the +zikkurat to Nin-girsu at Lagash, which Gudea describes as <span class="tei tei-q">‘the +house of seven divisions of the world,’</span> the other the tower at Uruk, +which bore the name <span class="tei tei-q">‘house of seven zones.’</span> The reference in +both cases is, as Jensen has shown, to the seven concentric zones +into which the earth was divided by the Babylonians.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a standard German book of reference (Spamer's Illustrierte +Weltgeschichte I Theil, Alterthum, I Theil, s. 371), I find the +statement that the zikkurat of the temple I-zidda at Borsippa, was +called <span class="tei tei-q">“the temple of the seven lights of heaven and earth,”</span> which +seem to have been symbolized also by the seven-branched candlestick +of the Hebrews. Considering that other sacred symbols +which were employed in Solomon's temple are believed by Professor +Jastrow to be <span class="tei tei-q">“imitations of Babylonian models,”</span> it seems justifiable +to endeavor to trace to the same source the origin of the +Hebrew <span class="tei tei-q">“seven-branched candlestick,”</span> to which I shall revert later +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on. Prof. Morris Jastrow offers the suggestion that the name +<span class="tei tei-q">“seven directions of heaven and earth”</span> may point to a conception +of seven zones dividing the heavens as well as the earth, and states +that the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven divisions”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“seven zones”</span> are merely terms +equivalent to universe. He explains that the seven directions were +interpreted by the Babylonian theologians as a reference to the +seven great celestial bodies, the sun and moon, Ishtar, Marduk, +Ninib, Nergal and Nabu. To each of these one story was supposed +to be dedicated and the tower thus became a cosmological +symbol. Moreover, from Herodotus' description of the seven concentric +walls of Ecbatana, in which each wall was distinguished +by a certain color, the conclusion has been drawn that the same +colors—white, black, scarlet, blue, orange, silver and gold—were +employed by the Babylonians for the stages of their towers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Professor Jastrow draws attention to the fact that the division of +the earth into seven zones is a <span class="tei tei-q">“conception that we encounter in +India and Persia, and that survives in the seven <span class="tei tei-q">‘climates’</span> into +which the world was divided by Greek and Arabic geographers. It +seems clear that this interpretation of the number seven is older than +the one that identified each story with one of the planets. Both interpretations +have a scholastic aspect, however, and the very fact that +there are two interpretations justifies the suspicion that neither furnishes +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">real</span></em> explanation why the number seven was chosen ... +it is because seven was popularly sacred that the world +was divided into seven zones and that the planets were fixed at +seven, not <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>”</span> (p. 620). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preceding statements lead to the conclusion that, among +Assyriologists there is no current, generally-accepted view as to the +origin of the <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred seven”</span> of the Babylonians. The following +details concerning the zikkurat and the sanctuaries of Babylon will +be found to furnish evidence that their builders were imbued with +the identical primitive set of ideas or seven-fold division of the cosmos +that is now so familiar to the reader and is traceable to the +observation of Polaris and Septentriones. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The astronomical association and cosmological symbolism of the +zikkurat become more and more evident when all evidence concerning +it is carefully sifted. According to the cosmogony of the +Babylonians the earth was pictured as a huge mountain. Khar-sag-gal-kurkura=the +mountain of all lands, is a designation for +the earth. E-kur=mountain house, another name for the earth, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +became one of the names for temple and, by extension, for the +sacred precinct which enclosed the zikkurat and sacred edifices.<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A plural formed of the word E-kur,=Ekurrati, was used for +divinities, and this association of the word mountain with the name +for a god is particularly interesting when it is also remembered +that the cuneiform character for god is a star and that therefore +either a mountain, or a star, signified a god in Babylonian and +Assyrian inscriptions. Bel, the supreme star god of the Babylonians, +whose name literally signifies merely <span class="tei tei-q">“lord or king,”</span> and +under the form Ah-baal became current throughout Asia Minor, +was, as Professor Jastrow states (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +p. 435), actually identified with the polar star, +and sometimes addressed as the <span class="tei tei-q">“great mountain.”</span><a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The famous temple, the E-kur of Babylonian history, is described +by Herodotus, Strabo and other pagan authorities, as consisting +of seven stories and being surmounted by a sanctuary which +was under the charge of a virgin priestess and contained a couch +(resting-place) for the god.<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> +It is amply demonstrated, moreover, +that the central zikkurat was regarded as the permanent resting +and dwelling place of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></em> lord or god, par excellence, and in +this connection it is significant that among the names of sanctuaries +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +enumerated by Professor Jastrow there occur such as <span class="tei tei-q">“the true +or fixed house,”</span> the house of the established seat, the sacred dwelling, +the permanent dwelling, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Babylonian ideas connected with the supreme god and his +temple are, moreover, sufficiently apparent in the prayers to Marduk, +from which I extract the following detached passages: <span class="tei tei-q">“Marduk, +king of heaven and earth.... Look favorably upon the city, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">O lord of rest</span></em>!... May the gods of heaven and earth speak to +thee <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">O lord of rest</span></em>!... A resting-place for the lord of +E-sagila is thy house, E-sagila, the house of thy sovereignty, is +thy house....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sanctuary surmounting the zikkurat, is also termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the +high place par excellence, or the lofty house, the high edifice, +the tower of the great dwelling, the great palace, the house of +the glorious mountain [or god] the house of him who gives the +sceptre of the world; also the house of light, the house of great +splendor, the house without rival, the gate of widespread splendor, +the light of Shamash, the heart of Shamash, the life of the world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The idea that the <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain house”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“high place”</span> was the +consecrated centre where the union of heaven and earth took place, +is apparent from the following names: <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of heavenly +construction, the heavenly house, the house reaching to heaven, the +point of heaven and earth, the link of heaven and earth, the foundation +stone of heaven and earth.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Complementing,”</span> as Professor Jastrow says, <span class="tei tei-q">“the cosmological +associations that have been noted in connection with the zikkurat,”</span> +we find the inner room or sanctuary of the Babylonian and Assyrian +temple named Papakhu, from the verb pakhu=to close. +It was also known as the parakhu, from parâku=to shut off, to +lock. <span class="tei tei-q">“Gudea describes the papakhu as <span class="tei tei-q">‘the dark chamber.’</span> +Professor Jastrow states that it was regarded as an imitation of a +cosmical <span class="tei tei-q">‘sacred chamber,’</span> and from his book we learn that it was +employed as an assembly room, or council chamber by the priesthood. +It was indeed termed <span class="tei tei-q">‘the assembly room’</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">‘place of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fates,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the court of the world,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the house of oracle,’</span> also as the +<span class="tei tei-q">‘sacred room where the gods assembled in solemn council’</span> and +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the chamber of fates’</span> where the chief god sits on New Year's +day and decides the fate of mankind for the ensuing year”</span> (Jastrow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 423). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Babylonian and Assyrian kings were the living representatives +of the chief god and Professor Jastrow states that <span class="tei tei-q">“it was into +the papakhu that the priests retired when they desired to obtain +an oracle direct from the god.... It is particularly interesting +to collate the statements <span class="tei tei-q">‘that the New Year's day was the +occasion of a symbolical marriage between a god and goddess,’</span> +and that <span class="tei tei-q">‘the New Year's festival came to be the season most appropriate +for approaching the oracular chamber.’</span> ”</span> It thus appears +that the papakhu was the sacred and secret chamber where the ancient +kings and their councillors united to confer upon the government +of the nation and decreed the irrevocable laws which decided +the fate of individuals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The <span class="tei tei-q">‘decision of fates’</span> is, in Babylonian theology, one of +the chief functions of the gods. It constitutes the mainspring of +their power. To decide fates is to control the arrangement +of the universe—to establish order.”</span> The <span class="tei tei-q">“tablets of fate”</span> are +repeatedly mentioned in the Assyrian epics where it is described how +one god addressing another, <span class="tei tei-q">“gives him the tablets of fate, hangs +them on his breast and dismisses him,”</span> with the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“thy +command be invincible, thy order authoritative”</span> (Jastrow, pp. +420 and 424). It is evident that these words were supposed to +convey the power to establish order and issue irrevocable laws. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The temple of Shamash (who, like Marduk, was evidently identical +with Bel), situated in Babylon, was termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of the universal judge,”</span> +and it is extremely interesting to find this <span class="tei tei-q">“god”</span><a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> +represented on a stone tablet found at Sippar, as seated on a low +throne in the sanctuary or papakkhu, of the temple El-bab-bara, +while in front of him on an altar rests what Professor Jastrow +describes as <span class="tei tei-q">“a wheel with radiant spokes.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A fine illustration of this tablet which bears an inscription by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +king Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.) being published in Spamer's +standard work already cited, I have been able to note the interesting +fact that the <span class="tei tei-q">“wheel with radiant spokes”</span> exhibits four +pointed rays, directed outwards and forming a cruciform figure, +which, by the way, it is interesting to compare with the Mexican +Calendar stone and its four rays. Each of the spaces between +these pointed rays is filled by a group of wavy lines which appears +to simulate some fluid flowing from the centre, which is formed by +a series of concentric circles. The quadruplicate peculiar partition +of the disk assumes special importance when it is realized that, +in the niche above the head of Shamash, a miniature production of +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">disk recurs between the familiar conventional images of the +moon and a disk containing eight rays or spokes</span></em>. According to Dr. +Felix von Luschan (Mitth. aus der vorderasiat. Abth. der Kgl. +Museen, Heft <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xi</span></span>, p. 24), the inscription opens with the +invocation to <span class="tei tei-q">“ilu Sin, ilu Shamash u ilu Ishtar,”</span> a fact of double interest, +because Ishtar is termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“twin-sister of Shamash”</span> in an Assyrian +hymn, and because the inscription obviously identifies the +moon as the symbol of Sin, the four-spoked wheel as that of +Shamash and the eight-spoked wheel as that of Ishtar. As the +king, in his inscriptions expressly states that he has restored on +the tablet the image of Shamash according to an ancient model, +for the guidance of future artists, it is evident that departures +from the original cult of Shamash had taken place in his time and +that he was making an attempt to reëstablish it. The extreme +antiquity of the cult of Shamash may, indeed, be inferred from the +fact that about B.C. 1850, the king, Shamsi-ramann, bore the god's +name as a divine title. About B.C. 1350, moreover, a temple was +built to Shamash in Ashur. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I shall treat, further on, of the evidences showing that the cult of +Polaris gradually became a secret one known to the initiated only, +while popular worship was directed to the sun, moon, and morning +and evening stars, etc. Meanwhile the following passages from +Professor Jastrow's hand-book will elucidate the Babylonian Assyrian +cult of the Four Quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The zikkurat was quadrangular in shape. The orientation of +the four corners towards the four cardinal points was approximate. +Inasmuch as the rulers of Babylon from a very early period call +themselves <span class="tei tei-q">‘king of the four regions,’</span> it has been supposed that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the quadrangular shape was chosen designedly.”</span>... +<span class="tei tei-q">“The title <span class="tei tei-q">‘king of the four regions’</span> was an old one that pertained +to the kings of Agade.... The city of Arbela, at +one time the seat of the cult of Ishtar, was named <span class="tei tei-q">‘the four-god +city.’</span> ”</span> This name is particularly interesting when it is remembered +that the Babylonian and Assyrian word for god and mountain was +identical and that this identity may account for the Chinese employment +of the term <span class="tei tei-q">“four mountains,”</span> to express also the four +provinces and their chiefs. Professor Jastrow informs us, in a note, +that the name Arbela is, more precisely, Arba-ilu, signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“city +of the four-fold divinity”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“four-god”</span> city and invites comparison +to the Palestinian form Kiryath-arba, <span class="tei tei-q">“four-city.”</span> He suggests +that this name may perhaps likewise signify a city of four +gods, but adds that it has commonly been explained as meaning +four roads or four quarters (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> 203). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ancient pagan authorities inform us that the ancient city +of Babylon was laid out in the form of a perfect square, the +sides of which were oriented to the cardinal points. A massive +wall enclosed the entire city and the river Euphrates divided it +into halves, united by a bridge, each half being again subdivided +by the main street leading to the bridge. A series of streets ran +parallel to the river through the city and were crossed at right +angles by others, the result being that 625 blocks or squares of +building were thus formed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is positive evidence that the capital city of Lagash or +Shir-pur-la was divided into four sections, the separate names of +which were Girsu, Uru-alaga, Ninâ and Gish-Galla or Erim, the +reading of the latter name being doubtful. The circumstance that +each of these quarters had its <span class="tei tei-q">“divinity”</span> and was ruled by its earthly +representative, explains the term <span class="tei tei-q">“four-god city”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“four city”</span> +found associated with other capitals of Babylonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The existence of a central ruler who exercised supreme authority +over the four quarters of the capital, and by extension over the +<span class="tei tei-q">“four provinces”</span> is amply proven by the title of the Babylonian +kings, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the <span class="tei tei-q">“king of the four regions.”</span> An interesting +oracle, addressed to king Esar-Haddon is found to contain the statement +that <span class="tei tei-q">“Ashur has given him the four ends of the earth”</span> (Jastrow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> 345). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Evidence that while the capital and entire state consisted of +four quarters, the whole was also divided theoretically and practically +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into halves, is furnished by the significant fact that, from +remote antiquity, the rulers of Babylonia also bore the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“lord +of Akkad and Sumer”</span>=North and South, this term being, like +that of <span class="tei tei-q">“Four Regions,”</span> a general designation for the whole of +Babylonia and the first being obviously analogous to the Egyptian +royal title: <span class="tei tei-q">“King of upper and lower Egypt.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I can but briefly indicate here some facts which prove that this +ancient Babylonian centre of civilization underwent precisely the +same evolution as that I have traced in America and India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Assyriologists agree in stating that, at the beginning of Babylonian +history, about 4,000 B.C., Akkad and Sumer, or North and +South Babylonia, already existed and were inhabited by two distinct +races of people: the non-Semitic Sumerians and the Semitic +Akkadians or later Babylonians. In later times we find the region +embraced by the Euphrates and Tigris inhabited by descendants +of both races and forming the Babylonian empire in the south, the +Assyrian empire to the northeast, while in the northwestern part +of Mesopotamia, was the seat of various empires that were alternately +the rivals and subjects of either Babylonia or Assyria +(Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> 26). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Three distinct and rival cults are indeed found associated with +these three centres of government, and when examined by the light +of our knowledge of a parallel process of evolution elsewhere, their +origin can be traced back to elementary pole-star heaven and earth +worship, and what is termed the establishment of the districts of +Anu, Bel and Ea. That at one period these separate cults peacefully +existed alongside of each other is indicated by the joint worship +of pairs and triads of divinities who were personifications of +central powers, of the upper and of the lower regions. In order +to demonstrate this statement I shall briefly cite some references to +such divinities from Professor Jastrow's hand-book, taking them in +the order in which they are enumerated in the famous Babylonian +version of the creation of the world, contained in the fragment +known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Creation epic”</span> which begins thus: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“There was a time where Above, the heaven, was not named. +Below, the earth, bore no name. Apsu was there from the first, the +source of both (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, heaven and earth). And raging Tiamat, the +mother of both (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, heaven and earth).”</span> Apsu and Tiamat are +synonymous and are personifications of the watery deep or abyss. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Apsu represents the male and Tiamat the female principle of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +primæval universe ... the embrace of Apsu and Tiamat +became a symbol of <span class="tei tei-q">‘sexual’</span> union.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tiamat was popularly pictured as a huge serpent-like monster, +a fact of utmost interest when connected with the name Nakkash, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, crooked serpent, bestowed upon the constellation Draconis +which contained the pole-star of 2170 B.C. Abstaining from +comment I merely establish here the interesting point that in ancient +Babylonia the serpent is found distinctly associated with +Polaris as well as with the dual creative principle. The divine +pairs Lakhmu and Lakhamu and Anshar and Kishar were then +created. By an arbitrary division of his name into An and shar, +the deity becomes the <span class="tei tei-q">“one that embraces all that is above.”</span> +The element An is the same that we have in Anu and is the ideographic +form for <span class="tei tei-q">“high”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“heaven.”</span> Ki is the ideographic +form for earth and the natural consort to an all-embracing upper +power is a power that <span class="tei tei-q">“embraces all that is below.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting thus to ascertain that on another tablet by the +side of these personifications of heaven and earth are enumerated +a series of names which certainly appear to be merely variations +on the names or titles of the divine pairs. Lakhumu and Lakhamu +occur on the list, and Anshar and Kishar recur as Anshar-gal, +<span class="tei tei-q">“great totality of what is on high,”</span> and Kishar-gal, <span class="tei tei-q">“great totality +of what is below.”</span> Then there are En-shar and Nin-shar, +<span class="tei tei-q">“lord and mistress”</span> and a <span class="tei tei-q">“Father-Mother of Anu,”</span> titles +which furnish an interesting comparison with the list printed on +page 42 of this investigation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pagan authorities, cited by Professor Jastrow, relate that the first +result of the union of Apsu and Tiamat was the production of +<span class="tei tei-q">“strange monsters, human beings with wings, beings with two +heads, male and female, hybrid formations, half man, half animal, +with horns of rams and horses' hoofs, bulls with human faces, dogs +with four-fold bodies ending in fish tails.”</span> Seen in the light of +the present investigation these accounts and the sculptured images +of such monstrosities, many of which have been preserved to the +present day, may be accounted for in a very simple and natural +manner. It is obvious that, once the Babylonian theologians +had definitely adopted the theory and creed that the universe had +been created by the union of the Above and Below, Male and Female +principle, Heaven and Earth, or Upper and Lower Firmament, +the production of allegorical images personifying or symbolizing this +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +union would inevitably follow in course of time. The somewhat +naïve but expressive combination of the form of a quadruped or +serpent with that of a bird, and the adoption of winged bulls, lions +and serpents, would have seemed a most appropriate rendering of +the current idea of the dual, creative power, which might also be +conveyed by two heads, or two horns. From Professor Jastrow's +description of the case of a single monster, with four bodies and with +attributes of the elements earth and water, we learn that not only +the union of heaven and earth but also of earth and water was at +times the task imposed upon the native artists by the fancy and +imagination of minds dwelling upon the subject of the creative +first cause. Postponing further discussion of the Babylonian and +Assyrian symbolism of the Middle, Above and Below and Four +Quarters or the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven directions of Heaven and Earth,”</span> I shall +now direct attention to the most famous triad of Babylonian cosmology +which figures at the end of the Creation epic. It consisted +of Anu, Ea and Bel<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> and obviously personified the Above and +Below and the link or central meeting place of these, the earth +named Esharra, <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of fertility”</span> or E-kur <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain +house.”</span> We learn from Professor Jastrow's handbook that whereas +Bel=the polar star (the secret god) and Nibir=the planet +Jupiter (the later popular personification of Bel) were associated +with the North, Ea was identified with the South (p. 435). +Elsewhere we are told that Anu was identified with the North, Bel +with the equator and Ea with the South (p. 460), a fact to which I +shall again recur in treating of the territorial divisions of the state, +which corresponded to the three divisions of the universe, the +Above, Middle and Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following detached statements concerning Babylonian divinities +drawn from Professor Jastrow's handbook, show with what +activity the fundamental set of ideas was developed by the native +theologians and philosophers. Bel-arduk became the chief god +of Babylon, the title <span class="tei tei-q">“Belu-rabu”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“great lord,”</span> +becoming identified with Marduk. As such he is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the king of +heaven and earth”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the four regions.”</span> His dwelling +was on the sacred <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain-house,”</span> the zikkurat, and is represented +<span class="tei tei-q">“with a crown with high horns, a symbol of dual rulership. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +As the supreme ruler, life and death are in his hands and he guides +the decrees of the deities of the Above and Below.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The first +part of the name Marduk is also used to designate the <span class="tei tei-q">‘young bullock,’</span> +and it is possible that the god was pictured in this way.”</span> +It should be remembered here, however, that on page 89 Professor +Jastrow tells us how Nannar=the one who furnishes light=the +moon, was invoked as <span class="tei tei-q">“the powerful bull of Anu,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, +heaven. In this connection it is interesting to learn that in Canaan, Astarte, +the goddess of night, was also worshipped under the form of a cow, +and that in Phœnicia she was sometimes figured with horns, symbolizing +the moon. In Assyria, four horns, denoting four-fold +rulership, usually encircle the high conical cap of sovereignty, +which also crowns the human heads of the winged bulls. It may +be permissible to point out here what an appropriate and expressive +embodiment of symbolism the winged bull appears to be; the form +of the quadruped, combined with wings, clearly symbolizes a union +of the Above and Below; the control over both being expressed +by the human head which completes the allegorical figure. The +high cap, with which the head was crowned, exhibits the form of a +mound, and combined or partly encircled by two or sometimes +four horns, obviously symbolizes dual or quadruple rulership. It +thus appears evident that the winged bull of Assyria expressed, +almost as clearly as the seven-staged towers of Babylon, the +<span class="tei tei-q">“seven directions of heaven and earth,”</span> and was as appropriate +an allegorical image of Assur the god, as of Assur the state, and +of the royal power which conferred upon the supreme lords of +Babylonia and Assyria the titles: <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the holy mound,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“lord +of Akkad and Sumer,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the four regions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The idea that some of the Assyrian kings actually embodied +seven-fold power, or ruled the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven divisions,”</span> is further conveyed +by curious groups of seven symbols, accompanied by the +numeral seven, expressed by seven dots, which occur above their +portraits on tablets which will be described further on. Whilst +analyzing the royal titles and insignia represented on the stelæ of +Assyrian kings, I shall likewise show how these complete the +foregoing evidence and indicate that in Babylonia and Assyria, the +seven-fold division was applied not only to the Cosmos, but to +the territory of the State, to its social organization, to its calendar; +and that the seven-storied zikkurat, the winged bulls, etc., and indeed, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the seven-branched candlestick, were apparently designed as +expressive of the general seven-fold scheme of organization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now examine some data which shed light upon the various +and curious phases of evolution undergone by the growing and diverging +cults of Heaven and Earth in Babylonia and Assyria. +Going back to the dawn of astronomy in Babylonia let us note +some facts which show that, as elsewhere, in remotest antiquity the +periodical disappearance and reappearance of the Pleiades produced +a deep impression upon the primitive star-gazers. These phenomena +marked natural divisions of the year and the constellation appeared +to belong alternately to the visible or upper world and to +the invisible or lower region. A recognition that the Pleaid was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></em> +constellation at that remote period when Taurus led the year, may +be established by the common Euphratean name by which it is said +to have been designated: Kakkab-mul=<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></em> constellation or star. +The Akkadian and Assyrian names which had probably also originally +designated Polaris signified that it and the Hyades were +the foundation stars or constellations. In the Ptolemy star charts, +the Pleiades are designated by the name Ki mah (see Robert +Brown, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 57). While it appears that whereas the Pleiades +long exerted its influence and, with Polaris and the circumpolar +constellations, regulated and marked the primitive year, its +cult was gradually superseded by that of morning and evening +stars and of the sun and moon which became the emblems of the +rapidly developing divergent cults of the diurnal and nocturnal +heavens, of light and darkness, of the Above and Below.<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with the cult of the Pleiades I draw attention to +R. G. Haliburton's interesting investigations on this particular +subject, and to his publication in the Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. +1895, on <span class="tei tei-q">“Dwarf survivals and traditions as to pigmy races,”</span> +which contains the following statements: <span class="tei tei-q">“We find that the Atlas +dwarfs and the Nanos predict the future by watching the reflection +of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Seven Stars’</span> in a bowl. The famous cup of Nestor, +supposed to have been a divining cup, had two groups of Pleiades +on its handle....”</span> On examining the archaic designs engraved +in the centre of the fine collection of Phœnician and +Assyrian bronze bowls, which were found in the S. E. Palace, Nimroud, +and are exhibited at the British Museum, I recently ascertained +that they appear to be mostly variations on the theme of the +centre and four or seven-fold division, some exhibiting a marked +quadruplicate division, others a seven-pointed star surrounded by +seven smaller stars. In one case a face is repeated four times, in +opposite positions, on the central design which is surrounded by +four large and four lesser conventionally drawn mountains. The +head-dress with lappets which encloses each face recalls the familiar +Egyptian form, and on two bowls images of scarabs are engraved. +On one of these the beetle is drawn in such a way that its +four legs, two of which turn upwards and two downwards, suggest +the form of a swastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The peculiarities of these designs and the knowledge that star-worship +prevailed in Assyria and Phœnicia suggest the inference +that the Nimroud Palace bowls were employed for the observation +of the positions of certain stars which marked the seasons and regulated +the calendar, by means of which the priest-kings controlled +the working of the system of state. Doubtlessly the constellations +originally and principally observed besides Polaris were the three +great <span class="tei tei-q">“seven-fold ones,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the Ursa Major which marked the +Four Quarters; the Pleiades which pertained to the Above and Below +and marked the division of the year into halves, and Orion +which also may well have appeared to be a composite image of +the sacred, equal Four, and the central triad composed of the +Above, Middle and Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to note that in the Euphratean and other myths +the antagonism between sun and moon, etc., coincides with traditions +of actual warfare between their earthly representatives and that it +is the record of a combat between the followers of light and of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +darkness that seems to have been thus preserved. The Babylonian +Creation epic teaches us that, in remotest antiquity, the association +of light and life with the male, and darkness and death with +the female principle had become current. A mighty war takes +place between the female serpent Tiamat, associated with evil, +and the male god Marduk, the champion of the gods of the upper +realm, which ends in her overthrow. It was then that Marduk +<span class="tei tei-q">“established the districts or cities of Anu, Bel and Ea,”</span> identified +with the North, Middle and South. It is remarkable that this +mythical establishment of three cities exactly coincides with the +conclusions reached by recent investigators as to the existence +during centuries, of three rival states, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> Babylonia in the +south and Assyria in the northeast, who, during centuries, were in continual +warfare with each other and with a third disintegrated power +inhabiting the northwest which was alternately rival or vassal. +This condition of affairs, and the facts enumerated in Professor +Jastrow's handbook, chapter II, are precisely what would naturally +develop from the formation and adoption of three distinct cults and +their ultimate separate establishment in as many centres of government. +The following data will suffice to reveal some of the curious +results obtained by the logical working out of certain associations +of ideas and these results are the more interesting and intelligible +because they are analogous to those I have traced elsewhere. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One point deserves special note: directly opposite views, not +only as to the relative supremacy of the Middle, Above and Below, +but also as to the relation of the sexes to the upper and lower +worlds, seem to have been held at different times and in different +places; and this particular division of opinion appears to have +given rise to endless dissension, strife and warfare, to the separation +of sectarians from the main state and the foundation of numberless +minor centres of government on the old plan, but with +fresh forms of cult embodying a new artificial combination of +ideas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The shifting of supremacy from one <span class="tei tei-q">“god”</span> to another explains +moreover the transference of the title <span class="tei tei-q">“Bel”</span>=Lord, or Chief of +Gods, from the personification of one region to another. <span class="tei tei-q">“In +remotest antiquity we find En-lil designated as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘lord of the +lower world’</span> and bearing the title Bel. En-lil represents the +unification of the various forces whose seat or sphere of action is +among the inhabited parts of the globe, both on the surface and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +beneath, for the term <span class="tei tei-q">‘lower world’</span> is here used in contrast to +the upper or heavenly world.... As <span class="tei tei-q">‘lord of the lower world,’</span> +En-lil is contrasted to a god, Anu, who presides over heavenly +bodies. The age of Sargon (3800 B.C.), in whose inscriptions +En-lil already occurs, is one of considerable culture and there +can, therefore, be no objection against the assumption that at this +early period a theological system should have been evolved which +gave rise to beliefs in great powers whose dominion embraces the +<span class="tei tei-q">‘upper’</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">‘lower’</span> worlds”</span> +(Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 52-55). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A consort, Nin-lil, a <span class="tei tei-q">“mistress of the lower world,”</span> was assigned +to En-lil and was known also as Belit, the feminine form of Bel, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the lady <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></span>. +She too had her temple at Nippur, +the age of which goes back, at least, to the first dynasty of Ur. +She was also known as Nin-khar-sag, the <span class="tei tei-q">“lady of the high or +great mountain,”</span> as the <span class="tei tei-q">“mother of the gods.”</span> The assignment +by Sargon, of the northern gates of his palace to Bel, who lays +foundations, and Belit, who brings fertility, affords evidence that +the goddess was the feminine form of Polaris. In Assyria, Belit +appears, either as the wife of Bel, as the consort of Ashur, as +the consort of Ea, or simply as a designation for Ishtar, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“the goddess,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“mistress of countries, or of mountains,”</span> in +which connection it is interesting to note that the ideographs for +country and mountain are identical in Assyrian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the attributes of the goddesses of the Babylonian and Assyrian +pantheon be carefully examined, they will be found to associate +the female principle with fertility, abundance and with water, +the source of plant life. Two divergent views appear to have influenced +the artificial formation of personifications of the female +principle in nature. According to one the goddess is termed the +<span class="tei tei-q">“lady of the deep, the mistress of the place where the fish dwell”</span> +(Sarpanitam-erua) and in other cases is linked to the lower firmament +to subterraneous regions, to darkness, death, destructiveness +and hence to evil, thus representing the complement to the male +personification of the upper realm of daylight and the preservative +and beneficent life-giving principles. The other tendency, which +almost appears as a reaction or protest against the previous view, +led to the ultimate adoption of an ideal goddess of the nocturnal +heaven, who was <span class="tei tei-q">“bountiful, offspring-producing, silvery bright”</span> +and was in one instance addressed as <span class="tei tei-q">“the lady of shining waters,”</span> +of <span class="tei tei-q">“purification”</span> and of <span class="tei tei-q">“incantations.”</span> In the period of Hammurabi, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +devotion went so far as to cause the goddess Gula, termed +the <span class="tei tei-q">“bride of the earth,”</span> to be invoked as the <span class="tei tei-q">“creator of mankind,”</span> +the <span class="tei tei-q">“great physician”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“life-giver”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the one who +leads the dead to a new life”</span> (Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 175). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As an interesting outcome of an adjustment of both trains of +thought stands Ishtar-Belit=the lady <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></span> and +consequently, the feminine personification of Polaris, the supreme goddess +whom Tiglath-pileser termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the first among the gods.”</span> +She is the mild and gracious mother of creation, <span class="tei tei-q">“loves the king +and his priesthood,”</span> but is also the mighty commanding goddess +of war who clothes herself in fiery flame, appears as a violent destroyer +and sends down streams of fire upon her enemies. <span class="tei tei-q">“The +distinguishing position of both the Babylonian and Assyrian Ishtar +is her independent position. Though at times brought into close +contact with Ashur she is not regarded as the mere consort to any +god—no mere reflection of a male deity, but ruling in her own +right on a perfect par with the great gods of the pantheon. She +is coequal in rank and splendor with Ashur. Her name becomes +synonymous for goddess as Marduk becomes the synonym for +god. The female deities, both foreign and native, came to be regarded +as so many forms of Ishtar.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A curious fact connected with Ishtar, which proves that she had +developed from an original divinity, conceived as dual or bi-sexual, +is that among Semites Ishtar appears both as a male and female +deity. This seems to show that at a certain stage of thought Ishtar +was also a centralization of attributes, a fact which undoubtedly +explains the supreme position accorded to this divinity at one time +as the feminine form of Polaris. The most striking illustration +of this supremacy is furnished by the famous bas-relief figured by +Layard (<span class="tei tei-q">“Ninive and its remains”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, 238), which +represents Ishtar, the mother-goddess, the female form of Assur, as seated on a +throne which is borne on the back of a lion in the procession formed +by the seven chief divinities of the Assyrian pantheon, six of +whom are figured as bearded men standing on different animals. +On the fine stela of Esarhaddon, discovered by Dr. von Luschan +at Sendschirli, the goddess, accompanied in this case by three +standing gods, is likewise represented as seated on a throne holding +a large ring or circle in her left hand. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the <span class="tei tei-q">“All-mother, the female creator of mankind,”</span> +is represented as the only occupant of the throne, reveals a distinct +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +phase in the evolution of the Babylonian state religion, which +curiously concurs with the supremacy of female sovereignty at +Babylon, at the period of its greatest power under Semiramis. It +may be safely assumed that it was at this time, when the queen +represented the goddess, that the cult of the female principle of +nature reached its highest development. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At Nippur the clay images chiefly represent Bel and Belit either +separately or in combination, but figurines of Ishtar have also been +found, in some cases representing her as nursing a child (Jastrow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 674). It is probable that the symbols of duality +connected with Ishtar had some reference to the mystic unity and +duality of the mother and unborn child, and suggested the installation +of the goddess as the most appropriate personification of +creative and life-giving central power.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is as interesting to follow the complex train of thought which +created an Ishtar as it is to realize that curious fact that, contrary +to views held elsewhere, it was the male principle that was at one +time most distinctly associated with earth in Babylonia-Assyria, +while femininity was linked to the nocturnal heaven. It is probable +that priesthood encouraged the popular adoption of Bel, the +masculine Polaris, as an earth, sun and morning-star god, while +his consort Belit became a heaven, moon and evening-star goddess. +Doubtlessly at an early period the cult of Polaris and the registration +of circumpolar rotation was guarded in secrecy by the astronomer-priests. +Tempting as it is to linger among the gods and goddesses +of the Babylonian-Assyrian pantheon and to follow the spread +of their influence, I shall limit myself to pointing out the change of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +government that accompanied the development and establishment +of various divergent cults. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Indications that, as in China at the present day, a combined +heaven and earth cult was practised in Babylonia-Assyria by male +and female representatives of heaven and earth, are furnished by +various detached pieces of information gleaned from Professor +Jastrow's work. The priest-king was the <span class="tei tei-q">“child”</span> of Bel, and his +living representative. As such he bore the divine titles of supreme +lord, ruled the four regions of the earth, and became the representative +of earth. Pagan authorities state that a virgin priestess +officiated at times in the sanctuary of Bel and that there were three +classes of priestesses devoted to the cult of Ishtar. They were +called <span class="tei tei-q">“the sacred ones”</span> and carried out a mysterious ritual which +had, however, originated <span class="tei tei-q">“from naïve conceptions connected with +the worship of the goddess of fertility.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The use of sacred water and of fermented intoxicating wine +entered into the cult of the life-giving principle and Babylonia ultimately +becomes associated with <span class="tei tei-q">“Mystery”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the golden cup +full of abominations”</span> (Revelations <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xvii</span></span>). Large terra cotta +vases or jars have been found at Nippur and elsewhere, standing +in front of the altar, and <span class="tei tei-q">“the depth at which they were found is +an indication of the antiquity and stability of the forms of worship +in Babylonian temples. It may be proper to recall that, in the +Solomonic temple likewise, there were a series of jars that stood +near the great altar in the court”</span> (Jastrow, p. 653). One of the +oldest sacred basins found in the ruins of a Babylonian temple <span class="tei tei-q">“has +a frieze of female figures in it, holding in their outstretched hands +flagons from which they pour water,”</span> a fact which establishes the +ritualistic association of female priestesses with water. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The later association of Ishtar with the moon and with the +evening star, <span class="tei tei-q">“the leader of the heavenly procession of stars,”</span> naturally +exerted an influence over the ceremonial rites performed by +the high priestess or queen, the living image of the goddess. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Mythological associations appear to have played a part in identifying +the planet Venus with the goddess.... A widely spread +nature myth, symbolizing the change of seasons, represents Ishtar +the personification of fertility, the great mother of all that manifests +life, as proceeding to the region of darkness and remaining +there for some time. The disappearance of the planet Venus at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +certain seasons ... [and re-appearance] ... suggested the +identification of this planet with Ishtar.”</span> The foregoing affords +an explanation why Ishtar should have become identified with +the west and also naturally suggests the probability that the cult +of Ishtar gradually imposed upon its priestesses and its votaries +of the female sex, the ceremonial observance of periods of retirement +and seclusion, coinciding with the disappearance of the moon +and evening star. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A critical examination of the accounts preserved of the Phœnician +or Canaanite religion reveals that it consisted of an idealistic +development of the Ishtar cult of Assyria. The fact that, +ultimately, in Phœnicia, the cult of the female Astarte almost superseded +that of the male Baal and that their joint cult, introduced +into Palestine, seriously rivalled the monotheism of the Israelites, +furnishes another indication that we have to deal here with the +same marked divergence of cults which we have seen to result +from a common basis in ancient America. In studying the Phœnician +conception of Astarte as recorded by various authors, one +is struck by its comparative refinement and ideality although, as in +ancient America, the cult of the female principle of nature was also +accompanied by secret licentious ceremonials. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Astarte cult of Phœnicia we have precisely what might be +expected to have been evolved by the descendants of an ancient +race of star-watchers who, powerfully impressed by the antithesis +of light and darkness and having become a nation of traders and +seafarers, naturally adopted the nocturnal heaven and guiding +stars as their chief object of worship. It does not seem improbable +that it was to the less degrading association of the female +principle with the nocturnal heaven<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> that woman owed, in lapse of +time, the higher position she was accorded in the countries directly +influenced by the Phœnician civilization, and notably in Greece +and Rome. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Phœnicia, Astarte-Ishtar became the goddess of love and +marriage. In Babylonia-Assyria the high-priestess, the living +representative of the goddess, who, like the planet-goddess, periodically +retired into darkness and seclusion and led a shadowy +existence, appears to have originally shared equal honors with the +<span class="tei tei-q">“lord of earth”</span> and to have delivered oracular utterances in subterraneous +chambers. Throughout Babylonia, New Year's Day, +which coincided with the beginning of the rainy season, was the +occasion of <span class="tei tei-q">“the marriage of the god and the goddess”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">par +excellence</span></span>, a rite which symbolized the <span class="tei tei-q">“meeting of Heaven and +Earth.”</span> Circumstantial evidence seems to prove, moreover, that, +as in Peru, the annual consecrated union of the male and female +personification of heaven and earth was followed by the marriage +of young persons throughout the land, a custom which furnishes +another indication of the original existence of an annual mating +season for the human race. As it was at this period also that the +priesthood approached the papakhu, the inner sanctuary, also +termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“assembly-room,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“chamber of the oracle”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“of +fates,”</span> and transmitted to the people the irrevocable decrees of +Marduk, it seems as though these ancient rulers practised a similar +<span class="tei tei-q">“abundance of lying and deceit for the advantage of the governed”</span> +as that advocated by Plato in his Republic;<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> +exerted a stern control +over the alliances formed and the number of marriages celebrated +and endeavored to make these, as far as possible, sacred. +The mere record that the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal claims to +be the offspring of a pair of divinities personifying heaven and +earth, appears to show that he was the offspring of the sacred divine +union of the high priest and priestess, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> of divine birth. +It is interesting to collate a few disconnected facts which appear +to illustrate the natural and inevitable result of the institution of +two cults ruled by separate representatives. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sin-Gashid, of the dynasty of Uruk, mentions a temple built +for the god and his consort, as <span class="tei tei-q">“the seat of their joy.”</span> At Babylon, +the <span class="tei tei-q">“mother of great gods”</span> dwelt within the precincts of +the temple on the east side of the Euphrates known as Esagila, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the lofty house.”</span> When the city of Babylon extended as far as +to include Borsippa, the temple known as Ezida, <span class="tei tei-q">“the true house,”</span> +was built for Marduk=Bel. At Lagash the temple of the <span class="tei tei-q">“good +lady”</span> and mother stood in one quarter known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“brilliant +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +town”</span> while the temple of her consort stood in the other of the +two most ancient quarters of the town. The above facts acquire +double significance when collated with the well-known fact that the +palace of Semiramis, the great queen of Babylon, was built on +the west bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ancient palace of +the king. A bridge united these royal residences which were +otherwise separated by the river. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under Semiramis, Babylonia was a nation under a single female +ruler and this usurpation of power by a woman, accompanied as +it was by the predominance of the originally naïve cult which had +unconsciously fostered and ministered to perversion and depravity, +preceded the decadence, disintegration and ultimate downfall of +the empire. Many centuries previous, the instalment of a female +sovereign preceded the ruin of another empire in what we may +assume to have been precisely the same way. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Professor Sayce informs us that, <span class="tei tei-q">“about 3800 B.C., in northern +Babylonia and in the city of Agadê or Akkad, arose the empire +of Sargani-sarali=Sargon, and that Sargon's son, Naram-Sin, +succeeded him in 3750 B.C. and continued the conquests of his +grandfather.... Naram-Sin's son was Bingam-sar-ali. +A queen, Ellat-gula, seems to have sat upon the throne not much +later, and with her the dynasty may have come to an end. At any +rate the empire of Akkad is heard of no more. But it left behind +it a profound impression in western Asia, whose art and culture +became Babylonian”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The process of disintegration, which caused the Babylonian empire +to crumble away, was doubtlessly hastened by its division into four +regions, each of which in latter times possessed its capital and +became the centre of various independent forms of rival cults. +During many centuries Babylonia was closely associated with the +cult of Marduk-Bel, the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of rest;”</span> while Shamash, another +form of the central supreme lord, was the deity of Larsa and +Sippar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At one time Ur became the headquarters for the cult of the moon-god +Sin or Nannar. As, according to Babylonian notions, the sun +does not properly belong to the heavens and plays an insignificant +part in the calendrical system in comparison with the moon, sun-worship +proper does not seem to have existed in Babylonia. At +the same time it would seem as though when the <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive sun”</span>=Polaris +became the hidden, secret god of the priest-astronomers, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +who determined the seasons by Ursa Major, the populace was +taught to regard Bel as the personification of the diurnal sun and +of the herald of day, the morning star. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When it is borne in mind how, as the empire spread, new cities +were founded on the plan of the metropolis, that each of these +must therefore have been, in turn, governed by a pair of minor +rulers, and had its own minor zikkurat, we can understand the +various indications that exist showing how the ancient sacred capital +of the state became the place of reunion for the minor <span class="tei tei-q">“gods,”</span> +who assembled there annually in the main sanctuary, and the fact +that each minor chief necessarily required his dwelling place and +tribal council-chamber, would account for the <span class="tei tei-q">“references to zikkurats +... or special sanctuaries of some kind, which were +erected within the sacred precinct of the main capital ...”</span> +(Jastrow, p. 637). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When it is realized that each zikkurat was an artificial <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain”</span> +the description of Babylon in Revelations <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xviii</span></span> becomes +clearly intelligible and is seen to apply to the seven-fold organization +of the ancient empire which had become the centre of the +debasing earth-worship ultimately identified with a female goddess. +<span class="tei tei-q">“And the woman which thou sawest is that great city which reigneth +over the kings of the earth.... I saw a woman sit upon a +scarlet colored beast ... having seven heads.... The seven +heads are seven <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mountains</span></em>, on which the woman sitteth ... +and there are seven kings”</span>.... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Future investigation will doubtlessly furnish us with exact knowledge +concerning the original relation of the governors of the <span class="tei tei-q">“four +regions”</span> to the central ruler and of the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven divisions”</span> of the +state to each other. It would be desirable to establish whether +each territorial division and tribe bore the name of its tribal ancestor +and whether these names agree with those of the seven chief +<span class="tei tei-q">“gods”</span> of the pantheon, each of whom is associated with a celestial +body, a day of the seven-day period and, as shown in the bas-relief +already cited, with a different animal. I am strongly tempted +to see in the latter traces of tribal totems and to connect the days +of the week with the seven divisions of the population and some +established form of rotation, employed for the government of the +state, analogous to that I have found out in Ancient Mexico. +With regard to the regulation of the calendar by certain officials, +the following facts are important: Professor Sayce tells us that, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“in Assyria, the high-priest was the equal of the king and the king +himself was a priest and the adopted child of Bel.”</span> Under him were +a number of grades of officials and officers. The land was divided +into provinces whose <span class="tei tei-q">“governors were selected from the highest +aristocracy and who alone had the privilege of sharing with the king +the office of limmu or eponymous archon after whom the year was +named.”</span> This office, which finds its analogy in China and Central +America, is more clearly explained in the following passage: <span class="tei tei-q">“The +Assyrians were endowed with a keen sense of history and had invented +a system of reckoning time by means of certain officers called +limmi, who gave their names to the year”</span> (Sayce, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. +255). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Venturing to make a general statement, as a suggestion for +future investigation, I should say that the ultimate result of the +institution of two cults which were bound to grow in opposite directions, +was the fall of the Babylonian empire under the degrading +growth of perversion and depravity, linked to the cult of earth and +night and bi-sexuality, and the rise of the Assyrian empire with a +cult in which the ideas of light and darkness, night and day preponderated +over those of sex. It may possibly have been as a reaction +and protest against the prevailing rites of Babylonia that influenced +the Assyrians in their adoption of two male rulers, the high-priest +and the king. On the other hand, there are indications showing +that possibly, in order to evade the ceremonial obligations of their +position as the representative of the principle of fertility, several +<span class="tei tei-q">“goddesses”</span> or female rulers of Babylonia transferred their seat +of government, or placed the reins of government into the hands +of a king. Thus Hammurabi tells us that he has restored the +temple of the <span class="tei tei-q">“lady”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“great lady”</span> of Hallabi, a town near +Sippar and that she had conferred upon him supreme authority over +the Babylonian states, then engaged in fighting with each other. +It is obvious that, as soon as concealment and mystery increasingly +surrounded the cult of the female principle, and warfare became +habitual, the power and rôle of the female ruler must have become +more and more <span class="tei tei-q">“shadowy”</span> and finally dwindled to the utterance +of sacred oracles in dark concealed places of retirement and safety. +Ultimately the cult of Ishtar appears to have become absolutely +secret and hidden and shrouded in mystery and darkness. Its priestesses +became the most famous oracle-givers of Assyria who imparted +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine knowledge concealed from men.”</span> In the eighth century +B.C., Arbela became the centre of the cult of Ishtar and <span class="tei tei-q">“developed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a special school of theology marked by the attempt to accord a superior +position to the goddess. In a series of eight oracles addressed +to Esarhaddon six are given forth by women”</span> (Jastrow, p. 342). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Inevitable as was the disintegration of the original state and religion, +continual efforts appear to have been made even in Babylonia +itself, to check the growth of a debasing ritual and the constant +increase of the gods and goddesses which were installed as the +rulers of each new town that was founded on the plan of the metropolis. +Professor Jastrow tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“whenever the kings in +their inscriptions mention the regular sacrifices, it is in almost all +cases with reference to their re-institution of an old custom that +had been allowed to fall into neglect (owing to the political disturbances +which always affected the temples) and not as an innovation”</span> +... (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 667). The tablet of Sippara, on +which the image of Shamash is restored by the king on an ancient +model, has already been described and on it appears the four-spoked +wheel, the expressive symbol of a <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive Sun.”</span> The primeval +conception of a single, stable, changeless and central celestial +power was evidently adhered to in ancient Babylonia by a small +but faithful minority, and the constant growth of debasing practices +and the manufacture of symbolical images to which reverence +was paid and which were ultimately worshipped, awakened +its constant disapproval and abhorrence. At a remote period we +find the adherents to a stern monotheism establishing the Babylonian +province of +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CANAAN. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following account of the Hebrew religion, translated from +Spamer's work (p. 297) already cited, will be found instructive: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Originally there was no difference between the religion of the +Hebrews and that of the neighboring tribes. The lord=Baal of +Moab was named Kamosh, that of the Hebrews Yahwe. Yahwe +was the national god, above all the god of battle.... Altars +made of earth or unhewn stone were erected for him on +mountains, hills or under green trees; next to the altar stood +either a stone column (Masseba) or a sacred tree (Ashera). In +the temple the image of Yahwe represented him in human form or, +as in Dan or Bethel, in that of a bull. Next to Yahwe were other +gods: first, Baal, the supreme lord of the world, who had a +special temple in Jerusalem; secondly, Astarte, to whom Solomon +built an altar near Jerusalem.</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Solomon had also built altars to Kamosh, the god of the Moabites, +to Milkom, the god of the Ammonites and in his temple +other gods beside Yahwe were worshipped; amongst them a demi-god +and a serpent of brass (Neshushtan) which was abolished later +on by Hiskia. All of these gods, who were also worshipped by +the neighbors of the enemies of Israel, became secondary to the +tribal god to whom Israel owed its greatness.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Yahwe becomes the first and mightiest, and is identified with +El, the supreme god of the Semites, whose individuality is vague. +On the other hand <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Baal,’</span> the principal god of all neighboring +people, especially of the Phœnicians, possesses a marked individuality +which excludes his identification with other gods. He +is worshipped in separate centres of cult and becomes the rival +of Yahwe....”</span> The rivalry and the struggle for religious and +political supremacy between the priests, prophets and followers of +Yahwe, the god of heaven, and Baal, the lord of earth, culminated +in about B.C. 837, when the temple of the latter was destroyed +and his priesthood killed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“It was not until about 750 B.C., however, that the national god +Yahwe became the acknowledged sole god of the universe next to +whom all other gods were as mere phantoms.... A remarkable +transformation took place about this time in the conception +of a divinity and of morality; the moral precepts of religion were +developed and clearly formulated and the ten commandments promulgated. +As time progressed the voices of prophets and priesthood +became more and more loud in condemnation of the use of +idols and symbols of divinity. Hosea especially denounced the +cult of Yahwe under the form of a bull; Jeremias went so far as +to disapprove of the holy ark itself which stood in the temple of +Jerusalem.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Later on, when, about B.C. 621, one of the most important +events in the history of mankind had taken place and the book of +the law, the Sepher Hathora, was discovered by the high priest in +the temple of Jerusalem, during its restoration, the Hebrew religion +was reformed, reorganized and reëstablished on lines which +favored the development of more refined and elevated religious +teachings. All idols and symbols were abolished. Naught could +destroy, however, the deeply rooted idea that it was in Jerusalem +alone, or Mount Sion, that Yahwe was to be worshipped. This +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was the chosen site to which offerings and tithes were to be carried. +As the chosen people of Yahwe, Israel was also to be a holy nation +which was to distinguish itself by its superior religion and +morality and, in order to do so, was to keep itself rigidly apart and +aloof from other people.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Thus this little nation cultivated and perfected the religious +capabilities of the human race and laid the foundation for Christianity +and the Islam.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Jerusalem, the ancient capital, occupied almost the centre of Canaan +and was founded on Mount Zion, the highest elevation in the +district. From time immemorial Jerusalem has indeed contained a +spot reputed to mark the centre of the world and a sacred stone is +also venerated there to this day and is now associated, in a curious +way, with the biblical account of Jacob's dream of a ladder reaching +from earth to heaven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was obviously as a result of their deeply ingrained ideal of +central power that the Israelites who migrated from Ur, the seat +of moon-worship, and wandered into Palestine, engaged in a long +struggle which ended in their successful capture, in 1050 B.C., of +Jerusalem, the sacred city, situated in the centre of the land. The +importance of this conquest to the Israelites can only be rightly estimated +when it is realized that, during countless centuries, this single +branch of the Semitic race had adhered to the cult of the central, +changeless, ever-present and light-giving guiding star, and gradually +developed the higher conception of an invisible, omnipotent +and omniscient God. It will be seen that, while other branches of +their race gradually developed separate cults of the dual principles +of nature, they had remained faithful to the primeval recognition +of a single pole-star and, rising to a loftier conception, constituted +themselves the champions of a pure monotheism, disconnected from +the cult of heaven and earth or sun and moon which, associated +with dual reproductive principles, justly became the horror and +abomination of the Israelites. It is interesting to recall the fact +that, about 908 B.C., Jezebel, the wife of Ahab and daughter +of the king of Tyre, set up the cult of the dual principles of nature +in Israel and, destroying the priests and prophets of Jehovah, +built a temple to Baal and Astarte and appointed 450 priests and +500 prophets to the respective service of these divinities. This historical +incident furnishes a striking instance of the united cult of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Above and Below in direct antagonism to that of the Centre which +had already developed into a definite and pure monotheism.<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASSYRIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A study of the Assyrian symbols of royalty, which I recently +had an opportunity of making at the British Museum, has led me +to the conclusion that, in Assyria, during many centuries, a perfect +equilibrium was maintained throughout the state which, by a strict +coördination of all its parts, represented a harmonious entity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An observation I have made, which may be worth noting, is that +Assyria seems to occupy, in relation to Babylonia, somewhat the +same position as Peru to the more ancient and greater centres of +culture in Mexico and Central America. In the latter the original +ground-plan of the archaic civilization seems to be lost and hidden +under the ruin and devastation caused by the growth of diverging +cults. In Peru and Assyria alike we seem to have examples of +organizations starting afresh on the old plan or reversions to the +primitive type of civil and religious government in which simplicity, +order, balance and harmony were again restored and maintained. +If I may venture to hazard a general observation about the ancient +civilizations of Western Asia I should say that, whereas the primeval +centre of primitive pole-star worship in Babylonia had, in +course of time, brought forth as its highest development the monotheism +of the Israelites, and as its lowest the cults of Ishtar and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Bel, it also appears to have given birth to a reproduction of its +former self, to the Assyrian empire, in which the most ancient form +of culture was preserved intact, and in time spread its influence +not only to other nations but also back to Babylonia itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As in Peru, it appears to have been the policy of the kings of +Assyria, who had before them the results of an opposite course +pursued at Babylonia, to discountenance the manufacture of symbolical +images and the establishment of minor centres of government, +the leading motive being to maintain the ideal of an absolute +centralization of temporal and spiritual government and power. +It is the opinion of leading Assyriologists that Assyria was a +colony founded by Semitic Babylonians and this conclusion is corroborated +by the view I have advanced, namely, that, as Babylonia +degenerated and abandoned the primeval ideas which nourished +the germ of monotheism, those who adhered to this ideal after prolonged +struggles separated themselves from their ancient mother, +and founded new colonies, the administration and religion of which +they established according to their wider experience and more advanced +intellectual and moral development. A characteristic of +Assyria seems to have been the institution of two male rulers, the +high-priest and the king and the cult of the diurnal and nocturnal +heaven, of day and night. As these features are in marked contrast +to the Babylonian male and female rulers and the cult of heaven and +earth and the reproductive principles, it would seem as though they +had developed themselves from a prolonged cult of heaven alone +by the inhabitants of Northern Babylonia, or that they were the +result of a reform led about by the abuses to which the Babylonian +cult had led. A curious development worth mentioning, even out +of its chronological order, was when the Assyrian king Esarhaddon +placed his two sons as single rulers upon the thrones of Babylonia +and Assyria. It is known that these two brothers ruled in +peace during twenty years and that then a great rebellion against +the Assyrian rule took place, which ended in the conquest and destruction +of Babylonia and the death of its king, whose half-brother, +the Assyrian ruler Asurbanipal, thus became the sole ruler of Assyria +and Babylonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Professor Jastrow tells us that, <span class="tei tei-q">“as compared with Babylonia, +Assyria was poor in the number of her temples.... The +Assyrian rulers were much more concerned in rearing grand edifices +for themselves. While the gods were not neglected in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Assyria, one hears much more of the magnificent palaces erected +by the kings than of temples and shrines.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above data suffice to show that the tendency of the Assyrian +monarchs was to indulge in self-glorification and to forget +what some of his subjects never could: that his position had originally +been that of an earthly representative only of a higher central, +celestial power. As among some branches of the Semitic +race, the conception of a divinity became more and more elevated +until it reached the ideal of the Yahwe, <span class="tei tei-q">“the only true god who +was jealous of other gods and could brook none beside him.”</span> To +these uncompromising adherents of pure monotheism the royal +titles of the Assyrian kings who styled themselves the rulers of the +centre, of the four quarters of the earth and of the heavens, must +indeed have appeared as a sacrilege. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The existence of such opposite views clearly explains the ultimate +outbreak of hatred and war between monotheistic Israel and +Juda and the ancient empires of Western Asia which shared, +with them, a remote but common origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to Assyria we find that this empire also, as it extended +its four-fold capital Assur into four provinces and developed +the cult of the high central power and the Heaven and Earth, +gradually prepared in turn its own downfall by an inevitable +process of disintegration. In time two great capitals grew up, +situated to the northeast and northwest of the ancient metropolis +of Assur, the original seat of the <span class="tei tei-q">“kings of the four regions.”</span> +These capitals were Ninive, divided into four cities, and Arbela, +also a <span class="tei tei-q">“four-city.”</span> The fact that the latter capital was the seat +of Ishtar worship, further proves that, at one time, a definite separation +of cults had also supervened in Assyria and that Assur +and Ninive may at one time have been respectively centres of +Polaris and sun worship. It is well known that when about B.C. +606 the great Assyrian empire was destroyed, it had four royal +residences: Ninive, Dûr-Sarrukîn, Kalash and Assur, which were +then burnt and levelled to the ground, never to be rebuilt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now examine the emblems of <span class="tei tei-q">“divine royalty”</span> exhibited +on the famous portrait stelæ of Assyrian kings preserved at the +British Museum which strikingly confirm the view I advanced that +the four-spoked wheel of Shamash on the Sippara tablet was the +ancient restored image of the <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive sun”</span> Polaris and of circumpolar +rotation. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Assyrian kings on the British Museum stelæ are represented +as wearing the cross, between the signs for the moon and planet +Venus, that occurs on the Sippara tablet. The four-spoked wheel +thus explains itself as a <span class="tei tei-q">“wheel-cross”</span> and is found to have been +employed in Assyria alternately with the plain cross; for the +portrait statue of Asurnasirpal (about B.C. 880) represents the +king wearing a chain about his neck from which hangs a cross between +the Ishtar and moon emblems, and next to a symbol representing +the lightning bolt of Ramman. In the background, next +to the king's head, five emblems are sculptured, three of which are +identical with those hanging from the chain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the eight-rayed +<span class="tei tei-q">“sun”</span> of Ishtar, the moon Sin and the lightning bolt of Ramman. +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fifth emblem</span></em> consists of the royal conical cap with four horns +and is represented separately to the right while the other four +symbols form a compact group. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the text Assur, Ramman, Sin, Shamash and Ishtar are invoked. +As the symbols of Ishtar and Sin can be identified by +the Sippara tablet, and the winged disk unquestionably pertains +to Assur and the lightning bolt to Ramman, we find that the cap, +simulating the central <span class="tei tei-q">“holy mound”</span> with four horns, must be the +symbol of the remaining god Shamash. This inference appears to +be corroborated by the circumstance that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seventh</span></em> month was +sacred to Shamash and that it was in this month that the lord of +the holy mound built the seven-staged tower of Babylon. These +facts authorize us to formulate the conclusion that the four-spoked +wheel of the Sippara tablet, the cross hanging to the king's chain +and the four-horned cap which, like the <span class="tei tei-q">“square altar with four +horns,”</span> simulated the <span class="tei tei-q">“holy mound,”</span> were alike symbols of Shamash, +the <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive Sun.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On his portrait-stela king Shamsi-Rammanu the younger (B.C. +825-812), the grandson of Asurnasirpal, wears the cross only, +hanging from his neck-chain and in the text invokes, according to +Dr. von Luschan, only Nindar, who has been proven to be Shamash +under another name or title. Nindar is identified in Professor Jastrow's +hand-book with Ninsia, <span class="tei tei-q">“a god of considerable importance, +imported perhaps from some ancient site of Lagash”</span> ... who +<span class="tei tei-q">“disappeared from the later pantheon.”</span> ... +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 90 and +91). It is interesting to find that the king, who like his ancient predecessor +the Patesi or religious chief Shamsi-Ramman (B.C. 1850) +bears the name of the god Shamash, wears as his only ornament +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the cross which so obviously expresses the royal title, <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of +the four regions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From Professor Jastrow (p. 107), we learn that it was customary +for the early rulers of Babylon, at the beginning or the close +of their dedicatory inscriptions, to parade a list of the divinities +associated with the districts that they controlled. Gudea, for instance, +enumerates eighteen deities, and these may be taken as +indicative of the territorial extent of Gudea's jurisdiction. This +custom affords an interesting explanation of the sculptured emblems +of divinities and the invocations of their names on the above stelæ +and shows that Asurnasirpal and his grandson ruled four districts +from a fifth situated in the centre, whose emblem was the mound +with four horns or the cross, both emblems of the royal <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of +the four regions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Bearing this custom in mind, we next note that, on his stela at the +British Museum, Shalmaneser II, the son of Asurnasirpal, invokes +not only three different divinities, but also one more than his +father or son. His invocation is to Ashur, Shamash and Ishtar +and to the Babylonian triad Anu, Bel and Ea. The emblems +of the first three divinities are the same as on the stelæ of his +father and son, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the winged disk, the mound-shaped, horned +cap and the eight-rayed star. To Anu, Bel and Ea pertain the +emblematic lightning bolt and moon which are clearly visible; and +a third, almost effaced, group which, upon examination by Mr. +Pinches, revealed the presence of six stars or circles. Dr. von +Luschan infers that originally the group consisted of seven circles +and was the same as that sculptured on the stelæ of Sargon (at +Berlin), the bas-reliefs at Nahr-el-Kelb and at Bavian. On each +of these the circles are grouped in two horizontal rows of three +circles while the seventh circle stands to the right, in front and +midway between both rows. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we assume that the lightning bolt pertained to Anu, the upper, +and the moon, the emblem of Night, to Ea, the lower firmament, +we find that the seven-fold group falls to the lot of Bel and seems +to coincide exactly with the recorded fact that the famous +zikkurat of Bel at Babylon, for instance, consisted of seven +stories; and that it was known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of the seven divisions +[regions] of the world,”</span> and that Babylon actually was at one +time a seven-fold state, with seven <span class="tei tei-q">“mountains”</span>=gods=earthly +rulers. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Final, positive proof that Assyria, under Sargon II and Esarhaddon, +like ancient Babylon, was organized into seven <span class="tei tei-q">“districts,”</span> +seems to be furnished by the seven symbols carved on their stelæ, +accompanied by the group of seven circles which obviously expresses +the same as the cuneiform character in the inscribed invocation, +namely, the word <span class="tei tei-q">“seven-fold-one”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“seven in one,”</span><a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> +which was obviously an appropriate designation for the empire as +a whole, consisting as it did of seven tribal districts, associated +with the seven directions in space to each of which was assigned a +god, a mountain house, a color, an animal, a celestial body, a day +and a symbol. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An extremely suggestive juxtaposition of the numeral seven and +a circle containing a group of five circles, resembling a flower with +four petals, occurs on the Bavian tablet already cited, on which +are also carved two emblems: the moon and winged disk; one compact +detached group consisting of four altars (three surrounded by +horns and one surmounted by a ram's head) and a second detached +group consisting of a base into which four staffs or sceptres +are inserted. These recur on the fine Sendschirli stela of +Esarhaddon about which a few words remain to be said. It exhibits +the numeral seven=the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven in one”</span> sign before the king, +accompanied by four divinities mounted on animals, the first two +being the god riding a double monster, and the seated goddess, +both wearing the cone on the high royal cap. Carved close to the +king's hand is the group of four staffs or sceptres, inserted in a +horizontal base, which appear to be the emblems of his lordship +over the four regions. Three of these are the same as on the +Bavian relief: the first surmounted by a cone-shaped object<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> beneath +which are two hanging ends of ribbons; the second consisting +of a plain single staff, split so as to form two; the third surmounted +by two animal heads, each with a single horn. The fourth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sceptre on Esarhaddon's stela is like that represented as inserted +into one of the altars on the Bavian stela, and terminates in a recurved +ram's head. The fourth in the Bavian group of sceptres +somewhat resembles the trident tripartite emblem which occurs on +the Sargon stela and the Esarhaddon stela of Nahr-el-Kelb (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">figured</span></em> +by Dr. Luschan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 20). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A fresh examination of the bas-relief of Maltaya, described by +Layard and already alluded to, reveals a suggestive differentiation +in the representations of the seven divinities in a row, at each end +of which, facing the procession, stands a king. Considering that +in Assyria there were governors, the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">limmi</span></span>, +who held offices of +limited duration and gave their names to their years of office, the +query naturally suggests itself whether the two <span class="tei tei-q">“kings”</span> may not +also have ruled for fixed periods of seven years, each one of which +bore the name of one of the seven divisions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It being an accepted fact that the institution of the Sabbath was +of Chaldean and Babylonian origin, it is permissible to assign to +the same source the institution of the seven-year period described in +Leviticus <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxv</span></span>: <span class="tei tei-q">“But the seventh year shall be a sabbath of +rest unto the land.... And thou shalt number seven Sabbaths +of years unto thee, seven times seven years; and the space of the +seven sabbaths of years shall be unto thee forty-nine years.... +And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year”</span>.... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Addressing to Assyriologists an appeal for fuller knowledge concerning +the ancient calendar periods of Babylonia-Assyria, I now +revert to the Maltaya bas-relief and point out that, of the seven divinities, +the two principal ones, a god and goddess, wear a form of +cap encircled by horns and surmounted by a cone. One of these two +deities is distinguished from all others by his larger size and by +the fact that he stands on a double animal and heads the procession +holding a recurved sceptre in his hand. Behind him follows the +goddess Ishtar, holding a large ring in her right hand. Her throne, +as on the Sendschirli stela, exhibits a ring surmounting its high +back, to the side of which a group of four circles or disks are attached. +As several centres of Ishtar cult, already mentioned, +have been designated as fourfold cities it seems possible that the +four disks alluded to this fact, while the ring crowning the top of +the throne, and that she holds, constitutes one of her emblems.... +However this may be, both monuments exhibit kings associated +with the number seven and Ishtar, the seated goddess, associated +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with the number four; facts which claim further investigation and +may lead to interesting verifications of the numerical systems of +the Assyrians. It should be mentioned here that the heads of the +five remaining divinities, on the Maltaya bas-relief, are surmounted +by a wheel with spokes and that one holds a recurved sceptre, like +that of the first, another bears the lightning bolt of Ramman, +while three carry the same peculiar double symbol also held by +Shamash on the Sippara tablet. It consists of a large ring like +that held by Ishtar and a short staff possibly a fire-stick. In +each case the fingers of the right hand of the deity clasp the +middle of the staff and the ring and the appearance of the combined +rod and circle closely resembles the upper portion of the +Egyptian crux ansata. Professor von Luschan has, indeed, expressed +the opinion that the ring or circle (of Ishtar) the rod and +circle (of Shamash) and the crux ansata must have analogous +meanings, a view I fully share and shall further support in dealing +with the Egyptian symbol. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following data will be found to substantiate further the evidence +produced concerning the seven-fold organization of Babylonia-Assyria. +One of the finest bas-relief tablets at the British +Museum excavated by Layard from the ruins of Asurnasirpal's +palace at Nimroud represents in its centre the sacred conventionalized +ashera=tree, above which is the winged circle, from the +centre of which issues the half figure of the god Assur (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> fig. +<a href="#Figure_71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>, 1). To its right stand two winged figures wearing the +conical crown with four horns, and necklaces from which hang its reproduction +in miniature, also the cross, the symbol of Ishtar and the +moon. To the left of the tree stand two personages, wearing the +high cap with a flat top, central cone and hanging ends, such as are +frequently represented as worn by the kings. The natural inference +would be that the winged figures wearing the cap with horns represent +high-priests and that a double hierarchy corresponding to the +dual monarchy probably existed at one time, the result being <span class="tei tei-q">“four +lords,”</span> two celestial and two terrestrial, corresponding to the +<span class="tei tei-q">“four regions,”</span> two of which pertained to the Above or the +heaven and two to the Below or earth. A curious indication that +at one time there were four separate rulers of the four regions is +furnished by the cap with four horns and the altar whose four corners +terminated in horns, when they are connected with the passage +in Revelations <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xvii</span></span>, which refers to Babylonian symbolism and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +states: <span class="tei tei-q">“And the ten horns that thou sawest are ten kings.”</span> Professor +Jastrow states that <span class="tei tei-q">“similar horns existed on the Hebrew +and Phœnician altars,”</span> and that <span class="tei tei-q">“if we may believe Herodotus, +the great altars at Babylon were made of gold”</span> (p. 652). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Doubtlessly, Assyrian texts contain a fund of information yet +inaccessible to students, concerning the constitution of the state +and the modifications it may have undergone in course of time. +An exhaustive study of the symbols connected with Assyrian kings +at different dates, in connection with the text relating his conquests +and foundations of temples, may yet reveal the occasional assumption +or usurpation by a single individual of different degrees of +power and, possibly, the ultimate separation and antagonism of +hierarchy and monarchy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The employment in Assyria and Babylonia of the tree, as a sacred +symbol, should next be considered, first, in relation to the other +symbols to which great religious importance was attached. The +significance of the zikkurat, or seven-staged tower, has already been +discussed. Another feature was <span class="tei tei-q">“the great basin known as <span class="tei tei-q">‘Apsu,’</span> +the name, it will be recalled, for <span class="tei tei-q">‘the deep’</span> +[<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the lower firmament]. +The name indicates that it was a symbolical representation +of the domain of Ea. The zikkurat itself being an attempt +to reproduce the shape of the earth, the representation of the +<span class="tei tei-q">‘apsu’</span> would suggest itself as a natural accessory to the temple. +The zikkurat and the basin together would thus become the living +symbols of the current cosmological conceptions. The comparison +with the great 'sea' that stood in the court of Solomon's +temple, naturally suggests itself, and there can be little doubt that +the latter is an imitation of a Babylonian model”</span> (Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span> 653). It is evident from the above that the adoption of the +sacred basin as the symbol of Ea would naturally be simultaneous +with that of miniature <span class="tei tei-q">“basins”</span> and water bowls and jars, employed +for holding the sacred water used in the cult of the Below. +Reflection shows that, in the zikkurat, the seat of Bel=the image +of the earth, and in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Apsu”</span> the watery deep and lower firmament +of Ea, we have the sacred emblems of two deities of the +Babylonian triad only. The emblem of Anu, the Heaven or upper +firmament, is missing and it is naturally in the cult of Anshar=Ashur +that it must be sought for. The following data will sufficiently +show that it was the tree or pole and, in all probability, the +fire-stick that were connected with the cult of An-shar=<span class="tei tei-q">“all that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is above,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“on high.”</span> The resemblance of the name Ashur to +the word for tree or pole, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ashera”</span> of the Phœnicians and +Hebrews, suggests, moreover, the probability of their common +origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An interesting question on which I have not, as yet, been able +to obtain information, relates to the mode of producing fire, resorted +to by the Babylonian-Assyrians. The element was, of +course, associated with heaven, and the fire-god under the name of +Gibil or Nusku was termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“son of Anu.”</span> Shamash himself +also figures as a personification of fire and it seems probable that, +in the Babylonian temples in the centre of the square altar, a fire +was originally kept perpetually burning as an image of Polaris. +As great stress is laid upon the purifying effect of fire as on that +of water in Babylonian literature, it is easy to trace the origin +of the offering of burnt sacrifices to the idea that, cast into the sacred +fire, they became purified and absorbed into its essence, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +accepted by the sacred living image of the central star-god. It +seems extremely probable that the primitive employment of a fire-stick +by the priesthood, for the production of <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial fire,”</span> may +have played an important rôle in causing the stick, and thence the +pole and tree, to have become the adopted symbol of Anu. So +little is known even about the origin of <span class="tei tei-q">“tree-worship”</span> itself in +ancient Babylonia-Assyria that Professor Jastrow advances the +following statement (p. 689). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“On the seal cylinders there is frequently represented a pole or +a conventionalized form of a tree, generally in connection with a +design illustrating the worship of a deity. This symbol is clearly +a survival of some tree worship that was once popular. The comparison +with the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ashera</span></span> and pole worship among Phœnicians and +Hebrews is fully justified and is a proof of the great antiquity +of the symbols which, without becoming a formal part of the later +cult, retained in some measure a hold upon the popular mind.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘Ashur’</span> became the god of Assyria as the rulers of the city +of Ashur grew in power ... in the various changes of official +residences that took place in the course of Assyrian history ... +the god took part and his central seat of worship depended upon +the place that the kings chose for their official residence ... +there was always one place—the official residence—which formed +the central spot of worship. There the god was supposed to dwell +for the time being. One factor, perhaps, that ought to be taken +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into consideration, in accounting for this movable disposition of the +god was that he was not symbolized exclusively by a statue.... +His chief symbol was a standard that could be carried from place +to place.... The standard consisted of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a pole</span></em> surrounded by a +disk enclosed within two wings, while above the disk stood the +figure of a warrior in the act of shooting an arrow +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> fig. <a href="#Figure_65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>, 5).... +The standard ... which was so made that it could be +carried into the thick of the fray in order to assure the army of the +god's presence<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> ... followed the camp everywhere and when the +kings chose to fix upon a new place for their military encampment +... the standard would repose in the place selected”</span> (Jastrow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 194). To one who like myself has devoted years to the +study of the symbolism of primitive people and is familiar with the +ancient Mexican image of the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the North”</span> standing in the +centre of a horizontally-placed cross-figure, and with the Chichimecan +custom, on taking possession of new territory, to shoot arrows +towards the cardinal points, the Ashur standard suggests a single +explanation, namely, that it was the symbol of celestial, central +rulership and that the god, standing on a staff which could be +turned and aiming his arrow towards the four directions in succession, +was an expressive image of Polaris and Septentriones. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Further ideas associated with the tree by the Babylonian-Assyrians +are clear since Professor E. B. Tylor has so conclusively +shown that certain bas-reliefs represent the act of artificially fertilizing +the palm tree by scattering the male blossom from its cone-shaped +bunch, over the female palm. In each case this rite is +being performed by figures with human bodies and large wings, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +high priests of heaven, and it seems evident that it symbolized +the mystic life-producing union of heaven and earth or of the +male and female principles of nature which marked the Babylonian-Assyrian +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +New Year's Day. Given these associations of thought, +it is easy to see how the New Year became the festival of New +Life and how the fertilized tree became the <span class="tei tei-q">“tree of life,”</span> and its +sculptured image a memorial of a new year, possibly recording +some record of the actual marriages which took place in the state +on that day. The decipherment and comparison of the inscriptions +on such tablets, by skilled Assyriologists, can alone enlighten +us on this point, but enough appears apparent to explain how the +tree could have become associated in Assyria not only with life, +but with the life and growth of the state. Moreover the tree or +pole itself, named ashera, may well have appeared to some Euphratean +people, to express the name Ashur sufficiently clear to +become its symbol and <span class="tei tei-q">“canting arms.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The adoption of the shaft or pole, as a symbol of the Celestial +Centre, may easily be explained by the fact that, stuck into the +ground and watched from a certain position, its upper end would +seem to touch Polaris and it thus supplied wandering star-observers +with a point of fixity in space which, being transportable, facilitated +the registration of circumpolar rotation. During many +centuries the image of the <span class="tei tei-q">“crooked serpent,”</span> Nakkasch, the constellation +which could be seen each night winding its way around the +pole, must have deeply impressed itself upon the minds of the +primitive star gazers of the Euphratean valley, and conveyed +suggestions of imagery, one of which may have created the Phœnician +caduceus. At a later period when Ursa Major became circumpolar, +the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven lights of heaven”</span> became in turn associated +with the stable centre and suggested, in time, the seven-branched +candlestick of the Hebrews which is to this day constructed with +a central or principal holder, associated with stability. It is remarkable +to note the same ancient fundamental association in the +elevated and beautiful imagery employed by the descendant of +ancient Euphratean star-worshippers, in Revelation <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, in +describing his vision: <span class="tei tei-q">“... And, behold, a throne <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">was set</span></em> in heaven, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> sat on the throne.... And there were seven lamps of fire +burning before the throne.... And before the throne there was +a sea of glass like unto crystal: and in the midst of the throne and +round about the throne were four beasts....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The idea cited by Mr. Robert Brown, of the sacred pole-tree +with golden apples guarded by the constellation Nakkasch, has +already been mentioned and to this ancient image should be added +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the celestial tree of life set in the midst of the garden of Paradise, +whence <span class="tei tei-q">“went out a river to water the garden and from thence it +was parted and became four heads.”</span>... It is as easy to see +how the standard of Assur, which always marked the central place +of worship, should have been evolved, as it is to realize why the +fire-stick, rod or sceptre should have been adopted by monarchs +as an emblem of central rulership, and why, finally, each centre +of government should have adopted some specific symbol which, +mounted on the staff, became its tribal or national emblem. It +does not appear hazardous to designate as such the ornamented +staffs already described, which are represented on the bas-reliefs, +in groups of four, a number agreeing with that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“four regions.”</span> +It has already been pointed out that a group of four sceptres, +corresponding to the royal title <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of four regions,”</span> is carved +close to the hand of Esarhaddon on the fine Sendschirli tablet at +Berlin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Babylonia, the local deity of Girsu was entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of +the true sceptre,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the right-hand sceptre,”</span> a name +which implies that, where dual rulership prevailed, a distinction +was made between right-hand and left-hand sceptres, a point to +which I shall revert later on in dealing with Egypt. In Northern +Assyria when the cult of Nabu superseded that of Marduk, his temple +was named <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of the sceptre of the world”</span> and Nebuchadnezzar +declares that it is he <span class="tei tei-q">“who gives the sceptre of sovereignty +to kings to rule over the land”</span> (Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> 129). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Simultaneously with the staff, the cross and wheel also became +emblems of sovereignty. It has already been shown that the cross +and four-spoked wheel of Shamash were synonymous signs. It +remains to be shown how the wheel was employed in Babylonia and +Assyria as an emblem of royalty. The representation of Shamash +at Sippar exhibits his wheel resting, in a perpendicular position, on +a table. Attached to the wheel are two cords which are held by a +<span class="tei tei-q">“god”</span> and his consort, who appear to be directing the course of +the wheel. We thus see that, whereas the disk or wheel of Assur, +the central god, revolved on its own axis, and was provided with +wings, signifying aërial and celestial motion, the wheel of Shamash +was associated with a <span class="tei tei-q">“lord and lady,”</span> and the symbolism appears +to express that they were the directors of the <span class="tei tei-q">“wheel of the law”</span> +of terrestrial government. It is well known that, beside the throne, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the emblem of permanent repose, the Assyrian monarchs also used +the chariot as a royal prerogative. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Gilgamesh epic the goddess Ishtar, on conferring sovereignty +upon Gilgamesh, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I will place thee on a chariot of +lapis-lazuli and gold, with wheels of gold....”</span> On +studying the Nimroud bas-reliefs in the British Museum I noted +the fact that the trappings of the horse driven by king Asurnasirpal, +who is represented as standing in his two-wheeled chariot, are +decorated with crosses. It is impossible not to recognize the affinity +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“wheel of the law”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the wheel”</span> of +India with the Assyrian symbols of Polaris and of central rulership +and to appreciate the naïve ingenuity of the idea of making +the driving of the chariot by the king represent his control of the +rotating wheels of state and government of the four quarters from +a stable centre.<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As another example of the Assyrian employment of the cross-symbol, +the bas-relief at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, should +be mentioned, as it displays a winged bird-headed human figure, +whose garments are embroidered with crosses. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +King Asurnasirpal, who is alternately figured on his throne or +in his chariot, is frequently represented as wearing on his garments +and bracelets another familiar and expressive emblem of centralization +and unity in diversity, the composite flower or rosette. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sacred ship or ark of the Babylonian temple remains to be +discussed. Diodorus Seculus says that, according to Babylonian +notions, <span class="tei tei-q">“the world is <span class="tei tei-q">‘a boat turned upside down’</span> and resting on +the waters. The appearance in outline of this image presented the +three divisions of the universe: the heavens=Anu upheld by +the serpent body of Tiamat; the earth, the dwelling of Bel-Marduk, +the <span class="tei tei-q">‘chief of gods;’</span> and the watery deep or <span class="tei tei-q">‘Apsu’</span> beneath, +the dwelling of Ea”</span> (Jastrow). This imagery authorizes +the inference that the sacred ship or ark was associated with this +conception of the earth as a boat resting on the line dividing the +sky from the watery deep. It can readily be seen how a maritime +people would be inclined to fancy that the celestial bodies floated +in the sky on invisible boats and that a single one among them was +apparently resting on a stable rock or mountain around which other +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +stars circled perpetually. That an analogous train of thought +should have caused the ultimate consecration of a tabernacle in +the form of a ship, to the central deity, entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the great +mountain,”</span> appears as inevitable as the idea that all life proceeded +from this source. Professor Jastrow tells us that the early significance +of the custom of carrying the gods in consecrated ships +became lost, but that it survived in Babylonia and Egypt and that +the ark of the Hebrews appears, similarly, to have been originally +a ship of some kind. I am indebted to Dr. Wallis Budge for the +interesting information that each day, in the temple of Ptah at +Memphis, an image of the god Seker was dragged around the altar +by the priests. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Bringing the preceding tentative study of the ancient civilization +of Babylonia-Assyria to a close, I venture to affirm that, imperfect +as it is, it clearly establishes certain important points connected +with the present investigation. It demonstrates that a primitive +pole-star worship existed and still exists in the Euphratean valley, +accompanied by the employment of the swastika or cross-symbol +and by the identical fundamental set of ideas which form the basis +not only of other Asiatic, but also of the American civilizations. +The Middle is associated with special sanctity, fixity and supremacy +of power and rule, extending in rotation over the Above and Below +and Four Quarters. This seven-fold division of the universe extended +throughout the entire organization of the state and gave rise +to certain logical developments of thought and symbolism, analogous +to those which have been traced elsewhere. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Postponing further comment, investigation will next be transferred +to the valley of the Nile, whose inhabitants, at various +periods of their history, came closely into contact with the people +of Asia Minor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +EGYPT. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing at the entrance to a much explored domain with a fitting +realization of being a novice and an intruder therein, I find myself +encouraged to advance by the frank admission recently made +by one of the leading authorities in Egyptology. In his <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes +for travellers in Egypt,”</span> Dr. Wallis Budge, the Assistant in the +Department of Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, of the British +Museum, openly states that <span class="tei tei-q">“the religion of the ancient Egyptians +is one of the most difficult problems of Egyptology and though a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +great deal has been written about it during the last few years and +many difficulties have been satisfactorily explained, there still remain +unanswered a large number of questions connected with it. +In all religious texts the reader is always assumed to have a knowledge +of the subject treated of by the writer, and no definite statement +is made on the subject concerning which very little, comparatively, +is known by students of to-day”</span> (The Nile, London, +1890, p. 71). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After having traced, as I have done, throughout ancient America, +China, India and Babylonia-Assyria, one and the same fundamental, +artificial scheme of state organization, it was with keenest +interest and a new sense of comprehension of the ancient Egyptian +civilization that I noted certain facts which I shall now proceed to +present. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +They will be found to show that ancient Egypt supplies us with +the instance of a civilization in which the fundamental set of ideas, +developed from primitive pole-star worship, prevailed during thousands +of years and had reached a high stage of evolution at a period +anterior to about B.C. 4000. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Dr. Wallis Budge, the ancient Egyptians called +their land Bak or Baket, Ta-Mera and Khem or Kamt, also Ta-Nehat, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the land of the sycamore”</span> and the land of <span class="tei tei-q">“the eye of +Horus.”</span> It was divided into two parts: Upper Egypt, Ta-res or +Ta-kema=<span class="tei tei-q">“the southern land,”</span> symbolized by the vulture; and +Lower Egypt, Ta-Meh, Mah-Ti or Meh-Ta, literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“North-land,”</span> +symbolized by the serpent. Two great ancient cities or capitals +were respectively known as Annu Meht, <span class="tei tei-q">“Annu of the North,”</span> +and Annu Qemat, <span class="tei tei-q">“Annu of the South.”</span> The kings of Egypt +styled themselves Suten-Net, <span class="tei tei-q">“King of the North and South”</span> and +Nebtaui, <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the two earths.”</span> As such the king wore the +double crown made up of the tesher or net, the red crown of Northern +or Lower Egypt and the hetet or het, the white crown of Southern +or Upper Egypt (The Nile, p. 27). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be shown further on that the high white and low red +crowns were respectively worn by the king and the queen at a certain +period of Egyptian history. It is well known that, in numerous +pictorial representations, the Egyptian men are painted with red, +but the women with white skins. The above facts show that there +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +existed a curious association of red with the north and the male +sex, and of white with the south and the female sex.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a familiar fact that the Egyptian hieroglyph and determinative +sign for town, city or village consisted of a circle with four +divisions. The usual form of this sign, the phonetic value of +which is nu or nut, is shown as fig. +<a href="#Figure_60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, 1, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. On a bas-relief preserved +at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, I noted the variant 1, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>. +It is interesting to collate these signs with the cross-symbols +(2) which express the sound of uu, un, and ur, and to note that the +sign for a capital in Egypt contains a division into four=un or ur, +and that the latter word is actually the familiar name of the famous +centre in Babylonia where cities laid out in the form of a square +and <span class="tei tei-q">“four-god cities”</span> existed, and the kings were termed <span class="tei tei-q">“lords of +the four regions”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“kings of Sumer and Akkad,”</span> the two ancient +divisions of the Babylonian state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It thus appears doubly significant that, in Egyptian, the word ur +signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“great, great one”</span> and is also the name of a god, which +is expressed in hieroglyphic writing by the cross, a mouth and a +seated god, the determinative for divinity. What is more, ur-u=chiefs, +ur-t=the name of a crown and ur-t=those who rest, +all of which words show that the Egyptian ur was associated with +the idea of divinity, greatness, crowned chieftainship, repose and +the cross-symbol which is incorporated in nut, the sign for capital +or city. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the symbols for the two great divisions of ancient +Egypt, the red crown of Northern or Lower Egypt, and the white +crown of Southern or Upper Egypt, are found surmounting the +sign nut (3), sufficiently shows that this symbol also stood for +an extended capital, a state, and that both <span class="tei tei-q">“lands”</span> constituted +at one time separate units or reproductions of the identical +plan. Returning to the ancient capitals known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Annu of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the North”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Annu of the South:”</span> according to Dr. +Wallis Budge the first occupied the site of Heliopolis and was +identical with the city of On mentioned in Genesis +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xli</span></span>: 45). The +Annu Qemat was Hermonthis, the modern Menth, Armant or Erment, +situated on the west bank of the Nile a little to the south +of the ruins of Thebes. It is noteworthy that the name for Thebes, +given in the cuneiform inscriptions and Hebrew scriptures, No +(Ezek. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxx</span></span>:4) and +No-am-on (Nahum <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>:8), is in one case the +simple inversion of On, the Hebrew name of Heliopolis, the Northern +Annu, while in the second instance the name of Thebes incorporates +both forms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The allusion to the <span class="tei tei-q">“square of the city of Edfu,”</span> and to buildings +laid out on a square ground-plan, contained in inscriptions +cited by Brugsch,<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> +also furnishes an indication, which can doubtless +be multiplied, that, as in Babylonia, Egyptian cities were sometimes +built in the form of a square. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, +the square (slightly elongated) is employed to express the consonant +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">p</span></span>. The sign appears to have been cryptic and to have constituted +the symbol of the god Ptah, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Opener,”</span> considered +as the most ancient of Egyptian gods. According to Dr. Wallis +Budge, <span class="tei tei-q">“the sign is the picture of a door made up of a number of +boards fastened together by three cross-pieces at the back, and +there can be no doubt that the word for door was connected with +the verb pth=to open, and that it was pronounced something like +ptah (compare the Hebrew pethah). The sound of the first letter +of ptah being <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">p</span></span>, the phonetic +value of the door became <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">p</span></span>”</span> (First +steps in Egyptian, p. 5). To the above I add the observation +that the plain square or outline of the door, without indications of +boards and cross-pieces, is usually employed in the published texts. +The association of the square, representing a door with three +cross-beams, and expressing the sound ptah is particularly interesting +when connected with the word for earth or land=ta, and the +method of expressing the word universe=taui, by the threefold +repetition of the sign ta, which resembles a cross-beam +(fig. <a href="#Figure_60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, 5). +An interesting association of the square with earth or land is seen +in one of the signs for province or nome=sept or hesp, which +consists of a series of squares, evidently representing theoretical +territorial divisions and possibly a system of canal-irrigation. +Other suggestive signs for sep consist of a circle containing two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +strokes; a circle enclosing four dots and a double +circle (fig. <a href="#Figure_60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, 4). +It is interesting to find an isosceles triangle employed, with a slight +addition, to express the word ta=land, as well as sept=province +(fig. <a href="#Figure_60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, 4 and 5), and +to find on analyzing the circular sign for nut=sky, +which is likewise the determinative for city, that it contains +four triangles. These converge towards the centre, as do the triangular +sides of the square pyramid, and thus the sign nut and the +pyramid clearly appear to express a whole divided into four parts, +the square form being connected with earth and the circle with +the sky. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_60" id="Figure_60" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-60.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 60." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 60.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A proof that the quadriform organization was extensively employed +in ancient Egypt, is furnished by Dr. Wallis Budge's statement +that each nome or province was divided into four parts, and +had its capital or <span class="tei tei-q">“nut.”</span> The inference is that each nome constituted +a miniature reproduction of the state and that the sign +nut represented its theoretical plan. On the other hand, the fact +that the triangle constitutes one sign for the nome itself, indicates +that, originally, the nome was identified as one of four divisions of +the state only and that, like Babylon, Egypt must have been theoretically +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +divided, not only into two main divisions, but also into +four regions, corresponding to the +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">North=Meh-ta, literally North land.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">West=Amen-ta, literally Hidden land.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">South=Resu.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">East=Aba.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the extracts from the Pyramid texts published by Dr. Wallis +Budge (Pyramid of Unas, Fifth dynasty), the following invocation +occurs: <span class="tei tei-q">“O gods of the west, O gods of the east, O gods of the +south, O gods of the north, four these, who embrace <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the four quarters +of the earth holy</span></em>.”</span> These four quarters are represented in +hieroglyphics by the sign for land=ta, repeated four times, which +thus express, literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“the four lands”</span> or regions. Allusion is also made +in the same inscription, to the <span class="tei tei-q">“four fields of heaven.”</span><a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The four gods, termed by Egyptologists the <span class="tei tei-q">“genii of the dead,”</span> +were Amset or Mestha, Hapi, Tuaumutef and Kebhsenuf, and it +was the custom to place the canopic vases representing them under +the bier. The canopic vases were, however, also supposed to +be under the protection of four sky goddesses, identified with the +cardinal points, whose names are usually given as Isis, Nephthys, +Neith and Serk-t(?). A particularly interesting instance of the +employment of the cross-symbol in connection with the four <span class="tei tei-q">“gods +of the horizon,”</span> as they are termed, is to be found in the Book +of the Dead, published by Lepsius and reproduced by Dr. Wallis +Budge (Dwellers on the Nile, p. 158). The four gods in mummy +form, stand in a line behind a table laden with offerings. A large +crux decussata (St. Andrew's cross) is painted on the right shoulder +of the foremost god, a fact to which I shall revert and discuss +further in dealing with the cross-symbol and swastika in +Egypt. Having traced quadruplicate territorial divisions and +quaternions of gods, let us next present proofs of an organization +of the population into four <span class="tei tei-q">“races.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Wallis Budge, referring to Chabas and Naville, states that +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Egyptians of the later empire believed that Ra-Harmachis, attacked +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his foes, who fled in all directions from before him. Those +who came to the south became the Cushites, those who came to +the north became the Amu, those who came to the west the Libyans +and those who came to the east the Shasu, and thus were the +four races of mankind made”</span> (The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 53). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that the Sphinx has been designated as the image of +Ra-Harmachis <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> Heru-em-chut and of his human representative, +and that the distribution of people to the cardinal points and the +origin of four races of men is assigned to him, are particularly interesting +and suggestive, especially in connection with the familiar +table of nations given by Moses, who says <span class="tei tei-q">“and the sons of Ham, +Cush and Mizraim and Phut and Canaan”</span> (Gen. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>:6). Dr. Wallis +Budge states that Ham or Kham is the same as Khem and is the +name Kamt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> black, by which the Egyptians generally called +their land. I venture to point out that in the following passages +the name Ham seems to be more applicable to a deity such as +Amen-Ra or to his human representative a king, than to Egypt itself: +<span class="tei tei-q">“And smote all the firstborn in Egypt and the chief of their +strength <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in the tabernacles of Ham</span></em>”</span> and again <span class="tei tei-q">“Wondrous works +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in the land of Ham</span></em>.”</span>... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that Mizraim, the second name given above, +was employed by the Hebrews as a designation for Egypt. The +inhabitants of the region of Cush are represented on Egyptian +monuments and we are told that <span class="tei tei-q">“at the outset they appear to +have had a religion and speech akin to that of the Egyptians. +We find Phut most probably, in the Punt of the inscriptions, the +land ... situated to the south of Egypt on both sides of +the Red sea. The fourth son [of Ham], Canaan, is represented +by the original inhabitants of Canaan, who were probably near +relations of the Egyptians”</span> (Wallis Budge, The Dwellers on the +Nile, p. 52). While tradition and documentary evidence thus associates +the four sons of Ham with certain regions and cardinal +points, Egyptian monuments exhibit representations of people of +four different colors, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> red, yellow, black and white. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The ancient Egyptians ... recognized four races of men. +They themselves belonged to the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Rot’</span> or red men; the yellow +men they called <span class="tei tei-q">‘Namu’</span>—it included the Asiatic races; the +black men were called <span class="tei tei-q">‘Nahsu,’</span> and the white men <span class="tei tei-q">‘Tam-hu.’</span> +The following figures (fig. <a href="#Figure_61" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>) +are copied from Nott and Gliddon's +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Types of Mankind,’</span> p. 85, and were taken by them from the great +works of Belzoni, Champollion and Lepsius”</span> (Donelly, Atlantis, +p. 195). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pursuing our investigations of the territorial divisions of Egypt, +we learn, from Mr. Wallis Budge, that collectively there were 42 +nomes in Upper and Lower Egypt. This number is identical with +that of the 42 gods represented in the Book of the Dead as being +with Osiris in the hall of Two Truths where the dead were judged. +The 42 <span class="tei tei-q">“judges of the dead”</span> are represented as seated figures, +with human or animal heads, and are equally divided into two +groups. From the <span class="tei tei-q">“negative confession”</span> which the deceased +makes to his judges, we learn that each god was identified with a +locality, some amongst them being addressed as <span class="tei tei-q">“coming out from”</span> +such important cities as Heliopolis, Sais, Bubastis, etc. The inference +I venture to make is that these 42 judges were the gods of +the 42 nomes who, with Osiris, the chief god and the <span class="tei tei-q">“President,”</span> +formed the council of gods, which judged and ordered the affairs +of men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_61" id="Figure_61" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-61.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 61. The Races Of Men According To The Egyptians." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 61. The Races Of Men According To The Egyptians.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is moreover natural to suppose that terrestrial administrations +of justice must also have been executed by a supreme council of +men, composed of the king, the living image of Osiris, and the +chiefs of the 42 nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt, who personified, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as elsewhere, the totemic divinity of tribe or district. Postponing +further discussion of the number 42, associated with nomes +and gods, let us examine further data concerning the territorial +organization of ancient Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Wallis Budge tells us that, <span class="tei tei-q">“during the rule of the Greeks +(B.C. 342-332), Egypt was divided into three parts: Upper, Central +and Lower Egypt. Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, +and was called Heptanomis”</span> (Nile, p. 28). The seven-storied +pyramid of Sâkkarah and the employment of the signs expressing +<span class="tei tei-q">“three regions”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“four regions or lands,”</span> to signify the whole +land or universe, prove that, long before Greek rule, the ancient +Egyptians, like the Babylonians, employed the heptameredal system. +Thus, according to Herodotus, <span class="tei tei-q">“There are seven classes of +Egyptians, and of these some are called priests, others warriors, +others herdsmen, others swineherds, others tradesmen, others interpreters +and lastly pilots; such are the classes of Egyptians; +they take their names from the employments they exercise”</span> +(Euterpe <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, 164). Passages from Prof. Flinders Petrie's History +of Egypt (Vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, pp. 156 +and 185) afford, moreover, instances of +the conquest of a heptarchic government by an Egyptian king and +the employment, in about B.C. 1500, of the number seven, as a +mystic or sacred number, in a letter from a Syrian prince to the +Egyptian king. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the record of the triumphal return of Aa-kheperu-ra, the +seventh king of the eighteenth dynasty (B.C. 1449-1423), it is +said: <span class="tei tei-q">“His Majesty returned in joy of heart to his father Amen; +his own hand, with his mace, had struck down the seven chiefs, +which were of the territory of Pakhsi (near Aleppo)”</span>.... +<span class="tei tei-q">“Six of these enemies were hanged in front of the walls of Thebes; +the seventh [probably the chief of chiefs], was brought to Nubin +and was hanged on the wall of the town of Napata, to show +forth for all time the victories of the king among all people of +the negro land, inasmuch as he had taken possession of the nations +of the south and he had bound the nations of the north and +the ends of the whole extent of the earth on which the sun rises and +sets, without finding any opposition, according to the command of +his father Amen-ra of Thebes.”</span> A letter from a Syrian prince to +Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379), opens thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“To the king, +my master, my god, my sun, this is said: Yatibiri, the servant, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the dust of thy feet, at the feet of my king, my master, my god, +my sun, seven times, and seven times more, I fall down.<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a>”</span>... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the above data suffice to establish that more than a thousand +years before Greek rule was established in Egypt its inhabitants +were familiar with the seven-fold scheme of organization, the +following extremely interesting portion of Brugsch's monumental +work, already cited, indirectly teaches much concerning the divisions +of the land of Egypt. The ancient Egyptian astronomers regarded +the nocturnal heaven as the exact counterpart of the land of Egypt +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 176). In +the inscriptions, the firmament is frequently considered +geographically, as a region comprising countries surrounded +by seas and traversed by rivers and canals, and covered with cities +and houses and divided into nomes which corresponded to those of +Egypt, excepting in point of number, there being thirty-six celestial +nomes. According to the inscriptions and pictures in the royal +tombs at Thebes, there was a celestial eastern sea (uat-ura abti), +a western sea (uat-ura amentti) and a northern sea (uat-ura mahtet +or mehtat). Special mention is made of <span class="tei tei-q">“the waters”</span> and +land of the <span class="tei tei-q">“northern place of light above the constellation of +the Great Bear.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The lands of Punet (Punt?), Uthenet, Kenemti and Sa-nutart-mahti, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the northern land of God”</span> are designated, beside other +names which correspond to the terrestrial geographical situation of +outlying foreign countries known to the Egyptians. There was a +celestial city, <span class="tei tei-q">“Anu or On,”</span> whose eastern and western sides or +places of light are frequently mentioned. The mention of a single +Anu or On, names which are found applied to the most ancient +capitals of the land of Egypt, is particularly noteworthy. It will +be shown further on, upon Sir Norman Lockyer's authority, that, +in the exact centre of the circular zodiac at Denderah, the jackal, +expressing the name Anubis, <span class="tei tei-q">“is located at the pole of the equator +and obviously represents the present Little Bear.”</span> This and +other data establish beyond a doubt that the celestial Anu, On or +No, was supposed to be situated in Polaris and that the terrestrial +capital was intended to be the counterpart of the apparent seat of +central rule and government according to fixed laws and order of rotation. +The idea that, after death, the human soul lived again in +the celestial sphere is shown in the following address to a departed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +spirit contained in the Bulak papyrus cited by Brugsch: <span class="tei tei-q">“The images +of the gods of the Southern and Northern countries appear +to thee in the thirty-six nomes; thou goest where they are as a +perfect soul, thou doest what pleases thee in the heaven, thou art +amongst the constellations of the thirty-six Beka.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This word is rendered by Brugsch as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Dekane”</span> in German +and I have been unable to find its exact equivalent in English. +The Dekanes are alluded to in an inscription from the Ptolemaic +period cited by Brugsch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 135) as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“They shine +forth after the sun has set. They <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">run in a circle</span></em>, and continually +release each other. They become apparent at sunset at hours varying +with the seasons.”</span> The Dekane constellations or stars were +those which rose at the beginning of each decade or period of ten +days, which constituted the Egyptian <span class="tei tei-q">“week.”</span> There were thirty-six +or 4×9 of these in the Egyptian year, at the end of which +an epact of five days was added, each day being consecrated to +one of the five chief gods. Deferring the discussion of the Egyptian +numerical calendaric system, I merely point out here the obvious +agreement between the number of celestial nomes = 36, the +number of decades in the year of 360 days to which should be +added the familiar fact that each day and decade had its special +<span class="tei tei-q">“god.”</span> Laying stress upon the point that in ancient Egypt we +find thirty-six celestial, geographical districts, corresponding to +the thirty-six decades of the year and to thirty-six gods, I take +pleasure in pointing out how clearly the following passages of Sir +Norman Lockyer's <span class="tei tei-q">“Dawn of Astronomy”</span> show that the thirty-six +gods had as many human representatives, priests, who performed +certain religious rites and homage in the chief temple in a +fixed order of rotation. <span class="tei tei-q">“Even at Philæ in late times, in the temple +of Osiris, there were 360 bowls for sacrifices, which were filled +daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests. At Acanthus +there was a perforated cask into which one of the 360 priests +poured water from the Nile daily;”</span> an enforced act of obedience +recalling the punishment of the daughters of Danaë. As Sir +Norman Lockyer justly remarks <span class="tei tei-q">“these temple ceremonials are +an evidence of their antiquity and may be regarded as traditions +preserved by the conservative priesthood.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am inclined to regard the above mentioned acts of empty homage +as survivals of conditions strictly analogous to those which +existed in ancient America, where each geographical district of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +state was associated with a class of people under their representative, +and a day of the calendar on which obligations towards the +central government, such as the paying of tribute, had to be performed +in a fixed order of rotation, corresponding to the annual +circuit of the circumpolar constellations around the pole star. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During centuries the most remarkable of these, Ursa Major, +like the hand of a great celestial dial, moved by an unseen ruling +power apparently located in Polaris, became visible after dusk +and pointed towards the four quarters of heaven in succession, +at intervals of nine decades of days. As in China and elsewhere +at the present day, its position was referred to as a guide in +determining time, during the night, and the seasons; and mankind +became familiarized with the idea of a changeless inexorable law +and order governing the universe and determining human periodical +activities, and thus directly influencing individual lives. Added +to this the idea of a heavenly kingdom, traversed by the celestial +Nile, the Milky Way, and in which each familiar locality in Egypt +had its counterpart, it is easy to follow the spread of the belief +that there was a close connection between the stars and their terrestrial +counterparts and that they directly influenced the destinies +of individuals, each of which had its particular star in the sky. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following portions of the decree inscribed B.C. 238 on +the famous trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, contain +what appear to me to be distinct allusions to the ideal of a terrestrial +kingdom, laid out and governed in accordance with the system +and fixed laws observed as existing in the heavens and governing +the movements of celestial bodies. The hieroglyphic text records +the establishment of festivals <span class="tei tei-q">“in accord with the existing fundamental +laws upon which the heavens [the movements of heavenly +bodies] are established.”</span>... The Greek translation of this +passage reads: <span class="tei tei-q">“according to the now existing order of the world +[universe]”</span> and the demotic version is: <span class="tei tei-q">“in accordance with the +scheme, upon which the heaven is established ”</span> (Brugsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 180). +Further facts concerning celestial and terrestrial territorial +divisions remain to be examined and discussed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A number of representations exist in which the figure of the sky-goddess, +Nut, appears as though stretched across the vault of +heaven, her feet resting on the earth in the east and the tips of her +fingers touching the horizon in the west. A study of certain texts +cited by Brugsch clearly shows that it was for very practical and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sensible reasons that the Egyptian astronomers had adopted the +plan of an imaginary human form stretched across the nocturnal +heaven, as it enabled the position of constellations and stars to be +definitely located. Lepsius has shown that, in a series of inscriptions +in the tombs of Ramses VI and Ramses IX, the movements +and positions of stars are given in connection with the parts of an +imaginary human form in the sky. It is thus said of a star that +it was situated: <span class="tei tei-q">“in the middle of the breast, in the right eye, +the left eye, the right ear, the left ear, the right arm, the left arm, +the left thigh.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Brugsch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 187) quotes the opinion of Lepsius that +the parts alluded to in the above inscriptions, referred to an imaginary +male figure stretched across the firmament and viewed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">en +face</span></span>, and publishes a theoretical reconstruction of this imaginary +figure. It recalls that of a Buddha and suggests the idea that the +Egyptian schematical figure must have also been imagined as seated +on the stable centre of the heaven. Egyptian astronomical texts, +which I shall cite further on, appear to me to show distinctly that +the lotus flower (the name for flower being ankh) was employed +to express the sound ankh, which means <span class="tei tei-q">“life”</span> and that it occurs +in connection with other symbols of the pole-star god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to the representations of Nut stretched across the +sky, it should be noted that this employment of the human form +belongs to the same category as the Sphinx, which appears to have +been the terrestrial counterpart of the celestial schematical figure. +On the other hand, the sign nut, consisting of a circle with four +divisions, like the pyramid, represents the successful attempt to +express the same thought in abstract, geometrical form, such as +would be intelligible to an initiated, intellectual minority only. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be seen further on that I advance the view that the pyramid, +being a miniature reproduction of the scheme of the universe, +contained a sacred central chamber, representing the sacred Middle, +and that this was destined to be the <span class="tei tei-q">“house of eternal repose”</span> +for the dead king, the representative of the universal god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As Dr. Wallis Budge tells us: <span class="tei tei-q">“If the deceased succeeds in +passing the ordeal [of judgment after death] satisfactorily, he +comes forth at once as a god (there is no place of probation), he +becomes identified with Osiris, in whose shape his mummy is made”</span> +(The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 177). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following text, from the inscription on an amulet found on +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the neck of the mummy of a young girl, preserved at the Berlin +Museum, is explained in the official catalogue of the museum +(p. 343), as signifying that <span class="tei tei-q">“the mummy was supposed to lie in +the centre of the whole world:”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The sky is locked over the +earth, the earth is locked over the beyond and the beyond is locked +over this strong mummy-case of the departed Osiris-Hathor-tsen-usire....”</span> +As the <span class="tei tei-q">“beyond”</span> in the inscription evidently +signifies the <span class="tei tei-q">“underworld,”</span> the idea that the mummy case, resting +on the earth, was being pressed upon from beneath by the underworld, +and from above by the sky, is clearly conveyed and is +in keeping with the sign for universe, already alluded to, which +represents three regions superposed. The <span class="tei tei-q">“deification”</span> of the +mummy, which is named <span class="tei tei-q">“Osiris-Hathor,”</span> is an interesting instance +of the idea that the mummy became the image not only of +the goddess Hathor but also of the god Osiris, or Ptah, who is +usually represented in the form of a mummy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A remarkable instance of a king in a pyramid being actually +worshipped and bearing the name of Ptah, added to his own, is +given by Professor Flinders Petrie (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 257). <span class="tei tei-q">“... The +figure of the king Teta, entitled Teta-mer-en-ptah, is placed in a +triangle, which is suggestive of a pyramid (as Men-nefer is written +with the same triangle on this naos). Rather than suppose a new +king at this period, we should see in this the worship of a pyramid +king, Teta, of the sixth dynasty....”</span> The association of +Ptah, who is regarded as perhaps the oldest of all gods of Egypt, +with the square=ptah and the pyramid and the mummy, is of extreme +interest, especially as Egyptian texts contain references to +<span class="tei tei-q">“a single god, who becomes a quaternary of gods”</span> (Brugsch II, +408), and we therefore see that the idea of Four in One was a +familiar one. The personification of Ptah usually consists of a +mummy holding a sceptre, expressing strength, life and stability. +Under the form of Osiris he usually holds the curved sceptre denoting +dominion, beside the symbols for life, rule and power, and +is entitled the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the holy land, lord of eternity, prince of +everlasting, the president of the gods, and the head of the corridor +of the tomb.”</span> Considering that in all pyramids hitherto explored, +the corridor of the tomb is directed towards Polaris, it +appears obvious that the supreme god of <span class="tei tei-q">“life, strength, eternity, +rule and power,”</span> was a personification of Polaris, the stability of +which was naïvely expressed by the body in mummy form symbolizing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the absolute repose and immobility of death, combined with +an animated face and the symbols of living, active power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the divine land is expressly designated as the divine land of +the north in astronomical texts and that this celestial region had +its terrestrial counterpart, it is naturally in Lower Egypt, that the +holy land of the north must be sought. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Investigation speedily proves that the most ancient vestiges of +civilization are situated in the neighborhood of Memphis which, +under the kings of the fourth and the sixth dynasties, reached its +height of splendor. It is in the land of the north, Meh-ta, that the +extremely ancient seven-storied pyramid of Sakkârah lies, and that +there exists the area of about thirty kilometers in which eighty +pyramids are concentrated, and which constitutes the great burial +ground of countless generations of Egyptians of all periods. A +curious detail, to which I shall refer again, is the affinity in sound +of the name for <span class="tei tei-q">“north land,”</span> Meh-ta, and mit=death or the dead, +and the undeniable resemblance of both words to the Nahuatl, +ancient Mexican mictlan=the North, or underworld, from mic-quiztli=death +and tlan=land (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Egyptian ta=land). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Egypt, as elsewhere, the western horizon, below which sun, +moon and stars disappeared, was naturally regarded as the entrance +to the region of the underworld. The west being therefore designated +amen-ta, <span class="tei tei-q">“the hidden or concealed land or region,”</span> it is +all the more significant to find the single entrance and exit corridor +of each pyramid directed, not towards the west, the underworld, +but towards the stable centre of the northern region of the sky. +It would therefore seem as though the intention had been to establish +a direct line of communication between the tomb chamber in +the centre of the pyramid and the divine <span class="tei tei-q">“northern land of God,”</span> +the sacred mountain Manu and the shining celestial city Anu, +lying <span class="tei tei-q">“between the east and west,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> in the Middle, +where the supreme star-god dwelt in eternal repose. An interesting proof +that the longing of the souls of the dead tended towards the north +is furnished by the common prayer-formula: <span class="tei tei-q">“may my soul ... +inhale the north-wind and drink from the stream.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before advancing further, the following authoritative statements, +establishing the supremacy of pole-star cult in ancient Egypt, +should be presented. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to Sir Norman Lockyer, <span class="tei tei-q">“It seems extremely probable +that the worship of circumpolar constellations went on in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Babylonia as well as in Egypt in the earliest times we can get at”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 363). <span class="tei tei-q">“There can be no question that the chief +ancient constellation in the North was the Great Bear or, as it was +then pictured, the Thigh (Meskhet)”</span> (p. 216). <span class="tei tei-q">“In the exact centre +of the circular zodiac of Denderah we find the jackal [Anubis] +located at the pole of the equator: it obviously represents the +present Little Bear”</span> (p. 362). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“With regard to Anubis, it is quite certain that the seven stars +in Ursa Minor make a very good jackal with pendent tail, as generally +represented by the Egyptians and that they form the nearest +compact constellation to the pole of the ecliptic....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sir Norman Lockyer adds that he is informed by Dr. Wallis +Budge that <span class="tei tei-q">“An was an old name of the sun-god,”</span> but also states, +in another page of his work that <span class="tei tei-q">“the worship of Anubis, as god +of the dead or the night god ... was supreme until the +time of Men-kau-ra, the builder of the third pyramid of Gizeh”</span> +(B.C. 3633, Brugsch; B.C. 4100, Mariette; p. 363). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pending the production of astronomical texts which amply demonstrate +that An was a name of a god of the night sun, Polaris, +the following establishes that, at Annu or Heliopolis, in remotest +antiquity and amongst the pyramid builders, the cult of a northern +star prevailed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The first civilization as yet glimpsed, so far as temple building +goes, in Northern Egypt, represented by that at Annu, or Heliopolis, +was a civilization which combined the cult of a northern +star with a non-equinoctial solar worship”</span>.... <span class="tei tei-q">“I know not +whether the similarity in the words Anu, Annu and An results +merely from a coincidence, but it is certainly singular that the +most ancient temples in Lower Egypt (Heliopolis and Denderah) +should be called Annu or An, if there be no connection with the +Babylonian god Anu”</span> (Lockyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 321). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The well-known fact that the entrance passage to the earliest +pyramid known, that of Medum, and of all pyramids hitherto explored, +has not only been found on the north face of the structure +but is also believed to have oriented towards <span class="tei tei-q">“Sut-anup,”</span> the +pole-star (of the period of its construction), unquestionably proves +that the pyramid builders assigned a particular importance to the +north. Referring the reader to Sir Norman Lockyer's work for a +mass of valuable and interesting information concerning the orientation +of Egyptian temples, I merely quote the following statements +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which not only show that throughout Lower Egypt north-star worship +existed, but also establish the interesting and important fact +that in Upper Egypt a totally different astronomical cult was carried +out during an unknown length of time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“It is an important fact to bear in mind that in the North of +Egypt, in early times, the stellar temples were more particularly +directed to the north, while south of Thebes, so far as I know, +there is only one temple so directed”</span> (p. 225).... <span class="tei tei-q">“From the astronomical +point of view ... there are distinctly two series +[of temples and monuments in general], (leaving out of consideration +the great pyramid builders at Gizeh) absolutely dissimilar +astronomically; ... there are at least two sets [of temple-builders], +one going <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">up</span></em> the river building temples to the north +stars, the other going down the river building temples to the south +stars; and the two streams practically met at Thebes, or at all +events they were both very fully represented there either together +or successively.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sir Norman Lockyer proceeds to say: <span class="tei tei-q">“The double origin of +the people thus suggested on astronomical grounds may be the reason +of the name of <span class="tei tei-q">‘double country,’</span> used especially in the titles +of kings, of the employment of two crowns, and finally of the +supposed sovereignty of Set over the north, and of Horus over +the south divisions of the kingdom”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 345). <span class="tei tei-q">“In +short, in Lower Egypt the temples are pointed to rising stars near +the north point of the horizon, or setting north of west. In Upper +Egypt we deal chiefly with temples directed to stars rising in +the southeast, or setting low in the southwest. Here again we are +in presence of ... distinct differences of astronomical thought....”</span> +(p. 341). <span class="tei tei-q">“With regard to the northern stars observed +rising in high amplitudes, we have found traces of their worship in +times so remote that in all probability at Annu and Denderah +α Ursæ Majoris was used before it became circumpolar. We deal +almost certainly with 5000 B.C.... <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">New</span></em> temples with nearly +similar amplitudes ... were built at later times ... it may +be suggested that the stellar observations made in them had ultimately +to do with the determination of the hours of the night; +this seems probable, for in Nubia at present, time at night is thus +told.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“It is possible that observations of these stars [which are nearest +the pole and move most slowly] might have been made in such a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +way that, at the beginning of the evening the particular position +of γ Draconis, for instance, might have been noted with regard +to the pole-star; and seeing that the Egyptians thoroughly knew +the length of the night and of the day in the different portions of +the year, they could at once, the moment they had the starting-point +afforded by the position of this star, practically use the circle +of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of +celestial clock. May not this really have been the clock with which +they have been credited? However long or short the night, the +star which was at first above the pole-star after it had got round +so that it was on a level with it, would have gone through a quarter +of its revolution. In low northern latitudes, however, the +southern stars would serve better for this purpose, since the circle +of northern circumpolar stars would be much restricted. Hence +there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring southern stars. +With regard both to high north and south stars, then, we may in +both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the +time at night. So that the worship of Set, the determination of +the time at night by means of the northern stars, might have been +little popular with those who at Gebel Barkal and elsewhere in the +south had used the southern ones for the same purpose ...”</span> +(p. 344). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Valuable and suggestive as these observations are, I venture to +point out that the following texts appear to indicate very clearly +that, as in China and Mesopotamia, in the present day, the ancient +Egyptian high-priest and king on important public occasions simply +utilized the conspicuous constellation of Ursa Major as a +measurer of time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the account of the ceremonial used at the laying of the foundation +of the temple at Edfû, it is stated that the king's glance +was directed to the Ak or <span class="tei tei-q">“Middle”</span> and to Meskhet=Ursa Major. +A part of the full translation of the inscription quoted from +Nissen by Sir Norman Lockyer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, pp. 176 and 179) represents +the king as speaking, thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Looking to the sky and recognizing +the 'ak' of the Bull's Thigh constellation, I establish +the corners of the temple of Her Majesty.”</span> It is further said +<span class="tei tei-q">“With his glance directed towards the <span class="tei tei-q">‘ak’</span> of the Bull's Thigh +constellation he [the king] establishes the temple house of the +mistress of Denderak, as took place there before.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having found out, by referring to Egyptian dictionaries, that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +er-ak means <span class="tei tei-q">“in the middle,”</span> and em-aka <span class="tei tei-q">“in the midst or middle,”</span> +while Hak was a word employed for <span class="tei tei-q">“king,”</span> I suggest that +these meanings afford a different and much more simple explanation +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“ak”</span> mentioned in the inscription than that given by +Sir Norman Lockyer and Dümichen. In dealing, further on, with +the astronomical signs and names associated with the pole of the +ecliptic, I shall, moreover, point out that the bull=ka, employed as +an astronomical symbol of Ursa Major, may have been adopted +as a cryptic sign for Polaris, merely because its name contained +the letters of the word ak=the Middle. The recurrence of the +same letters in Hak=king seems to explain also why the king of +Egypt was entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the bull.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to the inscription relating to the ceremony of laying +the foundation stone; in other texts cited by Sir Norman Lockyer +we find the king saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have grasped the wooden peg [stake] +and the handle of the club; I hold the rope with Sesheta [his female +consort]. My glance follows the course of the stars; my +eye is on Meskhet; standing as divider of time by his measuring +instrument”</span> (Duemichen's version) or <span class="tei tei-q">“mine is the part of time of +the number of the hour-clock ”</span> (Brugsch's version). In another +part the king says <span class="tei tei-q">“... I let my glance enter the constellation +of the Thigh (representing the divider of time at his +measuring instrument)”</span> (Duemichen's translation) or <span class="tei tei-q">“the part of +my time stands in the place of his hour-clock”</span> (Brugsch's translation). +Sir Norman Lockyer notes that <span class="tei tei-q">“the word merech or merechet, +in which Brugsch suspects hour or water-clock, does not occur +elsewhere.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whatever differences there may be in the Brugsch and Duemichen +translations and the interpretations of the word ak, the above texts +establish that the Egyptian king directed his glance to <span class="tei tei-q">“the Middle”</span> +and that the constellation Meskhet=Ursa Major was connected +with time-measurement and the establishment of the four +quarters of the temple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As I shall show further on, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sesheta,”</span> mentioned in the text +as performing the ceremony with the king, appears to be not a +<span class="tei tei-q">“mythical goddess,”</span> as Sir Norman Lockyer infers, but the living +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine queen,”</span> and consort of the king. She is represented with +the insignia of Isis, whereas he wears the crown of Osiris, and I +note that while she holds her stake in her left, he holds his in his +right hand. Deferring a discussion of the position of Egyptian +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +queens, I point out here that, in the interesting description of a +foundation ceremonial, preserved in an inscription relating to the +rebuilding of a temple at Abydos, about B.C. 1380, the Sesheta, +entitled the <span class="tei tei-q">“mistress of the laying of the foundation stone,”</span> +seems to have been the chief actor, since it is she who addresses +the king, as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“The hammer in my hand was of gold, as +I struck the peg with it, and thou wast with me in thy capacity of +Harpedonapt [?]. Thy hand held the spade during the fixing of +its [the temple's] four corners with accuracy by the four supports +of heaven”</span> (Lockyer, p. 175). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“four supports of heaven”</span> referred to here are obviously +<span class="tei tei-q">“the gods Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf,”</span> who are +recorded in the Book of the Dead (chapter 17) as being <span class="tei tei-q">“those +which find themselves behind the constellation of the Thigh in +the northern heaven.”</span> In an inscription in the kings' graves at +Thebes mention is made of the <span class="tei tei-q">“four Northern Genii who are the +four gods of <span class="tei tei-q">‘the follower’</span> [obviously a circumpolar constellation]”</span> +(Lockyer, p. 147). They seem to be also identical with +the <span class="tei tei-q">“four constellations [Akhemusek] which are found in the northern +heavens,”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“sailors or oarsmen in the bark of Ra,”</span> mentioned +in the same and in many other inscriptions. The four +<span class="tei tei-q">“gods”</span> are represented with human bodies respectively surmounted +by the head of a man, an ape, a jackal and a hawk and are +identical with the <span class="tei tei-q">“genii of the dead,”</span> represented on the canopic +vases placed at the four corners of the bier. In this connection +attention is drawn to how clearly the symbolism of the mortuary +customs becomes apparent when it is realized that the mummy, the +image of Ptah-Osiris, and of the pole-star god, was laid to <span class="tei tei-q">“eternal +rest”</span> in an imaginary <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred centre,”</span> obtained by naïvely placing +the effigies of the gods of the cardinal points, the personifications +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“four stars of the northern heaven,”</span> at the corners +of the bier. The same dominant thought which underlies the popular +use of the canopic vases clearly led to the building of the +vast pyramids which constituted the sacred <span class="tei tei-q">“centres of the world”</span> +par excellence, the square base typifying the four regions and +<span class="tei tei-q">“corners”</span> of the earth; the triangular sides the four divisions +of the sky, which converge to a single Middle, associated with +Polaris, the sacred pole or ak of the Cosmos. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to the subject of the measurement of time by means +of the circumpolar constellations, it is instructive to find that the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Egyptian determinative sign for <span class="tei tei-q">“time”</span> consists of a central dot +with a circle drawn around it and to note that the only celestial body +that could be accurately figured as occupying the centre of a circle +described around it is the primitive sun, Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Egyptian for <span class="tei tei-q">“time”</span> is rek, an inversion of ker=the +night, the common sign for which is a band, figuring the sky, from +the centre of which a star is suspended by a thread. As the star +is usually formed by two lines, diagonally crossed, at the end of +the thread, there is a strong temptation to see in the hanging single +star an actual representation of a cross symbol. It is particularly +striking to find in Brugsch's work, that the determinative for +time is actually represented, in numerous cases, as close to the +single hanging star (fig. <a href="#Figure_62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>, 9). I leave it to the reader +to form his own conclusions whether this group represents Polaris and the +circuit of time measured by the circumpolar constellations, or +whether it merely represents, as Brugsch states, the winter solstice, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the day sun in the nocturnal sky. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There exists a remarkable variant of the determinative of time, +which I shall discuss more fully further on. Instead of a mere +dot, a five-pointed star is distinctly figured in the centre of the circle +(fig. <a href="#Figure_62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>, 12). This variant furnishes, in my opinion, +convincing proof of the meaning of the determinative for time, which also +constituted the well-known sign for Ra=god, and forms a part of +the name of the supreme divinity of Egypt, Amen, or Amon or +Amun Ra, the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden or secret god,”</span> whose name contradicts +the current assumption that Ra signifies the diurnal sun merely, +and that Amen-Ra was a <span class="tei tei-q">“solar”</span> deity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following texts relating to the <span class="tei tei-q">“supreme true but hidden +god”</span> amply demonstrate that the chief characteristic of his cult was +that it was shrouded in secrecy and mystification. Others, which +I shall quote farther on, allow us clearly to perceive that individuals +were obliged to pass through a series of initiations into the +meanings of cabalistic signs and symbols of the divinity before +they attained the pure knowledge of the nature of the mysterious, +<span class="tei tei-q">“hidden divinity.”</span> On reading the texts of the famous <span class="tei tei-q">“Book of +the Dead”</span> it has frequently occurred to me that the negative confession +and judgment of the soul of the departed may originally +signify the actual confession and judgment of an applicant for +initiation into the secrets of the priesthood and the astronomical +and theological knowledge they so rigidly guarded from the ignorant +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +multitude. The highest knowledge and most profound secret +they could impart was doubtlessly the acknowledgment and perception +of the existence of a supreme power which governed the +universe on a certain plan, which the rulers of the land of Egypt +endeavored to apply to its organization and government in order +to make it a celestial kingdom upon earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The rigidly-adhered-to policy of the ruling caste was, however, +the shrouding and concealment of their store of knowledge from the +uninitiated and the gradual admission of select individuals to the +inner chambers of secrecy. The following texts show that even +the true name of the supreme divinity was wrapped in impenetrable +mystery, but the assumption that we are dealing with a pole-star +god seems to enable us to penetrate the obscurity of the formulæ +employed by the scribes to veil the true meaning of the texts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Beginning with the hymn published by Mr. Wallis Budge, in his +useful handbook, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Nile,”</span><a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> we find Amen-Ra addressed as +<span class="tei tei-q">“King, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">One</span></em> among the gods, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">myriad are his names, how many are +they, is not known</span></em> ... the lord of Law, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">whose shrine is hidden, ... +whose name is hidden from his children in his name Amen</span></em>.”</span>... +In the legend of Ra and Isis (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xx</span></span>th dynasty) he is designated +as <span class="tei tei-q">“the god divine, the creator of himself, the creator of heaven, +earth, breath of life, fire, gods, men, beasts, cattle, reptiles, fowl +of the air, fish, king of men and gods, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in form one</span></span>, to whom +periods are as years, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">many of names, not known are they, not know +them the gods</span></em>.”</span><a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The mysterious supreme god is further spoken of in the hymn +as ... <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the uræus crown, exalted of the plumes; +the serpent Mehen, and the two uræi are the (ornaments) of his +face....”</span> Mention is likewise made of his lordship over +the Sekti boat (which sailed from the place of rising in the East) +and the Atet boat (which sailed to the place of setting in the West); +he is also addressed as the <span class="tei tei-q">“god Khepera in his boat.”</span> In many +passages he is apparently identified with the sun, <span class="tei tei-q">“the eye of +Horus,”</span> but is at the same time, also addressed as Ani, the lord of +the New Moon festival and he is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the lord of all the gods</span></em> +whose appearances are in the horizon.”</span> His all-embracing nature +is clearly conveyed by the passages terming him <span class="tei tei-q">“the maker and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lord of things which are below and of things which are above;”</span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“of the heaven and earth.”</span> The above evidence suffices to show +that, on the one hand, Amen-Ra is constantly referred to as the +<span class="tei tei-q">“One god, without a second, the knowledge of whose nature is +concealed from men and gods, who reveals himself in innumerable +forms; who exerts hidden control and universal dominion and is +associated with stability and power, time and eternity.”</span> On the +other hand, stress is laid on his dual nature: Amen-Ra is bi-sexual +and self-creative; alternately becomes light and darkness; and +the sun and moon are the eyes of his <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden face,”</span> which, literally +translated, yields Amen-Hra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the hymn previously cited he is also termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the +sky, the establisher of all things, ... the extender of foot-steps.... +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">One</span></em> in his times as among the gods....”</span> He is apostrophized +as <span class="tei tei-q">“the maker of the gods, who hast stretched out the heavens +and founded the earth,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the chief who makest the earth like unto +himself,”</span>.... <span class="tei tei-q">“President of the great cycle of the gods, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only one +without his second</span></em> ... living in Law every day.... O Form, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em>, creator of all things, O <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> only, maker of existences +... he giveth the breath of life to (the germ) in the egg.... +Hail to thee, thou <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only one</span></em>!... <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">He watches all people +who sleep</span></em> ... all people adore thee.... O thou ... +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the untiring watcher</span></em>, Amsu-amen lord of eternity, the Maker of +Law....”</span> Another passage states: <span class="tei tei-q">“the aten (disk) is thy +body”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> image or symbol). In the legend of Ra and Isis, +quoted above, the god is made to say of himself: <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the maker +of the hours, the creator of days, I am the opener of the festivals +of the year.... I am he who when he opens his eyes [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the +sun and moon] becometh light, when he shutteth his two eyes, becometh +darkness.”</span> Brugsch tells us that Ra, whom he accepts as +the day-sun, was addressed as the master of double or two-fold +force, who illuminates the world with his two eyes and <span class="tei tei-q">“was symbolized +by two lions.”</span> Further on I shall quote facts establishing +that the king and queen of Egypt were respectively named the right +and left eye of Amen-Ra, were associated with sun and moon, regarded +as the personifications of Osiris and Isis, and that these +deities were represented in the form of uræus serpents with human +heads, and that the two serpents were employed as symbols of +Upper and Lower Egypt. Mr. Wallis Budge informs us that +Amen-Ra was named <span class="tei tei-q">“bull ... in thy name of <span class="tei tei-q">‘Amen bull of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his mother,’</span> and that he was entitled <span class="tei tei-q">‘lord of the thrones of the +two lands;’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘king of the gods;’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘maker of mortals;’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘mighty law.’</span> ”</span> +In one of his forms he is represented as wearing horns (an allusion +to duality and the title of bull) and feathers (=mat=maat=law) +and holding the emblems of stability, power, dominion and rule. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_62" id="Figure_62" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-62.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 62." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 62.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before demonstrating that the chief astronomical signs of the +Egyptian zodiac partake of the nature of a rebus and express the +sound of the various attributes and titles and some of the <span class="tei tei-q">“myriad +of names”</span> of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god,”</span> contained in the preceding texts, +I point out how clearly the conception of Amen-Ra, as shown in +these hymns and invocations, is consistent with a pole-star origin. +We have, moreover, the authoritative opinion of Brugsch that <span class="tei tei-q">“the +hieroglyph and name Ra did not only refer to the day-sun, but also +designated certain brilliant stars,”</span> which he presumes to be the +planets (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 79). This identification of the name Ra +with stars involuntarily obliges one to recall the Sanscrit tara=star +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +while the Chinese employment of a plain circle to designate +<span class="tei tei-q">“star,”</span> also finds its analogy. Let us now examine the hieroglyphic +signs and symbols of Ra and note how intelligible they become +when the god is identified as Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following (fig. <a href="#Figure_62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>) are some of the modes in which the +name Ra is found expressed in texts published in Mr. Wallis +Budge's <span class="tei tei-q">“First steps in Egyptian:”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fig. <a href="#Figure_62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>, 1. By a dot +in the centre of a circle, the determinative +of <span class="tei tei-q">“time.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. By the latter accompanied by the image of a seated +god and the numeral 1. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, partly surrounded by a serpent in motion and +accompanied by the numeral 1. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. The serpent and circle on the head of a hawk-headed +seated god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To these are added for purposes of comparison +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. The circle with two uræi. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, to which a single uræus and a wing are attached. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, with two uræi and two wings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +8. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, with one wing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +9. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, accompanied by the numeral one and the sign +for heaven, to which a cross-shaped star is hanging. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +10. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, resting in the centre of the summit of a twin +mountain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +11. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, resting in the centre of a boat. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +12. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idem</span></span>, with a central star instead of a dot constituting +the word duat=<span class="tei tei-q">“lower hemisphere”</span> (Brugsch). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +13. The variant of this, cited by Brugsch. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +14. The disk containing a single eye. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +My prolonged study of the ancient Mexican picture-writings +having given me the habit of regarding each primitive symbol as +a possible rebus led me to look up the phonetic values of the symbols +combined with the Ra sign and to note that some of them +were actually mentioned in connection with Amen-Ra in the texts +cited above, namely: the face, the eye, the egg, the uræus, the +disk, the <span class="tei tei-q">“serpent Mehen.”</span> It was a surprise to find, on simply +referring to the glossaries, that the name for uræus=ara and +that eye=ari; an egg=ar (also sa, se, and suht); face=hra; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +each word thus containing the name Ra=god, in simple or inverted +form (see fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 1-4). The natural inference was that I +had obtained an insight into the method devised by the ingenious Egyptian +priesthood, to express, in cryptic form, the name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden +god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_63" id="Figure_63" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-63.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 63." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 63.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Further glimpses of light seemed obtained when I found that, +as written by German Egyptologists, the determinative for divinity, +the banner=nutar, notar, netar, or neter, not only expressed +the same sound as the word nut, but also contained the letters <span class="tei tei-q">“r”</span> +and <span class="tei tei-q">“a”</span> (5). The disk=atun, aton or aten might also be regarded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as an anagram, being the inverted form of nutar, minus the last +letter (6). The names for wing (7) being tun, ton or ten, the +wing attached to the disk constituted a complementary sign, duplicating +the final syllable. At the same time, as a second name for +wing was meh, or mah (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> mat and its synonym su=feather), +there seemed to be an explanation of the <span class="tei tei-q">“serpent mehen”</span> applied +to Amen-Ra and the possibility that it signified the <span class="tei tei-q">“winged +serpent,”</span> such as is frequently depicted in texts published by +Brugsch (8). It was obvious that the uræus=ara and the wing +meh, would form an ingenious anagram expressing, by means of +the signs, a-meh-ra, the name Amen-Ra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The constantly recurring form of the Ra sign, in which the serpent +is represented as gliding around the circle, enclosing the central +point of fixity, naturally suggests the inference that this +variant must have been adopted at a time when the constellation +Draco, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Old serpent,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Nakkasch qodmun,”</span> was circumpolar +and was equally familiar, under this name, to the Egyptian +and Euphratean astronomers. This inference seems to be confirmed +by the fact that, in the hymn to Amen-Ra, cited above, +the name Nak is given to <span class="tei tei-q">“the serpent with knives stuck in his +back,”</span> who, according to the myth, was the demon of night and +the enemy of the sun-god, the ruler of day. The fact that, in the +temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes, a service was recited daily for the +destruction of the serpent Nak by Horus, appears to indicate +the growth of the idea of a combat between light and darkness +and the dual forces of nature, which would naturally tend to create +the thought of an antagonism existing not only between the sexes, +but also between the two divisions of Egypt and the separate cults +of the nocturnal heaven (Polaris and the moon) and the diurnal +heaven (the sun). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the list of festivals, dating from the Ptolemaic period and inscribed +in the temple at Edfu, there are mentioned: <span class="tei tei-q">“the festival +of the end or point of the triangle,”</span> simultaneous with that of +<span class="tei tei-q">“the serpent Nai or Na,”</span> immediately followed by <span class="tei tei-q">“the festivals +of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘tena’</span>=[aten?], and of the great serpent Na,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“of +the Ken=the festival of darkness, and of the red serpent Na”</span> +(Brugsch <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 51). Commenting upon the above names I +draw attention to the curious fact that in the above word ken, we +seem to have the inversion of nak, the name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“night-serpent”</span> +and that na is actually the inversion of the word an, which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“he who turns or winds himself around.”</span> I shall show +further on, in astronomical texts, that this name is actually identified +with the pole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When these facts are borne in mind the full import of the familiar +Egyptian symbol for eternity=tet, becomes clear. It consists +of the image of a mummy, symbolizing fixity, around which +a great serpent is winding itself, conveying the idea of circling +motion (fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 9 and 10). It is well known that this +group symbolized eternity=tet and the sign is always interpreted as expressing +the sound tet. If analyzed more closely, however, and +interpreted as a rebus, it appears to yield a fund of deeper +meaning. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The serpent Na furnishes the word An=the winder or he who +moves around. Linked to one of the names for mummy=sah, +the group might be read as An-sah, a name which invites comparison +with Anshar, the Assyrian pole-star god who was said to shoot +arrows in all directions, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> to turn around, and the Akkadian +title for Ursa Major, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven. The second +name for mummy, given in Mr. Wallis Budge's Nile, is tut, the +exact word which signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“to engender,”</span> which explains why +images of the creator should have been made in mummy form. The +word tut directs attention to the name of the god Tehuti=Thoth, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Measurer,”</span> a name to be weighed in connection with the fact +that time was measured by the circumpolar constellations. It does +not appear impossible that the word khat=corpse may also have +been brought into use in the rebus and furnished an anagram or +allusion to the ak or centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The other well-known symbol for eternity, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> stability, is the +column tet, representing a pillar usually consisting of four or five +parts (fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 11). It appears hitherto to have escaped +attention that the Egyptian for hand being tet, the hand, employed as a rebus, +would actually express the name for eternity and may well have +been employed as a secret sign for the divine centre, eternal stability +and the sacred number five, consisting of the Middle and the Four +Quarters, symbolized by the fingers and thumb (fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 12). +To this must be added the interesting fact that, in hieratic script, +the hand expressed the sound <span class="tei tei-q">“a”</span> which means <span class="tei tei-q">“power”</span> while +aa=great, aat=great and mighty, aa=mighty one. To those +initiated in the mysteries of hieroglyphic writing the hand thus +clearly constituted a rebus, expressing the eternal, permanent, stable, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +great, mighty power, one yet double and fourfold, the sacred +five in one, the Middle and Four Quarters.<a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following is a group of animal and other figures, which are +repeated, with variations of form, combination and position, in the +different zodiacs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_64" id="Figure_64" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-64.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 64." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 64.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principal and the phonetic values of their names are figured +as follows: the thigh=uart, khepes or maskhet; the bull, ox or +cow=ka, ah, aua; the hawk=bak, designated as an, kher or +heu=Horus; the cynocephalus ape and phallus=aaani and ka; +the lion=mahes; the jackal (anubis) uher or sabi; the scorpion=tart +or serkhet; the crocodile=sebek, also amsuk or emsuh, +and seta; the vase or jar=nu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> nut); the female +hippopotamus=tebt, +shown by Dr. Gensler to have been associated with +the name menat=nurse, she who nurses (see Brugsch <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">I</span></span>, p. 130). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_V" id="Plate_V" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-v.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate V." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate V.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Edfu zodiac, the latter, whose name furnishes an anagram +of amen=hidden, is represented with the Ra sign on her head +and holds a cord to which the constellation of Ursa Major is +attached. This is figured, with its seven stars, as the thigh (pl. +<a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>, 2), +with the head of a bull, elements which furnish the phonetic values +of uart, khepes or maskhet and aua, ka or ah, to which should +be added that the Egyptian mode of saying <span class="tei tei-q">“a bull”</span>=ua en ka, +literally <span class="tei tei-q">“one of bull,”</span> the female form being <span class="tei tei-q">“uat en ka”</span> (see +Wallis Budge, First steps in Egyptian). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After having studied the hymns and invocations to Amen-Ra we +are aware, not only that the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god”</span> is named <span class="tei tei-q">“the bull,”</span> +but that great stress is laid upon his being <span class="tei tei-q">“One”</span>=ua, yet double=ka. +It therefore appears very significant to find these words +incorporated in the name for Ursa Major=thigh, uart, and this +combined with bull=ua or ka which furnishes the anagram ak=middle. +What is more, the second name for thigh being khepes, +this might form a rebus for the common name for (1) luminary or +star in general=khebs or khabs, literally, lights, lamps, flames, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> seb=star; (2) kheper=life, existence, to come into existence, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> khepdes=uterus, kher khepd=the navel, khepesh=power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that one title of Amen-Ra was Khepera=the creator, +lends additional interest to the association of his secret sign, the +hippopotamus, with the constellation Ursa Major, which he apparently +holds and guides and which emblematizes life, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +motion—The thigh=khepes, scarab=kheper, fish, khepanen, crocodile=seta +or sebek, which, inverted, yields the word khebes=star, +and royal sickle=khepes, thus appear to have been but different +modes of expressing the same meaning and the title of Khepera +(fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 13-16). It can be readily understood why the +scarab beetle, which encloses its egg in a ball of mud and rolls this to a +safe hatching place, became the favorite secret sign for the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden +god,”</span> since none but the initiated would see in the beetle, holding +the ball of earth enclosing its egg, the actual rebus of Khepera, +the creator, expressed by the kheper; and the circle or disk, the +sign of Ra, containing the germ of life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to an examination of the signs for Ursa Major employed +by the Egyptian astronomer scribes, we find, beside the +more elaborate form given by Mr. Wallis Budge (pl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, 3), the +variants (4 and 5) which constantly recur in the texts published by +Brugsch, and which reveal that the thigh, accompanied by a single +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +star, constituted the essential elements of the sign. It is one of +the curiosities of Egyptian hieroglyphics that the image of a star +may express either seb=star, or the numeral five=tuau. This +being the case, and the word for thigh being either khepes or uart, it +is obvious that the thigh and star yield more than one interpretation +from the rebus point of view, and may either be read as seb +khepdes, seb-uart or tuau-uart—in one case containing the divine +title <span class="tei tei-q">“creator”</span> and in the second a play upon the name ua=One, +the favorite appellation given to Amen-Ra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following star names contained in the Brugsch texts, and +which have avowedly not been satisfactorily identified, up to the +present, will speak for themselves and will be found to be comprehensible +and appropriate only when identified with Polaris: Seb-uati=the +lone, single, only, or sole star (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> title <span class="tei tei-q">“One”</span> given to +Amen-Ra); Seb-seta=the hidden star, in Greek texts, sebkhes, +sebkhe, the sebses, anagrams of khebs, or khepdes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“hidden”</span> god). This star is found pictured in the astronomical texts by a +turtle, the name for which is seta, sita, sit or set; in Greek texts +cit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To me it seems clear that the turtle constituted a rebus sign for +the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden star”</span> and concealed god, and I find that another +Egyptian word could have served equally well for the same purpose, +viz., seta=the vulture. What is more, the following names, +mentioned in the astronomical texts, yield the sound of the first +vowel of the words seb=star and seta=hidden, and attention +is drawn to the fact that, as the goose and egg, for instance, +were known under several names, the secrecy of the true meaning +of these sacred symbols was insured: goose=se, ser, sar, seb, +smen, apt, aq; egg=se, sa, ser, sar, ar, suht; nest=ses; +pool of water=se; heron=sent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A curious double similarity of sound exists between the name +for turtle and one of the names for goose, inasmuch as the turtle=seta +is also called aps, and the goose=se is named apt (fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, +17-18). Another name for goose being aq or ak, we find that +its value as a rebus must have been supreme, since it so perfectly +expressed the word ak=middle. A proof that its merits were +duly appreciated by the ancient scribes, is its constant and widespread +employment in decorative art as a so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“solar symbol,”</span> +in association with the circle or disk and the swastika. +Through its name se, the goose-symbol likewise expressed the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +same meaning as the egg and the first syllable of seta=hidden; +perhaps also ne-se-r=flame, the synonym of khebs=luminary or +star (Brugsch). Through its name ak, the goose symbol became +the synonym of all ak or ka words. Finally, through its name apt, +it became related to the whole series of anagrams of ptah and the +synonym of the pair of horns which express ap in hieratic script. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The association of the syllable ap with the bull=uau and ka, is +proven by the name Apis given to the living, sacred bull, under +which form the supreme divinity was worshipped from earliest +times, at or before the building of the pyramids at Memphis. The +explanation that, just as sacred bull was merely a living rebus expressing +by the sound of its names, the words <span class="tei tei-q">“the one, the double, +the middle of the central two-fold one,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“divine twain,”</span> fully +explains why, in time, the bull itself came to be chosen, revered and +worshipped as the living image of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The marks of the sacred calf Apis, described by Herodotus, +appear to become intelligible, when translated as follows and then +analyzed: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is black (khem or kam) and has a square (ptah) +spot of white (hetet) on the forehead (tehen). On the back (of +the head) (makha or at) the figure of an eagle=vulture (seta). +In the tail (peh?) double (ka) hairs (anem). On the tongue (nes) +a beetle (kheper).”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Feeling convinced that Egyptologists could find further phonetic +elements and hidden meaning in the above material, it is with diffidence +that I point out some of the meaning I am able to discern +with the simple aid of <span class="tei tei-q">“First steps in Egyptian.”</span> Besides being +the image of Amen-Ra Polaris, the one and divine twain, the black +(khem) skin (annu) of the sacred bull appears to contain an allusion +to Egypt, known as <span class="tei tei-q">“khem”</span> and its central capital Annu, +besides that to the nocturnal heaven and its shining city. The +square ptah of white=hetet (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> hetet, and chut=light) appears +to symbolize the quadriform plan of the celestial and terrestrial +kingdom and its position on the head (tep) between the two horns +(ap) gains in significance when it is realized that, in astronomical +texts, the square (designated above as hetet=white) is as frequently +pictured between a pair of horns as the pillar=tet, that +both square and pillar appear thus to have expressed the same +sound=tet, which signifies eternity. The bird of prey=seta +on the bull's back (makha) evidently signified the hidden=seta, +centre, m-akh-a, further significance being lent to the syllable akh +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the fact that it also means <span class="tei tei-q">“to support,”</span> and that <span class="tei tei-q">“the support +of heaven”</span> was a divine title contained in the hieratic texts. The +double hair=anem, ka, appears as another mode of expressing +the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden”</span> ka=double or ak=centre. The word for tongue +(nes) being the reversal of sen=two, the kheper=life, on the +tongue, appears as an allusion to dual principles or powers of nature. +The giving forth and drawing in of breath by the living +Apis bull must doubtlessly have seemed, to the Egyptian priesthood, +emblematical of the giving and taking away of breath of life, +by the creator, Khepera, over whose emblem, on the tongue of the +animal, each breath necessarily passed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An insight may thus be gained of the method by means of which +primitive, naïve picture-writing could have become more ingenious +and intricate until, as actually stated in the hymns, the name of +the supreme divinity became <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden from his children in the +name Amen”</span> [literally=hidden], and a <span class="tei tei-q">“myriad of names, how +many are they is not known”</span> had been invented by the scribes, to +designate the King (Hak), <span class="tei tei-q">“one among gods, in form one, the lord +of eternity, stability and law.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before making a cursory examination of the following lists of +homonyms of the names for bull=ah, uau and ka, I must revert +to astronomical pictures and signs and make some statements concerning +the hawk-headed human form found represented in the +zodiacs in close association with the image of Ursa Major, the bull; +(see pl. <a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, +1, from Denderah). The presence of the hawk=bak in +the centre of the polar region, with the bull ka, assumes significance +in connection with the word ak=middle and the name for <span class="tei tei-q">“the +middle of the heavens,”</span> cited by Sir Norman Lockyer; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, +kabal sami, and all of these words are particularly interesting when +it is remembered that the Babylonian name for north was akkad, +the Akkadian title for Ursa Major was Akanna, while Ursa Minor +was named Kakkabu in Babylonia and Assyria. The Arabian +kaaba is recalled here. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inscriptions accompanying the zodiacs published by Brugsch +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 127) designate this +hawk-headed personage, who, in +each case, holds either a spear or a plain staff, by the following +names, of which I give Brugsch's translation, followed by my own +commentary. An=he who turns or winds himself around. In +this connection I point out that the name Na, given to the serpent, +is the inversion of an. Kher-an=he who fights and turns or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +winds himself around. As kher is likewise the word for ring or +circle (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Greek kirkos, Latin circus or circulus, Scand. kring), +it is evident that the name Kher-an admits of being interpreted as +<span class="tei tei-q">“he who winds or turns around in a ring or circle,”</span> kher=the +fighter or combatant. At the same time, the word kher likewise +signifies ring or circle; moreover ker=night and rek=time. +Therefore the name Neb-kher, cited by Brugsch +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, 176), +as one of those given to the god of the city of At-Nebes, besides +signifying, as he says, the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of strife or fighting,”</span> clearly +means <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the circle or ring.”</span> This is undoubtedly one +of the most appropriate of names for the god of the pole star and +Ursa Major and is, besides, the Egyptian equivalent for the Hindu +<span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the wheel,”</span> the Persian <span class="tei tei-q">“god of the ring,”</span> and the Mexican +<span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the circle and of the night”</span>=Yaual or Yohual-tecuhtli. +The other titles of the same god recorded by Brugsch are +<span class="tei tei-q">“the flame or light”</span>=Neser, and <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of life”</span>=Neb-ankh. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I merely point out here what I shall discuss more fully later on, +that, in the Egyptian An, <span class="tei tei-q">“he who turns himself around,”</span> we have +the counterpart, not only of the Assyrian An-shar +(fig. <a href="#Figure_65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>, 5) who +shoots his darts in all directions, but also of the <span class="tei tei-q">“North god”</span> of +the ancient Mexicans, who, fully armed is held by one foot, by the +sign of the North, to the centre of the cross, the symbol of the +Four Quarters, and like the Akkadian <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of heaven,”</span> Akanna, +is identified with Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I note, moreover, that, whereas the common name for hawk is +bak, that employed by Brugsch is hru (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> inversion ur=the Egyptian +name for cross symbol) which is sometimes transcribed as +hur, her or heru, hor or har=and translated as Horus or Ra Harmachis. +An interesting image of the hawk god is found in another +inscription in the temple of Denderah containing the group (pl. +<a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>, +6) consisting of a single star, the bull and hawk, transcribed by +Brugsch as <span class="tei tei-q">“Hru-Ka”</span> and translated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the bull (of) Horus”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 7). Another interesting case of the combination of +the bull and hawk is the hawk with a bull's head also figured by +Brugsch, and which is obviously a variant of <span class="tei tei-q">“hru-ka.”</span> A curious +instance which seems to contain a reversal of these syllables +is the bull, repeated in inverted positions, with the cross-sign=ur, +a group which might well have been employed as a rebus expressing +the sound ur-ak-ka, a combination which I shall discuss +further on. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The identity of Horus as a form of Polaris is hinted at in the +following inscription in the temple at Denderah (pl. +<a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, 10) which +Brugsch translates: <span class="tei tei-q">“Ra Horchuti (=hur-chuti) the shining Horus, +the ray of light in the night”</span> ... (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 16). The <span class="tei tei-q">“god”</span> +is figured in mummy form, holding the sceptre tam (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> mat=justice, +truth) and the sign ankh (life), with the head of a hawk=bak +or hru (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ur=four, and head=tep or tepet, also name for +<span class="tei tei-q">“chief”</span>), the head conveying idea of four-fold chieftainship, surmounted +by the horns=ap and circle or disk=ra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_65" id="Figure_65" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-65.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 65." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 65.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An extremely suggestive astronomical picture (pl. +<a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, 13) contains +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the combination of Horus, the An, in the form of the human-headed +hawk, with a serpent Na, the boat (uaa, am or makhen) +and the circle enclosing a single star, duat (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ua=one). The +complete group thus conveys a wealth of hidden meaning which is +perfectly intelligible when interpreted as pole-star symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reader is now invited to take a preliminary look at the +columns of signs included in figs. <a href="#Figure_66" class="tei tei-ref">66</a>, +<a href="#Figure_67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>, <a href="#Figure_68" class="tei tei-ref">68</a>, some of which will +be recognized as primitive pole-star symbols already discussed, +and which will respectively be found to contain homonyms of ua=One +and uahi=permanent; ak and kabal=centre, ka=double, +an=he who turns and ankh=life, etc. Special attention is also +drawn to the modes of expressing the syllable am by the homonyms +boy or child, boat and tree (fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 20-22). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Different combinations of identical phonetic elements are found +in the following groups which prove to be but different ingenious +figures expressing the same sounds, with more or less the same +meanings: pl. <a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, +15, represents the boat, whose phonetic values +are given above, with a flower=ankh, the homonym of life, containing +the names an and na, from which the uræus=ara, is rising. +Later on the deeper symbolism of this and fig. <a href="#Figure_12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>, +pl. <a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, +will be further discussed. In the latter, instead of the flower the +boat contains the ara and a boy=ah or aah, whose name is the +homonym for great, mighty, powerful, etc. Assuming that the boat +expressed its particular name uaa=ua=one, we thus have a +rendering of the appellation so constantly given to Amen-Ra in the +hymns and invocations: <span class="tei tei-q">“One, great, powerful, mighty god,”</span> accompanied +by a whole series of secondary meaning and symbolism. +In pl. <a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, +9, the boat containing the bull or cow, is accompanied by +stars which reproduce Ursa Major exactly, minus one star, the head +of the animal occupying the centre of the four stars forming the +inverted square of <span class="tei tei-q">“the dipper.”</span> In this case the boat seems to +express its name makhen, incorporating ak, the name for the sacred +centre of the sky, which is repeated in the name ka=bull, whose +image, like that of the boat, conveys the allusion to ua=one, by +their respective double names, aua and uaa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What appears to me to contain the most convincing proof of +the identity of Amen-Ra with Polaris is 11, pl. +<a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, which shows us +a boat in which lies a mummy, above which is a row of seven stars +under an oval, containing two eyes. The oval ring is evidently +the image of Amen-Ra, who united in his person the dual principles +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of nature symbolized by sun and moon=his <span class="tei tei-q">“two eyes.”</span> +The symbolism of the boat and mummy has already been sufficiently +discussed to enable the reader to discern its association +with the idea of oneness, of stability and centrality. Further light +is thrown upon the connection of the two eyes with the sacred +centre by pl. <a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, +14, from the Book of the Dead, where the chosen +place of sepulchre for the dead person, mentioned in the text, is +the temple pyramid, the apex of which is rendered prominent by +being painted black and suggestively occupies a central position +between two eyes. After the periods of Greek rule in Egypt, the +point of the pyramid must have been associated with the Greek +words, akra=hill-top and aku=point, which recurs in the Latin +name acacia, by which the thorny tree, originally found in Egypt, +is still known. It can readily be seen how this tree would have been +chosen as a symbol of the ak=middle and it is possible that its +name may originally have been that also given to the olive tree=bak. +The inscription on the famous obelisks erected by queen +Hat-shepsut contains a special mention of the point of the obelisk, +as being made of precious material: <span class="tei tei-q">“two great obelisks of hard +granite of the south, the point of each is of electrum, the tribute +of the best quality of all countries”</span> (Flinders Petrie, History of +Egypt, Vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 86). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The many variants of the constellation or star termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the +divine triangle”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the triangle of the god”</span> next claim attention. +An extremely interesting variant of this constellation represents a +hawk-headed sphinx, next to the triangle (pl. +<a href="#Plate_VI" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span></a>, 1); 2-4 represent +the common form expressing the name Sopedet. As Brugsch +informs us, the above name was changed at a more recent period +into Satit (6-8), which he translates as <span class="tei tei-q">“she who shoots, the +archeress”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“she who causes the Nile to rise.”</span> In these cases +the written name either contains an arrow (6), the pyramid symbol +for earth (7), or a seated figure above whose head is a single star +(8). A rarer form of representing the same constellation is 9 +and 10, the group being transcribed by <span class="tei tei-q">“Satit Hont Khabsu”</span> +which Brugsch translates as <span class="tei tei-q">“Sothis, the Queen of the ... stars.”</span> +From the feminine terminations employed in the text it is clear +that it is a cow which figures here in the boat, with a single star +between its horns and it appears to me to be obvious that we have +to deal here with the feminine form of Polaris, with Auset=Isis, +closely related to the Assyrian <span class="tei tei-q">“goddess of battle,”</span> Ishtar, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg 406]</span><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +female counterpart of Ausar=Osiris, the Assyrian Anshar, or +Ashur, the <span class="tei tei-q">“god of battle.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_VI" id="Plate_VI" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-vi.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate VI." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate VI.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This view is confirmed by further astronomical pictures published +by Brugsch, which appear to me not merely to signify the constellations +Orion and Sirius as Brugsch infers, but to be hieroglyphs +intended to be understood by the initiated only, representing two +or more of the forms under which Amen-Ra was figured. At Edfu +(pl. <a href="#Plate_VI" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span></a>, +11) the boat=au, uaa, and the mummy=sah form a fair +rebus for Ausar=Osiris, while the boat alongside of it contains +the cow, a form under which Isis=Hathor was worshipped in +Egypt during centuries. At Denderah (12) there is a cow in one +boat=Isis; and a man in another who holds the sceptre tam, emblematic +of power, and turns his head around, an evident allusion +to the action an=he who turns himself around, or to sah=one +who turns away. Between both is the hawk=bak or Hur-chuti=Horus, +standing on the sceptre named aut, composed of the lotus +flower=ankh. A variant of the same group (13) also symbolizing +the <span class="tei tei-q">“Above, Below and Middle,”</span> and from Denderah, represents +Isis only in the celestial boat and Osiris standing (on earth) holding, +beside the tam, the whip=nekhe khu, emblematic of rule. +In 14, a female figure stands in the boat under the written name +Auset=Isis and bears in her hand the ankh sign and the lotus +flower=ankh sceptre. In the second boat the figure of a boy +(ahi) turning (an or sah) his head, holds up the ankh. In 15, +we seem to have an evidence of the ascendancy of Isis worship, +for the boat contains not only the cow, under the name satit=she +who shoots, or the archeress, but also the standing figure of +the goddess, crowned by the disk or circle between two horns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A striking proof that the knowledge of the true, hidden meaning +of the signs just discussed was regarded by those who possessed +it as an evidence of an advanced stage of initiation in the +mysteries of the priesthood, is furnished by the following text, +which accompanies pl. <a href="#Plate_VI" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span></a>, 16: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Book of the Dead (Leyden, Papyrus, p. 16), in a chapter +entitled: <span class="tei tei-q">“Chapter of the knowledge of the eastern spirits, +ro en rex biu abti,”</span> the dead person utters the following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“I +know that eastern mountainous region of the heaven whose south +is at the sea Kharo and the north at the river of Ro, at the place +where the day-god Ra drives around amidst storm-winds. I am a +welcome comrade in the boat and I row without tiring in the bark +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg 407]</span><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Ra. I know that tree of emerald green brandies amongst which +Ra shows himself when he goes over the layer of clouds of the +god Su. I know that gate out of which Ra issues. I know the +meadow of alo, whose wall is of iron.... <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I know the eastern +spirits, namely the god Hur-Chuti, the calf next to this god and +the god of the morning</span></em>,”</span> the original text of the latter sentence +being: <span class="tei tei-q">“au-a-rekh-ku-a biu abti Hur-chuti pu behsu kher nutar +pen nutar duaut pu”</span> (Brugsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 72). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The evasion and caution with which the speaker alludes to +his knowledge of the meaning of the signs, without betraying +the latter, sufficiently indicate the obligation of absolute secrecy +which bound him, and it may be inferred that several of the words +he employed were intended to be misleading to an outsider just as +the astronomical pictures, exposed to public view, were purposely +made to seem to relate to the more familiar sun, moon and constellations, +the mind being thus led away from the hidden but true +star-god=Polaris. The circumstance that, on the body of the +young bull in the boat, there are seven dots and above it a single +star and that the hawk-headed seated deity behind it is crowned +by the serpent circle or disk of Amen-Ra, sufficiently enlightens +us as to the true, veiled significance which represents different +forms of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god,”</span> of the group. A careful analysis of +this and of the astronomical images suffices, however, to disclose the +limited scope of the meaning of such groups, each one being but +a different rebus containing the same phonetic elements. Let us +now briefly indicate what appear to have been the essential components +which all images contain and a few of the myriad of ways +by which they were expressed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uahi=permanent, and Ua=One. Represented by</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fig. <a href="#Figure_66" class="tei tei-ref">66</a>. 1. An arrow=au +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> abau=to fight), an arm=a, +and the numerical one=ua. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. The cow=ah, aua, the latter name incorporating +the adjective a=mighty, powerful, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. The thigh=uart. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. The boat=uaa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. The numeral five=tuau. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. The throne, seat or place=auset, which constitutes +the name Auset=Isis, the consort of +Ausar=Osiris. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name="Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. The bowl=au. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +8 and 9. Two forms of sceptre or bent staff=au, uat, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">also</span></em> aam. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_66" id="Figure_66" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-66.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 66." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 66.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides these signs, well known as sacred symbols, we find that +the following names also contain the sacred title Ua: uatet=greenstone, +emerald, aut=quadrupeds, au=heir, also dog, maau=rays +of light, mau=lion, also cat. The reason why certain +quadrupeds, and particularly the cow, lion, and the cat, should +have become sacred animals in Egypt, seems to be satisfactorily +explained by the fact that each constituted a rebus and could +therefore be employed as an <span class="tei tei-q">“image”</span> of the One god. It is obvious +that locality would necessarily influence the choice of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page409">[pg 409]</span><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sacred animal and that while one city might adopt the cow, another +would be obliged to adopt the cat, etc, as the living rebus. The +adoption of <span class="tei tei-q">“the heir,”</span> or first-born of the sacramental union of +king and queen, as the living image of the deity, throws an unexpected +light on the reason why members of the royal line were +treated with divine honors. While persons, animals and objects +whose names contained the divine Ua=one, would thus be chosen, +others containing the word Ra=god, would also be adopted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ra=god.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of these I have already pointed out the uræus=ara, the eye=ari, +face=hra and egg=ar, also se or sa and suht. To these +may also be added the date palm or dates=ben-ra; grain=nepra; +the vine=aarer and grapes=aarer, each of which is to +be found associated with sacred symbolism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The veneration accorded in different localities to the pig=re-ra +and the horse, may thus be accounted for, especially as the name +for the latter, het-ra, consists of het=light or fair, and ra=god, +and the horse is actually found associated with the light-gods +of antiquity and with so-called solar symbols and the swastika. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Food for reflection is afforded by the Egyptian name for mirror, +which literally signifies to see, or the seer=maa, of the face=hra, +but which furnishes, as a rebus, the word maat=law, which +is usually expressed by the feather=mat, connected with hra=<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +ra=god (fig. <a href="#Figure_66" class="tei tei-ref">66</a>, 10). The employment of the mirror as an +image of the god of law would thus naturally have been suggested +by its name. The presence of the eye=ari (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ra) in the centre +of a mirror which is being worshipped, also suggests that in ancient +Egypt the mirror was employed in the temple to hold the reflection +of Polaris=Amen-Ra, <span class="tei tei-q">“the untiring watcher, the lord of eternity +and the maker of law”</span> (see fig. <a href="#Figure_66" class="tei tei-ref">66</a>, 11). It is obvious +that the habitual employment, by the astronomer priests, of a mirror so +placed in the sanctuary as to catch the reflection of the pole-star +through an open doorway, would lead to the discovery of the +movements of the sun and the positions it assumes during the year. +The flashing of a beam of sunlight once a year, at the period +of the summer solstice, upon the mirror which constantly reflected +the pole-star, would naturally suggest the idea of <span class="tei tei-q">“the union of +the day-sun with the night-sun”</span> and seem particularly impressive +as it was at this period that the Nile began to rise. In dealing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page410">[pg 410]</span><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with the religious festivals held at this period more will be said +on this subject. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The word maat=law, besides being expressed by the feather=mat, +could also have been indicated to those initiated in the mysteries +of hieratic rebus-writing, by the lion=ma hes; the antelope=ma-het, +which also contains the sacred attribute light=het, +the synonym of khu, thus expresses the idea of the <span class="tei tei-q">“light of +the law.”</span> The musical instrument named mat may also have +originally been, like the tam sceptre, a symbol of lawful power and +conveyed an allusion to meht or maht=north. To this series +the word am should be added, signifying child, tree and boat, each +of which has already been treated of in connection with pole-star +symbolism and Amen-Ra (fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 20-22). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Duality=ka=double; and the Middle=ak.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name for bull=ka (fig. <a href="#Figure_67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>, 1) incorporates, as has +already been shown, not only duality and middle, but also, through its +other names, the idea of oneness and of power. This appears to +explain clearly why the bull was chosen as the image or rebus of +Polaris and Ursa Major, which appear to have been regarded as a +single combination of stars. The fact that in the hymns Amen-Ra +is addressed as <span class="tei tei-q">“the bull,”</span> constitutes a convincing corroboration +of the identification of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god”</span> with Polaris. A +line of connection seems, moreover, to exist between the Egyptian +kabal sami=the middle of heaven, the image of a bull in the +centre of the zodiacs, and the bull of Assyria, under which image +Baal was worshipped. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hieratic signs, expressing the word for middle and double appear +to have been: the mummy which, although named sah or tut, +also signified khat=corpse (2) and conveyed an allusion to mit=death, +the homonym of met=north. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A certain form of fish expressed the syllable kha (3). A cone-shaped +object named khaker appears to have served as a rebus for +the middle and double as well as night=ker and time=rek (4). +In pl. <a href="#Plate_VII" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span></a>, +12, the khaker figures behind the seated image of a deity +with the head of a ram=ser or sar, holding the ankh in his hand, +the whole forming a rebus for Ansar, and containing much meaning +besides. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Kha-ut (fig. <a href="#Figure_67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>, 5) is the name for the sacrificial +offering laid on +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page411">[pg 411]</span><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the utu=altar, which is shaped like the tau and symbolizes the +above and below by its perpendicular and horizontal lines. In the +centre of this is the bread=ta (the homonym of ta=earth, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +neb-at=fire), which is remarkable on account of its division into +four parts analogous to that of nut=city, a feature which justifies +the inference that the word for cake=sen-nu made with honey=bat +or net, is intended to be expressed here. A jar stands at each +side of the cake, which is placed on edge so as to exhibit the sacred +design upon it. It is significant that, if the jars contained wine=arp, +milk=art, the name of the liquid constituted an anagram +of ra, if perfume=anta was present, this furnished the syllables +an and ta=earth. It is, of course, impossible to surmise how far +such resemblances of sounds influenced the choice of sacred offerings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_67" id="Figure_67" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-67.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 67." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 67.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name="Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The kha (fig. <a href="#Figure_67" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>, 6)=crown is particularly interesting as +Amen-Ra is addressed as <span class="tei tei-q">“crowned form,”</span> the lord of the ureret crown, +... beautiful of tiara, exalted of the white crown ... on whose +brow the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt is established. +It appears, therefore, evident that the crown=kha was but another +mode of expressing ka=double. At the same time it likewise +conveyed the idea of ak=the centre and the act of crowning a +sovereign appears as vested with deep symbolical meaning when +it is realized that, according to the primitive modes of thought I +have been tracing, by enclosing the head of the king in a circlet +he was constituted the hak, regent or central chief, the living +image of Ra, whose sign was the star or dot in the circle or ring. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ka (duality) is commonly expressed by an uplifted pair of +arms; a variant being the whole figure of a man with raised arms +(7 and 8). The fact that the name for phallus was also ka, explains +its employment as a sacred symbol, recorded by Herodotus, +which proves to what extremes the ancient rebus-writers went +in their naïve invention and multiplication of secret signs and modes +of expressing the names and attributes of their <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god.”</span> +The hatred and disgust conceived by the great reformer Amenophis +IV, against all that pertained to the cult of Amen-Ra, his +destruction of all images devised by the priesthood and adoption of +a pure image of the supreme divinity of a plain disk or circle, +with rays terminating in hands, are readily understood in connection +with the above. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to our list of akh words: the akh or centre is figured +by a man between two signs for heaven=pet, supporting the +upper heaven with both hands; the idea ka=double or dual, +being simultaneously expressed (9). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The hawk=bak (10) constitutes so perfect a rebus or anagram +of middle=ak and kabal, as well as for khab=star, that the reason +why the hawk was chosen as an image or form of Amen-Ra is +as reasonably accounted for as the choice of the bull. Before +supporting this assertion by a series of convincing proofs, the +following list must be studied: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An=he who turns himself around (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> who +performs a circuit=the circuiteer) and ankh=life.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the <span class="tei tei-q">“First steps in Egyptian”</span> I find the word <span class="tei tei-q">“an”</span> expressed +by (fig. <a href="#Figure_68" class="tei tei-ref">68</a>, 1) a man in the act of turning around, +resembling the position +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page413">[pg 413]</span><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the male deity in the boat, already discussed and represented +in the astronomical texts (fig. <a href="#Figure_68" class="tei tei-ref">68</a>, 2) by an +eye, the form of which differs from that of the eye=ari; +(3) by a fish, also different in form from the +fish=kha, and particularly interesting if compared +to the fish khepanen, figured in the kheper series, +which constitutes a rebus combining the titles khepera=creator +and an=the circuiteer; (4) by a +stone=aner, also by hair=anem; (5) by two +arms spread outwards, recalling the position of the +front legs of quadrupeds; (6) by a spear whose +shaft is inserted in a double stand; which sign recurs +in the name of the city Annu, expressed by the +an=spear, the vase=nu and the nut determinative +for city or capital (7). It is extremely interesting +to compare, at this point, the Greek polus=a pole +or axis, and polis=city or capital, and to realize +that, in Egypt and Greece alike, the names for capital +are associated with the idea of centrifugal power +and rule. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The signification of all the above <span class="tei tei-q">“an”</span> signs becomes +intensified when it is realized that they conveyed +also the first two letters of the word ankh=life, +which was usually expressed by the familiar +symbol expressing the union of the dualities of +nature (8). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_68" id="Figure_68" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-68.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 68." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 68.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Amongst the many surprises received during the +course of this investigation, few have given me as +much satisfaction and light, as the observation of +the fact that the Egyptian name for flower, ankh (9), +was the same as that for <span class="tei tei-q">“life.”</span> The full significance +of the lotus blossom as a symbol became clear +to me, and my attention having been called by a +friend to Mr. William H. Goodyear's admirable +work <span class="tei tei-q">“The Grammar of the Lotus,”</span> London, 1891, +I was able to obtain from it the series of Egyptian +symbols which I now present and shall proceed to +interpret according to the method set forth in the +preceding pages. The interesting observation was +by Mr. Goodyear that <span class="tei tei-q">“the ankh was the exact counterpart +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the lotus as regards solar association”</span> and in his work, on pl. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxv</span></span> and elsewhere, this close observer publishes several +instances illustrating this view. Of these I reproduce but two, which suffice, +feeling convinced that Mr. Goodyear will be as interested as I was +to hear that the ankh and lotus were homonyms of ankh=life. +This fact of itself fully explains why the lotus flower was employed +by the ancient Egyptians, as Mr. Goodyear states, as the <span class="tei tei-q">“symbol +of life, immortality and of renaissance and resurrection and of +fecundity.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_69" id="Figure_69" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-69.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 69." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 69.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In fig. <a href="#Figure_69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>, 1, two (ka) fishes (khepanen or an) hold the +lotus, ankh, and thus constitute a sacred rebus, the profound meaning of +which can be surmised by studying the preceding pages. In 2, one +(ua) fish holds the ankh instead of the lotus. Both signs obviously +express precisely the same meaning with the difference that, in one +case duality is expressed by two fishes, and in the other by the ankh +symbol which emblematizes the union of nature's dualities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fig. <a href="#Figure_69" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>, 3, shows the bull, carrying the circle of Ra +between its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +horns and wearing the ankh symbol hanging from its neck. The +lotus replaces this in 4, where the circle is missing and one bull +(ua en ka) expresses the mystic sacred words ua=One and ka=double +or <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine Twain.”</span> It is evident that it is only when +it is assumed that pole-star worship constituted the basis of the +natural religion of the ancient Egyptians that their sacred symbols +become intelligible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Though a novice in Egyptology and with extremely limited works +of reference at hand, which facts will, I trust, excuse faults and +omissions, I perceive so much that is clear and simple in the following +series of Egyptian sacred symbols, culled from Mr. Goodyear's +work, that I am tempted to submit my interpretation of their +meaning, thereby putting my view and method to a crucial test. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In pl. <a href="#Plate_VII" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span></a>, +2, we have an interesting group uniting the boat, the +meaning of which has been discussed, a seated figure on a square +pedestal, a column, the upper portion of which is separate and +simulates the bowl or cup=au, the dot and circle, the sign of +Amen-Ra, and a single flower. As a rebus, some of the words expressed +are am, uaa or makhen=boat, tet=column, Ra=dot +and circle, also seated figure, determinative of god=Ra, and ua en +ankh=one flower. While the rebus supplies the words ua=one, +uahi=permanent, ra=god, an=the circuiteer, ankh=life, +tet=eternal, it is only when identified as pole-star symbolism that +the group becomes comprehensible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pointing out that, in the above, we have a clear case of the flower +in association with the Ra sign and other symbols which have been +discussed as pole-star signs, let us next examine 1, 3, 4, 6 and 8, +in each of which one blossom=ua en ankh, constitutes the emblem +for the sacred Middle, and openly conveys the idea of the +verb an, to perform a circuit and ankh=life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that, in 6, the flower consists of five petals, on four +of which the genii of the four quarters stand, sufficiently proves +that the flower, like the five-dot group, constituted a symbol of +the four quarters and centre, the latter being figured as a pyramid-shaped +petal. Interesting variants of this group are 5, with +the four genii standing on seven of the nine petals of the flower, +which is placed between two buds, the idea of centrality being thus +conveyed; and 7 where an inverted triangle replaces the flower +and reveals some of the deeper meaning attached to this symbol. +In 1 and 3 the flower is surmounted by the hawk crowned with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg 417]</span><a name="Pg417" id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Ra sign which, as has already been stated, symbolizes circuition +around a central point of fixity. The names for hawk=hak +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ak and cabal=middle, +also hak=king) and her or hur (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +hru=upper, the above, and ur=four=Horus) reveal its appropriate +use as rebus and symbol of the central <span class="tei tei-q">“sun”</span> god. In +8, instead of the Ra sign, the hawk wears the peculiar double +diadem with a circle at its base, which is the particular attribute of +the images of the ram-headed god Amon who is represented in no. +12, holding the ankh sign and accompanied by the kheper sign, +composed of a circle, surmounted by a cone and supported by a +pedestal. It is well known that the ram=ser, sart or sar, was the +form under which the supreme divinity was worshipped at Thebes, the real +metropolis of the whole land of Egypt, during many centuries.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> +The name Amon, also given as Ammon, Amoun, Hammon, +resembles Amen closely enough to justify the identification of +Amon as a form of Amen-Ra, the concealed god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Plate_VII" id="Plate_VII" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/plate-vii.png" alt="Illustration." title="Plate VII." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plate VII.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this connection it is noteworthy that the ram=sar or sart +conveys the same sound as the goose=sar or sa, the employment +of which, as a pole-star symbol, will be discussed further on, +and that the king of Egypt was termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the living ram (of Amon) +on earth”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the engendering ram.”</span> From Mr. J. P. Mahaffy +we learn that, under the Ptolemaic rule, <span class="tei tei-q">“it seems likely that among +the strict prescriptions for all the solemn acts of the king, it was +directed that he should assume the insignia of the god Amon, his +ram's horns, fleece, etc, when visiting the queen”</span> (History of Egypt, +London, 1899). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under the Ptolemaic dynasty, the identification of Amon with +Amen-Ra receives support from the magnificent monumental votive +ram, preserved at the Berlin Museum, which was dedicated by king +Amenophis III, which bears on his head, the disk with the uræus +serpent, the familiar sign of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god.”</span><a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name="Pg418" id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the diadem of Amen-Ra sufficiently identifies the hawk +on the lotus as a form of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god,”</span> the following extracts +from Mr. Goodyear's work will be found to confirm this and throw +further light on the subject. <span class="tei tei-q">“The hawk represented Ra, Horus +and all solar gods....”</span> A text at Denderah says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The sun +which was from the beginning rises (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> comes forth, appears, +see Brugsch for meaning of Egyptian equivalent) like a hawk from +the midst of its lotus bud....”</span> At Denderah the king makes offering +of the lotus to the sun-god Horus with the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“I offer thee +the flower which was in the beginning the glorious lily of the great +water....”</span> In the boat of the dead the soul says, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am a pure +lotus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> life) issue of the field of the sun.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The circumstance that, in 4, the flower is surmounted by a goose, +one name for which being aq=ak, shows that, like the hawk, +bak, it may well have served as a rebus for ak=the middle. An +instance of the direct association of the sacred goose with the +four quarters is given in the bas-relief at Medinet-Abu, described +by Brugsch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 297). This represents <span class="tei tei-q">“Ramses III ... +offering sacrifice to the god <span class="tei tei-q">‘Khimti,’</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> Pan of Panopolis, the +Theban form of which was Amon Generator.... A white bull +(the symbol of Pan) and four geese, which are represented as +flying towards the cardinal points, constitute the sacrifice.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The striking association of the goose with the bull=Apis, the +astronomical symbolism of which has been shown, gains in significance +when it is realized that another name for goose is apt and +that this also constitutes an anagram of pta=ptah, one form of +Amen-Ra. It is a curious fact that the third name for goose, se +or sa, combined with ankh=flower, as in pl. +<a href="#Plate_VII" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span></a>, 4, furnishes the +word ankh-sa, which recalls the word An-sah obtained by the +mummy and serpent rebus and the name of the god of Assyria, +Anshar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with the above Egyptian rebus, expressing the +syllables ankh and sa, it surprised me, to find that the Sanscrit +name for goose is hangsa, while in ancient Hindu it is hamsa and +in modern Hindu hanassa. It is well known that in Hindu mythology +the goose was <span class="tei tei-q">“the bird of Brahma,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“supreme one who +alone exists really and absolutely,”</span> that the birth of Brahma from +the lotus is frequently represented in Hindu religious art, and that +the lotus is the attribute of the <span class="tei tei-q">“sun-god”</span> Surya, termed the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord +of the lotus, father, friend and king.”</span> What is more, the goose, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name="Pg419" id="Pg419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +associated with <span class="tei tei-q">“solar”</span> symbolism, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> with the circle and +central dot, with the swastika, four-petalled flower and the wheel, occurs +on the oldest monuments of Greek art; on the prehistoric +bronzes and pottery of Italy (where the sacred geese were kept on +the Capitoline at Rome); on the bronzes of Hallstatt, of ancient +Gaul and of prehistoric Sweden. Pointing out that we thus obtain +a whole chain of associations which link the syllables am and an +to deities and pole-star symbolism, I next present, for reference, +the names for the bird given in Webster's dictionary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sanscrit, hangsa; Latin, anser, for hanser; German, gans (in +Germany, according to Pliny, the small, white geese were called +ganzoe al. gantoe lib. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, 22); Greek, khen; Danish, gaas; +Swedish, gos; Welsh, gwydd; Anglo-Saxon, gos; Irish, geadh; +Icelandic, gas; Slavonic, gusj and gonsj. Noting that in the Sanscrit, +Latin, Greek and German alike, the syllable an or en is present +in the name for goose, I return to the Egyptian symbols which +express the words an and ankh, and, bearing the <span class="tei tei-q">“birth of Brahma +from a lotus”</span> in mind, refer again to the Egyptian title Neb-ankh, +<span class="tei tei-q">“lord of life,”</span> which, as I point out, also signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the +lord of the lotus flower.”</span> Let us now briefly examine some Egyptian +texts relating to pl. <a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, +12 and 15, which represent the boat +(am and its synonyms) and the flower=ankh, associated with the +boy and the serpent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In an astronomical text from Edfu, published by Brugsch, +New Year's day is mentioned in connection with the <span class="tei tei-q">“coming forth +of the great lotus blossom in the form of a bud in its symbolical +interpretation as the god ahi (literally, boy).... The count of +his rulership begins from the first day of his rising or birth....”</span> +In another text it is said: <span class="tei tei-q">“New Year's day, the sun (Ra) comes +forth from a lotus flower in the great sea,”</span> and there are numerous +allusions in other inscriptions to <span class="tei tei-q">“the lotus blossom in the great +waters, from which the sun-child arises in radiance towards +heaven.”</span> The text accompanying (pl. +<a href="#Plate_V" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span></a>, 15), where a serpent +rises from the lotus in the boat, states <span class="tei tei-q">“the sun, uniter of the +world, in Tentyra”</span>=the New Year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In another inscription it is said: <span class="tei tei-q">“thou risest like the sacred +serpent, as a living spirit, in thy glorious form in the bark of the +sunrise;”</span> and this passage forms an interesting parallel to that +already cited where the sun is said to rise <span class="tei tei-q">“like a hawk from the +midst of its lotus bud.”</span> Pl. +<a href="#Plate_VII" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span></a>, +14, exhibits a nine-petalled lotus +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page420">[pg 420]</span><a name="Pg420" id="Pg420" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +growing from a pedestal and a head issuing from it. As the name +for head tep (also tap or tpa, and apt <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> pta), signifies chief, +or beginning, we must accept this as another variant of the previous +signs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Deferring the discussion of the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“birth”</span> and cult of +the diurnal sun, as one form of Amen-Ra, let us now rapidly survey +the following figures copied from Mr. Goodyear's work. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pl. <a href="#Plate_VII" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span></a>, +9. A circle encloses a group consisting of the five-petalled +lotus between two buds and the hawk-headed sphinx, which has +already been met with in the astronomical texts and, according to +Egyptologists, represents Horus, the sun, <span class="tei tei-q">“who lights the world +with two eyes”</span> and is addressed as <span class="tei tei-q">“a powerful lion,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the master +of double force.”</span><a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> +I need scarcely recall here that the combination +of a bird and quadruped would naturally symbolize air and +earth, the Above and Below and that the hawk-headed sphinx, +seated on four petals, clearly expresses the idea of the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of +Heaven and Earth, the father and mother of all, the ruler of the +Four Quarters and lord of the circle.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pl. <a href="#Plate_VII" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span></a>, +10. The plain circle or disk, supported by two uplifted +arms=ka, arising from (akh) the ankh sign, is another ingenious +mode of expressing the idea of the Middle, the circle, duality and +life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No. 13 constitutes as charming and ingenious a play upon the +word ankh=life as can be imagined, and a close examination reveals +its subtle, hidden and deep significance. It exhibits, in +the first case, the ankh sign combined with the flower=ankh, +which might, at a first glance, be taken as an example of purely +decorative art. But the ever-present thought of the duality of +nature manifests itself in the arrangement of the two flowers +towards each other and enclosed in the open ring of the ankh sign, +and it is evident that the artist took pains to draw the central +petal of the lower blossom in the form of a triangle, below which +an oblong square and a square may be distinguished. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the foregoing attempt to show how, even with my rudimentary +and limited knowledge of their language, the sacred +symbols of the Egyptians become intelligible and full of significance +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page421">[pg 421]</span><a name="Pg421" id="Pg421" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +when studied as examples of pole-star symbolism and primitive +rebus writing, I draw attention to the limited number of +syllables employed in the astronomical texts; to the ingenuity displayed +in expressing the same sound over and over again by means +of different words possessing the same sound and to the fact I shall +hereafter set forth, that the syllables and rebus-figures employed +are found indissolubly linked to pole-star and sacred symbolism. +Referring a demonstration of these conclusions to the end of the +present investigation, I shall next discuss the forms which the cult +of the dualities of nature seemingly assumed in ancient Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As an introduction I present in fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, the copy of the +upper portion of a funeral stela preserved at Bûlâk and published by +Perrot and Chipiez (Ægypten, Leipzig, 1884). It exhibits the +head or face of Hathor surmounting the tet column and supporting, +in turn, the image of a small house or temple, at each side of which +is a peculiar projection recalling the circinate line issuing from the +red crown of lower Egypt (see fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 9, 10). In another +Hathor stela, figured in the same work (pp. 510 and 780), the same characteristic +circinate projections recur. The image of the house, always +represented with a single doorway, is obviously a rebus of the +name Hathor, explained by Egyptologists as Het-heru, literally +<span class="tei tei-q">“the house of Horus.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Athor or Hathor of Thebes, identified with +Nut, the sky ... was the female power of nature and is often +represented under the form of a cow, ... as a woman with a +cow's head, with horns and the disk, or wearing a head-dress in the +shape of a vulture and above it the disk and horns.”</span> In the familiar +representation of the mask of Hathor on columns, the association +with the cow is conveyed by large cow's ears=setem, +projecting at each side of the face=hra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A feature generally present in the miniature doorway of the +house, is a single erect head of a uræus, bearing the disk or circle +on its head and usually exhibiting a distinctly cross-shaped mark on its neck. +The latter peculiarity is clearly shown in fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 1, +which exhibits moreover a seated divinity at each side of the doorway, +each bearing the throne or seat (auset) on its head, and the ankh +sign on its knee. Close examination reveals that one of these deities +is Ausar=Osiris, whose name is generally written by means of +the throne=auset, and the eye=ari, with or without the determinative +for god, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the seated figure +(fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and 1 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>). Opposite +to Osiris is Auset=Isis, whose name is usually written as in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page422">[pg 422]</span><a name="Pg422" id="Pg422" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, +1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>, where the auset, the egg=se, and the seated image of +a goddess bearing a bowl=neb, on her head, may be distinguished. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_70" id="Figure_70" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-70.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 70." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 70.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An idea of the import of fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 1, seems gained when it +is remembered that in Egyptian the word house=pi, pir or per, was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page423">[pg 423]</span><a name="Pg423" id="Pg423" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +associated with the title of ruler, the name Pharaoh being derived +from per=āa=great house. What is more, the word house=pir +or pi, is used in astronomical texts, like the Arabian beth, in relation +to stars, it being said of a star that <span class="tei tei-q">“it ever comes forth +from its house”</span>=appears (Brugsch). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The permanent image of the disk and serpent, a form of the +Ra sign, in the doorway of the sculptured house, would thus convey +the idea of the eternal presence of Amen-Ra, the pole-star +god. The accentuation of the cross lines on the neck of the ara +indicates, moreover, the intentional allusion to four-fold and two-fold +force, the latter being expressed by the eyes of the serpent. +The door=ptah, which is open, expresses the name Ptah=the +Opener, well known as that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“father of the gods”</span> and a +form of Amen-Ra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The positions assigned to Osiris and Isis, at either side of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god,”</span> sufficiently shows that they were intended to represent +separate incorporations of the male and female principles +which were united in Amen-Ra, the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine Twain.”</span> The association +of both deities with the throne, the eternal seat of repose, identifies +both alike with Polaris. A monument in the Berlin Museum +(no. 261) which was found in the temple of Isis at Ben-naga, in +Nubia, and was a votive offering made by the Ethiopian king Netek-Amen +and his consort Amen-Tari, contains the following +formula, translated by Lepsius, which associates Isis with eternal +enthronement. <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou remainest, thou remainest, on thy great +throne, O Isis, queen of Au-ker, like the sun (Ra) that lives in +the horizon ... and thou lettest thy son Netek-Amen flourish on +his throne....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact I am about to demonstrate, that the king and queen of +Egypt were the respective, <span class="tei tei-q">“the living images”</span> of Osiris and Isis, +proves that, as in ancient Peru and China, the sovereigns, who were +at the same time high priest and priestess, were considered as +the sacred embodiments of the dual principles of nature. As elsewhere +also, a chain of associations became attached to each of the +dualities; but in Egypt, as may be clearly discerned, during the +lapse of centuries great transformations of thought took place and +alternately the male and female elements seem to have been associated +with the cults of heaven and earth, light and darkness, sun +or moon, morning or evening stars, the southeast and the northwest. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page424">[pg 424]</span><a name="Pg424" id="Pg424" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the sacred writings the sun is usually termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the right eye”</span> +and the moon <span class="tei tei-q">“the left eye”</span> of Ra (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> hra=the (divine) face). +Brugsch points out that, in certain inscriptions at Denderah translated +by Mariette, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sothis star of Hathor-Isis is designated as +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the right eye of Ra’</span> while the sun is termed the left eye.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Brugsch states, moreover, that, according to Sextus Empiricus, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Egyptians compared the king to the <span class="tei tei-q">‘right eye’</span> or the sun; +while the queen was compared to the <span class="tei tei-q">‘left eye’</span> or the moon.”</span> +The two eyes, often with the designation of <span class="tei tei-q">“right”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“left,”</span> +constitute a favorite decoration on funeral stelæ. In some instances +the image of the solar disk, with one wing and one serpent +only, is figured as a substitute for the right eye +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, 436, +see fig. <a href="#Figure_62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>, 6). The +established fact that the eyes of Ra were the +equivalents of the uræi usually accompanying the circle of Ra, +the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“solar disk,”</span> is further explained by the following +data. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that the two uræi on the royal diadem denote +sovereignty over Upper and Lower Egypt. In the bas-relief published +by Brugsch, the circle or Ra-sign is represented with two +uræi, which respectively wear the crowns of Upper and Lower +Egypt (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 7). The crowned uræi recur in the emblems of +Upper and Lower Egypt published by Mr. Goodyear, the first accompanied +by the lotus flower and the second by what Egyptologists +usually identify as the papyrus, but which appears to be the +ripened pod of the lotus (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 9 and 10). While the +two uræi thus emblematized the two divisions of the land of Egypt they are +found as distinctly associated with Osiris and Isis, and their living +images the king and queen, or the high priest and high priestess +of Amen-Ra. The Berlin Museum contains several representations +of Isis under the form of a serpent with a woman's head +(see official catalogue, nos. 7740, 870 and 2529). Osiris is also +represented as a serpent with the head of a bearded man. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A small shrine in the form of a temple, and decorated with royal +serpents, is preserved at the Berlin Museum (catalogue no. 8164) +and contains the effigies of two uræi, one of which, to the left +of the spectator, exhibits the head of Isis, the second, to the right, +the features of Osiris. Between them stands the vase or bowl +which was a constant feature of Isis cult. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with this monument it is interesting to examine +an inscription published by Brugsch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 108) in which occur two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page425">[pg 425]</span><a name="Pg425" id="Pg425" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +serpents who are pouring liquid into a bowl placed between them and +the divided halves of the sky-sign (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 8). The text +connects this with the New Year festival when the Nile began to +rise <span class="tei tei-q">“from its two sources”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“union of heaven and earth”</span> +took place, which will be discussed later. The following temporary +list briefly presents a summary of the preceding data which is +rendered more complete by the addition of the signs and emblems of +the festivals, when the <span class="tei tei-q">“conjunction of sun and moon took place,”</span> +figured by the picture of two persons united by their respective +right and left hands (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 5) or by the tet column +placed between two horns (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 4). As +may be seen by numerous examples in Brugsch (vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>), +the great Sed festival is figured by the image +of the small sanctuary which existed on the flat roof of the great +temple at Denderah, and resembled an open pavilion with four +columns which is usually represented as containing two seats +placed back to back (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 2, 3). A small picture in +Mr. Wallis Budge's Nile exhibits the king and queen occupying such a double +throne, respectively, wearing the insignia and crowns of Osiris and +Isis and holding their sceptres, as in the representations of the +ceremony of laying the foundation of a temple, in their right and +left hands (fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 6). The résumé of the preceding +material produces the following list: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Right eye of Ra: Left eye of Ra.<br /> +Sun: Moon.<br /> +King: Queen.<br /> +Osiris: Isis.<br /> +High priest: High priestess.<br /> +Right hand sceptre: Left hand sceptre.<br /> +North: South.<br /> +Red crown: White crown. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following data, gleaned from the valuable works of Prof. +A. H. Sayce and the serial History of Egypt, written by Prof. +Flinders Petrie, J. P. Mahaffy and J. G. Milne, furnish strong +indications that, in the remotest past, the two divisions of the land +of Egypt were respectively governed by a male and female sovereign; +a proof that, before the time of Menes, the ancient empire +had become disintegrated, and undergone a long period of intense +strife and warfare. We learn from Professor Sayce of the probability +that <span class="tei tei-q">“the city of Nek-hen was once the capital of the south +and that the vulture, the symbol of the south, was also the emblem +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page426">[pg 426]</span><a name="Pg426" id="Pg426" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Nekheb, the goddess of the great fortress, the ruins of which +lie opposite to Nekhen on the eastern bank of the Nile”</span> (Sayce, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 152, 191). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the capital and the emblem of southern or Upper Egypt are +thus directly associated with a <span class="tei tei-q">“goddess,”</span> further data show us +that the ancient queens of Egypt were termed <span class="tei tei-q">“god-women or goddesses.”</span> +When the New Empire was founded (1600-1100 B.C.) +with its capital at Thebes, King Ahmes assumed the sovereignty of +the whole of Egypt, but seems to have shared supreme authority +with his consort Ah-mes-nefretere=divine- or god-woman, also +termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the high priestess of Amen.”</span> From the honors accorded +to her and to her son Amen-hetep or Amenophis I, it must indeed +be inferred that she possessed some inherited sovereign right to +one of the ancient divisions of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the period of the 26th dynasty, of Saïs, we find Upper +Egypt governed by a <span class="tei tei-q">“god-woman,”</span> Shep-en-upet, who remained +in power, even after the land had been conquered by Psammetichus +I. The latter obtained, however, that his daughter Nitocris +was adopted as the successor to the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine-woman”</span> ruler of +Thebes, and she in turn adopted the daughter of Psammetichus II +(B.C. 594-589), whose name was Anches-nefer-eb-re. A tablet +from the temple of Karnak, preserved at the Berlin Museum (catalogue +no. 2112) represents this female sovereign of Thebes accompanied +by her prime minister, and standing in the presence of +the gods Amen and Chon. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another remarkable monument at the Berlin Museum (no. 7972) +figures the <span class="tei tei-q">“god-woman”</span> Shep-en-upet, under the form of a +sphinx holding a vase, and records that she had inherited the sovereignty +of Thebes from her aunt, the consort of an Ethiopian king. +An extremely interesting proof that the beard, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per se</span></span>, constituted +an emblem of sovereignty, is furnished by a beautiful portrait statue +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine woman,”</span> Hat-shepset (Berlin Museum, no. 2299). +She is figured as a sphinx and wears a beard suspended from her +head-dress.<a id="noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> +The serpent decorates her diadem. On other monuments +this remarkable queen, who built the temple of Der-el-Bahari, +is figured with the crown of Upper Egypt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> no. 2279, Berlin +Museum). By good fortune the personal gold ornaments of a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page427">[pg 427]</span><a name="Pg427" id="Pg427" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine woman,”</span> an Ethiopian princess, were discovered by Ferlini +in the pyramid of Begerauie, enclosed in a plain bronze vase. +These precious objects are now exhibited in the Berlin Museum, +where I have examined them and noted with interest that the central +ornament of two finely worked, broad gold bracelets, is a female +figure with the royal diadem and four outstretched arms, to +which wings are attached. This furnishes us with an instance of +a queen being represented with four wings, in exactly the same +manner as the Assyrian king Sargon, on the seal from the time of +Sennacherib (fig. <a href="#Figure_65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>, 6), namely, as a <span class="tei tei-q">“ruler of the +four quarters,”</span> which indicates that she held the position of a <span class="tei tei-q">“central ruler.”</span> +As might be expected in the case of a queen who personified Isis, +frequently represented under the form of a <span class="tei tei-q">“woman-serpent,”</span> the +uræus is a favorite motif on other gold ornaments belonging to +the Ethiopian queen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Certain passages in Prof. Flinders Petrie's History of Egypt +afford a curious insight into the prerogatives of Egyptian queens +as far back as about B.C. 2684. The consort of Usertesen II, the +fourth king of the twelfth dynasty was named Nefert,of whom a grey +granite statue is preserved at the Ghizeh Museum and represents +her as seated on a throne. On this are the titles <span class="tei tei-q">“The hereditary +princess, the great favorite, the greatly praised, the beloved consort +of the king, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the ruler of all women</span></em>, the king's daughter of +his body, Nefert.”</span> Prof. Flinders Petrie adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“The title ruler +or princess of all women is peculiar, and suggests that the queen +had some prerogatives of government as regards the female half +of the population.”</span> The title in question reappears four centuries +later in connection with Nubkhas, the queen of Sebek=Emsaup, +of the 13th dynasty and her stele in the Louvre entitles her the +<span class="tei tei-q">“great heiress, the greatly favored, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the ruler of all women</span></em>, the +great royal wife, united to the crown Nub-kha-s”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, vol. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, pp. 175 and 225). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Between B.C. 1423-1414 queen Mutemua-arat appears as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +goddess queen”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“great royal wife”</span> +(Flinders Petrie <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +p. 174). The consort of Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379) the +celebrated Tyi, the daughter of Yuaa and Thuaa, is entitled +<span class="tei tei-q">“princess of both lands,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“chief heiress, princess of all +lands.”</span> Her successor Nefertiti is called <span class="tei tei-q">“princess of south and +north, lady of both lands,”</span> which titles, as Prof. Flinders Petrie +comments, <span class="tei tei-q">“like the titles of Tyi, imply a hereditary right to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page428">[pg 428]</span><a name="Pg428" id="Pg428" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rule Egypt.”</span> They undoubtedly place her on a footing of equality +with the king, which is, however, comprehensible when it is explained +that she was the ruler of all women, while he was the ruler +of all men. The position of the Egyptian queen would thus prove +to have been analogous to that of the ancient Mexican Quilaztli +(see pp. <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref">61-67</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The analogy is all the more striking when it is realized that the +titles of the Mexican chieftainess were: <span class="tei tei-q">“the Woman warrior, +the Woman of the Underworld or Below, the Woman serpent or +female twin and the Eagle woman,”</span> while the emblem of the Egyptian +goddess-queen of the south was the vulture and she was the +personification of Isis, represented under the form of a serpent, +the twin of the male serpent, Osiris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_71" id="Figure_71" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-71.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 71." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 71.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Much food for thought is furnished by a Syrian relief sculpture +from Amrit (published by Spamer, see fig. <a href="#Figure_71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>, 2), which +exhibits a vulture or eagle with outstretched wings, in juxtaposition to a +winged disk which appears to combine features of the Assyrian +winged disk (the bird's tail and two appendages, see fig. +<a href="#Figure_71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>,1) +with the two uræi of the Egyptian form (fig. <a href="#Figure_71" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>, 3). It is +striking how clear the symbolism of the latter becomes when interpreted +(1) as the symbol of the hidden god and his male and female form, +Osiris and Isis, accompanied by the wings symbolizing air and the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page429">[pg 429]</span><a name="Pg429" id="Pg429" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +idea that the deity was invisible and immaterial; (2) as the symbol +of Egypt itself—an entity, a complete circle, divided into two +parts, under two rulers. The pair of antelope horns above emphasize +the fact that the twain were as a single pair. The combined +crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, the latter exhibiting a serpent's +head and the first, what appears to be its tail, constitute the symbol +of joint rulership which, in this case, is accompanied by the feather, +the rebus expressing the words <span class="tei tei-q">“truth and justice.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the Syrian bas-relief conveys the idea of two separate +kingdoms, one conveying the idea of single rulership, by the +form of an eagle; the other of dual rulership, by the two uræi, +each of which is crowned by a small disk; the Egyptian symbol +distinctly conveys the idea of a close union of two distinct parts. +The historical fact that Menes succeeded in uniting both lands +under a single crown, indicates clearly enough that the ancient +empire had become disintegrated and that by marrying the female +ruler of the south he had reinstated the dual government on its +original primitive basis. That, during the period of separation +and independence, a powerful gynocracy had been formed seems +more than probable. Just as evidences are met with in ancient +Mexico of the existence of female communities, so the Old World +furnishes accounts, deemed fabulous, of powerful gynocracies. +Thus we have heard of the Amazons, the fabulous race of women +warriors who are supposed to have founded a powerful empire on +the coast of the Euxine. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A searching analysis of the texts translated by Brugsch, relating +to the ceremonies performed at the New Year and famous Sed +festivals, as well as historical facts gleaned from the works of +living authorities, throw a light upon the position and sacred duties +of the Egyptian queens during many centuries. The critical examination +of a number of inscriptions, translated by Brugsch, is +found to show that the queen was the high priestess and living +image of Hathor-Isis and the personification of the female principle +of nature, associated in Egypt with the nocturnal Heaven and +the Above, and their symbols, the bird or vulture, the cow, the +female serpent, the moon, the stars, and in particular Sirius-Sothis. +In remotest historical times the goddess-queen seems to have resided +in her own capital, a fortress. The universal necessity to +insure the safety of women and children in times of warfare may +well have originally led to the assignment of a separate, permanent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page430">[pg 430]</span><a name="Pg430" id="Pg430" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +place of residence, to the female portion of the population. The +New Year festival, which coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius +(20th July, Jul. Cal.) and the overflow of the Nile, which +suspended outdoor activity, was generally celebrated throughout +the land as the <span class="tei tei-q">“union of heaven and earth,”</span> or the conjunction +of <span class="tei tei-q">“the sun and the moon, or Sirius.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was customary that, at this period, the queen, personifying the +Sothis star, should come forth from her retirement and, surrounded +by pomp and majesty, meet the king in solemn state, publicly +occupy her place on the double throne, and share in the performance +of sacred religious rites. It is easy to see that the idea underlying +the entire ceremonial was the harmonizing of the actions +of the sacred personifications of the dual principles of nature with +the natural phenomena, from which arose a strange confusion of +ideas concerning the relationship between these consecrated individuals +and the powers of nature, which culminated in the artificial +belief that they were divinely appointed mediators between +humanity and the supreme power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are clear indications that the consecrated nuptials of king +and queen marked the Sed festival which was celebrated, at the beginning +of every fourth year, at Denderah. Brugsch tells us that +the place on the roof of the Hathor temple, where the celebration +of the Sed festival took place, is specially designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the place +of the first feast”</span> and in many cases this is shown to have been +the small open temple, whose roof is supported by four columns +(fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 2 and 3). In one passage it is expressly stated +that <span class="tei tei-q">“she, Isis-Sothis, consorts with her father, the sun, at <span class="tei tei-q">‘the place +of the first feast,’</span> ”</span> represented by a picture of the said temple +(fig. <a href="#Figure_70" class="tei tei-ref">70</a>, 6). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to compare the following passage with the successive +one, as they exhibit different phases of religious cult. <span class="tei tei-q">“In +solemn procession statues of the god Ra and of Hathor-Isis +(Sothis-Sirius) were carried up the stairs from the interior of the +temple to its roof (the tep-hat or head of the house) where, under +the open sky or in the small open temple on the roof designated +as Hait at Denderah, the idols were unveiled at a given time....”</span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“On the morn of the New Year Isis-Sothis <span class="tei tei-q">‘beheld her father +on the beautiful day of the birth of the disk’</span> (mas-aten) or +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the birth of the sun’</span> (mas-ra).”</span> It is described how <span class="tei tei-q">“the goddess +was led upon the roof so that she might behold the rays of her +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page431">[pg 431]</span><a name="Pg431" id="Pg431" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +father on his rising.... She is sometimes addressed directly, +being told <span class="tei tei-q">‘that thou shouldst see thy father on the day of the +New Year.’</span> ”</span> In other texts allusion is made to the approach of +Sirius to the sun on New Year's day: <span class="tei tei-q">“her rays join (heter) with +those of the radiant god on that beautiful day of the birth of the +sun's disk in the morning of New Year's day:”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“thou consortest +with thy father Ra in thy open temple, thy beautiful face being +turned towards the south;”</span> and elsewhere, <span class="tei tei-q">“she comes on her +beautiful festival of the New Year, to unite her greatness in heaven +with that of her father; the gods are festive and the goddesses are +full of joy when the right eye (Sirius) unites itself with the left +eye (the sun). She rests upon her throne in the place where the +disk of the sun can be seen and the radiant one (Isis-Sothis) combines +herself with the radiant one (the sun).”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On one of the columns of the roof-temple at Denderah, the following +text is inscribed: <span class="tei tei-q">“This temple of Rekhit flourishes in +possession of a lion (mahes) and of his daughter ... of the +Horus of the east and of the goddess Khont-abut. They assume her +heavenly form on New Year's day and each one consorts with his +neighbor.”</span> Preceding inscriptions are made more clear by the following +detached passages translated by Brugsch, which merit careful +study. <span class="tei tei-q">“An inscription at Abydos makes the goddess Safkhet +say to the king: <span class="tei tei-q">‘thou didst appear as king upon thy throne on +the feast hib-seb; like the god Ra at the beginning of the year.’</span> ”</span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The high-priest of Ptah at Memphis was charged with the celebration +of the Sed festival, which was a general festival throughout +the land.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The annual going of the Hathor of Denderah to +Edfu took place in the month Epiphi.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The goddess Hathor-Isis +of Denderah is frequently called the second female sun next to +the sun's disk, the many colored, feathered goddess, and is identified +with Isis-Sothis.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to an extremely ancient belief it was the goddess +Hathor Isis-Sothis who caused the inundation of the Nile which, +according to the inscriptions, coincided with the heliacal rising of +Sirius. Owing to this circumstance she is called, <span class="tei tei-q">“Isis the great, +the mother of god, who causes the Nile to overflow when she shines +at the commencement of the year,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the female sun who appears +at the beginning of the year in the heaven as the divine +Sothis star, the queen of the decan stars, whose rays illuminate the +earth like those of the sun which appears in the morning. She is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page432">[pg 432]</span><a name="Pg432" id="Pg432" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the mistress of the commencement of the year, who draws the +Nile out of its source and thus confers life upon living human beings.”</span> +Elsewhere she is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the mistress of the commencement +of the year, who makes the Nile rise at its period.”</span> It is +likewise said of her <span class="tei tei-q">“on her beautiful feast of beholding her father, +the heaven unites itself with the earth and the right eye unites itself +with the left eye, at the beginning of the year.”</span> She is described +as Isis the great, the mother of god, the lady of Adut +in Anet, the mistress of the beginning of the year, the monarch +of the Sema? who appears on New Year's day to usher in the new +year. (She is) the goddess Ament (the hidden one) in Thebes, +Menat (the nurse) in Heliopolis, Renpit (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the year) in +Memphis, the divine star Sothis in Elephantine, the radiant one in Apollinopolis +magna, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In another passage Hathor-Isis is spoken of as <span class="tei tei-q">“the goddess +Mehen-net of the light-god and his Ar-hatef=(she who acts as +pilot) in the boat sektet, which eternally passes through the heaven +over the head of her father.”</span> On the north wall of the Prondos of +the Denderah temple Isis-Hathor is called <span class="tei tei-q">“Hathor, the lady of +Anet; Isis herself; the eye of Ra; the great one of Tentyra; the +lady of heaven; the queen of gods and goddesses; the great Mat +... the female sun; the first in Tentyra; the true one amongst +gods; the young; the daughter of a young ... [?] the beauty who +appears in heaven; the truth which regulates the world at the prow +of the bark of the sun; the queen and mistress of awe; the mistress +of goddesses, Isis, the great, the mother of the god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following texts from Brugsch are explicit enough: <span class="tei tei-q">“The +temple of Tentyra is fitted up for a bride, and is occupied by a +bride.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The temple of Tentyra is in bridal array and contains +a bride on the beautiful festival of the birth of the sun.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The +temple of Tentyra is fitted up for a bridal and is in possession of +a bride on her beautiful festival of the birth of the sun (mas-ra).”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The birth of a male or female Horus, of a young sun or moon, +is alluded to in other texts as the <span class="tei tei-q">“feast of the child in its cradle,”</span> +and coincided with New Year's day. According to Brugsch, the +festival of the child in its ses=cradle, nest, or couch, undoubtedly +coincided with New Year's day, as is proven by the following inscription: +<span class="tei tei-q">“The bringing of the band of stuff to the great Isis, +the mother of the god, for the obtainment of a happy year. Receive, +receive happy years on the day of the night of the child in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page433">[pg 433]</span><a name="Pg433" id="Pg433" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +its cradle!”</span>... It is usual to interpret the birth of the +young child, or sun of the New Year as a mere allegory of the +astronomical fact and it may have been thus in later times. On +the other hand, historical data prove that the actual birth of a +<span class="tei tei-q">“child,”</span> the offspring of a royal sacramental marriage, did take +place in the temple and that children, thus born, afterwards became +the rulers of Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“At Luqsor, ... a great temple was built by Amenhotep III +(B.C. 1414-1379) to <span class="tei tei-q">‘his father Amen,’</span> with special reference to +the divine conception of the king.... His birth is the great +subject of the temple ... and his mother Mut-em-ua is the prominent +figure in those scenes, pointing to her being important as +queen-mother....”</span> Of the later king Hor-em-heb (B.C. 1332-1328) +it is inscribed: <span class="tei tei-q">“Amen, king of the gods, dandled him ... +when he came forth from the womb he was enveloped in reverence, +the aspect of a god was upon him; the arm was bowed to him +as a child and great and small did obeisance before him ”</span> (Flinders +Petrie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 177, 190 and 248). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The small Isis temple to the east of the great temple of Hathor +at Denderah is specially designated as the lying-in chamber, or +sacred house of birth. An inscription dating from the Roman +period, on the outer eastern wall of this building reads: <span class="tei tei-q">“Life! +the female Horus, the youthful, the daughter of a hak (regent, +Brugsch), Isis, the great, the mother of the Ra=god, is born in +Tentyra in the <span class="tei tei-q">‘night of the child in its cradle,’</span> at the west side +of the temple of Hat-seses (the great temple of Hathor).”</span> It is, +moreover, stated that <span class="tei tei-q">“Horus, in female form, is the princess, the +powerful, the heiress to the throne and the daughter of an heir to +the throne.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In another inscription, on the south wall of the small temple of +Isis, the birth of Isis is described thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“On this beautiful day, +<span class="tei tei-q">‘of the night of the child in its cradle,’</span> on the great festival during +which the world is re-adjusted, or balanced (sekhek en ta), the +bringing forth of Isis takes place in the interior or centre of Anet +(Tentyra) by the goddess Ap, the great, in the chamber of Ap, +in the form of a dark red female person, the Khnum ankh, the +lovely. Her mother, Nut, exclaimed at the sight of her: behold, +(As is) I have become a mother. Thence the origin of the name +Isis.... The south, towards the place of rising of the sun's +disk, has been given over to her, and the north, towards.... +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page434">[pg 434]</span><a name="Pg434" id="Pg434" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +She is, namely, the mistress of both sides of Egypt, with her son +Horus and her brother Osiris.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the east side of the wall of the terrace at Denderah a similar +inscription reads: <span class="tei tei-q">“Uar-kher-ta is the name of this locality. The +name of the place of the cradle of Isis is named Adut, which is the +house where the <span class="tei tei-q">‘accouchement’</span> of Nut, the goddess of heaven, +takes place. It is here that, at the time of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘night of the +child in its cradle,’</span> the god-mother is brought into the world, in +the form of a dark female, named Khnum-ankhet, the lady of love +and the queen of the gods and goddesses. On seeing her, her +mother exclaimed: As, îs <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> lo, or behold, I have become a +mother! Thence the origin of her name Isis.... She is the +lady of the temple of Egypt with her son Horus and brother +Osiris, now and forever into eternity.”</span> The most instructive account +of the festival which has come under my notice is the following, +contained in another inscription in the temple at Denderah. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The fourth day, supplementary to the year (of 360 days, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +the 364th day) is the beautiful day of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘night of the child in +its cradle’</span> and is a great festival of preparation. During the night +preceding this day there takes place the procession of the goddess +Hathor and the divinities with her. The circuit of her temple is +made and all is duly fulfilled according to the custom. Upon this +follows the return to their places (chambers in the temple). The +golden one (Nubet, the ordinary appellation of Hathor-Isis as the +star Sothis-Sirius, Brugsch) rises, shining, above the brow of her +progenitor, and her mysterious (literally, full of secrets) form is at +the prow of the boat of the sun. As soon as she reaches the āk +(centre) of her city in the presence of her Nomos, she beholds her +dwelling with the most joyful feelings. When she enters her +house her body is full of delight. When she has taken possession +of her exalted dwelling, surrounded by her fellow-gods, who stand +at each side of her, her soul in her body is full of rejoicings. When +they join the rays of her father (the sun god) and are united to +the radiance of his disk, the city Anet (Tentyra) is happy. Adoration +is made in Adut (the lying-in chamber) and Pi-anet is in +festive state, when it beholds the great, the powerful leader, she +who creates the festival in the holy city on that beautiful day of +the New Year.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Elsewhere we read: <span class="tei tei-q">“The city of Anet is in a constant exaltation +when the goddess Isis is born in it (in the small Isis temple) in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page435">[pg 435]</span><a name="Pg435" id="Pg435" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +form of a dark red woman, whose name is Khnum-Ankhet, the +lady of love, the queen of goddesses and women, the bride. It is +beautiful to see the shining appearance of the ray of light in the +heaven, in the dusk, at the time when she is born in this city.... +A flying beetle (?) is born in the sky in the primæval city of Tentyra +at the period of <span class="tei tei-q">‘the night of the child in its cradle.’</span> The +sun shines in the heaven at dusk when her birth has taken place. +Gods and goddesses praise the name of her majesty....”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Ra-Hur +of Apollinopolis magna, god Sam-ta, comes forth, or arises, in +the dawn (akhekh) when the birth takes place in <span class="tei tei-q">‘the night of the +child in its cradle,’</span> on the great festival of the entire world (or the +entire land). He shines for her majesty when she has brought +forth (the child). Her child is in the form of a beautiful boy, +who is the lord of Tentyra. The gods and goddesses came to her +carrying the symbol of life (the ankh) and the sceptre of power +(the tam) so as to fulfil their desire and her wish”</span> (p. 103). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following extract from a papyrus which belonged to a priest +of Amon, named Horsiesis of Thebes, of the time of Augustus, +affords an extremely interesting insight of the mysterious ceremonial +which had gradually developed. It is evident that the text, +though apparently clear, must have been intelligible to the initiated +only, who alone were able to understand the allusions to +secret, sacred rites and their symbolical meaning. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Thou raisest thyself to heaven, in the region of the city Ka ... +thou goest with the king when he goes to Thebes ... thou +seest the Sktt bark on its arrival in the city of Thebes and the +two sisters united in Pi-ubkt ... thou seest the goddess Hathor +who becomes the mother of her own mother<a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> on the day ... of the +Tx festival ... thy name is called amongst those of the judges +on the great Hermopolis in the night of the festival of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he who remains +</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page436">[pg 436]</span><a name="Pg436" id="Pg436" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic"> +in the middle or centre of his city</span></em> ... thou seest the immovable +ones united into a quatuor, in form like a young bull +... thou seest their wives united together in the form of the +goddess Anthat ... thou visitest the caves of Thebes when +his majesty betakes himself to the zone of Smu.... The mistress +of heaven comes to her house ... thou receivest a cloak +from his hand ... the divine eye ... thou watchest at night in +the chamber of birth on the day of the [lying in] birth of the +goddess Mut....[Nut?] Thou goest in with those who go in +and comest out with those who come out like the great Horus in +his temple ... thou seest in her domain(?) mysterious actions +performed by the Pastophores. No one sees, no one hears (of +them) ... thou hearest the voice of the singer in the temple, +in varied modulations ... thou ascendest the stairway of the +eternal circle of light, thou seest the strong ram in its domain ... +thou seest ... in his first form, Osiris, in the house of purification.”</span> +(Brugsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, pp. 518 and 520). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A careful perusal of the preceding texts conveys an idea of the +immense lapse of time it must have required for the state religion +of Egypt to have developed itself and crystallized into a complicated +ritual, the true significance of which, doubtlessly, gradually +receded from view. The naïve primitive symbolization of the union +of heaven and earth by the actual marriage of king and queen, +followed by general marriage festivities, had naturally created, +in course of time, a distinct privileged caste rendered <span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> +by the circumstances attending their conception and birth. Once +in existence the maintenance and insurance of the divine line of +descent would naturally enforce the intermarriage of its members +and the sequestration and guarded seclusion of the royal women +and the virgin priestesses from whose ranks the destined mothers +of the divine children were selected. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A more ancient form of symbolizing the union of heaven and +earth seems to have been the cult of Apis, which, according to +Maspero, preceded the building of the pyramids and could scarcely +have arisen before the adoption of the cow or bull, ua, as the rebus +of Polaris, the One=ua. A survival of Apis cult seems to be the +allegorical sacred title <span class="tei tei-q">“bull”</span> (Osiris-Apis) bestowed upon the +king, of <span class="tei tei-q">“cow”</span> upon the queen and <span class="tei tei-q">“calf”</span> upon their offspring, +the young Horus. In later times the king was entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the ram”</span> +and wore his fleece and horns on visiting the queen. As a natural +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page437">[pg 437]</span><a name="Pg437" id="Pg437" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sequence, the fruit of their union was spoken of as <span class="tei tei-q">“the lamb.”</span> +According to Herodotus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +pp. 27-29, Cary's translation), <span class="tei tei-q">“the +sacred Apis, or Epaphus is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving +another offspring; and the Egyptians say that lightning +descends upon the cow from heaven and that from thence it brings +forth Apis.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The Egyptian magistrates said ... the god [in the +form of Apis] manifested himself at distant intervals ... and +when this manifestation took place the Egyptians immediately put +on their richest apparel and kept festive holiday.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As stated by Mr. Wallis Budge, Apis worship was established +at Memphis by Ka-kau, the second king of the second dynasty +B.C. 4100. The veneration accorded to the bull, cow and calf, +as embodiments of the dual principles of nature, in separate and in +single form, seems to have been accorded in other localities to +different animal forms and to have been replaced, in later times, +by triads, composed of a god, goddess and their offspring, each +great centre ultimately possessing their particular triad, the living +images of which were the high-priest, high-priestess and their +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> offspring. It should be noted that a group consisting +of 8+1=nine gods, high priests or prophets, accompanied the +triad, the result being twelve <span class="tei tei-q">“deities”</span> in all, of which one=the +child, was an embodiment of two principles and was the ka=the +divine twain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The transition of Apis worship from the animal to the human +form was accomplished during the reign of the Ptolemies (B.C. +305-42) when Serapis or Osiris-Apis was introduced into Egypt +and represented as a man with the head of a bull, wearing a disk +and uræus. Long before this, however, androsphinxes and other +combinations of the human and animal form had existed in Egypt. +At Thebes the divine triad was formed by Amen-Ra, Mut-Hathor +and Chonsu; at Edfu and Denderah we find Osiris, Isis-Sothis-Hathor +and Horus. On the other hand, a curious inscription in +the temple at Denderah, translated by Brugsch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +p. 512), actually +describes Amen-Ra as <span class="tei tei-q">“the great god in Denderah, who +periodically rejuvenates himself and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">becomes a beautiful boy, who +is the concealed or hidden god, whose name is hidden</span></em>; who is the +Horus with colored wings, coming forth in the upper hemisphere +of Edfu, the lord of the double heaven.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inference one might be tempted to make from this and +other texts is that, at one period, a human babe, the fruit of a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page438">[pg 438]</span><a name="Pg438" id="Pg438" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +royal or sacerdotal union, was born in the temple on what constituted +New Year's Day and was secretly worshipped there during +the ensuing year, as the living image of Amen-Ra, the hidden god +and <span class="tei tei-q">“divine twain.”</span> I venture to point out that the adoption of +the child as the image of the divinity was the logical sequence to +the preceding employment of the bull as a rebus for the words +ua=one and ka=twain; that the consecration of the human +form must, undoubtedly, have given a strong impulse to statuary, +and that the sanctification of the child correspondingly exalted +motherhood and lent a particular consecration to the marriage of +its <span class="tei tei-q">“divine parents.”</span> The following facts, culled at random, +afford a limit of the transitions and further developments which +took place in Egypt in course of time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before proceeding, special mention must be made of one important +point which throws a flood of light upon the extent of the development +of separate cults of sun and moon and the institution of +solar and lunar calendars which respectively governed the activities +of the male and female populations. As this matter will be fully +treated in my calendar monograph I shall merely note here that +Brugsch cites texts proving the existence and simultaneous use of +the two calendars, and the supreme importance accorded to the +new moon of the month Epiphi on whose appearance the <span class="tei tei-q">“goddess +Isis-Hathor of Denderah embarked on her sacred barge and proceeded +up the river, from her city to Edfu (Apollinopolis magna) +where she joined his majesty ..., her father, ... the incomparable +sun-god Ra, the first of Apollinopolis, the golden disk, whose +children are numerous....”</span> It is further stated that the god and +goddess became inseparable like sun and moon. Brugsch states +that the appearance of the said new moon, which was also associated +with the heliacal rising of Sirius, would range from Aug. 18 to +Sept. 16, Jul. Cal. (see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +pp. 282-1). The appearance +of the goddess was the signal for the opening of a season of general +<span class="tei tei-q">“feasting and drinking, rejoicing, singing and dancing”</span> +throughout the land, to which the name Tekhu is given in some +texts. This is translated by Brugsch as <span class="tei tei-q">“the intoxication of gladness +or joy;”</span> it <span class="tei tei-q">“coincided with the highest level attained by the +overflow of the Nile,”</span> and its modern survival is the annual <span class="tei tei-q">“marriage +of the Nile”</span> which takes place on the 23d of August. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious to note how the original carrying out of primitive +and naïve rites by the queen and high-priestess gradually caused +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page439">[pg 439]</span><a name="Pg439" id="Pg439" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +her presence to be regarded as essential for the <span class="tei tei-q">“drawing out of +the Nile from its source”</span> and her person to be surrounded with +utmost veneration and sanctity. As Prof. Flinders Petrie states, +speaking of as far back as B.C. 1383-1365: <span class="tei tei-q">“The marriage to a +royal high priestess of Amen was, of course, purely a political +necessity to legitimate the king's position.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“It would seem that Hor-em-heb was not married to Nezem-mut +until his accession, when he legalized his position by becoming +husband of the high-priestess of Amen, as in the arrangement of +the later dynasties. This marriage was an affair of politics solely, +considering the age of the parties; Horemheb was probably between +fifty and sixty at the time and if the queen was the same +as Nefertiti's sister Nezem-mut, she must have been about the +same age as Horemheb”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 183, 250). How long the +female Egyptian ruler maintained her sway may, perhaps, best be +seen by the following texts describing the political homage paid to +the living goddess of the Egyptians under Ptolemaic and Roman +rules. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One inscription clearly shows that, at the time of Ptolemy IX, +Euergetes II, the living Isis was acknowledged as the sole ruler of +the land of the south by the king and his wife, queen Cleopatra III, +who jointly occupied the throne of northern Egypt. Jointly the +latter dedicated a beautiful hall to the goddess Isis, as a place in +which to celebrate the Tekhu feast and in which she might linger +at this season (Brugsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 284). I have found indications +in other works that, in other localities, the goddess entered +a secret chamber in the earth or pyramid or celebrated her sacred +mysteries and festival on the sacred boat of the sun, in the sacred +sea or lake belonging to the temple. In these cases it is obvious +that the dominant idea was the performance of the sacred rites in +the sacred centre or middle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At a later period Cleopatra VII ascended the female throne at the +age of seventeen and became high-priestess of Amen, the living +image of Isis. It was understood that as soon as her brother +Ptolemy XIV, then aged twelve, should come of age, she was to +marry him. Partly for political reasons, akin to those which had +caused king Horemheb, on his accession, to marry the high priestess +of Amen, Julius Cæsar and Mark Antony become in succession +the consorts of Cleopatra, after whose death Egypt became +a Roman province. But the <span class="tei tei-q">“land of the south,”</span> and traditional, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page440">[pg 440]</span><a name="Pg440" id="Pg440" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +divine, feminine rulership, lingered on. Under the third prefect, +Ælius Gallus, Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, invades Egypt at +the head of her army. She was defeated, but the position of the +high-priestess of Amen, the living Isis, continued to be such as to +exact the homage and an act of propitiation from the Roman +Emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An inscription, from the time of Augustus, records that a beautiful +monument, or <span class="tei tei-q">“house,”</span> had been erected by the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the +land, the autocrator, the son of the sun, Cæsar,”</span> and was presented, +at the time of the Isis festival, to its possessor, the great +Isis, the mother of the god, the mistress of the lying-in-house, the +splendid and mighty queen of Philæ, the benevolent princess of +Abaton, the daughter of the sun. She is likewise named <span class="tei tei-q">“she +who is great or whose greatness extends towards the four quarters”</span> +and is designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the royal wife of the majesty of Osiris and +the royal mother of Horus, the victorious bull,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the ka. +It is stated that <span class="tei tei-q">“she found the house of birth brilliantly adorned +and well arranged in every way”</span> and she installed herself in its interior +on a given day, so as to bring forth her son in these surroundings. +One of the rewards promised to Cæsar for the delicate +attention and gift bestowed upon the goddess is <span class="tei tei-q">“eternal and permanent +occupation of the throne of Horus, the first of the living +ones.”</span> According to the Esne calendar a <span class="tei tei-q">“divine birth”</span> actually +took place on a given date. Brugsch, referring to Plutarch and +calendar texts, shows that the commencement of the Isis festival +dated from the time when Isis assumed a phylactery, or amulet, +to indicate that she had conceived. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another inscription shows that Tiberius Claudius had caused the +house to be renovated for <span class="tei tei-q">“the mighty goddess Isis, the life giving +mistress of Abaton, the good Hathor, the queen of the land of +Nubia, the divine mother of the golden (Nub) Horus, the benevolent +sister of Osiris, the great protectress who guards his son.”</span> +As Tiberius Claudius, in this text named himself her loving son, +it is obvious that the day had passed away when solely her own +divine son Horus would be the one legitimate and divine heir to the +Egyptian throne. It is interesting to surmise what became of the +children whose <span class="tei tei-q">“divine births”</span> continued to be celebrated as a +sacred occurrence to which even a Roman Emperor yielded homage. +The natural sequence would have been that, accompanied by +a band of devoted followers, the sons of the sun, the young bulls, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page441">[pg 441]</span><a name="Pg441" id="Pg441" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the ka, or divine twain, and their sisters, would seek +distant lands in which jointly to establish new kingdoms on the ancient, +familiar plan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Collectively, the preceding evidence has afforded a realization of +some of the curious but natural results of the prolonged cult of the +dual principles of nature in Egypt, the most remarkable being, perhaps, +the creation of a distinct, <span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> caste of individuals, from +the naïve adoption of marriage and birth as consecrated religious +rites, symbolical of the union of heaven and earth and the production +of new life. While at one time, and in certain localities, this mode of +symbolism obviously took the upper hand and fostered the growth +of the artificial idea of the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine rights of royalty,”</span> there are +evidences that, simultaneously, the union of the dual principles +of nature was symbolized in one or more different archaic and +primitive ways. These appear to have been separately adopted in +various centres of thought where the disastrous and debasing consequences +of the association of the idea of sex with the cult of +heaven and earth, light and darkness, etc., were realized with +disapproval. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We thus find that, even at Edfu, the ceremonial rite of lighting +new sacred fire by means of a wooden instrument and friction was +performed on the great Isis festival which was marked by the +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine birth.”</span> According to the calendar of Canopus this fell +on the first day of Payni, and a prescribed illumination of the temples +and palace was kept up until the 30th or last day of the month. +In the most ancient Egyptian calendars the <span class="tei tei-q">“lighting of light”</span> at +the same period is also recorded (Brugsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 470) and, +according to Herodotus, the festival was named <span class="tei tei-q">“the lighting of +lamps”</span> and was observed throughout all Egypt. He adds that +<span class="tei tei-q">“a religious reason is given why this night is illuminated and so +honored”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, 61 and 62). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The influence of increasing astronomical knowledge likewise +shows itself in the joint observation of the movements of sun, +moon and stars and the determination of the relative positions +of the latter to the sun at the periods of the equinoxes and solstices. +Without taking period or sequence into consideration for +the present, I merely note that we find evidence that, at one time, +images of sun and moon, of the right and left eyes of Ra, or +statues of Hathor-Isis and Osiris, replaced their living images in +religious ceremonies. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page442">[pg 442]</span><a name="Pg442" id="Pg442" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sometimes the entire ritual seems to have consisted in the union +of water, the produce of heaven, with seeds, the produce of earth; +the ensuing germination and production of young shoots being +deemed sacred and symbolical of the renewal of life. The fact +that statuettes of Osiris have actually been found, made of paste +containing various seeds, distinctly shows that, like the Babylonian +Baal, the Egyptian male divinity was identified with the earth. +Another indication of this is furnished by the descriptions of the +feast of Pan, which fell at the period of the spring equinox. At +this period the crop of dura, which had been sown by the king in +the sacred fields at Denderah, at the time of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Osiris mysteries,”</span> +immediately after the inundation had receded and <span class="tei tei-q">“the earth was +laid bare,”</span> became ripe. The ceremony of cutting the first sheaf +of dura was performed by the king, with the silex sickle=khepes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While Osiris was thus directly associated with the produce of +the earth there are also evidences that, just as Isis became identified +with birth and life, her consort became the lord of death and +of the underworld. Mysterious rites and human sacrifices seem +to have been instituted in his honor. According to obscure myths +Osiris himself had been foully murdered, his body cut into fourteen +pieces and cast over the length and breadth of the land. His +head was supposed to be preserved at Abydos, the chief centre of +his worship, and shrines were erected over the other portions of +his body. It will be a matter for further research to investigate +whether the <span class="tei tei-q">“mysteries of Osiris”</span> did not include the dramatization +of the death of Osiris, in which a human victim personified +the god and was actually killed and dismembered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is, perhaps, worth noting here, as an analogy, how appropriately +the ancient Mexican annual sacrifice of a youth, chosen +among the most perfect, might have answered as a rendition of +the drama of Osiris. The body of the victim was divided and the +pieces distributed to a fixed number of priests and chieftains, who +partook of them as sacred food. The head was preserved in the +Great Temple itself, on the Tzompantli, and the large number +of skulls seen there by the Spaniards constituted a proof of the +great antiquity of the custom. The blood of the victim, poured +upon seeds, seems to have been considered essential for bringing +about the germination of the sacred shoots and typical of the +union of the dual principles of nature and of life springing from +death. Idols, formed of seeds moistened with human blood, were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page443">[pg 443]</span><a name="Pg443" id="Pg443" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +distributed to the participants in the ceremony. According to some +authors this sacred paste, and not pieces of human flesh, constituted +the consecrated food, eaten according to the prescribed ritual. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +How far analogous rites were performed in Egypt remains to be +seen; it is, at all events, certain that, by slow degrees, the cult of +the dual principles of nature gave rise to the institution of strange +unnatural rites, the original naïve meanings of which became obscured, +debased or lost. While various localities of Egypt, notably +Thebes and Abydos, appear to have become the birthplace of curious +aberrations of the human intellect, there was one ancient +and great centre of learning where monotheism and the knowledge +of the fundamental scheme appear to have been preserved intact, +namely, at Heliopolis, the ancient On or Anu of the North, named +the <span class="tei tei-q">“House of the Sun”</span> by Jeremiah and <span class="tei tei-q">“the Eye or Fountain +of the Sun”</span> by the Arabs. According to Mr. Wallis Budge, <span class="tei tei-q">“its +ruins cover an area three miles square ... the greatest and oldest +Egyptian College or University for the education of the priesthood +and laity stood here.... During the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xx</span></span>th dynasty the temple of +Heliopolis was one of the largest and wealthiest of all Egypt and +its staff was numbered by thousands. When Cambyses visited +Egypt the glory of Heliopolis was well on the wane and, after the +removal of the priesthood and sages of the temple to Alexandria, +by Ptolemy II (B.C. 286), its downfall was well assured. When +Strabo visited it (B.C. 24) the greater part of it was in ruins.... +Heliopolis had a large population of Jews and it will be remembered +that Joseph married the daughter of a priest of On (Annu).... +Macrobius says that the Heliopolis of Syria or Baalbek, was +founded by a body of priests who left the ancient city of Heliopolis +of Egypt”</span> (The Nile, p. 132). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Indirectly we learn the tenor of the doctrines and ideas held by +the sages of Heliopolis at one period by the remarkable attempt to +reform the religion of Egypt, carried out by their pupil, Amenhotep +IV (about B.C. 1450). Evidently realizing, with his masters, +the extent to which the ancient fundamental religion had +become obscured and debased by the multiplication of images of +the deity, and the institution of rival cults, which were shrouded +in mystery and darkness, the young prince boldly made war against +the priesthood of Amen-Ra and the cult of a <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Destroying the monstrous images which had originally been +rebus figures only, and represented the supreme deity in partly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page444">[pg 444]</span><a name="Pg444" id="Pg444" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +human and animal form, he instituted the disk or circle as the +simple and purer form under which the divinity was to be revered.<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> +Animated by the clear realization to what an extent the original communal +or republican scheme of organization was being departed +from by the artificial creation of a <span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> race of kings who +claimed to be gods, he caused himself and his queen to be portrayed +as simple mortals, and not as the deities Osiris and Isis. Choosing +the sun as his emblem, this champion of pure light and open truth +fought the Egyptian votaries of darkness. He erased the word +Amen=hidden, from public monuments, changed his own name +from Amenhotep to Chu-en-Aten=the brilliance or glory of the +disk and founded a city also named Chu-aten, which was to be the +centre of a new and reformed state. It seems evident that this +was instituted on the familiar archaic plan and that the so-called +<span class="tei tei-q">“heresy of Amenhotep”</span> was but an attempt, backed by the sages +and philosophers of Heliopolis, to abolish the artificialities and +abuses which had come into existence and destroyed the order of +the state and the harmony of the primitive plan. It is well known +that gradually Amenhotep's successors were obliged to yield to the +hostility of the priesthood of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden god”</span> and that these, in +turn, erased or defaced all images of the disk or aten within their +reach. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ineffectual though the grand attempt had been to reorganize +state and religion and reëstablish republican principles, on the original +plan, the knowledge of the original scheme seems to have been +preserved intact during the following centuries, by the sages and +philosophers of Heliopolis, by whom the primitive set of ideas +seems to have been gradually developed into an abstract philosophical +system. Reminding the reader that Plato spent <span class="tei tei-q">“thirteen +years in Egypt, in gaining an insight into the mysterious doctrines +and priest-lore of the sacerdotal caste,”</span> I also draw attention to +the passage in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Timæus,”</span> in which Critias makes the statement +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page445">[pg 445]</span><a name="Pg445" id="Pg445" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that when Plato's ideal republic ... was being discoursed +upon, he was reminded, to his surprise, of the account of a state +given to the Greek sage, Solon, by the priests of Saïs, and perceived +how, <span class="tei tei-q">“in most respects, the republic described coincided +with Solon's statements.”</span> It is indeed striking how clearly we can +recognize, in Plato's republic, the underlying, primitive, universal +scheme in this case, highly developed, elaborated, transfigured and +transformed into the philosophical ideal of a great intellect. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before demonstrating which of the main features of Plato's cosmogony +and ideal republic we have found actually carried out in +practice, let us briefly refer to the most ancient descriptions of the +primitive government of Greece, preserved in the Timæus and +Critias, where the conversations held, by Solon, with the priests of +Saïs are recorded. Solon (about 594 B.C.) on his arrival (at Saïs) +<span class="tei tei-q">“was very honorably received; and especially, on his inquiring +about ancient affairs of those priests who possessed superior knowledge +in such matters, he perceived that neither himself nor any +one of the Greeks (so to speak) had any antiquarian knowledge +at all.... One of their extremely ancient priests said to Solon: +<span class="tei tei-q">‘you (Greeks) are all youths in intelligence, for you hold no ancient +opinions derived from remote tradition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nor any system of +discipline</span></em> that can boast of a hoary old age.... In this our +country, ... the most ancient things are said to be here preserved +... and all the noble, great or otherwise distinguished +achievements, performed either by ourselves, by you or elsewhere, +of which we have heard the report, all these have been engraved in +our temples in very remote times and preserved to the present day. +The annals of our own city (Saïs) have been preserved eight +thousand years in our sacred writings ... your state has a priority +over ours of a thousand years.... I will briefly describe +the law and more illustrious actions of those states which have +existed nine thousand years ...’</span> ”</span> (Timæus). It is interesting +at this point to recall also the familiar statements made by the +priests of Saïs to Solon, concerning the immense antiquity of the +human race and the <span class="tei tei-q">“multitude and variety of destructions which +have been and will be undergone by the human race ... after +which nations become young again, as at first, knowing nothing of +the events of ancient times”</span> (Timæus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to the original text I merely point out here +that the priest of Saïs, referring to the sacred writings themselves, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page446">[pg 446]</span><a name="Pg446" id="Pg446" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +assigned to remotest antiquity the principle of distribution and +arrangement on which the state had originally been founded and +established. In the Critias the description of the Athenian state, +which <span class="tei tei-q">“had been founded nine thousand”</span> years before, contains the +following particulars which will appear familiar to the reader. +<span class="tei tei-q">“To the gods was once locally allotted the whole earth.... +Obtaining a country agreeable to them by just allotment, they +chose regions for their habitations.... Different gods received +by lot different regions.... Hephaestus and Athene, a brother +and sister, both received one region as their common allotment ... +their temple was built on the Acropolis ... whose northern and +southern slopes were respectively associated with separate winter +and summer residences.”</span> The population was divided into classes +and each caste occupied a fixed place of residence. <span class="tei tei-q">“The outer +parts, down the flanks (of the Acropolis) were inhabited by craftsmen +and husbandmen who tilled the neighboring land; the warrior-classes +lived separately, by themselves, in the more elevated +parts around the temple of Athene and Hephaestus, which they +had formed, as it were, into the garden of a single dwelling by +encircling it with one enclosure”</span> (The Critias, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>). <span class="tei tei-q">“... On this +site was a single fountain which furnished every part with abundant +water....”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The <span class="tei tei-q">‘guardians of the state’</span> were the <span class="tei tei-q">‘leaders’</span> of +the Greeks and as to their number they paid special attention that +they should always have the same number of men and women +that might serve in war, the whole being about twenty thousand.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the description given, in the Critias, of the state of Atlantis, +the identical features recur, but are more fully described. In +the centre of the island of Atlantis stood a mountain, surrounded +by a plain, which was ultimately made square. The mountain was +the residence of a pair of mythical lovers, consisting of a god and +of a mortal woman, and became the birthplace of their offspring, +<span class="tei tei-q">“a divine race of kings.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The god ... with his divine power, +agreeably adorned the centre of the island, causing two fountains +of water to shoot upwards from beneath the earth, one cold and +the other hot, and making every variety of food to spring abundantly +from the earth.”</span> The central hill, from which thus proceeded +all life and festivity, was at first <span class="tei tei-q">“circularly enclosed, the +land and sea being formed into alternate zones, greater and less, +two out of land and three out of sea, from the centre of the island +all equally distant.”</span> The ten kings, born of the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine union, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page447">[pg 447]</span><a name="Pg447" id="Pg447" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lived each in his own district and city, and ruled supreme over his +people. The government and commonwealth in each case was, by +the injunction of the god, according to the laws which were handed +down. The latter were inscribed on a column of orichalcum which +was deposited in the centre of the island, in the temple of the god, +where the ten kings originally assembled every fifth year. A fire +burned near the column and a bull was sacrificed at its base, after +which a sacred cup was filled with its blood and this was poured +into the fire by way of purifying the column”</span> +(Critias, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii-xvi</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above mention of a column is of interest when it is realized +that, in historical times, the laws of Solon were actually inscribed +on a square wooden pillar which was made to revolve or turn and +was placed on the Acropolis. The presence of a revolving pillar +on the Acropolis, the sacred centre of the Athenian state, is, moreover, +curiously in keeping with the conception of axial energy set +forth by Plato and awakens the desire to learn from Greek scholars +what relationship, if any, there was between the Sanscrit aksa=axle +or axis, the Greek akra (akris=summit, akros=most +high, supreme, akrisios=mountain-top god) and the Egyptian +ak=the Centre, and hak=a king; and whether the word polis=city +was connected with polos=the pole-star, an axis, pivot or +pole, from polein=to turn, and may be interpreted as the equivalent +of the Egyptian An and Annu. It would also be important +to learn whether the name of the principal ancient god of Greece, +Apollo, who was revered under the form of a column at Delphi, +can also be connected with the verb polein or pelein=to turn, as +well as the name Polias <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the goddess protecting the city, a +surname for Minerva (Athene) at Athens, where she was worshipped +at one time as the protecting divinity of the Acropolis. The title +Poliuchus, <span class="tei tei-q">“protecting the city,”</span> occurs as a surname of several +divinities and particularly of Minerva Chalchioecus, <span class="tei tei-q">“of the brazen +house,”</span> at Sparta and Athens. It is instructive likewise to compare +the Greek words for axis=axon, and polis=city, with Helice, +the name for Ursa Major and for a town in Arcadia, with the Egyptian +Annu, An or On, the names of capitals, and the Egyptian word +an=that which turns around. It will be for Greek and Egyptian +scholars to enlighten us as to whether the Egyptian an and the +Greek polis are synonyms; in which connection I draw their attention +to the following suggestive passage of the Critias (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>).... +<span class="tei tei-q">“Yet before we narrate this we must briefly warn you not to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page448">[pg 448]</span><a name="Pg448" id="Pg448" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be surprised at hearing Hellenic names given to barbarians ... +and the cause of this you shall now hear. Solon made an investigation +into the power of names and found that the early Egyptians, +who committed these facts to writing, transferred these +names into their own language; and he again, receiving the meaning +of each name, introduced it by writing into our language.”</span> +While, on one hand, it is certain that the Egyptian astronomer-priests +associated the pole star with the words An, Anu, Anubis, +on the other, the following passages from Plato's works clearly +demonstrate his views concerning axial rotation.<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> +A fresh interest +is undoubtedly added to Plato's philosophy when it is regarded as +the possible result of the thirteen years spent by him with the +Egyptian priesthood, who may possibly have confided to him the +entire sum of their ancient philosophy and accumulated store of +knowledge, and who certainly seem to have imposed upon him the +reticence and obscurity noticeable in the Republic, the Critias and +the Timæus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To those who have followed my investigation of the ancient state +organization and cosmical conceptions of the ancient Egyptians, +and noted the interpretation given to the pyramid and the fact that +Amenophis instituted the disk as the image of the Supreme Being, +the following detached extracts from Plato's Timæus will appear +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page449">[pg 449]</span><a name="Pg449" id="Pg449" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +familiar and full of fresh significance. <span class="tei tei-q">“To discover the Father +and Creator of this universe (also called the heaven or the world) or +his work is indeed difficult; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">and when discovered it is impossible to +reveal him to mankind at large</span></em>.... The composing (or framing) +Artificer constituted the universe from entire elements of fire, +water, air and earth and ... considering that it would thus be a +whole animal.... He gave it also a figure becoming and allied +to its nature; and to the animal destined to comprehend all others +within itself that figure as the most becoming which includes within +itself every sort of figure whatever. Hence he fashioned it in the +shape of a sphere, perfectly round, having its centre everywhere +equally distant from the bounding extremities.... He assigned +to it a motion peculiar to itself ... making the world to turn +constantly on itself and on same point, he gave it a circular motion +... he assigned to it a motion peculiar to itself, being that of +all the seven kinds of motion.... As for the soul, he fixed it in the +middle, extended it throughout the whole and likewise surrounded +it with its entire surface ... and so, causing a circle to revolve +in a circle, he established the world as one substantive, solitary +object.... <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Let the universe be called heaven or the world or by +any other name it usually receives</span></em>.... The soul of this universe +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page450">[pg 450]</span><a name="Pg450" id="Pg450" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +... being composed of three parts ... being interwoven throughout +from the middle to the very extremities of space and covering +it even all around externally, though at the same time herself revolving +within herself, originated the divine commencement of an +unceasing and wise life throughout all time.... Time ... was +generated with the universe.... Time ... an eternal image <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">on +the principles of numbers</span></em> ... the perfect number of time completes +a perfect year ... for this purpose ... were formed <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">such +of the stars as moved circularly through the universe</span></em>....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While a careful study of Plato's work will further elucidate his +views concerning the quadruplicate nature of the universe, of its +comprehensive unity, of axial rotation, the generation of time +and of the principle of numbers, I point out that the following +passage conveys the idea of applying the universal plan to the +regulation of human thought: <span class="tei tei-q">“This, however, we may assert, +that God invented and bestowed sight upon us for the express +purpose, that on <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">surveying the circles of intelligence in the heavens</span></em>, +we might properly employ those of our minds, which, though disturbed +when compared with the others that are uniform, are still +allied to their circulation and that, having thus learned and being +naturally possessed of a correct reasoning faculty, we might, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">by +imitating the uniform revolutions of divinity</span></em>, set right our own silly +wanderings and blunders.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are two portions of Plato's cosmology to which I wish +particularly to draw attention, because of the striking examples +that exist, showing that the views therein expressed and suggestions +given, were independently carried into practice in ancient +times, in widely separated countries. One is the suggestive attempt +to figure the Cosmos by geometrical images, a method which +had been carried out by the pyramid-builders and Amenophis III +and suggests an explanation for the origin and meaning of the +geometrical decoration that prevailed at one period of antiquity. +The other is the association of time with the principles of numbers, +the most remarkable exemplifications of which are furnished by +the Egyptian, Hindu, Chinese, Mexican and Maya cyclical systems, +founded upon the associations of divisions of time and numerals, +and even and uneven numbers with day-names, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having hastily noted some features of Plato's Cosmos let us +next obtain an insight into the ideas associated with Polaris and +the Septentriones by the ancient Greeks and their neighbors, before +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page451">[pg 451]</span><a name="Pg451" id="Pg451" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and after Plato's time. I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness +to Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen's <span class="tei tei-q">“Star-names and their meanings”</span> +(New York, 1899), for the following valuable information and at +the same time express my regret that his useful work was unknown +to me when I wrote the preceding portion of my investigation.<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Ursa Minor was not mentioned by Homer or Hesiod for, according +to Strabo, it was not admitted among the constellations of +the Greeks until about 600 B.C. when Thales, inspired by its use +in Phœnicia, his probable birthplace, suggested it to the Greek +mariners in place of its greater neighbor which till then had been +their sailing guide. Thence its title Phœnice and Ursa Phœnicia. +But it also shared, with Ursa Major, the titles Septentrio, Aratos, +Amaxa, Aganna and Helice. It also bore the <span class="tei tei-q">‘early and universal +title’</span> Kynosura or Cynosura, usually translated <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Dog's Tail,’</span> +the origin of which is uncertain, Bournouf asserting that <span class="tei tei-q">‘it is in +no way associated with the Greek word for dog.’</span> Cox identified the +word with Lycosura (meaning tail or trail of light), which recalls +the city of that name in Arcadia considered, by Pausanias, the +most ancient in the world, having been founded by Lycaon some +time before the Deluge of Deucalion.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Euclid said in his Phainomena: <span class="tei tei-q">‘A star is visible between +the Bears, not changing its place, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">but always revolving upon itself</span></em>’</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Plato's Cosmos). Hipparchus, that the pole was <span class="tei tei-q">‘in a vacant +spot forming a quadrangle with three other stars,’</span> both writers +calling this Polos, the Polus of Lucan, Ovid and other classical +Latins, and Euphratean observers had called their pole-star Pūl or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page452">[pg 452]</span><a name="Pg452" id="Pg452" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Bil. But, although other astronomical writers used these words +for some individual star, there is no certainty as to which was intended, +for it should be remembered that, during many millenniums, +the polar point has gradually been approaching our pole-star which, +2000 years ago, was far removed from it, in Hipparchus' time 12° +24' away, according to his own statement, quoted by Marinus of +Tyre and cited by Ptolemy. Heraclitus, the Ionian philosopher +of Ephesus of about 500 B.C., asserted that this constellation +marked the boundary between the east and the west, which it may +be regarded as doing when on the horizon.”</span> This statement is of +extreme importance as it proves an orientation of the north by the +pole-star and not by the solstitial position of the sun. <span class="tei tei-q">“Another +name for it, πλενθιον, used for it or its quarter of the sky, was from +the Greek, as seen in Plutarch's αἰ τῶν πλινθίων ὀπογραφαί the +<span class="tei tei-q">‘fields’</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">‘spaces’</span> into which the augurs divided the heavens, +the templa, or regiones cœli of the Latins....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the use of the seven stars of +Ursa Major in Greek navigation is clearly shown. The constellation +is entitled the Bear=arctos, described, according to different +translators, as <span class="tei tei-q">‘circling on high,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘wheeling round,’</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">‘revolving +around the axle of the sky.’</span><a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> +Homer used, equally with Arctos, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page453">[pg 453]</span><a name="Pg453" id="Pg453" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the name Amaxa=the wain or wagon, to designate the seven +stars. Aratos called the constellation the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Wain-like Bear;’</span> and, +alluding to the title Amaxa, asserted that the word was from ama=together, +the Amaxai thus circling together around the pole; +but no philologist accepts this and it might as well have come from +axion=axle, referring to the axis of the heavens. In fact +Hewitt goes far back of Aratos in his statement that the Sanscrit +god Akshivan, the Driver of the Axle (aksha), was adopted in +Greece as Ixion, whose well-known wheel was merely the circling +course of this constellation. Anacreon mentioned it as a Chariot +as well as a Bear; and Hesychius had it Aganna, an archaic word +from agein, <span class="tei tei-q">‘to carry,’</span> singularly like, in orthography at least, +the Akkadian title for the Wain stars, Aganna or Akanna, the +Lord of Heaven; and Aben Ezra called it Ajala, the Hebrew word +for <span class="tei tei-q">‘waggon.’</span> The name Helice from Ελιξ, the Curved, or Spiral +One, apparently first used by Aratos and Apollonius Rhodius, +became common as descriptive of its twisting around the pole, ... +Sophocles having the same thought in his mention of <span class="tei tei-q">‘the +circling paths of the Bear.’</span> Some, however, derived the name +from the curved or twisted positions of the chief stars.... +Helice was also the name of a city in Arcadia, the country so intimately +connected with the Bears, whose inhabitants were called +the Bear race.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As far back as Hesiod's time the constellation was associated in +myth, with the name Kallisto, <span class="tei tei-q">“the beautiful,”</span> which <span class="tei tei-q">“La Lande +referred to the Phœnician Kalitsah or Chalitsa, Safety, as its observation +helped to a safe voyage. Another version of the Grecian +myth associated the constellation with Artemis, the Roman +Diana [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the huntress, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Ishtar and Isis-Satit].”</span> The apparent +connection of the name Artemis with Themis=<span class="tei tei-q">“law and justice +personified,”</span> should be noted here. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preceding statements establish that, in ancient Greece, +Polaris was identified with the celestial Polos and was described as +a star, not changing its place, but always <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">revolving on itself</span></em> and it +appears superfluous to point out how closely Plato's Cosmos agrees +with the current astronomical theories. The Ursæ, on the other hand, +were identified with the titles Helice, referring to axial rotation, and +with the names Aganna (Akanna) Arctos and Amaxa, which are +identical in sound with the words we have found associated with +Polaris and the Septentriones in the ancient Egyptian texts. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page454">[pg 454]</span><a name="Pg454" id="Pg454" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Deferring the demonstration that a number of the natural objects +or animals represented in the Egyptian rebus signs, which +were merely employed in hieratic script to express the syllables +an, am, ar, ak, etc., are to be found as actual names for Polaris +and the Ursæ in different western Asiatic and other countries, I +shall now briefly show that, in remotest historical times, the +Grecian states were established upon the model of an ideal republic +such as is outlined in Plato's works, in accordance with current +cosmological conceptions. According to ancient tradition the aborigines +of Attica were first civilized under Cecrops who is said to +have come hither from Saïs, Egypt, about 1500 B.C. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Turning to Iwan Mueller's monumental <span class="tei tei-q">“Alterthumswissenschaft”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv.</span></span> Handbuch der Griechische Alterthümer), let us examine +the data he presents concerning the beginnings of Athenian +culture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The historical inhabitants of Attica belonged to the Ionic race +and claimed to be autochthonous.... They were grouped into +four tribes: the Geleontes, Argadeis, Aigikoreis and Hopletes. +The existence of these four tribes is usually connected with a territorial +division of Attica into four parts and their names are supposed +to have been derived from the location and occupation of +each tribe. The Geleontæ=the shining ones, are said to have +formed the priest or warrior caste and to have lived in Pedion. +The Argadæi were the agriculturists and were situated in the plain +of Thriasis. The Aigikoræi or goatherds were assigned to Diakria. +Authorities still disagree about the habitation of the Hopletes, +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the armed ones.’</span> The interpretation of these names is still open +to doubt. An ancient tradition attributes to them an Ionic derivation.... +On the other hand, it is probable that when they emigrated +to Attica the tribe remained separate and became associated +with their place of residence ... at a later period the phratries +were associated with localities.... Each of the four castes +had its chieftain and an equality of rank seems to have been maintained. +In ancient times the citizens were divided into three +classes: the Eupatridæ or nobility; the Geomoræ or farmers; and +the Demiurgæ or artisans, merchants, potters or fishermen,—in +fact all who exercised some occupation.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The political unity of Attica was centred in the plain of Cephisos, +which was the kernel of the country. In the lower part of +the plain, about a mile from the sea, situated on a plateau, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page455">[pg 455]</span><a name="Pg455" id="Pg455" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +crowning a high rocky elevation, lay the ancient fortress Cekropia, +the residence of Cecrops and Erechtheus, the mythical, earth-born +forefathers of the Athenians. At the foot of the fortress, a lower +town gradually grew up and spread itself towards the south. This +primitive Athens originally formed only the nucleus of a small +kingdom situated in the plains and surrounded by enemies.... +According to an Attic tradition Cecrops collected the inhabitants +of Attica into 12 ... tribes, states or communities.... +The names of several of these have been shown to have also been +applied to capitals which were independent centres of government. +Athens, the centre of the state, developed into a large city in which +the nobility of the whole country resided and where many artisans +also settled. The majority of the citizens lived, however, in the surrounding +country.... The harvest festival, held at ancient +Athens, in honor of the goddess Athene, the patroness of agriculture, +was also a general feast for all inhabitants of Attica ...”</span> +(pp. 104-108). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing suffices to establish that, in remotest antiquity, +Attica was divided into four territorial divisions, with a central +seat of government, the capital, which formed the fifth division. +The inhabitants of the four regions constituted four tribes, each +under its own chieftain. Each tribe became identified with a different +occupation and ultimately constituted castes which remained +associated with their place of residence. Simultaneously with this +territorial distribution, another classification of the population was +evolved, which divided it into three strata, corresponding to the +upper, central and lower caste and thus yielded a total of seven +great divisions of the state, which thus reveals itself as having +been a heptarchy and explains the constitution of the Heptanomis, +which existed in Central Egypt under Greek rule. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the preceding material it appears that when Solon divided +the people into four classes, he merely reinstated the most ancient +form of state organization known in Greece. It would be interesting +to learn how far the following offices had been previously known. +It is well known that Solon instituted nine archons (literally +leaders), which seem to have been the equivalents to the group of +<span class="tei tei-q">“nine gods”</span> mentioned in Egypt in association with the supreme +god or goddess. The characteristic feature of the archons appears +to have been the fact that they were elected and that the first +archon was surnamed Eponymos and gave his name to the year; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page456">[pg 456]</span><a name="Pg456" id="Pg456" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the second archon, entitled Basileus, was the king, and the third, +Polemarchas, was a warrior. The remaining six were collectively +called Thesmothetes, administrators of right or justice. Under the +above was the Council of Four Hundred. Each of the four phylæ +fell into three parts or thirds, producing a total of 12, a number +corresponding to the organization of twelve tribes, communities +or states. Each of these was divided into 4 Naucrariæ, under 48 +captaincies. The following extracts from Iwan Müller's work supply +us with further details concerning the Athenian government +and show that variants of the same existed at different periods, +throughout ancient Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“At Athens, in historical times, the members of one tribe formed +a corporation, recognized a common ancestor, observed a form of +ancestral cult and kept a tribal register with the names of all newly +born children (p. 20). The tribes formed corporations within the +state, and each had its own cult and chieftain.... The Doric +nation consisted of three such tribes.... In Ephesus the citizens +were divided into five <span class="tei tei-q">‘gens’</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, four quarters and +centre). It is certain that in Athens, Cyrene, and Chios, the phratries were +communities with separate forms of cult, who worshipped beside +their tribal deities, Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria ...”</span> +(pp. 20 and 21). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In Teos the towns inhabited by a <span class="tei tei-q">‘gens’</span> were divided into +at least seven quarters.... In Tenos each gens was known as +<span class="tei tei-q">‘a tower,’</span> and each individual bore the name of his tower and his +gens.”</span> Pausing here for an instant, I draw attention to the recurrence +in Greece of certain features of the Great Plan which must +now be familiar to the reader: the association of divisions of people +with a <span class="tei tei-q">“tower,”</span> an artificial <span class="tei tei-q">“high place”</span> or mountain, the +development and existence of separate forms of cult, corresponding +to tribal and territorial divisions; the supreme cult of a male +and female divinity, corresponding to the traditions that the state +was founded by two individuals and was governed by two rulers. +An illustration of this is furnished by Sparta, which <span class="tei tei-q">“was governed +by two kings, belonging to two different royal families ... +the origin of this custom is unknown ... these kings usually +were at enmity with each other....”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The population of Sparta +was primarily divided into five <span class="tei tei-q">‘phyles,’</span> identified with five local +districts. The names of the latter, Pitane, Mesoa, Limnai, +Konoura and Dyme, were identical with those of the five Comes or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page457">[pg 457]</span><a name="Pg457" id="Pg457" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +group of separate communities which had constituted the state of +Sparta at the time of Thucydides.”</span> It will be perceived that this +organization corresponds to that of a capital and four provinces. +Simultaneously the population was grouped into three main classes +and twenty-seven phratries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering that in ancient times the belief prevailed, and was +shared by the Spartans themselves, that Lycurgus had introduced +his scheme of organization from Crete, it is interesting to learn that +<span class="tei tei-q">“the Cretans themselves claimed that their laws dated from a remote +antiquity and had been communicated to Minos and Rhadamanthus +by Zeus himself.”</span> In one of the most ancient portions of +the Odysseus, Idomeneus is represented as ruling in particular over +cities situated in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the middle</span></em> of the island. In historical times the +central rulership or monarchy had been abolished and <span class="tei tei-q">“the state +was ruled by ten chiefs of tribal divisions, who bore in common +the title Cosmos and held office for the limit of one year.”</span> Although +the most ancient accounts of the maritime supremacy of Crete +under its king Minos, the <span class="tei tei-q">“son of Zeus,”</span> are regarded as grossly +exaggerated, modern authorities agree that, on account of its geographical +position, Crete must undoubtedly have been an extremely +important centre of maritime commerce, during a prolonged period. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On this account, and because the Spartans acknowledged to +have received their scheme of organization from Crete, I draw +particular attention to the design on a coin from Cnossus, the most +important capital of Crete, which recently arrested my attention. +It is preserved at the Berlin Museum and is reproduced in Spamer's +work, already cited (fig. <a href="#Figure_72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>, 14 and 15). On the obverse, +it exhibits the fabulous Minotaurus the monster, half man and half bull, +who is stated to have ruled the island. On the reverse, is a geometrical +figure, representing a swastika, in the centre of which is +the five-dot group. A similar coin also found on the site of Cnossus, +and assigned to B.C. 700, is preserved at the British Museum. +Its reverse exhibits also the five-dot group and the swastika, between +whose branches are four large dots or circles. In the Berlin +Museum specimen the latter are replaced by squares containing +cross lines. To any one familiar, in the first case, with the scheme +of organization into five Comes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> 4+1, such as has been shown +to have been adopted in Sparta and elsewhere in Greece, the design +on the reverse of both coins appears perfectly intelligible. +No geometrical or cursive sign could more clearly express the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page458">[pg 458]</span><a name="Pg458" id="Pg458" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +scheme or ground-plan upon which the most ancient form of government +in Greece has been shown to have also rested. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_72" id="Figure_72" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-72.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 72." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 72.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As to the image of the Minotaurus on the obverse of the Berlin +coin: to any one familiar with the widespread system of figuring +the state under the form of a human being or of a quadruped, and +of symbolizing its ruler as its head, the image appears intelligible +as that of the quadruplicate state. The circumstance that the +head is that of a bull seems to indicate that, like the Egyptians, the +Cretans applied the title <span class="tei tei-q">“bull”</span> to their king; thence perhaps +the fable that the island was at one time governed by the monster +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page459">[pg 459]</span><a name="Pg459" id="Pg459" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Minotaurus who claimed as annual tribute, from conquered tribes, +seven youths and maidens. It is striking how perfectly the geometrical +figures on the reverse of both coins, which I hold to represent +territorial divisions, seem to form the complement to the +image of the state represented in semi-human and semi-animal +form. Interesting variants of the same design appear on two coins +of the same period in the British Museum collection. One of these, +from Syracuse, exhibits a swastika, in the centre of which is a +human head—a sign which I should interpret as the image of a +state and its single central ruler. A coin from Corinth displays +a plain swastika only, which suffices to indicate, however, that +its state organization was on the familiar plan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with the swastika and five-dot group it is interesting +to examine some ancient Egyptian seals exhibiting crosses +with four dots or strokes (fig. <a href="#Figure_72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>, 3-5), and to compare +these with Rhodian specimens (10-13). On vases found by Schliemann +on the site of Troy (8 and 9), we find, in one case a swastika +and in the other a cross and four dots in a circle forming the nave. +It is interesting to compare the Athenian nos. 6 and 7, one being +a swastika and the other a cross in a lozenge.<a id="noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> An extremely +curious instance of an entire decoration of a building consisting of +crosses and five-dot groups, is furnished by the cenotaph erected by +a late king in honor of Midas, king of Phrygia (fig. <a href="#Figure_72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>, +2), which, curiously enough, offers much resemblance to the geometrical style +of stucco decorations of the ruins of Mitla, Mexico.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> The presence +of the swastika on coins assigned to about B.C. 700 and its +use in Greece, where plain cross-symbols had previously been employed, +naturally leads to the inquiry as to the oldest-dated swastikas +which have hitherto been found in Greece and Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In his important work on the subject already referred to, Prof. +Thomas Wilson (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 806 and 833), cites the opinions of +Prof. Max Müller and Count Goblet d'Alviella as agreeing with +that of Waring, who states that <span class="tei tei-q">“the swastika is sought for in +vain in Babylonia, Assyria and Phœnicia,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“had no foothold +in Egypt.”</span> The same authority says that: <span class="tei tei-q">“the only sign approaching +the fylfot in Egyptian hieroglyphics ... is not very +similar to our fylfot ... and forms one of the hieroglyphs of Isis”</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page460">[pg 460]</span><a name="Pg460" id="Pg460" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(Ceramic Art in Remote Ages, p. 82). On the other hand, Professor +Goodyear says (Grammar of the Lotus, p. 356): <span class="tei tei-q">“The +earliest dated swastikas, hitherto found in Egypt, occur on the +foreign Cyprian and Carian [?] pottery fragments of the time of +the twelfth dynasty [B.C. 2466-2266] discovered by Mr. Flinders +Petrie in 1889. In the Third Memoir of the Egypt Exploration +Fund, Prof. Flinders Petrie published illustrations of Greek vases +showing unmistakable swastikas which, though found at Naukratis +in Egypt, are not Egyptian, but Greek.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The only other examples of the swastika in Egypt cited by Prof. +Thomas Wilson are those woven on Coptic grave cloths made of +linen and reproduced in <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Gräber- und Textilfunde von Achmim-Panopolis +by R. Forrer.”</span> These grave cloths pertained to the +Christian Greeks who migrated from their country during the first +centuries of our era and settled in Upper Egypt, in Coptos and +the surrounding cities. I am able to add another instance of the +employment of the swastika in Egypt, which, although of Coptic +origin, attaches itself to ancient Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have already pointed out that, in Lepsius' Book of the Dead, +the foremost of the gods of the four quarters, represented in +mummy form, exhibited a cross on his right shoulder. During a +recent visit to the Berlin Museum, my attention was arrested by +seeing a swastika painted in precisely the same position, on the +right shoulder of the stucco mummy case of a man, from Hermopolis, +dated from the second century after Christ (Catalogue No. +11649). This remarkable coincidence seems to furnish conclusive +evidence that, long before the introduction of Greek culture and +Christian influence, the plain cross was employed by the ancient +Egyptians in precisely the same way as, subsequently, the swastika +by the Copts. To some of my readers the question will perhaps +suggest itself whether some early Christian sects and, amongst +them, communities of Greek Copts, did not interpret the mission of +Christ literally, as an attempt to reëstablish an earthly <span class="tei tei-q">“kingdom +of heaven”</span> on the ancient plan, the knowledge of which had been +preserved at Heliopolis, by the sages and philosophers of Egypt +and the large Hebrew colony established there. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to the swastika: From the account given by Prof. +Thomas Wilson (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, 810) of Schliemann's observations on the +swastikas he discovered, during his excavations on the site of Troy, +we learn that, whereas the swastika occurs on thousands of whorls +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page461">[pg 461]</span><a name="Pg461" id="Pg461" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +found in the third, fourth and fifth cities, but few whorls were found +in the first and second cities, which were the deepest and oldest +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">none of these bore the swastika mark</span></em>. These observations, +added to the appearance of the swastika in Egypt at a comparatively +late period, appear to prove that, whereas the cross-symbol +was known in remotest antiquity in Asia Minor and Egypt and +expressed the same meaning as the swastika, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> Polaris and +circumpolar rotation and the quadruplicate organization of the Cosmos +suggested by these natural phenomena, it was only the form +or shape of the cross which underwent a change at a certain +period. The earliest-dated specimens of this new form, given to +a more ancient symbol, occur on the pottery fragments found in +Egypt by Prof. Flinders Petrie. The presence of the swastika, on +the whorls found in the ruins of the third city built on the site of +Troy, also indicates that its adoption occurred at a fixed date and +marked a new departure. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring back to page <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, where I show that the observations +which led to the adoption of the swastika as a symbol could not +possibly have been made until after Ursa Major had become circumpolar, +about B.C. 4000, I point out that the oldest swastikas +which have hitherto been found corroborate this view, since they +are all posterior to the time when Ursa Major became circumpolar. +Long anterior to its adoption, however, the primordial set of ideas, +suggested to the human mind by the observation of natural phenomena, +had reached an advanced stage of development, and had +been worked out, applied to the regulation of human life and +symbolized, in various ways, in widely separated countries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible to conclude my comparative research, which has +been rewarded by a most unexpected wealth of material, without +enumerating a few facts connected with the earliest histories of +Rome, ancient Ireland, Britain, Wales and Scandinavia. These +brief and doubtlessly imperfect résumés will have fulfilled their +purpose if they stimulate inquiry and evoke authoritative statements +by learned specialists. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ANCIENT ROME. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whether Rome <span class="tei tei-q">“was founded by the common resolve of a Latin +confederacy or by the enterprise of an individual chief, is beyond +the reach even of conjecture. The date fixed upon for the commencement +of the city is, of course, perfectly valueless in its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page462">[pg 462]</span><a name="Pg462" id="Pg462" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +precision”</span> (Chambers' Encyclopædia). <span class="tei tei-q">“According to Varro the +city of Rome was founded B.C. 753, but Cato places the event +four years later.... The day of its foundation was the 21st of +April, which was sacred to the rural goddess Pales. There seems +to be some uncertainty whether Romulus gave his name to the +city or derived his own from it, but those who ascribe to the city +a Grecian origin ... assert that Romulus and Roma are both derived +from the Greek word for <span class="tei tei-q">‘strength.’</span> The city, we are +assured, had another name which the priests were forbidden to +divulge; but what that was it is now impossible to discover.<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> +There is, however, some plausibility in the conjecture that it was +Pallanteum, and from the great care with which the Palladium, or +image of Pallas, was preserved, it seems probable that the city +was supposed to be under the care of that deity. If this conjecture +be correct, the Pelasgic origin of Rome cannot be doubted, +for Pallas was a Pelasgic deity....</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The institution of the vestal virgins was older than the city itself +and was regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their +religious system. In the time of Numa there were but four ... +their duty was to keep the sacred fire on the altar in the temple +of Vesta from being extinguished and to preserve a certain sacred +pledge on which the very existence of Rome was supposed to depend.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> +What this pledge was we have no means of discovering; +some supposed that it was the Trojan Palladium; others, some +traditional mystery brought by the Pelasgi from Samothrace. +One fact is certain: that the Palatine is regarded as the oldest +portion of the city and the original site and centre of the embryo +mistress of the world and mother of cities, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roma quadrata</span></span>, +fragments of whose walls have been brought to light.</span><a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Tradition relates that it was on the Palatine that Romulus +marked out the Pomœrium, a space around the walls of the city, on +which it was unlawful to erect buildings.... The next ceremony +was the consecration of the comitium, or place of public assembly. +A vault was built under ground and filled with the firstlings +of all the natural productions that sustain human life and with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page463">[pg 463]</span><a name="Pg463" id="Pg463" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +earth which each foreign settler had brought from his home. This +place was called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mundus</span></span>”</span> (History of Rome, Goldsmith's +abridgment, 21st edition, by W. C. Taylor, p. 13). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This fact furnishes evidence that the sacred central cosmical +vault over which a mound may have been formed by the earth contributed +from different quarters, was regarded as a synopsis of +all, and that sanctity was also attached to the central place of assembly +where justice was administered at regular intervals, weekly +markets were held and religious rites were celebrated.<a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tradition relates that, after the foundation of the central <span class="tei tei-q">“Mundus,”</span> +the founder of Rome established the Sabine town which +occupied the Quirinal and part of the Capitoline hills. <span class="tei tei-q">“The name +of this town most probably was Quirium ... the two cities were +united on terms of equality and the double-faced Janus, stamped +on the earliest Roman coins was probably a symbol of the double +state.”</span> It is significant to find not only that Janus was sometimes +depicted with four faces instead of two, in which case he +was called Janus Quadrifrontis, but that references are also made +to the female form of Janus=Jana, the latter being identified +with Diana. Considering that it was from Quirium that the Roman +youths obtained Sabine wives by force, which had been refused to +their entreaties, it would seem as though, originally, as elsewhere, +the men and women of the community resided separately and that +stringent laws regulated their intercourse. In other ancient communities +it has been shown how the separation of the sexes created +in time an upper and lower class, and to the same origin may perhaps +be assigned the most remarkable feature of the Roman constitution, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the two-fold division of the people into patricians +and plebeians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the foregoing statements throw light upon the ideas associated +with the Middle and show that Rome was originally a dual +state, the following facts furnish indications of a quadruplicate +division. At an early period Rome was laid out and enclosed in +a square, the population <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">was divided into four tribes</span></em> and mention +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page464">[pg 464]</span><a name="Pg464" id="Pg464" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is made of <span class="tei tei-q">“the state, under Servius Tullius, being an entity +divided into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four cities</span></em> and twenty-six tribes ... this being strictly +a geographical division analogous to our parishes. The division +of the city into four tribes continued until the reign of Augustus +(B.C. 29)....”</span><a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The four chief religious corporations of ancient Rome, mentioned +in the Century Dictionary, evidently correspond to this fourfold +division and it is specially stated of one of these corporations that it +was represented and governed by a group consisting of seven <span class="tei tei-q">“septemvir +epulones”</span> who formed a <span class="tei tei-q">“septemvirate.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The number of septemvirs corresponded to the <span class="tei tei-q">“seven hills”</span> +which were enclosed by Tullus Hostilius, and it is stated that there +were seven places of worship in ancient Rome. It is interesting +to find that between A.D. 193 and 211, Septimius Severus, a +native of an ancient Punic colony in Africa, erected a Septizonium +(an edifice consisting, like the Babylonian zikkurat, of seven stories) +on the Palatine, where a large temple of Apollo had previously +been built.<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although it is thus evident that, at different periods, seven-fold +division was carried out in ancient Rome, it was not until after the +reign of Theodosius, according to some authors, that the seven-day +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page465">[pg 465]</span><a name="Pg465" id="Pg465" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +period was imported from Alexandria and the term <span class="tei tei-q">“septimana”</span> +adopted in Rome. <span class="tei tei-q">“Previously to this Rome had counted her +periods by eight days, the eighth day itself being originally called +Nundinæ—a term later applied to the whole cycle”</span> (Chambers' +Encyclopædia). Noting that the period of eight (=2×4) +days accords with the quadruplicate system applied to the primitive +state, I draw attention to the numerical classification of the +citizens of Rome employed during centuries, which so curiously +agrees with the system carried out in Peru at a widely sundered +period (see p. <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ten households formed a gens (clan or family); ten clans or +one hundred households formed a curia or wardship; and ten wardships, +or one hundred clans, or one thousand households formed +a populus, civitas or community. As it is stated that, at one time, +Rome consisted of four cities, it is obvious that the above numbers, +quadrupled, constituted the state which thus included forty wardships, +four hundred gentes and four thousand households. As each +gens possessed a chieftain, endowed with paternal authority over +its members, there must, at one time, have been four hundred of +these <span class="tei tei-q">“patricians,”</span> whose number is thus found to correspond to +the Greek <span class="tei tei-q">“Council of 400”</span> and curiously enough to the <span class="tei tei-q">“four hundred +Tochtli”</span> or governors of the ancient Mexican commonwealth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A noteworthy feature of the attempt to institute the Decemvirate +in Rome (5th century B.C.) was the arrangement that the ten +chosen men exercised office in prescribed rotation for one day, each +ruling, in consequence, for thirty-six days in the year which, like +the Egyptian, then consisted of three hundred and sixty days and +of an epact of five days. The assignment of a day to each chieftain +finds its parallel not only in Assyria but also in ancient +America (see p. <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with the Roman communal organization, attention +is drawn to what appears to be a remarkable survival of an extremely +ancient and natural mode of distinguishing the wardships. +It is well known that, according to tradition, the republic of Siena, +Italy, was founded at a remote period <span class="tei tei-q">“by the sons of Remus, the +twin brother of Romulus.”</span> The following facts prove that, to this +day, certain features of its social organization exhibit an affinity +to that of primitive Rome. <span class="tei tei-q">“Siena, from the earliest day, has +been divided into contrade or parishes. Each contrada has its special +church, generally of great antiquity, and each contrada is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page466">[pg 466]</span><a name="Pg466" id="Pg466" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +named after some animal, or natural object, these names being +symbolical of certain trades or customs. There are now the wolf, +giraffe, owl, snail, tower, wave, goose, tortoise, etc., in all seventeen. +Each has its colors, heralds, pages, music, flags; all the mediæval +paraphernalia of republican subdivision”</span> (Frances Eliot, +Diary of an idle woman in Italy <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 19). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The employment of the names of animals and natural objects +as distinctive marks for a wardship offers a curious analogy to the +American institution of tribal names and totems. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The circumstance that, in remotest times, the king of Rome, the +acknowledged metropolis or mother city, was accompanied, on public +occasions, by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">twelve</span></em> lictors or administrators of justice, each +carrying the axe tied in a bundle of rods, shows that, at one time, +the government was administered by thirteen individuals—a method +we shall find again in ancient Ireland and Scandinavia. The history +of Rome reveals that the different variants of governmental +scheme adopted, one after the other, under influences emanating +from Greece and Egypt, were reared upon the familiar universal +plan. The most striking instance of this is, however, furnished +by the details preserved of the groundwork on which Constantine +founded (A.D. 330) the city he intended to be the capital of a +universal empire, and named the New or Second Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Historians relate that the peninsula of Byzantium offered striking +resemblances to the sites of Carthage and Rome. The design +of Constantine embraced the entire peninsula with the seven hills +upon it. <span class="tei tei-q">“On foot, with a lance in his hand, professing to be +under the guidance of divine inspiration, the emperor directed +the line which was traced as the boundary of the destined capital.”</span> +... <span class="tei tei-q">“In imitation of Rome at that period, the city was divided +into 2×7=fourteen wards (regiones).... Its centre was +marked by a column ... surmounted by a bronze colossus of +Apollo. The church of S. Sophia, built on the site of an ancient +temple of Wisdom, was subsequently dedicated to 'the Holy +Eternal Wisdom' by Justinian. In the court called the Forum +Augusteum, one side of which was formed by the palace and the +other by the church, stood the Milliarium Aureum, not, as at +Rome, a gilt marble pillar, but a spacious edifice, the centre from +which all the roads of the empire were measured and on the walls +of which the distances to all the chief places were inscribed.... In +the new reunited empire quadruple division was maintained, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the +</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page467">[pg 467]</span><a name="Pg467" id="Pg467" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic"> +empire being divided into four parts</span></em>, each forming a prætorian +prefecture under a prætorian prefect, who, being the lieutenant of +the emperor, ruled over the governors and people of the province +with absolute power. The four prefectures were subdivided into +thirteen dioceses, each governed by a vice-prefect named vicarius, +the total number of dioceses being fifty-two.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This system of numeration is of particular interest as it is not +only identical with the system of a modern pack of cards, the +origin of which is unknown, but is also the same as the Mexican +year cycle (see p. <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297</a>). Vestiges of sevenfold organization are +traceable in the appointment by Constantine, of <span class="tei tei-q">“seven ministers +of the palace”</span> who exercised <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred”</span> functions about the +person of the emperor, and the division of all Gaul into seven +provinces placed under the governorship of the Vicar of the Seven +Provinces. In conclusion I venture to point out that the four-storied +amphitheatre of Vespasian (A.D. 71), the Pantheon of +Agrippa (A.D. 23) and the Mausoleum of Hadrian (A.D. 138) +appear to have a cosmical character, the first having been planned +to hold the entire population of Rome, around a central space in +which, originally, the circling chariot simulated the circuit of the +celestial <span class="tei tei-q">“plaustrum”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“carro”</span>=chariot, the Latin name given +to Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While, on public festivals, the amphitheatre must have appeared +as a synopsis of the whole empire and may also have been originally +used for nocturnal, religious or political assemblages, the +great Pantheon enclosing the images of twelve deities, may well +have been a conscious attempt to represent the all-embracing Cosmos +of Egyptian and Greek philosophy, the framed view of the +heaven, seen through the central opening in the dome, being the +symbol of the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden and invisible god,”</span> of the initiated. To +Hadrian, who visited Egypt twice and was undoubtedly acquainted +with the idea of Plato's Cosmos or Theos, the idea of building a +great circular structure in the centre of which he would be laid to +rest, would naturally have suggested itself. Passing from a consideration +of the buildings which, with the pyramids, appear to be +among the grandest exponents of natural philosophy and religion +ever reared by the hand of man, and clearly appear to have been +planned under the direct influence of Egyptian and Greek philosophy, +let us briefly glance at the mode in which the identical fundamental +scheme was perpetuated among some northern peoples. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page468">[pg 468]</span><a name="Pg468" id="Pg468" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ANCIENT IRELAND, BRITAIN AND WALES. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a remarkable fact that, in ancient Ireland, we find distinct +traces of a state, founded on the same crystallized artificial system +that has been found at the basis of the most ancient civilizations +of the world. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is really no authentic history of Ireland +before the introduction of Christianity into the country, but there +are some genuine traditions which appear based upon truth, because +they accord with and explain the peculiar customs which were found +to prevail in the island at the time of the English invasion. These +traditions declare, that the original Celtic inhabitants were subdued +by an Asiatic colony, or at least by the descendants of some Eastern +people at a very remote period; they aver that the conquerors +were as inferior to the original inhabitants in numbers as they +were superior in military discipline and the arts of social life; they +describe the conquest as a work of time and trouble and assert +that, after its completion, an hereditary monarchy and hereditary +aristocracy were for the first time established in Ireland....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“At some unknown period Ireland was divided into five kingdoms, +Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Munster and Meath ... the latter +being the property of the paramount sovereign ...”</span> (W. C. +Taylor, History of Ireland, 1837). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +John O'Neil cites <span class="tei tei-q">“the very oldest Irish books, according to +which two brothers, the leaders of the Milesian colonization, +divided Ireland into Northern and Southern kingdom.”</span> Elsewhere +he relates how a prince of the north had been united in marriage +to the princess of the south and that <span class="tei tei-q">“the mythical Niall-Navi-giallach +of the nine treasures had had a Northern king for father +and a Southern princess for mother.”</span> Besides this subdivision +which strikingly recalls the ancient Egyptian, O'Neil brings out the +remarkable fact that definite positions in relation to each other +and the cardinal points were assigned to the five Irish kings and tells +us that <span class="tei tei-q">“we have a fuller and later division when, in the central +hall, the miodh-chuarta of Tara, the king of Erinn sat in the centre, +with his face to the East, the king of Ulster being at his +North, the king of Munster at his South, while the king of Leinster +sat opposite to him and the king of Connaught behind him”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, 463). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I refer the reader to his extremely interesting comparison (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +p. 369) of ancient Ireland being <span class="tei tei-q">“an Irish instance of a Chinese +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page469">[pg 469]</span><a name="Pg469" id="Pg469" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Middle Kingdom,’</span> ”</span> and to the data given in connection with the +great hall of Tara, which was called Meath or Mid-court, Miodchuarta +(pronounced Micôrta), and the Northern hill of Miodhchaoinn +(or Midkena), guarded by Miodhchaoinn and his three sons, the +guardians of the hill being thus four in all. O'Neil also refers to +<span class="tei tei-q">“the great idol or castrum of Kilair ... which was surrounded +by twelve smaller ones and was called the stone and umbilicus of +Hibernia and, as if placed in the midst and middle of the land, +<span class="tei tei-q">‘medio et meditullio’</span>....”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Meath itself, where this Kilair navel +stood, was anciently the central one of the five divisions of Ireland +and is called Media by Giraldus Cambrensis, ... and connected +with the words medi-tullium and medi-tullus.”</span> The legend states +that <span class="tei tei-q">“the castrum of Kilair and the stones around it were transported +by Merlin to Stonehenge and <span class="tei tei-q">‘set up in the same order.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“At Mag Slecht was the chief idol of Ireland, called Cenn Craich +(Mound-chief) covered with gold and silver, and twelve other idols +about it, covered with brass”</span> (O'Neil, p. 273). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The five Irish kingdoms were again subdivided into several +principalities inhabited by distinct <span class="tei tei-q">‘septs,’</span> each ruled by its own +carfinny or chieftain. The obedience of these local rulers or toparchs +to the provincial sovereign was regulated, like his to the +general monarch, by the powers that he possessed for enforcing +authority.... The succession to every degree of sovereignty +was regulated by the law of tanistry, which limited heredity right +to the family but not to the individual.... Each district was +deemed the common property of the entire sept; but the distribution +of the several shares was entrusted to the toparch.... +The lower orders were divided into freemen and hetages, or as +they were called by the Normans, villanis. The former had the +privilege of choosing their tribe; the latter were bound to the soil +and transferred with it in any grant or deed of sale.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ruined groups of buildings, consisting of seven sanctuaries or +churches, situated around a round, high tower, usually with four +windows near the top, opening to the cardinal points, exist in various +parts of Ireland, the Seven Churches in County Wicklow +being the most famous example. The cosmical character of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page470">[pg 470]</span><a name="Pg470" id="Pg470" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +round towers has been set forth by John O'Neil, to whose work I +refer the reader. According to my views the groups testify to the +establishment, at one time, of several septarchies in Ireland, the +geographical centres of which, as in Assyria and elsewhere, were +marked in this case by the cosmical round tower, figuring the axis +or spindle, around which each sept built its council house, for religious +and political assemblies.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a> +In connection with such it is interesting +to read what Cæsar says of the priests and judges of +Gaul, which was organized into seven provinces, as late as at the +time of Constantine: <span class="tei tei-q">“These Druids held a meeting at a certain +time of the year in a consecrated place in the country of the Carnutes +[modern Chartres] which country is considered to be in the +centre of all Gaul.”</span> It is well known that anterior to the Roman +Conquest there existed in Britain a long-established, seven-fold +state, governed by seven kings, compared by John Speed (1630) to +seven crowned pillars. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The kingdom of Mercia included the counties in the centre of +the kingdom and is said to have been founded by Crida or Creoda. +The central and chief ruler of Britain was styled Bretwalda. It is +well known that Stonehenge, which is associated in folk-lore with +the number seven, is situated in the heart of the plain region of +England and is supposed to have been the seat of central religion +and government.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is moreover acknowledged by Knight that the ancient Britons +were a people who evidently had some great principle of association +in their religion as in their industry. The familiar fact, that +at one period the ancient Kent, Cantium, was governed by four +kings, also styled <span class="tei tei-q">“the four princes of Cantii,”</span> furnishes an indication +that quadruplicate division was also known to the ancient +Britons. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page471">[pg 471]</span><a name="Pg471" id="Pg471" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few instructive facts concerning Welsh Druidism may be appropriately +cited here. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Morien has pointed out that the Druidic Celi Ced corresponds +to Amen-Ra, the Egyptian Hidden Sun. According to Welsh +system the universe was born of Celi-Ced, a dual power, Celi +being the masculine and Ced the feminine principle. Ceridwen is +termed the Welsh Isis, and her name translated as <span class="tei tei-q">“the producing +woman.”</span> Celi is invariably represented as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hidden</span></em>, the three +Hus representing him in manifestation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The three Hus are: Hu cylch y Cengant=the Hu of the circle +of infinitude; Hu cylch y Sidydd=the Hu of the circle of the +zodiac and Hu yn Nghnawd=Hu incarnate. The latter was incarnate +in the Arch Druid. He, standing in the middle of the +Gorsedd circle, where the triple life lines met, implied by his action +that the three emanations which had their root in the dual Ced-Celi, +focussed themselves in him. He stood facing the east where +the sun rises”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> the ceremonial position assumed by the king +of Erin in council and that of the Roman augur on drawing his +templum). <span class="tei tei-q">“The name for the physical sun was Huan, translated +as <span class="tei tei-q">‘the abode of divinity.’</span> ”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The Druidic bards of N. Wales +worshipped Beli.”</span><a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Welsh legend a god named Peredur Paladye Hir (of the long +spear or pal) is associated with his brother, both sons of Eliffer, +one of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thirteen princes of the north</span></em>. Peredur is one of seven +brothers; there were seven profound mysteries of Druidism, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +seven divisions of the reverberations of the Word, emanating from +Ced, and the seven Tattaras or seven rays. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SCANDINAVIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturlesson, whose +opinion was the re-echo of ancient traditional beliefs, Odin and his +eight sons and four companions, twelve in all, were earthly kings +and priests of a sacerdotal caste, who had emigrated from Asia—perhaps +from Troy—and who conquered and ruled over various +parts of Scandinavia and Northern Germany where, after their +death, they were regarded by the people as deities (Chambers' +Encyclopædia). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +O'Neil states <span class="tei tei-q">“that Odin was named Mith-Odinn (Mid-Odin?) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page472">[pg 472]</span><a name="Pg472" id="Pg472" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by Saxo Grammaticus,”</span> and quotes the following: <span class="tei tei-q">“Odinn died +in his bed, in Sweden, and when he was near his death he made +himself be marked with the point of a spear and said he was going +to Godheim”</span> (Ingliga Saga). <span class="tei tei-q">“The twelve <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">godes</span></span> +or diar or drotnar +of Odin were obviously cognate to our <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">god</span></em> as a name of a +deity. They (or the priests who represented them) directed sacrifices +and judged the people, and all the people served and obeyed +them”</span> (O'Neil <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, p. 76). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A strange reality is given to Odin and his twelve <span class="tei tei-q">“godes,”</span> when +it is realized that at Mora, near Upsala, Sweden, there exists the +ancient stone throne on which the ancient kings of Sweden were +crowned and this central stone is surrounded by twelve lesser +stones, just as the Irish <span class="tei tei-q">“Mound-chief”</span> was surrounded by +twelve idols. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the above facts suffice to indicate that, in remotest antiquity, +the government of the state was vested in one supreme and +twelve minor chiefs, the following brief extracts from the Eddas +reveal the cosmical beliefs of the Norsemen: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the cold north +existed Niflheim in the middle of which was a well from which +sprang twelve rivers. In the south existed the warm Muspelheim. +There was a contention between both of these worlds.... The +union of heat and cold produced Oergelmer or Chaos, and the first +human being, Ymir. The revolving eye of the Norse world-millstone +was directly above Oergelmer and through it the waters +flowed to and from the great fountain of the Universe waters.”</span> +Ymir drew his nourishment from four streams of milk proceeding +from the mythical cow Aedhumla. Subsequently he was slain by +three divine brothers who carried his body to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">middle</span></em> of Ginnungagap, +and formed from it the earth and the heavens ... +of his skull they formed the heavens, at each of the four corners +of which stood a dwarf, viz: Austri at the East, Vestri at the west, +Northri at the north and Suthri at the south.... When +heaven and earth were formed, the chief gods or Oesir, of whom +there were twelve, met in the Centre of the world and built Midgardr +or Asgard, the yard, city or stronghold of the Middle and of +the Asen=the gods. It was situated on the Himinbiorg, or Hill +of Heaven, on the summit of which was the ash-tree, Yggdrasil, +whose branches spread over the whole world and tower over the +heavens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following is from the prose Edda: <span class="tei tei-q">“Then the sons of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page473">[pg 473]</span><a name="Pg473" id="Pg473" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Bõr built in the middle of the universe the city called Asgard, +where dwell the gods and their kindred, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">from that abode work +out so many wondrous things both on earth and in the heavens above +it</span></em>. There is in that city a place called Hlidskjalf, and when Odin +is seated there upon his lofty throne, he sees over the whole world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Eddas we find evidences that while Odin or All-fader +was the ruler of heaven, his powerful son Thor was <span class="tei tei-q">“the ruler of +Thrudheim and drove through the world in a chariot and became +the supreme god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following facts, taken from Mr. Allen's <span class="tei tei-q">“Star-names,”</span> established +the association of Thor with Polaris and the Ursæ. +<span class="tei tei-q">“In ancient times the northern nations termed Ursa Major <span class="tei tei-q">‘the +wagon of Odin, Woden or Wuotan, the father of Thor.’</span><a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> The +Danes, Swedes and Icelanders also knew it as Stori Vagn, the +Great Wagon and as Karl's Vagn; Karl being Thor, their chief +god of whom the old Swedish Rhyme Chronicle of Upsala says +<span class="tei tei-q">‘... The god Thor was the highest of them. He sat naked as a +child, seven stars in his hand and Charles' Wain.’</span> ”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“throne of Thor”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Smaller Chariot,”</span> was the name given +to Polaris (Ursa Minor) by the early Danes and Icelanders and +their descendants still call it the <span class="tei tei-q">“Litli Vagn,”</span> the little wagon. +The Finns, apparently alone among the northern nations of Europe +in this conception, named Ursa Minor, Vähä Otawa, the Little +Bear. They, however, termed Polaris, Taehti, <span class="tei tei-q">“the star at the top +of the heavenly mountain.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is striking how clearly, in Scandinavia, the Middle is associated +with a sacred mountain and tree, the world axis, a heavenly +city, an enthroned central god, and with Polaris, Ursa Major and +the idea of eternal circumpolar rotation expressed by the wain +eternally wheeled around the throne of Thor. To any one imbued +with the ideas set forth above, the signification of the Scandinavian, +Druidic, New Year festival, the name for which was <span class="tei tei-q">“the +wheel”</span> (yule, yeol, yeul, hjol, hiugl, hjul), must clearly appear as +the date on which the complete circuit of the Ursæ around the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page474">[pg 474]</span><a name="Pg474" id="Pg474" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pole, was ceremonially registered. It is obvious that this could +best be expressed by a circle being drawn around the swastika or +cross, to which the fourth arm would be added, completing thus +the registration of the four seasons, marked by the opposite positions +assumed by the Ursæ at nightfall. It is well known that the +wheel-cross, swastika, triskeles and S-figure constitute, with the +winding serpent and the tau, named Thor's hammer, the main symbols +of ancient Scandinavia (see fig. <a href="#Figure_13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, +p. <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref">29</a> and fig. <a href="#Figure_38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>, p. +<a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>). I +venture to point out how obviously Thor's hammer symbolizes the +union of the Above and Below, the heaven represented by the horizontal +line resting on the perpendicular support, symbolizing the +sacred pole, column, mountain and tree intimately associated with +Polaris, the world axis. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As a suggestion only, I venture to point out how, the old Norse +name for star being tjara and for tree=tar, the rôle of the tree +in Druidic cult would be fully accounted for, the initiated only +being aware that it was but a rebus symbol of the secret or hidden +star-god Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It can readily be seen how natural or artificial elevations and +erected stones, trees, staffs or poles must have been used as means +of determining the positions of the Ursæ at the public celebration +of the Yule festival and that the ceremony of kindling of new fire +was observed at the time when the <span class="tei tei-q">“wheel”</span> was supposed to begin +its new annual revolution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reflection clearly shows that pole-star worship must have taken a +stronger hold upon the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia and their +descendants, the seafaring Vikings, than upon any other nation. +We are compelled to admit that the recognition that Polaris formed +the centre of axial rotation and the middle of the sky, would have +impressed itself most profoundly upon observers stationed in the +latitude where winter darkness prevailed and the pole-star appeared +to be nearly overhead. Under such conditions the association +of the opposite positions of the Septentriones with directions +in space, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the cardinal points, would be most striking. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What is more: the re-appearance of the sun, after the long darkness +of a northern winter, must have established the idea of a +fixed relationship between certain positions of Ursa Major and +the solstitial position of the sun. It may indeed be said that the +observation of the solstices and equinoxes was forced upon the +inhabitants of the north as nowhere else on the globe and that it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page475">[pg 475]</span><a name="Pg475" id="Pg475" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +may perhaps be therefore designated as the birthplace of primitive +astronomy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The origin of the idea of an all-pervading duality and the chains +of association which linked Light and the Sun to air and water, +and to the male element, whilst Darkness and the Nocturnal +Heaven became connected with earth, fire and woman, are clearly +accounted for in the circumpolar regions only, where the year divides +itself into a period of light in which independent and roaming +out-door life was possible, and a period of darkness during +which family life, in underground fire-lit dwellings, was compulsory. +If fathomed, the mind of the Eskimo to-day may possibly +reveal the germs of identical associations of ideas, for it would +seem as though existence in the polar regions would infallibly stamp +them indelibly upon the consciousness of all living creatures, until +they unconsciously pervaded their entire being and even affected +the structural organization of the human brain.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tendency to believe that the human race must have spent +its infancy near the pole and received there an intellectual stamp, +which could not have been conveyed to it so clearly in any other +latitude, is undoubtedly encouraged by the opinion of various authorities, +that <span class="tei tei-q">“all forms of life must have originated at the pole, +this having been the first habitable portion of our world.”</span> This +view is exhaustively treated in William Fairfield Warren's <span class="tei tei-q">“Paradise +Found, the cradle of the human race at the North Pole”</span> +(Boston, 1885), to which I refer the reader and which contains +much valuable data which I would have incorporated in the present +investigation had I had earlier access to the volume. It would seem +as though Warren's conclusions were in perfect accord with the +conclusions arrived at by some leading palæontologists, geologists +and botanists, concerning the distribution of life on the globe. +These are conveniently summarized in the article on <span class="tei tei-q">“Distribution”</span> +in the Encyclopædia Britannica, from which the following detached +excerpts are made for the benefit of the reader. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The general result arrived at is that the great northern continents +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page476">[pg 476]</span><a name="Pg476" id="Pg476" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +represent the original seat of mammalian life and the regions +of its highest development.... The tertiary fauna of North +America, compared with that of Europe, exhibits proofs of a former +communication between the two northern continents both in the +North Atlantic and North Pacific, but always, probably, in rather +high latitudes. This is indicated both by the groups which appear +to have originated in one continent and then to have passed across +to the other and also by the entire absence from America of many +important groups which abounded in Europe (and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>) +indicating that the communication between the two hemispheres was +always imperfect and of limited duration.... On the other +hand, the marked continuity of the Northern Flora (with only +a gradual east and west change in the arctic regions, but with an +increased divergency southwards) requires it to be treated as a +whole, although it has long been divided into that of the old and +new world by the severance of North America from Northern Asia +and by the barrier to an interchange of vegetation in the upheaval +of the Rocky Mountain range. The old and new world divisions +of the flora which, no doubt, began to diverge from the mere influence +of distance, have now had that divergence immensely +increased by isolation.... Large American genera (of the +intermediate flora) have sent off offsets into Eastern Asia which, +gradually diminishing in number of species and sometimes slightly +modifying their character, have spread over the whole of Asia and +invaded almost every part of Europe.... With regard to +the arctic alpine flora, Hooker found that, estimating the whole +arctic flora at 762 species, arctic East America possessed 379 of +which 269 are common to Scandinavia. Of the whole flora 616 +species are found in arctic Europe and of these 586 are Scandinavian +and this leads Hooker to the striking observation that <span class="tei tei-q">‘the +Scandinavian flora is present in every latitude of the globe and +is the only one that is so.’</span> According to Bentham, Scandinavia, +which would, according to older rules, have been termed the centre +of creation for the arctic regions, may now be termed the chief +centre of preservation within the arctic circle owing, perhaps, to +its more broken conformation and partly to that warmer climate +... which was, during the glacial period a means of preservation +of some colder species which were everywhere expelled or +destroyed.... We may infer that, towards the close of the +Tertiary epoch, the continuous circumpolar land was covered with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page477">[pg 477]</span><a name="Pg477" id="Pg477" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a vegetation also largely composed of identical plants, but adapted +to a warmer climate. As the climate became less warm there +would commence a migration southwards which would result in +the modified descendants of these plants being now blended with +the vegetation of central Europe and the United States. As the +glacial period gradually advanced, the tropical plants will have retreated +from both sides towards the equator followed in the rear +by the temperate productions and these by the arctic. When the +climate of the earth again ameliorated, the migration took place +in a reverse direction and in this way mountain ranges became the +havens of refuge for the fragments of the original arctic flora +which were exterminated on the lowlands. An indication of the +great antiquity of the arctic alpine flora is afforded by the fact of +its absence in the comparatively modern volcanic mountains of +France.... If it be granted that the polar area was once +occupied by the Scandinavian flora and that the cold of the glacial +epoch did drive this vegetation downwards ... in arctic America +... where there was a free southern extension and dilatation +of land for the same Scandinavian plants to occupy, these would +multiply enormously in individuals....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following remarkable results of recent botanical research +will be found to be of profound interest to investigators and to +support the foregoing conclusions. Amongst the many important +discoveries of hitherto undescribed species of plants, made by the +distinguished botanists Mr. Stephen Sommier and Dr. Emile Levier +during their expedition in the Caucasus mountains, in 1890, was +that of a species of fungus named <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exobasidium discoideum</span></span> Ell., +which was found growing on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron flaro</span></span> L. This +fungus was submitted to Prof. P. Magnus of Berlin, who pronounced +it to be the identical Exobasidium which has been found +growing on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Azalea viscosa</span></span> L. in New Jersey, U. S. A. +The following is the authoritative statement of Prof. P. Magnus +which appears in Messrs. S. Sommier and E. Levier's Enumeratorio +plantarum caucas: acta horti petropolitani, vol. XVI. St. +Petersburg, 1899. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The occurrence of the identical species of fungus on two closely +related plants, which respectively grow in the Caucasus and in +North America and are missing in intermediate countries, deserves +our deepest interest.... These plants are relics of the +Tertiary period, during which North America and Europe still +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page478">[pg 478]</span><a name="Pg478" id="Pg478" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +formed a continuous floral area. While the plants, on which the +fungus grew, differentiated into two closely related species, in two +at present widely separated but formerly connected radii of distribution, +the parasitical Exobasidium remained outwardly unaltered. +This is exactly like the case of another fungus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uromyces +glycyrrhizæ</span></span>, which I have described and explained in the +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Berichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft’</span> (Bd. VII, +1890, S. 377-384). <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exobasidium disc.</span></span> is also a parasitical fungus +which has been growing on the parent form of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron viscosum</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron flavum</span></span> ever since that period when North +America and Europe were continuous and possessed the same flora.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am also indebted to Professor Magnus and to Dr. Levier for +the following names of closely allied species of plants which are +found in America and Asia only, it being particularly noticeable +that it is in Asia Minor and the Caucasus mountains that the relatives +of the American species are most frequently met with. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Platanus occidentalis</span></span>: North America.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Platanus orientalis</span></span>: Asia Minor.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Liquidambar styraciflua</span></span>: North America.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Liquidambar styraciflua</span></span>: Asia.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron viscosum</span></span>: North America.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron flavum</span></span>: Caucasus Mts.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron maximum</span></span>: North America.<br /> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhododendron ponticum</span></span>: Causasus Mts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Professor Magnus has, moreover, recently pointed out that the +fungus Uropyxis, which is a widespread American species and +grows in Mexico, has a representative in Manchuria. In his monograph +on Uropyxis, Professor Magnus enumerates further species +of fungi which occur in America and Asia only and are missing in +other portions of the world (P. Magnus, Berichten der Deutschen +Botanischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang 1899. Band <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xvii</span></span>, Heft 3). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to Professor Edward S. Morse's trite article, +Was Middle America peopled from Asia? (Appleton's Popular Science +Monthly, November, 1898), I cite, from this, the following +authoritative statements: <span class="tei tei-q">“From the naturalist's standpoint the +avenues have been quite as open for the circumpolar distribution of +man as they have been for the circumpolar distribution of other +animals and plants, down to the minutest land snail and low fungus. +The ethnic resemblances supposed to exist between the peoples of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page479">[pg 479]</span><a name="Pg479" id="Pg479" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the two sides of the Pacific may be the result of an ancient distribution +around the northern regions of the globe.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The very remarkable survival of certain plants and fungi, dating +from the Tertiary period, in two such widely sundered countries as +Asia Minor and North America, certainly finds a curious and striking +parallel in the analogy of the cosmical ideas and social organization +of Babylonia and Assyria with those of Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What is more: A cosmical scheme, attributable to a prolonged +observation of natural celestial phenomena, such as could best +have been carried on in circumpolar regions, has been shown to be +as widespread as the Scandinavian flora which <span class="tei tei-q">“is present in every +latitude and is the only one that is so.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Many of my readers will doubtless be inclined to explain the +identity of cosmical and religious conceptions, social organization, +and architectural plans shown to have existed in the past between +the inhabitants of both hemispheres, as the result of independent +evolution, dating from the period when primitive man, emerging +from savagery, was driven southward from circumpolar regions, +carrying with him a set of indelible impressions which, under the +influence of constant pole-star worship, sooner or later developed +and brought forth identical or analogous results. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Those who hold this view may perhaps go so far as to consider +the possibility that, before drifting asunder, the human race had already +discovered, for instance, the art of fire-making and of working +in stone, had adopted the sign of the cross as a year-register, +and evolved an archaic form of social organization. To many this +view may furnish a satisfactory explanation of the universal spread +of identical ideas and the differentiation of their subsequently independent +evolution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the other hand, another class of readers may prefer to think +that, while both hemispheres may have originally been populated +by branches of the same race, at an extremely low stage of intellectual +development, civilization and a plan of social organization +may have developed and been formulated sooner in one locality +than in another, owing to more favorable conditions and thence have +been spread to both continents by a race, more intelligent and enterprising +than others, who became the intermediaries of ancient +civilization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The great problem of the origin of American peoples lies far +beyond the scope of the present work and its final solution can +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page480">[pg 480]</span><a name="Pg480" id="Pg480" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +only be obtained at some future day by the joint coöperation of +Americanists and Orientalists. On the other hand certain incontrovertible +facts which throw light upon the question of prehistoric +contact have been coming under my observation during my prolonged +course of study and the presentation of these may advance +knowledge by acting as a stimulus to discussion, inquiry and research +by learned specialists. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For ready reference I submit the following tabulated record of +the widely sundered countries in which are found, applied to the +governmental scheme, the same cosmical divisions, respectively +consisting of four, seven and thirteen parts, the group being invariably +associated with the idea of an all-embracing One, constituting +the Four in One, Seven in One and Thirteen in One. It is superfluous +to add that, in each country enumerated, the existence of more +or less distinct traces of an ancient pole-star worship and the cult +of the sacred Middle, the Above and Below and Four Quarters, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, +the four, seven and thirteen directions in space, have been recorded +in the preceding pages. Important additional facts, acquired by +reference to Hewitt's Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, to which +my attention was directed by Mr. Stansbury Hagar, and to other +valuable works, will be found included in the following summary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would be of utmost assistance to me in my future researches +and I would regard it as a personal favor if specialists would draw +my attention to any deficiencies they may detect, and inform me +of the latest results of their individual investigations bearing upon +the subjects under consideration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +INDIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven zones, seven directions in space, seven sages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The conception of the confederated kingdom formed of six dependent +and allied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in +the centre.”</span>... <span class="tei tei-q">“It is this conception which is worked out in +the six kingdoms surrounding the central kingdom of Jambudvipa, +into which they divided India. This form of kingdom still survives +in those which form the tributary states of Chota Nagpore, for in +all of these the central province is ruled by the king and those surrounding +it by his subordinate chiefs ...”</span><a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> (Hewitt, Ruling +Races of Prehistoric Times, p. 256). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page481">[pg 481]</span><a name="Pg481" id="Pg481" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four lakes, four rivers, four cosmical divisions, four guardians, +p. <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the Gond <span class="tei tei-q">‘Song of Lingal,’</span> it is related how, Lingal, having +been slain by the confederacy [of six kingdoms surrounding +seventh], came to life again, and with four new-born Gonds, +founded a new race of Gonds; taught them to build houses and +to grow millets.... He divided the people into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four tribes</span></em>.... +With these he united the four tribes descended from the Gonds he +had brought down in his first avatar.... These formed the eight +united races of the tortoise-earth.... Lingal placed among them +priests ... who married the new-comers to the daughters of +the previous immigrants.... This ... marks the first stage of +the union of the Kushikas and the Maghadas, the latter being the +race who worshipped the mother-Maga as the sacred alligator</span> +(Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“According to the Mahābhārata the two races of Kushikas and +Maghadas were united under one king.... This land was called +by Hindu geographers Saka-dvipa, said in the Mataya Purana to +be the land of the mountain whence Indra gets the rain;”</span> that is +of the mountain called Khar-sah-kurra, Ushidhan and Savkanta. +<span class="tei tei-q">“This mountain stood as the meeting point of the two confederacies +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page482">[pg 482]</span><a name="Pg482" id="Pg482" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the patriarchal tribes and the matriarchal races.... Each +confederacy is formed by six kingdoms surrounding a seventh or +ruling kingdom in the centre.... This, in the Iranian federation, +is Khavaniras or Huaniratha and in India, Jambu-dvipa, the land +of the Jambu tree.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hewitt publishes an interesting drawing (reproduced as fig. +<a href="#Figure_73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>), +formed <span class="tei tei-q">“by the union of the four triangles representing +the Southeastern and Northwestern races, who all looked on the +mother mountain of the East, whence Indra gets the rain, as their +national birthplace, where they became united as the Kushite race, +the confederation of civilized man. It represents the Greek cross +and the double dorje or thunderbolt of Vishnu and Indra and also +a map of the Indian races, as distributed at the time of the union. +It also forms, with spaces left open for the parent rivers, ... an +octahedron or eight-sided figure ... and the angles of the tribal +angles form the swastika ... the sign of the rain-god ..., the +great Sar of the Phœnicians....”</span> Referring the reader to Hewitt's +interesting discussion of this figure with which he associates the +origin of the swastika, I point out a fact he barely notices, namely +that the figure coincides with the description of Mt. Meru, associated +with four lakes, four rivers, four mythical animals and four +guardians (p. <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>). It is in connection with the cosmical Middle +Mountain that the foundation of an earthly kingdom on the same +plan becomes significant and the distribution of races figured by +Mr. Hewitt assumes utmost importance. The representation of +the four races by <span class="tei tei-q">“tribal triangles,”</span> is of special interest when +collated with the Egyptian sign for city or state and the pyramid, +the building of which I have several times alluded to as an event +facilitating, symbolizing and commemorating the foundation of a +quadruplicate state (pp. <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a> and +<a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ARABIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the land of Arabia, of the irrigating and building Minyans +and star-worshipping Sabæans, the land of the Queen of Sheba, +or the number seven (sheba) ... a fresh confederacy was formed, +to rival that of the Kushite mountain of the East ...”</span> (Hewitt, +p. 291). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is significant that among the Sabæans the seven-day period +prevailed. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page483">[pg 483]</span><a name="Pg483" id="Pg483" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASSYRIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven directions of heaven and earth, seven territorial districts, +seven mountains, seven kings, seven-staged towers, seven year +and day periods, etc., pp. <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref">328</a>, +<a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a> and <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four-god cities, square cities, square four-storied towers, four +cities, four regions or provinces, four-fold power embodied in king +wearing cross, tetrarchies (?). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +EGYPT. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven classes of people, seven districts, seven-day period, pp. +<a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a> and <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>.<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Quadruplicate division of capital and state, four fields of heaven, +p. <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sacerdotal group consisting of 12+1=13 individuals, p. <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref">437</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Division of the country, at one time, into twelve parts (Ast). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHINA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven Manchurian tribes, p. <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four provinces, four mountains, four seas, p. <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>; four classes +of seven each, p. <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref">292</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the summit of the present administration in Pekin, Four +Grand Secretaries, two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese.<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Twelve districts, p. <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref">292</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ANCIENT JAPAN. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven divine generations,”</span> each consisting of a god and +goddess. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four classes of people, 2×4=8 holy quarters, eight great +islands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Imperial council of twelve divided into the higher council of five +called Golosew=<span class="tei tei-q">“Imperial Old Men”</span> and the lower council of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page484">[pg 484]</span><a name="Pg484" id="Pg484" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +seven members termed Waka Tosiyori=<span class="tei tei-q">“Junior Old Men”</span> +(Chambers' Encyclopædia). The imperial council, with the emperor, +thus constituted the sacred thirteen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +PERSIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven divisions of Cosmos, seven regions, seven spirits personifying +celestial bodies and moral qualities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ancient confederacy of Iran consisted of six kingdoms grouped +around the central royal province, <span class="tei tei-q">“situated under the pole-star,”</span> +and called Kwan-iras or Hvan-iratha, ruled by Susi-nag, the original +father-god of the model state identified with the pole-star, Draconis, +the serpent (Hewitt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 253), see also +Appendix <a href="#Appendix_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>, list II. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four-fold rule embodied in king, p. <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>. Darius distributed +Persian empire into 4×5=20 satrapies, each including a certain +continuous territory (Grote). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +GREECE. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tenos divided into seven quarters, seven divisions of state.<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page485">[pg 485]</span><a name="Pg485" id="Pg485" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four tribes,<a id="noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> four castes, territorial division of Attica into four +parts, institution of tetrarchies. Thessaly anciently divided into +four tetrarchies. Institution (between 600-560 B.C.) of cycle +or period, marked by the four sacred Olympic games, one of which +took place in one of four cities each year in rotation. Pisistratus +added the quadrennial or greater Panathenæa to the ancient annual +and lesser Panathenæa (Grote, History of Greece, vol. 4). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page486">[pg 486]</span><a name="Pg486" id="Pg486" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Twelve tribes formed by Cecrops—represented by twelve chiefs, ++Cecrops=thirteen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is most interesting to find this division adopted in Plato's de +Legibus, in which it is imagined that three elderly statesmen come +together, belonging respectively to Athens, Crete and Lacedæmon, +to discuss the reëstablishment of the depopulated city of Magnesia +in Crete. Aristotle has insinuated that the scheme proposed by +Plato was not original and had been actually realized at Lacedæmon. +Mr. George Burger, the able translator of Bohn's edition +of Plato's Works, in his introduction to vol. V, remarks that, if that +were the case, Plato would never have wasted his time in writing +two elaborate treatises on matters already well known, when it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page487">[pg 487]</span><a name="Pg487" id="Pg487" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +would have been sufficient to point out ... the institutions of +Lycurgus as the pattern, if not of a faultless government, at least +of one, that approached the nearest to perfection. Plato might +have replied to the charge made by Aristotle by saying that his +notions were all the better for not being original, for it was thus +shown that, as some of them were practicable, since they had already +been put into practice—the rest, which were a reform rather +of existing institutions than the construction of a code perfectly +novel, would be equally practicable if they were submitted to the +same test. In his Protagoras, Plato distinctly states that in Crete +and Lacedæmon a most beautiful philosophy was to be found, +which had been handed down from ancient times.... Let us now +examine the plan discussed by the three statesmen and submitted +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page488">[pg 488]</span><a name="Pg488" id="Pg488" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to them by the anonymous Athenian who, according to Cicero, +Plutarch and Boeckh, was Plato himself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the case of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Magnesians, whom a god is again raising +up and settling into a colony ... a divine polity....”</span> Plato says: +... <span class="tei tei-q">“It is meet, in the first place, to build the city as much as +possible in the middle of the country.... After this to divide it +into twelve parts<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> +and placing first the temple of Hestia, and Zeus +and Athene, to call it the Acropolis and to throw around a circular +enclosure and from it to cut the city and all the country into +twelve parts. But the twelve parts ought to be equalized ... and +the allotments to be five thousand and forty.... After +this to assign the twelve allotments to the twelve gods and to +call them by their names and to consecrate to each the portion attained +by lot and to call it a phyle; and again to divide the +twelve sections of the city in the same manner as they divided the +rest of the country, and that each should possess two habitations, +one near the centre and the other near the extremity, and thus let +the method end ... (B. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, C. 14).... We ought, in +the first place, to resume the number five thousand and forty +because it had and has now convenient distributions, both the +whole number and that which was assigned to the wards, which +we laid down as the twelfth part of the whole, being exactly four +hundred and twenty. And as the whole number has twelve divisions, +so also has that of the wards. Now it is meet to consider +each division as a sacred gift of a deity through its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">following both +the months and revolutions of the universe</span></em>. (By this is meant, says +Ast, the twelve signs of the zodiac.) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hence that which is inherent +leads every state, making them holy</span></em>.... Some persons indeed +have made a more correct distribution than others, and with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page489">[pg 489]</span><a name="Pg489" id="Pg489" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +better fortune have dedicated the distribution to the gods. But we +now assert that the number five thousand and forty has been +chosen most correctly, as it has all divisions as far as twelve, +beginning from one, except that by eleven; ... +let us distribute this number; and dedicating to a god ... +each portion, and giving the altars ... let us institute monthly +two meetings relating to sacrifices ... twelve according to the +divisions of the wards and twelve to that of the city ... for +the sake of every kind of intercourse.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It should be noted here that, as in his Republic, Plato provides +his ideal state with female as well as male guardians, and with +priestesses as well as priests, whose duty it was to fulfil sacerdotal +functions. Special attention is drawn to this point, as in +practice, it naturally signifies a dual government, such as I have +traced in ancient Egypt, Babylonia-Assyria, and also in Mexico +and Peru. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“As regards the number of ... festivals ... let there +be three hundred and sixty-five ... so that some one of the magistrates +may always sacrifice ... there are to be twelve +festivals to the twelve gods from whom each tribe has its name +... and twelve guardians of the law.... There +ought to be twelve hamlets, one in the middle of each twelfth part, +and in each hamlet to be selected first, a market place and temples +... prepare all the rest of the country by it into thirteen parts +for the handicraftsmen and to cause one portion of these to reside +in the city by distributing this portion among the twelve parts of +the whole city ... to have other persons distributed out of the +city, in a circle around it.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The portions of Plato's work dealing with the appointment of the +governors and guardians of the state and their rotations in office +and imposed tours of inspection, are of such particular interest in +connection with the present comparative research, that I am impelled +to quote them here. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Let each (of the twelve) phyles furnish for the year five Rural +Stewards (in all sixty) ... each of whom is to choose twelve +young men ... to the latter let there be allotted portions of +the country during a month ... so that all of them may have +a practical knowledge of every part of the country.... But +let the governorship and guardianship continue to the guards and +governors for two years, and let those who first obtain by lot their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page490">[pg 490]</span><a name="Pg490" id="Pg490" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +respective portions, the guard officers, lead out, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">changing the places +of the country constantly by going to the place next in order towards +the right in a circle, and let the right be that which is in the east</span></em>. +But as the years come around, in the second year, in order that +the greatest portion of the guards may become acquainted with +the country, not only at one season of the year, but that as many +as possible may know thoroughly in addition to the country, at the +same time what occurs relatively to each spot in the country at +each season, let the officers <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lead them out again to the left, constantly +changing the place until they go through the second year</span></em>. In the +third year it is meet to choose other rural stewards and guard +officers as the five curators of the twelve young men.... +There were to be three city stewards, dividing the twelve parts of +the city into three ... and five Market-Stewards, to be +chosen from ten elected”</span>....<a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is deeply interesting to consider from the standpoint of comparative +study the principal features of the perfected scheme proposed +by Plato, in the fifth century B. C, for the establishment of +an ideal colony, which is designated as a <span class="tei tei-q">“divine polity”</span> or a +<span class="tei tei-q">“holy land.”</span> This is especially the case when we see that Plato +himself states that it is the conformity of the states to the inherent +laws of nature, that confers upon it divinity or holiness. It seems +impossible not to recognize that both ideal republics of Plato were +intended to be <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial kingdoms”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“kingdoms of heaven”</span> +and that he expounded and doubtlessly perfected, an ancient ideal +which had been more or less successfully carried out in different +countries during many centuries before his time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having studied the proposed scheme for the foundation of a +new colony of the Greeks, who proudly maintained that <span class="tei tei-q">“it was +meet that the Greeks should rule barbarians,”</span> and pursued a regular +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page491">[pg 491]</span><a name="Pg491" id="Pg491" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +system of colonization, let us now obtain an idea of the mode in +which Greeks had previously founded colonies by reading the following +passage from Grote's History of Greece, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxvii</span></span>: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Under reign of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, about the middle +of seventh century B.C., Grecian mercenaries were first established +in Egypt and Grecian traders admitted ... into the Nile.<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> The +opening of this new market emboldened them to traverse the direct +sea which separates Krête from Egypt—a dangerous voyage +with vessels which rarely ventured to lose sight of land—and seems +to have first made them acquainted with the neighboring coast of +Libya ... hence arose the foundation of the important colony +called Kyrênê”</span> ... about 630 B.C. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Thêra was the mother-city, herself a colony from Lacedæmon +... political dissension among its inhabitants ... bad seasons, +distress and over-population led to the emigration that founded +Kyrênê.... The oekist Battus was selected and consecrated +to work of founding the colony.... <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">From the seven districts into +which Thêra was divided, emigrants were drafted for the colony, one +brother being singled out by lot from the different families</span></em>.... +The band which accompanied Battus was generally supplied with +provisions for one year and was all conveyed in two pentekonters—armed +ships with fifty rowers each. Thus humble was the +start of the mighty Kyrênê. After six years residence in one spot +they abandoned it and were conducted to a better site by guides, +saying: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Here, men of Hellas, is the place for you to dwell, for +here the sky is perforated.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> The small force brought +over by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page492">[pg 492]</span><a name="Pg492" id="Pg492" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Battus was enabled at first to fraternize with the indigenous Libyans,—next, +reinforced by additional colonists and availing themselves +of the power of native chiefs, to overawe and subjugate +them.... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Theræan colonists seem to have married Libyan wives, +whence Herodotus describes the women of Kyrênê and Barka as +following, even in his time, religious observances indigenous and +not Hellenic. Even the descendants of the primitive oekist Battus +were semi-Libyan.... We must bear in mind that the +population of the [Græco-Libyan] cities was not pure Greek, but +more or less mixed, like that of the colonies in Italy, Sicily or +Ionia.... Isokrates praises the well-chosen site of the colony of +Kyrênê because it was planted in the midst of indigenous natives +apt for subjection and far distant from any formidable enemies.... We +are then to conceive the first Theræan colonists as established +in their lofty fortified post Kyrênê, in the centre of Libyan +Perioeki, till then strangers to walls, to arts and perhaps even +to cultivated land.... To these rude men the Theræans communicated +the elements of Hellenism and civilization, not without +receiving themselves much that was non-Hellenic in return, and +perhaps the reactionary influence of the Libyan element against +the Hellenic might have proved the stronger of the two had they +not been reinforced by new-comers from Greece.... About +543 B.C. owing to discontent, etc., the regal prerogative of the +Battiad line was terminated and a republican government established; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page493">[pg 493]</span><a name="Pg493" id="Pg493" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the dispossessed prince retaining both the landed domains +and various sacerdotal functions which had belonged to his predecessors.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ROME. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven hills, seven places of worship, septemvirate, seven ministers, +Septizonium, p. <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref">464</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Roman quadrata, Janus quadrifrontis, quadruplicate territorial +division carried out. Palestine, for instance, divided into four +tetrarchies under Roman rule. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Twelve gods, twelve months, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +New Rome divided into four parts, each consisting of thirteen +prefectures <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> fifty-two prefectures in all. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +GAUL. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +BRITAIN. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven kings=heptarchy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four kings of Kent=tetrarchy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IRELAND. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven sanctuaries grouped around central tower. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four associates of king of Erin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Group consisting of 12+1=13 stone figures, p. <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref">469</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SCANDINAVIA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four guardians of four quarters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thor, supreme divinity, pole-star god, seated and holding <span class="tei tei-q">“seven +stars,”</span> the symbol of seven-fold power, in his hand. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Group consisting of royal throne surrounded by 12 stones. Odin +associated with twelve <span class="tei tei-q">“godes,”</span> p. <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref">472</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NORTH AMERICA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Huron confederacy=seven tribes, quadriform city, 2×4=8 +gentes, p. <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ZUNI. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven directions in space, seven quarters of city, seven tribes, +seven towns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four bands of priests, p. <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Twelve, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, thirteen priesthoods, p. +<a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref">201</a>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page494">[pg 494]</span><a name="Pg494" id="Pg494" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MEXICO. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven tribes issued from seven caves, seven gods or chiefs, p. +<a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four quarters of city, represented by four chieftains, four subrulers, +four divisions of army, four year signs, four tribes, four +tribal trees (fig. <a href="#Figure_52" class="tei tei-ref">52</a>), four storied pyramids. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thirteen divisions or parts, p. <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Calendar and state organized into 4×13=52 parts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YUCATAN. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Title of ruler, <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine Four,”</span> four sub-rulers, four royal +brothers, four-year periods, p. <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>, +four quarters, p. <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>, four +year signs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Twelve <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> thirteen priest-rulers of Mayapan, p. +<a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +GUATEMALA. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Seven tribes, seven day period, p. <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Four nations, four provinces, four capitals, four Tullans, pp. +<a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref">171</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thirteen divisions of warriors, p. <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +PERU. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Empire named <span class="tei tei-q">“Four in one,”</span> Creator named <span class="tei tei-q">“Earth, air, +fire and water in One,”</span> four provinces, four viceroys. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Twelve <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> thirteen wards in Cuzco, twelve divisions of year, +p. <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before commenting upon the above summary, and as its necessary +complement, a brief examination must be made of the various modes +in which the phenomenon of celestial axial rotation figured in the +rituals of primitive people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The lighting of <span class="tei tei-q">“sacred fire,”</span> by means of the wooden fire-drill +and the wooden socket block, appears as the most ancient and +widespread ritualistic performance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To begin with, the reader is requested to read carefully the following +detached extracts from Hewitt's work: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the Rig-Veda the Aryan invaders of Lydia are called the +Tritsu, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the boring people,’</span> who used the fire-drill; also Arna, <span class="tei tei-q">‘sons +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page495">[pg 495]</span><a name="Pg495" id="Pg495" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Arani,’</span> the fire-drill, whose sacred number is four”</span>.... +<span class="tei tei-q">“In India, from time immemorial, by a process like churning, +fire has been produced by the Arani, made of the Ashvattha (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ficus +religiosa</span></span>) wood, being twirled repeatedly round till the fire is +lighted, by a string fixed in the cross-bar at its top,”</span> a method, I +may add, which is a later development of the more primitive mode +of twirling the fire-drill by hand. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Kushites ... believed +that life was generated by the union of heat with water ... and +that heat was, in the astronomical myth, engendered by the revolution +of the Great Bear and the connection between it, the vital +heat and the creating water is shown in one of its Akkadian names, +Bel-a-sar-a, which means <span class="tei tei-q">‘the fire god who measures the water yoke’</span> +(R. Brown and Sayce), or, in other words, Bel, the distributor of the +water allotted to the earth. From this heavenly cistern and fire-drill, +in which marichi, the fire-spark, is hidden, the water of life +is distributed.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Compare the preceding with the following statements: <span class="tei tei-q">“According +to the Arab doctrine of the pole, the seven stars of the Great +Bear and the star Canopus [?] formed the fire-drill.”</span> According to +Hewitt <span class="tei tei-q">“... It was the Ashvins, ... the twin brothers of day and +night, ... identified with the twin stars in Gemini, who twirled round +the fire drill of the northern pole ... or, according to a later hymn, +drove through the seas with one of the wheels of their chariot in +Ursa Major and one in heaven,—that is, to drive around the pole.”</span> +A deeper comprehension seems to be afforded by this association +of the Ashvins with the axis, of the significance of the two figures +(of a god and his consort) who, in the Sippar tablet, appear +to be directing the wheel of Shamash—the world-axis and symbol +of quadruplicate terrestrial government (see p. <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref">365</a>). Reference +should also be repeated here, to Al-kuth and Al-fass, the Arabian +names for Polaris, respectively signifying the axle and the hole of +the axle, also to the pole star of Northern India—Grahadhara,—the +<span class="tei tei-q">“pivot of heaven,”</span> and to the significant fact that in Egyptian +hieratic script the word an=the Akkadian and Sumerian word for +heaven, and Babylonian-Assyrian word for god, is found rendered +by a man <span class="tei tei-q">“turning around,”</span> an action expressing the verb an. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to collate these statements with the descriptions +of Dhruva (see p. <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref">448</a>, note 1), the personification of +centrifugal power, who, as he turns, causes the heaven to revolve around the +fixed centre on which he stands, resting on one foot only, and to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page496">[pg 496]</span><a name="Pg496" id="Pg496" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +note how the two distinct ideas of central stability and rotation +influenced the making of pagan divinities. The idea of stability +was perpetuated in the house-pole which sustained Aman, the roof +of primitive dwellings in the column an, which supported the +temple roof and in time was transformed into a hermes, or, in +Egypt, into a statue of Amen-ra, and in the mythical mountain of +the North, Sama, which supported the heaven (Sama). Dhruva's +turning round on one foot, which implies the use of the other, reappears +in the Hephaistos of Greek mythology, who was, as Hewitt +tells us (p. 504), <span class="tei tei-q">“the fire-drill and its driver, and was called +Amphi-Guēeis, or he who halts on both legs, ... was cast from +heaven by Zeus, and was the husband of the fire-socket, the first +form of the Greek goddess Aphrodite.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For information regarding the cult of the fire-socket, the construction +of the Hindu fire-altars in the form of a woman, representing +<span class="tei tei-q">“mother-earth”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the primæval mother,”</span> Aditi, I refer +the reader to Hewitt's work, and also to p. <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a> of the present +publication, where the description of the Jiddah sanctuary proves +the existence of the same ancient form of cult in Arabia. Hewitt +relates on page 170 that, on the fire-altar, the central fire called +Agni jatavedas is kindled when the officiating priest addresses in +the words of Rig-Veda <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, +29, 4: <span class="tei tei-q">“We place thee, O Jatavedas, in +the place of Ida (the mountain daughter of Manu) in the navel +(nabha) of the altar, to carry our offerings.”</span> +In Rig-Veda, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, 61, +we are also told how Nabha-Nedishtha (that which is nearest to +the navel) was born from the union of celestial lightning flash +with the earth, and how, on his birth, he claimed to be the supreme +god, saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“This, our navel, is the highest. I am his +son.... I am the twice-born son of the law (of nature)....”</span> Hewitt +(p. 171) regards, moreover, the image of the goddess of the +earth altar found by Schliemann in the second city from the bottom +of the six cities, built one over another on the site of Troy, a +counterpart of the Hindu fire-altar. It is significant that the +Trojan image exhibits a triangle surrounded by seven disks, and +containing the swastika, which Hewitt designates as <span class="tei tei-q">“the holy fire, +the sun of the revolving year,”</span> a view curiously, though indistinctly, +analogous and parallel to that I have formulated in the present +research. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the Brahmanas the Try-Ambika offering, a very ancient form +of the rain festival, is described.... Its sanctity dated from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page497">[pg 497]</span><a name="Pg497" id="Pg497" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +days of primeval theology, for the offerings were made on a spot +outside and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to the north</span></em> of the consecrated area, and on one intersected +by cross-roads, and thus marked by the cross sacred to the +rain-god, which is said to be Rudra's favorite haunts, and the +halting place of the Agnis.... Hence the festival is dedicated to +Rud-ra, the red (rud) god, the father of the seven Marut stars.... +He is called the red god from the spark of fire kindled by him in +the fire socket when he was the fire-drill, and from being reddened +by the blood of the victim slain in his sacrifices when he was the +sacrificial stake to which the annual victims, whose blood fertilized +the ground, were bound, and this name was continued to him when +he became the red cloud of the thunderstorm which infused the +soil of life into the earth by pouring on it the life-giving rain, the +blood of the creating god....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Rig-Veda the rain-god is termed Ushana, the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of +fire,”</span> who is made to exclaim: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is I who pour down rain for +the good of creatures.”</span> It was he who was also known as Varuna, +the Greek Ourauos, who ... became the god of the dark night.... +The union [in India] of the patriarchal worshippers of the Northern +father-god, with the matriarchal races of the south was followed +by the miners, metal-workers and artisans of the early +bronze age, who looked on fire and the life-giving heat as the +author of life. These were the people (of Finnic origin) who employed +the word ku for god, in Asia Minor became the worshippers +of the mother goddess Magha, the socket block from which fire +was generated by the fire-drill, and it was they, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sons of +Magha”</span> that became the Maghi of Persia and the Maghadas of Indian +history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In connection with the union of a northern patriarchal and a +southern matriarchal race, an astronomical myth deserves particular +attention, as it commemorates the combination of a feminine cult +of the Pleiades, the <span class="tei tei-q">“spinning stars,”</span> with a masculine cult of +Ursa Major. According to this myth, related by Hewitt, the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Spinners”</span>=Krittakas (from krit, to spin) were <span class="tei tei-q">“the mother-stars +of the earth,”</span> who were married to the seven stars of the +Great <span class="tei tei-q">“Bear, the father-stars of the North.”</span><a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> Remarking how +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page498">[pg 498]</span><a name="Pg498" id="Pg498" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +curiously the assignment of the north to the male and the south +to the female element coincides with what has been noted in +Egypt, I note here the interesting detail recorded by Hewitt (p. +379) that to this day the Hindu bride and bridegroom respectively +pay reverence to the Pleiades and Ursa Major, before worshipping +the pole-star, <span class="tei tei-q">“the spotted bull,”</span> on entering their house. It +would seem as though the fulfilment of this ritual might limit the +Hindu marriage season to some particular time of the year, marked +by the position of the Pleiades; in which connection it is interesting +to remember that, in Mexico, the culmination of the Pleiades +at midnight marked the New Year festival, when sacred fire was +rekindled and the union of Heaven and Earth took place. On pp. +130-132 of Hewitt's work, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +the reader will find instructive +data regarding Pleiades festivals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preceding details appear to show that whereas a northern +patriarchal race would naturally symbolize axial rotation by the +fire-drill, a southern matriarchal race would adopt the spindle for +the same purpose. Such a ritualistic use of the spindle would +undoubtedly afford a very simple explanation for the presence of +cross-symbols and swastikas and other designs of religious significance +upon the terra-cotta spinning whorls found in such quantities +in Troy, for instance, and the cited allusion on one of these, +to the pole-star god, Tur, corroborates this view.<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is instructive to trace how, amongst primitive agricultural +races, the art of spinning, the employment of beasts of burden, the +invention of the oil-press which <span class="tei tei-q">“was used in Asia Minor as it has +been used for time immemorial in India to extract the oil of the +sesame seeds,”</span> and of the wheel and cart, influenced their respective +adoption of symbols of axial rotation. In turn, these symbols +suggested and created divergent forms of ritual and religious cult. +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Turanians ... when they had evolved the idea of the god +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page499">[pg 499]</span><a name="Pg499" id="Pg499" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of heaven as the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks +symbolized it as the pole of the threshing floors around which the +oxen were driven.”</span> The reader is referred here to the passages +from the Bhagavata-purana quoted in the present work (note 1, p. +<a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref">448</a>), in which axial rotation is compared to <span class="tei tei-q">“oxen turning +around their stakes,”</span> to which must be added the Vedic <span class="tei tei-q">“one-wheeled car +to which one horse named seven was yoked”</span> (see p. <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref">452</a>, note +1), and the revolving wheel and the revolving measuring pole of the +potter and builder castes, which united formed the Telis caste. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Vaya Purana, <span class="tei tei-q">“the seven Maruts drive the stars which +are bound to it by ties invisible to man, round the pole. They +move round like the beam in the oil-press, for its bottom is, as it +were, standing still, while its end moves round”</span>.... +In the ritual <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sanscrit Isha or the beam which turns this pole +of heavenly oil-pressing mill, is the husband and father.”</span> A +diverging view, which developed and combined the ideas of fixity +and circular motion with the kindling of the vital spark by the +wooden fire-drill, caused the living tree to become the emblem of +the tribal father or mother. The custom, still in use among some +primitive people, of drilling for fire in the dry, inflammable bark of +dead trees of a particular species, may have forcibly directed the +choice of tribal trees. At all events, in India, we find the mango +or Am tree, which recurs in Egyptian script (see fig. +<a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>), the +fig-tree, the udumbara, the date-palm and other trees established +as the parent trees of different tribes, who made their respective +house-poles and presumably their fire-drills and sockets, from their +wood. The curious ritual of marrying men and women to their +respective mother or father tribal trees, before they are wedded +to their respective husbands and wives is mentioned by Hewitt +on p. 237, etc. This close bond between some special kind of +tree and a tribe is a point which I particularly emphasize on account +of its analogy to ancient Mexican, Maya and Peruvian tribal +trees. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to a study of the pole and the beam of the oil-press we +find that, in Essay <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +Hewitt traces the Greek myths of Ixion and +Koronis to the Hindu comparison of the heavens to a revolving oil-press +and, in the ritual of the Vajapeya sacrifice, refers the dawn of +astronomy to the observation of the revolutions of the pole and the +reckoning of the seven days of the week.... <span class="tei tei-q">“Ixion, when raised +to heaven, was the rain-god, who turned one wheel, to which his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page500">[pg 500]</span><a name="Pg500" id="Pg500" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hands and feet were fixed by Hermes, the fire-god, continuously +in the air, and this is merely a mythic way of saying that he +was the fire-drill, made as the revolving pole to rotate perpetually, +and by being turned to every side in his winged course, to produce +life-giving heat, the generator of rain.... The Greek Ixion is the +same word as the Sanscrit Akshivan, the driver of the axle (aksha).... +Ixion is also, according to Bopp and Pott, connected with +the root ik, pouring water, which appears in ichor, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the blood of +the gods,’</span> the water of life.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Moreover, the Sanscrit aksha is a word of which the original is +found in the Gond akkha, an axle. In the summer festival of the +agricultural Gonds, called Akkhadi or Akhtuj, the worship of +the cart axle or Akkha takes place and is associated with Nagur, the +rain snake.... In the Vajapeya sacrifice ... the Soma priest consecrates +two cups of the sacred drink Soma above the axle, at the +same time as the Neskti priest consecrates two cups of Sura below +it. In this ceremony we see a reminiscence of the days when +the axle was the upright revolving pole pressing out the heavenly +rain.... It also shows us how it was that the axle became the +sacred part of the Soma cart ... and the revolving pole became +the axle of the car of time and of the cart of the agricultural +Gonds....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It seems easy to trace from the rude one-wheeled cart, the evolution +of the two-wheeled chariot, the prerogative of royalty in +India and Assyria, employed simultaneously with the regal umbrella, +which, when twirled, symbolized celestial axial rotation and +suggested the idea of a protective deity. The transition from the +<span class="tei tei-q">“one-wheeled car”</span> of the oldest Veda, to which <span class="tei tei-q">“one horse named +seven was yoked”</span> to the chariot of Apollo=<span class="tei tei-q">“Seven,”</span> whose lyre, +with seven chords, struck the divine heptachord of the Pythagoreans, +and who drove seven horses, coincides with that of the umbrella +which, in Greece, was borne at the period of the summer solstice in +the Skirophoria or <span class="tei tei-q">“festival of the umbrella,”</span> in honor of Athene. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is particularly gratifying to me, as it so forcibly substantiates +the views I have been enlarging upon in this investigation, to refer +here to Hewitt's quotations (p. 7, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>) +from the Rig-Veda, in +which the wheeled chariot, closely identified with the year, is said +to be drawn by the father-horse, with seven names, the seven days +of the week, etc. Hewitt likewise cites passages of the Rig-Veda +containing the conception of year wheels, the varying number of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page501">[pg 501]</span><a name="Pg501" id="Pg501" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +whose spokes agree with different divisions of the year. Thus one +year-wheel exhibits twelve spokes, denoting months, another five +spokes denoting five seasons. A chariot, with seven wheels with six +spokes, is explained as meaning the seven days of the week and the +six seasons of the southern year. <span class="tei tei-q">“All living beings rest on the +five-spoked wheel, ... the horses draw the never-aging wheel +through space, whence the eye of the sun on which all life depends, +looks down. The seventh of those born together they call <span class="tei tei-q">‘that +born alone’</span>: this is the self-created thirteenth or central month; +the six twinned months are said to be those begotten of the gods. +They are arranged in their order, six on each side of the central +month, by the leader who dwells above.”</span> A striking analogy to +the ideas I detected, as associated with central rulership, in ancient +America, is set forth in Hewitt's statement that, it was to the +one wheel year <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Hindus likened their universal monarch, +the Chakravarta or king, who sits, like the Kushite monarch, as the +father of his subject tribes, in the central province of his dominions, +and directs his satellites, the rulers of the seasons, who became +the ruling stars of the frontier provinces—the Nakshatra +stars—to turn the wheel (chakra) of time in its yearly round”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 31, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +see also p. 314.)<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The single wheel, without any indication of an utilitarian employment, +is found directly associated with the pole-star in Japan, +where, as in China, the use of the wheel has been known from earliest +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page502">[pg 502]</span><a name="Pg502" id="Pg502" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +times. It will be for Scandinavian archaeologists to enlighten +us as to the earliest traces of the use, by northern races, not only +of the wheeled chariot, familiar to those who named Ursa Major, +Thor's wagon, but also that of the mill-stone. The employment +of the latter in the description of the <span class="tei tei-q">“revolving world mill-stone +through which the waters of the Universe fountain flowed,”</span> is a +proof that the Eddas were written by an agricultural people, possessing +advanced methods of grinding or of extracting oil or juice +from food stuffs. The association of the Norse mill-stone with the +distribution of liquid, appearing to indicate that, like the oil-press +of ancient India, the stone-mill of Scandinavia had been employed +to extract fluids, challenges investigation as to the original home +of the mill-stone and chariot of the Eddas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Personally I am inclined to regard the term <span class="tei tei-q">“world mill-stone”</span> +as a modernized transcription of the term <span class="tei tei-q">“axle,”</span> and the whole +as a rendering of the archaic idea that <span class="tei tei-q">“heat was engendered by +the revolution of the Great Bear”</span> and that the axle of heaven was +the distribution of vital heat and vivifying water. I shall await +enlightenment as to the relationship of the Norse tree of the pole +and Thor, with the creating fire-drill of Tur, the father-god; and +the connection of the Norse <span class="tei tei-q">“mill-stone”</span> and fountain, to the +fire-socket and celestial cistern of the Kushites, said to be the +<span class="tei tei-q">“sons of the Finnic Ku, the begetter and rain-god,”</span> who, having +migrated to India and united with other races, founded a mighty +confederacy, the plan of which is figured in Hewitt's work (p. 220), +by <span class="tei tei-q">“the union of four triangles, representing the southeastern and +northwestern races, ... with spaces left open for the parent +rivers,”</span> which flow towards the cardinal points (see figure +<a href="#Figure_73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we now revert to the first stages of the mental evolution, the +outcome of which we have been reviewing, we cannot but recognize +the curious, but perfectly natural chain of reasoning which led +early man to explain natural phenomena in different ways by the +results of his own immediate observation and experience. He had +discovered that the rotation of the fire-drill generated fire; consequently +the rotation of the circumpolar constellations must generate +life-giving heat. The churning or twirling of liquid in a vessel, +by means of the drill, caused an overflow; consequently the action +of the fire-drill also caused an external flow of life-giving waters, +which, after the invention of the oil or grape press, was compared +to the flow of precious oil or wine from the receptacle. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page503">[pg 503]</span><a name="Pg503" id="Pg503" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +High mountains attracted lightning-clouds and when these collected +around their summits whence rivers constantly flowed, life-giving +rain descended; consequently the tops of cloud-capped +mountains must reach to the axle of the heaven where fire, heat +and rain were being generated and distributed by the rotation of +celestial bodies. As Polaris the axle, pivot or fire socket, was +immovable it could most appropriately be figured by a wooden or +stone socket, from which fire and water flowed towards the four +quarters. Such an image would also figure a year, and, by extension, +time, since it marked the four annual positions of circumpolar +star-groups. The adoption of a stone socket as an image of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“revolving heaven”</span> could thus have long antedated, but have +suggested the invention of the wheel, which was at first a religious +and then became a royal symbol. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I venture to express the view that the archaic image of Shamash +(fig. <a href="#Figure_73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>), +the homonym of Heaven and the North, which was <span class="tei tei-q">“an +ancient model”</span> at the time of Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.), could +only have been invented by a race of pole-star worshippers who +had long been acquainted with the uses of the fire drill and the +oil-press. At the same time I point out how remarkably the combination +of four rays and four streams in the image of Shamash +(Shame=heaven) coincides with the explanation given by Hewitt +(p. 9, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>) +of the Akkadian eight-rayed star of Anu (heaven), +which, he asserts, is formed by the superposition of the fire-cross +and rain cross. It is a most remarkable and undeniable fact that +there is a striking analogy between the Anu sign as explained +by Hewitt and the Shamash image. The eight-rayed or <span class="tei tei-q">“spoked +wheel”</span> of Ishtar, which figures on the same tablet, also gains significance +for the same reason, and particularly when collated with +the hymn cited in note 1, p. <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref">448</a>, in which she is clearly +designated as the <span class="tei tei-q">“axis of the heavens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the female +Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having indicated how the origin of the image of Shamash can +be traced to conceptions arising from the use of the fire-drill and +some primitive mode of extracting oil or of preparing a highly valued +drink from seeds and plants, by centrifugal action, invented by a +primitive agricultural people, I advance the suggestion that the celestial +tree of the Norsemen and Semites, associated with the fountain +and the four rivers of life, appears as a closely related symbol +which, however, mainly expressed the idea of stability. In the Eddas +the tree occurs as a complement to the world axle, the first as the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page504">[pg 504]</span><a name="Pg504" id="Pg504" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +emblem of stability and of a central power which dispensed shade +and life-giving fruits in all directions; the second as the image of +centrifugal power which caused the star-groups to assume opposite +positions and which impartially distributed heat and water. It is +curious to note how readily from the fire-drill and beam of the oil +press as a starting point, not only all forms of tree and pole worship +and the Chinese assignment of element wood to the Middle, +but also all symbols of centrifugal motion, such as the axle, the +pivot and the wheel, could have evolved on closely parallel lines. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now transport ourselves to a land where, to this day, the +Indian women grind maize on a flat stone, by means of a pestle, +where the oil-press and the mill-stone, the pole of the threshing-floor, +the potter's wheel and the cart wheel were unknown before +the date of the Spanish Conquest and rotatory motion was associated +with the fire-drill and spinning whorl only. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ancient Mexican name for the fire-drill = mamalhuaztli, and +that for spinning-wheel=malacatl, are both derived from the verb +malacachoa=to whirl, turn or drill. At the time of the Spanish +invasion (A.D. 1519) the Mexican priesthood lit the sacred fire +of the altar by an extremely primitive method of employing the +fire-drill: by holding it tightly between the palms of both hands +and rapidly rubbing them alternately forward and backward. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Codices contain numberless pictures representing a priest, +in the act of kindling fire by inserting the drill in a simple wooden +beam, usually exhibiting several small holes or sockets. On the +other hand the Borgian Codex, which has recently been placed +within general reach by the generosity of the Duc de Loubat, shows +us two elaborate representations of the great ceremony of kindling +the holy fire in a large circular socket, on the body of a woman +which, in all cases is combined with the image of an alligator +(see p. <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>). In another Codex the alligator alone supports the +socket. The smaller of these representations is reproduced in fig. +<a href="#Figure_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>, and on pp. +<a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93-97</a> this image is discussed as well as the remarkable +stone fire altars in human form, of which one has been +unearthed near the city of Mexico, while no less than six were +found at Chichen-Itza. My informant on this point is Mr. Alfred +P. Maudslay, who added that they seem to have been invariably +placed at the bottom of the stairs leading up to the temple, the façade +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page505">[pg 505]</span><a name="Pg505" id="Pg505" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of which is always supported by two great columns, each sculptured +in the form of a great serpent with open jaws, the symbol +which, in the bas-reliefs at Chichen-Itza and on the Central American +stelæ, recurs on the head-dresses of the rulers termed <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine +serpents,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“divine four in One.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Postponing comment upon the curious analogy between the stone +fire altars in human form, of the Mayas and Mexicans, with those +of the Maghadas of Northern India, who called themselves the Sons +of Magha = the socket-block whence fire was generated by the fire-drill, +or the mother Maga, the sacred alligator, let us examine +the fire-drill god of ancient Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reference to fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a> reveals that it is impossible to see +these Mexican representations, which I could supplement by others, +and not be struck by their agreement with the descriptions of the +Hindu pole-star god Dhruva, who stands on one foot, of the lame +Hephaistos of Greek mythology, to which I would add that Hewitt +also mentions in his preface to vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> the Norse Völunde, the +maimed, one-legged turner of the pole; the god called in the +Rig-Veda the Aja ekapad, or one-footed goat, who watched the revolutions +of the solar disk, and the one-legged bird of Russian mythology, +associated with a revolving house and fire-drill. In the +Mexican Codices the Mexican Tezcatlipoca, held by one foot to the +centre of the north, describes a circle around this. His foot evidently +constitutes the fire-drill, which, inserted in the socket, causes +smoke, also rain and a serpent to issue from it (see 5 and 6). One +figure, representing one leg only in the fire-socket, and a head, exhibiting +a small, smoking fire-socket, appears, in the light of comparative +research, as a cursive method of representing the fire-drill +god, universally associated with Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is remarkable that, in one case water and in another smoke, +indicating fire, issues from the socket of Tezcatlipoca's fire-drill, +and that, opposite to the picture in the Borgian Codex, representing +the kindling of fire on the fire-altar, we have the image of +a pool of water from which four figures spring toward the cardinal +points (see fig. <a href="#Figure_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is only after recognizing that, like the people of the Old World, +the Mexicans associated with the fire-drill and socket not only the +distribution of fire and heat, but also of water, that we also fully +grasp the symbolism of the symbol of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Black or Night Sun,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page506">[pg 506]</span><a name="Pg506" id="Pg506" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of the Indians,”</span> which is but one of many simple +forms exhibiting main features which recur on the highly elaborated +Mexican stone of the Great Plan (fig. +<a href="#Figure_73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>). When placed in juxtaposition +the undoubted resemblance between the Babylonian image +of Shamash and the Mexican image, as well as the deep-seated +identity of these two quadruplicate symbols stands out clearly: in +the Babylonian, wavy lines emanating from the centre convey the +idea of some fluid essence. In the Mexican, instead of the wavy +lines, the conventional representation of a drop of water is depicted—the +idea in both cases being obviously identical and agreeing +with the primeval universal conception of heat or fire, and water +emanating from a common source, and flowing to the cardinal points. +In both cases an axle or socket is represented, and it is instructive +to study the different ways in which the symbol recurs in the Mexican +Codices. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + <a name="Figure_73" id="Figure_73" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: center"></a> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"><img src="images/figure-73.png" alt="Illustration." title="Figure 73." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Figure 73.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring back to fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, 1, reproduced from the Codex +Borgia, we see the axle with rays issuing from a circular band of water. +A receptacle filled with water occupies the centre and contains a +tecpatl, the symbol of the north, the same associated with the fire-drill +god in the next figure. In fig. <a href="#Figure_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>, 4, the central fountain is +surrounded, as in many instances, by stars which connect it with +the nocturnal heaven, and it contains a rabbit=tochtli, the rebus +figure employed to express the word octli, by which the rain +was designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“earth wine”</span> (see pp. <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref">95</a> +and <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As I write, I have before me a whole series of painted representations +from the Codices of what has heretofore been misinterpreted +as images of the diurnal sun. In some of these the open centre +is painted blue or green, in others it is filled by a heart from which +flows, in some cases, a stream of blood, the essence of life. In +several instances a tree with four main branches grows from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page507">[pg 507]</span><a name="Pg507" id="Pg507" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +centre.<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> +In one case the tree grows from a pool and holds in its +branches the image of the axle, in the centre of which, as in the Humboldt +Tablet preserved at the Berlin Museum, a figure is seated. +The centres of others exhibit the head of a divinity painted red, a +single eye, or the ollin. All examples establish the fact that the +Mexican <span class="tei tei-q">“axle of the North”</span> represented fire and water emanating +from a single source. In notable examples, where the axle is +carved in stone, the identical features are conventionally reproduced. +Some exhibit a depression or deep hole in the centre. +This is the case in the remarkable example at the museum in New +Haven, Conn., where the axle is carved on the top of a square +altar, the corners of which exhibit symbols of the four elements, +each accompanied by the numeral 4. The centre of the figure exhibits +a carved ollin, in the middle of which a deep hole is +situated. An analogous but shallow depression occurs in the +great circular monument, the Conquest Stone of Mexico (see p. +<a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>), around which Tezcatlipoca, the one-footed fire-drill god, +is represented sixteen times, each time in the act of receiving +the enforced homage of the chief or chieftainess of a different +locality. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above monuments, as well as a rudely-carved representation +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“sun”</span> recently discovered and unearthed by Dr. Ed. +Seler, lying on a substructure of stones in the centre of an open +space, presumably a market place, definitely proves that the design +was intended to be placed in a horizontal position. This intention +has already been noted in the case of the Great Cosmical Stone of +Mexico (fig. <a href="#Figure_56" class="tei tei-ref">56</a>), on which the rays and intermediate water +drops recur, and are represented as emanating from the central Nahui +Ollin, the Four in One, which encloses the masked face of the divine +Twain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A question naturally suggests itself at this juncture: How did +the ancient Mexicans, who utilized the fire-drill in its most elementary +form and as far as is known, employed no means of extracting +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page508">[pg 508]</span><a name="Pg508" id="Pg508" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +oil or juice or of grinding food-stuff by a centrifugal process,<a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> +come to employ as a sacred symbol, the axle or <span class="tei tei-q">“mill-stone”</span> +which, in India, had been adopted as an image of central rotation, +by people who constantly used the fire-drill and the oil-press? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The strongest proof that the idea of a circular disk was associated +in Mexico with terra-cotta spinning whorls only, is the fact that, +in the native description of the Great Temple recorded by Sahagun, +a circular stone monument, employed in religious festivals, which +the Spaniards described as a <span class="tei tei-q">“stone wheel,”</span> is termed in the +Nahuatl text as a <span class="tei tei-q">“te-malacatl”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> a <span class="tei tei-q">“stone whorl.”</span> +Further evidence of the close association of such <span class="tei tei-q">“stone whorls”</span> with +thread or cord, the product of spinning, is furnished by the way in +the ritual, that the victim was attached by one foot to the open +centre of the <span class="tei tei-q">“stone whorl”</span> and circulated around the stone which +lay motionless. On the other hand, the sculptured zone on the +Great Cosmical stone, enclosing the day signs placed in their fixed +order of rotation, and the sculptured frieze on the Tribute Stone, +furnish direct evidence that circular movement was associated with +the cosmical axle, or disk. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is obvious that the distribution of water combined with fire +from a common central source, represented as a mill-stone, could +not have been suggested to the native mind by the use of the fire-drill +and socket and the spinning whorl only. Therefore we are +obliged to face the question whether the cosmical figure may not +have been introduced, as a religious symbol only, by a race of civilizers +who, though acquainted not only with the oil press and chariot +but also with the Akkadian star of Anu, the combination of the +rain and fire crosses, and with the Assyrian-Babylonian image of +Shamash (an elaboration of the same idea), but in the absence of +beasts of burden and sesame seeds in Mexico, had no opportunity, +or did not consider it feasible or necessary, to teach the use of the +chariot, oil-press or circular mill stone to the natives. Before forming +any conclusions or conjectures on this point, however, a number +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page509">[pg 509]</span><a name="Pg509" id="Pg509" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of other questions must be investigated. One fact, however, +stands out quite clearly: Whereas in figure <a href="#Figure_73" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, we have the +rudimentary form of the quadruplicate symbol, closely resembling +that which was already ancient and almost obsolete in Babylonia +in the ninth century B.C. and pertained to a cult of Shamash, the +North and Heaven, which had flourished in that country about +1850 B.C., the Great Cosmical Stone of Mexico represents the +highly advanced development and elaboration of the identical cult, +as actually established there until the year 1519 of our era. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pausing here and looking back upon the foregoing summary of +the universal spread of identical forms of social organization and +of rituals suggested by the use of the fire-drill, in association with +a primitive pole-star cult, there are a few distinct and unrelated +points which claim special attention: First of all, the identity in +the form of the fire-altar and the cult of the fire-socket, among the +Maghas and Nahushas of India and the Mayas and Nahuas of Yucatan +and Mexico. Secondly, the striking resemblance of plan and +numerical scheme which unquestionably existed between the ideal +<span class="tei tei-q">“divine polities,”</span> recorded by Plato, and the states which actually +existed, of ancient Peru and Mexico. It is impossible to read +Plato's scheme of an all-pervading division into 12, and his plan +for the laying out of the capital and state and not to recognize the +fact that, in Peru, as set forth on pp. <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref">133-149</a> of the +present work, these identical principles were actually carried out by the alien +Incas who, in comparatively modern times, collected the natives +together and organized them into a settled community. Thirdly, +the undeniable fact that the numerical scheme of the Maya and +Mexican Calendar and state-organization is identical with that +adopted by Constantine, in establishing New Rome. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Postponing a closer examination of these points until further +on, let us now continue our comparative review. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The universal spread of the identical scheme of organization, +vouched for by documentary evidence, is further demonstrated by +the results of archaeological and historical research and a comparative +study of ancient symbolism. Thus it is impossible not to +admit the striking and deep-seated analogy between the Assyrian +four-fold division of city and state, the title <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the four regions”</span> +and the image of Shamash, the <span class="tei tei-q">“four-spoked wheel;”</span> the +Indian, Egyptian and Grecian philosophical conceptions of four +elements, culminating in Plato's Cosmos and Theos (an entity, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page510">[pg 510]</span><a name="Pg510" id="Pg510" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +spherical in shape, incorporating four elements) and, for instance, +the quadruplicate symbol carved in the centre of the Mexican Cosmical +Tablet, which exhibits the symbols of the same four elements +embodied in a single symbol, representing the supreme power, who +is thus proven to have been conceived by the Mexicans, as well as +by the Peruvians, as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Air, Earth, Fire and Water in One,”</span> or +the source of the four elements.<a id="noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When it is likewise considered that the Mexicans employed the +divine title, <span class="tei tei-q">“four times lord,”</span> that the Maya title <span class="tei tei-q">“Kukulcan,”</span> +signifies the <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine Four,”</span> that the ancient map of Mayapan +proves that, like the Kushite confederacy, and the kingdoms of +Assyria, Egypt and Peru, it was a <span class="tei tei-q">“Four provinces in One”</span> or a +<span class="tei tei-q">“four-fold state,”</span> the identity of the principles underlying the +archaic civilizations of the Old and New World becomes more and +more apparent. It likewise becomes evident that in each of these +countries the significance and symbolism of the archaic cross-symbol +and swastika must have been identical, and that, like the pyramid +(the form of which, in the ancient Greek alphabet, is given +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page511">[pg 511]</span><a name="Pg511" id="Pg511" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the letter delta which expresses, numerically, four, a quatuor, +or 4,000) and the square stone altar or column, it figured the Four +in One, the mystic Five or the Four and all-embracing One. The +following array of facts demonstrates further the universal association +of archaic cross-symbolism with the conception of an all-embracing, +stable, central power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A striking demonstration of this is furnished by the diagonal +cross, employed as a Chinese character, to express the word wū=five, +just as it is used, in Egyptian hieratic script, to express the +syllables uu, un or ur (see fig. <a href="#Figure_60" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>). Sometimes, in +Chinese, a horizontal line is drawn above the cross and another beneath it, and +John Chalmers informs us that, according to the Shoh Wan, this +<span class="tei tei-q">“full form means the five elements between heaven and earth, the +upper line being heaven and the lower earth.”</span> The sign thus obviously +constituted an image of the Cosmos, the 5+2=heaven +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page512">[pg 512]</span><a name="Pg512" id="Pg512" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and earth, thus furnishing the familiar seven directions in space, +the chief and synopsis of which is the sacred Centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The association, in ancient America, of the cross-shape with +central stable power, has already been discussed in the case of the +Copan swastika, p. <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref">222</a>. At the time when I wrote about this and +carved stelæ found at Quirigua and Copan, I had not yet learned +of the remarkable discovery made there, by Mr. George Byron Gordon +of the Peabody Museum Honduras Expedition, which furnishes +me with the most striking confirmation of the conclusion I expressed +on p. <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref">220</a>, namely, that the personages, whose portraits +are sculptured on the stelæ, were high-priest rulers, who bore the +title <span class="tei tei-q">“Divine Four,”</span> and were <span class="tei tei-q">“rulers of the four regions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to Mr. Gordon's report, published in vol. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, no. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +of the Peabody Museum Memoirs, I merely note his verification +that, beneath several stelæ examined for this purpose, there +exist subterraneous vaults, in the form of the so-called Greek cross, +above the exact centre of which the stela stands, its base being +inserted in the stones forming the ceiling of the chamber. In one +case the length of the cruciform vault is over nine feet from eastern +to western extremity, the width of the branches being one foot +and their depth two feet. Over thirty vessels of pottery were found +in this, amongst them large urns with covers. It would appear +from this that, like the Egyptians, the ancient builders of Copan +performed certain ceremonial rites in connection with the construction +of these artificially cosmical centres. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What seems quite clear is that the subterraneous vault constituted +a sacred cosmical chamber and that the stelæ were memorial +stones, which probably represented the image of a lord, and the +record of his fixed term of office which formed a period or era of +the native calendar (see p. <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221</a>). The stela which formed the +stable, visible centre of the hidden substructure may also have been +employed as a gnomon during some period of time, and in the monument +the initiated must undoubtedly have recognized the underlying +cosmical conceptions, and regarded it as a highly developed +form or variant of the archaic cross, the primitive record of a year. +It is remarkable how closely analogous are the Central American +stelæ with their hidden cruciform vaults, to the conception of the +Egyptian <span class="tei tei-q">“star of Horus”</span> explained by Hewitt as the meridian +pole raised in the centre of a cross denoting the four quarters. +</p> + + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page513">[pg 513]</span><a name="Pg513" id="Pg513" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most striking evidence of a close affinity between the ancient +Central American ah-men, or master-masons, who built cruciform +windows in the walls of temples and designed the cruciform +vaults under the stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, and the amanteca +or tolteca, the master-architects and builders of Mitla, Mexico, is +furnished by Mr. M. H. Saville's recent excavation of three remarkable +subterraneous, cruciform chambers, the largest of which +is situated on the summit of a high hill near Mitla. The interior +of the latter is elaborately decorated with geometrical designs, like +those on the exterior of the Mitla palace. The extreme length from +east to west is 9m. 71cm., from north to south 8m. 18cm., and its roof +was composed of large flat stones. The entrance to this and the +other cruciform vaults is situated at the extremity of the western +arm, which in the case described was longer than the other arms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most remarkable example of such a cruciform crypt is, +however, that situated beneath the palace of Mitla, which has been +figured by Dupaix in Lord Kingsborough's Mexican Antiquities, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ix</span></span>. This +vault is also built of the shape of a so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Greek”</span> +cross, but in its centre stands a large circular stone column reaching +from floor to ceiling. It is impossible not to recognize the +symbolism of this pillar situated in the centre of a structure, +the form of which symbolizes the Four Quarters and the fundamental +identity of the column occupying the centre of the Mitla +chamber and the Copan stelæ standing above the centre of the +hidden cruciform vault. Details associated with the pillar which +stood in the Great Temple of Mexico (p. <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>), and the +<span class="tei tei-q">“pedestal”</span> erected on the hill of justice at Guatemala (p. +<a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref">79</a>) definitely show +that, in ancient America, the column was also associated with star-cult, +with the administration of justice and central celestial and +terrestrial government. Investigation has shown that precisely the +same ideas were associated with the circular, square or octagonal +columns of Egypt, Greece, Rome and Japan, where they either constituted +the images of the central supreme divinity, formed the +support for the statues of earthly <span class="tei tei-q">“divine”</span> rulers, or marked the +centres of the cosmos or state, bearing inscriptions of the sacred +laws as in Athens, or of the distances to all points of the empire, +viz. the Roman Milliarum Aureum. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is remarkable to find that, whereas in ancient Byzantium the +centre of the city had been marked by a column surmounted by a +colossal statue of Apollo, a pillar or pole god, Constantine erected +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page514">[pg 514]</span><a name="Pg514" id="Pg514" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a <span class="tei tei-q">“spacious edifice, from the centre of which all roads of the empire +were measured.”</span> Considering that, at the time when this edifice +was built, the ancient quadruplicate plan had been revised and the +empire of New Rome had been divided into four parts by Constantine, +it seems reasonable to infer that the form of the great +edifice which marked the territorial centre of the new empire bore +the impress of the cruciform plan, and that the shape of the cross +should have been adopted throughout the empire, in edifices marking +central consecrated places. How much of the true spirit of the +Christian ideal of universal brotherhood entered into the constitution +of Constantine's New Rome it is impossible to conjecture. +Niebuhr denies that Constantine was a Christian, records that he +was only baptized shortly before his death, and states that the religion +of Constantine <span class="tei tei-q">“must have been a strange compound indeed, +something like the amulet recently discovered at Rome, which is an +example of that curious mixture of Judaism, Christianity and Paganism +which we so frequently meet with from about the beginning +of the third century.”</span><a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In an extremely interesting monograph <span class="tei tei-q">“On the origin of the +cruciform plan of the mediæval Cathedral,”</span> by the distinguished +architect, Mr. E. M. Wheelwright, published in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Transactions +of the Boston Society of Architects, 1891,”</span> I find the significant +fact that what is now the little church of S. Tiburce, Rome, in the +form of a Greek cross, was built at the time of Constantine. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The same monograph teaches that <span class="tei tei-q">“de Rossi discovered in the +catacombs of Rome two scholia of a plan called specifically triclinium, +of a date previous to Diocletian and probably of the third +century. In such were celebrated, by the presbyters, the memorial +feasts of martyrs, the congregation assembling outside. Tombs of +a positive cruciform plan are also found in the catacombs. In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page515">[pg 515]</span><a name="Pg515" id="Pg515" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the fifth or sixth century cruciform buildings became in the East, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">wherever Byzantine influence was potent, the recognized form +for tombs, mortuary chapels and buildings commemorative of holy +places</span></em>. These types seem to have been given, by Byzantine architects, +special recognition of the purpose of their construction +and to have appeared to them <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as monuments requiring a symbolical +expression of plan</span></em>, while they evidently <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">did not consider such +symbolical expressions requisite in buildings planned for general +congregations</span></em>, which, although of types without distinct association +with the Christian faith, were held, for several centuries, to +be sufficiently well adapted to purposes of Christian worship without +material change from their ancient form [that of the Roman +Basilica].”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to Mr. Wheelwright's monograph for interesting +data concerning the Byzantine influence discernible in +the early types of Christian churches of cruciform plan erected +in northern Italy and Europe, I merely note here that in St. +Sophia, founded by Constantine, and completed by Justinian, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +load of the dome is thrown on four great piers disposed at either +corner of a square. These great piers, with the corresponding +buttresses of the outer wall, suggest a possible symbolical intent +in the arrangement ... otherwise the cruciform plan +here suggested is expressed neither externally nor internally.”</span> I +venture to suggest that in St. Sophia, <span class="tei tei-q">“Holy Eternal Wisdom,”</span> +as in the case of the Pantheon, the dominant idea may have been +the all-embracing unity, but that, as the number four was identified +with <span class="tei tei-q">“wisdom and justice”</span> by the widespread Pythagorean +philosophy, that number must have seemed, to the initiated, to +pervade the entire structure. In the case of the Church of the +Nativity at Bethlehem, where it was Justinian's intention to mark +a sacred locality, we find the cruciform plan clearly carried out. +<span class="tei tei-q">“The church of St. Simeon Stylite at Kelat Seman Syria, built +about A.D. 500, is a most interesting example of a cruciform +church, marking a sacred spot [and associated with a sacred column].”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The church of the seventh century built at Sichem, over the +well of the Samaritan, shows a distribution of plan similar to that +of S. Simeon Stylite, the holy object being at the crossing.... +There are existing at St. Wandrille and at Querqueville +in Normandy, two (cruciform) triapsidal churches of a date prior +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page516">[pg 516]</span><a name="Pg516" id="Pg516" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the Norman conquest ... a well preserved four-apsed +tomb chapel exists at Montmajour near Arles, built in 1019; the +detail and plan of which point to a Syrian prototype and resembles +two buildings of an early date now existing in Dalmatia.”</span> The +use of the cruciform type of church, anterior to the great revival +of purely Christian religious architecture in the thirteenth century, +was confined to Picardy and the Rhenish provinces, fine churches +of this type being at Cologne, Bonn, Marburg, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to recall that the building of sacred structures +is attributed to <span class="tei tei-q">“secret organizations of free or enfranchised operative +masons which existed during the middle ages, and possessed +grades of officers and secret signs by which, on coming to +a strange place, they could be recognized as real craftsmen and +not impostors.”</span> To this day, in some parts of Germany and Bohemia, +the swastika is the sign or mark of the stone-mason's guild +which has survived from the mediæval times. In the organized +bands of masons whose mark was the swastika and who introduced +Eastern cosmical symbolism into Europe and gradually developed, +upon this basis, a purely Christian form of architecture, we may +perhaps see the descendants of those ancient builders who, filled +with the conception of the sacred Central power, the Four Quarters, +the Above and Below, planned the square, seven-stoned zikkurats +of Babylonia-Assyria, the pyramids, obelisks and sphinxes +of Egypt, the columns and cruciform tombs and sanctuaries of +Greece, Asia Minor and Rome, the cruciform temples and the topes +of India and the domes of the Pantheon and St. Sophia.<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would appear that these ancient builders were also the designers +and founders of cities and states. It is, for instance, known +that Hippodamus, the son of Euryphon, a Milesian, and by profession +an architect, gained celebrity in his own art by constructing +the Piræus at Athens and by improving the method of distributing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page517">[pg 517]</span><a name="Pg517" id="Pg517" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +streets and planning cities ... and also wrote a treatise concerning +the best form of government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A kinship of thought undoubtedly exists between the trained +builders of cosmical structures in the Old World and the ah-men, +the amantecas and toltecas of Central America and Mexico, who +also reared pyramids, cruciform vaults, circular temples, with openings +to the four quarters (see fig. <a href="#Figure_30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>, p. 97), altars and +pillars, and in their temples wrought, in stone, endless variations of the +great human theme: the sacred central, stable power, the four quarters +and elements, and the heaven and earth with the dualities of +Nature, and likewise instituted an artificial scheme of social organization, +a calendar and religious rites based on these same fundamental +principles, which can be traced back to primitive pole-star +worship. It has been of utmost interest to me, as I was approaching +the end of the present investigation, to become acquainted +with Hewitt's work and his view that it was the seafaring Turanians, +originally a northern race, the worshippers of Tur=the pole, +who claimed descent from the seven stars of Nāgash, the serpent=Ursa +Major, and, from India, extended their trade and carried +their form of social organization and religious cult first to the +Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where +they were known by the Greeks as the Phœnicians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The subjoined detached passages, which open out new fields of +inquiry, not only appear to me to establish conclusively this view, +but certainly afford most interesting information concerning the +ancient race of pole-star worshippers, seafarers, builders and handicraftsmen +who, according to Hewitt (p. 25), extended their emigrations +not only to Europe but also to America.<a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> Hewitt bases +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page518">[pg 518]</span><a name="Pg518" id="Pg518" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the latter assertion upon the identity be perceived <span class="tei tei-q">“between Akkadian +and American mythological traditions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the limit of the present inquiry excludes mythology, I cannot +discuss here the evidences of similarity produced by Hewitt. I +must express regret, however, that he designates a tribe of Pueblo +Indians (the Sias, related to the Zuñis), as +<span class="tei tei-q">“Mexican”</span> (see vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, +p. 243, etc.), a term which, in this case, is decidedly misleading. +His identification of the truly Mexican, <span class="tei tei-q">“teo-cipactli”</span> as a <span class="tei tei-q">“fish-god”</span> +is unfortunate, as numberless conventionalized drawings in +the Codices prove that cipactli signifies alligator. If the somewhat +limited and vague evidence, produced by Mr. Hewitt, appeared +to justify his conclusion, how much more must an identity +of social organization and cult such as I have traced, not only +authorize but also render it imperative, that the possibility of pre-Columbian +contact should be thoroughly looked into. Disclaiming +any desire to formulate hasty conclusions, and merely for the sake +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page519">[pg 519]</span><a name="Pg519" id="Pg519" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of gaining information by looking squarely at facts, I shall now +rapidly enumerate some of these which undoubtedly appear to corroborate +Hewitt's further assertion that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mayas and Nahuas +of Yucatan and Mexico were emigrants of the Magha and Nahusha +tribes, who pertained to the race of navigators known by the +Greeks as the Phœnicians ... and who continued in their new +land, America, the worship of the rain god, to whom, as their +fathers in central Asia, they dedicated the sign of the cross”</span> +(Hewitt, p. 492). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Maghas were the Finnic long-haired race of star- and fire-worshippers +who, starting from Phrygia, as the Takkas conquered +northern India ... who called themselves the sons of the +Northern pine tree, called in Phrygia, as by the Northern Finns, +Ma=the mother; also the sons of the mother-goddess Magha, +the socket block whence fire was generated by the fire-drill; who +is also worshipped as the mother Maga under the form of the alligator. +Consequently the alligator was their totem.”</span> In Essay <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page520">[pg 520]</span><a name="Pg520" id="Pg520" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Hewitt states that these <span class="tei tei-q">“sons of the great witch-mother Maga”</span> +lived in Magnesia, whence they emigrated to Thessaly and that +theirs was the <span class="tei tei-q">“city of the Magnetes”</span> referred to by Plato as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +mother of laws.”</span> The word mag, however, meant great in Akkadian, +hence according to Hewitt the name Makkhu, the high priests +or Magi (vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 54). +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +The Maya and Mexican fire altars and sockets and their association with +the earth-mother and alligator in the native Codices has been discussed. +The Mexican day-sign cipactli figures an alligator and is associated with a +female deity. The alligator altar at Copan, is described on p. +</span><a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-size: 90%">228</span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">. Were +it not for limit of space additional testimony could be cited here, proving +that in Mexico the alligator was associated with the mother of the race, +the fire-socket, and was a tribal totem. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“As the mother Maga she is the maker or kneader, the mother of +the building and constructing races ... they were the first +builders of towns.... They adored the god of the twirling or +churning fire-drill.... They employed the name Ku, Ukko, +Pukka and Pukan to designate the rain and thunder god and star-god +who guides the stars in their courses and rules the beginning of +the year”</span> (Hewitt, p 438). The Finnic and Esthonian <span class="tei tei-q">“Ukko is +also called Taivahan Napanen, meaning the navel of the heaven +and this is called the place of the pole star, the star at the top of +the heavenly mountain”</span> (vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 155). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page521">[pg 521]</span><a name="Pg521" id="Pg521" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Compare Ku in Maya list, appendix +</span><a href="#Appendix_III" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">, +also Tezcatli-poca or puca=Mexican +fire-drill god, Ursa Major. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“They worshipped Nag or Nagash,=the serpent and fire-drill +constellation of Ursa Major, and consequently called themselves +also the sons of Naga=the Nahushas. They worshipped the +Pleiades=the mother stars....”</span> +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +The Nahuas traced ancestry to seven stars of Ursa Major and began +their religious year at the culmination of the Pleiades at midnight. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Nagas united with the navigating Shus or Phœnicians ... +the red men, who worshipped the ruler of heaven.... +These Shus ... called in the North, Hus ... were the Sumerian +trading races of the Euphratean delta and Western India, +who traced their descent to Khu, the mother bird of the Akkadians, +Egyptians and Kushites.... They reverenced the sacred +<span class="tei tei-q">‘shu’</span> stone, the begetter of fire and of life fostered by heat,... +designated as the precious stone, the strong stone, the +snake stone, the mountain stone.... The pregnant mountain of +the Shu stone was to the Akkadians the central point of the earth. +The people who are said in the Rig-Veda to have first found fire +by the help of Matarishoan, the fire-socket, and to have brought it +to men, and are said to have placed it in the navel of the world +... as the sacred Shu stone.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It should be added here that the Hittite sign for Ishtar was a +triangle enclosing a stone: <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain enclosing the stone of +life.”</span> +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +About 270 A.D. the Tutul-xius=(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">cf.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> Kukul) under a great chief or +lord Kukulcan reigned at Chichen-Itza ... (p. </span><a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-size: 90%">206</span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">). In Mexico +the name for turquoise is xiuitl and the god of fire is named Xiuh-tecuhtli. Jadeite +is designated as chal-chiuitl and is associated with Chalchiuitlycue, the +mother-goddess. The spark-producing, flint knife=tecpatl is also employed +as a symbol of generation. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Their kings, like those of Egypt, wore the uræus serpent as a +sign of royal authority and made this the emblem of kingly rank +in countries so widely distant from one another as India and +Egypt....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We learn from Prof. A. H. Sayce (Ancient Empires of the +East, p. 200), that customs that had originated in a primitive +period of Semitic belief survived in Phœnician religion and that +clear traces of totemism are found amongst the Semites. <span class="tei tei-q">“Tribes +were named each after its peculiar totem, an animal, plant or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page522">[pg 522]</span><a name="Pg522" id="Pg522" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +heavenly body.... David, for instance, belonged to the serpent-family, +as is shown by the name of his ancestor Nahshon, and +Professor Smith suggests that the brazen serpent found by Hezekiah in +the Solomonic Temple was the symbol of it. We find David +and the family of Nahash, <span class="tei tei-q">‘or the serpent,’</span> the king of Ammon, +on friendly terms even after the deadly war between Israel and +Ammon, that had resulted in the conquest and decimation of the +latter.”</span> +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +The name of the culture hero Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl incorporates +the word serpent in Maya and Nahuatl. The conventionalized open serpent's +jaw forms the usual head-dress of the lords sculptured on the Central +American stelæ and bas-reliefs. The existence of totemism in America +is too well known to require comment, and the arbitrary method by +which it was established by the Incas of Peru, when they founded the +new colony, has been described. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“... I have already shown that the snake-father of the snake +races in Greece and Asia Minor and of the matriarchal races in +India was the snake Echis, or Achis, the holding snake, the Vritra, +or enclosing snake of the Rig-Veda, the cultivated land which girdled +the Temenos. This was the Sanscrit and Egyptian snake +Ahi.... But the Naga snake was not the encircling snake, but +the offspring of the house-pole and in this form it was called by +the Jews the offspring or Baal of the land. But as the heavenly +snake it was the old village snake transferred to heaven, called +the Nag-ksetra, or field of the Nags, and there it was the girdling +air-god who encircled the cloud mothers, the Apsaras, the daughters +of the Abyss, the Assyrian Apsa, and marked their boundaries as +the village snake did those of the holy grove on earth. But on +earth the water-snake was the magical rain-pole, called the god +Darka, set up by the Dravidian Males in front of every house ...”</span> +(p. 194). <span class="tei tei-q">“They are the Canaanites, or dwellers in the low country, +and the Hivites or the villagers of the Bible and the race of +Achæans of Greece. These are the sons of the Achis=the serpent, +the having or holding snake, the girdling snake of cultivated +land which surrounded the Temenos or inner shrine, the holy grove +of the gods”</span> (Hewitt, p. 175). +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Attention is drawn here to the twin serpents which enclose the Mexican +Cosmical Tablet (fig. </span><a href="#Figure_56" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-size: 90%">56</span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">), whose bodies may be seen to +consist of a repetition +of the conventional sign for tlalli=land, consisting of a fringed +square. Each square in this case encloses a sign resembling that of fire=tletl +and the numeral ten. These girdling serpents, whose heads unite, +</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page523">[pg 523]</span><a name="Pg523" id="Pg523" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> +being directly associated with land, appear as the counterpart of the Old +World Achis, a curious fact when it is considered that they are represented +as springing from the sign Acatl (see p. </span><a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-size: 90%">257</span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">). +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +On the other hand, the heavenly </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">feathered serpent</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> of Mexico and +Yucatan is distinctly associated with the air and the circle; its conception +curiously coinciding with that of the </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">girdling air-god</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> mentioned +by Hewitt. It is well known that the walls enclosing the court of the +Great Temple of Mexico, were covered with sculptured serpents, and at +Xochicalco, Mexico, and in Central American ruins (Uxmal, for instance), +great sculptured serpents surround the buildings. It is remarkable that +the sign Acatl not only figures conspicuously on the Great American Tablet, +but also on the allegorical figure of the </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Divine Serpent,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> which may +well represent the totemic divinity and ancestor of a snake tribe, associated +with the word Acatl, possibly conveying their name. The undeniable +association, in Mexico, of the serpent with Acatl, curiously agrees with +the name of the </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">sons of Achis, the serpent</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">=the Achaians: and deserves +consideration. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Genesis genealogy of the kings of Edom, the land of the +red man, the priest king of the Hus or Shus is mentioned <span class="tei tei-q">“... +his people had replaced the Tur, the stone pillar, the Egyptian +obelisk by the temple, the home and symbol of the creating god, +who had been the pillar of the house.... But in their eyes the +father-god was not the central pillar but the two door-posts and +thence they called the temple gates Babel or the gates of god.... +This gate was guarded by the holy twins.... The doorposts, +and night and morning are invoked in the Rig-Veda.... The +Magas were the discoverers of magic, mining, metallurgy, handicrafts—the +pioneers of scientific research and the first organizers of +a ritual of religious festivals.”</span> +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Twin pillars, sculptured in the form of great serpents, whose names +signify twinship, support the entrances to the ancient temples of Yucatan, +Central America, and have been found on the site of the Great Temple +of Mexico. The Mexican and Maya accounts of the culture hero +Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan state that he and his followers were </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">great necromancers</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> +and magicians and that they taught handicrafts, metallurgy, and +instituted calendar, social organization and ritual. A personal, close examination +of a large number of old Peruvian and Mexican as well as +Coptic textile fabrics, has convinced me moreover of their identity of +technique. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Magas sacrificed dogs,.... They wore long hair,.... They +made human sacrifices in order to obtain rain”</span> (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Phœnician priests scourged themselves or gashed their +arms and breasts to win divine favor.... Human sacrifices +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page524">[pg 524]</span><a name="Pg524" id="Pg524" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were made, to Moloch or Milkom ... the parent was required +to offer his eldest or only son as a sacrifice and the victim's cries +were drowned by the noise of drums and flutes”</span> (Sayce). +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +The human sacrifices of Mexico are familiar to all. The native dog +and various kinds of birds were sacrificed. The Mexican priests, named +papas, wore long hair, practised asceticism, gashed their breasts, arms +and legs and pierced their ears and tongues. On the Palenque bas-reliefs, +priests with long hair are sculptured. The human sacrifices of Mexico +and those of Egypt, Phœnicia and Assyria, described by Sayce and +Hewitt (pp. 275 and 348), are closely alike. See also Hewitt's account +of the blood brotherhood made between the sacrificer and the land on +which the blood is poured (p. 196), and the Chichimec blood sacrifice described +in the present work, p. </span><a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref"><span style="font-size: 90%">66</span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing are a few noteworthy analogies which have +impressed themselves upon me during the present course of investigation, +in addition to the many undeniable and unsuspected evidences +I have found, of an identity of star-cult, ritual and social +organization in Old and New World civilizations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be seen that the outcome of my researches corroborates +the opinions differently expressed by a long line of eminent investigators, +who have been constantly discovering and pointing out +undeniable similarities and identities between the civilizations of +both hemispheres. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It seems to me that an accumulation of evidence now forces us +to face and thoroughly investigate the possibility that, from remote +antiquity, our continent and its inhabitants were known to the seafarers +of the Old World, to whose agency the spread of similar +forms of cult and civilization in the New World is to be assigned. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While those who uphold the autochthony of the native civilization +may regard such identities as accidental, those who are willing to +admit the possibility that the Phœnicians, the red men of antiquity, +whose land was Syria, navigating by the pole-star, may have +reached America, will doubtlessly dwell upon the unquestionable +fact that the most ancient traces of organized and settled communities +actually exist along the coast swept by the equatorial currents. +A glance at an ordinary chart exhibiting the ocean currents +and trade winds shows that vessels sailing southward from the +Canary Islands and caught in the north African current, might, at +a certain point, enter the north equatorial current flowing towards +the coast of America. Further southward still, off the coast of +Guinea, the current bearing this name meets the main equatorial +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page525">[pg 525]</span><a name="Pg525" id="Pg525" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +current which sweeps along the coast of Honduras and Yucatan +into the Gulf of Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What is more, ancient well-known tradition asserts that the +culture-hero Kukulcan-Quetzalcoatl, with his followers, came to +Mexico from the East (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">via</span></span> Yucatan) and told the natives of their +distant home, named Tlapallan and Huehue tlapallan which, translated, +mean <span class="tei tei-q">“the red land”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the great ancient red land.”</span> Native +American tradition unquestionably and unanimously ascribes +to single individuals of aged and venerable aspect, or leaders of +small bands of men and women of an alien race, the peaceable introduction +of a definite plan of civilization, identical in its elements +with that known to have existed in India, Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria +from time immemorial, and said to have been spread to +these countries by the Phœnicians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Native tradition, therefore, is seen unanimously to controvert the +independent development of the cosmical schemes of government +and most advanced forms of civilization which prevailed in America +at the Columbian period. This, of course, in no wise excludes +the existence of purely native people, with a certain degree of civilization, +more rudimentary in form, founded on impressive natural +phenomena, which the natives had always been in a position to observe +for themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order to obtain an insight into conditions which might have +determined and affected maritime intercourse with distant America, +let us now make a rapid survey of the history of the ancient +civilizations of the Old World. This reveals, in the first case, the +undeniable fact (one of deepest significance in the light of the +present investigation) that the period of a general stirring of men's +minds, in countries where pole-star worship had prevailed from +time immemorial, exactly coincides with the period to which I alluded +on p. 43, during which there ceased to be a brilliantly conspicuous +and perfectly immovable pole-star in the northern heavens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From Mr. Hinckley Allen's work (p. <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref">454</a>), I have since learned +that astronomers have closely determined this period, and that Miss +Clerke writes of this: <span class="tei tei-q">“The entire millennium before the Christian +era may count for an interregnum as regards pole-stars. Alpha +Draconis had ceased to exercise that office; and Alruccabah had +not yet assumed it.”</span> Prof. A. H. Sayce tells us that the Phœnician +pilots steered by the pole-star in remotest antiquity, and it is +a matter of history that <span class="tei tei-q">“Pytheas of Massilia, the bold navigator +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page526">[pg 526]</span><a name="Pg526" id="Pg526" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(died about 285 B.C.), showed the Greeks that the pole-star was +not at the pole itself.”</span> Previous to that date, however, the astronomer-priests +must have noted the change in the heavens. On +descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers, whose entire religion +and civilization were based on the idea of fixity and rotation, the +unaccountable change in the order of the universe must indeed have +produced a deep impression. Under such conditions it seems but +natural that a great awakening of doubt and speculation should +take place, that worship should be transferred from stars known to +be subject to change, to the unseen, incomprehensible but ever-present +eternal power which ruled the universe. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us examine some of the records of the great intellectual movement +that swept at one time, like a wave, over the ancient centres +of civilization. The eighth, seventh and sixth centuries before our +era are marked by the growth of the Ionian philosophy which, as +Huxley tells us, <span class="tei tei-q">“was but one of many results of the stirring of the +moral and intellectual life of the Aryan-Semitic population of Western +Asia. The conditions of the general awakening were doubtless +manifold, but there is one which modern research has brought into +great prominence. This is the existence of extremely ancient and +highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and the +Nile.... The Ionian intellectual movement is only one of the +several sporadic indications of some powerful mental ferment over +the whole of the area comprised between the Ægean and Northern +Hindustan....”</span><a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Professor Schroeder's statement that, <span class="tei tei-q">“in the seventh century +B.C., the idea of four, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +five elements, spread in India,”</span> is particularly +interesting in connection with the date assigned to the +birth of the Ionian intellectual movement. Of Pythagoras it is +related that, like Solon, <span class="tei tei-q">“he had visited Egypt, also Phœnicia and +Babylon, then Chaldean and independent, and founded a brotherhood +originally brought together by a religious influence, with observances +approaching to monastic peculiarity, and working in a +direction at once religious, political and scientific.”</span> According to +the learned translator of Cicero's first Tusculan disputation<a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“it +is generally accepted that Pherecydes of Syros (one of the Cyclades +islands in the Ægean sea) was the teacher of Pythagoras. Pherecydes, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page527">[pg 527]</span><a name="Pg527" id="Pg527" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +who flourished about B.C. 544 is said to have derived his +knowledge from the secret books of the Phœnicians and from +travels of inquiry in Egypt.”</span> Through Philolaus (see Grote IV, p. +395, note 2), Pythagorean science was made known to Plato, +whose views are quoted on p. <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref">449</a>. Grote states that, about +300 B.C., the Pythagorean philosophy nearly died out. It is a +curious fact that this date coincides, approximately, with the destruction +of Tyre (Tsar, in Phœnician,=the rock), the last +stronghold of the Phœnicians, <span class="tei tei-q">“which had defied Assyrian, Babylonian +and Persian but at last fell,”</span> according to Prof. A. H. Sayce, +<span class="tei tei-q">“in July, B.C. 332, before the Greek conqueror Alexander. Thirty +thousand of its citizens were sold in slavery, thousands of others +massacred and crucified and the wealth of the richest and most luxurious +city of the world became the prey of an exasperated army. +Its trade was inherited by its neighbor Sidon”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. +194). It is obvious that, at this period, bands of fugitives may well have taken +refuge in traders' ships and sought safety in flight to distant regions, +where they might establish themselves and found colonies on the +pattern of Tyre or of Carthage which, in ancient times had also +been founded by fugitives and been named <span class="tei tei-q">“the new city,”</span> Karthakhadasha +(Sayce). While the great historical events which +marked the fourth century B.C. seem to have arrested the spread +of Pythagorean philosophy, we find that, according to Grote, <span class="tei tei-q">“in +the time of Cicero, two centuries later, the orientalizing tendency, +beginning to spread over the Grecian and Roman world, caused it +to be again revived, with little or none of its scientific tendencies, +but with more than its primitive religious and imaginative fanaticism.... +It was taken up anew by the pagan world, along with +the disfigured doctrines of Plato. Neo-Pythagorism, passing gradually +into Neo-Platonism, outlasted other more positive and masculine +systems of pagan philosophy, as the contemporary and revival +of Christianity”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, +398). Neo-Platonism reached its +height under its chief Plotinus (A.D. 205-270) who sought to reconcile +the Platonic and Aristotelian systems with Oriental theosophy. +His pantheistic and eclectic school was the last product of +the Greek philosophy.<a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page528">[pg 528]</span><a name="Pg528" id="Pg528" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is, at all events, remarkable, that the date tradition assigns to +the presence of Kukulcan in Yucatan and the foundation of the +quadruplicate state of Mayapan coincides with the dying out, in +Europe, of pagan philosophy, one of the features of which had been +the elaboration of ideal forms of government based on a numerical +and cosmical scheme, the elements of which had apparently been +spread by the Phœnicians. In Copan and Quirigua we find remnants +of long-established, peaceable communities revealing no trace of +war-like weapons, and the memorial stelæ of whose rulers stand +above hidden cruciform vaults, while carved personages are represented +as seated in the centre of ornate crosses. In Yucatan, +through which land the foreign civilization seems to have reached the +plateau of Mexico, there are significant traces of an ancient city, +named Zilan, situated on the Atlantic coast; proofs that buildings +of cosmical forms were erected; that the state of Mayapan +was laid out on the familiar cosmical plan; that repeated migrations +took place, and that, from time immemorial, a calendar, on the +same numerical basis as that of Mexico, had been in use. The +great state of Mayapan, where a remarkable stone cross was +found at Cozumel by the Spaniards, is shown to have been figured +as a circle within a circle, the whole divided into four parts by cross-lines. +Here, as in Chiapas and Mexico, all divisions of government, +population and time are organized on a numerical scheme +representing the combination of 4×5=20 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e</span></span>. an entire finger +and toe count, <span class="tei tei-q">“a whole man,”</span> with the 13 directions in space. +The multiplication of 13 and 20 results in a unit of 260 which, as +a cycle of time, represents the complete set of all harmonious +combinations of man the miniature image of the living state, with +the thirteen directions of space in the all-embracing Cosmos, composed +of four primary elements. In consonance with this we find +the existence of 20 (or 4×5) lords, whose names correspond to +those of the 4 chief and 16 minor day-signs of the calendar, and of +a lord by election, whose name signifies the thirteen divisions or +parts, and who constituted a microcosmos, a Four in One. In regular +rotation the 20 lords, consisting of 4 chief and 4×4=16=minor +rulers fulfilled duties towards the supreme representative +who resided in the capital, while they respectively lived in four +provinces, the population of which was subdivided into four tribes +each of the 20 divisions of the state being again divided into 13 +parts. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page529">[pg 529]</span><a name="Pg529" id="Pg529" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a cosmical state like this in which each individual not only felt +himself to be a unit and a microcosmos, but also an indispensable +part of a living organism, under the form of which the state was +symbolized, its inhabitants, leading lives regulated by a calendar +based on the phenomenon of circumpolar rotation, under a chief +ruler entitled the <span class="tei tei-q">“Four in One,”</span> assisted by four sub-rulers, must +indeed have felt that they <span class="tei tei-q">“lived, moved and had their being”</span> in +the Teotl or Theos, imagined as the embodiment of the four elements. +In this connection it is interesting to learn that <span class="tei tei-q">“the animal”</span> +itself, of Plato, is considered by eminent authorities to have been +the tetrad. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Zuñi, where, at the present day, each individual feels himself +identified with some part of the body of a quadruped, his clan +totem, the conception of the state as <span class="tei tei-q">“a living animal,”</span> is an actual +reality. Their pueblo moreover represents a 6+1=7, or a +<span class="tei tei-q">“seven in one,”</span> the miniature counterpart of the far distant Ooraon +village of Chota Nagpore and of the ancient archaic kingdoms of +India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc. Anciently +the Zuñis called themselves the Ashiwi, a name remarkably like +that of the Ashvins, derived from the Akkadian ash=six. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I revert again here to the following landmarks, which may perhaps +furnish a useful <span class="tei tei-q">“working hypothesis”</span> for future investigation. +In Mexico the pyramids of Cholula and of Teotihuacan seem +to render testimony of the, possibly consecutive, establishment of +ideal states amongst tribes <span class="tei tei-q">“capable of subjection”</span> by Toltecas, or +<span class="tei tei-q">“Master-Builders,”</span> who, according to their method, used the building +of a great structure, requiring time and united labor, as a means +of organizing a new community or colony. It may be that the period +of their completion coincided with the establishment of the +Calendar system, beginning with the number one. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In my Preliminary Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System +(Stockholm 1894), I demonstrated how, by reconstructing the +Calendar cycles, it was possible to determine exactly when the native +system was adopted. According to my demonstration, which +has now stood unchallenged for six years, a fresh year cycle began +in 1507 A.D., with the year sign II Acatl and the day 2 cipactli. +For a cycle to be associated with the number two it is obvious that +it must have been preceded by a cycle ruled by number one, therefore +it may be safely inferred that the cycle II Acatl that commenced +in 1507 followed a cyclical period of 4×13=52×20=1840 +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page530">[pg 530]</span><a name="Pg530" id="Pg530" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +years (p. <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>). Accordingly the date when the Mexican +system was instituted in the form which existed at the time of the +Conquest, may be fixed as corresponding to the year 467 of our era. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering that the Calendar system was, however, but one +part of the machinery of government, was inseparable from the organization +of tribes, classes and individuals, and that its institution +signified the foundation of a state, it is remarkable to ascertain +that, but 137 years previously, Constantine, in A.D. 330, had +instituted the empire of New Rome, on precisely the same numerical +basis as that of the Mexican Calendar, and divided it into 4 parts +or prefectures, each subdivided into 13, yielding a total of 52 prefectures. +Moreover, as far back as the institution of the Kleisthenean +democracy, the Greeks had been familiar with an extremely +intricate and close union of calendar and government system, such +as existed in Babylonia-Assyria and, as I have shown, in ancient +Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is certainly suggestive that the period of 137 years, which +elapsed between the establishment of New Rome on a partly revived +and partly amended or remodelled plan, and the foundation +of the great democracy of ancient Mexico at the date inferred, +is unparalleled in the history of mankind for religious persecutions, +carried on in Egypt, Greece and Rome, following upon three +centuries marked by the growth and spread of Christianity and the +persecution of its followers, the destruction of Jerusalem and the +persecution of the Jews. It was in A.D. 379 that Theodosius, +the Greek, proclaimed Christianity the religion of his empire and +instituted a relentless persecution of the Arians and followers of +the ancient Egyptian religion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under Arcadius, Emperor of the East (A.D. 395), the Anthromorphites, +who affirmed that God was of human form, destroyed +the greater number of their opponents. Under Marcianus (A.D. +451), Silco invaded Egypt with his Nubian followers and the +Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches. +Later, under Justinian (A.D. 527), the Monophysites +separated from the Melchites and chose their own patriarch, being +afterwards called Copts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is impossible to close one's eyes to the fact that, during +this period of persecution and massacre, imminent peril of death +must have forced many a band of the priests and followers of the +ancient Egyptian and other religions to seek safety in flight. The +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page531">[pg 531]</span><a name="Pg531" id="Pg531" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +events which took place in Egypt between A.D. 379 and 451, culminating +in Silco's invasion, must unquestionably have been deeply +felt by the descendants of the ancient Phœnician, Carthaginian +and Grecian exiles, fugitives and mercenaries who, during countless +centuries, had founded colonies along the Libyan coast, and +pushed migration further westward along the coast line. Migrations +from these regions would doubtless have resulted in the +remarkable combination of archaic star, fire-drill and socket worship +found in Yucatan and Mexico, existing alongside of a highly +developed and perfected philosophical scheme of social organization +identical, in principle, with that which, in the Old World, constituted +an ideal which was the result of centuries of experience +and active intellectual life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The present investigation, in which I have collected more material +than it has been possible to present in this publication, brings +out facts tending to show that, originally, both hemispheres were +peopled from the North, and that, in antiquity, at intervals, an extremely +limited intercourse was kept up between the Old and New +Worlds. The obvious fact that navigation must have been seriously +impeded by the interregnum of Polaris, lasting for many +centuries, would explain a prolonged isolation of America anterior +to the Christian era. Whereas the equatorial currents facilitated +the voyage to America, the same favorable conditions did not accompany +navigation in the same latitudes in a reverse direction, +and this suggests the probability that few who set out for <span class="tei tei-q">“the +hidden land,”</span> ever returned to the port whence they sailed. Investigation +seems to reveal that influences, emanating from the +most ancient centres of Old World civilization, reached sundered +regions of America at different times, and that they could have +been carried there by a seafaring and building race such as the +Minyans, the Magas, the Phœnicians or their descendants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If such were the case it would be reasonable to expect that, in +America, traces of words associated with the archaic set of ideas +would be found, and the same method of writing. Let us now +refer with prudent reservations as to the possibility of their being +accidental, to the striking resemblances which undoubtedly exist +between certain names for God, Heaven, North, Middle, etc., in +the languages of the most ancient civilizations of the Old World +and the Maya and Nahuatl. For convenient reference and without +detailed comment, these words are presented as Appendix +<a href="#Appendix_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page532">[pg 532]</span><a name="Pg532" id="Pg532" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Too much importance must not, of course, be given to these linguistic +analogies; at the same time we cannot shut our eyes to the +fact that these broken fragments of language, traceable to India, +Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt and Greece, are found, in America, +clinging tenaciously to a set of cosmical ideas and a scheme of +organization identical in both hemispheres. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has been surprising to me, for instance, to learn, by carefully +collecting facts, that whereas Professor Sayce tells us that the +supreme god of the Phœnicians was named Yeud or Ekhad, the +supreme god of the Mexican Chichimecs (literally, Red race) was +named Youalli-Ehecatl, which signifies, literally, night-air or wind. +I likewise ascertained that, whereas the word yau or yu signifies +the source or origin in Chinese, is linked to a character forming a +cross and is homogeneous with Yaou Sing, a star in Ursa Major, +described as <span class="tei tei-q">“revolving,”</span> the Mexican name for the pole-star god +was Yaual or Yohual Tecuhtli, the lord of the circle or of the +night. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again there is a remarkable similarity between the Mexican +yaualli=circle and the verb yoli or yuli=to resuscitate or vivify; +the Chinese ui=to turn around, and the Scandinavian yul, yeul +or yol = wheel, also the festival of the winter solstice, when nature +seemed to resuscitate. Whereas the significance of the above +Mexican, Chinese and Scandinavian names, is clear, no meaning +has, to my knowledge, been attached to the Semitic name for the +supreme god, which, as Professor Sayce informs us, was pronounced +Yahu or Yaho or Yahve (see Appendix, list +<a href="#Appendix_I" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span></a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other striking resemblances are found between the names for +handicraftsman and master-builder in widely distant countries. +Thus, in Phrygia, we have the Daktuloi, the builders who erected +monuments decorated with cross-symbols arranged so as to form a +geometrical design, such as represented in fig. <a href="#Figure_72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>, 2. In +Oaxaca the Toltecatl=builders and handicraftsmen, erected the walled temple +and cruciform structures at Mitla, and decorated them with +geometrical designs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reliable authorities teach us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Hittites were the northern +minyan or menyan=measurers, a building race”</span> (Hewitt); that +Aha-Mena, the first historical ruler of Egypt, was a builder; that +the name of Amun, the god of the Ammonites, signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the +builder.”</span> Dictionaries reveal that, in America, Maya-speaking people +designated a master builder or handicraftsman as ah-men, or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page533">[pg 533]</span><a name="Pg533" id="Pg533" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +menyah which, in Nahuatl, became amanteca. In Yucatan the name +for North was Aman or Xaman; the building race of civilizers +seems to have been associated with that region, which the Arabians +named Shamaliyy. In the Babylonian-Assyrian Shamash, the +Sanscrit Brahman and the Egyptian Amen-ra, we seem to have +but different forms of the same word, which recurs in the Akkadian-Sumerian +Sama, or an=the revolving heaven (see Appendix, list). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is to philologists that I refer the question whether the resemblances, +in sound and meaning, of certain words I have found associated, +in widely sundered countries, with the universal cosmical +set of ideas, are merely accidental or whether they furnish indication +of a remote common origin or of contact at a later period. +It will interest me particularly to learn their opinion as to the oldest +forms of the words; and whether there is really no clue to the +meaning of the Hebrew Yahu and the Phœnician Yeud-Ekhad. +One is tempted to inquire whether the Chichimecan Youalli-Ehecatl +was not the same and whether this and other analogies do not constitute +evidence tending to establish that Mexico was a Phœnician +colony in which during centuries of isolation the archaic forms and +meanings of Phœnician words were preserved. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is my hope that these lists will be carefully examined and +explained by competent authorities, to whose judgment they are +respectfully submitted. Whether they will be accounted for in one +way or another, these lists will be found to establish the existence +of striking resemblances which, by themselves, might not carry +weight, but which unquestionably gain in significance when found +in conjunction with cosmical conceptions, social organization, +forms of architecture and cross-symbolism, which appear universal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few words here concerning the undoubted general resemblances +that exist between the Chinese and Japanese, and Central +American methods of organization—resemblances which even extend +to certain words directly traceable to Western Asiatic influence +in the case of the Eastern Asiatic civilizations. The existence +of marked differences between the Chinese and Maya-Mexican numerical +systems and determination of elements, appears to exclude +the possibility that dominating Asiatic influences could have reached +America <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">via</span></span> China and Japan after the still existing, crystallized +forms of government and calendar had been established in the latter +countries. As far as I can judge, the great antiquity attributed, +by Chinese historians, to the establishment of the governmental +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page534">[pg 534]</span><a name="Pg534" id="Pg534" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and cyclical schemes, still in use, appears extremely doubtful. +Referring the question to Sinologists, I venture to ask whether it +does not seem probable that the present Chinese scheme dates +from the lifetime of Lao-tze, in the sixth century B.C., a period +marked, as I have pointed out, by the growth of Ionian philosophy, +one feature of which was the invention of numerical schemes applied +to <span class="tei tei-q">“divine polities”</span> and ideal forms of government. Future +investigation may, perhaps, prove that <span class="tei tei-q">“the powerful mental ferment”</span> +alluded to by Huxley, as spreading between the eighth and +ninth centuries B.C., over the whole of the area comprised between +the Ægean and North Hindustan, was caused by the growth +and diffusion of plans of ideal states, which would naturally suggest +and lead to the formation of bands of enthusiasts, who would +set out in search of districts where they could carry out their principles +and ideals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Personally, I am strongly inclined to assign the origin of the +Chinese and the Mexican schemes, which are identical in principle, +to the same source, and to believe that they were carried in opposite +directions, at different periods, by seafarers and colonists, +animated by the same purpose. Favorably established in distant +regions, both grew and flourished during centuries, constituting +analogous examples of an immense, submissive, native population +living under a highly perfected, artificial, numerical, scheme of religious +government, preserved intact and enforced by a ruling caste, +who possessed superior knowledge and claimed divine descent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is, of course, to Chinese and Japanese scholars and to archaeologists, +some of whom constitute the able staff of the Jesup Expedition, +who are investigating the question of Asiatic contact, that +I look for further information and enlightenment as to prehistoric +contact between China and America.<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foregoing investigation seems to have shown that in all +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page535">[pg 535]</span><a name="Pg535" id="Pg535" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +countries alike, at one period or other, the cross-symbol or swastika +expressed absolutely the same meaning. Primarily the record +of a year, which suggested the division of the heaven into four +parts, it had come to signify the establishment of communal life on +a basis of fixed law, order and harmony. Like the number four itself +which, in Pythagorean philosophy, is identified with wisdom +and justice <span class="tei tei-q">“because it is the first square number, the product of +equals,”</span> the cruciform symbols have been the emblems of justice, +equality and brotherhood. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the dawn of human history, the cross, therefore, appears +to have expressed a plan as simple as it was noble and great, which +consisted in peaceably uniting men, on principles of good-will, peace, +equity, equality and mutual help, of instituting and organizing communal +life, and of regulating its activity in accord with the immutable +laws which govern the movements of celestial bodies, causing +the circumpolar constellations to assume opposite positions, forming +the sign of the cross, and marking seasons, days and years, all testifying +to the existence of a single, all-ruling, all-pervading, stable +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page536">[pg 536]</span><a name="Pg536" id="Pg536" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and eternal central power, who thus controlled not only the heavens +but, by a human representative, the earthly kingdom, laid out on +the celestial plan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering that no less an authority than St. Augustine has +asserted <span class="tei tei-q">“that which is now called the Christian religion existed +among the ancients, and in fact was with the human race from the +beginning,”</span> it is permissible to ask whether the above scheme does +not strikingly substantiate his dictum, afford a deep view under the +surface of accumulated dogma and a perception of the mighty principle +that has been at work from the beginning of all things and +was understood by many at that time when <span class="tei tei-q">“the people that sat in +darkness saw great light, and to them which sat in the region and +shadow of death light sprang up.”</span>... <span class="tei tei-q">“From that time Jesus began +to preach and say, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at +hand’</span> ”</span> (Matthew <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, 16, 17). +Adopting the cross as the emblem +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page537">[pg 537]</span><a name="Pg537" id="Pg537" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of his earthly mission he said: <span class="tei tei-q">“If any man will come after me, +let him take up his cross and follow me.”</span> By the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“I +bear in my body the mark of the Lord Jesus,”</span> St. Paul designates +the recognized <span class="tei tei-q">“mark”</span> to have been the quadruplicate cross of +the Saviour, who charged his apostles to preach, saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“the kingdom +of heaven is at hand”</span> and promised them that <span class="tei tei-q">“ye which +have followed me in the regeneration, when the Son of Man shall +sit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, +judging the twelve tribes of Israel”</span> (Matthew <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xix</span></span>, 28). The +mother of Zebedee's children came unto him asking that her sons +might sit <span class="tei tei-q">“the one on thy right hand and the other on thy left, in +thy kingdom”</span> (Matthew <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xx</span></span>, 20). Repeatedly, the Teacher, +referring to children, said <span class="tei tei-q">“of such is the kingdom of heaven,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Except +ye be converted and become as little children ye shall not enter +into the kingdom of heaven.”</span> St. Paul and his followers were +designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“those that have turned the world upside down ... doing +contrary to the decrees of Cæsar, saying that there is +another king, one Jesus”</span> (Acts <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xvii</span></span>, 6 and 7). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is well known that the early Christian church was persecuted +because, from the first, it preached a total regeneration of human +society and its reëstablishment of a basis of peace and good-will, +social equality, absolute justice, mutual aid, respect and sympathy, +unselfish, disinterested subservience of the individual to the interest +of the community. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was for the sublime principle of a religious democracy and +the regeneration of human society that, in an age of tyranny, oppression +and bloodshed, the early Christian martyrs laid down their +lives. The foundations of religious orders were as many attempts +to realize the Christian ideal, and to this day the Roman Catholic +Church, whose clergy and religious orders unquestionably afford a +splendid living example of devotion to a common cause, self-abnegation, +obedience and humility, clings to the ideal of a state in +which temporal power is wielded by a hierarchy raised to rulership +from all ranks, merely by virtue of personal, moral and intellectual +qualities. Throughout the Christian church the ideal of religious +democracy prevails. Each day it is prayed for in the words <span class="tei tei-q">“Thy +kingdom come,”</span> by those taught to look forward to the promise of +the time when <span class="tei tei-q">“former things are passed away and a holy Jerusalem +shall descend out of heaven from God, lying four-square, with +twelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels and names written +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page538">[pg 538]</span><a name="Pg538" id="Pg538" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +thereon which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children +of Israel ... and the wall of the city had twelve foundations +and in them the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb,.... +And I saw no temple therein, for the Lord God Almighty +and the Lamb are the temple in it ... but the throne of God +and of the Lamb shall be in it.... And he showed me a +pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the +throne of God and of the Lamb. In the midst of the street of it +and on either side of the river was there a tree of life, which bore +twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month ...”</span> +(Revelation, chaps. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxi</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxii</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It appears significant, in the light of the present investigation, +that the birth of Christianity, as well as the revival of pagan systems +of philosophy, embodying principles for the organization of +religious brotherhoods and ideal democracies, should coincide with +the spread of the great tidings that a star had been seen by the +Magi, or <span class="tei tei-q">“wise men of the East, who came <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">from the east</span></em> to Jerusalem.”</span> +Occurring, as it did, after <span class="tei tei-q">“the interregnum as regards +pole-stars,”</span> during which nomadic tribes and seafarers had vainly +sought the fixed star which had guided their forefathers, the appearance +of a brilliant pole-star must have seemed doubly significant +and revived, among pagan philosophers, the ideal of an earthly +kingdom ruled by Heaven. The advent, at this time, of the Messiah +who, with his twelve disciples, announced that the kingdom of +heaven was nigh and taught that God was to be worshipped in the +Spirit only, must indeed have appeared particularly impressive and +well-timed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Faithfully clinging to the ideal of a regenerated religious democracy, +the early Christian church maintained itself through centuries +of persecution and is slowly advancing, amidst almost overwhelming +and innumerable difficulties, towards its realization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to Mexico we find that its civilization at the time of +the Conquest was precisely what might be expected if a small body +of men of superior wisdom and experience, such as was possessed +by a remnant of Græco-Egyptian philosophers, had embarked in +ships manned by the descendants of Phœnician seafarers, and found +refuge in the <span class="tei tei-q">“land of the West,”</span> amongst simple, docile people, +existing in large numbers, who, treated <span class="tei tei-q">“as little children and +instructed with love and gentleness, willingly submitted themselves +to the guidance of their teachers.”</span> A single, short-lived generation +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page539">[pg 539]</span><a name="Pg539" id="Pg539" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of these would have amply sufficed for the establishment of the +governmental system and calendar, the firm institution of a <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial +kingdom,”</span> and the spread of knowledge of the technique of +various arts and industries deemed most useful to the natives. On +the other hand, the foreign element, whose aims were chiefly ideal, +could have left little or no impression upon the evolution of the +native race, its art and industry, which doubtlessly followed its +original independent line of development. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is remarkable how the echo of great events in Old World +history seem to have reached the Western hemisphere. In the Old +World the eleventh and twelfth centuries were marked by a revival +of religious enthusiasm, by the Crusades, the persecution of infidels +by the Christian world and by a general stirring amongst oriental +people, the descendants of the ancient pole-star worshippers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Historical records and traditions accord in stating that in about +the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era, the civilizations of +Mexico, Yucatan and Central America underwent a great period of +warfare, pestilence and famine, leading to the disintegration of the +great ancient centres, to numberless migrations, and to an assumption +of dominion in Mexico by a fierce warrior-race who increased +the number of human sacrifices. It seems significant that it is to +this troublous period in the history of ancient America that the advent +of the Incas in Peru is assigned by native tradition, which +also records the existence of more ancient centres of civilization +situated around the Titicaca lake. The foundation of the Inca empire +is assigned to as late as about 1200 A.D. (see p. <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>, note 1), +and all who compare Plato's scheme for the reëstablishment of the +holy polity of the Magnetes, and the description of the Peruvian +<span class="tei tei-q">“Four in One”</span> state, must admit that the latter constitutes the +most perfect example known, of a community based on those numerical +principles which were considered most perfect by Plato. +At a first glance one might be tempted to conclude that the foreign +civilizers of Peru, the Incas, were acquainted with Plato's twelve-fold +scheme and deliberately established or reëstablished a <span class="tei tei-q">“divine +polity”</span> accordingly, naming it the <span class="tei tei-q">“Four in One”</span> and instituting +the worship of a supreme divinity designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“Earth, Air, +Fire and Water in One,”</span> in consonance with the cosmical theory +said to have been first formulated by Empedocles about B.C. 444, +and adopted by Plato. Reflection shows, however, that no such +conclusion is justifiable until competent authorities have thoroughly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page540">[pg 540]</span><a name="Pg540" id="Pg540" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +investigated and satisfactorily established how far the ideas of +Empedocles and Plato were original and how far they incorporated +older philosophical ideas, such as were preserved by the Egyptian +priesthood or had been disseminated by the Phœnicians.<a id="noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> Nevertheless +it is an undeniable fact that the Inca colony constitutes a +most valuable object-lesson of a <span class="tei tei-q">“cosmical state”</span> founded on +precisely the numerical scheme and principles of organization advocated +by Plato. Reflection shows, moreover, that such a polity +could only have been established and maintained itself during centuries, +in a land free from enemies and amongst docile people <span class="tei tei-q">“apt +for subjection.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A significant result of a critical comparison of the celestial +kingdoms of Peru and Mexico is the perception that, in the former, +as in Egypt, a hereditary sovereignty was exercised by male and +female sacerdotal rulers of a <span class="tei tei-q">“divine line of descent.”</span> On the +other hand we find, in Mexico, a state of affairs in exact accordance +with Montezuma's account of the behavior of his predecessors towards +the lord who had led them and presided over the foundation +of the Mexican empire. During his absence they, his vassals, established +democratical principles and when he returned, having intermarried +with women of the country and founded new cities, they +refused to recognize his authority and let him depart. From Montezuma +himself we learn that, although they thus emancipated +themselves from their former lord, they continued to regard themselves +as dependent and owing allegiance to the mother-city whence +they had come. Until the time of the Conquest, however, they +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page541">[pg 541]</span><a name="Pg541" id="Pg541" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were governed by rulers whom they elected, and who had risen in +rank merely by virtue of their moral and intellectual distinction. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is indeed deeply suggestive and impressive to realize that, in +antiquity as in modern times, the American Continent seems to +have been sought, as a place of refuge, by men whose ideals have +been state institutions founded on democratic principles. The +ancient polities of Mexico and Peru and, what is more, the archaic +Pueblos of to-day, alike furnish examples of conditions, such as +undoubtedly existed in Mediterranean countries in ancient times +and inspired Greek statesmen and philosophers to plan ideal polities, +and must have preceded the creation of the Jewish and early +Christian spiritualized ideal of a New Jerusalem, pervaded throughout +by the Divine Spirit. In conclusion, there are a few points +which I recommend to the consideration of students. Different +writers have, as Prescott summarizes, with certainty discerned in +the highest American civilizations, a Semitic or an Egyptian or an +Asiatic origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This remarkable combination of features, distinctively characteristic +of the said civilizations, actually existed amongst the Phœnicians +who, as Professor Sayce relates, were allied to the Semitic +race, were affected by contact with their cousins the Arameans or +Syrians, penetrated to the coast of India, derived their art from +Babylonia, Egypt, and later from Assyria, and <span class="tei tei-q">“knew how to +combine together the elements it had received and to return them, +modified and improved, to the countries from which they had been +borrowed.”</span> In the case of India and China it is an established +and accepted truth that an active communication existed between +these countries and Asia Minor, which was carried on by a race of +seafarers and colonists. When it is realized that, through them, +distant regions became known and accessible, and that at one time +in the history of Greek philosophy, for instance, statesmen, philosophers +and mathematicians alike rivalled each other in planning +ideal states, based on the identical principle: the harmonizing +of human life with Nature's laws; it seems but rational to infer +that, at different times, bands of enthusiasts, adopting one numerical +scheme in preference to another, and led perhaps by its inventor +or disciples, set out in search of distant countries where +they could undisturbedly establish <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial kingdoms”</span> according +to their ideal plan. To such an enterprise as this I venture to +assign the establishment of the celestial kingdom of China, drawing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page542">[pg 542]</span><a name="Pg542" id="Pg542" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +attention to Biot's statement, cited on p. <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref">298</a>, that year cycles +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the sociological and chronological system since in use) were +introduced there from India, after the Christian era. This being +the case, contrary to the claims of a much greater antiquity by +Chinese scholars, the present form of the <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial kingdom”</span> +appears to date from the arrival in China, from Persia, of Semitic +emigrants, during the first century of our era (see p. <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>), +and to have undergone a certain re-modelling in the first half of the sixth +century, after the arrival of a band of Syrian Christians (p. +<a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pointing out that these dates would make it appear as though +the cyclical systems of India and Eastern Asia had been formulated +under the direct or indirect influence of Greek philosophy, I observe +that the date of their introduction and establishment assigns +them to approximately the same period which produced the numerical +scheme adopted by Constantine, Maya and Mexican calendrical +and chronological scheme. At the period when Constantine +established New Rome and instituted four divisions of the empire, +each divided into thirteen yielding a total of fifty-two prefectures, +there lived in Byzantium a philosopher and rhetorician (315-390 +A.D.) whose name was Themistius and who filled the office +of prefect of Constantinople. It is well known that the attempt +thus to organize the empire proved fruitless and that the proclamation +of Christianity as the religion of his empire by Theodosius I +(379 A.D.) inaugurated a prolonged persecution of pagan religion +and philosophy (see p. <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref">530</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Is it inadmissible to consider at least the possibility that, disappointed +and driven from their land, some of those who clung to the +ancient ideal, and were acquainted with the perfected scheme of +state organization instituted by Constantine during the lifetime +of Themistius, carried it at a later period, to the <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden land”</span> of +the West and established it there, where it was preserved intact +until the time of the Spanish Conquest? Is it by accident only +that one of the names of the capital of ancient Mexico, as preserved +in the writings of Cortés and Bernal Diaz is Temistitan, +literally <span class="tei tei-q">“land of Temis,”</span> the Nahuatl language not furnishing +any meaning to the latter word? Can it be that, just as the word +Teotl, resembling Theos, is found on Mexican soil, employed with +the same meaning as in Greek, the name Temistitan means <span class="tei tei-q">“the +land of established law, order and justice”</span> dedicated to the Greek +Themis, just as New Rome was dedicated to Sofia=Wisdom? Or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page543">[pg 543]</span><a name="Pg543" id="Pg543" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +did some sort of connection exist between the name of the Mexican +capital, the system on which it was established and the philosopher +Themistius? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Is it by chance merely that the state calendar of Temistitan was +based on 4×13=52 divisions, and that Themistius of Byzantium, +a member of that school of philosophy which had evolved +numberless plans and numerical schemes for ideal states, should +have held one of the 4×13=52 prefectures during Constantine's +reign? In order to make the most rapid advance towards a solution +of the great problem of the origin of American civilizations, I +venture to suggest that Orientalists and Americanists should combine +and freshly study it from opposite points of view. One side +might be taken by those who incline to admit the possibility that +a few Phœnician traders discovered the American continent in +ancient times and that, subsequently, those to whom they imparted +their discovery and their successors, the daring Greek navigators, +conveyed thither, at intervals, bands of refugees or enthusiasts who +braved danger and death, in the hope of reaching the blessed land +where, free from persecution, they could found ideal democracies +or divine polities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides studying and adding to the numberless similarities which +have been cited by so many different authorities and to which I +have added a modest contribution, let them produce evidence showing +the improbability that the identical forms of cult, religion, +social organization, calendar cycles and numerical schemes should +have been independently evolved two or more times by distinct +races. On the other hand, let those who hold the view that American +civilization was purely autochthonous, advance grounds for the +supposition that it developed a school of philosophical speculation +and that America produced its Empedocles and its Plato. Let +them also formulate the psychical law which caused the American +race to formulate the four elements, recognized as such by the philosophers +of India and Greece, and not the five of Chinese philosophy; +and to evolve numerical schemes applied to social organization, +identical with those current in India, Western Asia and +the Mediterranean countries, but different from that employed in +China and Japan. It will also be incumbent upon them not only +to disprove American traditions, which record the introduction of +a higher civilization and plans of social organization by strangers, +but also to demonstrate that, although in ancient times, Phœnician +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page544">[pg 544]</span><a name="Pg544" id="Pg544" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +traders carried on an active traffic with Britain, daring the perils +of the Bay of Biscay, they could not possibly have ventured across +the southern Atlantic, even in the most favorable seasons. It has +remained a source of sincere regret to me that circumstances prevented +my attending the Orientalist Congress which met at Rome, +in October, 1899, under the presidency of the illustrious Count +Angelo de Gubernatis, to whom credit is due for having first suggested +and planned that a section of the Congress should devote +itself to the discussion of prehistoric contact or connection between +the Old and New Worlds. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With an apology for my non-attendance and consequent failure +to aid in organizing the section and carrying out a plan which met +with my enthusiastic approval, I venture to submit the present +investigation to the President and officers of the Orientalist Congress +with the earnest hope that it may contain material and +suggestions for fruitful discussions during the next Congress held, +and that these may be carried on in a section devoted to the consideration +of facts relating to prehistoric America and its relation +to the Old World. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Summary and Conclusion.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the preceding pages the view is advanced that the ancient +cross-symbol or swastika was first used by man, presumably in +circumpolar regions, as a record of the opposite positions assumed, +by circumpolar constellations, in performing their nocturnal and +annual circuit around Polaris. Employed as a year sign in the +first case, the cross or swastika later became the symbol of the +Four Quarters, of quadruplicate division and of a stable central +power whose rule extended in four directions and controlled the +entire Heaven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At some remote period of antiquity man developed the idea of +social organization and, in India, ancient Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria, +actual proofs exist that the earliest cities and states were +divided into four quarters, a division involving the distribution of +the population into four tribes under a central chief. Wherever this +division was carried out, it represented an attempt to harmonize +human society and the establishment of the ideal of a religious +democracy, founded on principles of law, order, justice, peace and +good will. The pyramid, a primitive form of which consisted of +four stories, and cruciform sacred structures, may be regarded as +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page545">[pg 545]</span><a name="Pg545" id="Pg545" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +monuments commemorating a cosmical and territorial organization +into four parts. The more extended conception of seven directions +in space, consisting of the Above and Below, or Heaven and Earth, +the Four Quarters and the sacred Middle, the synopsis of all, was +also evolved. In the confederations of India and Iran, and Arabia, +in the seven-storied towers of Babylonia, and in the division of +the Egyptians into seven classes, we find the earliest traces of a +practical application of this numerical division. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ancient historical records of Egypt and Greece reveal that, +in the earliest polities, the population was divided into groups consisting +of a fixed number of individuals, officially represented by +chieftains, or officers of the state, and that, in consequence, a state +formed a unit, constituted according to a mathematical scheme, +which was also applied to the regulation of time. Each officer of +the state held office for a fixed term, in a prescribed order of rotation. +The year was divided into a fixed number of seasons, marked +by the positions of a circumpolar constellation, and this therefore +appeared to regulate not only the cycle of time but the governmental +rotation of office and the entire activity of the community. +Starting from a common basis of quadruplicate division in different +countries, a great variety of constitutions of state was independently +invented by statesmen and philosophers, who devised cycles +produced by different combinations of numbers and signs, the object +being to regulate time and communal life in imitation of the law, +order and harmony existing in the motion of the stars and under the +guidance of a supreme ruler, the earthly representative of Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The origin of these ideas and governmental scheme, in the Old +World, is assigned by competent authorities to a northern race +which had discovered the art of fire-making and evolved a religious +cult and ritual suggested by it, in association with pole-star worship. +Their civilization is supposed to have been developed by contact +with a southern race, in Phrygia, and to have been carried at a +remote period by their seafaring descendants to India, Asia Minor, +Egypt and beyond the pillars of Hercules, to European countries, +situated on the Atlantic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The present investigation brings into prominence the fact that, +just as the older Andean art closely resembles that of the early +Mediterranean, an observation first made by Prof. F. W. Putnam,<a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page546">[pg 546]</span><a name="Pg546" id="Pg546" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +so the fundamental principles, numerical scheme and plan of the +state founded by the foreign Incas in Peru, resembled those formulated +by Plato in his description of an ideal state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a remarkable fact, on which the writer lays utmost stress, +that, whereas there is a marked difference between the Chinese and +the Mexican and Peruvian divisions of the elements and numerical +cycles, the American systems exactly agree with those propounded +by Greek philosophers and said to have reached them from more +ancient centres of culture, presumably through the Phœnicians. +On the other hand, there undoubtedly exist remarkable analogies +between the Chinese and Hindu and Mexican sociological, chronological, +cyclical systems, their principles being precisely the +same. These close analogies as well as the marked divergences +which have been noted can only be satisfactorily accounted for +by the assumption that each of these countries derived their civilization +from the same source. Over and over again different writers +have pointed out undeniable analogies and resemblances between +the highest forms of American civilization and that of China, India, +Asia Minor, the Mediterranean and Western European countries. +At the same time modern research has shown that the seafarers, +whom we shall conveniently designate as the Phœnicians, acted as +the intermediaries of ancient Old World civilization and formulated +a culture which incorporated and formed a curious compound of +elements drawn from different countries and people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While investigation, moreover, reveals that the conquest of +Phœnicia and intermittent periods of warfare and persecution +directed against the religion and democratic principles of its people, +must have furnished the most powerful incentive for them to +extend their voyages of discovery and seek distant lands where +colonies might be established. It is obvious that, if safe places +of refuge were found, their existence would remain a secret and +that, in course of time, a complete isolation of distant colonies +would result. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering that it would be premature to formulate a final conclusion +on a subject which demands so much more investigation, +I merely observe here that, as far as I can see, the conditions +which existed and survive amongst the aborigines of America +would be fully accounted for by the assumption that they received +certain elements of culture and civilization from Mediterranean +seafarers who, at widely separated, critical periods of Old World +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page547">[pg 547]</span><a name="Pg547" id="Pg547" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +history, may have transported refugees and would-be colonists or +founders of ideal republics and <span class="tei tei-q">“divine polities”</span> to different +parts of the hidden or divine land of <span class="tei tei-q">“the West,”</span> the existence of +which was known by tradition to the Egyptian priesthood. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under such circumstances it is apparent how the American Continent +could have become an isolated area of preservation where +archaic and primitive forms of civilization, religious cult, symbolism +and industries, drawn at different epochs, from various, more +or less important centres or from the outposts of Old World culture, +would be handed down, transformed through the active and +increasing influence of the native elements. The latter must +always have been markedly predominant since it must be assumed, +if at all, that the number of individuals who reached +America, and the subsequent duration of their lives, must have +been extremely limited. What is more, as Montezuma related +that the colonists, from whom he descended, married native women, +it is obvious that, from the outset, foreign and native influences +were combined. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There was one main element, however, underlying both foreign +and native civilizations, which formed the basis of both, united and +made them as one, namely, the recognition of fixed immutable laws +governing the universe, attained, by both races, by long-continued +observation of Polaris and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Northern”</span> constellations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To me the most precious result of the preceding investigation is +the gradual recognition that the entire intellectual, moral and religious +evolution of mankind has been the result of the fixed laws +which govern the universe. From the time when our world began +to revolve in space, at intervals, a luminous point of fixity in +space has existed and an unknown force, irresistible as that which +controls the magnetic needle and gyrostat,<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href="#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> appears to have raised +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page548">[pg 548]</span><a name="Pg548" id="Pg548" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the mind of man from ignorance and darkness and guided his footsteps +towards a higher scale of existence and a more elevated conception +of a supreme central power. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From this, amongst favored races, the higher conception of an +invisible supreme deity seems to have been gradually developed by +the human mind, as it rose in the scale of spiritual evolution. To +many, the idea that it was the observation of the stars and the recognition +of the fixity of Polaris which first led man to realize the +existence of immutable laws, and of a supreme celestial power +ruling the universe and to form the sacred sign of the cross, will +appear as the fulfilment of the text in Genesis, which expressly +mentions as the first, and therefore chief, purpose for which the +lights in the firmament were created, that <span class="tei tei-q">“they should be for +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">signs</span></em> and portents, for seasons, for days and years ... and +for lights.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When we realize that all revolving spheres in space, and the +beings that may live upon them, have been, are, or shall be subject +to the same conditions as govern our tiny world, forcing their intellectual +evolution to proceed in parallel lines to ours, we are +compelled to recognize the existence of One Great Plan, and to render +reverent homage to the Master-Architect of the Universe. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page549">[pg 549]</span><a name="Pg549" id="Pg549" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="Appendix_I" id="Appendix_I" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> +<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix I. +Comparative Table of some Quechua, Nahuatl and +Maya Words.</span></h1> + +<a name="Pg550" id="Pg550" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Quechua.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Nahuatl.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maya.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">hatun=great. pacha=time, name of annual harvest festival.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">huey=great. pachtli=name of annual harvest festival.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">pax=name of festival in which prayers were offered to obtain + abundant harvest.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">yacu and unu=water.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">atl=water.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">haa=water. aak=moist. aakal=lagoon. yachhaa=canal, + stream of water.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">pihi-huy=first born.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">pil-conetl=infant son. pilli=nobleman, or son. pilhua=he who has sons. + pilli=the fingers.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">all=good.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">qualli=good.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ycacha= frequentative. ahua=to spin or weave. + ahua-ycacha=to spin continuously. ticpac=to lie mouth upwards. + ticnu=the zenith.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">mala-cachoa, verb, to spin or twist or turn something around continuously. + malacatl=spindle. icpac=to be on the top of something high. + ticatla=midnight.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">cosca=things that are alike, necklace.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">cozcatl=beads, strung precious stones, metaphorically used to designate one's + children.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">maqui or maki=hand. makip-pampa=palm of hand. pampa=name for plain.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">maitl=hand. macpalli=palm of hand. pan=affix, meaning upon, above.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kab=hand. tankab=palm of hand.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">humihua=small vessel.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">comitl=earthen vessel.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">cum=earthen vessel. hooch=vessel in general.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">hunu and huni=a number, a division of men, ten thousand (Markham). + hunu=all.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">hun=one. hunkinchil=one. count=10×100,000.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">palla=woman of noble birth.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tlapalli-eztli=nobility of blood or lineage (metaphor).</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">pallca=the fingers, or branches of a tree (Chinchaysuyo dialect.)</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tlapalli=color or dye. tlapaloloni=worthy of being reverenced + and saluted. tlapaliui=able-bodied, marriageable young man. + atlapalli=wing of a bird, leaf of tree. cuitlapilli, atlapalli=metaphor + signifying the people and servants of the state, literally the tail and + wing of a bird.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">pal, pa'al, palal, palil=child, boy, servant.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page551">[pg 551]</span><a name="Pg551" id="Pg551" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is quite obvious how this metaphor came to be employed. The words +for tail and wing respectively terminate with pilli the word designating +nobleman, the upper class, and palli, signifying the lower class, women, +boys, servants. The head of the bird signified the chief and the two +eyes and two halves of the beak conveyed the idea of duality, or two in +one. +There are indications that the right foot, with its four claws, symbolized +the four chief rulers of the Above and the left foot the four rulers +of the Below. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The control of the feet and entire body was, of course, assigned to the +head. It is only when the full metaphorical significance of the eagle, as +an emblem of the state, is understood, that the meaning of the eagle in +the arms of Mexico and the native bird symbolism begin to become apparent. +I have shown that in Peru and Yucatan the word for head was +synonymous for chief. It remains to be ascertained how far the same +symbolism prevailed throughout the American Continent and whether in +other cases the words for bird, wings, tail and claws are homonymous or +synonymous for the state and its divisions. Amongst the Zuñis the State +and entire scheme of organization is associated with the imaginary form +of a quadruped and in Mexico there are indications that at one time the +human form was regarded as an emblem of the State and its subdivisions. +This subject is referred to more fully in the text. +</p> + +<a name="Pg552" id="Pg552" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg553" id="Pg553" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg554" id="Pg554" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg555" id="Pg555" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Quechua.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Nahuatl.</span></span></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maya.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Uira-cocha=name of mythical personage and title of Creator.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">In the native harangues the Supreme Being is referred to as being + like an unfathomable abyss. ixachicatlan=abyss. ixachi=great, much.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">cochca=coch-allpa=fallow land, <span class="tei tei-q">“tierra de descanso”</span>: literally, land + that is resting.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">cochi=to sleep. tlacochcalli= literally house of rest, burial towers.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">cuchil=place or town. ah-cuch-cab=the chief or ruler of a town or + place.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">collana= excellent, principal, sovereign, first and best of each + species.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">collanan ayllu=royal line, name used by the Incas. + coya=princess of royal blood, virgin, queen.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">coyauac=something broad, like a spring of water or a + window<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href="#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">hapichi=title, meaning the collector of produce, he who collects + or gathers in.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tlapixqui=title of some priests, literally, he who gathers in the harvest. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cf.</span></span> pixquitl=harvest, etc.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">piz=measure, quantity. pizil=to measure.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">tiani=to sit down. tiyana=seat of honor such as were employed as mark of + chieftainship. huahua-tiana=matrix. tiya-chicu=to be selling something in + the public square. tiyachi=to offer or place something in the public square + to be sold or exchanged. micuy=food.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tiacauan=brave men, strong warriors. tiyacapan=first-born. + tiyacapanyotl=the right of primogeniture and property. + tianquiztli=market, also place or square where market was held. + tiamiquiztli=act of buying or selling. + tiamictli=merchandise.<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tialtic= appurtenance, right of possession.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">in-ti or in-tin=the sun.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tona-ti-uh=the sun, literally, that which shines.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kin=the sun.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">mitimaes=name for colonists.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">ce-mitime=sons of one mother.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">tayta=father. mama=mother. huarmi=woman. + Mama-ciuaco=name of a female ruler of royal blood, mother + of Inca Rocca.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tatli=father. ta-tzin=father, reverential form. nantli=mother. + nantzin=reverential form. cihuatl=woman. mama=verb, to rule.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">uma=literally, the head, title of priest. Ingua or Inca=title + of Peruvian ruler.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">ome, literally two, title of head priest, for instance: ome acatl, + ome tochtli. quaitl=head. in-quaitl=the head. qua=abbreviation for quaitl + (see Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ix</span></span>, + chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxix</span></span>, par. 6).</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">hool, ppool or pul, head, chieftain, beginning.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tonapa=name of culture hero who established Inca civilization at Tiahuanaco, + erected large cross, etc., made his way to the ocean and departed.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">tonal pouhque=diviner or soothsayer, from verb tonalpoa=to divine by signs + or count festivals by ancient calendar (Molina dictionary). + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cf.</span></span> tonal-mitl=ray of sun; literally, sun's + arrow, from tona-tiuh=sun. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cf.</span></span> + tona-catzon=the ancient men, or the ruins.</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ticsi=foundation. ticsik=founder. tecci-muyu-pacha=the entire world or + universe.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">icxitl=foot. icxinecuiltic=a lame person. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cf.</span></span> name + of Ursa Major. qua= tecciztle= literally: <span class="tei tei-q">“heads decorated with + shell.”</span>=disciples of Quetzalcoatl <span class="tei tei-q">“who called themselves sons of the + sun and toltecas.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cf.</span></span> Ticitl=medicine man or + woman, astrologer or divines, who employed the pearl-oyster shell + tici-caxitl, for divinatory purposes. yoal-ticitl=title of earth-mother, or + ancestress of human race, whose symbol was a sea-snail=tecciztli.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Pacha-Yachachic=title of Supreme Being or Creator translated as pacha=world, + time. paccha=spider. yachachic=the teacher from yacha=to learn with affix + chi, means to teach, like ru-rachi=to cause others to make something). + Pachacamac=title of Creator.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">pachoa=verb, to rule or govern others. yacana=to guide others, to govern a + town, to lead the blind. paccamachtia=to teach cheerfully and with patience. + amanteca=skilled artisans.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">am=spider. aman=North. ah-men=he who builds. ah-pakcah=he who founds a town + and peoples it.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">pa-chac-an or pa-cha-ca=title of officer of the Inca. ccapac=title of + supreme ruler; ccapac apu, male ruler; ccapac ccoya=female ruler.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">yaca-tecuhtli, title of the god of the travellers or merchants, literally + meaning the lord who guides, governs or leads. The names of his five + brothers were Chiconquiauitl, Xomocuitl, Nacxitl, Cochimetl, Yacapitzauac. + The sister who completed the group of seven, was named Chalmeca-ciuatl + (Sahagun, op. cit. Book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, chap. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xix</span></span>). This god and his six brethren, to whom + the merchants offered sacrifices when they had safely returned + from their perilous and long expeditions, doubtlessly were Polaris and the + Ursa Minor or Major.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">bacab=title of the rulers of the four provinces or quarters. chac=title of + four assistants of high priest.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page556">[pg 556]</span><a name="Pg556" id="Pg556" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="Appendix_II" id="Appendix_II" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> +<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix II. +A Prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sook-es-Shookh, on the river Euphrates, in the Mesopotamian +villayet, though an interesting spot, is not an imposing or attractive +place. Like most of the townlets in this part of Asia Minor, +it is just a straggling, overgrown village, a few one-storied plastered +houses, with flat roofs and narrow doorways, dotted here +and there, a number of wattled and mud-daubed huts huddled irregularly +about, a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mesjid</span></span>, of course, a khan or caravanserai, and +one or two open spaces with the inevitable refuse and rubbish heaps, +where a bazar or market is held on Fridays. It looks, however, +picturesque and peaceful enough, as we ride into it, in the deepening +twilight of a late September evening. The stars are beginning +already to twinkle overhead, but there is still sufficient light +left to note the strange, white-robed figures moving stealthily about +in the semi-gloom down by the riverside. Clad in long snowy garments, +reaching nearly to the ground, they pass to and fro near +the edge of the water, some wading into mid-stream, while the +sound of a strange salutation exchanged in a strange tongue, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Sood +Havilakh</span></span>, strikes oddly upon the ear long accustomed to the ordinary +salutation, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Selam Alekum</span></span>, of the Arab-speaking Moslemin. +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Paderha Sutekh</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“their fathers were burned,”</span> cries +our Persian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Charvadar</span></span> +and guide in disgust, as he catches a glimpse of the +white-robed figures, thus delicately hinting that they are not followers +of Islam; and a Jew from Hamadan who accompanies our +party, on his way to the tomb of Ezekiel, deliberately spits upon +the ground and exclaims, in pure Hebrew, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Obde +kokhabim umazaloth</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“servants of the stars and planets.”</span> And the Hebrew is not +wrong. The forms gathering by the riverside in the twilight are +those of <span class="tei tei-q">“Star-worshippers,”</span> the last remnants of the famous +magi of ancient Chaldea, and their followers, the Babylonian adorers +of the host of heaven. To the number of about four thousand in +all, they still survive in their Mesopotamian native land, principally +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page557">[pg 557]</span><a name="Pg557" id="Pg557" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +along the banks of the Euphrates river, where they form small +village communities. They invariably keep their settlements somewhere +near a stream, for their religious rites and ceremonies are +preceded by frequent bathings and ablutions, and a rill of flowing +water passing near or through their tabernacle or meeting-place is +indispensable. Hence this edifice is always raised quite close to +the river. They call themselves <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mandaya</span></span>, Mandaïtes, possessors +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“word,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“living word,”</span> keep strictly to their own customs +and observances and language, and never intermarry with +Moslems, who call them <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sabba</span></span>, Sabeans. Their dialect is a remnant +of the later Babylonian, and resembles closely the idiom of +the Palestinian Talmud, and their liturgy is a compound of fragments +of the ancient Chaldean cosmogony with gnostic mysticism +influenced by later superstitions. They are a quiet and inoffensive +people noted, oddly enough, for the quality of their dairy produce +in the villages, and for their skill as metal workers and goldsmiths +in the towns where they reside. Their principal settlement is, or +was, at Mardin, in the Bagdad district; but there has always been +a small community of them at Sook-es-Shookh, on the banks of +their favorite stream, the Euphrates. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It happens to be the festival of the Star-worshippers celebrated +on the last day of the year and known as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kanshio Zahlo</span></span>, or +day of renunciation. This is the eve of the new year, the great +watch-night of the sect, when the annual prayer-meeting is held +and a solemn sacrifice made to Avather Ramo, the Judge of the +under world, and Ptahiel, his colleague; and the white-robed figures +we observe down by the riverside are those of members of +the sect making the needful preparations for the prayer-meeting +and its attendant ceremonies. First, they have to erect their +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishkna</span></span>, their tabernacle or outdoor temple; for the sect has, +strange to say, no permanent house of worship or meeting-place, +but raise one previous to their festival and only just in time for +the celebration. And this is now what they are busy doing within +a few yards of the water, as we ride into the place. The elders, +in charge of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">shkando</span></span>, or deacon, who directs them, are gathering +bundles of long reeds and wattles, which they weave quickly and +deftly into a sort of basket work. An oblong space is marked out +about sixteen feet long and twelve broad by stouter reeds, which +are driven firmly into the ground close together, and then tied with +strong cord. To these the squares of woven reeds and wattles are +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page558">[pg 558]</span><a name="Pg558" id="Pg558" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +securely attached, forming the outer containing walls of the tabernacle. +The side walls run from north to south, and are not more +than seven feet high. Two windows, or rather openings for windows, +are left east and west, and space for a door is made on the +southern side, so that the priest when entering the edifice has the +North Star, the great object of their adoration, immediately facing +him. An altar of beaten earth is raised in the centre of the +reed-encircled enclosure, and the interstices of the walls well +daubed with clay and soft earth, which speedily hardens. On one +side of the altar is placed a little furnace of dark earthenware, and +on the other a little handmill, such as is generally used in the East +for grinding meal, together with a small quantity of charcoal. +Close to the southern wall, a circular basin is now excavated in +the ground, about eight feet across, and from the river a short +canal or channel is dug leading to it. Into this the water flows +from the stream, and soon fills the little reservoir to the brim. +Two tiny cabins or huts, made also of reeds and wickerwork, each +just large enough to hold a single person, are then roughly put +together, one by the side of the basin of water, the other at the further +extremity of the southern wall, beyond the entrance. The second +of these cabins or huts is sacred to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span> or high priest +of the Star-worshippers, and no layman is ever allowed to even so +much as touch the walls with his hands after it is built and placed +in position. The doorway and window openings of the edifice are +now hung with white curtains; and long before midnight, the hour +at which the prayer meeting commences, the little <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishkna</span></span>, or +tabernacle open to the sky, is finished and ready for the solemnity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Towards midnight the Star-worshippers, men and women, come +slowly down to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishkna</span></span> by the riverside. Each, as he or she +arrives, enters the tiny wattled hut by the southern wall, disrobes +and bathes in the little circular reservoir, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmido</span></span>, or +priest, standing by and pronouncing over each the formula, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Eshmo +d'haï, Eshmo d'manda haï madhkar elakh</span></span>”</span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“The name of the +living one, the name of the living word, be remembered upon thee”</span>). +On emerging from the water, each one robes himself or herself in +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rasta</span></span>, that is, the ceremonial white garments peculiar to the +Star-worshippers, consisting of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sadro</span></span>, a long white shirt +reaching to the ground; a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nassifo</span></span>, or stole, round the neck +falling to the knees; a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hiniamo</span></span>, or girdle of woollen material; +a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gabooa</span></span>, square head-piece +reaching to the eyebrows; a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">shalooal</span></span>, or white overmantle +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page559">[pg 559]</span><a name="Pg559" id="Pg559" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">kanzolo</span></span>, or turban, wound round the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">gabooa</span></span> head-piece, +of which one end is left hanging down over the shoulder. +Peculiar sanctity attaches to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rasta</span></span>, for the garments composing +it are those in which every Star-worshipper is buried, and in which +he believes he will appear for judgment before Avather in the +nether world <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Materotho</span></span>. Each one, as soon as he is thus attired, +crosses to the open space in front of the door of the tabernacle, +and seats himself upon the ground there, saluting those present +with the customary <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sood Havilakh</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessing be with thee,”</span> +and receiving in return the usual reply, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assootah d'haï havilakh</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Blessing of the living one be with thee.”</span> The numbers increase +as the hour of the ceremonial comes nearer, and by midnight +there are some twenty rows of these white-robed figures, men +and women, ranked in orderly array facing the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishkna</span></span>, and +waiting in silent expectation the coming of the priests. A couple +of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmidos</span></span>, lamp in hand, guard the entry to the tabernacle, and +keep their eyes fixed upon the pointers of the Great Bear in the +sky above. As soon as these attain the position indicating midnight, +the priests give a signal by waving the lamps they hold, and +in a few moments the clergy of the sect march down in procession. +In front are four of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">shkandos</span></span>, young deacons, attired in the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rasta</span></span>, with the addition of a silk +cap, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tagha</span></span>, under the turban, +to indicate their rank. Following these come four <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmidos</span></span>, +ordained priests who have undergone the baptism of the dead. Each wears +a gold ring on the little finger of the right hand, and carries a tau-shaped +cross of olive wood to show his standing. Behind the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmidos</span></span> +comes the spiritual head of the sect, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span>, a priest +elected by his colleagues, who has made complete renunciation +of the world and is regarded as one dead and in the realms of +the blessed. He is escorted by four other deacons. One holds +aloft the large wooden tau-cross, known as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">derashvod zivo</span></span>, that +symbolizes his religious office; a second bears the sacred scriptures +of the Star-worshippers, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sidra Rabba</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“the great Order,”</span> +two-thirds of which form the liturgy of the living and one-third the +ritual of the dead. The third of the deacons carries two live +pigeons in a cage, and the last a measure of barley and of sesame +seeds. The procession marches through the ranks of the seated +worshippers, who bend and kiss the garments of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span> as +he passes near them. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmidos</span></span>, guarding the entrance to the +tabernacle, draw back the hanging over the doorway and the priests +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page560">[pg 560]</span><a name="Pg560" id="Pg560" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +file in, the deacons and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmidos</span></span> to the right and left, leaving +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span> standing alone in the centre, in front of the earthen +altar facing the North Star, Polaris. The sacred book, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sidra Rabba</span></span>, +is laid upon the altar folded back where the liturgy of the living +is divided from the ritual of the dead. The high priest takes one +of the live pigeons handed to him by a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">shkando</span></span>, extends his hand +towards the Polar Star upon which he fixes his eyes, and lets the +bird fly, calling aloud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bshmo d'haï rabba mshabbah zivo kadmaya +Elaha Edmen Nafshi Eprah</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“In the name of the living one, +blessed be the primitive light, the ancient light, the Divinity self-created.”</span> +The words, clearly enunciated within, are distinctly +heard by the worshippers without, and with one accord the white-robed +figures rise from their places and prostrate themselves upon +the ground towards the North Star, on which they have silently +been gazing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Noiselessly the worshippers resume their seated position on the +ground outside. Within the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishkna</span></span>, or tabernacle, +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span> +steps on one side, and his place is immediately taken by the senior +priest, a tarmido, who opens the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sidra Rabba</span></span> before him on the +altar and begins to read the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shomhotto</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“confession”</span> of the +sect, in a modulated chant, his voice rising and falling as he reads, and +ever and anon terminating in a loud and swelling <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mshobbo havi +eshmakhyo Manda d'haï</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed be thy name, O source of life,”</span> +which the congregants without take up and repeat with bowed +heads, their hands covering their eyes. While the reading is in +progress two other priests turn, and prepare the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peto elayat</span></span>, or +high mystery, as they term their Communion. One kindles a charcoal +fire in the earthenware stove by the side of the altar, and the other +grinds small some of the barley brought by the deacon. He then +expresses some oil from the sesame seed, and, mixing the barley +meal and oil, prepares a mass of dough which he kneads and separates +into small cakes, the size of a two-shilling piece. These are +quickly thrust into or on the oven and baked, the chanting of the +liturgy of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shomhotto</span></span> still proceeding with its steady sing-song +and response, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo</span></span>, from outside. The fourth +of the tarmidos now takes the pigeon left in the cage from the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">shkando</span></span>, or deacon, standing near him, and cuts its throat quickly +with a very sharp knife, taking care that no blood is lost. The +little cakes are then brought to him by his colleague, and, still +holding the dying pigeon, he strains its neck over them in such a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page561">[pg 561]</span><a name="Pg561" id="Pg561" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +way that four drops fall on each one so as to form the sacred <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tau</span></span>, +or cross. Amid the continued reading of the liturgy, the cakes are +carried round to the worshippers outside by the two principal priests +who prepared them, who themselves pop them direct into the +mouths of the members, with the words <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rshimot bereshm d'haï</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Marked be thou with the mark of the living one.”</span> The four +deacons inside the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishkna</span></span> walk round to the rear of the altar and +dig a little hole, in which the body of the dead pigeon is then +buried. The chanting of the confession is now closed by the officiating +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmido</span></span>, and the high priest, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span>, +resuming his former place in front of the Sacred Book, begins the recitation of +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Massakhto</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“renunciation”</span> of the dead, ever directing +his prayers towards the North Star, on which the gaze of the worshippers +outside continues fixed throughout the whole of the ceremonial +observances and prayers. This star is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Olma d'nhoora</span></span>, literally +<span class="tei tei-q">“the world of light,”</span> the primitive sun of the Star-worshippers +theogony, the paradise of the elect, and the abode of the pious +hereafter. For three hours the reading of the <span class="tei tei-q">“renunciation ”</span> by +the high priest continues, interrupted only, ever and anon, by the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed be thy name,”</span> of the +participants seated outside, until, towards dawn, a loud and ringing <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ano +asborlakh ano asborli ya Avather</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“I mind me of thee, mind thou +of me O Avather,”</span> comes from the mouth of the priest, and signalizes +the termination of the prayers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before the North Star fades in the pale ashen grey of approaching +dawn, a sheep, penned over night near the river, is led into the +tabernacle by one of the four <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">shkandos</span></span> for sacrifice to Avather +and his companion deity, Ptahiel. It is a wether, for the Star-worshippers +never kill ewes, or eat their flesh when killed. The +animal is laid upon some reeds, its head west and its tail east, the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro</span></span> behind it facing the Star. He first pours water over his +hands, then over his feet, the water being brought to him by a +deacon. One of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tarmidos</span></span> takes up a position at his elbow and +places his hand on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro's</span></span> shoulder, +saying, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ana shaddakh</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“I bear witness.”</span> The high priest bends towards the North Star, +draws a sharp knife from his left side, and reciting the formula, +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the name of Alaha, Ptahiel created thee, Hibel Sivo permitted +thee, and it is I who slay thee,”</span> cuts the sheep's throat from ear to +ear, and allows the blood to escape on to the matted reeds upon +which the animal is stretched out. The four deacons go outside, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page562">[pg 562]</span><a name="Pg562" id="Pg562" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +wash their hands and feet, then flay the sheep, and cut it into as +many portions as there are communicants outside. The pieces are +now distributed among the worshippers, the priests leave the tabernacle +in the same order as they came, and with a parting benediction +from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ganzivro, Assootad d'haï havilakh</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“The benison +of the living one attend thee,”</span> the prayer-meeting terminates, and +the Star-worshippers quietly return to their homes before the crimson +sun has time to peep above the horizon.<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page563">[pg 563]</span><a name="Pg563" id="Pg563" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="Appendix_III" id="Appendix_III" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> +<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix III. Comparative Lists of Words.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAU or YU=the source or origin, the Chinese character for which +figures a square or circle divided into four by crossed horizontal and perpendicular +lines, the latter projecting above the square or circle.<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAOU and YU=mythical emperors who instituted the celestial kingdom, +see p. <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref">298</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAOU SING=<span class="tei tei-q">“Revolving Star”</span> in Ursa Major. China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +UI or HWEI=verb to turn around. Chinese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YUL, YEUL, YEOL=wheel (Icelandic hjol, O. Swedish hiugl, Swedish +hjul). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HVEL=disk, orb. Iceland. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +WUOTAN=ODIN=supreme divinity. Scandinavia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +JOVLA=sacred hearth fire of Northern Finns, under guardianship of +mother of family. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +JOVIS=Roman supreme divinity, associated with wheel. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAHWE=Hebrew name for God, translated as <span class="tei tei-q">“heaven,”</span> was pronounced +Yahu. According to the Masoretes must be read Yeho (Yăhu). +The early Gnostics wrote Iao, that is Yaho (Sayce). The four consonants +yhvh, pronounced Yahveh, constituted the sacred Tetragrammaton, +or four lettered name of the Most High. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Archbishop Tenison says (Idolat. p. 404): <span class="tei tei-q">“This name was no mystery +among the Greeks, as is evident from the mention of the god Ieuo in +Sanchoniathon; Jaho in St. Hiersm, and the Sibylline Oracles; Jaoth or +Jaho in Irenaeus; of the Hebrew God called Jaoia by the Gnostics; of +Jaou in Clemens Alexandrinus, of Jao the first principle of the Gnostic +Heaven in Epiphanius; the God of Moses in Diodorus Siculus; the god +Bacchus in the oracle of Apollo Clarius; lastly, as was said, of the +Samaritan Jabe, in Theodoret.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YEUD EKHAD=name of supreme god of Phœnicians the Red people +(Sayce). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page564">[pg 564]</span><a name="Pg564" id="Pg564" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YOUALLI-EHECATL, literally, night or circling-air or wind=supreme +god of the Chichimecs (see p. <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>), a Mexican ruling tribe whose +name signifies the red lineage or people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAHUAL-TECUHTLI or YOUAL-TECUHTLI=the Lord of the +circle or of the Night, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> North-star god, supreme divinity. +Mexico, see p. <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YALAHUA=Tzendal deity, p. <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YANAULUHA=Zuñi deity, p. <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref">223</a>. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{IO, IOVANA, IELLA, IOCAHUNA=names for god.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{HUIOU=sun.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{HUIOO or HUIHO=mountain. Haïti.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{YOLI, YULI=verb, to live, resuscitate, vivify.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">{OLLIN=<span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“motion.”</span> Nahuatl.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">YAUALLI=to walk in a circle many times. Nahuatl.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">YOUALLI=night. Nahuatl.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">HUE=egg. Maya.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +II. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SHAME=heaven. Babylonian-Assyrian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SAMA=heaven. Græco-Persian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SAMA or SHAMA=north. Arabic (Al Kaukabal Shamaliyy=star of +the North; Al Kulbal Shamaliyy=the northern axle or spindle). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMAN=verb to sustain. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMAXA=name for Ursa Major=a chariot. Greek. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SAMAS or SHAMASH=Babylonian-Assyrian god, <span class="tei tei-q">“the universal +judge,”</span> whose image was wheel with four rays (see pp. <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a> +and <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +Ramman. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +BAAL-SHAMAYUN=supreme god. Phœnicia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMASIS=Egyptian god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KAMOSH=god of Moabites, p. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAM or KHAM=name for northern Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMANTINI=an Illyrian tribe. Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +BR-AHMA=supreme god. India (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Yama).<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +BR-AHMANAS=priestly caste. India. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page565">[pg 565]</span><a name="Pg565" id="Pg565" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ARYAMAN=star-god associated with Mitra-Yaruna, Ursa Major and +number seven. In Zendavesta is associated with Ashvino-ritual. India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMA or AME=heaven. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KAMI=deity, top, above. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +O-KAMI=the honorable government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAMA=mountain. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAMATO=main island of Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMA-NO-MA-HITOTSU=<span class="tei tei-q">“Eye of Heaven,”</span> name for Pole-star. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AME-NO-MI-NAKA-NUSHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven, +first Japanese <span class="tei tei-q">“hidden”</span> god.<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AME-NO-TOKO-TACHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-standing-eternally-in-heaven, +hidden god; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +Kuni-no-toko-tachi-no-kami=Deity-standing-eternally-on-earth. +Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMEN-RA=hidden god. Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AHA-MENA or MENES=historical founder of kingdom=<span class="tei tei-q">“the Constant +One.”</span> Egypt; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> menu=monuments; smen=to establish. +Egyptian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MINYŒ, MINYANS or MINŒANS=race who traced descent from +Minos=the measurer (Men=measurer); great agricultural and building +race in India, Arabia and Egypt. Measured time by circumpolar constellations; +became confederates of Sabæans; conquered Phrygia, built +Mycenæ (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMUN=national god of Ammonites. Amun means the builder or architect +and is, like the name of Egyptian god, formed of amān, to sustain. +He was the god of the meridian and of the central house-pole, sustaining +roof who, in Egypt, became Amen-ra (Sayce and Gesenius, quoted by +Hewitt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>). The supreme god of the Ammonites was Nāgash, the +constellation of Ursa Major (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMAN or XAMAN (pron. Haman)=north. Maya, Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AH-MEN=master builder, handicraftsman; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Menah or +Menyah=artificer, +artisan, builder, handicraftsman; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> verb men=to build, +found, establish, erect, also menta'al=to govern. Maya, p. <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMAN-TECA=name used in ancient Mexico to designate master-handicraftsmen, +synonym of Tolteca. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AMAUTAS=name given in Peru to the <span class="tei tei-q">“wise men”</span> who introduced +civilization. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +III. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AN=heaven, god. Babylonian Assyrian (p. <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref">331</a>). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page566">[pg 566]</span><a name="Pg566" id="Pg566" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ANA=heaven. Sumerian, Akkadian,<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Akanna=Ursa Major, Akkadian, +see p. <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AN and ANNU=names of celestial and terrestrial sacred central cities. +Egypt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> an=pillar or that which turns around. According to +Flinders Petrie, the an was an octagonal fluted column with a square tenon or top. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MANU=sacred mountain situated in N. W. Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KW-AN-IRAS=sacred central cosmical division situated under pole-star, +around which the six kingdoms of Iran were situated. Persia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CANAAN=holy land, whose capital was Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AN-SHAN=name of ancient Persian empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AN-SHAR=supreme god. Assyria, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Nannar, pp. +<a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a> and <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AN-SAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Anubis also Anu and +Anath, Janus and Jana. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Z-AN=old Doric form of Zeus, hence Janus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SHANG=heaven, the Above. China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KAN=mountain, also Yo. China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ALKAID=star in Ursa Major, also used for moon; origin of Spanish +title Alcalde. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ALKABIR=the Great. Early Arabic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KA=surnamed the Great. Kushite father of life, the hidden god who +guards and distributes, at the appointed seasons, the life-giving rains +(Hewitt).<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KA=title of Egyptian king, usually rendered by <span class="tei tei-q">“bull.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KHAN=a prince. Tartary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KHAKAN=an emperor or sovereign. Persia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAN=name for empire. Japan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ken, imperial domain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HANA=flower or blossom. Japanese, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ankh=flower, Egyptian +and anthos=flower, Greek. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ANGLI or ANGRIWARII=widely diffused, great northern race, mentioned +by Tacitus and Ptolemy. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page567">[pg 567]</span><a name="Pg567" id="Pg567" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CA-AN=heaven. Maya, Yucatan, see pp. <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref">278</a> and +<a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CANAL=Above. Maya, Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CAN=title of culture-hero: KUKUL-CAN=the divine can, homonym +of can=serpent. Maya, Yucatan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ZIUVA-CAAN=Colony founded in Yucatan, by Holon-chan-te=Peuh. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ANAHUAC: name of Mexican empire, usually loosely translated as a=water, +nahuac=by the water. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To this list should be added the following affixes or prefixes, denoting, +in each case, <span class="tei tei-q">“place, land or region of.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Egyptian: ta, for instance meh-ta or mah-ta=north; amen-ta=hidden +region, N. W. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Chinese: kwan=earth, land. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Persian: Kwan-iras or Hvan-iras=the name for Iran=<span class="tei tei-q">“land of +Iran”</span>? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Japanese: han=empire, ken=domain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Maya: tan, for instance Aman-tan or Xaman-tan=North. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nahuatl: an, tlan or can, <span class="tei tei-q">“land of, also mountain.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Zuñi: wan=place of, for instance Halona-wan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IV. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AK=Middle. Egypt, p. <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref">385</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKANNA=literally <span class="tei tei-q">“the Lord of Heaven,”</span> title Ursa Major. Akkadian, +p. <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref">394</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +N-AKKASCH=title of Polaris <span class="tei tei-q">“the serpent.”</span> Phœnicia (p. +<a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NAGASCH, NAHUSHA, or the Great Nag=the great invisible god, +hidden in his ark of clouds, who reveals himself to men as the ruler of time +and the orderer of the regular sequence of the phenomena of nature, and +who churns, in the mortar of the heavens, the life-giving rains in which his +divine spirit is infused.... (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NAGA, NAGUR=the rain snake, at whose summer festival called +Akkhadi or Akhtuj, the Gonds worship the cart axle or akkha in a ceremony +which is a reminiscence of the days when the axle was the upright +revolving pole pressing out the heavenly rain. The Naga snake was +the offspring of the house pole; the soul of life in the rain cloud; the +heavenly snake, the great time-measurer and year god of the Hindus +(Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +P-AKU=zenith. Akkadian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Papakhu, central sacred cosmical +chamber. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKKAD=the North, name of country (B.C. 3800). Babylonia-Assyria, +p. <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +K-AKKABU=<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></span> star, Polaris. +Babylonia-Assyria, p. <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKRIS or AKROS=summit, point, supreme, most high; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ok=eye. +Greek. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page568">[pg 568]</span><a name="Pg568" id="Pg568" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKRIOS=god of summit, title of supreme god. Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKA-TOS, AKA=a ship. Greek. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ACHAIIS=the Achaian land. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ACHAIANS=in Homer, the name for Greeks generally. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKRA=Hindu village dancing and marriage ground, where sacred +tree is planted and sacrifices made to it in great Naga festival (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKSA=name of mosque at Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKSHAFARU=point, summit. Persian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKAL, AKARAN=god, eternal, timeless. Zoroastrian, name of god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +H-AK-HAMANISIJA=ancient royal title. Persia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAK=king or regent, royal title. Akkadian, Egyptian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKACA=Sanscrit name for fifth element æther: (Schroeder). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AGATHON=name given by Pythagoreans to all-embracing soul of +the universe. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AK or AG=verb aj, to drive, urge, impel. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AGNI=god of central fire. India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AGASTYA=star father of Dravidians. India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHAKRA=wheel. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHAKRAYARTIN=title, supreme ruler. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKSHA=axis or axle. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKSHIVAN=<span class="tei tei-q">“the driver of the axle,”</span> supreme ruler. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +DAKSHA=the North people, also white, blessed, and the left. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TAKKAS=one of the most powerful and wealthy tribes of the Punjab, +whose progeners founded the great city of Taxila, the Hindu Takkasila +or rock of the Takkas, taken by Alexander the Great. Their name +Takkas or Takshas means <span class="tei tei-q">“the makers or artificers,”</span> which is connected +with the Akkadian tuk=stone.... They call themselves the sons of the +two Nagas or horned snake, Takht-nag and Basak-nag or <span class="tei tei-q">“the sons of +the race of artificers”</span> ... as the sons of the all-mother Maga [the +maker or kneader], they called themselves the sons of the mother-mountain.... +(Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKHAL, AKHAL-ZIKH, AKHAL-KALAKI=names of towns. Asia +Minor (O'Neil, p. 681). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ACASA or ACASE=axis or axle. Old Norse. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKKA and UKKO=names given by Finns to mother-earth and father-heavens +(O'Neil, p. 38). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NAKA=Middle. Japan (O'Neil, p. 536).<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAK-KAKU=eight holy corners or points; also that which is revealed, +disclosed, known, come to light. Japanese dictionary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKA=above, mountain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> SAKA=ascent. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AGATA=ancient name for domain or department (Chamberlain). +Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAKKI=the eight diagrams, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +Ya-he-koto-shiro-nu-shi-no-kami=Deity-eight-fold-thing-sign-master. +Chamberlain <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 83 and +101. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page569">[pg 569]</span><a name="Pg569" id="Pg569" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +WAKE, WAKI, WAKU=lord, title. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KAGU=Mount Kagu in Heaven. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAKU=white, shining. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HOKU, NE-NO-HO, KITA, KITA-NO-HO=North. Japan. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cf.</span></span> Khita=race +mentioned in Egyptian and Biblical history, and Kitai=name for +China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HOKU-SEI, HOKU-SHIN, HOKKIYOKU, North Star. Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nahuatl.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ACACHTO=the first, at first. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YAQUE=that which has a point; a point, by extension a nose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YACANA=to govern a town or to guide. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +YACA-TECUHTLI (literally, the governing or guiding lord)=title of +Polaris, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Pacha-Yachachic=Peruvian +Creator, p. <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TON-ACA-TECUHTLI=title of Creator. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAL-ACATL=wheel, spindle, verb malacachoa, to walk around in a +circle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ACATL=cane, staff. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CE-ACATL, OME-ACATL=titles of deities meaning One Acatl, Two +Acatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +13 ACATL=inscription on Stone of Great Plan and on image of Divine +Twain (see p. <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref">261</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ACALLI=boat, from atl=water, calli=house. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AKAB=night. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +B-AK-CAB=in a circle, around, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> hab=year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +BACAB=title of four <span class="tei tei-q">“rulers of the year,”</span> tetrarch. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AK-BAL=a vessel or pot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +C-ACAB=town, village. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +B-AK-LIC=around in a circle, in the surroundings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +B-AK-TE=together. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +B-AK-ACH=all, the whole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +B-AK=rock, fortification, enclosure, also bone, phallus, foundation, +heron. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +N-AK=throne, belly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +N-AK-LIC=at the root, on top of all. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +L-AK-AN=standard, banner. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +L-AK-IN=east. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +K-AK=fire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +P-AC-AT=sight. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Z-AK=white <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Iztac=white. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +V. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAD-HYIAS=Middle. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page570">[pg 570]</span><a name="Pg570" id="Pg570" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAGHAVAN=Vedic name of Indra. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MATH=the fire-drill, from math or manth=to twirl or churn. +Sanscrit.<a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MATHURA=name of central sacred locality. India (see Hewitt, p. +214). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAGANA=Akkadian name for the Sinaitic Peninsula. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAGHADAS=Finnic race ruling Northern India before the Kushites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MERU=the Middle. Sanscrit, p. <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref">317</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAHTA or MEHTA=north. Egyptian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> mit=death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MED-DOS, MEDOS or MESOS=Middle. Greek. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MED-IUS=Middle. Latin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MED-ON=Middle. Old Irish, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Medi=Tullium, centre of state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MID-JIS, Middle. Goth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIODHACH=a Central Power (Joyce). Celtic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MITRA=the god said, in Rig-Veda, <span class="tei tei-q">“to fix times of festivals.”</span> Was associated +with Varuna=night and rain god (Greek, Ouranos), with the +constellation of Ursa Major and the number seven. The North was sacred +to Mitra-Varuna who <span class="tei tei-q">“maintain the invariable succession of the order of +natural phenomena”</span> (see Hewitt, pp. 144, 416 and 420). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MILKOM=god of Ammonites whose supreme god was Ursa Major. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MEDIA or MADGA=ancient kingdom whose inhabitants were allied +to Persians and shook off yoke of Assyrian rule in 708 B.C. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MEDUM=site of most ancient pyramid known. Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MECCA=sacred capital. Arabia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MY-CENAE=very ancient city in N. E. of Argolis, built upon craggy +height, principal city of Greece and capital of kingdom in Agamemnon's +time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +METHONE=most ancient Greek colony on Thermaic gulf. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MI-YAU-KEN: <span class="tei tei-q">“name under which the Pole-star is worshipped in +Japan in the form of a Buddha with a wheel, the emblem of the revolving +world, resting on his folded hands.”</span><a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Chinese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MUKDEN=capital of Manchuria, p. <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Mughs or Maghadas, +Finnic race ruling Northern India before Kushites, and +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MANJHUS=<span class="tei tei-q">“royal land”</span> set apart in Ooraon villages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIOKEN=name of town and mountain. Japan. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page571">[pg 571]</span><a name="Pg571" id="Pg571" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIWA=sacred mountain shrine regarded with extraordinary reverence. +Japan (Chamberlain). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIAKO=ancient sacred capital of Japan, residence of +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIKO, or MIKADO=heavenly sovereign who, like the Chinese Wong +or Wang=king, ruled the three powers, heaven, earth and man. The +Chinese character, consisting of three horizontal lines crossed by a perpendicular +line expresses also the Japanese Miko which includes males and +females and is used combined with Naka=middle <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, Middle +sovereign (Chamberlain). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIHE=threefold. Japanese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MID-KENA=cosmical central power and mountain. Old Irish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MID-GARD=cosmical centre. Scandinavia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIODH-CHUARTA (pron. micorta)=Meath, centre of Irish kingdom. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MERCIA=middle kingdom of Britain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HAR-MOED=central mountain. Isaiah <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">XIV</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MISHKNA=name of tabernacle of pole-star worshipping Mandaites +(see Appendix II). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MEXICO=name of capital and by extension of state. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MEK-TAN=Maya name for empire, literally: <span class="tei tei-q">“land of Mek.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MITNAL or METNAL=underworld. Maya. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MICTLAN=name of region surrounding pyramids of Teotihuacan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MITLA=name of ruins in Oaxaca, Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MICTLAMPA=north. Nahuatl. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> miquiztli=death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MICTLAN-TECUHTLI=lord of the North, or underworld. Mexican +pole-star god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +VI. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I-KU or I KUU=the leader or prince, Polaris. Assyria. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +DIL-GAN-I-KU=the messenger of light, Polaris. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KU=holy, divine (tul-ku, the holy altar). Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KU=word of Finnic origin brought to India by Northern settlers—used +by them to denote Father-god=Ukku. Uk=the great Ku=placer +or begetter (Hewitt, p. 148). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KU-SHIKAS=ruling race of India, of Northern origin, known as +Ashura-kushikas (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHU=the brilliance or light, Egyptian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHU-ATEN=the central capital founded by Amenhotep. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AL-KUTB=the axle, Polaris. Arabia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TUL-KU=the holy altar. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +GU=the urn. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KUL-KUN=central cosmical mountain. China, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Sar-tuli-elli, king +of the holy mound. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KURUMA=wheel, Japanese, also mawaru, from marawi=to turn, +revolve. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page572">[pg 572]</span><a name="Pg572" id="Pg572" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KU=god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KUKUL=holy, divine (p. <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KUKULCAN=name of culture-hero. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KU-LEL=noble. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KU-NA=temple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KUKUM=feather. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KUL=chalice. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHUT=bowl, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Nahuatl cumitl=bowl or jar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHU-MUC=that which is in the middle or centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHU-MUCCIL=Middle, centre. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHU-MUC-AKAB=midnight. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CHU-NIL=adj. the principal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +VII. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CITRA=bright, shining. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TARA=star. Sanscrit, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Ra=god. Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +SITARA=star. Hindu. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TJARA=star. Old Norse, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> tar=tree. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TARA=name of central city. Old Irish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +UTTARA=North. Sanscrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ISH-TAR=goddess, a hymn to whom, in Akkadian and Assyrian, begins +thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of +the earth her name revolves”</span> (Prof. Sayce, quoted by O'Neil, p. 715). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Compare with Egyptian ra=god and note that the Sanscrit uttara +could have been expressed in Egyptian hieratic script by the form of +eye=uta and the sign for ra <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> an +eye within a circle (see p. <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref">390</a> and +fig. <a href="#Figure_62" class="tei tei-ref">62</a>). Also compare the Sanscrit and Hindu citra and +sitara with Egyptian seb-seta <span class="tei tei-q">“the hidden star,”</span> pictured by the turtle, sit or cit, +etc. (see p. <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref">398</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +CITLALLIN=star. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IX-TOLOLOTLI=eye, employed in picture writing for star. Nahuatl, +see in centre of Nahui-Ollin, fig. <a href="#Figure_2" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>, Nos. 1 and 3. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IXUA=the birth of a plant, the germination of seed, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +cihuatl=woman. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IXTLI=the face. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ICH=the eye. Maya. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IK=life, breath, air, wind <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> ecatl=breath, etc., Nahuatl, and +ek=star. Maya. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KIKCOLOM=blood. Maya. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XICO=navel. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page573">[pg 573]</span><a name="Pg573" id="Pg573" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +VIII. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEH-TEH=designation of the first star of the Great Bear, given in +star-list in Papyrus of Ani, and the same as Te-te, the Akkadian star-god +of the two foundations (Hewitt, p. 267). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TET=highly abraded form of timmen=foundation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEM=foundation, Egyptian (O'Neil); foundation stone (Brown). Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TET=eternity, symbolized by stone pillar. Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A-TEN=circle or disk. Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +UA-TET=Egyptian name for emerald. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THEOS=Greek name for god <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> Cosmos. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THEO=descriptive of running wheel, of anything circular which +seems to run around into itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THEORS=sacred envoys, who came for sacred festivals to Olympia +or Delphi from different points. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THEMIS=law, right, agreed upon by common consent or prescription. +Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +THEMIS=personified law, order and justice, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Artemis, the goddess +to whom the seven stars of the Great Bear were sacred (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEMENOS=piece of land sacred to a god, sacred precincts, precincts +of temple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A-THENA=name of Grecian capital, state and goddess, signified +<span class="tei tei-q">“Seven.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TENOS and TEOS=names of Greek states, p. <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref">456</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +DEOTHAN=village earth-god worshipped by Brahmin priests (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEEN or TIEN=heaven, god, the character for god being an upright +pole or support, a <span class="tei tei-q">“ti.”</span> Chinese, see p. <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref">301</a>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Chinese character, tien, +field, representing a square divided by cross lines into four parts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEM, TETEM=stone altar, foundation. Maya. p. <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TETL=stone. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEO-CALLI=<span class="tei tei-q">“house of god”</span> = temple. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEOTL=name for god. Nahuatl. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEOTIHUACAN=site of extensive ruins. Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TENOCH-TI-TLAN=name of capital of Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +TEMISTITAN=another ancient name for Mexican capital. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IX. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASH=number six. Akkadian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASHURA=trading non-Aryan races, the Hittites, worshippers of six +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page574">[pg 574]</span><a name="Pg574" id="Pg574" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +gods, six seasons, of Pleiades and of Ashura Mazda, the Zend god. Established +system of grouping six provinces around central royal province +where king resided. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASHVINS=stars which drove round the pole the constellations of +Ursa Major and Draco, another name for Ashura? Sons of horse (ashva), +brought barley to India, drank mead (madhu); instituted the Ashva +Mēdha, or horse-sacrifice of the Hindus, also used by North Germans +Ugro-Finns, Scythians and Romans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASH, NAK-KASCH=Draco, Euphratean name for Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MASSEBA=stone pillar. Hebrew symbol, see p. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASHERAH=pole or tree, worshipped by Phœnicians and Hebrews +equivalent of Indian rain-pole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AL-FASS=axis, Arabian name for pole-star. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +PHAR-ASH-AH, PARR-ASIS=Hebrew and Phœnician <span class="tei tei-q">“guiding star,”</span> +Polaris. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASSUR=kingdom and god of Assyria. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt (O'Neil, p. 59). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASIA=name given by Greeks to Asia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASKANIOS=ancient name of Phrygia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASTARTE=goddess of heaven, see p. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASS or ÆSIR=Scandinavian gods. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASSGARD=central, divine dwelling. Scandinavia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +UM-ASHI=reed shoot that sprouted when the earth, young and like +unto floating oil, drifted about medusa-like. Japan. (Records of Ancient +Matters, section I.) +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +UMASHI-ASHI-KABI-HIKO-JI-NO-KAMI=<span class="tei tei-q">“Pleasant-reed-shoot-elder-deity,”</span> +born from primæval reed-shoot. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASHI-HARA-NO-NAKA-TSU-KUNI=Land in the Middle of the +Reed plains, common periphrastic designation of Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AZTLAN=the original home of Aztec race, according to tradition. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +AZTEC=name of dominant race. Mexico. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +ASH-IWI=other name for Zuñi tribe (Cushing, see p. <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref">203</a>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +X. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLD WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +O, ON or NO=name of celestial and terrestrial capitals. Hebrew and +Egyptian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OLYMPOS=the breaker or organizer of time (Hewitt, p. 514). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KOLONH=a hill, mound, Greek; Lat. tumulus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +COLONOS=a demos of Attica lying on and around hill sacred to +Poseidon. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +COLONIA=a colony, the Lat. colonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KOLOSSOS=statue in general, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> column? +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page575">[pg 575]</span><a name="Pg575" id="Pg575" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OM-EL-KORA=mother of cities. Arabian, see p. <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +OMPHALE=in Greek mythology, the fire socket, wife of Herakles, the +fire drill (Hewitt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HO=designation for directions in space. China, see pp. <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285-288</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HO=acme, taken to mean the best, highest, most showy part of +anything. Japanese (Chamberlain).<a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HO=the land's acme, or a plain surrounded by mountains. Japan +(Motowori). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HOM=date-palm-sacred tree. Babylonia-Assyria (Sir Geo. Birdwood). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +NEW WORLD. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HO, or TI-HOO=ancient capital of Yucatan, see p. <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277</a>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HOM=mound. Maya. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +HOMTAMIL=belly, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> omphalos. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page577">[pg 577]</span><a name="Pg577" id="Pg577" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> +<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abadiano, Dionysio, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Above (see <a href="#index-heaven" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heaven or Above”</span></a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Academia Manuscript, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Acamapichtli, Mexican ruler, having title of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Woman-serpent,”</span> <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Acatl, one of the four Mexican year-symbols, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Acolma, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Acosta, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Agave or maguey, juice of, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“drink of life,”</span> <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ahau, Maya glyph, chief, lord, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured on gold plaque from Cuzco, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ahau-ka-tun, 24-year period, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literally lord, 20 stone, compared with Copan stelæ, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ah-cuch-cab, Maya name of ruler or chief of a town or place, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of chief, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">terrestrial lord, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ah-cuch-haab, Maya name for four year-signs, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Air, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, lord of, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Air and water design, on sacred edifices in ancient America, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">union of, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of Above, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on drinking vessels, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on dome of ancient Greek monument, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with the male region, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Akbal, Maya glyph, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Akkad=the North, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Akkadians, Semitic race of Assyria-Babylonia, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexander of Macedonia, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Allen, Richard Hinckley, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alligator, altar at Copan, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of Copan tribe, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol in codices, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504</a>, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of Mayas and Mexicans, <a href="#Pg520" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">520</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Altars at Copan, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Amaterasu, Japanese sun-goddess, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Amaytun, painted representation of the 20 and 24-year epoch, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Amen-Ra, the supreme dual god of the Egyptians, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">American Association for the Advancement of Science, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>, <a href="#Pg545" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">545</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">American Folk-Lore Society, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">American Museum of Natural History, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">American peoples, <a href="#Pg479" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">479-548</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ammon, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ammonites, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anacreon, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Andastes, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Andean art, compared with Mediterranean, <a href="#Pg545" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">545</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Andree, Richard, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Angrand, Leonce, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Animal form, as totem, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with Four Quarters by Zuñi, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">combined with bird, symbol of union of Above and Below, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of use in symbolism <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese calendar, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, in Buddhist mythology, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">combined with human in Babylonian symbolism, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a> (see <a href="#index-human-figure" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Human form</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anthromorphites, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of, very ancient, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apollo, worshipped in form of a column, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arabia, star worship, axial rotation, seven-day period, etc., <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg482" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">482</a>, <a href="#Pg495" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">495</a>, <a href="#Pg556" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">556</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aratos, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arcadius, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Architecture, ancient, influenced by religious cults of Heaven and Earth, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Byzantine, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cruciform, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolism of (see <a href="#index-windows" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Windows</a>, <a href="#index-cone" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Cone</a>, <a href="#index-tau" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Tau</a>, <a href="#index-pyramid" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Pyramid</a>, <a href="#index-color" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Color</a>, <a href="#index-greek-fret" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Greek fret</a>, etc.).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arctos, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aristotle, <a href="#Pg485" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">485</a>, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486</a>, <a href="#Pg487" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">487</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arizona, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arriaga, Padre, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arrowpoint, barbed, used instead of flint knife as symbol of life-producing force, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ashurbanipal, Assyrian king, offspring of Heaven and Earth, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Asia Minor, compared with North America in relation to tertiary plants and fungi, <a href="#Pg479" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">479</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Asiatic contact, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a> (see <a href="#index-pre-columbian" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Pre-Columbian contact</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Asiatic Society of Japan, <a href="#Pg565" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">565</a>, <a href="#Pg575" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">575</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Assyria, star-cult, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, etc., <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">analogies with China and Central America, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">civilization more recent than that of Babylonia, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">founded by Semitic Babylonians, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rise of pure monotheism, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stelæ with seven symbols, seven circles, etc., <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Pole-star worship, seven-fold division, Four Quarters, etc., <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg483" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Astarte, Assyrian goddess figured as cow and as moon, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Astronomy, cast of astronomy-leaders, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">study of, among native races, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">basis of religion, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">knowledge of, among Eskimo, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and other native peoples, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican astronomers, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomer-priests of Mexico <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese, Babylonian, Hindoo, Chaldean, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page578">[pg 578]</span><a name="Pg578" id="Pg578" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> +Egyptian, Thibetan and Indian, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chaldea, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian zodiac signs, illustrated, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the time when there ceased to be a conspicuous pole star, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525-526</a> (see <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>, <a href="#index-calendar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Calendar</a>, etc.).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Atlantis, Island of, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Atlatl or spear thrower, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on temple of the Tigers, and on Stone of Tizoc, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Attiwendaronks, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Avila, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Axayacatl, living representative of Huitzilopochtli, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-axial-rotation" id="index-axial-rotation" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Axial rotation (or wheel) in ancient religion, symbolism and government;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Maya name for Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8-10</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of Mexican supreme divinity, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Wheel of the Winds,”</span> <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of idea was rotation of Ursa Major around Polaris;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by swastika symbol, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18-23</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">imitated by Mexican game, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Those who fly,”</span> <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with Mexican Calendar system, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indicated by name Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by Mexican sacred dance, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indicated in Vienna Codex by circle of footstep, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi religious ceremony, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in religious ceremony and irrigating canals of Peru, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by Nahuiollin on Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251-52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">by one-footed man on Mexican <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sacrificial Stone,”</span> <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient plan of Mexican government, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pictured divinity surrounded by circle of footsteps, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in plan of ancient Chinese government, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280-291</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in calendar systems of China and Mexico, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by spider's web, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese calendar, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the wheel in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Wheel of the law”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lord of the wheel”</span> of India, in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">centrifugal power and rule indicated by names of capital cities in Egypt and Greece, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">revolving pillar on Acropolis at Athens, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Arabia, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Plato's cosmical conception, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Homer's works, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Sophocles' work, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Greece, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">polos</span></span>=a star revolving on itself, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Sanscrit god, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the driver of the axle,”</span> <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Ixion's wheel,”</span> <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indicated by cross symbol and later by swastika, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">wheel associated with Jove on Roman tombstone, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, the wain wheeled around the throne of Thor, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Turanian god of heaven=the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks, <a href="#Pg499" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">499</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494-544</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ayllu, Peruvian word for tribe or lineage, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aztlan, land of light, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baal, Assyrian god, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worshipped under image of bull, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonia, Chinese immigrants from, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Middle kingdom, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomy, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">star cult, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, etc., <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">either a mountain or a star signified a god, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomical observations of great antiquity, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">oriented to the Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">decline of the empire, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">female ruler, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">described in Revelations;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sevenfold organization, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-staged tower, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sevenfold state, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">altar of gold, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonia-Assyria, the Babylonia triad, Anu, Ea, and Bel, signify the Above, Middle and Below, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with gods of China, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">combined Heaven and Earth cult, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-fold organization, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-staged tower (Zikkurat) and the great basin (Apsu) symbolized cosmological conceptions;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tree or pole as sacred symbol;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fire-stick, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of Polaris;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">male and female principles in nature, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">New Year's festival, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bacab, title of Maya chief, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of rulers of Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bailly, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Balam, Maya word for ocelot;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of four lords of Below or Earth;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same as chac, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Balboa, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ball, C. J., <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bandelier, Ad. F., <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baptism, Maya, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Barber, Commander, U. S. N., <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bartholomew de las Casas, Friar, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bat, symbol of happiness, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bat-kin-ya-mûh, the Water people, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bastian, A., <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bead, jade bead, as symbol in Mexico, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“gold bead,”</span> used as title;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolical among the Mayas, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beard, on stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on calendar sign;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on images of air-god, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worn by representatives of Above, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not worn by representatives of Below, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in pictorial art, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on portrait-statue of Stela E, at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bearded personages on stelæ were high-priests, etc., <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">beardless effigies indicated different caste, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bearded Spaniards regarded, by Mexicans, descendants of founders of their civilization, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of sovereignty in Egypt, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bee, Maya word for=cab;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cab glyph, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beetle (see <a href="#index-scarab" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Scarab</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beltram de Santa Rosa, Fray, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Benares, temple of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred cow, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bentham, <a href="#Pg476" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">476</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bentley, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">478</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berlin Museum, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg417" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">417</a>, <a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">423</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berra, Orozco y, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">B. N. MS. (Biblioteca Nationale MS.), same as <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lyfe of the Indians.”</span></div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Biblioteca Nazionale Manuscript (in press), <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Biot, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-bird" id="index-bird" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bird, title of Mexican war chief, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">humming-bird in symbolism, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with spider, serpent and cross on shell gorget, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Bird-god, borne on litter, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Yucatan in shape of bird, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">illustrated social organization in Mexico, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of Incas, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on arms of Mexico, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculptures at Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page579">[pg 579]</span><a name="Pg579" id="Pg579" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">man-bird represented ruler of upper division of State in Mexico, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">typical of lords of four provinces in Mexico, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">blue-bird, Mexican symbol, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of Nahuatl tribe, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">three most powerful tribes of Yucatan have bird names, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on altar at Copan, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in sculptures at Palenque, and in Mexican Fejervary chart, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mask in Mexican festival, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of the Air people in Mexico, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recapitulation of meaning of symbol, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of as symbol, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">vulture, symbol of Upper Egypt, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Birdwood, Geo., <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>, <a href="#Pg575" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">575</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Blackfoot Indians, myth about Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Black, Robert, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Black Sun, in B. N. MS., <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Blood offerings, meaning of, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boas, Franz, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-boat" id="index-boat" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boat, in sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonian symbolism, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian, Grecian, Phœnician in early times, <a href="#Pg491" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">491</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bochica or Ida-can-zas, culture hero of the Muyscas;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">personification of the Sun or Above, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bodleian MS., <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bodleian Library at Oxford, <a href="#Pg508" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">508</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boeckh, <a href="#Pg488" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">488</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bogota, dual government, calendar, etc., <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bohn, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Book of the Dead, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Book of Manu, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Book of Yu, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bopp and Pott, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boturini, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bourbourg, B. de, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bournouf, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bovallius, Dr., <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bowl or vase (see <a href="#index-vase" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Vase</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brahmanism, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brandenburg, spearhead from, illustrating triskelion and swastika associated, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brandsford, J. F., <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brazil, wooden clubs with Greek fret, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American civilizations, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-breath" id="index-breath" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Breath, puffs of, conventionalized on Copan slab, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on bas-relief at Palenque, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Zuñi symbolism, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Copan, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brinton, D. G., <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Britain, ancient, numerical divisions, middle, central ruler, quadruple organization, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">British Guiana, wooden clubs with <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Greek fret,”</span> <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">British Museum, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brown, Robert, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brugsch, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>, <a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">423</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429</a>, <a href="#Pg431" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">431</a>, <a href="#Pg432" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">432</a>, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>, <a href="#Pg441" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buddhism, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Budge, Wallis, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a>, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>, <a href="#Pg443" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">443</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-bull" id="index-bull" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bull, winged bulls of Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolism of, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Yahwe, national god of the Hebrews, represented as man or as bull, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomical sign in Egypt for Ursa Major, and possibly of Polaris, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">linguistic reasons why king of Egypt was entitled <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the bull,”</span> <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of Egyptian supreme deity, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cow, bull or ox, in Egyptian zodiac signs, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Apis, sacred bull of Egypt, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in inscription in temple of Denderah, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Baal worshipped under image of, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ka</span></span>, rebus, signifying Polaris and Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of Amen-Ra, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with the goose in symbolism, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Minotaurus, ruler of Crete, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burger, George, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burial urn, emblem of earth mother, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buschmann, Dr., <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Butterfly used as symbol of immortal soul by Mexicans, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Byzantine architecture, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cab, Maya day sign, word for bee, also earth, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">honey, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with female principle, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cabal, day-sign, on Copan altar, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Caban, Maya day-sign, identical with symbol of earth, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured with leaves of maize, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Below, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cæsar, called the Son of the Sun, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>, <a href="#Pg537" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">537</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">court of, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">obsidian mirror used as oracle, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Annals of, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">legend suggesting form of government, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tribal division associated with calendar, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition in relation to 7-day period, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-calendar" id="index-calendar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Calendar systems, Mexican, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggested by Polaris and circumpolar constellations, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya, origin of, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican, monograph on, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Peruvian, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Muyscas, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">connection between calendar signs and divisions of the people, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a governmental institution, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">invention of native system by ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">kept profound secret by priesthood, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fixed term of office for ancient American rulers, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican, originated from the fixed market-days, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">signs identified with different parts of human form, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">instituted by the Chinese emperor, Yaou, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparison of American and Chinese, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chaldean and Hindoo, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Japanese compared with Mexican, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hindu with Mexican, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Assyrian and Babylonian, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Egyptian, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lunar and solar, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Esne calendar, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Canopus calendar, <a href="#Pg441" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Central American and Mexican, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">time when first adopted, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-calendar-stone" id="index-calendar-stone" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Calendar-stone of Mexico, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">night sun pictured on, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of five dots compared with same on recumbent stone figure, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">market-stone of the City of Mexico, regulated social organization, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">special work on, by Zelia Nuttall, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great Plan”</span> or Scheme of Organization, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured and described, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248-258</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">regulated machinery of state, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Gama's, Valentine's and Chavero's descriptions, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page580">[pg 580]</span><a name="Pg580" id="Pg580" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">based on observation of Polaris, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">embodied the idea of a central, dual and quadruple power, etc., <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">contains symbol of union of dual principles of nature, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Calendar-swastika, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-swastika" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Swastika</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">California Indians, use today two symbols in use by ancient Mexicans and Mayas, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, flint-knife and <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“stone yoke,”</span> <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Calli, Nahuatl for western horizon=the house, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">one of the four-year symbols, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning, the house, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Campiña de Puebla, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Can, Maya word for serpent, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">serpent and numeral four, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">affix in names of towns, Iroquois, Maya and Mexican, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with pyramid as Teotihua-Can, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese and Maya associated with fourfold division, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Canaan, account of Hebrew religion, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Canada, Iroquois town, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya meaning of, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Capital, Maya word for, homonymous with five=ho, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Caracol, or Round Temple, of Chichen-Itza, built by Quetzalcoatl, representing Middle and Four Quarters, and centre of dominion, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cardinal points, assignment of colors and parts of human body, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with form of quadruped among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-four-quarters" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Four Quarters</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carillo, Crescencio, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carthaginians, having knowledge of an island in the ocean, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cartier, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cary's translation of Herodotus, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Caryatids, at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cassiopeia, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Caste, in Peru, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Castelnau, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cat, sacred symbol in Egypt, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Catari, chronicler of the Incas, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Celi-Ced, the dual power, from which the universe was born (Druidic), <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Centipede, Mexican symbol, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Central America, fundamental basis of government and civilization, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolical form in architecture, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">carved stone seats or altars, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-copan" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Copan</a>, <a href="#index-guatemala" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Guatemala</a>, etc.).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Centre (stable centre or middle), in ancient government, religion, and symbolism: Polaris, the centre of axial energy, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">centre of the Cosmos, among Zuñis, Mayas, Mexicans and Peruvians, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on shell gorgets, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divergence from idea, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by recumbent stone figure, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Incas, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and Four Quarters represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient American game, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Féjérvary Codex, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in social organization, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculpture of Lord of Above, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">colors associated with, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Copan Swastika, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Tablet of the Cross at Palenque, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">union with Four Quarters in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Mexican monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by pyramid, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">words and symbols connected with, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with swastika, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed by pyramid, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">typified by cross-legged human figure, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed in flower symbol, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Middle kingdom,”</span> <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in America, symbolized by human heart and navel, in China by stomach, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese religion, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Japan called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Centre of the Earth,”</span> <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by statue of Buddha, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Nirvana, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in religion of Arabia, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Babylonia, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Jerusalem, sacred spot marking the centre of the world, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia-Assyria <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed by mummy-shaped object, also by cone, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">by a crown, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">by a flower, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian feast, Tekhu, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient government of Crete, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Ireland, Britain and Wales, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468-471</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in cross-symbolism, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in religious ideas of Old and New World, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>, <a href="#Pg535" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">535</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Century Dictionary, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cezalcouatl, name for Kukulcan, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chaac Mool or Lord Tiger, name given by Le Plongeon to the recumbent figure bearing circular vessel, found in Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Recumbent stone figure”</span>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chac (Maya) red color;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">also rain, storms, thunder and Lightning;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of Lord of Below, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chac-noui-tan, name for Yucatan, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chalchihuitl=jade, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">jade beads, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chalmers, John, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chambers' Encyclopædia, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>, <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">465</a>, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <a href="#Pg564" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">564</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chamberlain, Basil Hall, <a href="#Pg565" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">565</a>, <a href="#Pg568" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">568</a>, <a href="#Pg571" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">571</a>, <a href="#Pg574" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">574</a>, <a href="#Pg575" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">575</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chariot, symbolism of, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>, <a href="#Pg501" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">501</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chavero, A., <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ché, Maya word for tree;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in names of tribes, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Checker-board (or tartan) design, formed by taus, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ch'en, Maya day sign, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cheles, one of the Yucatan tribes, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cherokees, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chess board, in Egypt, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chiapas, the present home of the Tzendals;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">native calendar system, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">migrations from, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chichen-Itza, culture-hero ruled in, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recumbent stone figure bearing circular vessel, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">connection established with Mexico by Kukulcan (Quetzalcoatl), <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Caracol or Round Temple, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bas-relief illustrating navigation by boats, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition about settlement of, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">evidence of Aztec influence, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">classification of ruins, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tablet in house of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tennis-court”</span> <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chichimecs, sacrifices by, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chicome-coatl, literally, seven-serpents, title of earth mother, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-china" id="index-china" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">China, cosmical symbol compared with those of Copan and Mexico, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of Above and Below, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sound of words, in symbolism, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pole-star worship, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the emperor at Pekin termed the Son of Heaven and the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page581">[pg 581]</span><a name="Pg581" id="Pg581" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> +Empress inhabits the palace of Earth's repose;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Yang and Yin;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Above and Below, etc., <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reason of deformation of feet, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chow Dynasty, fourfold plan of cities, linguistic affinities with Mexicans and Mayas, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Quadriform constitution,”</span> <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar system, social and religious organization compared with that of ancient America, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tables showing the agreement and divergence in ancient systems of China and America, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">assignment of colors and of parts of human body to cardinal points, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparative study of symbolism, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">social organization, etc., <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar and numerical system, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of civilization, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomical system, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Buddhism, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">primitive calendar, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Taouism, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese language said to be the same as Akkadian, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">civilization not indigenous, emigration into, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Dowager Empress Ling, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Israelites, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303-306</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Christians, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fundamental principles of religion identical with that of ancient America, but later, divergent, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Heaven and Earth cult practised at the present time, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg483" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of wheel from earliest times, <a href="#Pg501" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">501-502</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of Cross symbol with idea of central power, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">resemblances and differences, Chinese and Maya, Mexican, <a href="#Pg533" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">533</a>, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">doubt about extreme age of governmental scheme, <a href="#Pg533" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">533</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">celestial kingdom dates from first century, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a>, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cholula, contains largest pyramid in America, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">built as place of refuge from inundations, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">place of sanctity, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">also called Cholola or Colola, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">marks site of great and ancient Tollan, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cholollan, pyramid, a venerated sanctuary, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition concerning, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">native name is <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“tollan,”</span> <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-tullan-cholollan" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Tullan Cholollan</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Christianity, in China, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">period of growth, persecution of pagans, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">St. Augustine states that it has existed from the beginning, <a href="#Pg536" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">536</a>, <a href="#Pg537" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">537</a>, <a href="#Pg538" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">538</a>, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chuen, Maya day-sign, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cib, Maya day-sign, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cibola, seven cities of, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cicero, <a href="#Pg488" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">488</a>, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cieza de Leon, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-cihuacoatl" id="index-cihuacoatl" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cihuacoatl, the earth mother, flint knife in wrappings, symbol of, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Woman serpent (or twin), <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of Quilaztli, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">female ruler, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican ruler, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">personification of Earth, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Montezuma's substitute, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">duties of, agents of, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">offered sacrifice to god of Underworld, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with serpent in Maya Codex, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">female title of lord of the night, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cipactli, Mexican sign for a <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“marine monster,”</span> <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circle, symbol of heaven, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence on ancient architecture and symbolism, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with dot, Egyptian sign for time, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-circle-ring" id="index-circle-ring" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circle or ring, symbol of Egyptian <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lord of the ring,”</span> Hindu <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lord of the wheel,”</span> Persian <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“god of the ring,”</span> and Mexican <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lord of the circle,”</span> <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circle or disk, Egyptian symbol, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">also in Peru, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circumpolar constellations, studied by primitive man, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to origin of swastika symbol, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">form triskelion on night of winter-solstice, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">relation to sacred numbers, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with idea of death and resurrection, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to underworld, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four movements of, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with cult of Below, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of in Old World, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383-387</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-pleiades" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Pleiades</a>, <a href="#index-ursa-major" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ursa Major</a>, <a href="#index-ursa-minor" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ursa Minor</a>, <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">place where human race probably spent its infancy, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fauna and flora, <a href="#Pg476" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">476</a>, <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">478</a>, <a href="#Pg479" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">479</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circumpolar rotation, represented by swastika and star-symbols on pottery, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50-52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared to rotation of fire-drill by early peoples, <a href="#Pg502" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">502</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-wheel" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Rotation or Wheel</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Clavigero, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Claws (or nails) of the state, title of warriors, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cliff dwellers, tau as symbol, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Clubs (wooden) from South America and Peru, with symbolical designs, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Coatl (serpent or twin) in connection with tree symbolism, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Zuñi Koa=twin, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cocomes, Maya tribe, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Codices: Borgian, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504</a>, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chimalpopoca, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chumazel, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cortesian, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Dresden, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Féjérvary, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Fuenleal, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mendoza, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Telleriano-Remensis, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Troano, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Vatican, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Vienna, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cogolludo, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Colebrook and Bentley, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Colhuacan, Mexican local name, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-color" id="index-color" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Color, red in Mexico, associated with north, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of Earth, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">blue, associated with rulership and divinities, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">black, associated with Tezcatlipoca and with Quilaztli, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">yellow, color of the west, female region, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Moki masks, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in tau design, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on ancient Mexican temples and sculptures, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peruvian symbolism, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi symbolism, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in architecture at Uxmal, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used to denote social status by Peruvians, Mayas, Mexicans and Zuñis, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with four Quarters and Above and Below, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used for face and body painting, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Huaxtecan mantle of five hundred colors, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">painting of caryatids in Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolic at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblematic, in China, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">assigned to elements by Mexicans, Zuñis and Chinese, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">assigned to cardinal points, in China and America, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Buddhist temple; in Quetzalcoatl's temples in Mexico, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Hindu caste, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, red associated with the north and male sex, and white with south and female sex, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Colorado, cliff dwellers, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-column" id="index-column" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Column, sacred, in great temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on hill of justice in Guatemala, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page582">[pg 582]</span><a name="Pg582" id="Pg582" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">laws inscribed on, centre of island Atlantis;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">laws of Solon inscribed on, in centre of Athenian state;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Apollo at Delphi, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the cosmical round tower of Ireland, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Mitla, Mexico, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolism of, in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Confucianism, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-cone" id="index-cone" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cone, in Mexican ollin-sign, signified the Above, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used in native architecture;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">culminated in pyramid, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by shape of windows in ancient ruins, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on summit of House of the Doves at Uxmal, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Conical stone, on which human victims were sacrificed, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Congress of Americanists, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Congress of Orientalists, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Conquest Stone of Mexico, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sacrificial Stone,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tribute Stone,”</span> <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Constantine, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his numerical scheme compared with same in India, Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>, <a href="#Pg543" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">543</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-copan" id="index-copan" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Copan, lentil-shaped stone altar, from, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">carved stelæ, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">purpose of erection, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">study of the ruins, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of Polaris illustrated by carved slab in temple, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical organization illustrated, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, symbolism, etc., identical with those of Peru, Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc., <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions on altar conform with Zuñi clan-organization, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bearded effigies, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual rulers, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totemic animals and symbolic colors, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">excavation at Mound, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same cult as that of Palenque and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">carved stone seats or altars, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">alligator altar, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stelæ as memorial columns, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">remnants of old civilization, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Copan swastika, compared with design on club from South America, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with tablet in <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Temple of the Sun,”</span> <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-swastika" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Swastika</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Copts, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cord (Maya kaan), associated with Maya word for Heaven=caan, and with glyph, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of carved gorget worn on a cord, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sky represented as a circle composed of a cord to which stars were attached, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on lentil-shaped stone altar at Copan, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on shield of Mexican god, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan stela, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Corinth, coin with swastika, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cortes, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cosmos, four-fold and seven-fold divisions of, in Peru, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, India, Persia, etc., <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in pagan philosophy, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see separate headings; also, Quadruple Organization and Numerical Divisions).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cow, venerated in India, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Canaan goddess, Astarte, in form of, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian god Isis (Hathor) worshipped under form of, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">or bull, cult of Apis in Egypt, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-bull" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Bull</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cox, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Coya, wife or sister of Inca, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cozumel cross, called symbol of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“rain-god,”</span> <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Creation myths, ancient Mexican, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Zuñi, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Peruvian, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hindu, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313-318</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Babylonian, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Babylonian and Hebrew evidently from same source, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Creator, or <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Supreme Being,”</span> in Mexico, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“wheel of the winds,”</span> <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Polaris, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worshipped by ancient Americans, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">earliest form of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">feathered serpent, image of, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the four elements regarded as attributes of, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">belief in, represented by mushroom-shaped stone figure, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Inca knowledge of, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Quechua title for;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican title for, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, identified with Mexican <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lord who guides,”</span> or Polaris;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and associated with star and cross, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of at Cuzco, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of in Texcoco, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">native title, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heart of Heaven”</span>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico represented by rebus of the feathered serpent, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Nahuatl title, expressed by an eye and pyramid in picture-writing, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Divine Twain, Father and Mother of all, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Akkadian name for symbol, an eight-pointed star, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Hindu, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Brahmanistic conception of, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Hebrews=Yahwe lord of Heaven, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Plato's Timæus, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Norse, Thor, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the source of the four elements, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparison of names in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg532" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">532</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg548" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">548</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cremation, significance of, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Crete, Greek plan of organization came from, description of symbols on coin <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient philosophy of, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486-488</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cross-bones, origin of symbol, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cross-legged seated figures, on Central American stone seats or altars, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of stable centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cross-symbol, Maya and Mexican, figured and described, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on shell gorget from Tennessee, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on pottery from Mississippi Valley, 51;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">from Arizona, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Iroquois belt, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in symbolical carving from Brazil or Guiana, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four-spoked wheel as cross symbol in Assyria, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of sovereignty in Babylonia-Assyria, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as symbol at earlier period than swastika, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with idea of Central power, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of Christian religion, <a href="#Pg535" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">535</a>, <a href="#Pg536" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">536</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-swastika" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Swastika</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cross-tablets at Palenque, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cross-worshippers, Chinese name for Christians, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cruciform structures, vaults under stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Mitla, Mexico, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Rome, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">buildings and churches of later period, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Byzantium, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Syria, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg516" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">516</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cruz, Alonzo de la, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cubas, Garcia, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Culin, Stewart, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cum-ahau, name of divinity of Yucatan, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cup-shaped depression, on stone altar at Copan, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cushing, Frank H., <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>, <a href="#Pg574" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">574</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cuzco, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“navel of the earth,”</span> <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">plan of city, Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page583">[pg 583]</span><a name="Pg583" id="Pg583" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">founded by Manco Capac, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temple, facing north and containing gold image of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Creator,”</span> <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">gold plaque from, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolism analogous to Mexican and Maya, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dahlgren, E. W., <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Alviella, Goblet, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dances, sacred, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">description of Mexican dance, representing wheel or axial rotation, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Moki Indian, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Cuzco, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Sun pole dance of American Indians, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Davis, J. F., <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Day-sign, Maya and Mexican, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107-112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence of, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of clan, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cabal, on Copan altar, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and year signs of native calendar, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">names of, used as personal and tribal names, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Death, symbol of, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Deer, mask of, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Deities, Aztec, number of, same god under several names, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Demosthenes, lantern of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Denderah, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dennis, J. S., <a href="#Pg483" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">DeRossi, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Desjardins, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Destruction of the earth, Mexican traditions concerning, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dhruva, <a href="#Pg495" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">495</a>, <a href="#Pg496" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">496</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Diaz, Bernal, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Din-gira, Akkadian name for God, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Diocletian, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Divination, in connection with use of mirrors, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, Thibet and India, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Divine Twin</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-duality" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Duality</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Documentos ineditos del Archivio de Indias, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dog, head of, on sculptures from Santa Lucia, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>; Maya word for=men, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Donelly, Ignatius, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a>, <a href="#Pg516" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">516</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Orbigny, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Douglas, R. K., <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Draconis, observation in Egypt, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dragon, at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dragon-fly, employed as cross-symbol, on Algonquin garment, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Druids, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Drums, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-duality" id="index-duality" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Duality or <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> symbol of, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">conventional representation of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">idea of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual stellar divinity, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented in sacred dance, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">by male and female ruler, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">development of idea, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">twin brothers as rulers in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Montezuma, impersonation of, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peruvian symbolism, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Beloved Twain”</span> of the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual ruler at Copan, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Quirigua, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Palenque tablet, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican sculpture, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260-262</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual government at time of Conquest, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia-Assyria, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>, <a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">423</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Ireland, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Druidic traditions of Wales, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Duemichen, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Duran, Friar, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eagle (quauhtli), associated with Cassiopeia;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of Mexican war chief, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Eagle-woman, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Incas, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, Guatemala, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of one or more of the Incas, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on bas-relief in City of Mexico, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in arms of Mexico, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Above among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of state in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of use as symbol, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Earth, or <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The Below,”</span> in ancient religion and symbolism;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Mexican and Maya cosmos;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in secret beliefs of Zuñi priests, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">female region, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lord of, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with woman, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60-65</a>5;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacrifices to, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cihuacoatl, personification of, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacrifices to god of, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with human sacrifices, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred rites, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi ceremonies, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with cremation, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of, in use by California Indians, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">priestesses of, buried in caves, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with image of serpent, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with angular form, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">composed of fire and water, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on altar at Copan, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with square form and bowl, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">flat-topped mitre worn by lord of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese symbol, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacrifices <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tau upright, emblem of, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of, in Peru, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">idea prevailed in Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Muyscas, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in calendar, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in social organization, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with animal form, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">color associated with, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with female principle, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">votaries of, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi social system, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">priests of, represented without beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">moon symbol of cult, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cultivation of maize, by daughter of, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by quadruped, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">vase, emblem of, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with square form, and darkness;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence on primitive architecture and symbolism, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">flower used as symbol of, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Hindu religion, cult of Siva, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persian religion, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Assyrian and Babylonia cult, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult combined with that of Above practised in China at present time, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Baal, Phœnician god of Earth, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized in Scandinavia by Thor's hammer, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of countries where traces of cult have been found, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Earth-mother, represented by Cihuacoatl, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pictured in Borgian Codex, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Zuñi symbol of, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see Earth or the Below, also <a href="#index-cihuacoatl" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Cihuacoatl</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-earth-work" id="index-earth-work" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Earth-work builders of the Ohio valley, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eddas, written by agricultural people, having knowledge of the fire-drill, axial rotation, etc., <a href="#Pg502" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">502</a>, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Egypt, crux ansata, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">checker-board design;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">basis of chess-board, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">civilization mainly Euphratean, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367-461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">color symbolism;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">high development of pole-star worship;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">territorial divisions, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Four Quarters;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">hieroglyph for capital or city, cross symbol with four divisions, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page584">[pg 584]</span><a name="Pg584" id="Pg584" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pyramid, and square form associated with earth, and round with sky, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-fold organization, centre, Polaris, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sky-goddess Nut, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lotus flower symbol, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Polaris, sphinx, pyramid, Middle, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mummy, Polaris, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Ursa Major, used as a measurer of time, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bull, used as astronomical sign of Ursa Major, king entitled <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The Bull,”</span> <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Amen-Ra, the supreme, dual god;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">king associated with sun, and queen with moon, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">hawk-headed god, An, compared with Assyrian, Greek and Mexican gods of the circle or wheel, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian queen analogous in position to Mexican Quilaztli, <a href="#Pg428" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">428</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">festival of Tekhu, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">becomes a Roman province, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of dual principles of nature, <a href="#Pg441" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg483" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the sacred and tribal tree, <a href="#Pg499" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">499</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the symbolical use of the column, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Aha-Mena, first historical ruler, was a builder, <a href="#Pg532" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">532</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Faber, <a href="#Pg516" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">516</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fauna and flora of the tertiary period, in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg476" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">476-479</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Feather, symbol of divinity (Mexican and Maya), <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">names signify something divine, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian symbol, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Feathered serpent, origin of use as symbol, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">effigies of in Mexico, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as rebus to express Supreme Being and his earthly representative, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-serpent" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Serpent</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Feet of Chinese women, deformation of, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Féjérvary Codex, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ferlini, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fewkes, J. Walter, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Figueredo, Padre Juan de, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Finger and toe count=20: <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fire, sacred, Pleiades in connection with kindling, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">new, kindling of, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">festival of god of, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">earliest form under which deity was worshipped, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lighting of, by means of mirror, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">god of, associated with sceptre having gold disk, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">kindled on body of human victim, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lord of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">feast of in Mexico, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolical meaning of, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">means of producing in Mexico and India, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of in India, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Parsee religion, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia-Assyria, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ceremonial rite, in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at New Year festival in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(in Old World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altars, lord of fire, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494-504</a>, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>, <a href="#Pg520" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">520</a>, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(in New World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altar, fire-drill god, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504-509</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Five elements in China, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India and in Greece, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Five-day periods, year divided into in Mexico, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Japan, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Five-dot groups, idea of, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on coin found in island of Crete, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the cenotaph of king Midas, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fletcher, Alice C., <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Flint, Earl, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Flint knife, Tecpatl, in wrappings, symbol of earth-mother, used as sacrificial knife, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on head dress in B. N. MS., <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with emblematic vase, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred among the Hupa Indians of California, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sacrificial stone of Mexico, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of generation, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-tecpatl" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Tecpatl</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Flood and destruction myths and traditions, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270-275</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-myths" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Myths and Traditions</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Flower, as symbol, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four petals, two leaves and stalk, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Tablet of the Cross, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recapitulation of meaning of, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lotus in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">or rosette, in Assyrian symbolism, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven petalled flower on Phœnician tablets, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian word for=<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ankh</span></span> means also <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“life,”</span> <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of Middle, axial rotation and life, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413-420</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Footsteps, in circle, indicating rotation, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Forrer, R., <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Förstemann, E., <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Four Elements, in ancient religion and symbolism: union of, in sacred rites, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">regarded as attributes of Supreme Divinity, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican and Zuñi beliefs and ceremonies, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99-102</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by calendar signs, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, on Mexican Calendar Stone, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249-251</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">classification of among the Mexicans, Zuñi, and Chinese, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Creator, in Peru and Mexico, named Earth, air, fire and water in One, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-four-quarters" id="index-four-quarters" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Four Quarters, in ancient religion and symbolism: <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on shell gorgets, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">colors of, represented on feathered serpent, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented in Mexico by four executive officers, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Yucatan divided into, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Vienna Codex, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Borgian Codex, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented in Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">all things divided into, for an indefinite period, finally subdivided, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured as single sign, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in plan of capital and form of government among Incas, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by four limbs of human figure, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized in ancient American games <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Féjérvary Codex, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by 20-day period, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lords of, among the Quiches, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">colors of, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">idea of, carried out by Quetzalcoatl in the Mexican temples, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruler of, on Copan stelæ, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of symbol as used among the Maya, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan swastika, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Palenque tablets, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">designated by colors on monuments in Mexico, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of, in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cortes regarded as Lord of, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with pyramid, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">list of symbols connected with, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed by pyramid, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in flower symbol, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese calendar system, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with color and the elements, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with parts of the body by Chinese, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with form of quadruped by Zuñi, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page585">[pg 585]</span><a name="Pg585" id="Pg585" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Japan, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Assyria and Babylonia, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Ireland, the five kings assigned one to the middle and the others to the cardinal points, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Britain, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in religious ideas of Old and New World, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gage, Thomas, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gallatin, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gama, Leon y, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Game of ball, represented idea of perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of patolli, description of, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tlachtli and patolli in Mexico, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Garcia, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Garcilaso de la Vega, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gaul, divided into seven provinces, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gesenius, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gensler, Dr., <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ghizeh Museum, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gibbon, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gilgamesh epic, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gillies, John, <a href="#Pg487" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">487</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Globus, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">God C, Maya divinity, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not identical with Polaris, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">God L, Maya divinity, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">God M, Maya divinity, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Godman, F. Ducane, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Godman and Salvin, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gomara, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Goodyear, William H., <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>, <a href="#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">414</a>, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>, <a href="#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">420</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Goose, in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian, Sanscrit and Hindu religious art, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in the prehistoric art of Greece, Italy, Hallstatt, Gaul, Sweden;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name for in different languages, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gordon, G. B., <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gottfriedt, J. L., <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Government (see <a href="#index-quadruple" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Quadruple organization</a>, and <a href="#index-social" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Social organization</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Great Plan, stone of, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Great temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recumbent stone figure on summit of, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">contains forty high towers to hold effigies of lords of the Above, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Great Turtle at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greece, use of checker-board design, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">primitive government of, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Athenian culture, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454-459</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek colonies in Egypt, <a href="#Pg491" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">491</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the symbolic use of the column, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-greek-fret" id="index-greek-fret" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greek fret, evolution of, on the American continent, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formed by upright and reversed tau, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Griffis, W. E., <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grote, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <a href="#Pg485" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">485</a>, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486</a>, <a href="#Pg491" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">491</a>, <a href="#Pg492" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">492</a>, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-guatemala" id="index-guatemala" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guatemala, cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cakchiquel Indians, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">obsidian mirror as oracle, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient capital of, divided into two and four parts, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient civilization in, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mushroom-shaped stone figures from, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sculptured slabs resembling image in Inca fable, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Nahuatl language spoken in, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">caste division associated with left hand, evidence that Nahuatl was spoken in, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Nahuatl names of four provinces, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stela with symbol of open hand, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, in table of countries, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gubernatis, Angelo de, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gudea, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guiana, symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American civilizations, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guillemin, Amedée, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Habel, Dr., <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hagar, Stansbury, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hakluyt, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hale, Horatio, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Haliburton, R. G., <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hammurabi, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hamy, Ernest, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hanan-ayllu, upper lineage in Peru, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hanan Cuzco=the Above, ruled by the Inca, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">division of Inca capital including those of upper class, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hathor-Isis, Egyptian goddess of whom the queen was the living image, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429-437</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hawk god, in Egyptian zodiac, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on inscriptions in temple of Denderah, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian god Horus represented with head of hawk, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as image of Amen-Ra, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-heaven" id="index-heaven" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heaven, or <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the Above,”</span> in ancient religion and symbolism:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in conception of cosmos in ancient Mexico, in secret beliefs of Zuñi priests, associated with rising of celestial bodies, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">male region, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacrifices to, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Montezuma living representative of, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi ceremonies, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized as air, light and water, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lords of, buried in wooden effigies placed in high towers, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with rounded form;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temples were circular, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on lentil-shaped altar at Copan, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in mushroom-shaped stone figures from San Salvador and Guatemala, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">peaked mitre worn by lord of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented in Mexican ollin-sign by cone, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by conical stone on which human victims were sacrificed, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese emblem of, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Moki Indian dance, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient architecture, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119-121</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130-146</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Bogota, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by human head, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with human figure, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican tree symbolism, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">color associated with, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">priests represented with beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">list of symbols connected with, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284-290</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hebrew Jehovah called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“God of Heaven,”</span> <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Assyria and Babylonia, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-heaven-earth" id="index-heaven-earth" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heaven and Earth, union of:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by human face, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed by cross-symbols, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">illustrated by double tau-shaped figure, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with Toxcatl festival, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient architecture, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient symbolism <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">typified by shape of irrigating canals of Peru, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan stelæ, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page586">[pg 586]</span><a name="Pg586" id="Pg586" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on summits of high mountains, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">by figure of ocelot and eagle combined, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334-346</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429-438</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hebrews, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heliopolis, seat of learning and monotheism in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heraclitus of Ephesus, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hercules, twelve labors of, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herodotus, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a>, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442-492</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herrera, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hesiod, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hewitt, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-482</a>, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494-509</a>, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517-524</a>, <a href="#Pg565" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">565-575</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hiawatha, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hieroglyphs, and symbols, on stone monuments of Central America, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218-233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Yucatan, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234-244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexico, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245-275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hilavi, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hipparchus, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hippodamus, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486</a>, <a href="#Pg516" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">516</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Historical Exposition at Madrid, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ho, ancient name for Merida, on ancient map from Codex Chumazel, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hochelaga, kingdom of, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Iroquois central capital, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Holcan, title given to war chiefs in Mexico, signifies literally the head of four, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">relates to rulership of Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Holmes, W. H., <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39-48</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Homer, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Honduras, ancient civilization in, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Peabody Museum Expedition, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-copan" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Copan</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hopi, ceremonial having affinities with the Nahuatl and Maya, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Horizon, western, Nahuatl symbol for=calli, the house, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Horse, sacred animal in Egypt, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Horse-shoe symbol, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Horus, Egyptian God identified with Polaris, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">House of the Doves at Uxmal, symbolism of, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huaca, tribal or household <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“idol”</span> among the Peruvians, origin of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huaxtecans, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya colony on Mexican coast, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huitzilopochtli, tradition concerning, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented as humming-bird, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">connected with Above, the male region, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the traditional leader of the Aztecs, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition concerning sister of, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with blue color, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by Montezuma, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heart of the Heaven,”</span> <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">companion idol to that of Tezcatlipoca in great temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">monolith in Mexico, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">statue of, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human arm, symbol of one of the divisions of state in Mexico, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human bones, used as rebus, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reason of decoration, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human breath, symbolism of, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-breath" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Breath</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human face, used symbolically, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in centre of ollin sign, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculpture at Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Central American sculptures, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Copan sculpture, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human faces, of silver and mosaic, on necklace of statue, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-human-figure" id="index-human-figure" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human figure, in sacrifice regarded as symbolic of Middle and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in mushroom-shaped stone figure, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Vienna Codex, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">statue of man and woman, symbolized duality in Peru, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Inca gold image of Creator and of the sun, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of the State in Mexico, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with Four Quarters of the Above, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">combined with animal figure, symbol of dual State, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan stelæ, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219-227</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in sculpture at Palenque, and in Mexican Féjérvary chart, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235-240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recapitulation of meaning of symbol;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of constitution and calendar system;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar signs identified with, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seated cross-legged, emblem of stable Centre, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">parts of, assigned to cardinal points in China, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">significance of, in sculpture, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on stela, represented the chief and his term of office, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of its use as symbol, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">statue of Buddha conveys idea of swastika, also of Centre, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">combined with animal in Babylonian symbolism, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">winged, bird-headed human figure on Assyrian bas-relief, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in the island of Crete, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>, <a href="#Pg458" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">458</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human fingers, symbol of four officers, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human foot, symbol of lower division of State, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human hand, symbol of supplication, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">wooden sceptre in form of, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of capital of State, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on garment of chieftain at Uxmal;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on stela used as name-sign of ruler in Mexico;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of ancient capital in Yucatan;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sceptre in shape of, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of four lords of the Above, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the idea of many hands guided by one head or central power, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of lord or chief, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed numeral five, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human head, on Tablet of the Cross, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as corn cobs on maize plant, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in serpents' jaws on calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">portraits or effigies of the dead, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as symbol of Centre, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on winged bull, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human heart, symbol employed by Mexicans, Mayas, Quiches, and Tzendals, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">extracted from human victim of sacrifice, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of supplication, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in sacrifice, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">between 4 squares, symbol for chieftain, etc., <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of gold on necklace of idol, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human eye used as star symbol, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see Eye symbol).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human mouth and teeth, symbolized earth or Below, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human nose, mystic union of two streams of breath, consecrated by wearing symbolical nose ornament, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human sacrifice</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-sacrifice" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Sacrifice</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human skull, artificial deformation of, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page587">[pg 587]</span><a name="Pg587" id="Pg587" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human stomach, in China symbol of Centre;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">death by disemboweling practised, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Human thumb, symbol of central ruler, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Humboldt, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Humboldt Tablet, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Humis-katshina, Zuñi dance, tau symbol used in, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hunter, Annie, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hupa Indians, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hurin-ayllo, lower lineage in Peru, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hurin Cuzco=the Below, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">division of the Inca capital including the lower class, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huron Indians, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196-199</a>, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huxley, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hwang-te, Chinese emperor who introduced calendar system, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Idols, represented attributes of divine power, etc., <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tribal and household, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ik, Maya glyph, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illinois, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Imix, Maya glyph, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Incas of Peru, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Great Temple of, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">gold images of Creator and of the sun, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">form of government, based on Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancestor worship, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of tree symbolism, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">record of male and female ancestry, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">gold associated with male element, silver with female, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with golden effigy of sun, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">advent into Peru, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also Peru).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">India, divisions of year, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomical system, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika abounds in, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mithra, Hindu god of the wheel, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Brahmans, Buddhists, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">marriage custom, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">native maps of, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ceremonial mode of producing fire, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Middle, centrifugal power;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quadruple organization, etc., <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tree worship, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of Polaris, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the pivot of the planets,”</span> <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Pythagoras derived his philosophy from, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred fire, fire drill, fire altar, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">marriage, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Maghas and Nahushas compared with the Mayas of Yucatan and the Xahuas of Mexico, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the idea of five elements, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">active intercourse with seafarers, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cyclical system of, assigned to same period as Constantine's numerical scheme and the calendrical schemes of the Mayas and Mexicans, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Indra, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Initial scroll, in Central American inscriptions, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ireland, numerical divisions;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quadruple organization;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual ruler;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Middle;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Four Quarters;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cosmical round tower;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Seven Churches;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">great hall of Tara (midcourt), <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468-470</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, in table of countries, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iroquois, social organization, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">wampum belts, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">linguistic affinities with Mayas, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Irrigation, in ancient Peru, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ishtar, cult of, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342-350</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ring or circle, symbol of, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“axis of the heavens,”</span> female Polaris, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Isis, Egyptian goddess worshipped under form of cow, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in sculpture and symbolism, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421-434</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">called daughter of the sun, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>, <a href="#Pg441" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Isokrates, <a href="#Pg492" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">492</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Israelites, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">idea of central power;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">star-cult developing into monotheism, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Itza, tribe who occupied Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ixion's wheel, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ixkun, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bas-relief at, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Izamal, ruins of, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iz-calli, Mexican 20-day period, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">festival of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“renovation,”</span> <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iztaccihuatl, giant volcano, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jade, Nahuatl word for, chalchiuitl, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of water goddess, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">placed with dead of upper class in Mexico, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">jade celts from Nicaragua, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient name for pyramid of Cholula, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, etc.,”</span> <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese word for, significance of, <a href="#Pg563" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">563</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-jaguar" id="index-jaguar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jaguar, figure of, represented four lords of the Below, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">skeleton of, in Mound 4 at Copan, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with ocelot, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Cross tablets at Palenque, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see Ocelot, Puma, Quadruped and Animal form).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Janus, double-faced, probably symbol of double state in Rome, <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Japan, junks, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">organization founded on plan derived from Corea;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“great Centre of the Earth;”</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition about North Pole;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with China, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Buddhism, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four divisions of population, with Emperor at head;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">governed by two rulers, celestial and terrestrial, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Shinto religion, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quadruple organization, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg483" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jastrow, Morris, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327-344</a>, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361-367</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jensen, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerusalem, temples to Baal and altar to Astarte, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350-352</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">destruction of, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jesup expedition to the North Pacific, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jones, Sir William, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Joyce, <a href="#Pg570" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">570</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Justinian, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kaan, Maya word for cord, associated with caan, Heaven, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kaka or Akaka-kwe, mythic dance drama people, among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kan=numeral four, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya word for serpent, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Nahuatl word for serpent, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese word for mountain, also for province or ruler, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kan-asta (Iroquois) frame poles of the council house, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kanasta-tsi-koma (Iroquois) <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the great framework;”</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of Iroquois league, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Katun, period of twenty years marked by sculptured stone, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kingsborough, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kin (Maya)=sun, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kin-ich-ahua, one title of Maya supreme divinity, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kircher, <a href="#Pg485" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">485</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page588">[pg 588]</span><a name="Pg588" id="Pg588" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Knight, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kukulcan, Maya title for Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of name=divine serpent, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by feathered serpent in Yucatan and Mexico, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition concerning, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruler of Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">assumed offices of four rulers, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">established connection between Chichen Itza and Mexico, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with culture hero of Bogota, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya chief or lord, journeyed to Mexico and was there called, Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">actual person, Maya high priest, Mexican culture hero, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name signified <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“divine four,”</span> <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title expressed by serpent on Copan stelæ, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kulkun, mountain in China, called king of mountains, summit of the earth, etc., <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kushites, myth regarding origin of life, etc., <a href="#Pg495" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">495</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kwakiutl Indians, social organization and secret societies, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Maya, Mexican and Peruvian, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lacedæmon, ancient philosophy of, <a href="#Pg487" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">487</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lacouperie, T. de, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Land, conventional symbol of, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Landa, Fra Diego de, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206-220</a>, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Language, differed in male and female communities, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence on ancient American symbolism, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-linguistics" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Linguistics</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laoutsze, founder of Taouism, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laplace, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Las Casas, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Layard, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lea, Chinese word for Below, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Left-hand;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">left-handed was attribute of Mexican god, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">consecration of, in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">honorific title, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan altar, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Legge, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lenormant, <a href="#Pg566" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">566</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leon, Cieza de, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Le Plongeon A., <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lepsius, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Levier, Emile, <a href="#Pg477" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">477</a>, <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">478</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Life of the Indians (same as Hispano-Mexican MS., Biblioteca Nazionale MS., or B. N. MS.).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-linguistics" id="index-linguistics" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Linguistics, traces of words associated with archaic set of ideas in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparative tables of words, Appendix I, <a href="#Pg549" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">549</a>; and Appendix III, <a href="#Pg563" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">563</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lion, sacred symbol in Egypt, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lizard, skin of, in connection with human sacrifice, and with goddess of earth and underworld, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lizana, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lloque Yupanqui, third Inca, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lockyer, Norman, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lorenzana, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lorillard City (see Menché), <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sculpture and art of, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lotus, as symbol in Egypt and India, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Loubat, Duc de, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Luna, Don Jose, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lunar year, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lunar periods, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lunar calendar in Mexico, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Luschan, Felix von, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lysicrates, choragic monument of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lycurgus, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>, <a href="#Pg487" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">487</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maghadas of India, <a href="#Pg497" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">497</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maghas of India compared with Mayas, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a Finnic race, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maghi of Persia, <a href="#Pg497" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">497</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Magnus, P., <a href="#Pg477" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">477</a>, <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">478</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mahaffy, J. P., <a href="#Pg417" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">417</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maize, ceremonial, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of goddess of Earth, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used in ceremonial offerings by Californian Indians, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on earth symbol in codices, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculptures at Palenque and Copan, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican New Year festivals, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cultivation of, in very early times, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">legacy of Corn Maidens and Daughters of Earth, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as year symbol, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maler, Teobert, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maltaya bas-relief, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Manco, Capac, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">founder of Cuzco, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Manché, a tribe of Menché and Palenque, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mandaite pole-star worship, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>, <a href="#Pg556" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">556</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">March, H. Colley, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marcianus, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Market stone of the City of Mexico, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-mexican-calendar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Mexican Calendar Stone</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marinus, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-maritime" id="index-maritime" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maritime intercourse between Old and New World, interrupted for many centuries by interregnum of Polaris, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">equatorial currents favoring migrations to New World, <a href="#Pg524" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">524</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">evidence of Græco-Egyptian contact with Mexico, <a href="#Pg538" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">538</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-pre-columbian" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Pre-Columbian contact</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Markham, Clements B., <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marriage, in Mexico, sacred rites in connection with, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">laws governing, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Hindu, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on New Year's day in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg441" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">festivals, in India and in Mexico connected with worship of Pleiades, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-heaven-earth" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Heaven and Earth, union of</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marroquin, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maspero, <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">437</a>, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Master builders, ah-men, Maya name for;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">aman-teca, Mexican name for, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">kinship between those of Central America and Mexico, and the trained builders of cosmical structures in the Old World, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>, <a href="#Pg532" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">532</a>, <a href="#Pg533" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">533</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maudslay, Alfred P., <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mayapan, capital of confederacy of Mayas, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient capital of Yucatan, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Ho, another name for, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Ichpa, another name for, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient chronicles, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cocomes, people of, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211-216</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mayer's Manual, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mazahuas or deer people, of Guatemala, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">McGee, W. J., <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mecca, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the mother of cities;”</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the grave of Mother Eve, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Medhurst, W. H., <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Melchites, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Memorial stones, in Copan, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page589">[pg 589]</span><a name="Pg589" id="Pg589" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Men, name of dog in Maya calendar;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">means master-builder, artisan, etc., <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Menché, ancient ruins of, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lorillard City,”</span> <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient civilization of, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mendieta, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Merida, modern capital of Yucatan, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient name, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Ho,”</span> <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured in ancient map, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>, <a href="#Pg557" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">557</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quadruple organization, stable Centre, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seat of various empires, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-mexican-calendar" id="index-mexican-calendar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mexican Calendar Stone</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-calendar-stone" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Calendar Stone of Mexico</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mexican Calendar system</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-calendar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Calendar Systems</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mexican MSS. unpublished, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mexican Sacrificial Stone</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-sacrificial-stone" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Sacrificial stone</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mexico, number of deities;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same god under several names, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">idols, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of supreme Creator, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar-swastika, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245-258</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">system of government, origin of, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">game, symbolizing axial rotation, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar system, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Great Temple of, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">City of, divided into four quarters, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">built on dual island in dual lake, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient map of, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient capital of, divided into two halves, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessel, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tribal and household <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“idols,”</span> origin of, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">native arms of, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">caste division associated with left hand, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of human sacrifice, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical with Peru, Copan, Guatemala, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc., <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">map of, to be published, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with other ancient cultures of America, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235-244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sun cult and moon cult existing at same time, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual government at time of Conquest, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cradle of American civilizations, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">names of symbols translated from Maya, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika symbol found associated with calendar signs, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spider's web as symbol of numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, in table of countries, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the sacred and tribal tree, <a href="#Pg499" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">499</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lighting the sacred fire, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols and plan of government compared to those of Old World, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506-524</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions on which the cosmical scheme was based, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">date when calendar was instituted, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruder forms of culture, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">civilization at time of Conquest indicative of contact with Old World, <a href="#Pg538" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">538</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">period of warfare, pestilence, etc., <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">resemblance between name of capital (Temistitan), and of Greek philosopher, Themistius, <a href="#Pg543" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">543</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Meyer's Lexikon, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Micmac Indians, myths about Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mictlampa, Nahuatl name for the North, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mictlan, land of the dead, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mictlantecuhtli, identical with Tezcatlipoca, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lord of the North, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Midas, king of Phrygia, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Migration, from the north, to South America, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">caused by desire to find stable centre of the earth, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico and Central America in twelfth century, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-migration-myths" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Migration myths</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-migration-myths" id="index-migration-myths" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Migration myths and traditions: in connection with cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Peruvian, Mayan, Mexican, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">motive of, explained by Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Kukulcan driven out of Chichen Itza and journeyed to Mexico, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">three brothers came from the West and settled in Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">into Yucatan from the South, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Mayas came from Tollan in Zu-iva, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Mexican culture hero came from the East, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the ancient red land,”</span> <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528-530</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-myths" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Myths and Traditions</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mikado, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mill-stone, as symbol, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494-509</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Milne, J. G., <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Minotaurus, ruler of island of Crete, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-mirror" id="index-mirror" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mirror, of obsidian, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as oracle among the Cakchiquel Indian of Guatemala, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in sacred edifices;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in great temple of Mexico;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">eyes of image of Tezcatlipoca, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Tezcatlipoca;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">oracle of judgment in Mexico and Guatemala;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">aid to astronomical observations, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of obsidian, symbol of star-cult;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of polished pyrites, symbol of sun-cult, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with symbolical tree and serpent, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bowl of water, preceded use of, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Shinto symbolism, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mississippi valley, cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">earth-work builders, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">early peoples of, in contact with Mayas, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">names of cities and tribes showing Maya influence, art resembling that of Mayas, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Missouri, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mit (Egyptian)=death, or the dead, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mithra, Aryan god of the wheel, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mitimaes, Peruvian colonists, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mitla, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recent excavations at, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moabites, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mohammedans, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mol, glyph on Copan altar, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Molina's dictionary, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg553" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">553</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Monarquia Indiana, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mongolia, Buddhists of, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Monkey=Ozomatli, Mexican day-sign, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Montagua river, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Montesinos, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Montezuma, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67-75</a>, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>, <a href="#Pg547" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">547</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moon, associated with cult of night, Earth Mother, the Below, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peruvian cult of the Below, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Bogota, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomical attainments of priests of, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar stone, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image in silver on pyramid at Teotihuacan, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lunar calendar, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in religion of Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moqui Indians, tau symbol used by, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Morien, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Morse, Edward T., <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>, <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">478</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mortillet, Gabriel de, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page590">[pg 590]</span><a name="Pg590" id="Pg590" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mortuary customs in Mexico, placing jade with dead of upper class, and texaxoctli with dead of lower class, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">carried northward from the south, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">body of Mexican ruler covered with raiment of four principal gods, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moslems, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Motowori, <a href="#Pg575" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">575</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Motul, dictionary of, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mound, symbol of Earth, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mound-builders (see <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<a href="#index-earth-work" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Earth-work Builders</a>”</span>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mountain, sacred (see <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<a href="#index-pyramid" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Pyramid or Mountain</a>”</span>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mueller, Iwan, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Müller, Max, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <a href="#Pg564" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">564</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Muluc, Maya division of 4 years assigned to the north, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mummy, in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Museums: American, of New York, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Berlin, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg417" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">417</a>, <a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">423</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Bonn, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>; British, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355-357</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Dresden, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Ghizer, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">National, Mexico, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">National, Washington, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, 51;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">New Haven, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Peabody, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">South Kensington, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Stockholm, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>; Trocadero, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mushroom-shaped stone figures, from San Salvador and Guatemala, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represent native idea of Above and Below with central ruler of both, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indicate belief in one supreme ruler, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mussulman, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Muyscas of Bogota, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-myths" id="index-myths" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Myths and traditions: <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Creation</span></span> myths</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">(see separate heading), <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313-318</a>, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a>, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg495" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">495</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">flood and destruction</span></span> myths</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">(see separate heading), <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270-275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">migration</span></span> myths</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">(see separate heading), <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211-217</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525-530</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">star cult</span></span> myths,—Mexican, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">American Indian, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">Turanian, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mexican</span></span>, life after death and relative position of man and woman, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">Tezcatlipoca cast down from Heaven and arose as an ocelot, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">Quilaztli, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“woman serpent,”</span> <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60-62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Maya</span></span>, culture hero, Kukulcan, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">suggesting worship of Polaris, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">relating to 7-day period among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Peruvian</span></span>, concerning the Inca Yupanqui who introduced the worship of the Creator, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">relating to ancestors of Manco Capac and the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“royal eagle,”</span> <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">concerning contest between serpent and eagle, compared with similar Mexican tradition, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese</span></span>, concerning birthplace of Japanese race, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Arabian</span></span>, Moslem tradition about Heavenly and earthly Kaaba, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">astronomical, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">465</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Assyrian</span></span>, relating to planet Venus and god Ishtar, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Greek</span></span>, about fire-drill, <a href="#Pg496" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">496</a>, and Ixion, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Rig Veda</span></span>, origin of fire, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nahr-el-Kelb, bas-reliefs at, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Esarhaddon stela, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nahuas of Mexico compared with Nahushas of India, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-nahuiollin" id="index-nahuiollin" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nahui-ollin, Mexican symbol, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“four movements,”</span> <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represents four movements of constellations, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of the four-fold divisions of which it was a symbol, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">commemorated the four epochs of the world's history, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">common to the various ancient peoples of America, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-ollin" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ollin</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nakhunte, king of Susiana, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Naming of children in Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Navel, name of cosmical centre where human victims were annually sacrificed by Mexican priests=<span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Navel of the Earth,”</span> <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cuzco called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Navel of the Earth,”</span> <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol in ancient American art, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Arabia, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Navel of the heaven,”</span> <a href="#Pg520" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">520</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Navel of the world,”</span> <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Navigation, primitive crafts and charts, Ceylon and Karashee, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Peruvian fishing boats of seal skin;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Quetzalcoatl's twin raft of serpent or seal skin;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">illustrations in native codices and sculptures, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-boat" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Boat</a> and <a href="#index-maritime" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Maritime intercourse</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nebuchadnezzar, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Necklace of hearts and hands, on Mexican idol, indicative of supplication, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Neo-platonism, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nepantla, the zenith, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nest, in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nestorian Tablet, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">New Year's Day, in ancient Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240-244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mesopotamia, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>, <a href="#Pg557" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">557</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425-437</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nezahual coyotl, ruler of Texcoco who erected temple to <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Unknown God,”</span> <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title, Ome Tochtli=2 rabbit, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nicaragua, star-symbol on pottery from, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient occupation by Nahuatl-speaking race, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">jade celts from, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Niebuhr, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Night, priest of, lord of, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sons of, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian symbol of, a star suspended by thread, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nimroud bas-reliefs, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nirvana, in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nordenskjöld, Baron Gustav, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Norsemen, Eddas, symbolism, celestial tree, <a href="#Pg502" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">502</a>, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">North, symbols of, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sign of, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">underworld, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Cosmos, associated with Tecpatl=flint, red, fire, warmth, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">color of, red, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lord of, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">female region, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of, in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">region of the dead, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya name and symbol of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Buddha associated with, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">veneration of, in India, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian pyramid symbolism, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Babylonian word=akkad, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nose, grotesque, on sculptures at Copan, Quirigua and Palenque, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nose ornament, religious idea associated with, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nott and Gliddon, races of men recognized by ancient Egyptians, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Numbers, sacred, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-numerical" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Numerical divisions</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-numerical" id="index-numerical" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Numerical divisions, in sociological and +calendrical systems:</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page591">[pg 591]</span><a name="Pg591" id="Pg591" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Guatemala, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by human figure, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican government, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">carried northward from the south, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Huron Confederacy, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Copan, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in symbolic carving from South America, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Quirigua, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican Calendar stone, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican compared with Chinese, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Japan, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Assyria, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368-376</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in cyclical systems of Egyptians, Hindus, Chinese, Mexicans, Mayas and Greeks, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and Greece, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Ireland, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468-470</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Britain, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Wales, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of countries in which used, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Plato's <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“divine polities”</span> compared with scheme of organization in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, as shown in Yucatan and Mexico, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">chief ruler called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Four in One,”</span> <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">apparent survival in early Christian religion, <a href="#Pg536" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">536-538</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Plato's and Inca's scheme of state, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Constantine's plan, and in Maya and Mexican calendars, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>, <a href="#Pg543" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">543</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">analogies and divergences, American divisions agree with Greek but differ from Chinese, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nutt, David, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nuttall, Zelia, work on the Atlatl, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the Mexican Calendar system, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244-247</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Obsidian mirror</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-mirror" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Mirror”</span></a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-ocelot" id="index-ocelot" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ocelot, Tezcatlipoca took shape of, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican mythical drama, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of nocturnal sky, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican codices, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of one division of Mexican warriors, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">man with beast (ocelot or jaguar,) symbol of dual State in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of minor rulers in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">man-ocelot and man-bird, represented rulers of two divisions of state in Mexico, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">or tiger, warrior-caste of Mexico, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">skin of, worn by high-priest in Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of the Fire people in Mexico, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized cult of Earth, as opposed to bird, symbol of cult of Heaven, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of State in ancient America, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-jaguar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Jaguar</a>, <a href="#index-puma" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Puma</a> and <a href="#index-quadruped" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Quadruped</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ocna, a Maya festival, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-octli" id="index-octli" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Octli, name of native wine, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pulque, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">earth-wine, indicated by figure of rabbit, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Octli-gods, agents of the Cihuacoatl, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rain gods, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rain-priests, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">priests of the earth, emblem of=vase filled with rain or earth-wine, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">monkey intimately connected with, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Odin, Scandinavian king and deity, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Norse <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“ruler of Heaven,”</span> <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ohio valley, ancient earth-work builders in contact with ancient Mexicans, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">art resembles Maya, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika symbol associated with serpent symbol, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ojibway Indians, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oldenburg, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Old World, fire-drill, fire altar, sacred fire, oil press, millstone, axial rotation, etc., <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494-504</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">civilizations compared with New World, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504-609</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oliva, Padre Anello, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oliver, G., <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <a href="#Pg485" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">485</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-ollin" id="index-ollin" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ollin, in Calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-nahuiollin" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Nahuiollin</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Olmos, Friar Andreas de, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Olympic Games, marked cycle or period, <a href="#Pg485" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">485</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Omacatl, associated with water, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Omaha Indians, measured time by Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ondegardo, Polo de, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">O'Neil, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>, <a href="#Pg547" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">547</a>, <a href="#Pg568" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">568</a>, <a href="#Pg570" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">570</a>, <a href="#Pg572" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">572</a>, <a href="#Pg574" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">574</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oriental Congress, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Orientation, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Copan and Quirigua the same, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of temples at Palenque, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">diagonal, in Egypt and Central America, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian pyramids faced the north, and the pole-star, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temples in Lower Egypt faced to the North; in Upper Egypt to the South, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Origin of American civilizations, <a href="#Pg543" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">543</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Orizaba, giant volcano, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient name, Citlal-tepetl=Star Mountain, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ozomatli, monkey;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican day-sign, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pacha-Yachachi, Inca name for Creator, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Painting, in connection with symbolism, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of body and face in Peru, Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-color" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Color</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Palenque, Palace House with tau-shaped recesses, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">character of stelæ, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">study of monuments, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234-239</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same cult as Quirigua and Copan, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tablets, tribal registers, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tablet, in <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Temple of the Sun,”</span> likened to Mexican Sacrificial stone, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Palestine, cult of Astarte and Baal, and monotheism of the Israelites, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pan, feast of, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pantheon, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Panuco, Maya colony established at, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Papa, name of Mexican Priest, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Papakhu, name of inner sanctuary of Babylonian and Assyrian temple, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Papalotl, butterfly, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parry, Francis, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parsee religion, worship of fire as outcome of pole-star worship, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parturition, symbolized by shell, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">by snail, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Path of the Dead, ancient road leading to Pyramid of the Moon, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Patolli, native Mexican game, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized social organization, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paz Solden, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peabody Museum, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peabody Museum Honduras Expedition, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pedregal de San Augustin, ancient lava-field in City of Mexico, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peking, contains temple to North Star God, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-china" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">China</a> and <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>).</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page592">[pg 592]</span><a name="Pg592" id="Pg592" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peñatiel, Antonio, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Perez, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Perrot and Chipiez, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Perry, John, <a href="#Pg547" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">547</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Persia, ancient religion of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven divisions of Cosmos, four-fold rule, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-peru" id="index-peru" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peru, worship of Pleiades, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred fire, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of checker board design, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">light and dark colors used to designate the Above and Below, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">irrigating canals in symbolic form, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">outline of civilization, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stone monument typifying duality, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">knowledge of Creator, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">form of government, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tribal and household <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“idols,”</span> <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four rulers, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">classification of people, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“white virgins,”</span> title given to upper class maidens;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“black virgins,”</span> lower class;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">caste;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">deformation of skulls, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ceremony for driving out sickness, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ceremony illustrating rotation, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">religious festivals, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">civilization from the north, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">prehistoric ruins, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Inca fable, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with symbolism of sculptured slabs in Guatemala, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">linguistic affinities between Quechua and Maya and Nahuatl, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Polaris;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">navigation, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Creator”</span> (Polaris) superseded sun and moon cults, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">caste division associated with left hand, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruins of Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165-169</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols compared with those of Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">scheme of government compared with Plato's <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“divine polities”</span>, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Petrie, Flinders, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>, <a href="#Pg483" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>, <a href="#Pg491" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">491</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pheidon of Corinth, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pherecydes, the Phœnician teacher of Pythagoras, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philolaus, <a href="#Pg485" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">485</a>, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-phoenicians" id="index-phoenicians" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Phœnicians, cult of Astarte, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a northern race, called Turanians, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">navigators, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worshipped serpent, fire-drill and the Pleiades;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">called the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“red men,”</span> <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition indicates their migration to the New World, <a href="#Pg524" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">524</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528-535</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">evidence of their influence, <a href="#Pg538" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">538-541</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">allied to Semitic race, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a>, <a href="#Pg543" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">543</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pig, sacred animal in Egypt, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pigmy races, traditions of, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pillar, worship of (see <a href="#index-column" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Column</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pilli, Mexican title, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“fingers,”</span> title of minor lords, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pilquixtia, a Mexican festival, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pinches, Mr., <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plato, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444-451</a>, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>, <a href="#Pg486" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">486-490</a>, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>, <a href="#Pg546" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">546</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plato's <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Polities,”</span> identical with scheme of government in ancient Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-pleiades" id="index-pleiades" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pleiades, study of, by primitive peoples, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Society Islands, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in southern America, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Mexican Calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese calendar, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a> (see <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>, <a href="#index-ursa-major" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ursa Major</a> and <a href="#index-ursa-minor" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ursa Minor</a>);</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worship of, in India and Mexico;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with New Year and marriage festivals, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plotinus, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plutarch, <a href="#Pg441" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>, <a href="#Pg488" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">488</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Polar constellations, chart of, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Polar regions, both hemispheres originally peopled from, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-polaris" id="index-polaris" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Polaris, the author's observation of, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">primitive man's study of, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Draconis, as pole-star;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">apparent immovability;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">means of determining direction;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">supernatural power, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>; worship of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">centre of axial energy, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican Calendar system suggested by, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical value of, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">centre of cosmic system, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">changes in relative positions of, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ceased to be brilliant and immovable about 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D., <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">migrations from south to north, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spread of cult in Mexico, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Peru;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">also, in Mississippi valley, as indicated by carvings on shell gorgets, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, analogous to cross and star symbols on shell gorgets from Tennessee, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggestions of cult among the Eskimo, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by star symbols and swastika on pottery from Arizona and Nicaragua, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with cult of Earth and Night, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by Montezuma on his throne, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not identical with God C, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as centre of rotation in Zuñi emblem, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as a guide in navigation between Guatemala, Nicaragua and Peru, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">between Ceylon and Karachee, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult superseded sun and moon cults in Peru, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">invisible at Cuzco;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Inca worship of the invisible Creator, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Yoal-tecuhtli, Mexican lord of the Night;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of Polaris, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">producer of life and regulator of the universe;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tecpatl (flint knife) symbol of, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with tree symbolism;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heart Of Heaven,”</span> <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Copan, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reflected in bowl of water=Creator, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Shakespeare, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented central face in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Calendar-stone based on observation of, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with pyramid, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with swastika symbol, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya name, Ek-chuah, patron divinity of travellers and traders, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">North Star God, temple to, in Pekin;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese name=Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of Heaven, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284-287</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in work of Confucius, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese Taouism, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hebrew Jehovah, having same title, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“God of Heaven,”</span> <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mesopotamia, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Arabia, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">linguistic affinity between name of Polaris, and word for capital and for north, in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Phœnician name=the serpent, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lord or king”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great Mountain,”</span> <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of, in Assyria and Babylonia, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332-339</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Israelites, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, highest form developed into monotheism, and lowest form into cult of Ishtar and Bel, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented in Babylonian temples by a fire in centre of square altar, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Euphratean star-worshippers, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">high development of cult in Egypt, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376-382</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian mummy, image of, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian names for, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401-403</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian religion and symbolism, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>, <a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">423</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page593">[pg 593]</span><a name="Pg593" id="Pg593" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> +India, called the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“pivot of the planets,”</span> <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Arabia, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the hole where the earth's axle found its bearing,”</span> <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Greece, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450-453</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek Polos, a star revolving on itself, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indicated by cross symbol before the use of swastika, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">called by early Danes and Icelanders, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“throne of Thor”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“smaller Chariot,”</span> <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">called by Finns <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Taehti=star at the top of the heavenly mountain,”</span> <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the ancient Scandinavians and their descendants the Vikings, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with use of fire-drill in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Hindus, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek Ixion, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Assyrian goddess Ishtar called the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“axis of the heavens,”</span> female Polaris, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured by wooden or stone socket from which fire and water flowed to the four quarters, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pole-star god of the Hindus compared with fire-drill god of Mexico, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Mexican pole-star god compared with the Hindu, Greek, Norse, Russian, etc., <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Old and New World, <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Phœnicians steered by, from earliest times, <a href="#Pg523" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">523</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">interval of time when the pole star ceased to be conspicuous, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">maritime intercourse interrupted, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reappearance of, <a href="#Pg538" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">538</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mesopotamian prayer meeting of star-worshippers (Appendix II), <a href="#Pg557" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">557</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Popocatepetl, volcano, Mexico, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Popol-Vuh, sacred book of the Quichés, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Popular Science Monthly, <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">478</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Porto Rico, stone objects from, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of aborigines, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Powell, J. W., <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Powers, Stephen, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-pre-columbian" id="index-pre-columbian" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pre-Columbian contact indicated by same cosmical divisions and scheme of government in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-504</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same symbolism, etc., <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509-544</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">traditions indicate, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">question of contact between China and America, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Prescott, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pritchard, W. T., <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Proctor, Richard A., <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Propitiation, origin of, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ptolemy, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pueblo Indians, use of tau, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associate step pyramid with rain, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">affinities with Mexican and Maya, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">corn maidens, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pullé, Mr., <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pulque, in connection with cult of earth-mother, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-octli" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Octli</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-puma" id="index-puma" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Puma, four heads terminating arms of swastika at Tiahuanaco,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-quadruped" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Quadruped</a>, <a href="#index-ocelot" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ocelot</a> and <a href="#index-jaguar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Jaguar</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Putnam, F. W., <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg545" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">545</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-pyramid" id="index-pyramid" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pyramid or sacred mountain:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">culmination of symbolism of cone, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in mountain worship, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya word for, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Lord of the Mountain a sovereign title among the Quiché, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin and significance of, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">typified numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on statue <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin attributed to the Maya speaking people;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Teotihuacan, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">interpretation of affix <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“can”</span> in names of Mexican and Maya towns, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of central, dual and quadruple power, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Cholula, ancient name for, means <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, etc.,”</span> <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">erected as place of refuge from inundations, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Central power, and quadruple organization, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same as expressed by swastika, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Cholula, marks the site of great and ancient Tollan, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as symbol of Centre in Cosmos, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of symbol, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese symbolism and social organization, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Japan, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">star god called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great mountain,”</span> <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">identical with god in Babylonia and in Assyria, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hebrew god, Yahwe, worshipped on Mount Sion, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Jerusalem founded on Mount Zion, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">holy mound symbol of god Shamash of Assyria, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">central deity of Babylonia called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the great mountain,”</span> <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt expressed a whole divided into four parts, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">miniature of cosmos, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Begerauie, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“holy mountain of God”</span> Book of Prophet Ezekiel, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the chief idol of Ireland was called Cenn Craich (mound-chief), <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">form of letter delta in Greek Alphabet, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pyrites, mirror of, used as symbol of sun-cult, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pythagorean philosophy, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484-488</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Neo-Pythagorism, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-quadruped" id="index-quadruped" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quadruped, meaning of use as symbol, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented Zuñi state and subdivisions, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">illustrated by Alligator altar at Copan and by <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great Turtle”</span> at Quirigua, also by tortoise in China, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-ocelot" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ocelot</a>, <a href="#index-jaguar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Jaguar</a> and <a href="#index-puma" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Puma</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-quadruple" id="index-quadruple" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quadruple organization, in cosmos, and scheme of government:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of idea, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya, Mexican, and Zuñi, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed in cross symbols, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47-54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexico divided into four parts, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at time of Conquest, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient map of Yucatan, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient map of Mexico, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Inca empire, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Guatemala, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Bogota, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Tzendals, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Quiché, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Yucatan sculptures, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in tree symbolism, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">carried northward, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Huron Indian Confederacy, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Maya and Mexican traditions, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Copan, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Palenque, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Palenque, Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, Mexico and Zuñi compared, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">regulated by Calendar Stone, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with pyramid building, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273-282</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by human figure, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">China and Mexico compared, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Japan, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310-312</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>, <a href="#Pg481" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">481</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mesopotamia, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Assyria, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332-337</a>, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Greece, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indicated first by cross symbol and later by swastika, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Ireland, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Britain, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page594">[pg 594]</span><a name="Pg594" id="Pg594" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of countries where traces are found, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparative review, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in cruciform structures at Copan and Mitla, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">chief ruler called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Four in One,”</span> <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also, <a href="#index-numerical" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Numerical Divisions</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle woman, Mexican title, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quetquetzalcoa, plural of Quetzalcoatl, title of his successors, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quetzal, feathers of, carved on feathered serpent, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">exhibiting colors of Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as Mexican symbol of beloved chief or child, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem at Palenque, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem at Copan, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see also <a href="#index-bird" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Bird</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quetzalcoatl, invocation to;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Creator and maker, twin lord and twin lady, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“wheel of the winds,”</span> <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the divine twin, centre of cosmos, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">other names for;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">myth concerning, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">an actual person who came from Yucatan, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruled in Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya title=Kukulcan, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico supreme god, also god of fire, and of the four winds, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">successors to, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">was driven from Tullan by enemies, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">established connection between Chichen-Itza and Mexico, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recumbent figure of, in temple of city of Tula, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacrifices to, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">god of the winds, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">built Caracol or Round Temple at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Round Temples in Mexico dedicated to, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divine twin, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his craft called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“serpent or twin raft,”</span> <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">another name for Maya lord, Kukulcan, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">important historical person, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Tollan abode of, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with figure on Copan sculpture, and with priest in Zuñi creation myth, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured with beard, in Mexican codices, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of, in temple of Cholollan, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temple at Tula, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, title of high priest in service of Huitzilopochtli, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">also title of Montezuma, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quiché, Supreme Divinity of, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Sacred book of, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totems, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical and social system, illustrated by tradition, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Zuñi, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lord of the Mountain”</span> title, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">affix in name, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ché</span></span>, Maya word for tree, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used day and year signs as personal and tribal names, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">traditions of destruction of earth, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quilaztli, sister of Huitzilopochtli, myth concerning, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the mother of all, same as Cihuacoatl, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Egyptian queen, <a href="#Pg428" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">428</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quirigua, sister city to Copan, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient monuments, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">social organization same as that of Copan, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totemic animals and symbolic colors, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great Turtle,”</span> <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stelæ as memorial stones of high priest rulers, <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">remnants of old civilization, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ra, Egyptian word for God, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rabbit (tochtli), <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican calendar sign;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of earth and reproduction, used to represent sound of word, octli, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figure of, indicates sacred octli or earth-wine, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Nahuatl picture writing, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the rebus for earth-wine or rain, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rabinal, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rain, Tlaloc, god of, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured with scrolls about the eyes, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lords, four hundred in number, sacred vase, emblem of, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Zuñi rain-makers, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rites practised on summits of pyramids, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient festival described in the Brahmanas, <a href="#Pg496" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">496</a>, <a href="#Pg497" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">497</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized by rabbit, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rattlesnakes, on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Raven, or summer people among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rawnsley, <a href="#Pg491" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">491</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rays, carved on Calendar stone the idea of, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Read, C. H., <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-recumbent" id="index-recumbent" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Recumbent stone statues, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93-96</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Recurved staff or sceptre, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Red land, in name of Mexican city Tlapallan, and of Chichen (Itza), <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the great ancient red land”</span> in the East, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Red man, origin of title, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of the Phœnicians, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Genesis, <a href="#Pg523" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">523</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chichimecs of Mexico (literally, Red race), <a href="#Pg532" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">532</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rig-Veda, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>, <a href="#Pg496" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">496</a>, <a href="#Pg497" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">497</a>, <a href="#Pg499" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">499</a>, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Riksmuseum of Stockholm, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ring or circle, in Persia, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-circle-ring" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Circle or ring</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rio Lagartos, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rios, Padre, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rivero, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and Tschudi, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Roman, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Roman Catholic Church, <a href="#Pg537" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">537</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Roman Milliarum Aureum, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rome, sacred fire, Roma Quadrata, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">duality, middle, quadruple government, <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-storied tower, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seven-day period, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">465</a>, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, in table of countries, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Constantine's plan of state-organization in New Rome identical with the numerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican calendars, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the symbolical use of the column, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">amulet, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">church built by Constantine in form of Greek Cross, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rosa, Beltran de la, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rosny, Leon de, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rotation</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-axial-rotation" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Axial rotation</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Round form, associated with cult of Heaven or the Above in Mexico, Central America;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Zuñis, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113-115</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient architecture, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with sky in Egypt, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Round Temples of Chichen Itza and Mexico, symbolism of, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Royal Ethnographical Museum of Dresden, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rust, Horatio N., <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sabæan star-worship, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sabbath, derivation of name, etc., <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-sacrifice" id="index-sacrifice" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sacrifice, human, sacred rite, in Mexico, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolism of, in Aztec religion, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">human victim formed living swastika, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">human blood used to moisten sacred dough, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of blood sacrifices, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">to Heaven and to Earth, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico, taking out heart of captive signified destroying life of conquered tribe, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page595">[pg 595]</span><a name="Pg595" id="Pg595" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian compared with Mexican, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>, <a href="#Pg443" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">443</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-sacrificial-stone" id="index-sacrificial-stone" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sacrificial-stone of Mexico=Tribute-stone, or law-stone recording collection of tributes, etc., <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sahagun, Friar Bernardino de, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77-83</a>, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>, <a href="#Pg553" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">553</a>, <a href="#Pg555" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">555</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">St. Augustine, <a href="#Pg536" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">536</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sakkarah, Egyptian seven-storied pyramid, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Salado, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Salcamayhua, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Salcamayhua tablet, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sanchez, Jesus, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">San Fun, ancient Chinese work, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saniah-ya-kwe: priesthood of the Hunt, among the Zuñis, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">San Salvador, mushroom-shaped stone figures from, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, sculptured slabs at, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sapper, Carl, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Satow and Hawes' Handbook of Japan, <a href="#Pg570" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">570</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saville, M. H., <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saxo Grammaticus, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sayce, A. H., <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>, <a href="#Pg481" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">481</a>, <a href="#Pg491" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">491</a>, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>, <a href="#Pg520" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">520</a>, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>, <a href="#Pg524" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">524</a>, <a href="#Pg525" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">525</a>, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>, <a href="#Pg532" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">532</a>, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>, <a href="#Pg572" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">572</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scandinavia, triskelion associated with swastika, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek fret, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">middle;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Four Quarters;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Ursa Major called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Thor's Wagon;”</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred mountain and tree;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">axial rotation;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of Polaris;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">duality;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">flora and fauna, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471-479</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary, in table of countries, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of wheel in early times, also mill stone, <a href="#Pg502" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">502</a>, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-scarab" id="index-scarab" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scarab, meaning of emblem, secret sign for <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“hidden god,”</span> <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sceptre, with gold disk, in Mexico, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of sovereignty in Assyria and Babylonia, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schellhas, P., <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schlagintweit, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schlegel, G., <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schliemann, H., <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schroeder, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>, <a href="#Pg568" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">568</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schuchhardt, <a href="#Pg518" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">518</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scorpion, Maya Zin-an;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scotland, use of checker-board design, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sed festival, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429</a>, <a href="#Pg431" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">431</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Selden MS., <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg508" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">508</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Seeds, in symbolism of earth mother, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Maya codices, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seeds of life, Zuñi, Mexican, Maya, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Tablet of the Cross, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan swastika;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Zuñi, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">conventionalized maize seeds, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">idols formed of seeds in Egypt and Mexico, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>, <a href="#Pg443" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">443</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Seler, E., <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Semiramis, temple of, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Semites, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350-352</a>, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of Supreme god=Yahu or Yaho or Yahve, <a href="#Pg532" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">532</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">allied to the Phœnicians, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg541" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">541</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sendschirli tablet, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sepher Hathora, Hebrew book of the law, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-serpent" id="index-serpent" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Serpent, in ancient religious symbolism:</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with time, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Nahuatl name=twin, Maya name=four, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of dual or quadruple nature, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of eternal life and the Creator, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cursive sign for, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on shell gorgets from Mississippi valley, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of symbol, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divine ruler of four quarters, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">feathers with (see Feathered serpent) <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pertaining to earth-mother, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">double-headed, forming vase, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with tree of life, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with burial of woman, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with symbol of Earth, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with air symbol, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Peruvian fable, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totem of tribe conquered by Incas, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in arms of Mexico, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on silver pendant from Cuzco, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with seven heads, symbolical of Mexican and Maya seven tribal divisions, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of dual ruler, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mythological snake among the Pueblo people, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Below among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">totemic animal of Uxmal, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Cross Tablets”</span> at Palenque, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on monolith <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Twin,”</span> <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of gold and mosaic on statue of Huitzilopochtli, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of symbol, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in India, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worshipped in the temple of Solomon, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522-523</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Serpent-woman, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cihuacoatl, Mexican ruler, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of, figured and described, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Seven, sacred number, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see summary, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">also <a href="#index-numerical" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Numerical divisions</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shakespeare, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shamash, temple of, in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">antiquity of cult of, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cross and four-spoked wheel of, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>, <a href="#Pg495" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">495</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of, made by a race of pole star worshippers, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“black or night sun”</span> on Mexican Calendar stone, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shang, Chinese word for Above, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shang-te, Chinese supreme ruler, whose residence was <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tien”</span>=Heaven, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">S-shape, Ursa Minor figured as, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bronze brooch from Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on native fabrics, in Vienna Codex, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in B. N. MS., <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Sahagun's Historia, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cakes in shape of, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with star signs and the North, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican and Maya codices, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sign of summer solstice, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with cross and rain symbols, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">breads in shape of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figure on Phœnician tablet, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shell gorgets, representing winged human being, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee, showing cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">from Tennessee, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">evidence of identical symbolism from Yucatan to Illinois, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48-52</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shell, symbol of parturition, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shell pendant, symbolism of, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shinto religion, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shiwana-kwe, priesthood of the priest-people among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shoo king, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shogunate, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shun, Chinese emperor succeeding Yaou, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Siculus, Diodorus, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sidon, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Siena, Italy, founded by sons of Remus, affinities with ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">465</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page596">[pg 596]</span><a name="Pg596" id="Pg596" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Silco, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Simpson, Wm., <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sippara, tablet of, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>, <a href="#Pg495" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">495</a>, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Situa, Peruvian festival when the cults of Above and Below were celebrated, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Siva, cult of, compared with cult of Earth-mother, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Skull, artificially deformed in ancient Peru, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sky-father among the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Smith, Professor, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Smyth, Piazzi, star-map, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Snail, symbol of parturition, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-social" id="index-social" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Social organization in Mexico, at time of Montezuma, myths relating to origin of, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62-75</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-quadruple" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Quadruple organization</a> and <a href="#index-numerical" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Numerical divisions</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Society Islands, study of Pleiades in, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Solomon, built altar to Astarte in Jerusalem, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">built altars to Kamosh, god of the Moabites, and to Milkom, god of the Ammonites, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Solomon's temple, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Solon, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg455" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">455</a>, <a href="#Pg526" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">526</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Solar or civil year, divisions, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Solstice, summer, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">winter, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lighting sacred fires at time of, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sommier, Stephen, <a href="#Pg477" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">477</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sophocles, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">South America, symbolism of, compared with that of Mexico, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-peru" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Peru</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Southern Cross, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">South, Acatl=cane, blue, Mexican emblem and color of, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">South Kensington Museum, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spamer, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg428" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">428</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spear-throwers, on tablet at Chichen Itza, and on Mexican Tribute Stone, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Speed, John, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sphinx, Egyptian, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spider, a symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition about Tezcatlipoca's descent from the sky by a spider's thread, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Nahuatl=tocatl. In Maya=am;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol originated in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on shell-gorgets from Illinois, Tennessee and Missouri, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient MSS., <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Zuñi symbolism, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya symbol of the North, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">web of, use as symbol of numerical divisions, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg535" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">535</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spindle, as symbol of axial rotation, in connection with cross symbols on terra cotta spinning whorls, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spinning tops, <a href="#Pg547" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">547</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spinning whorls, symbolic of rotary motion, in Troy, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico, <a href="#Pg504" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">504</a>, <a href="#Pg508" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">508</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Square form, associated with Earth in native American symbolism and architecture, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stadaconé, same as Canada, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stanley, Dean, <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Star symbol, a black dot, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">an eye, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suspended by thread, symbol of night (Egyptian), <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">plain circle in Chinese symbolism, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expressed numeral five in Egypt, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Star-cult</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Star god, in Babylonia, Bel;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Asia Minor, Ah-baal, identified with pole-star, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-polaris" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Polaris</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Star-map, Piazzi Smyth's, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Star-names in Maya, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stelæ, purpose of erection, marked periods of time, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Copan and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219-240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">correspond with Ahua-ka-tun, the 20-year memorial stone, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Assyrian kings, having seven symbols, seven circles, etc., <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337-360</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Esar-haddon of Sendschirli, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Bavian, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Sargon, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">funeral stela at Bûlâk, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Quirigua and Copan memorial stones of high priest rulers, with title <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Divine Four”</span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">built over hidden cruciform vaults, compared with the Egyptian <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“star of Horus,”</span> <a href="#Pg512" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">512</a>, <a href="#Pg513" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">513</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stevenson, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stolpe, Hjalmar, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stoll, Otto, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stomach, symbolized the Centre or Middle, in China, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone, rough or worked, emblem of Earth mother, buried with the dead, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone of Tizoc, compared with Altar K of Copan, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone collar, from Porto Rico, analogous to stone yokes of Mexico, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone figures, recumbent, bearing circular vessels, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured, 94</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-recumbent" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Recumbent stone figure</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone knives, flint knife in wrappings, Mexican and Maya symbol of Earth mother, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among California Indians, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone monuments, of Peru (Tiahuanaco), <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164-169</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Central America, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218-233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Yucatan, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234-244</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexico, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245-275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“seats,”</span> found in Ecuador, analogous to vase or earth symbols, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone tiger with human head and depression in back, found in Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone tables, at Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya name for=Mayac-tun, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as drums in sacred ceremonies, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone tablet at Sippar, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone vessels, found in Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stone <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“yokes,”</span> compared with symbolic vase;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pertained to cult of earth-mother;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in use among Indians of Southern California, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with burial of priestesses of Below, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Strabo, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Strebel, Hermann, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stübel, A., <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sturlesson, Snorri, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sumerians, inhabited the South=Sumer, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Summary, of study of ancient American symbols,—cross, serpent, tree, flower, etc., <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279-284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of human and animal figure in symbolism, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of countries in which are found the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Quadruple Organization,”</span> pole-star worship, etc., <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480-494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and Conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544-562</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and tables of words used in the Old and New World in connection with a certain culture based on pole star worship, Appendix I, <a href="#Pg548" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">548</a>; and Appendix III, <a href="#Pg562" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">562</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sun cult, Nahuatl word for sun applies equally to the stars;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">day sun and night sun;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Ollin, symbol of, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">superseded by star cult, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with star-cult, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Black Sun in B. N. MS.,</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page597">[pg 597]</span><a name="Pg597" id="Pg597" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">myth concerning, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of Montezuma, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Montezuma, high priest of, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mirror of polished pyrites, symbol of, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rival of star-cult, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacrifices to, in Mexico, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Peru, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">superseded by belief in Creator, among the Incas, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temple of, at Cuzco, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">upper class maidens in Peru, dedicated to, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Muyscas of Bogota, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">astronomical attainments of priests of, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Virgins of the Sun”</span> and sun-priests in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Sun-father of the Zuñi, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Copan sculpture, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four movements of, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">golden effigy of, associated with Incas in Peru, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Enclosure of, name of pyramid at Teotihua-Can, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tablet of the sun, in China, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temple of, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">altars, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sun-goddess of Japan, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Hindu, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in religion of Persia, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">king of Egypt associated with, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian goddess Hathor-Isis was called the female sun, <a href="#Pg432" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">432</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">development of cult in Egypt, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cæsar called son of the sun, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Supreme being</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see Creator or Supreme Being).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sut-staw-ra-tse, the leader of the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Kingdom of Hochelaga,”</span> <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-swastika" id="index-swastika" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Swastika, in Mexican Calendar, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of symbol;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formed by positions of Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">various forms of, illustrated, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">geographical distribution of, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">date when first used as symbol, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sign for a year or cycle of time, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggests axial rotation, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formed by four serpents in Codex Borgia, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with triskelion, on spearhead from Brandenburg;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formed by combination of star groups, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggested by star-symbol on pottery from Nicaragua and Arizona, 51, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of the idea of dividing everything into four parts, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by Zuñi idol, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rounded and square forms of, at Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">terminating in four puma heads, symbol of central ruler, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The Copan Swastika,”</span> <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the pyramid, a later development of same idea, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in different parts of the world, accompanied with pole-star worship, etc., <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276-280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico and Ohio valley, linked with serpent;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Copan, with Middle and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Christian cross compared with, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of symbol in China, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Japan, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning conveyed by figure of Buddha <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Egyptian seal, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on coin from island of Crete, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on coin from Syracuse;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on coin from Corinth;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on vases from Troy, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Greece, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Cyprian and Carian pottery;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Greek vases found at Naukratis;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Coptic grave cloths;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on mummy case from Hermopolis;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on whorls from Troy, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">date of its use as symbol, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">later development of the cross symbol, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on image found in Troy, <a href="#Pg496" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">496</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">identical in significance in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg510" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">510</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolized <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Four in One,”</span> and stable centre, <a href="#Pg511" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">511</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in some parts of Germany and Bohemia is still the sign of the stone-mason's guild, <a href="#Pg516" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">516</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">or cross-symbol, same meaning in all countries, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534</a>, <a href="#Pg538" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">538</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary and conclusions, <a href="#Pg544" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">544</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sweat house, Nahuatl name of, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Symbolism, in central United States identical with that of Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Mexico influenced by migration from Yucatan, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influenced by sound of word, among the Mayas and Mexicans, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">showing linguistic affinities between Mayas, and early peoples of the Mississippi valley, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same in Peru, Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">resemblances between Pueblo people and Mayas and Mexicans, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same in Copan, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Palenque and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Calendar stone explained, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols connected with Middle, etc., <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with Four Quarters, Above and Below, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">names of Mexican symbols often translations of Maya name, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recapitulation of important native symbols, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279-284</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">year symbols in Mexico and China, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">resemblances and differences, Chinese and American, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293-296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of use of human and animal figure, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367-461</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian pyramid and mummy, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379-381</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of ancient Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols denoting axial rotation, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in architecture (see window, tau, pyramid, Greek fret, round form, square form, color, etc.);</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of human form (see separate references under Human);</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">for special symbols, see separate references.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Syracuse, coins from, swastika with human head in centre, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tabasco, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tablet, containing ancient map of Babylonia</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(note following Index).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Talon, of beast of prey, symbol of four lords of Below, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taouism, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tarahumari Indians, ceremonies typifying fecundity of earth, etc., compared with those of ancient Mexicans, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tartan design, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-tau" id="index-tau" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tau, double, shape of courtyard, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">signified union of Above and Below;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">inverted, emblem of Above;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">upright emblem of the Below, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in American ceremonial rite;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the cliff dwellers of Colorado;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Pueblo Indians;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, called Thor's hammer;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in architecture of Central America, and Palenque;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in dance of Moqui Indians;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">different forms of, figured and described, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in checker-board or tartan design, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggested by fire-drill, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tau-shaped cross in Mesopotamia, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tau-shaped altar in Egypt, <a href="#Pg411" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">411</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taylor, E. B., <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taylor, W. C., <a href="#Pg463" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">463</a>, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>, <a href="#Pg488" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">488</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tecpan, Mexican council house;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of word, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-tecpatl" id="index-tecpatl" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tecpatl, symbol of the North, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">flint knife, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred producer of vital spark, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">myth concerning, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured as offspring of dual divinity, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of Fire, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“supreme pontiffs,”</span> <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">one of the four year +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page598">[pg 598]</span><a name="Pg598" id="Pg598" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> +symbols, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Borgian Codex, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on carved slab from Santa Lucia, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">possible origin of name, which means <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“to govern,”</span> <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Sacrificial Stone of Mexico, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Teen-hwang-ta-tee, Chinese name for the pole-star, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Temistitan, ancient name for capital of Mexico, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Temples, of the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tigers”</span> at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“11,”</span> at Copan, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the Inscriptions”</span> at Palenque, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the Sun,”</span> <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Cross No. 2,”</span> <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Ptah at Memphis, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Abydos, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tenayocan, name of Mexican town containing the affix <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Can,”</span> <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tennessee, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tenochtitlan, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">hieroglyph in centre of ancient Maya and Mexican maps, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Teo-Culhuacan, from <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Teotl</span></span>, stars, sun, gods, something divine; and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Culhua</span></span>, something recurved, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">can</span></span>, the place of=name for Aztlan, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Teotihuacan, pyramids of, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">description of ruins, registry of death by small clay heads, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Pyramids show knowledge of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great Plan;”</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">great antiquity;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">advanced stage of intellectual development, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same civilization as builders of Pyramid of Cholula, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">two cults, two languages (Maya and Nahuatl) and dual rulership, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Teotl, represented by image of sun;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">signifies something divine, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of the upper class in Mexico, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning a divinity or divine lord and applied to all lords or rulers, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Terra cotta heads and figures in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Terrace form, rain symbol, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tet, Egyptian symbol of eternity, described and analyzed, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Texcoco, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Texoxoctli, stone placed with dead of lower class, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tezcatl, obsidian mirror, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tezcatlipoca, meaning of name;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">identical with Mictlantecuhtli, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">surrounded by circle of footsteps;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">myth concerning, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbols of, representations of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fastened to symbol of the North, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">star-cult connected with, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">synonymous names, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">myth concerning, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with the Below, the female region, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">with black, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">title of, means <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heart of the Earth,”</span> <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Shining Mirror,”</span> <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">image of, beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli, in great temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">priests of, called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sons of the Night,”</span> connected with divination, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">honored jointly with Huitzilopochtli at Toxcatl festival, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">flint knife, emblem of, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Zuñi idol, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggested by symbols at Tiahuanaco, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tradition, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fire-drill god, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tezolotlan, termed the land of war, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tezozomoc, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Themistius of Byzantium, <a href="#Pg542" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">542</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theodosius, <a href="#Pg530" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">530</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theophrastus, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thibet, astronomical science, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Buddhist of, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thomas, Cyrus, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thor, Norse supreme god, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thor's hammer, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thucydides, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tiahuanaco, place of first appearance of Incas, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">monolithic doorway, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika sacred symbol, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruins of, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167-169</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tiberius Claudius, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">440</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tien (Chinese), Heaven, also Supreme ruler, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tiger, in stone, with human head and hollow depression in back, found in Yucatan and Mexico, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculpture from Mitla, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tiger's arm,”</span> title of prince in ancient Mexico, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">head, symbol on monolithic doorway at Tiahuanaco, Peru, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">heads, at end of swastika;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sculptured doorway, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in headdress on sculptures, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">warrior caste of Mexico;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">temple of, at Chichen Itza, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see <a href="#index-puma" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Puma</a>, <a href="#index-jaguar" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Jaguar</a> and <a href="#index-quadruped" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Quadruped</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tikal, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">classification of ruins, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Timæus, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Time, Egyptian sign, circle with dot, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tinamit, on Usumacinto river, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tionontaté or Tobacco Nation, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Titicaca lake, as place of first appearance of Incas, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tititl, name of Mexican feast, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tizoc, stone of, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tlacaxipehualiztli, ritual at festival of, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tlachtli, courtyard in shape of double tau, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Mexican game, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tlaloc, title of god of rain, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">designated by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tlatoque, literally, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The speaker”</span> title of chief of clan, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tlaxcalla, republic of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">government of, army of, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, found in, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">small republic of Mexico, name signifies bread;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">hieroglyphic sign is maize-cake, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tloquenahuaque, title of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Creator”</span> in texcoca, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tochtli, one of the four year symbols, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rabbit, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tochtli-gods, agents of Cihuacoatl, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tollan, abode of Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">native name for Cholollan, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Toltecas, representatives of high civilization of ancient Yucatan, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">master-builders, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>, <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Topiltzin, title of supreme pontiff, of Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Torquemada, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tortoise, among the Iroquois, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya word for <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ac</span></span>, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese symbolism, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Totemism, North American Indian, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Peruvian, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Quiché, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Zuñi, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Copan and Zuñi, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and Quirigua, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Fire people of Mexico,—the ocelot; Air people,—the bird, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to signs of zodiac and to the stars, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">alligator totem in India and Mexico, <a href="#Pg520" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">520</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Semites, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">serpent totem among Semites, Mayas, Nahuas, and Peruvians, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>, <a href="#Pg523" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">523</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Toxcatl festival, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli, jointly honored, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Traditions (see <a href="#index-myths" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Myths and Traditions”</span></a>).</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page599">[pg 599]</span><a name="Pg599" id="Pg599" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tree symbolism, tree of life in Vienna Codex, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Dresden Codex, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient America, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Incas, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the Mexicans, social organization represented by, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Above and Below, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">serpent and Polaris, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">embodied male and female elements, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">shape of human figure, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used to signify lord or governor, also ancestor, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred tree of the Mayas, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among Peruvians, Mexicans and Mayas, image of social organization, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of tribe in America, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of the year in Mexico, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ché, Maya word for tree, zin-ché=cross, literally tree of life or of power, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quahuitl, Nahuatl word for tree, symbol of Centre;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">homonymous with <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">quaitl</span></span>, meaning head, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recapitulation of meaning of symbol, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Chinese symbol of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“wood,”</span> <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Buddhist religion, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, on bas-relief at Nimroud, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as sacred symbol, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tree worship, by Hebrews, Phœnicians, Assyrians, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362-364</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">celestial tree of life in garden of Paradise, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the ash-tree of the Norsemen on the summit of the Hill of Heaven, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of star-god, Polaris, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tribal trees in India, Egypt, Mexico, Central America and Peru, <a href="#Pg499" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">499</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the celestial tree of the Norsemen and Semites, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient America, <a href="#Pg506" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">506</a>, <a href="#Pg507" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">507</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tribute stone, Mexican <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sacrificial”</span> stone, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Triskelion, companion symbol to swastika;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formed by polar constellations at winter-solstice, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not used in the South but with swastika in the North, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on pottery from Arkansas;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on spearhead from Brandenburg;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formed by combination of star groups, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sign of winter solstice, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Trocadero Museum, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Troncoso, Francisco del Paso y, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Troy, vases from, having swastika or cross symbol, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Troy, spindle whorls with swastikas and allusion to pole-star god, Tur, <a href="#Pg498" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">498</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tschudi, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tuch-pan, name of capital of Maya colony, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tula, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">city of, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tulapan, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tullan, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name of culture hero's home, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of, in Maya language, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">identity not established;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">beautiful land of the Aztecs, Mayas, Kiches and Cakchiquels;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cakchiquel legend regarding;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya migration from, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-tullan-cholollan" id="index-tullan-cholollan" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tullan Cholollan, ancient seat of civilization;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">probable place where scheme of organization was evolved, and where traditions of destruction of earth originated, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turanian, originally a northern race, (see <a href="#index-phoenicians" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Phœnicians</a>), <a href="#Pg517" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">517</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turtle, at Quirigua, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tusayan, ceremonies, symbols and myths compared with those of Central America, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tuscaroras, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tutulxius, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">immigrants into Yucatan, tradition concerning, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Twin, divine</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see Dual Divinity).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Twin serpents, on Mexican Calendar Stone, symbolizing dual forces of nature, and quadruplication, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on dual statues, on summit of great Temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tylor, E. B., <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tyre, destruction of, by the Greeks, <a href="#Pg527" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">527</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tzendals, culture hero of, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">calendar signs, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">social organization and numerical system, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tzilan, ancient capital in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, name of Quilaztli, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Uhle, Max, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167-169</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Upsala, university of, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Urhye, Chinese dictionary, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-ursa-major" id="index-ursa-major" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ursa Major, myths concerning, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of name in Nahuatl, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four positions of form swastika, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14-22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">nearer to pole-star in remote antiquity, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rotary motion, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">positions of, scratched on rocks, beginning of astronomical records, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Tezcatlipoca and ocelot associated with, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to sacred numbers, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">resembles s-shape, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to idea of Above and Below, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on calendar stone, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">identified as star-god, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Youal-tecuhtli”</span> mentioned by Sahagun, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">among the ancient Chinese, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Hindu religion, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Akkadian title, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek name for Helice, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as sailing guide in ancient Greece, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">became circumpolar about B.C. 4000, time of adoption of swastika symbol, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-ursa-minor" id="index-ursa-minor" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ursa Minor, S-shaped figure sign of, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">connected with Tezcatlipoca, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rotation of, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suavastika formed by, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to sacred number, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by recurved sceptre, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by Maya glyph, Hun-Imix, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with Polaris, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in relation to idea of Above and Below, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">s-shaped breads made in honor of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Copan swastika, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia-Assyria=Kakkabu, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in ancient Greece as sailing guide, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Usumacinto river, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Uxmal, House of the Doves, symbolism of, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbolic hand on garment of chieftain, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the serpent city of America, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruins in, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Valentini, P. J. J., <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Valera, Padre Blas, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Varuna, name of supreme god in India, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-vase" id="index-vase" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vase, or Bowl, symbol of earth mother, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of the rain priests or Octli gods, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">worn in nose as emblem;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">containing rabbit or flint knife, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">as conventionalized serpent jaw, resembles horseshoe-shaped stone <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“yoke,”</span> <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">considered sacred among Zuñi Indians, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reason of vase decoration, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grave +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page600">[pg 600]</span><a name="Pg0600" id="Pg0600" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> +made in shape of;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">buried with dead to propitiate earth-mother;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used as burial urn, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stone <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“seats”</span> indicate analogous cult of earth-mother south of Mexico, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya day-sign, Caban, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Maya codices, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">figured as day sign, ch'en, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with seeds and germination, by Mayas and Mexicans, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Vienna Codex, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sacred bowl among Pueblo Indians, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in hand of ruler on Copan sculpture, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bowl of water, preceded use of obsidian mirror, in divination, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya supreme priest called <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lord of the Vase or bowl,”</span> <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Tablet of the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Cross 2,”</span> at Palenque, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recapitulation of meaning of symbol, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used for Astronomical purposes among pigmy races, and in Phœnicia, Assyria and Egypt, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">large terra-cotta jars found at Nippur, and in temple of Solomon, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">canopic vases in Egypt, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">same idea embodied in pyramid, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in zodiac signs, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of god Amen-Ra, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in cult of Egyptian goddess, Isis, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vedas, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>, <a href="#Pg496" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">496</a>, <a href="#Pg497" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">497</a>, <a href="#Pg499" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">499</a>, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>, <a href="#Pg521" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">521</a>, <a href="#Pg522" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">522</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vega, Garcilaso de la, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vega, Nuñez de la, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Venice, compared to Mexico, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Venus, temple of Mexico dedicated to, planet of, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vikings, cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Villavicencio, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Virgins of the Sun, in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vishnu, cult of, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Volcanoes, as probable cause of traditions of destruction of earth, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270-275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Von Herder, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Von Luschan, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Von Schroeder, L., <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>, <a href="#Pg458" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">458</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Votan, culture hero of the Tzendals, title <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the Master of the Sacred Drum,”</span> <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71-72</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vulture, totem of Quiché chieftain, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egyptian symbolism, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wales, Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Egyptian Amen-Ra;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dual power;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Central ruler;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numeral seven in Welsh legend, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wampum belts, Iroquois, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197-199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wan, Chinese word for swastika, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Warburg, A., <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Waring, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Warren, William F., <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>, <a href="#Pg566" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">566</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Water, sacred pool in temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in connection with star cult, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with fire-drill and socket in Old and New World, <a href="#Pg505" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">505</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Water era, one of the four eras of the world, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Water goddess, called Chalchiutlycue, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Water and air design, encircling the mitre of the Lord of the Above;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on mantles of Montezuma's predecessors, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of cult of Above, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Weaving, art of among the Huaxtekans, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207-208</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">West, Cihuatlampa (in Nahuatl)=place of the women, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Cosmos=Calli=house, yellow, earth, darkness, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">door of the Underworld, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">female region, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Webster's Dictionary, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wheat, stalk of, year symbol in China, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-wheel" id="index-wheel" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wheel, emblem of the Deity and of rotation, among ancient Mexicans, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">represented by Mexican dance, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the four-spoked wheel of Shamash in Babylonia and Assyria, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of axial rotation and time in Old World, <a href="#Pg500" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">500</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">associated with pole-star in Japan, <a href="#Pg501" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">501</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of, known in Japan and China from the earliest times, <a href="#Pg501" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">501-502</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg502" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">502</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">first religions and their royal symbol—possibly evolved from the stone fire socket, <a href="#Pg503" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">503</a> (see <a href="#index-axial-rotation" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Axial Rotation</a>).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wheelwright, E. M., <a href="#Pg514" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">514</a>, <a href="#Pg515" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">515</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whitney, J. D., <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wickersham, James, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wiener, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Williams, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wilson, Sir Daniel, <a href="#Pg540" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">540</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wilson, Thomas, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wind-god, symbol of, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-windows" id="index-windows" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Windows, symbolism of, in Mexico, Central America and elsewhere, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Winged disk, in Assyria, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Winter solstice, triskelion sign of, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Woman, origin of idea of inferiority, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">position of, in Peru and Mexico, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Corn Maidens”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Mothers”</span> in America, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Babylonia-Assyria, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Greece and Rome, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a> in Egypt, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426-436</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Writing, cursive and ikonomatic of the Old World;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">picture writing adopted by Spanish missionaries to New World, <a href="#Pg534" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">534-535</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Egyptian hieratic script, <a href="#Pg535" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">535</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical value of letters in Greek alphabet;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya calculiform hieroglyphs;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">geometrical figures used by Phœnicians, <a href="#Pg536" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">536</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wu, Chinese empress, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wylie, Alexander, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>, <a href="#Pg481" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">481</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xicalango, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xilomaniztli, another name for the festival <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Izcalli;”</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning the birth or sprouting of the young maize, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xiuhtecuhtli, Mexican lord of the year or of fire;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">emblem of, figured and described;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">called the turquoise;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">or grass-green pyramid, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xius, tribe of ancient Yucatan, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xonecuilli, native name for Ursa Minor (see Ursa Minor).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl (Nahuatl)=the verdant or blue sky, a title of Huitzilo-pochtli, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yang and Yin, in Chinese religion;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">belief of the modern Chinese concerning, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yaou, Chinese emperor who divided China into four provinces, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Year symbols, in Mexican calendar, acatl, tecpatl, calli and tochtli, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">glyphs on Copan stela or katun, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Maya name for=Ah-cuch-haab, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexican Calendar-stone, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Mexico, bunch of grass or maize shoots;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in China, stalk of wheat, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yoalticitl, mother of the gods in ancient Mexico, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yop-at, Maya name for <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“a mitre,”</span> symbol of divine ruler, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yope or yopi, Mexican peaked headdress or cone <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page601">[pg 601]</span><a name="Pg0601" id="Pg0601" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yopico, name given to temple and monastery in courtyard of Great Temple of Mexico, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Youal-tecuhtli, star-god mentioned by Sahagun, identified as Ursa Major, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name signifies, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lord of the night,”</span> also <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lord of the circle or wheel,”</span> <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yuoalahua=lord of the wheel, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yu, Chinese emperor;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divisions of China, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yucatan, cult of Polaris, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mexican culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, came from, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">social organization, older than that of Mexico, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Twin-brothers personifying the Above and Below, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">serpent symbol, more ancient than in Mexico, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient map of, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85-90</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">early peoples of, in contact with those of Mississippi valley, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">traditions about Kukulcan's journey to Mexico, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">traditions of tribes who came from the south, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210-214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meeting ground of Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not cradle of Maya civilization, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient monuments of, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fourfold divisions, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg494" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">494</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mayas compared with Maghas of India, <a href="#Pg509" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">509</a>, <a href="#Pg519" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">519</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient civilization, <a href="#Pg528" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">528</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ruder forms of culture alongside of the perfected social organization, <a href="#Pg531" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">531</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">period of warfare and pestilence, <a href="#Pg539" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">539</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">(see Chichen Itza, Mayapan, etc.).</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yupanqui, founder of Cuzco, who introduced worship of the Creator, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zamorra, Fray Geronimo Roman y, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zarate, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zeller, Edward, <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">484</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zenith, nepantla, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zigzag or undulated lines, symbol of water, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zikkurats of Babylonia, seven-staged towers, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327-331</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">oriented to the four cardinal points, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">together with <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Great basin of Apsu,”</span> formed image of Cosmos, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zilan, Maya centre of female industry <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name signified <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“embroidery,”</span> <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stone monoliths, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient centre of culture in Yucatan, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zip, glyph on Copan altar, 227.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zmigrodski, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zodiac composed of twenty day-signs, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese calendar, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zumarraga, Bishop, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zuñi, conception of Cosmos, Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ceremonies typifying the fecundity of the earth, etc., <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">vase used as emblem of earth-mother, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of Above and Below;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swastika symbol in use among;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cult of Polaris;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Zuñi idol compared with Mexican lord of fire and lord of the under world, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">twin brothers, war-gods, compared with counterparts in Mexico and Yucatan, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">colors assigned to cardinal points, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">creation myth, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern, ceremonies, symbols, etc., compared with those of Mexico, Central America and Peru, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Sky-father and Earth-mother;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Macaw or winter people, and Raven or summer people, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">linguistic affinities with Nahuatl and Maya, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">myth about building the town at the stable middle of the earth, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">social organization, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">symbol of seeds of life, compared with Mexico and Maya, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical with that of Mexico, Yucatan, Copan, Guatemala, Peru, etc., <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg493" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">493</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spider's web as image of numerical divisions;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">colors assigned to four elements, compared with Mexico and China, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of quadruped to symbolize cardinal points and divisions of state compared with similar symbolism in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the pueblo represents a <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“seven in one,”</span> a counterpart of archaic kingdoms in India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc., <a href="#Pg529" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">529</a>.</div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> +<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Note.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am indebted to the eminent Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins University, for +drawing my attention to the existence of an extremely important and interesting ancient +map of Babylonia on an unfortunately broken and mutilated clay tablet also inscribed +with cuneiform characters. This tablet is reproduced in photogravure and illustrated +by a pencil drawing on pp. 100 and 101 of the Notes on <span class="tei tei-q">“the Book of Ezekiel”</span> +(translated by Prof. C. H. Toy), which forms Part 12 of the monumental polychrome +edition of the Bible, which is being edited by Prof. Paul Haupt, with the assistance of +Dr. Horace Howard Furness. Although designated as a <span class="tei tei-q">“Babylonian map of the world”</span> +it obviously represents Babylonia as a Middle Kingdom, traversed by the Euphrates +and containing Babylon, surrounded by other cities situated in the Euphratean valley. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page602">[pg 602]</span><a name="Pg0602" id="Pg0602" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Babylonia is enclosed in two large concentric circles representing the sea, designated +in a cuneiform inscription as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Bitter stream”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Salt water river.”</span> +Triangles extend beyond the outer circle, recalling the four <span class="tei tei-q">“rays or spokes”</span> of the +image of Shamash (fig. <a href="#Figure_65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>). Cuneiform characters, in one +of these triangular spaces, designate it as an island. Professor Toy +states that <span class="tei tei-q">“there seem to have been originally seven of +these triangles, but most of them are broken away.”</span> In point of fact only one of the +triangles is whole, and distinct traces of three others are preserved. As the mutilated +condition of the tablet forbids certainty as to the original number of triangles, I +venture to point out that it seems more likely that instead of seven there were originally +six triangles around the central disc and that the map of Babylonia constitutes an +image of a confederated state, like those of India and +Persia (see pp. <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref">480</a> and <a href="#Pg484" class="tei tei-ref">484</a>), +conceived as formed of <span class="tei tei-q">“six dependent and allied states surrounding the seventh +ruling state in the centre.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to p. <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a> +of this work where <span class="tei tei-q">“the seven kings”</span> of Babylon are +mentioned and seven-fold organization is discussed, I merely state that the importance +of the Babylonian map can scarcely be overrated as a proof of the application in +remote antiquity of the cosmical scheme to territorial divisions. It will be for +Assyriologists to determine for us the relative ages of the Sippara tablet (p. +<a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref">332</a> and fig. <a href="#Figure_65" class="tei tei-ref">65</a>, +1), and the Babylonian Map tablet and to define their respective connections with the +<span class="tei tei-q">“four regions”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“seven directions,”</span> or with quadruplicate and seven-fold +schemes of organization. It is my hope that their researches will lead to definite +knowledge as to the date when these cosmical schemes were employed in the Euphratean +valley. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion I draw attention to the two interesting wheel-shaped maps of the +world also published in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on Ezekiel”</span> (p. 105), and the remarkable diagram +(p. 197), showing the allotment of the land of Canaan according to Ezekiel. On p. 204, +in the Notes of Chapter 48 of Ezekiel, there are valuable details concerning the +geographical distribution of the tribes of Israel, and the position, in the centre, of the +sacred reservation and the symmetrical arrangement of the gates of Jerusalem, which +were associated with the cardinal points and tribal representatives. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Z. N. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> + <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Swastika. +Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1894. Washington, 1896. +During the preparation of this paper I also consulted the following works, from +which some forms of swastika are likewise reproduced on pl. +<a href="#Plate_II" class="tei tei-ref"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span></a>: Le signe de la +Croix avant le Christianisme. Gabriel de Mortillet. Paris, 1866. Zur Geschichte +der Swastika. Zmigrodski, Braunschweig, 1890. La migration des symboles. Comte +Goblet d'Alviella. Paris, 1891.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I would insert +here that it was only when the present investigation was almost +completed, that my attention was arrested by a reference in Professor Wilson's work, +already cited, to a short article on the Fylfot and the Futhorc tir by H. Colley +March, M.D. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having succeeded in obtaining a copy of the Transactions of the Lancashire and +Cheshire Antiquarian Society (vol. 4, pp. 1-12, 1886), in which it appeared, I had the +extreme satisfaction of finding that a specialist working in another field and approaching +the problem from another direction had come to two of the identical +conclusions that I had reached in a totally different manner. This fact constitutes, in +my opinion, the most powerful support of the correctness of the views we hold in +common after having formed, expressed and worked them out in such a different +way, as can be verified by a comparison of our two works. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring the reader to his valuable and suggestive communication to which I shall +revert, I shall merely mention here that Dr. March recognizes, as I do, that the +<span class="tei tei-q">“essential suggestion [of the swastika and fylfot] is of axial rotation.”</span> He +attributes the original of the swastika to the nocturnal (not as I do, to the annual) +rotation of the Ursa Major around Polaris, and likewise refers to the fact that about +four thousand years ago, the circular sweep of the circumpolar constellations was far +more striking than at present. After meeting on this common ground our lines of +investigation part company and go wide asunder, nor am I able to follow some of Dr. +March's conclusions such as, for instance, his opinion that the fylfot was a sign of a +<span class="tei tei-q">“diurnal rotation”</span> suggested by <span class="tei tei-q">“the rising and setting of the sun and moon when +the spectator looked at them with his back to the north.”</span> On the other hand I am +indebted to him for much valuable information relating to the rune or futhorc tir, to +which I shall refer later.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides the word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">coatl</span></span>=twin, the Mexicans had another term to express some +thing double, in pairs. A plant with two shoots was named xolotl. Double agave +plants, or maize when occasionally met with, were regarded with superstition and +named me-xolotl. The pretty little parroquets, popularly known as <span class="tei tei-q">“love-birds”</span> +from their habit of constant association, in pairs, were named xolotl. The circumstance +that the term for birds'-down was also xolotl may explain why the down-feathers +of eagles and other birds were employed and played a certain rôle in ritual observances. +They expressed and conveyed the sound of a word which meant something double +and could therefore be used to symbolize a variety of meanings relating to multiplication +or propagation. That the Mexicans figuratively connected birds'-down with +generation is proven by the well-known myth of the birth of Huitzilopochtli from the +union of a ball of birds'-down and a goddess named <span class="tei tei-q">“she with the petticoat of +serpents”</span> (Sahagun, book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, chap. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tufts of birds'-down figure, in the B. N. MS., on the shield of the female ancestress +of the human race, one of whose numerous titles was toci,=<span class="tei tei-q">“our grandmother,”</span> +to express which the figure of a citli or hare was sometimes employed in pictography. +Of her it was said, that she bore only twins, a figure of speech meaning great +productiveness, just as the female divinity is also termed <span class="tei tei-q">“the woman with 400 +breasts”</span> (text to p. 29, Vatican Codex, Kingsborough, vols. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>). In the text to +the Telleriano-Remensis Codex (Kingsborough, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +pl. 24), we find Xolotl, a deity +wearing the shell-symbol of Quetzalcoatl, directly named <span class="tei tei-q">“the god of twins.”</span> +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +full meaning which may have been attached to the eye-symbol in both Nahuatl +and Maya languages is set forth in the following notes which I give merely for +the suggestion they convey of a deep meaning having been attached to the eye-symbol. +The Nahuatl word for eye is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ix-telolotli</span></span>, +but in pictography it represented the phonetic value of +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ix</span></span> only. It may, therefore, have been employed as a +cursive sign for face=<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ixtli</span></span> and the fact that it figures +in the centre of the symbol <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ollin</span></span>, where +a face sometimes occurs, confirms this surmise. In the Maya language the word for +eye is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ich</span></span>, which is practically identical with the +Nahuatl <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ix</span></span>, and this enters into the +composition of the following words, the meanings of which are worth considering in +connection with the fact that the eye is shown to have been employed to convey the +meaning of star, in both languages: Ix-machun=eternal, without beginning, +ix-mayam=forever, continuously, without interruption. ix-maxul=perpetual, without +end. The fact that each of these Maya words exhibits the prefix +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ix</span></span> and that an eye +is employed to express this sound and stands for star, is certainly interesting, since +it suggests that the natives associated the idea of eternity with the stars.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This native +belief is beautifully illustrated by the two <span class="tei tei-q">“highly artistic shell-gorgets +representing winged human beings,”</span> which are described and figured by Mr. +Wm. H. Holmes, in Part <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> +of his instructive and extremely useful <span class="tei tei-q">“Archaeological +Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico,”</span> which I have received just as this paper +is going to press. I am much pleased at the possibility of drawing attention, by +means of a footnote, to the interesting fact that in one gorget the human head is +figured with butterfly wings, whilst in the other it is accompanied by conventionalized +feathers and a butterfly wing. There can be no doubt that both gorgets are attempts +to represent the resuscitated souls of departed warriors, according to the native +ideas concerning them. It is nevertheless very remarkable to see actually that the +ancient Mexicans employed the butterfly as a symbol of an immortal soul and had +also evolved the idea of a winged head, analogous to that of a cherub, to represent a +blest spirit, dwelling in celestial regions. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is noticeable that the name of the Mexican priests was papa, which syllables are +the first in the word papalotl=butterfly. It may be that a distinction was made and +that the souls of the dead priests were supposed to assume the shape of butterflies +or moths, whilst the warriors became celestial humming-birds. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In connection +with Montezuma's use of a litter it should be noticed that, in the +picture-writings, only the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl and the bird god Huitzilopochtli +are represented as seated on litters. The two bars of Quetzalcoatl's litter, figured in +Duran's atlas (Tratado 2, cap. 1 a) terminate at each end in a serpent's head. The +pair of twin serpents thus rendered, evidently convey an allusion to his name, which +would be equally comprehensible in the Maya or Mexican languages. In another portion +of Duran's Atlas (Trat. 2, chap. 2), Huitzilopochtli is figured as seated on a litter +masked as a bird, and a finely-executed native picture of the bird-god, being borne +on a litter, is in the B. N. MS. where he is named <span class="tei tei-q">“the precious lord”</span> and is +represented with a sceptre in his hand surmounted by a heart. This latter detail is of +special interest, since it indicates that the Mexicans employed the heart with the same +symbolical and metaphorical meaning as the Maya-Quiches and Tzentals. The latter +had named their culture-hero <span class="tei tei-q">“Votan”</span>=<span class="tei tei-q">“the Heart”</span> (of the people). (Brinton +Hero-myths, p. 217.) In the Popol-Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiches, the supreme +divinity is named <span class="tei tei-q">“the Heart of the heaven, whose name is Hurakan.”</span> He is also +named the <span class="tei tei-q">“Heart of the Earth,”</span> a title whose equivalent in Mexico=Tepe-Yollotl, +was applied to Tezcatlipoca and associated with the bodiless voice, the echo, which +was supposed to proceed from the <span class="tei tei-q">“heart (or life) of the Mountain.”</span> The above +data undoubtedly prove the important point that Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca +were respectively entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the Heart of the Heaven”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the Heart of the +Earth.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Short +triangular capes are worn to this day by the Mexican women, and are called +quechquemitl=shoulder capes. It is curious to find in Molina's dictionary, the following: +tzimpitzauac=something figured, which is wide above and pointed below, +and tzimmanqui=something figured which is pointed above and wide below, words +which seem to indicate that they refer to triangles and that these had different meanings +according to position.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +production of this drink was limited to the area in which the agave plant +could be cultivated. As set forth in my commentary on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lyfe of the Indians,”</span> +the natives employed many other kinds of fermented liquors, made from different +fruits and plants.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The sacred +symbols and numbers of Aboriginal America in Ancient and Modern +times. (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, no. 2, 1894.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tribes of +California, Stephen Powers. Contributions to North American Ethnology. +Washington, 1877. vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, p. 79.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fourth +Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, p. 518. Washington.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Republicas de +Indias, Fray Jeronimo Roman de Zamorra 1569-1575, ed. Suarez. +Madrid, 1898.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pilz-foermige Goetzenbilder +aus Guatemala und San Salvador, Carl Sapper, +Globus. band <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">lxxiii</span></span>, nr. 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For other examples see Borgian Codex, pp. 2, 5, 64, 66, 74.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Note on +the Ancient Mexican Calendar System. Stockholm, 1894.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Biologia +Centrali-Americana. Archæology, edited by F. Ducane Godman, London.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +most striking example of this is in the Palace House, at Palenqne, all wall-holes +of which are tau-shaped. An elaborate stucco ornamentation, richly colored, encloses +two upright taus surrounded by raised borders. One is a deep opening in the wall; +the other, next to it, is filled in and exhibits a horizontal line resting on a vertical +one. There can be no doubt that a profound symbolical meaning was expressed by +the entire motif, which has been admirably reproduced by Mr. A. P. Maudslay +(Biologia Centrali-Americana, Archæology, part <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">VI</span></span>, pl. +18).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Veröffentlichungen +aus dem Königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span> +band, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span> +heft. 1895. p. 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Garcilaso de +la Vega, Comentarias Reales, Lisbon, 1609; also translation by Sir +Clements B. Markham, issued by the Hakluyt Society. Rites and Laws of the Incas +(accounts by Molina, Salcamayhua, Avila and Ondegardo), translated by Sir Clements +B. Markham; also Cieza de Leon, Herrera, etc. and MS. of Padre Anello Oliva.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Attention +is called to a curious error in the original text by Arriaga, quoted by +Rivero and Tschudi. Arriaga states that the two statues stood back to back, but he +makes the woman look toward the <span class="tei tei-q">“poniente”</span> and the man to the <span class="tei tei-q">“occidente,”</span> +thus making both figures face the west. As <span class="tei tei-q">“poniente”</span> is the current Spanish +phrase for the west, it is evident that the author made a slip in the use of the classical +term, and intended to say that the man faced the <span class="tei tei-q">“oriente.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Terra-cotta +Heads of Teotihuacan, American Journal of Archaeology, Baltimore, +1886.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For this +valuable list I am indebted to the kindness of Sir Clements B. Markham, +the President of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain, who generously +allowed me to study some of his MS. notes on Ancient Peru.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“From what +can be gathered and conjectured in considering the traditions of the +present time, it is not more than 350 to 400 years since the Incas only possessed and +ruled over the valley of Cuzco as far as Urcas, a distance of six leagues and to the +valley of Yucay, which is not more than 5 leagues.... The historical period cannot +be placed further back than 400 years at the earliest”</span> (Polo de Ondegardo +1550-1600).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lettre +sur les Antiquités de Tiahuanaco, 1866, pp. 9, 17, 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Blas Valera, +apud Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, Lisboa, 1609, lib. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, cap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xi</span></span>, pp. 13, 14; lib. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, cap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, p. 42. See +also Garcia, Origen de los Indios. Madrid, 1729, +lib. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, cap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xv</span></span>, p. 313.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Narratives of the Rites and laws of the Incas, +translated by Clements B. Markham, C. B., F. R. S., ed. Hakluyt +Society, pp. 10-13.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is the +merit of the late distinguished philologist Dr. Buschmann, in his invaluable +work on Aztec names of localities to have pointed out that although the Cakchiquel +language is now spoken at Cozumalhuapa or Cotzumalguapan, its name is +unquestionably Nahuatl (Cozamalo-apan). Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vii</span></span>, p. 34. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The largest number of illustrations of the beautiful bas-reliefs found in the above +locality have been published by M. Herman Strebel of Hamburg, whose valuable +publications and splendid collections of ancient Mexican antiquities, preserved at +Berlin and Hamburg, are well known. Die Steinsculptures von Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa +(Guatemala) in Museum fur Volkerkunde. Hamburg, 1894. Jahrbuch der +Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Austallen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xi</span></span>. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Three of these remarkable bas-reliefs are figured in the valuable publication by +Geheimrath A. Bastian: Steinsculpturen aus Guatemala, Berichte der Königlichen +Museen zu Berlin, 1882. Dr. Habel's drawings were published in 1878, in the 22d vol. +of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Casts of these bas-reliefs are on exhibition in the Peabody Museum. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href="#noteref_28">28.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“The skins of +lions, with the heads, had been prepared, with gold ear-pieces in the +ears and golden teeth in place of the real teeth which had been pulled out. In the +paws were certain rings of gold. Those who were dressed or invested with these +skins put on the head and neck of the lion so as to cover their own and the skin of +the body of the lion hung from the shoulders.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 45. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The wearing of puma and ocelot skins by one of the two highest grades of warriors +in Mexico is too well known to need further mention here. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href="#noteref_29">29.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In connection with the +three points proceeding from the eye, the Mexican symbol +for star, I would draw attention to the fact that in the latitude of Santa Lucia only +three equidistant positions of Ursa Major, and, possibly, of Ursa Minor, would be +observable, the constellations being below the northern horizon when lying between +it and Polaris. The symbolical three points could have thus originated in the same +way as the triskeles in other countries, from observation of the identical +phenomenon.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href="#noteref_30">30.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This bas-relief +is reproduced in vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span> of +the Anales del Museo Nacional, p. 302, +and is discussed by Señor Sanchez.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href="#noteref_31">31.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Article +Peru, Encyclopaedia Britannica.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href="#noteref_32">32.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Garcilaso de la +Vega, The Royal Commentaries of the Incas, Hakluyt ed. vol. I, +p. 270.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href="#noteref_33">33.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. +Hakluyt, p. 86.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href="#noteref_34">34.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rites and Laws +of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, pp. 77, 84.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href="#noteref_35">35.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Heavens ... London. +Richard Bentley and Son. 1883. pp. 287-289.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href="#noteref_36">36.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Historia Chichimeca, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xix</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href="#noteref_37">37.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Quechua the left +hand was named lloque maqui and the right, pana maqui. +In the Chinchaysuyo dialect of Quechua the left hand was hichoc maqui and the +right, allaucay maqui (Vocabulario Padre Juan de Figueredo).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href="#noteref_38">38.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Annals of +the Cakchiquels. Library of Aboriginal Literature, vol. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, D. G. Brinton, +p. 71. It is a striking coincidence which further excavations may however destroy, +that seven similar upright slabs were found at Santa Lucia, six complete ones +of which exhibit individuals whose left hands bear special marks. What is more, +these figures are accompanied by animals which agree with a native chronicle quoted +by Dr. Otto Stoll (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 6). +According to this some of the totems or marks of +dignity worn by certain Quiché chieftains were representations of pumas, ocelots and +vultures. It is, perhaps, permissible to advance the hypothesis that the personages +on the slabs are representatives of the seven tribes and display their totemic devices. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I would add a couple of observations which seem to indicate that the language of +the people who sculptured and set up the Santa Lucia slabs was Nahuatl. In the first +case on the long slab, figured by M. Herman Strebel as No. 11, a chieftain in a recumbent +position is conferring with a personage masked as a deer. The date is sculptured +on this slab, recalling the Mexican method of figuring numerals and indicates +that a historical event is being recorded. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Nahuatl word for deer is mazatl and we know that the Mazahuas, or <span class="tei tei-q">“deer-people”</span> +is the name of a native tribe which inhabits to this day the coast region of +Guatemala. A town named Mazatenango=the capital or mother-city of the Mazahuas +lies between the lake of Atitlan and the coast (tenan=mother of somebody; +tenamitl=walled city). A small village named Mazahuat also lies farther south and +inland on the Lempa river, in San Salvador. On one of the upright slabs two sculptured +heads resembling dogs' heads are enclosed in circles. The Nahuatl name for +dog is itzcuintl; and a town of the same name, corrupted to Escuintla, lies between +the latitude of Amatitlan and the coast of Guatemala, at about the same distance inland +as the town of Maza-tenango. As both places were within easy reach from Santa +Lucia, it seems possible that the slabs may refer to some conquest or agreement made +with the <span class="tei tei-q">“deer and dog people.”</span> At all events the agreement is worth noting as a +hint for future research. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href="#noteref_39">39.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ed. Brinton. +Library of Aboriginal literature, p. 13.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href="#noteref_40">40.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is to the superior +authority of my distinguished and highly esteemed colleagues +Drs. Otto Stoll and Carl Sapper that I submit the above considerations. It may be +possible for the latter enthusiastic explorer and for Dr. Gustavo Eisen, who is continuing +his valuable researches in Guatemala, to determine the locality of the ancient +Tullan, which should, I imagine, be sought for in a region where the land inhabited +by the Four Nations would converge and at a point almost equidistant from the Four +Tecpans.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href="#noteref_41">41.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the Mexican collection at +the Trocadero Museum in Paris, there is a curious +wooden sceptre in the form of a hand, which has been figured by Dr. Ernest Hamy +in his splendidly illustrated work on this Museum.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href="#noteref_42">42.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Brinton. The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico, p. 49.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href="#noteref_43">43.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bulletin of the Museum of +Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, no. 3, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href="#noteref_44">44.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Idea de una +nueva historia general, Madrid, 1746, p. 117.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href="#noteref_45">45.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Native Calendar, p. 50.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href="#noteref_46">46.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vergleichende Studien. Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie, bd. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, 1890, +and the Native Calendar, p. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href="#noteref_47">47.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Molina's dictionary +for further meanings of verb yuli, which accounts for another +form of primitive native symbolism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href="#noteref_48">48.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See D. G. Brinton (American +Hero-myths, p. 155) who, like other authorities, has +not recognized the difference between native cross-symbols, denoting the four quarters +celestial and terrestrial and the tree of tribal life.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href="#noteref_49">49.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. +Hale states that these squares remind us of the similar Chinese character +which represents the word <span class="tei tei-q">“field”</span> (p. 241).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href="#noteref_50">50.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A Central +American ceremony which suggests the snake dance of the Tusayan +villagers. Reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, +no. 3, July, 1893. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> +Bandelier, Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern +United States. Archaeol. Inst. Papers, Am. series, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, +pp. 586-591.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href="#noteref_51">51.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thirteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. +Washington, 1896.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href="#noteref_52">52.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In abbreviated form I note +here, inviting special comparison with Mexico, that +the Zuñi Upper world was symbolized by the sun, eagle and turquoise; the Lower +world by the rattlesnake, water and toad.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href="#noteref_53">53.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Landa +states that Mayapan signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the banner of Maya,”</span> the latter being the +name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“tongue of land”</span> on which the capital was situated. This explanation +is, however, scarcely satisfactory, for pantli is Nahuatl. If the entire word be regarded +as Nahuatl, we obtain <span class="tei tei-q">“the banner of the hand.”</span> As another Maya name for +the capital was Ho and this means five it seems possible that this numeral and sound +were actually expressed by an open hand and that the Nahuatl name thus arose.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href="#noteref_54">54.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As throughout America +four brothers are always found associated, in consequence +of the general spread of the quadruple organization, the fact that three rulers only +are mentioned here and that three powerful tribes were found in possession of Yucatan, +indicates that these must have separated themselves from their original State. +The subsequent reduction of their number to two shows further dissension.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href="#noteref_55">55.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It seems reasonable to refer +to this date the expulsion of the Maya tribe, the +Huaxtekans, who founded their colony at Panuco, named their capital Tuch-pan and +carried with them their execrable practices and ideas. At the same time they possessed +and handed down such a proficiency in the art of weaving that at the time of +Montezuma the most beautiful textile fabrics, furnished to him as tribute, were the +Huaxtecan <span class="tei tei-q">“centzon-tilmatli”</span> or mantles of four hundred colors, <span class="tei tei-q">“finely woven and +covered with intricate and artistic designs.”</span> This circumstance points to a possible +connection with Zilan, the reputed Maya centre of female industry. It has been +stated by good authorities that the only antiquities thus far found in America, which +testify to the existence of a degraded and obscene cult, are from the region of +Panuco.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href="#noteref_56">56.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It +is interesting to note in the above description absolutely no mention of woman +in the organization of Mayapan. It is therefore to be presumed that they were excluded +from this capital, and inhabited, as in Mexico, their own town, under female +rulership and that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“lords of the Night.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href="#noteref_57">57.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans. Peabody Museum +Papers, vol. 1, no. 3. Cambridge, 1891.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href="#noteref_58">58.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Relacion. +ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 52. In a note the Abbé states that the +above description recalls the monoliths of Copan and Quirigua.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href="#noteref_59">59.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We are +told that the Cheles inhabited a province named Ah-bin-chel, and that +their capitals were Tikoh and Izamal (literally, Ah=they who are of, kin=sun, +chel=sort of bird and the ancient name of a sacerdotal lineage in Yucatan). +Thence the title Chelekat=holiness, highness, grandeur, given to the head of this +lineage (Brasseur de Bourbourg). Ix-chel=the woman-bird, was the high-priestess +or medicine-woman and midwife. The Cheles, Tutul-xius and Cocomes were the +three most powerful tribes at the time of the Conquest. It is noteworthy that they all +had bird names and that the word chel, the totemic bird of the Cheles, so closely +resembles ché=tree, that the combination of a ché or tree as a symbol of the tribe and +the chel-bird would have been suggested by the language.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href="#noteref_60">60.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to Señor Garcia Cubas, <span class="tei tei-q">“this peninsula of +Yucatan must have been +united at one time, to the island of Cuba, the determining cause of their separation +being the impetuous current of the Gulf of Mexico”</span> (Atlas Metodico, Mexico, 1874, +p. 32).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href="#noteref_61">61.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a general +account of the ruins of Copan and for a plan on which the position +of the different structures, stelæ, altars and prominent sculptures are given, I refer +to the Memoirs of the Peabody Museum vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, +no. 1, containing a preliminary report, +of the Explorations by the Museum. Cambridge, 1896.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href="#noteref_62">62.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Historia de +la Provincia de Yucathan, by Friar Diego Lopez Cogolludo, Madrid, +1688.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href="#noteref_63">63.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It seems to me +that this statement establishes once and for all the order in which +these sculptured glyphs are to be read. It is evident that in fastening them to the +walls the idea was that of building up the calculiform record by placing the stones +above each other, in the same manner that a stone wall would be raised. Accordingly, +the earliest records would form the base and the last be at the top.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href="#noteref_64">64.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Biologia Centrali Americana, +pt. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, Copan <span class="tei tei-q">“a”</span> pl. 9. Casts of this sculpture +and of two others nearly identical, from Copan, are in the Peabody Museum.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href="#noteref_65">65.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is my +intention to reproduce these plans of Copan and Quirigua and of other +ancient American capitals in the publication I have undertaken to make in co-editorship +with Mr. E. W. Dahlgren of Stockholm, of the beautiful map of the City of +Mexico and its surroundings, painted by Alonzo de la Cruz, the cosmographer of +Philip II of Spain. Mr. Dahlgren published an interesting account of this map, +which is preserved in the library of the university at Upsala, in 1889, with its uncolored +reproduction on a reduced scale. In his monumental work on ancient cartography, +Baron Nordenskjöld also published an uncolored production of this map and, +with Dr. Bovallius, exhibited a beautiful facsimile of this precious document, at the +Historical Exposition in Madrid, in October, 1892. During the previous summer at +Stockholm, I had personally superintended the painting of a perfect facsimile copy of +the map which I exhibited in the Anthropological Building of the World's Columbian +Exposition in 1893. The original map was exhibited in Stockholm during the +meeting of the Congress of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894, and I suggested that it +ought to be published in exact facsimile and in colors, particularly on account of the +many hieroglyphic names of localities it exhibits. It was thereupon agreed by Mr. +Dahlgren and myself that we should jointly publish the map with an accompanying +text in English, my share of the work being principally the decipherment of the +hieroglyphs of localities, the classification of the tribes inhabiting them, as well as +the presentation of all historical facts connected with them that I could obtain from the +native and early Spanish chronicles. With characteristic liberality the Duc de Loubat +most kindly supported the proposed publication by subscribing to twenty copies of it +in advance and depositing the payment for these at the Academy of Sciences. The +reproduction of the map has been facilitated by this generous action and I take great +pleasure in expressing here our grateful appreciation to the Duc de Loubat, who +has been patiently awaiting the achievement of our undertaking. Both Mr. Dahlgren +and I have been prevented from completing this up to the present, by work planned +previously to the publication of the map. The present publication will prove, however, +that the social organization of the Mexicans has been the object of my painstaking +study and that, until I had satisfactorily set forth the fundamental principles +which influenced not only the distribution of the population, but the ground-plan of +the capital itself, any text I could publish with the map would be incomplete. As +matters now stand, I propose to treat of the City of Mexico as a type of an ancient +American sacred city, to compare its ground plan with those of other native capitals +and to trace, as far as possible, the localization of the various tribes and classes of +the ancient population, so that we can form an adequate idea of the topography and +machinery of the great state known as the Empire of Montezuma. I hope and expect +to complete this publication in a reasonable period of time but dare not define +its limits, as all scientific research demands more time and strength than can be +determined upon in advance. In conclusion I would state that, at the Congress of +Americanists which took place at the city of Mexico in 1895, the distinguished Mexican +cartographer, Señor Garcia Cubas, whose splendid maps of Mexico are well known, +made an interesting communication on this map, of which he had seen a copy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href="#noteref_66">66.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has been +surmised that the name Palenque is of Spanish origin and means <span class="tei tei-q">“a +palisade;”</span> but it seems far more likely to be the approximate rendering of the sound +of the old native word by a Spanish word, in the same way that the Nahuatl Quauh-nahuac +became the Spanish Cuerna-vaca, literally cow's horn.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href="#noteref_67">67.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur +de Bourbourg's Maya Vocabulary contains an interesting instance of a +native tribe or lineage bearing the name of a bird: <span class="tei tei-q">“Chel: name of a kind of bird; +ancient name of a great sacerdotal family reigning at Tecoh (near Izamal, Yucatan). +Thence the title <span class="tei tei-q">‘Chelekat,’</span> which meant holy, exalted, great, and was applied to +the head of this family.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href="#noteref_68">68.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On a large +tablet at Ixkun, the cast of which is now in Mr. Maudslay's collection +at the South Kensington Museum, similarly placed figures support on their bent backs +and shoulders standing personages, facing each other, and surrounded by glyphs. +In this case, however, the men who serve as footstools, are bound and distinctly +show a difference of type and costume, so that there can be no doubt that the tablet +commemorated the conquest of an alien tribe.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href="#noteref_69">69.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Estudio arqueologico y +jeroglifico del Calendario o gran libro astronomico.... +Mexico. 1889.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href="#noteref_70">70.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, 1, 60.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href="#noteref_71">71.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A somewhat +disheartening consideration concerning the Stone of the Great Plan +deserves mention. The probability is that it was originally painted with the colors +of the four quarters and that some of the records thus made are irretrievably lost. +On taking the first impressions with gelatine, in order to make his admirable cast of +the monolith, Señor Abadiano discovered many traces of color, lodged in small crevices +and corners of the carvings. Moreover, the use of the symbolical colors on +stone monuments is vouched for by the great painted monolith which was, strange to +say, re-interred after having been discovered in the City of Mexico some years ago. +The reproduction of an obviously incorrect drawing made of this stone during its +uncovered state, has been published in vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> +of the Annals of the National Museum +of Mexico.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href="#noteref_72">72.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Relacion, +p. 339, Kingsborough, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ix</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href="#noteref_73">73.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leon y Gama +advanced the opinion that the stone, supplemented by a gnomon, +served as a solar clock or dial, to mark the hours of the days and the seasons, etc. He +added that the stone may have served further purposes than those he enumerated and +hints that it may have also recorded lunar periods. This distinguished scholar concludes +by acknowledging that the ancient Mexicans possessed enlightened knowledge +of the movements of the principal planets and methods of observing them, in +order to divide time for the purposes of civil and religious government (Description +de las dos Piedras. Mexico, 1852, p. 110). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The late Doctor Philip Valentini, in a learned discourse on the Calendar-stone, read +at New York in 1878, expressed his view that it contained a complete and plastic +representation of the division of time employed in ancient Mexico. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The distinguished Mexican scholar, Señor Alfredo Chavero, has published the most +elaborate treatise which has been written on the subject and discusses the views of +Gama and Valentini with much erudition. Referring the reader to his publications in +the Annals of the National Museum of Mexico I shall but mention his views that the +four symbols, contained in the quadruplicate central figure, record four epochs of the +native cosmogony, that the central head is an image of the sun and that the monument +itself is a votive tablet which was erected to the Sun in historical time, two conclusions +to which I cannot subscribe. It is impossible to discuss fully the valuable +publications of Señores Troncoso and Chavero in these cursive remarks, but I shall +do so on another occasion. Meanwhile there is one point upon which both of these +authorities agree, namely, in admitting the possible connection between the civilization +of Mexico and Peru and in recognizing that various ancient people of America +had the nahui-ollin in common. A passage in Señor Chavero's work claims moreover +special mention, as it contains his supposition that the sign nahui-ollin may have +symbolized not only the four movements of the sun, but also those of the moon, which +the writer seems to regard as the nocturnal or dark sun. I am quite ready to agree +with the above authorities on some of the points mentioned, conflicting as their views +appear to be at first sight. Inasmuch as I regard the monument as the image of a +plan or theoretical scheme which colored and influenced all native thought, I hail +any recognition made by other students of its all-pervading presence in the Calendar +and in the cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans. On the other hand I maintain a view +which materially differs from those of previous writers, namely, that the entire plan +was originally based on the primitive observation of Polaris and in the conception +of a stable centre: the seat of a power extending over the Four Quarters and the +Above and Below.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href="#noteref_74">74.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the +text, as published, Bernal Diaz states that this statue had a face like that of a +bear <span class="tei tei-q">“un rostro, como de osso,”</span> but goes on to say that it was decorated according to +the same mode as the other <span class="tei tei-q">“del otro.”</span> I am inclined to think it more than probable +that instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“de osso ”</span> the text should also read <span class="tei tei-q">“del otro,”</span> as among the +many images of Tezcatlipoca that are extant, none show him connected with the bear in +any form or shape.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href="#noteref_75">75.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Tullan we seem +to find the Maya equivalent to the Mexican Itzacual=enclosure, +by which the Teotihuacan pyramids are popularly designated, as may be verified by the +discussion of the Maya word in the preceding pages (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> tulum, +tulul, tuliz, tulacal), which conveys the idea of something enclosed, entire, whole and +universal and will be reverted to. Cholol-lan seems to be connected with the verb +cholol-tia=to escape (like game from a snare or net) to fly, or to spring away. According +to this, Cholol-lan would mean <span class="tei tei-q">“the place of escape or flight”</span> and it will be seen +that this designation will be found to agree with the native tradition concerning the +purpose of the pyramid, which will be cited presently. It is not impossible, however, +that Cholol-lan may be bilingual and also be a corrupt rendering of the Maya +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ho</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">hool</span></span>=head, also +capital. This supposition receives a certain support from Padre Rios' statement that +<span class="tei tei-q">“the inhabitants of Cholula, in their sacred festivals, performed a solemn dance around +the pyramid chanting a song which began with the words Tulanian Hulaez.”</span> These, he +states, <span class="tei tei-q">“belonged to none of the languages now spoken in Mexico”</span> (Orozco y Berra +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 363). The name Tlachiuhaltepetl is translated by +Orozcoy Berra by <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain made by hand,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> artificial +mountain or pyramid; from tlachiuhaliztli, +the act of accomplishing some work forming or creating something. As the origin of +primitive symbolism is a question of such deep interest I shall mention here some +curious data in connection with the pyramid. The word Tlachiuhale was a title or +name applied to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Creator or Former of living creatures.”</span> In order to express the +sound of this word in the picture-writings, it is obvious that a pyramid could have +been employed, since it graphically and phonetically conveyed the desired sound +tlachiual-tepetl. At the same time a complementary sign would be necessary so as to +obtain a symbol which would specially apply to the Creator alone. The word +tlachia=to look, see, watch, naturally suggests itself, as a complement to the sound +tlach; and to express, in a cursive way, the action of seeing, an eye sufficed. We +thus see that an artificial mountain or pyramid and an eye formed a hieroglyph which +expressed the sound <span class="tei tei-q">“Tlachiuale”</span> and signified the <span class="tei tei-q">“Creator.”</span> As the eye by +itself was the sign for star, and the idea of a central star, as frequently depicted in +the nahui-ollin sign, was an emblem of the creative and central power, it is evident that, +besides its literal meaning, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> an artificial or created +mountain, a <span class="tei tei-q">“tlachiuhaltepetl”</span> +would have been regarded by the initiated as the Mountain of the Creator, the +sacred pyramid, which was the image of central, dual and quadruple power.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href="#noteref_76">76.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The testimony of +early Spanish missionaries established the fact that in ancient +Mexico a caste of master builders and masons existed, whose name, Tulteca, identified +them with the ancient centre of civilization and integral state of Tullan. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Whenever the natives were asked who had constructed certain edifices, passes and +roads, etc., they invariably answered the <span class="tei tei-q">‘tultecas,’</span> a Nahuatl word in current use, +which signified <span class="tei tei-q">‘the skilled artificers or workers in stone, etc., the master-masons or +builders.’</span> ”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href="#noteref_77">77.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ancient native +name of this volcano was Citlal-tepetl, literally the Star +Mountain, from which it may, perhaps, be inferred that, from the plains, its high +and sharp peak served as a means of registering the movements of certain stars and +planets.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href="#noteref_78">78.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">China, +Prof. Rob. Douglas, p. 259.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href="#noteref_79">79.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +Chinese designation ho, applied to the limits of space, is particularly interesting +in connection with the Maya ho and its homonyms.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href="#noteref_80">80.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The Mongol-Mayan +Constitution,”</span> The American Antiquarian, May and June, +1898. It is with all the more genuine appreciation that I point out how Mr. Wickersham, +anticipating my publication of the same conclusion, has recognized that the +Zuñis, Mexicans and Peruvians as well as the Chinese, were ruled by what he aptly +terms the <span class="tei tei-q">“Quadriform Constitution,”</span> since it has taken me years of hard study to +perceive this common basis. I likewise draw attention to his study in primitive law, +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Constitution of China (Olympia, 1898),”</span> but must remark that I strongly differ +from his conclusions in the recently published Answer to Major Powell's inquiry +<span class="tei tei-q">“Whence came the American Indians?”</span> (Tacoma, 1899.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href="#noteref_81">81.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shu King. The +Chinese Classics, Legge. Book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">I</span></span>, p. 37.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href="#noteref_82">82.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sacred Books of the +East, Legge, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, Shû King; also W. H. Medhurst, +Shanghai, 1846.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href="#noteref_83">83.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An interesting note +in connection with the assignment of color to the cardinal +points in Asia, is given by Schlagintweit (Buddhism in Thibet, 27, 3), who relates +that <span class="tei tei-q">“the walls of the temples look towards the 4 quarters of heaven and each side +should be painted with its particular colour, viz.: north=green, east=white, south=yellow, +west=red, but this rule is not strictly adhered to; most, indeed, are painted +red.”</span> As a parallel to this I refer to Sahagun's description of the temple of the +high-priest Quetzalcoatl at Tula, which held four chambers facing the cardinal points; +<span class="tei tei-q">“The east chamber was termed the golden house and was lined with plates of gold; +the west chamber was termed the house of emeralds and turquoises; the south +chamber was inlaid with silver and mother of pearl and the north chamber with red +jasper and shells.”</span> Sahagun describes also a second building of the same kind, in +which the decoration of the four rooms was carried out in the same colors, in +feather-mosaic (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> Book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, +chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxix</span></span>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href="#noteref_84">84.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The alligator-altar +of Copan and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Turtle”</span> of Quirigua, on which four +limbs may be discerned, are the most remarkable examples of the native employment +of the quadruped figure as a symbol of clan-organization and the great Quadruplicate +Plan. An interesting instance of the association, in China, of the form of a four-footed +animal with numerical divisions is furnished by the following passage from +the Book of Yu, Shoo-King, ed. Legge. Khung-she has said that <span class="tei tei-q">“Heaven conferred +on Yü the divine tortoise bearing a book out of the river; on its back were various +numbers, up to nine. Yü arranged them and completed the 9 species. On the head +of the tortoise was 9, on the tail 1, on the left side 3, on the right 7. The shoulders +were formed by 2 and 4, the thighs by 6 and 8.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href="#noteref_85">85.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As Prof. E. B. Taylor +has aptly pointed out: <span class="tei tei-q">“By accident the [Mexican] Calendar +may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of cards laid out in rotation of +the four suits, as an ace of hearts, 2 of spades, 3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of +hearts, etc.... This system [of combining signs with numerals] is similar to +that of central southwestern Asia where, among the Mongols, Tibetans and Chinese, +etc., series of signs are thus combined to reckon years, months and days.... +Humboldt makes this comparison in his Vue des Cordillères, p. 212”</span>.... (Article +<span class="tei tei-q">“Mexico,”</span> Ency. Brit.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href="#noteref_86">86.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +following passages contain interesting evidences of the ancient application +of the number seven to tribal organization in China. <span class="tei tei-q">“In the time of the Suy dynasty +Manchuria went by the name of Mo-ho in China ... the people being <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">then +divided into seven tribes</span></em>.... Towards the end of the eleventh century one Yang-ko +was elected as their chief ... and he organized something of a regular government +throughout the various tribes of Jou-tchi or Niô-tchi's and collected taxes +from them. The highest of his officers were all styled po-k-eih-lee and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">were +distinguished by the names of the sun, planets and 28 constellations of the +Zodiac</span></em>. Every five, every ten and every hundred men had their special +officers.... From the chief of five to the chief of ten thousand, each trained his +dependents in military art....”</span> Wylie: On the origin of the Manchus (Chinese +Researches, p. 244).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href="#noteref_87">87.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Nestorian +Tablet in Si-ngan-foo (p. 24, Chinese Researches. Shanghai, 1897).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href="#noteref_88">88.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">(The +Religion of Japan, Wm. Elliott Griffis. London, 1895, p. 67 and note 9.) +This curious agreement between the Japanese and other ethnic traditions, in locating +Paradise, the origin of the human family and of civilization at the north pole, +has not escaped the attention of Dr. W. F. Warren, President of Boston University, +who makes extended reference to it in his suggestive book, <span class="tei tei-q">“Paradise Found, The +Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. A Study of the Prehistoric World. +Boston, 1885.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href="#noteref_89">89.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An +interesting parallelism in the development or evolution of the idea of rotation +around a central pole was brought to my notice by a model in the Indian Department +of the South Kensington Museum. It represents the Hindu fanatical +religious rite known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Churruck Puja.”</span> Four individuals are suspended by +cords, with hooks drawn through their flesh, to a movable wooden structure like a +wheel surmounting a high pole, similar to that used by the Ancient Mexican <span class="tei tei-q">“flyers”</span> +(see p. 24) which likewise served as a pivot for the circling motion of the performers. +The torture voluntarily endured by the latter recalls that accompanying the sacred +sun pole-dance of certain North American Indian tribes. It is interesting to contrast +the ancient Mexican refined and intellectual symbolization of circumpolar motion +with the fanatical and hideous self-torture associated with the North American +and Hindu modes of representing the same phenomena, as it throws much light on +the development of certain sides of human nature.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href="#noteref_90">90.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. +Wm. H. Goodyear, from whose admirable work, the Grammar of the Lotus, +the above quotations are taken, remarks that <span class="tei tei-q">“the myth of Horus rising from the +lotus, as found in the Egyptian texts, is the exact counterpart of this idea and as far +as Brahmanism is concerned, is much the older;”</span> also that <span class="tei tei-q">“it is possible that the +lotus symbolism of Egypt and India dates from a race which divided into separate +branches; it is also possible that the people of India experienced the influence, direct +or indirect, of Egypt.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href="#noteref_91">91.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Researches into the +origin of the primitive constellations of the Greeks, Phœnicians +and Babylonians (Robert Brown, jun., F. S. A., M. R. A. S., vol. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>, 1899, p. 357).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href="#noteref_92">92.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In +Assyria we find one of the oldest temples bearing the name E-kharsag-kurkura, +that stamps the edifice as the reproduction of the <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain of all lands”</span> and there +are other temples that likewise bear names in which the idea of a mountain is +introduced.... The zikkurat or <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain-house”</span>=E-kur was at Nippur, Sippar, Uruk, +Ur and Larsa, <span class="tei tei-q">“the centre of a considerable group of buildings; while at Babylon ... +the temple area of E-sagila must have presented the appearance of a little city +of itself, shut off from the rest of the town by a wall which invariably enclosed the +sacred quarter.”</span> The name E-kur was used at Nippur, by extension, to denote the +entire sacred precinct which contained the zikkurat or staged tower, the great court +where worshippers assembled, shrines and other minor structures. The excavations at +Nippur have afforded us, for the first time, a general view of a sacred quarter in an +ancient Babylonian city. The extent of the quarter was considerable. Dr. Peters' +estimate is eight acres for the zikkurat and surrounding structures.... <span class="tei tei-q">“A +factor that contributed largely to the growth of the sacred precinct in the large centres +was the circumstance that the political importance of such centres as Nippur, +Lagash, Ur, Babylon and Nineveh led the rulers to group around the worship of the +chief deity, the cult of the minor ones who constituted the family or court of the chief +god.”</span> A <span class="tei tei-q">“list of temples in Lagash, recently published by Scheil, ... furnishes +the name of no less than thirteen sacred edifices, and we are certain that as many as +four or five smaller chapels surrounded the precinct in which stood the great temple +E-ninnu ...”</span> (Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href="#noteref_93">93.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These facts +shed additional light and interest upon the Mt. Meru of India, where +the Brahmans sought union with their god Brahma.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href="#noteref_94">94.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Diodorus Siculus +maintains that the E-kur was employed as an astronomical observatory. +The antiquity of Babylonian astronomy is indicated by the testimony of +Simplicius and Porphyrius who relate that Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander +the Great during his campaigns, brought back from Babylon and communicated to +Aristoteles a series of observations which had been made there for a period of 1,903 +years. Accordingly, the Chaldæans must have begun to make astronomical notes +more than 2,200 years before the Christian era. It stands indeed to reason that they +must have made observations during countless centuries, since they discovered the +Saros, known as the Chaldæan period of 6583-1/3 days, which served for the prediction +of eclipses and were also acquainted with the precession of the equinoxes.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href="#noteref_95">95.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor +Jastrow tells us that the name Shamash merely signifies vassal or servitor. +I venture to point out what is doubtlessly a fact familiar to Assyriologists, that +the name closely resembles the Babylonian-Assyrian name Shame=heaven, the +equivalent of the Sumerian an, a word of which the most ancient cuneiform signs +were four crossed lines, forming eight lines proceeding from a common centre.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href="#noteref_96">96.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A striking corroboration +of the view that China derived its civilization from Asia +Minor is afforded by the resemblance between the Assyrian Anu and the Chinese +Shang, both signifying Heaven, and the Assyrian Ea and Chinese Lea, both applied +to <span class="tei tei-q">“the Below.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href="#noteref_97">97.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An +analytical study of the Babylonian and Assyrian divinities enumerated in Professor +Jastrow's hand-book enables us to detect some of the natural associations of +ideas that influenced the formation of one artificial theological system after another, +all springing from a single root. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fundamental realization of the antithesis of light and darkness giving rise to +the division of the universe into two distinct parts, the conception of an eternal +antagonism between both followed and led to the stage of thought set forth by Mr. Robert +Brown who tells us (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>) that <span class="tei tei-q">“the original twins were the +Sun and Moon”</span> and +that an archaic cosmogonic legend attached to the third month of Kas (twins) is that +of two hostile brethren and the building of the first city. The great twin-brethren +who join together to build the city are the Sun and Moon, engaged in preserving cosmic +order yet also constantly antagonistic to each other and who constantly chase each +other, one being up when the other is down. Mr. Brown also relates the myth of +antagonistic satraps Namaros and Parsondas and states that, in the twin stars, Castor +and Pollux, named by the Euphrateans the great Twins=Mastab-bagal-gal, the Sun +and Moon were re-duplicated. The Euphratean abbreviation is mas=twin or mas-mas, +and Pollux is equated with the fourth antediluvian king Ammenon, a name derived +from Akkadian: umun=offspring, an=heaven <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the Sun, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +son or offspring of heaven.”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href="#noteref_98">98.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“There +are reasons for believing, however, that Sarpanitum, the offspring-producing +goddess once enjoyed considerable importance of her own; that, prior to the rise +of Marduk to his supreme position, a goddess was worshipped in Babylon, one of +whose special functions it was to protect the progeny while still in the mother's +womb. A late king of Babylon, the great Nebuchadnezzar, appeals to this attribute +of the goddess. To her was also attributed the possession of knowledge concealed +from men.... A late ruler of Babylon, Shamash-Shumu-kin, calls her +<span class="tei tei-q">‘the queen of the gods’</span> and declares himself to have been nominated by her to +lord it over men”</span> (Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 122). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following extracts from Assyrian prayers addressed to Ishtar further define +her position at one time: <span class="tei tei-q">“The producer, queen of heaven, the glorious lady. To +the one who dwells in E-babbara.... To the queen of the gods to whom has +been entrusted the commands of the great gods. To the lady of Nineveh.... To +the daughter of Sin, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the twin-sister of Shamash</span></em>, ruling over all kingdoms. +Who issues decrees, the goddess of the universe.... <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Besides thee there is no guiding +deity</span></em>....”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href="#noteref_99">99.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As an +illustration of the ideas connected with Astarte it is interesting to note that +fish and doves, inhabitants of the sea and air, became her sacred emblems. The +horns which she is sometimes represented as wearing seem to be not only symbolical +of the moon, but also to be a remnant of a more ancient form of symbolism +which associated the goddess with the cow. It is stated that, in Canaan, Astarte was +represented under the form of a cow and it will be shown that, in the Egyptian +zodiac Polaris and Ursa Major were represented under the form of a bull or cow or +its thigh. The eye painted on the prow of the ship was also a symbol of the goddess, +an interesting fact considering that the eye expresses a star among other primitive +people.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Book +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">v</span></span>, Chaps. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">viii-x</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“That +the Hebrew and Babylonian traditions [of the Creation] spring from a common +source is so evident as to require no further proof. The agreements are too +close to be accidental. At the same time the variations in detail point to an independent +elaboration of the traditions on the part of the Hebrews and Babylonians.... +It is in Babylonia that the thought would naturally arise of making +the world begin with the close of the storms and rains in the spring. The Terahites +must, therefore, have brought those cosmological traditions with them upon migrating +from the Euphrates Valley to the Jordan district.... The intercourse, political +and commercial, between Palestine and Mesopotamia was uninterrupted.... +The so-called Babylonian exile brought Hebrews and Babylonians once more side +by side.... A direct borrowing [of traditions] from the Babylonians has not +taken place and while the Babylonian records are in all probability much older than +the Hebrew, the latter again contain elements, as Gunkel has shown, of a more primitive +character than the Babylonian production. This relationship can only satisfactorily +be explained on the assumption that the Hebrews possessed the traditions +upon which Genesis narrative rests, long before the Babylonian exile, when the +story appears, indeed, to have received its final and present shape.... Yahwe +is assigned the rôle of Bel-Marduk, the division of the work of creation into six days +is definitely made and some further modifications introduced ...”</span> (Jastrow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 452-453).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. +von Luschan (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 22) translates this cuneiform sign, +which exists in Babylonian and Assyrian forms, as <span class="tei tei-q">“Siebeneinigkeit”</span> and emphasizes +the fact that it is employed in the singular form. The inference that it may designate +not only the Pleiades but more probably Ursa Major corroborates the view that the mystic +number seven impressed itself upon the human mind by its association with the +Septentriones.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +fact that the mountain was the symbol of the centre of the earth and of Bel, +throws light upon the meaning of the clay cones which were <span class="tei tei-q">“very common votive +objects in Babylonia especially in the earlier periods.”</span> They would have been +appropriately used in the cult of Baal, the personification of the male principle, and +are indeed usually represented as offered by male worshippers. That the cones +in some cases represented the conical bunch of the male blossom of the palm tree may +also be conjectured.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An interesting complement +to this is furnished by the texts of oracular messages +sent by the goddess Ishtar to King Ashurbanapal who seems to have been a fervent +disciple of the theological school of Arbela. On one occasion, when the king's army +was in a predicament, Ishtar appears at night and declares: <span class="tei tei-q">“I walk in front of +Ashurbanapal, the king, who is the creation of my hands.”</span> On another occasion the +oracle-giving medium reports to the king: <span class="tei tei-q">“Ishtar, dwelling in Arbela, came with +quivers hung on her right and left sides with a bow in her hand and girded with a +pointed unsheathed sword. Before thee [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> the king] she stood +and like the mother +that bore thee [with maternal kindness] Ishtar, supreme among the gods, addressed +thee commanding: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Be encouraged [literally, look up] for the fray. Wherever +thou art, I am.’</span> ”</span> The images of Ashur aiming his arrow and Ishtar with an unsheathed +pointed sword recall the biblical description of the flaming sword which +turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life (Genesis +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is interesting +to trace to the same origin the <span class="tei tei-q">“quadriga”</span> which may well have +been associated with the <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive sun”</span>=Polaris, before supreme sovereignty was +transferred to Phœbus, the diurnal sun, by the votaries of the cult of Light.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I am +pleased to be able, at the last moment, to insert the following interesting +points personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis Budge: In remotest antiquity +two mythical mountains marked the two divisions of the land: Bakhan, situated to +the southeast, and Manu, situated to the northwest. The latter, like the mountain +Meru of India, was the abode of the blessed, towards which the souls of the dead set +out from Abydos and where eternal rest was to be found. The curious connection +between the north=mehta and the west=amenta, which I have shown to have +prevailed in ancient Mexico where the north is named Mictlan and in Yucatan where +Aman signifies north, is particularly interesting in connection with the exclamation +or exhortation to the soul, constantly met with in the Egyptian Book of the Dead: +Er-amentet=to the hidden land! <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span>, the northwest.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thesaurus Inscriptionem Ægyptiacarum +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, p. 212.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">First +Steps in Egyptian, London, 1898. I am mainly indebted to this useful book +and other publications by the same author for the Egyptian words cited in the following +pages. An interesting point, personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis +Budge, is that the cardinal points in Egypt were located diagonally, a method +which is shown to have also existed in Central America by the diagonal orientation +of numberless pyramids and buildings.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A History +of Egypt, Vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>. London, 1896.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Reference is made to +another translation of the hymn in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Records of the Past,”</span> +Vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, pp. 127-136, and to Grébaut, Hymne à +Ammon Ra.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">First steps in Egyptian, Mr. Wallis +Budge, p. 235.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An extremely +interesting instance of the hand being actually figured between the +sun and the moon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> as the symbol of the Middle, is to be seen +on the Phœnician tablet to Baal Hamman and Tanitla, from Carthage, preserved at the +British Museum and figured by Mr. Goodyear, fig. <a href="#Figure_64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>, 1. +Above the hand is a group of symbols consisting +of two S-shaped signs, resembling the Mexican picture of Ursa Major. Between +these is a pyramid and above this a seven-petalled conventionalized flower, +which should be compared with fig. +<a href="#Figure_64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>, 3, a copy of the familiar flower on the sacred +tree of the Assyrians. In fig. <a href="#Figure_64" class="tei tei-ref">64</a>, +2, copied from another Phœnician tablet (Goodyear), +the flower occupies the central position between two hands; the latter taking +the places of sun and moon in the tablet 1, an interesting detail considering the +instances cited, showing that dual rulership was indiscriminately associated with +<span class="tei tei-q">“right and left hand”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the sun and moon.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It +is remarkable that the sound of the Latin word for ram=aries, so closely resembles +the Egyptian symbols for Amen-Ra (see fig. <a href="#Figure_63" class="tei tei-ref">63</a>, 1-4) +and that the am and ar syllables occur in the following names for ram or sheep, applied +to the zodiacal constellation: +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Al Hamal=the sheep (Arabic).<br /> +Bara=the ram (Persian).<br /> +Amru=the ram (Syrian).<br /> +Varak=the ram (Parsi). +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +inscription on this monument, which also exhibits the portrait statue of +Amenophis III, is of particular interest as it states that the temple of Saleb, built by +the king, was <span class="tei tei-q">“very wide and large ... its towers reached to the sky, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the +flagstaffs united themselves with the stars of heaven</span></em>”</span> (see official +catalogue of the Berlin +Museum, p. 122). This appears to indicate that the flagstaffs were employed for purposes +of astronomical observations.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ideas associated +with the form of a lion couchant are best learned from the +following passages from the Bible: <span class="tei tei-q">“He couched, he lay down as a lion and as a +great lion; who shall stir him up?”</span> (Numbers +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxiv</span></span>, 9, see also Genesis +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xlix</span></span>, 9). It is +only by the light afforded by such insights into eastern contemporaneous thought that +the meaning of the Egyptian sphinx can be in some measure understood.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I address the +query to Egyptologists: whether there are any indications of a common +identity of sound in the Egyptian word for beard and same name, denoting rule +or power, similar to that existing in the Maya language between <span class="tei tei-q">“ah-meex”</span>=bearded +man and <span class="tei tei-q">“ah-mek-tan”</span> governor, ruler (see p. <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The somewhat +perplexing allusions to the <span class="tei tei-q">“divine marriage”</span> of Isis to her father +or brother and to her giving birth to her own mother, as in the above text, are very +naturally explained by the fact that the successive officiating king-high-priest always +personified Ra-Osiris or the Sun and the queen Isis-Sothis-Hathor and the Moon or +Sirius. The female child to whom the queen gives birth was destined to be her successor +and another personification of Isis, therefore she could be said to have given +birth to her own mother, since, like the latter, the child would be an Isis. In the same +way the queen could be said to marry her father and brother, as, like herself, the king +was the offspring of a divine union and bore his father's title. In connection with +the custom of the male Horus naming the <span class="tei tei-q">“young sun”</span> and the female Horus the +young star or moon, it is noteworthy that the son and daughter of Anthony and +Cleopatra, who used to assume the insignia of Isis on state occasions, were given the +Greek surnames of Helios and Selene.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It +is extremely curious and interesting that the Incas, the civilizers of Peru, also +set up a disk of gold as the image of the Creator and placed it between images of the +sun and moon. We also find the Inca Ccapac Yupanqui, like Amenhotep, deploring the +spread of idolatry and image-worship as a misfortune to his vassals and a sorrow to +himself. It is recorded of another Inca that, as a wise measure he destroyed all writing, +presumably picture and rebus writing, as calculated to mislead his people by a +multiplication of symbols. It is an interesting reflection which our increased knowledge +of the primitive civilization of Egypt enables us to make, that the organization +of Peru, under Inca rule, must have closely resembled that of Egypt in remotest antiquity, +at its primitive stage of development, when simplicity, harmony and equilibrium +existed throughout the <span class="tei tei-q">“celestial kingdom.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The +following detached extracts, partly from Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen's valuable +work, should be carefully studied in connection with the above text, as they +throw further light upon the ideas associated with the sacred centres of heaven and +earth by nations with whom the Greeks were in touch. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“To the whole Arabian nation, heathen or Mahommedan, Polaris was Alfass, the +hole in which the earth's axle found its bearing”</span> (p. 451). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following important material pertains to the chapter on India, of whose insufficiency +I am painfully aware. <span class="tei tei-q">“In earliest Northern India the star nearest the +pole was known as Grahadhara, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the pivot of the planets,’</span> representing the great +god Dhruva, and Al Biruni said that among the Hindus of his time it was Dhruva +himself. It was an object of their worship”</span> (p. 456). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Bournouf's Bhagavata-pûrana (chap. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>) +it is said that <span class="tei tei-q">“Dhruva, meditating on +Brahma, stood on one foot, motionless as a post; while he did so half the world, +wounded by his big toe, bent over under his weight like a boat which, bearing a vigorous +elephant, leans at each step he takes, from left to right.”</span> O'Neil, citing the +same source continues: <span class="tei tei-q">“In consequence of his austerities Bhagavat said <span class="tei tei-q">‘I grant +thee virtuous Child, a Spot which has never yet been occupied by any being, a Spot +blazing with splendor, of which the ground is firm, where is fixed the circus of the +celestial lights, of the planets, constellations and stars; which turn all around like +oxen round their stake, and which [the Spot] subsists motionless even after the +Dwellers of a Kalpa [a day and night of Brahmâ +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> 4,320,000,000 years] have disappeared. +Around this Spot there turn with the stars and leaving it on their right, +Dharma, Agni, Kasyapa and Sakra and the Solitaries who live in the Forest’</span> ...”</span> +(p. 801). According to the Vishnu-purâna: <span class="tei tei-q">“As Dhruva turns, he causes sun, moon +and other planets to turn round also, and the lunar asterisms follow in his circular +course, for all the celestial lights are in fact bound to the Polar star by aërial +cords”</span> (Vishnu-purâna, see O'Neil, p. 503). It is instructive to compare these +descriptions of Dhruva with the Akkadian-Sumerian hymn to Ishtar, whom I have identified +as the female form of Polaris (p. <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>). According to +Professor Sayce it begins: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the +dwellings of the earth her name revolves”</span> (O'Neil, p. 715). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +O'Neil further notes that <span class="tei tei-q">“Dhruva is named the sun of Uttâna-Pâda”</span> and that this +name is connected with uttarat=north and also signifies outstretched, supine. He +also states that <span class="tei tei-q">“Uttara and Uttarâ was the dual god of the north, the son and daughter +of Virâta, and expresses the opinion that the age of the Dhruva legend is unutterable”</span> +(p. 503). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to another Sanscrit legend: <span class="tei tei-q">“At one time in the history of the creation +an attempt was made by Visvamitra to locate a southern pole and another bear in +positions corresponding to the northern, this pole passing through the island Lumka +or Vadavāmukha (Ceylon)”</span> (Allen, p. 436). Professor Sayce writes: <span class="tei tei-q">“In early Sumerian +days, the heaven was believed to rest upon the peak of <span class="tei tei-q">‘the mountain of the +world’</span> in the far northeast, where the gods had their habitations +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Isa. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xiv</span></span>, 13) +[the mount of congregation in the uttermost parts of the north], while an ocean or +<span class="tei tei-q">‘deep’</span> encircled the earth which rested upon its surface.”</span> Von Herder referred to +it as <span class="tei tei-q">“Albordz, the dazzling mountain on which was held the assembly of the gods, +and identified it with the holy mountain of God,”</span> alluded to in the Book of the Prophet +Ezekiel <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxviii</span></span>, 14; and Professor Whitney quoted from the +sixty-second verse of the first chapter of the Surya Siddhanta, <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain which is +the seat of the gods”</span> +and from the thirty-fourth verse of the twelfth chapter: <span class="tei tei-q">“A collection of manifold +jewels, a mountain of gold, is Meru, passing through the middle of the earth-globe, +and protruding on either side;”</span> commenting on which he says: the <span class="tei tei-q">“seat of +the gods”</span> is Mount Meru, situated at the North Pole (p. 452).</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I +likewise deeply regret that it is only since the last pages of the present investigation +have been in proof, that a remarkable work, full of valuable material relating +to the universal spread of pole-star worship and symbolism, was particularly +recommended to me by a distinguished fellow archæologist. Had I realized before +this the great value of the late John O'Neil's <span class="tei tei-q">“The Night of the Gods”</span> (David Nutt, +London, 1897), as a compendium, the result of years of conscientious and painstaking +labor, I should have made extensive use of it and should have been able to +make my survey of the ancient civilizations of the Old World far more complete +and my material more convincing. As it is, I can only warmly recommend the work +to all interested in the present investigation, who will see for themselves the widely +different points of view from which our respective researches have been carried out +but will probably be struck with the identity of some of our views. I should like to +express here my keen realization of the many blunders and omissions I have +probably made in the course of the present investigation, which carried me, reluctantly, +into fields of research where I felt myself to be a stranger. In view of the +disadvantages under which I have labored, under pressure of time and a frequent inability +to obtain all the books I wished to consult, I rely upon the leniency of specialists +and upon their kindly communicating to me the faults they detect, so that I +may avoid them in future publications.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The Century +Dictionary has a theory as to the origin of the idea of a Bear for the +seven stars, doubtless from its editor, Professor Whitney, that seems plausible, at all +events scholarly. It is that their Sanscrit designation, Riksha, signifies, in two +different genders, <span class="tei tei-q">‘a bear’</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">‘a star,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘bright’</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">‘to shine;’</span> +hence a title, the Seven +Shiners,—to that it would appear to have come, by some confusion of sound of the two +words, among a people not familiar with the sound”</span> (p. 424). <span class="tei tei-q">“Later on Riksha was +confounded with Rishi, and so connected with the Seven Sages or Poets of India. +Al Biruni devoted a chapter of his work on India to the seven stars [of Ursa Major] +known as Saptar Shayar, the seven Anchorites”</span> (Allen). I draw attention here to +the curious fact that the Sanscrit verb to see=iksh is nearly homonymous with +riksha and that therefore, in Sanscrit, the association of a star with the eye=akshan, +that sees=iksh, must have been a very close one and suggested the employment +of the eye as a symbol for star. In connection with the Sanscrit riksha it is curious +to note that, in Japanese, riki means power, viz., jin-riki-sha=man—power-wagon; +and hasha or rinsha=wagon or wain. The following extract from one of +the hymns in the oldest Veda, the Brahmâna, which <span class="tei tei-q">“mark the beginning of the +philosophical creed of the Vedic period,”</span> is particularly significant when compared, +not only with the preceding association of Ursa Major with the seven sages of India, but +also with Plato's cosmological doctrines: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have beheld the Lord of Men,”</span> one poet +writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“with seven sons, of which delightful and benevolent [deity] who is the object +of our invocation, there is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">an all-pervading middle brother</span></span> and a +third brother.... They yoke the seven to the one wheeled car; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one horse named +seven</span></em> bears it along; the three-axled <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">wheel is undecaying, never loosened +and in it all these regions of the universe abide</span></em>.... Immature, undiscerning in +mind, I inquire of those things <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">which are hidden from the gods</span></em> +[<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Hymn to Amen-Ra, p. 388, where the same expression +is used], the seven threads which the sages <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have spread to envelop the sun in whom +all abide</span></em>”</span> (Chambers' Encyclopædia, article India).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fig. +<a href="#Figure_72" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>, 1, is referred to on p. +<a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +original name for Phrygia is said to have been Askanios, from Askanios its +first ruler. The cenotaph of Midas is built in the rock at Jazylykaia, in the vicinity +of Kumbet, where other similarly decorated royal tombs exist.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It +would be interesting to learn whether the Arabian title Om-al-kara, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +mother of cities,”</span> has ever been connected with Roma by investigators.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It +is recalled here that the twin brothers Romulus and Remus are supposed to +have been the issue of the union, in the temple of Mars, of the vestal virgin Rhea +Silvia with a personification of the god Mars.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +recurrence of the square plan, employed in Babylonia and Egypt (see pp. +<a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref">333</a> and <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>), is noteworthy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In +course of time each Roman civitas, or political canton or community, possessed +such <span class="tei tei-q">“a centre, which was termed capitolium, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +the height, from being originally +fixed on a height or hill-top, corresponding to the Greek akra. Round this stronghold +of the canton, which formed the nucleus of the earliest Latin towns, houses +sprang up, which were in turn surrounded by the oppidum or the urbs (ring-wall +connected with urbus, curvus, orbis); hence, in later times, oppidum and urbs became, +naturally enough, the recognized designations of town and city.”</span>—Chambers' +Encyclopædia.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diocletian (A.D. 292) +revived dual rulership and quadruplicate organization by +instituting the quadruple hierarchy of two Augusti and two Cæsars. The prevalence +of quadruplicate division with current cosmical conceptions is shown by the following +text: <span class="tei tei-q">“The usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur ascending +a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">litus</span></span>. He turned his face to +the east and marked out some distant objects as the limits within which he would make +his observations and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">divided mentally the enclosed space into four +divisions</span></em>.... He +next ... prayed and offered sacrifices....”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“We learn from ... the augur Cicero +that while the Romans only had four divisions to their heavens-templum, the Etruscans +had sixteen, obtained by bisecting and rebisecting the four angles”</span> (O'Neil, +p. 433).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cult of +Ishtar=Isis, associated with mystery and of Serapis=Osiris, had +been instituted in Rome by Domitian (A.D. 82) who caused temples to be built for +them. Curious instances of the spread of the cults of other countries throughout +the Roman empire have come under my personal notice. In the Museum at Bonn, +Germany, there is a Roman tombstone the inscription on which consists of a wheel +above the name Jovis, the association of Jove with the wheel, being very remarkable +and significant in connection with the present subject. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At Nîmes in the South of France, a curious statue of Mithra was found in the +ruins of the Roman city. It consists of a Hermes, surmounted by a hairy, dog-like +face. A great serpent is wound around the Hermes, the signs of the zodiac being +sculptured between the coils. In the light of the present investigation the meaning +of the symbolical statue seems too obvious to require explanation. It is strange +that the recollection of seeing this statue at the age of nine with my father, who +pointed out and explained the signs of the zodiac to me, is one of the most vivid +of my childhood.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +curious association of the number seven with Stonehenge in gypsy folk-lore, +which possibly contains vestiges of Druidical folk-lore, is brought out by R. G. +Haliburton in his paper on <span class="tei tei-q">“Gypsy folk-lore as to Stonehenge,”</span> to which I refer the +reader.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the case +of Mayapan, Yucatan, the practical use of analogous council-houses is +described (p. <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>). +The Irish tower and seven houses are remarkably in accord with +the scheme of organization used in ancient Greece where, at Tenos, each gens was +known as <span class="tei tei-q">“a tower”</span> and each gens, as well as its town, was divided into at least +seven parts (p. <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref">456</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Speed relates +that one of the kings of Kent, named Catigera, <span class="tei tei-q">“was interred +upon a plain where his monument vulgarly called <span class="tei tei-q">‘citscotehouse,’</span> consisted of four +stones pitched in the manner of the stonehenge.”</span> It is tempting to see in the four +stones <span class="tei tei-q">“pitched”</span> around the grave, the underlying thought of a resting-place in the +cosmical centre, of the symbolized four quarters, and to view the prehistoric crosses +of Ireland and Scotland as emblematic of the Middle and Four Quarters, associated +with secret pole-star and cosmical cult and employed as symbols of time and of +quadruplicate government.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Celi-Ced and +the cult of the wren. Theosophical review, June 15, 1900.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Light +is thrown upon the possible conception of Ursa Major as Thor's wagon and +the most primitive form of chariots in general by the archaic chariot of state used, +to this day, in Corea and formerly in Japan. It is one-wheeled and the seat, destined +for one person, is placed high above the single wheel and rests upon two long poles, +the ends of which project in front and behind. Four men are required to support +and push this chariot of state, a fine example of which has lately been secured for +the Museum of Salem, Mass., by Prof. E. S. Morse.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It +is with keenest interest that I look forward to learning, from the distinguished +archæologists of Sweden, among whom I have the honor of having highly-esteemed, +personal friends, how far their observation and deeper knowledge lead them to entertain +views I have advanced concerning the origin of the swastika and the influence +of pole-star worship upon the development of primitive religion and social organization. +It is from them that I expect information as to the relation of the prehistoric +inhabitants of Scandinavia to the ancient centres of civilization which have been +discussed.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hewitt states +(p. 90) that, <span class="tei tei-q">“it was successively immigrating races from the North +... who placed a king at the head of the confederated provinces formed from their +confederated villages.... The confederate form of these kingdoms is shown in +such names as Chuttisgurh which means the 36 gurhs or united provinces. But the +final consolidated form of the pre-Aryan Indian village was that framed by the Kushites. +It was they who placed the royal province in the centre of the kingdom.... +It was on these principles that the government of the Ooraon village of Chota +Nagpore was constructed. The Ooraon form of village government is that which has +been preserved with less alteration from subsequent invaders than that of any other +part of India, for the Ooraons, Mundas, Ho-kals and Bhuyas have always been able, +under the protection of their mountain fastnesses, their political organization and +their natural love of independence, to keep their country free from the interference +of the hated Sadhs, the name by which they call the Hindus. But these people, who +repelled and held themselves aloof from later invaders were of no less foreign origin +than those who succeeded them, for they were all formed by the union with the matriarchal +Australioids <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">and patriarchal Mongols or Finnish and other Northern stocks</span></em>, +most of whom were formed into confederated tribes of artisans and agriculturists in +Asia Minor and it was from the southern part of Asia Minor or Northern Palestine, +that the Ooraons came. They themselves say that they came from Western India, +from the land of Ruhidas [the land of the red men], but this means Syria, the country +whose people were called Rotou by the Egyptians, and they were the race who introduced +barley and plough-tillage into India and Chota Nagpore.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Particular attention is drawn to Wylie's statements, quoted on p. +<a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>, concerning +the migration of Israelites to China, via Persia (about A.D. 58-75) and the native +record that Christianity was the ancient religion of Ta-Tsin=Syria. Hewitt's +identification of Syria as the <span class="tei tei-q">“red land”</span> causes the Ooraon and Chinese traditions to +agree in assigning it as the common source of origin of their civilization. According +to Professor Sayce it was <span class="tei tei-q">“about B.C. 600 that the Phœnicians penetrated to the +northwest coast of India,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“tradition brought them originally from the +Persian Gulf”</span> (Ancient Empire of the East, p. 183).</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +recent discovery, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, of the mummy of Aha-Mena, and +of six other kings of the first dynasty, suggests the possibility that they may have +reigned simultaneously and constituted a heptarchy(?). Although it would materially +affect Egyptian and Babylonian-Assyrian chronology as it now stands, historians +may yet find it necessary to make a revision taking into deeper consideration the +existence of tetrarchies and heptarchies in which a number of kings and subrulers +reigned simultaneously.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">To +assist these four principal secretaries are two under-secretaries, one Manchu +and one Chinese, and a board of ten assistants. Together, these sixteen secretaries +divided between two races, constitute a grand secretariat, which acts as nearly as +possible as the cabinet of the Emperor. (Missions in China. Jas. S. Dennis, D.D.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This +association of Tenos with seven-fold division is particularly suggestive because, +in Pythagorean philosophy, the number seven was named Parthenos, Athene, +also Apollo, Hermes, Hephaistos, Heracles, Dionysius, Rex, etc. These divinities, +the second and third of which are specially known as patrons of cities, appear in a +new light when it is realized that they were personifications of the number seven +and, by extension, of the seven-fold cosmos, state and city. On p. +<a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref">449</a>, Plato's division +of the Cosmos is cited. Reference to the history of Greek philosophy shows, however +that the spurious existence of four or five elements had not always been accepted in +Greece, that Thalês (640-550 B.C.) had laid down the doctrine of a single eternal, +original element, water or fluid substance, and <span class="tei tei-q">“assimilated the universe to an +organized body or system.”</span> Xenophanës (570-480 B.C.) conceived <span class="tei tei-q">“nature as one +unchangeable and indivisible whole, spherical, animated ... penetrated by or indeed +identical with God.”</span> It is usually accepted that it was Empedocles (444 B.C.) who +first formulated the elements, earth, air, fire and water, to which later philosophers +added a fifth, the all-embracing æther. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a luminous monograph (Pythagoras und die Inder, Leipzig, 1884.), +Professor L. von Schroeder, of Dorpat, Russia, quoting +the authority of Professor Max Müller, Edward Zeller and Oldenburg, has conclusively +shown that the five elements, earth, fire, water, air and æther (Sanskrit ākaçā) +already occur in the Brahmanas; were taught in the Sāmkhya philosophy of the +Kapila and were therefore known in India at least as far back as in the seventh century +B.C. The idea of the five elements is so familiar to the Hindus at the present +time that death is usually spoken of as <span class="tei tei-q">“a dissolution into the five elements,”</span> or a +<span class="tei tei-q">“going over into the Five.”</span> Professor von Schroeder's conclusion is that Pythagorean +philosophy derived the elemental divisions from India as well as its doctrine of +transmigration, etc., and its science of geometry and of number, mentioning, in support +of the latter assertion, the fact that Sâmkya, the name of the ancient Indian +school of philosophy, signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“number,”</span> that its followers were therefore +designated as <span class="tei tei-q">“philosophers or teachers of numbers.”</span> At the same time I point out +that, according to Oliver, <span class="tei tei-q">“a large portion of Egyptian philosophy and religion was +constructed almost wholly upon the science of numbers and we are assured by +Kircher (Oedip. Egypt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, 2) that everything in nature was +explained on this principle alone.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Returning to Professor von Schroeder's work I refer the reader to pp. 59 and 65, and +notes for an extremely interesting discussion of the Greek name of the fifth element +that figures in the work of Philolaus, the first who wrote a treatise on the Pythagorean +system of philosophy. The name employed has been deciphered by different authorities +as ὅλχας, ὁλχας, χυχλάς, ογχος, ὁγοτας, or ὅλας. The interpretation given is that the +name (the first syllable of which recurs in the word Olympus) signified <span class="tei tei-q">“that which +moves or carries with it the universe.”</span> Professor von Schroeder suggests that the +name may be a corruption of the Sanscrit name for æther, the all-embracing element, +âkâça. I venture to recall here the curious fact that, in ancient Mexico, the symbol, +enclosing the four elements, is always designated as the ollin, a word associated +with the idea of <span class="tei tei-q">“movement”</span> and of life=yoli. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In his work on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Pythagorean Triangle,”</span> the Rev. G. Oliver gives an extremely +clear account of the Pythagorean philosophy and tells us that its central thought is +the idea of number, the recognition of the <span class="tei tei-q">“numerical and mathematical relations of +things....”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The Pythagoreans seem,”</span> says Aristotle, <span class="tei tei-q">“to have looked upon +number as the principle and, so to speak, the matter of which existences consist;”</span> +and again <span class="tei tei-q">“they supposed the elements of number to be the elements of existence, +and pronounced the whole heaven to be harmony and number.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Concerning the universe, like many early thinkers, as a sphere, they placed in the +heart of it the central fire to which they gave the name of Hestia, the hearth or altar +of the universe, the citadel or throne of Zeus. Around this move the ten heavenly +bodies ... the earth revolved on its own axis.... +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +They developed a list of ten fundamental oppositions: 1, limited and unlimited; +2, odd and even; 3, one and many; 4, right and left; 5, masculine and feminine; 6, rest +and motion; 7, straight and crooked; 8, light and darkness; 9, good and evil.... The +union of opposites in which consists the existence of things is harmony; hence the +expression that the whole heaven or the whole universe is harmony. Pointing out +that it is only by a combination of odd and even numbers that a harmonious cycle +is created, I continue to cite from Mr. Oliver's work: <span class="tei tei-q">“The decade, as the +basis of the numerical system, appeared to them to comprehend all other numbers in itself, +and to it are applied, therefore, the epithets quoted above of number in general. +Similar language is held of the number <span class="tei tei-q">‘four’</span> because it is the first square number +and is also the potential decade (1+2+3+4=10). Pythagoras is celebrated as the +discoverer of the holy <span class="tei tei-q">‘Tetraktos’</span> the fountain and root of ever-living nature, or +the Cosmos consisting of Fire, Air, Earth, Water, the four roots of all existing +things.</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Number,”</span> says Philolaus, <span class="tei tei-q">“is great and perfect and omnipotent, and the principle +and guide of divine and human life. Number then is the principle of order, the +principle on which cosmos or ordered world exists.”</span> Without number and the limitation +which number brings, there would only be chaos and the illimitable, a thought +abhorrent to the Greek mind. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“The four +Ionic tribes were abolished by Kleisthenes (510 B.C.) who created, in +their place, ten new tribes founded on a new principle, independent of the gentes and +phratries. Each new tribe comprised a certain number of demes or cantons with the +enrolled proprietors and residents in each of them. Each tribe had a chapel, sacred +rites and festivals and a common fund for such meetings, in honor of its eponymous +hero, administered by members of its own choice; and the statues of all the ten +eponymous heroes, fraternal patrons of the democracy, were planted in the most conspicuous +part of the agora of Athens.... The demes taken altogether, included +the entire surface of Attica. Simultaneously Kleisthenes divided the year into ten +portions called Prytanies,—the fifty senators of each tribe taking by turns the +duty of constant attendance during one prytany and receiving during that time, the title +of The Prytanes. The order of precedence among the tribes in these duties was annually +determined by lot.... Moreover, a further subdivision of the prytany into +five periods of seven days each and of the fifty tribe-senators into five bodies of ten +each, was recognized; each body of ten presided in the senate for one period of seven +days, drawing lots every day among their number for a new chairman called Epistates, +to whom, during his day of office were confided the keys of the acropolis and the +treasury, together with the city seal.”</span> The remaining senators, not belonging to the +prytanizing tribe, might of course attend if they chose, but the attendance of nine +among them, one from each of the remaining nine tribes, was imperatively necessary +to constitute a valid meeting and to insure a constant representation of the collective +people. During those later times—the ekklesia or formal assembly of the +citizens, was convened four times regularly during each prytany ... +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, p. +138). Special attention is drawn here to the intimate association of the system of +government and the calendar, analogous to the ancient Mexican system. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The number of inhabitants an ideal state should contain and their numerical +organization were evidently subjects of supreme interest to Greek statesmen and +philosophers. The great work by Aristoteles (384-322 B.C.) on Politics, <span class="tei tei-q">‘according to +Grote,’</span> was based on a collection made by himself, of 158 different constitutions of +states, which collection has, unfortunately, been lost.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The purpose of comfortable +subsistence for which commonwealths are instituted, requiring a minute subdivision +of labor,”</span> Aristotle says, that <span class="tei tei-q">“in this particular view, the more populous the +community its end will be the more completely attained.... All things considered he +declares in favour of what would be now deemed a very small commonwealth, consisting of +15,000 or 20,000 citizens....”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In his <span class="tei tei-q">‘Book of Laws’</span> Plato intended to delineate a more practicable scheme of +government than that of his first.... His two republics nearly agree in form, though +they differ in magnitude; the first containing one thousand and the second five thousand +and forty men bearing arms.... In his second republic he equalizes estates but +leaves population unlimited.... A regulation directly the reverse of this is introduced +by one of the most ancient writers on the subject of politics, Pheidon of Corinth, +who limits population, but does not equalize possessions.... The republic, planned +by the architect Hippodamus, consisted of ten thousand men, divided into the three +classes of artificers, husbandmen and soldiers. The territory he likewise divides into +three portions: the sacred, destined for the various exigencies of public worship; +the common, to be cultivated for the common benefit of the soldiers; and the private, +to be separately appropriated by the husbandmen. His laws were also divided into +three kinds....”</span> (Aristotle's Ethics and Politics, John Gillies, LL.D., London +1804). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The knowledge that a republic was actually planned on the scheme of three-fold +division naturally suggests the possibility that the Sicilian coat of arms, the triskeles, +may be a survival of a period when a similar republic existed in Sicily and the year +was divided into three seasons only. +(For interesting details concerning the employment and spread of a year of three seasons +in ancient times, see Hewitt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> Preface +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xvi</span></span>, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>.) +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Grote's history we learn that after the establishment of the first Athenian democracy +by Kleisthenes and the victory they gained over the Bœotians and Chalkidians, +the Athenians <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">planted a body of four thousand</span></em> of their citizens as kleruchs +(lot-holders) or settlers upon the lands of the wealthy conquered Chalkidians. This is a +system which we shall find hereafter extensively followed out by the Athenians in the +days of their power; partly with a view of providing for their poorer citizens, partly to +serve as garrison among a population either hostile or of doubtful fidelity. These Attic +kleruchs did not lose their birthright as Athenian citizens: they were not colonists in +the Grecian sense and they are known by a totally different name—but they +corresponded very nearly to the colonies formally planted out on the conquered lands by +Rome. The increase of the poorer population was always more or less painfully felt +in every Grecian city ... the numerous kleruchies sent out by Athens, of +which this to Eubœa was the first, arose in a great measure out of the multiplication +of the poorer population, which her extended power was employed in providing for +... (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> vol. 4, p. 171). The number <span class="tei tei-q">“four thousand”</span> +specially designated is of +particular interest because the letter of the Greek alphabet expressing it was the +delta, in the form of a triangle or pyramid, which also signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the fourth”</span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“a quarter.”</span> The ideas suggested by these facts are: that the foundation of such a +colony would have been commemorated by the building of a pyramid by the conquered +race, the division of labor amongst them preparing the way for the institution of a +social organization on the familiar plan (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> p. 273). It is +only when we reflect what +an admirable means of establishing communal life and activity the mere act of building +under direction and guidance must have been, that we appreciate the fine wisdom +of the ancient kings, civilizers and culture-heroes, who were, first of all, master +builders, architects and masons and who began the work of rearing an empire by +directing the erection of a monument which, by its form, expressed the all-pervading +plan of organization.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“Taylor says that +the reason Plato adopted this division is because the number 12, +the image of all-perfect progression, is the product of 3 by 4, both of which numbers, +according to the Pythagoreans, are images of perfection. On the other hand, Ast +conceives that Plato had in mind the division of the country in twelve parts found in +Egypt and elsewhere, and which seems, as may be inferred from other portions of +his work, to have been connected with the division of the year into twelve months, +each under the superintendence of one of the twelve greater gods.”</span> To this note I +add the remark that, in B. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">vi</span></span>, +C. 8, Plato distinctly refers to the twelve tribes as <span class="tei tei-q">“the +thrice four tribes, recommending that they should appoint thrice four interpreters,”</span> +one for each tribe. It should also be recalled that Cecrops is said to have employed +the division into twelve and is supposed to have brought it from Egypt. In the present +summary the employment of the same division in other countries can be verified. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It may be of interest to note here that, like the Egyptians, the Greeks divided their +month into 3 decades. The year consequently contained 3×12=36 decades+5 days.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Considering that +the employment of silver or gold currency among the nations of +antiquity has been regarded, by some, as a proof of advanced culture, it is interesting +to learn, from the following passage, that, as a result of experience and with wisdom +and foresight, Plato recommended the adoption of different forms of currency in each +different state, in order to avert the dangers resulting from the accumulation of +riches. <span class="tei tei-q">“A law ... that no private person be permitted to possess any gold or silver; +but that there be a coin for the sake of daily exchange, which it is almost necessary +for handicrafts to change and for all who have need of such things to pay the +wages due to hired persons, be they slaves or domestic servants. On which account +we say that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">they must possess coin which is of value to themselves, but of no +worth amongst the rest of mankind</span></em>.”</span> +It is curious to note how closely the employment of the cocoa +bean, in ancient Mexico and of wampum in North America, as the staple currency, +fulfilled the purpose recognized as desirable, by Plato.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">At +the last moment I learn that fragments of Ægean pottery lately found at Abydos +in tombs of the Egyptian kings of the first dynasty, by Prof. Flinders Petrie are +considered to prove that, <span class="tei tei-q">“Grecian merchants sailed the seas in 4500 B.C., ... a +conclusion further borne-out by the pictures of vessels with 60 oarsmen, vessels quite +large enough for crossing the Mediterranean, which have been seen on prehistoric +memorials of the oldest inhabitants of Egypt”</span> (Rawnsley). In this connection it is +interesting to learn, from Professor Sayce, that the Phœnician galley was the model +of the Greek one, that it was at Carthage that a ship, with more than three banks of +oars, was first built, and that its pilots steered by the pole star, not, like the +Greeks, by the Great Bear (Ancient Empires of the East, p. 205).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An interesting +interpretation of this somewhat obscure sentence is obtained by +collating it with the conception of <span class="tei tei-q">“the revolving eye of the Norse world mill-stone +which was directly above Oergelmer and through which the waters flowed to and +fro from the great fountain of the Universe mountains”</span> (p. 472). The analogy is +strengthened by the fact that the mountainous region in which Kyrênê was situated +has always been noted for its fertility, the water, from the mountains enclosing its +plains, settling in pools and lakes, affording a constant supply, during the summer +months, to the Arabs who frequent it. The feature of Kyrênê, most renowned in +antiquity, was its inexhaustible Fountain of Apollo, and travellers describe how, to +this day, the Bedouin Arabs flock to it when their supply of water and herbage fails +in the interior. Grote states that the same circumstance must have operated in +ancient times to hold the nomadic Libyans in a sort of dependence upon Kyrênê +(Grote, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, p. 37). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The realization that an inexhaustible fountain of water meant life to primitive nomadic +people, enables us to understand the expression <span class="tei tei-q">“fountain of life”</span> and the +constant associations of the sacred central mountain with pools of water and streams +flowing in four directions. It is remarkable and highly suggestive how closely the +following topographical details, given by Grote, of the original seat of the Macedonians +(which were in the regions east of the chain of Skardus, north of the chain +which connects Olympus with Pindus and which forms the northwestern boundary +of Thessaly), coincide with the conception of Mt. Meru, for instance. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Reckoning the basin of Thessaly as a fourth, here are four distinct inclosed plains +on the east side of this long range of Skardus and Pindus,—each generally bounded +by mountains which rise precipitously to an alpine height, and each leaving only +one cleft for drainage by a single river,—the Axius, the Erigōn, the Haliakmōn and +the Peneius respectively. All four plains ... are of distinguished fertility ...”</span> +(Grote, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iv</span></span>, p. 10). The +close vicinity of Olympus, the Grecian <span class="tei tei-q">“divine +mountain,”</span> is particularly suggestive, inasmuch as it proves to be geographically +associated with four remarkable plains and rivers.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“This +metaphorical name (the Krittakas) was derived from the vocabulary of the +Northern races, who had learned in Asia Minor and the neighborhood of the Caspian +Sea to spin thread and weave cloth from the flax of Asia Minor, and the hemp of +the shores of the Caspian Sea, and who had taken their knowledge with them when +emigrating to the villages of the Neolithic life in Europe and to the Kushite Empire +in India, where they divided the people into guilds or trade unions, founded on +community of function, and discovered how to use cotton thread for weaving. The +reverence of the Ashura Kushika for the Pleiades, whose mother star is Amba, also +proves them to be connected with the southwestern Semites, the Himydritic Arabs +of Southern Arabia, the land of Sheba, meaning <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seven</span></em>, meaning the seven +stars of the constellation of the Great Bear, called by the Arabs Al-suha, who first +worshipped the Pleiades with its 6 stars, the sacred number of the Ashura, as their mother +constellation, under the name of Tur-ayya, or children of the father-pole (tur, of the +Turanian race) ...”</span> (Hewitt).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Various +writers have observed and pointed out the close resemblance in form and +decoration, between the terra-cotta whorls found, in profusion, in Mexico and those +of Troy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is, however, a +wide difference between Hewitt's views and mine concerning +the stars associated with the year wheel and the origin and meaning of the primitive +cross-symbols and swastika, although at times they partially agree. As Hewitt gives +several totally distinct and different explanations of the origin and significance of +crosses and swastikas, it is difficult to understand clearly his standpoint. On p. 9, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>, he makes +an interesting differentiation between a diagonal or transverse and +upright cross, respectively designating them as rain-cross and fire-cross, and states that +their superposition forms the eight-rayed star, the Akkadian and early Indian sign of +Anu=god. On p. 145, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> +he names the transverse cross a sun-cross and says it describes +the track of the sun across the heavens, on solstitial days and distinctly describes +the swastika in the centre of the triangle on the Hindu altar, as <span class="tei tei-q">“a symbolic +picture of the sun rising at midsummer in the N. E. and setting in the N. W., and at +the winter solstice rising in the S. E. and setting in the S. W.”</span> On the other hand +Hewitt associates the right-angled cross with the fire-god and the pole-star (p. 191, +vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span>), and +the five-rayed star of Horus as the rain or meridian pole, or mountain +standing in the midst of the four stars marking the four quarters of the heavens +(p. 9, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> and +p. 17, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span>). +I recommend a careful re-perusal of all of Hewitt's +interpretations of cross-symbols and swastika and a close comparison of these with +my views, as set forth in the beginning of the present publication, to Mr. Stansbury +Hagar who, somewhat hastily, upon hearing my brief communication to Section H of +the A. A. A. S. in New York, June 1900, stated (in the October number of the Folklore +Journal) that my view concerning the origin of the swastika was the same as +that suggested by Hewitt.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Referring the reader to pp. +<a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186-192</a> for details concerning native tree worship, I +shall but add that to this day, among certain North American tribes, the planting of +the sacred tribal pole in the hallowed earth socket is accompanied by curious ritualistic +marriage rites, and the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire of the fire drill. +For the association of four Mexican tribes with four tribal trees and totemic birds, +see fig. <a href="#Figure_53" class="tei tei-ref">53</a>, and note +that the central figure, enclosed in a square, is represented as +though four streams of blood, flowing from the four angles, converged in his person, +constituting him the <span class="tei tei-q">“Four in One.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +only mention of a movable axle or hub that I know of in Mexican chronicles is +the cylinder of wood, described on p. <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref">24</a> +as being shaped like a mortar. The only +native illustration I have met which suggests the native employment of some kind of +revolving press or axle is the curious and clumsy apparatus figured on pp. 11 and 12 of +the Selden MS. preserved at the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and reproduced by +Kingsborough. An examination of this strange mechanical contrivance apparently associated +with a monkey=ozomatli, and the sacrifice of two prisoners, will be found as +interesting as it is puzzling.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a +paper read to the Section of Anthropology of the New York meeting of the +American Association for the Advancement of Science, Mr. Stansbury Hagar communicated +the interesting results of his study of the Salcamayhua tablet which has +been alluded to on p. <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a> +of the present publication. With his kind authorization I +take pleasure in citing here his interpretation of the name of the Peruvian Creator, +an abbreviation of which is inscribed on the plate or tablet. It will be found to +accord with that given by Sir Clements B. Markham (History of Peru, p. 20), but to be +more explicit. According to his view the name should be analyzed as follows: +illa=light, lightning=fire; ticci=foundation, brick=earth; uayra +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> huaii=air, +wind; cocha=lake=water. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Illa ticci uayra cocha would thus mean: the universal spirit defined by naming +what seemed to a people unacquainted with scientific chemistry to be the four ultimate +elements.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Referring to the cognate Aymara language, Mr. Hagar interprets the name pachaya +chachic as <span class="tei tei-q">“source, lit. male ancestor, grandfather of all things,”</span> and states that +the opening inscription on the tablet should therefore read: <span class="tei tei-q">“Spirit of Fire, Earth, +Air and Water, source of all things”</span> ... that is to say <span class="tei tei-q">“image of the source whence +heaven and earth have emanated.”</span> Mr. Hagar states that this source seems to be +appropriately figured by the oval form which he interprets as +an egg (see fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>). +On the other hand I point out that the flat plate of fine gold, which was set up by +the Inca Manco Capac between images of the sun and moon, is figured as circular in +shape (fig. <a href="#Figure_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I draw attention to Mr. Stansbury Hagar's interesting and suggestive paper on +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Celestial Bear,”</span> which appeared in vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xiii</span></span>, +no. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xlix</span></span>, of the Journal of +American Folk-lore, in July, 1900. In this he relates the legend connected with Ursa +Major by the Micmac Indians, that <span class="tei tei-q">“this group of stars served to mark the divisions +of the night and the seasons for the Micmacs.”</span> A point of particular interest in +connection with the Micmac legend is the fact, so clearly distinguishable, that the story +was suggested to the minds of the Indians by the different positions assumed by the +constellation in its annual circuit around Polaris. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Micmacs say,.... In all things as it was and is in the sky, so it is on +earth.... In midspring the bear does actually seem to be climbing down out of her +[celestial] den [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corona borealis</span></span>], which appears higher up to the +northern horizon. In midsummer ... the bear runs along the northern horizon.... Soon +after the bear assumes an erect position she topples over on her back [is slain] in the +autumn. In midwinter she lies dead on her back, ... but the den [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">corona +borealis</span></span>] has re-appeared, with the bear of the new year lying therein, invisible. +But this does not end the story of the bear, ... through the winter her skeleton +lies upon its back in the sky, but her life spirit has entered another bear who also +lies upon her back in the den, invisible and sleeping the winter sleep. When the +spring comes around again, this bear will again issue forth from the den to be again +pursued by the hunters, to be again slain, but again to send into the den her life-spirit, +to issue forth yet again when the sun once more awakens the sleeping earth. +And so the drama keeps on eternally.”</span> Reasoning by induction, I am strongly tempted +to assign the origin of the Egyptian myth of Osiris and of the <span class="tei tei-q">“child in its +cradle,”</span> to the same source of inspiration—possibly also other myths of +antiquity, such as the +twelve labors of Hercules (held by O'Neil to be a pole-star god) may be assigned to +the same source. At all events, the Micmac example is extremely instructive and +suggestive. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following extracts from Mr. Hagar's paper establish that Ursa Major was +known as the Bear to several North American tribes, and generally served to mark +time and seasons. <span class="tei tei-q">“In a Blackfoot myth we read: The seven Persons slowly swung +around and pointed downward. It was the middle of the night,”</span> showing that they +too marked the time at night by the position of these stars. So the Zuñis tell, when +winter comes, how the bear, lying, sleeps, no longer guarding the West land from the +cold of the Ice gods, etc., a story which demonstrates that in Zuñi mythology there +was a marked association between the terrestrial bear [the <span class="tei tei-q">“great white bear of the +seven stars,”</span> Cushing] and the seasons. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ojibways mention the constellation in connection with the four quarters in +heaven, showing that they, at some time, were accustomed to mark their seasons not +only by the position of the stars of the Bear, but also by the rising and setting of +various fixed stars. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In conclusion I would state that Miss Alice Fletcher has informed me that, among +the Omaha Indians, time is measured by Ursa Major, and that the pole-star is +named the <span class="tei tei-q">“Star which never travels.”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The amulet +is of finely wrought silver, with magic inscription, the seven-branched +candlestick of Jerusalem and the usual Christian monogram. The inscription is in +Greek, mixed with barbarous and unintelligible forms. It contains however express +allusions to Christianity and states that whoever wore it would be sure to please gods +and men.”</span> It is well known that Constantine had on the reverse of his coin the +inscription Sol Invictus and on the obverse the monogram of Christ. <span class="tei tei-q">“This has been +interpreted as a proof that the sun was his own guardian deity,”</span> but I venture to +explain the adoption of the sun as analogous to the ancient Egyptian mode of designating +the sovereign as the son of the sun, the sacred representation of Heaven. Dean +Stanley (Eastern Church, p. 193) refers to Constantine's <span class="tei tei-q">“mode of harmonizing the +discordant religions of the empire under one institution and retention of the old Pagan +name of Dies Solis or Sunday, for the weekly Christian festival,”</span> which was recommended +by Constantine to his subjects, Pagan and Christian alike, as <span class="tei tei-q">“the venerable +day of the Sun.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“No +country in the world can compare with India for the exposition of the pyramidal +cross.... The body of the great temple of Bindh madhu (formerly the boast +of the ancient city of Benares ... demolished in the seventeenth century) was +constructed in the figure of a colossal cross, with a lofty dome at the centre, above +which rose a massive structure of a pyramidal form. At the four extremities of the +cross there were four other pyramids.... A similar building existed at Mhuttra.... +By pyramidal towers placed crosswise the Hindoo also displayed the all-pervading +sign of the cross. At the famous temple of Chillambrum, on the Coromandel +coast, there were <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seven</span></em> lofty walls, one within the other, round a central +quadrangle, and as many pyramidal gateways in the midst of each side which forms +the limbs of a vast cross”</span> (Faber, quoted by Donelly in Atlantis, p. 335).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“The +Tur-vasu, or people whose creating god (vasu) was the pole (tur), when +united with the traders of the south, became the mercantile mariners of the Indian +Ocean, who had imposed their rule and traditions both on the lands of Northern India +and on those of the twin rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris.... From India, the only +land on the Indian Ocean where they could build sea-going ships, they extended their +trade, forms of government and national myths, first to the Euphratean kingdoms and +afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where they were known to the Greeks as the Phœnicians”</span> +(p. 356). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“These people had seven parent stars whose names are preserved. Professor Sayce +has identified the first of these, Sugi, with <span class="tei tei-q">‘the star of the Wain’</span> and states that +it means the <span class="tei tei-q">‘creating-spirit-reed’</span> or the northern khu=bird, the <span class="tei tei-q">‘reed of the +bird, the mother of life.’</span> Sugi is therefore an additional name for the Bear to that +of Bel, distributor of waters.... In both names the metaphor is the same, for it is from +the reeds at the source of the rivers, their point of distribution, that the rivers are +born.... Both names denoted the star that led the year and it was the Great Bear, +as Sugi, that led the earliest year, opening with the week of creation”</span> ... (p. 357). +... <span class="tei tei-q">“The sons of the Tur or pole were the Indian Tur-vashu, the Zend Turanians, +the mariners of Asia Minor called by the Egyptians Tour-sha (Maspero), the sea +traders of the Mediterranean called the Tur-sene of Lydia, the Tur-sena or Tyrrhenians +of Lemnos and Etruria, who spoke a language closely allied to that of the Akkadians. +That their god was worshiped in Cyprus and Asia Minor is proved by the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terra-cotta whorl</span></span> found in one of the settlements on the site of +Troy, dedicated in +Cypriote characters to Patori-Turi, the father Tur, who gave his name to the Phrygian +city of Turiaion. The great antiquity of the settlement is proved by the fact +that though some bronze knives and instruments were found in it, by far the greater +number of implements were of stone and the pottery, though similar to that of Mycenæ, +is of a more archaic type”</span> (Schuchhardt's Schliemann's Excavations, App. I, 331-332 +and 334). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“They were also the first spinners, weavers, makers of pottery and built canoes +and worked in mines.... They grew wheat, barley, peas, flax and fruit trees.... +These men covered the whole of Europe and Southern Asia ... and the Indian Dekhan +with cromlechs and stone circles, which were certainly in some cases roofed over, +dolmens, meaning stone tables, shrines, altars, tumuli and memorial stones or pillars +and all of these, whether found in Western Europe or Southern Asia, are completely +identical in character. These people had, in their migrations, established an active +and widespread foreign trade...”</span> (p. 178). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“These maritime Tursena were intermingled with the matriarchal Amazonian tribes +who preceded them, and who seemed to have founded the ancient ports of Asia +Minor and Palestine, especially the Ionian cities of Smyrna and Ephesus and that +of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Askelon</span></span>. It was in the land of Phrygia, the mountain countries +of the Caucasus range and the snowy heights whence the Euphrates rose, that the earliest +shepherds met the matriarchal races, the immigrants from the southeast, the Hindu +village communities, who are called by the Greeks Amazons, and are described as the +earliest ruling races of Asia Minor and Greece (p. 175).”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“... The Great Naga is the Akkadian god Ner-gal, and the Phœnician god Sarrahu, +or the Great Sar. His name among the Shuites, or the worshippers of Susi-nag +on the west of the Euphrates, is Emu, a name which is letter for letter the same as +that of the national god of the Ammonites, Amun”</span> (Sayce: Hibbert Lectures, 1887, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii</span></span>, p. 196, note 1. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Amun means the builder, or architect, and is, like that of the Egyptian +god, formed of aman, to sustain”</span> (Gesenius, Thesaurus, p. 115). <span class="tei tei-q">“He was the god +of the house pole, who became in Egyptian Thebes, Amen-Ra, the hidden, and it was +the people who made the house-pole the symbol of their ancestors, ... who brought +to Egypt as well as to Assyria and India, the custom of having cities for the dead +apart from those for the living.... It was from the rains of the summer-solstice ... +generated from the Naga snake that the Phœnician sons of Kush were born, whose +kings, like those of Egypt, wore the Uræus snake as a sign of royal authority. Their +original settlement, according to a tradition recorded by Theophrastus, was at +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tulos</span></span> +or Turos, in the Persian Gulf, the modern Bahrein. This was the holy island of +Diloun, called Dilmun by the Akkadians.... It was the settlement of Hindu navigators +in the holy island of Dilmun in the Persian gulf, and at Eridu, which first +brought them in contact with the Arabian star-gazers and merchants, and it was the +union, in the ancient city of Ur, of these races with the Hebrew tribe of Gad (who +built, not only the cities of Bashan, but also those of Assyria and were the great +builders of the ancient world), which first formed the Semite race. It was the meridian +pole, the heavenly, revolving pole, the Tur of the Akkadians, which the Dravidian +traders of India brought with them to Eridu”</span> (p. 292). <span class="tei tei-q">“It was these Tursena who, +by developing the ancient organization of the village and province in India, divided +all the countries they occupied into confederacies of cities, such as we find among +the Euphratean nations, the Egyptians, Canaanites and the people of Asia Minor, +Greece and Italy. It was they who were the fathers of Greek and Latin civilization.”</span> +(p. 296). <span class="tei tei-q">“It was these people who brought from India their village institutions, +their holy groves and seasonal dances.... Among them the Finnic mining +races descended.... It was in Phrygia that they were mixed with the Daktuloi, +or race of handicraftsmen and artificers, the sons of Dak, the showing or teaching +god, the god Daksha, the father of the Kush race.... They were the carpenters +and builders of the Stone age.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Prof. Sayce's <span class="tei tei-q">“Ancient Empires of the East”</span> furnishes further interesting details +concerning the Phœnicians. According to this eminent authority, at an early date, in +order to relieve the pressure of population, they sent out organized colonies to the +recently discovered lands of the West. Accordingly commercial marts were established +at Thera and Melos,.... Colonies were established at Attica, on the coast +of Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and beyond the columns of Herakles, in +Gadeira. The three cities of Rhodes were planned by Phœnician architects.... +The Assyrian character of early Greek art is due to its Phœnician inspiration.... +It was about <span class="tei tei-q">“B.C. 600 that these people penetrated to the northwest coast of India and +probably to the island of Britain as well.... They were the intermediaries of ancient +civilization ... and the chief elements of Greek art and civilization came from +Assyria through the hands of Phœnicians.... Phœnician art was essentially catholic +... it assimilated the art of Babylonia, Egypt and Assyria superadding something +of its own.... Their chief deity was Yeud or Ekhad=the Only One ... +they worshipped the Kabeiri ... originally seven stars ... who were the makers +of the world, the founders of civilization, the inventors of ships.... The cities of +Phœnicia were the first trading communities the world has seen.... Their colonies +were originally mere marts and their voyages of discovery were taken in the interests +of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of Spain, the birds of the Canaries, the +frankincense of Arabia, the pearls and ivory of India, all flowed into their harbours.... +Many of their colonies were wholly independent, and governed by their own kings +and benefiting Phœnicia only in the way of trade.... In Phœnicia ... the king +seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling ... princes and ... chiefs. In +time the monarchy disappeared altogether, its place being supplied by suffetes or +<span class="tei tei-q">‘judges,’</span> whose term of office lasted sometimes for a year, sometimes for more, +sometimes even for life.... At Carthage there were two suffetes, who were merely +presidents of the senate of thirty ... whose power was subsequently checked by a +board of one hundred and four.... By providing that no member of the board should +hold office for two years running, Hannibal changed the government into a +democracy.”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Evolution and Ethics. Appleton ed. New York, +1896, p. 104.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Death +no Bane,”</span> translation by Robert Black, M. A., Sampson Low, Marston & +Co., London, 1889, p. 121, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Merely as affording +a glimpse of the troublous period during which Plotinus lived, +I recall the fact that Caracalla, visiting Egypt, caused a large number of young men +to be massacred at Alexandria (A.D. 211). Between A.D. 248 and 268, Alexandria +was the seat of civil war for twelve years, and through war, famine and pestilence, +in a few years, about half of the population, not only of Alexandria, but of Rome, +perished. A general persecution of Christians was also carried on at this period, +and in A.D. 268 Zenobia invaded Egypt.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To those +of my fellow-workers who have made a special study of the most ancient +forms of cursive and ikonomatic writings of the Old World, I should like to submit +some facts concerning the ancient Mexican method, which may carry a fresh suggestion +and be an aid to future research. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When the first Spanish missionaries who reached Mexico found themselves confronted +by the barrier of language and wished to teach the native converts the Lord's +Prayer in Latin, they adopted the method of picture writing employed by the aborigines. +By painting a banner=pantli, a stone=tetl, a cactus=nochtli and another +stone=tetl, they conveyed the words Pa-te-noch-te, which, approximately, represented +paternoster. The consequence was that the Indians were able to memorize +prayers in a language unknown to them, by referring to pictures of objects and naming +these in their own tongue. A number of curious documents exist, which exhibit +a great difference and variety in execution and are more or less cursive, according +to the artistic sense and ability of the missionary or converted Indian who drew +them. The fact that Spaniards, possessing our mode of writing, should have found +picture-writing the most effective means of teaching primitive people speaking an +alien tongue has always appeared to me as most instructive and suggestive. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the natives suggested this method to their instructors, it is obvious that it was +their habitual mode of memorizing a foreign language. The possibility that words +recorded in native pictography may belong to an alien tongue, opens out a new field +for future research. A curious result is obtained when Tenoch-Titlan, one of the +ancient names of the capital of Mexico is studied from this point of view. In the +well-known rebus now employed as the arms of Mexico, the syllables Te and Noch only +are actually expressed in picture-writing by the stone=tetl, from which a cactus=nochtli +is growing. This group is, however, surmounted by an eagle holding a serpent +in its talons and the meaning of this animal group appears symbolical merely. +It may be a curious coincidence that the eagle holding a serpent in its talons was +employed by Mediterranean people as an emblem of victory and occurs on ancient +Greek coins with this significance, and that the recorded name, Tenochtitlan or <span class="tei tei-q">“the +land of Tenoch,”</span> curiously resembles Tenos, the name of a Greek heptarchy, founded +by seven tribes just as the adjacent town of Chalco, in Mexico, resembles Chalcis, +the town in Eubœa, where Aristoteles died. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On p. <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref">418</a> and +in my discussion of Egyptian hieratic script, I have pointed out that +some signs employed express the sounds of words in another tongue, that the syllables +am and an, for instance, seem indissolubly and universally linked to pole-star +worship and symbolism. It does not seem unreasonable to endeavor to explain this by +imagining that individuals, wishing, in each case, to teach the word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Sama</span></span>=the revolving heaven <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i. e.</span></span> +the North, to people speaking different languages, should make a +picture of a tree or boat named am in one tongue, and in another country, draw a +spider, named am, by its inhabitants. In the first country the tree, or boat, and in +the second, the spider, would, in time, become the symbols of the north, and though +different, signify the same thing. In time, each sign might be employed to express the +syllable am in general and in this way isolated systems of ikonomatic writing would +evolve and, in course of time, native artists would more or less skilfully produce +conventionalized and distinctly characteristic forms and methods. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time the colonizing race might be employing and perfecting a totally +different form of cursive writing for their own purposes of registration, etc. For +instance: in Athens, where Euclid held an archonship in 403 B.C. and, during centuries, +Pythagorean philosophers identified <span class="tei tei-q">“earth with a cube, fire with a pyramid, +air with an octahedron, water with an icosahedron, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the Sphere of +the Universe</span></span> with +a dodecahedron,”</span> and also taught that a point corresponds with the monad, both being +indivisible; a line with the duad, etc., it is obvious that points, lines and geometrical +figures must have been employed for the cursive registration of ideas. In +a state, firmly established on fixed principles of numbers, the cursive registration of +its subdivisions, by means of numbers only, was rendered possible and in such a community +the necessity for cursive writing would be limited and perhaps be confined to +the registration and identification of individuals, the reports of quantities of produce, +etc. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The facts that the letters of the Greek alphabet possess fixed numerical values, and +that the initial letters only of their tribal names were inscribed on the shields of +Lacedæmonian, Sicyonian and Messenian warriors, for instance, appear to indicate that, +at one time, each Greek tribal division possessed its cursive mark, a letter, which may +have indicated, at the same time, a numerical division of the confederacy. To understand +such cursive records it is evident that a knowledge of the numerical basis +of the state would be indispensable and imperative and that this would be confined +to the rulers only. My opinion that the Maya calculiform hieroglyphs constitute cursive +notation relating entirely to the calendrical and governmental cyclical system +and absolutely unintelligible without a knowledge of this, has already been partially +referred to on pp. 242 and 244. From Mexican manuscripts, where individuals, by +means of a number and a calendar sign, are linked to a division of the state, I hope +yet to be able to clearly demonstrate the practical harmonious working of a machinery +of state, established on a perfected numerical scheme, the cursive notation of +which was extremely simple. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile I offer the foregoing remarks as suggestions for future research and as +an expression of my opinion that people, using geometrical and numerical cursive +methods of notation in their own country, may have systematically employed the +pictographic method in teaching their language to strangers and in establishing their +civilization in foreign lands.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It +is particularly interesting to learn from Professor Sayce (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. +cit.</span></span> p. 188), not +only that Phœnician culture had been introduced among the rude tribes of Israel, +but that the temple of Jerusalem was built by Phœnician artists after the model of a +Phœnician one, the main features of which were the two columns or cones at the entrance +and the brazen sea or basin, which rested on <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">twelve</span></em> bulls, this number +agreeing with the number of Israelitic tribes and with tribal or caste divisions in other +ancient centres of civilization. It is thus certainly suggestive to find the number +twelve associated with the Phœnicians, to whom the spread of civilization in the Old +World is attributed and whose predecessors, at the period of Babylonian culture, +were, according to Professor Sayce, <span class="tei tei-q">“solitary traders, who trafficked in slaves, in +purple-fish ... and whose voyages were intermittent and private.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +... <span class="tei tei-q">“Diodorus Siculus assigns to the Carthaginians the knowledge of an island in +the ocean, the secret of which they reserved for themselves as a refuge to which they +could withdraw should fate ever compel them to desert their African home. It is far +from improbable that we may identify this obscure island with one of the Azores, +which lies 800 miles from the coast of Portugal. Neither Greek nor Roman writers +make any reference to them, but the discovery of numerous Carthaginian coins at +Carvo, the northwesterly island of the group, leaves little room to doubt that they +were visited by Punic voyagers.”</span>—Sir Daniel Wilson. The lost Atlantis and other +ethnographic studies. New York, 1892.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Address +of the retiring President of the A. A. A. S., Columbus meeting, 1899. Proceedings +of the A. A. A. S., vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xlviii</span></span>, to +which the reader is referred for valuable data.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Professor +Perry, F. R. S., in his admirable monograph on Spinning Tops, +(Romance of Science: Spinning Tops, by Professor John Perry, M. E., +D.Sc., F. R. S., 1890, pp. 107-110, +12-13, cited by O'Neil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span>, p. 540.) shows +how a spinning gyrostat whose spinning axis is compelled by the experimenter into +a horizontal plane is then constrained by the earth's motion alone to direct its spinning +axis due north and south and so to indicate mathematically the lie of the true +meridian of its spot. If the spinning gyrostat be next shut off from all other motion +except a vertical one in the plane of this meridian, its spinning axis will point its +north end up to, and continue to point truly up to, the celestial pole.”</span> Then, adds +Professor Perry, in terms strangely suitable to my purposes: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is with a curious +mixture of feelings that one first recognizes the fact that all rotating bodies, +fly-wheels of steam-engines +and the like, are always tending to turn themselves towards the Polestar; +gently and vainly tugging at their foundations, all the time they are in motion, to get +round towards the object of their adoration.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Incas claimed to have descended + from three windows. See Rites and Laws of the Incas, p. 77.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is noteworthy that the Zuñi + name for village in general is ti´-na-kwin-ne. + Tina=many sitting around and kwin-ne=place of.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The accuracy +and value of the above article are vouched for, in an interesting way +by the Rev. Samuel M. Zwemer, F. R. G. S. (a missionary who spent ten years in Arabia), +who refers to it as follows, and quotes it in his recent publication: <span class="tei tei-q">“Arabia, the +cradle of Islam. New York, 1900,”</span> p. 289. <span class="tei tei-q">“An anonymous article in the London +Standard, Oct. 19, 1894, entitled, <span class="tei tei-q">‘A prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers,’</span> +curiously gave me the key to open the lock of their silence. Whoever wrote it must have +been perfectly acquainted with their religious ceremonies, for when I translated it to +a company of Sabeans at Amara, they were dumfounded. Knowing that I knew +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">something</span></em>, made it easy for them to tell me more.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I point +out the remarkable fact that the Chinese name for jade=yu, is homonymous +with the word for source or origin, hence, perhaps, its sacredness and employment +as a secret symbol of the hidden source of all things. See p. +<a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277</a> for Chinese +choice of symbols influenced by sound of name.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +Hindu Yama and Yami were twin brother and sister, and have been respectively +identified by Prof. Max Müller as night and day. Yama, the inseparable duality, +is entitled law and justice, etc. and was represented with four arms, riding a +buffalo, with a crown on his head, accompanied by <span class="tei tei-q">“two four-eyed watch dogs, which +are probably the eight or twice-four regions of the compass”</span>... (Chambers' +Encyclopædia). +Of the originally cosmical character of Yama there can be no doubt. It +is curious to find, at the epic and Puranic period, the account of <span class="tei tei-q">“Yama”</span> marrying +the thirteen daughters of Daksha (north-people, white), becoming the regent of the +south and residing in Yamapura, a town in the lower regions; details which appear +to indicate the actual establishment of a kingdom on the familiar plan by an earthly +representative of the cosmical deity.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was the +first god of the divine triad of whom it is recorded that <span class="tei tei-q">“they hid +their persons;”</span> see Translation of the Ko-ji-ki or Records of Ancient Matters, Basil +Hall Chamberlain, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, supplement, Transactions of the +Asiatic Society of Japan, Sections <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">i</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">ii</span></span> from which this and the following names of gods are +taken.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Akkadian +Sumerian Cosmos is thus described: <span class="tei tei-q">“Above the earth extended +the sky, ana, spangled with its fixed stars (mul) revolving around the mountain of +the east (Kharsak Kurra) the column which joins the heaven and the earth and +serves as an axis to the celestial vault. The culminating point in the heaven, the +zenith (Paku), was not this axis or pole; on the contrary, it was situated immediately +above the country of Akkadia [Kalama] which was regarded as the centre of the inhabited +lands, while the mountain which acted as a pivot to the starry heavens was to +the northeast of this country. Beyond the mountain, also to the northeast, extended +the land of Aralli, which was very rich in gold and was inhabited by the gods and +blessed spirits”</span> (Lenormant, quoted by Warren <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. +166).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the Ka of +Egyptian theology ... he is the Sek-Nag, the god of the +Rāj, or royal race of Gonds, born (ja) of Rā, that is, the sons of Ra-Hu, the begetting +(Hu) creating fire-god (Ra). His festival is held every seven years and is attended +only by males who are bound to secrecy as to its rites.... This god, the great Nag, +is the soul of life in the rain cloud, the heavenly snake ... the other being the Ahi +or Echis, the snake of earth. <span class="tei tei-q">“To the present day the Jains, who are the great +trading race of India, call themselves Ka-ya=the sons of Ka. This name they must +have brought with them to the holy island (Dilmun), from thence it must have travelled +to Egypt with the race who established the Kushite rule there”</span> (Hewitt).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The titles +<span class="tei tei-q">“Middle king,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Middle princess,”</span> are cited by Chamberlain, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 265 and 267.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Madhu=the inspiring +intoxicating honey mead used in the sacred ritual, substituted +by a Northern people for the barley liquor offered in the manthin or creating, +churning cup. The names given to the drinkers of madhu=<span class="tei tei-q">“madhuya,”</span> madhu-pā +and Madhvi; also madhu-varna, the men of Madhu's caste, are curiously homonymous +with the word for Middle Madhyias and appear to designate them as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Middle +caste,”</span> naturally associated with the North.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Quoted by +O'Neil from Satow and Hawes' Hdbk. of Japan, 2nd ed. p. 39. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is interesting to compare the following Japanese words with Miyauken: +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIYO=wonderful, admirable, secret, mysterious, holy. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIYA=Shinto temple where the kami are worshipped. Japan. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MIYUKI=travelling, going, only applied to circuit of provinces performed by +Mikado. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +KEN=imperial domain, or that territory which is under the direct government +of the Mikado, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> Chinese k'an=land.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Transactions of Asiatic +Society of Japan, vol. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">x</span></span>, p. 245, note 2.</dd></dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OLD AND NEW WORLD CIVILIZATIONS*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader19" id="rightpageheader19"></a><a name="pgtoc20" id="pgtoc20"></a><a name="pdf21" id="pdf21"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">April 20, 2010 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name"> + Produced by Julia Miller, Bruce Albrecht, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + </span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader22" id="rightpageheader22"></a><a name="pgtoc23" id="pgtoc23"></a><a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 32066-h.html or + 32066-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/0/6/32066/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/3/2/0/6/32066/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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